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238768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Praed | Michael Praed | Michael Praed ( ; born 1 April 1960), birth name Michael David Prince, is a British actor and narrator, probably best remembered for his role as Robin of Loxley in the British television series Robin of Sherwood, which attained cult status worldwide in the 1980s.
Career
Praed was born in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, and educated at Eastbourne College, after which he became an actor.
He discovered that the British actors' union Equity already had a "Michael Prince" among its members, so he chose a surname out of a telephone book to use as a stage name. The name Praed is a Cornish word meaning "meadow".
Praed is remembered for his roles as Prince Michael of Moldavia on the American primetime soap Dynasty and as Phileas Fogg in The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne (2000). He is also known in the British Isles for his stage work in musicals and drama and lately for his narrations. He has been the regular narrator for BBC TV's history programme Timewatch since 2003. In July 2009, he starred as Captain von Trapp in a national tour of a revival of The Sound of Music.
In 2016, Praed began to appear in the ITV soap opera Emmerdale, as Frank Clayton, the father of the characters Vanessa Woodfield and Tracy Metcalfe. His character was killed off following an explosion in the sweet factory. His last appearance aired on ITV on 1 August 2019.
Personal life
Praed was previously married to Karen Landau (1994-2009), with whom he has two children. He is now married to Josefina Gabrielle, a British stage and television actress and former ballet dancer, who has three times been nominated for an Olivier Award, and is best known for her performances in West End musicals.
Selected credits
Television
Robin of Loxley in Robin of Sherwood (1984–85)
Prince Michael of Moldavia in Dynasty (1985–86)
Jake Lovell in the mini-series Riders (1993)
Marty James in Crown Prosecutor (1995)
Phileas Fogg in The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne (1999)
Michael Webb in Mile High (2003)
Nelson Morris in Hindenburg: The Untold Story (Canadian title) (2007)
Frank Clayton in Emmerdale (2016-2019)
(2017) Played a cameo part of a dentist in BBC1 comedy series Not Going Out, starring alongside Lee Mack and Sally Bretton.
Stage
Frederick in the Joseph Papp production of the musical The Pirates of Penzance, Theatre Royal Drury Lane - London (1982–83)
D'Artagnan in the revival of Rudolf Friml's The Three Musketeers, Broadway Theatre - New York City (1985)
Billy Bigelow in a revival of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel, Tivoli Theatre - Dublin (1991)
Alex in Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical Aspects of Love at the Prince of Wales Theatre - London (1991–92)
Mick in Harold Pinter's The Caretaker at the Nottingham Playhouse - Nottingham (1993)
Evan Davies in Daphne du Maurier's September Tide with Susannah York at the Comedy Theatre - London (1994)
Otto in Noël Coward's Design for Living with Rachel Weisz at the Gielgud Theatre - London (1995)
Tony/Stephen in Barry Manilow's Copacabana: The Musical, first tour of Britain (1996–97)
Jack Locke in Dangerous to Know, tour of Britain (1998)
Michael Wiley in Susan Stroman's musical Contact with Leigh Zimmerman at the Queen's Theatre - London (2002–03)
Bernard Kersal in Somerset Maugham's The Constant Wife, tour of Britain (2003).
Theodore Hoffman in Carl Djerassi's Three on a Couch with Leigh Zimmerman at The King's Head Theatre - London (2004)
F Scott Fitzgerald in the musical Beautiful and Damned at the Lyric Theatre - London (2004)
Paul Sheldon in Misery with Susan Penhaligon at The King's Head Theatre - London (2006)
Tom Madison in Brian Stewart's Killing Castro, tour of Britain (2006)
Neil in Derek Lister's Blue on Blue, Haymarket Theatre - Basingstoke (2006)
Milo Tindle in Anthony Shaffer's Sleuth with Simon MacCorkindale, tour of Britain (2008)
Sir Robert Chiltern in Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband with Kate O'Mara, Carol Royle, Robert Duncan, Fenella Fielding, and Tony Britton, tour of Britain (2008)
Randall Kelly in James Farewell's The Murder Game with Josefina Gabrielle at The King's Head Theatre - London (2009)
Captain Von Trapp in The Sound of Music with Connie Fisher and Margaret Preece - UK National Tour (2009–2011)
Dexter Haven in High Society with Sophie Bould and Daniel Boys - UK National Tour and Ireland (January - August 2013)
John Greenwood in The White Carnation with Benjamin Whitrow, Robert Benfield and Tony Dale - Jermyn Street Theatre, London (February 2014)
Charles Stanton in J.B. Priestley's Dangerous Corner with Colin Buchanan, Kim Thomson, Matt Milne, Lauren Drummond, and Finty Williams, tour of Britain (September - November 2014)
Lawrence in David Yazbek's Dirty Rotten Scoundrels with Noel Sullivan, Carley Stenson, Mark Benton, and Gary Wilmot, UK National Tour (May 2015-March 2016)
George Herbert in The War of the Worlds musical with Madalena Alberto, Heidi Range, David Essex, Jimmy Nail and Daniel Bedingfield at the Dominion Theatre (2016).
Film
Royd Erris in an adaptation of George R. R. Martin's Nightflyers (1987)
Max Schrek in the vampire flick Son of Darkness: To Die For 2 (1991)
Andrew in Writer's Block with Morgan Fairchild (1991)
Gary in Staggered with Martin Clunes (1994)
The Hitman in Darkness Falls with Ray Winstone (1999)
The Queen in Nine Dead Gay Guys (2002)
Himself in the documentary The King's Head: A Maverick in London (2006)
Audio
Narrated Venus in Furs by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch for Erotic Classics (1989, reissued 1994)
Professor Slyde in the Big Finish audio drama Doctor Who: The Dark Flame (2003)
Regular narrator of BBC TV's Timewatch documentary series (2003–09)
Narrated Caroline Lawrence's The Roman Mysteries audio books (2004–05)
Narrated Stephen Clarke's A Year in the Merde (2005)
Narrated Paul Stewart's Beyond the Deepwoods (2005)
Narrator of BBC TV's The Wild West documentary mini-series (2007)
Soris in the B7 Media/SciFi Channel UK podcast of the Blake's 7 adventure Rebel (2007)
Co-narrator on the Oneword radio series Mills & Boon at the Weekend (2006–2008)
Ladiver in the Big Finish audio drama adaptation of the 1960s Doctor Who stage play, The Curse of the Daleks (2008)
Narrated "Sanctuary" by Paul Birch, one of a series of new Robin of Sherwood enhanced audiobooks (2017)
References
Further reading
Reviews
External links
1960 births
Living people
British male musical theatre actors
British male television actors
People educated at Eastbourne College
People from Berkeley, Gloucestershire | [
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238770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carriage%20return | Carriage return | A carriage return, sometimes known as a cartridge return and often shortened to CR, or return, is a control character or mechanism used to reset a device's position to the beginning of a line of text. It is closely associated with the line feed and newline concepts, although it can be considered separately in its own right.
Typewriters
Originally, the term "carriage return" referred to a mechanism or lever on a typewriter. For machines where the type element was fixed and the paper held in a moving carriage, this lever was on the left attached to the moving carriage, and operated after typing a line of text to cause the carriage to return to the far right so the type element would be aligned to the left side of the paper. The lever would also usually feed the paper to advance to the next line.
Many electric typewriters such as IBM Electric or Underwood Electric made carriage return to be another key on the keyboard instead of a lever. The key was usually labeled "carriage return", "return", or "power return". With typewriters like the Selectric, where the type element moved when typing and the paper was held stationary, the key returned the type element to the far left and the term "carrier return" was sometimes used for this function.
To improve the keyboard for non-English-speakers, the symbol ↵ (U+21B5, HTML entity ↵) was introduced to communicate the combined carriage return and line feed action.
Computers
In computing, the carriage return is one of the control characters in ASCII code, Unicode, EBCDIC, and many other codes. It commands a printer, or other output system such as the display of a system console, to move the position of the cursor to the first position on the same line. It was mostly used along with line feed (LF), a move to the next line, so that together they start a new line. Together, this sequence can be referred to as CRLF.
The carriage return and line feed functions were split for practical reasons:
Carriage return by itself provided the ability to overprint the line with new text. This could be used to produce bold or accented characters, underscores, struck-out text, and some composite symbols.
Early mechanical printers were too slow to return the carriage in the time it took to process one character. Therefore, the time spent sending the line feed was not wasted (often several more characters had to be sent to ensure the carriage return had happened before sending a printing character). This is why the carriage return was always sent first.
It was then also possible to fit multiple line feed operations into the time taken for a single carriage return—for example for printing doublespaced text, headers/footers or title pages—to save print and transmission time without the need for additional circuitry or mechanical complexity to "filter out" spurious additional CR signals.
As early as 1901, Baudot code contained separate carriage return and line feed characters.
Many computer programs use the carriage return character, alone or with a line feed, to signal the end of a line of text, but other characters are also used for this function (see newline); others use it only for a paragraph break (a "hard return"). Some standards which introduce their own representations for line and paragraph control (for example HTML) and many programming languages treat carriage return and line feed as whitespace.
In ASCII and Unicode, the carriage return is defined as 13 (or hexadecimal 0D); it may also be seen as control+M or . In the C programming language, and many other languages (including regular expression) influenced by it, \r denotes this character.
See also
Newline
Enter key
Soft return
Hard return
Unix2dos
C0 and C1 control codes
References
Control characters
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238775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newline | Newline | Newline (frequently called line ending, end of line (EOL), next line (NEL) or line break) is a control character or sequence of control characters in a character encoding specification (e.g., ASCII, EBCDIC) that is used to signify the end of a line of text and the start of a new one.
History
In the mid-1800s, long before the advent of teleprinters and teletype machines, Morse code operators or telegraphists invented and used Morse code prosigns to encode white space text formatting in formal written text messages. In particular the Morse prosign (mnemonic reak ext) represented by the concatenation of literal textual Morse codes "B" and "T" characters sent without the normal inter-character spacing is used in Morse code to encode and indicate a new line or new section in a formal text message.
Later, in the age of modern teleprinters, standardized character set control codes were developed to aid in white space text formatting. ASCII was developed simultaneously by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the American Standards Association (ASA), the latter being the predecessor organization to American National Standards Institute (ANSI). During the period of 1963 to 1968, the ISO draft standards supported the use of either + or alone as a newline, while the ASA drafts supported only +.
The sequence + was commonly used on many early computer systems that had adopted Teletype machines—typically a Teletype Model 33 ASR—as a console device, because this sequence was required to position those printers at the start of a new line. The separation of newline into two functions concealed the fact that the print head could not return from the far right to the beginning of the next line in time to print the next character. Any character printed after a would often print as a smudge in the middle of the page while the print head was still moving the carriage back to the first position. "The solution was to make the newline two characters: to move the carriage to column one, and to move the paper up." In fact, it was often necessary to send extra characters—extraneous CRs or NULs—which are ignored but give the print head time to move to the left margin. Many early video displays also required multiple character times to scroll the display.
On such systems, applications had to talk directly to the Teletype machine and follow its conventions since the concept of device drivers hiding such hardware details from the application was not yet well developed. Therefore, text was routinely composed to satisfy the needs of Teletype machines. Most minicomputer systems from DEC used this convention. CP/M also used it in order to print on the same terminals that minicomputers used. From there MS-DOS (1981) adopted CP/M's + in order to be compatible, and this convention was inherited by Microsoft's later Windows operating system.
The Multics operating system began development in 1964 and used alone as its newline. Multics used a device driver to translate this character to whatever sequence a printer needed (including extra padding characters), and the single byte was more convenient for programming. What seems like a more obvious choice——was not used, as provided the useful function of overprinting one line with another to create boldface, underscore and strikethrough effects. Perhaps more importantly, the use of alone as a line terminator had already been incorporated into drafts of the eventual ISO/IEC 646 standard. Unix followed the Multics practice, and later Unix-like systems followed Unix. This created conflicts between Windows and Unix-like operating systems, whereby files composed on one operating system cannot be properly formatted or interpreted by another operating system (for example a UNIX shell script written in a Windows text editor like Notepad).
Representation
The concepts of carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF) are closely associated and can be considered either separately or together. In the physical media of typewriters and printers, two axes of motion, "down" and "across", are needed to create a new line on the page. Although the design of a machine (typewriter or printer) must consider them separately, the abstract logic of software can combine them together as one event. This is why a newline in character encoding can be defined as and combined into one (commonly called or ).
Some character sets provide a separate newline character code. EBCDIC, for example, provides an character code in addition to the and codes. Unicode, in addition to providing the ASCII and control codes, also provides a "next line" () control code, as well as control codes for "line separator" and "paragraph separator" markers.
EBCDIC systems—mainly IBM mainframe systems, including z/OS (OS/390) and IBM i (OS/400)—use (New Line, ) as the character combining the functions of line feed and carriage return. The equivalent Unicode character () is called (Next Line). EBCDIC also has control characters called and , but the numerical value of () differs from the one used by ASCII (). Additionally, some EBCDIC variants also use but assign a different numeric code to the character. However, those operating systems use a record-based file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored.
Operating systems for the CDC 6000 series defined a newline as two or more zero-valued six-bit characters at the end of a 60-bit word. Some configurations also defined a zero-valued character as a colon character, with the result that multiple colons could be interpreted as a newline depending on position.
RSX-11 and OpenVMS also use a record-based file system, which stores text files as one record per line. In most file formats, no line terminators are actually stored, but the Record Management Services facility can transparently add a terminator to each line when it is retrieved by an application. The records themselves could contain the same line terminator characters, which could either be considered a feature or a nuisance depending on the application. RMS not only stored records, but also stored metadata about the record separators in different bits for the file to complicate matters even more (since files could have fixed length records, records that were prefixed by a count or records that were terminated by a specific character). The bits were not generic, so while they could specify that or or even was the line terminator, it could not substitute some other code.
Fixed line length was used by some early mainframe operating systems. In such a system, an implicit end-of-line was assumed every 72 or 80 characters, for example. No newline character was stored. If a file was imported from the outside world, lines shorter than the line length had to be padded with spaces, while lines longer than the line length had to be truncated. This mimicked the use of punched cards, on which each line was stored on a separate card, usually with 80 columns on each card, often with sequence numbers in columns 73–80. Many of these systems added a carriage control character to the start of the next record; this could indicate whether the next record was a continuation of the line started by the previous record, or a new line, or should overprint the previous line (similar to a ). Often this was a normal printing character such as that thus could not be used as the first character in a line. Some early line printers interpreted these characters directly in the records sent to them.
Unicode
The Unicode standard defines a number of characters that conforming applications should recognize as line terminators:
: Line Feed,
: Vertical Tab,
: Form Feed,
: Carriage Return,
+: () followed by ()
: Next Line,
: Line Separator,
: Paragraph Separator,
This may seem overly complicated compared to an approach such as converting all line terminators to a single character, for example . However, Unicode was designed to preserve all information when converting a text file from any existing encoding to Unicode and back. Therefore, Unicode should contain characters included in existing encodings.
For example: is part of EBCDIC, which uses code ; it is normally mapped to Unicode , , which is a control character in the C1 control set. As such, it is defined by ECMA 48, and recognized by encodings compliant with ISO/IEC 2022 (which is equivalent to ECMA 35). C1 control set is also compatible with ISO-8859-1. The approach taken in the Unicode standard allows round-trip transformation to be information-preserving while still enabling applications to recognize all possible types of line terminators.
Recognizing and using the newline codes greater than (, and ) is not often done. They are multiple bytes in UTF-8, and the code for has been used as the ellipsis () character in Windows-1252. For instance:
ECMAScript accepts and as line-breaks, but considers () whitespace instead of a line-break.
Windows 10 does not treat any of , , or as line-breaks in its default text editor, Notepad.
gedit, the default text editor of the GNOME desktop environment, treats and as newlines but does not for .
JSON allows and characters within strings, while ECMAScript prior to treated them as newlines, and therefore illegal syntax.
YAML no longer recognizes them as special as of version 1.2, in order to be compatible with JSON.
Note well that the Unicode special characters (, ), (, ), (, ) and (, ) are glyphs intended for presenting a user-visible character to the reader of the document, and are thus not recognized themselves as a newline.
In programming languages
To facilitate the creation of portable programs, programming languages provide some abstractions to deal with the different types of newline sequences used in different environments.
The C programming language provides the escape sequences (newline) and (carriage return). However, these are not required to be equivalent to the ASCII and control characters. The C standard only guarantees two things:
Each of these escape sequences maps to a unique implementation-defined number that can be stored in a single value.
When writing to a file, device node, or socket/fifo in text mode, is transparently translated to the native newline sequence used by the system, which may be longer than one character. When reading in text mode, the native newline sequence is translated back to . In binary mode, no translation is performed, and the internal representation produced by is output directly.
On Unix platforms, where C originated, the native newline sequence is ASCII (), so was simply defined to be that value. With the internal and external representation being identical, the translation performed in text mode is a no-op, and Unix has no notion of text mode or binary mode. This has caused many programmers who developed their software on Unix systems simply to ignore the distinction completely, resulting in code that is not portable to different platforms.
The C library function is best avoided in binary mode because any file not written with the Unix newline convention will be misread. Also, in text mode, any file not written with the system's native newline sequence (such as a file created on a Unix system, then copied to a Windows system) will be misread as well.
Another common problem is the use of when communicating using an Internet protocol that mandates the use of ASCII + for ending lines. Writing to a text mode stream works correctly on Windows systems, but produces only on Unix, and something completely different on more exotic systems. Using in binary mode is slightly better.
Many languages, such as C++, Perl, and Haskell provide the same interpretation of as C. C++ has an alternative I/O model where the manipulator can be used to output a newline (and flushes the stream buffer).
Java, PHP, and Python provide the sequence (for ASCII +). In contrast to C, these are guaranteed to represent the values and , respectively.
The Java I/O libraries do not transparently translate these into platform-dependent newline sequences on input or output. Instead, they provide functions for writing a full line that automatically add the native newline sequence, and functions for reading lines that accept any of , , or + as a line terminator (see ). The method can be used to retrieve the underlying line separator.
Example:
String eol = System.lineSeparator();
String lineColor = "Color: Red" + eol;
Python permits "Universal Newline Support" when opening a file for reading, when importing modules, and when executing a file.
Some languages have created special variables, constants, and subroutines to facilitate newlines during program execution. In some languages such as PHP and Perl, double quotes are required to perform escape substitution for all escape sequences, including and . In PHP, to avoid portability problems, newline sequences should be issued using the PHP_EOL constant.
Example in C#:
string eol = Environment.NewLine;
string lineColor = "Color: Red" + eol;
string eol2 = "\n";
string lineColor2 = "Color: Blue" + eol2;
Issues with different newline formats
The different newline conventions cause text files that have been transferred between systems of different types to be displayed incorrectly.
Text in files created with programs which are common on Unix-like or classic Mac OS, appear as a single long line on most programs common to MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows because these do not display a single or a single as a line break.
Conversely, when viewing a file originating from a Windows computer on a Unix-like system, the extra may be displayed as a second line break, as , or as at the end of each line.
Furthermore, programs other than text editors may not accept a file, e.g. some configuration file, encoded using the foreign newline convention, as a valid file.
The problem can be hard to spot because some programs handle the foreign newlines properly while others do not. For example, a compiler may fail with obscure syntax errors even though the source file looks correct when displayed on the console or in an editor. Modern text editors generally recognize all flavours of + newlines and allow users to convert between the different standards. Web browsers are usually also capable of displaying text files and websites which use different types of newlines.
Even if a program supports different newline conventions, these features are often not sufficiently labeled, described, or documented. Typically a menu or combo-box enumerating different newline conventions will be displayed to users without an indication if the selection will re-interpret, temporarily convert, or permanently convert the newlines. Some programs will implicitly convert on open, copy, paste, or save—often inconsistently.
Most textual Internet protocols (including HTTP, SMTP, FTP, IRC, and many others) mandate the use of ASCII + (, ) on the protocol level, but recommend that tolerant applications recognize lone (, ) as well. Despite the dictated standard, many applications erroneously use the C newline escape sequence () instead of the correct combination of carriage return escape and newline escape sequences (+) (see section Newline in programming languages above). This accidental use of the wrong escape sequences leads to problems when trying to communicate with systems adhering to the stricter interpretation of the standards instead of the suggested tolerant interpretation. One such intolerant system is the qmail mail transfer agent that actively refuses to accept messages from systems that send bare instead of the required +.
The standard Internet Message Format for email states: "CR and LF MUST only occur together as CRLF; they MUST NOT appear independently in the body".
The File Transfer Protocol can automatically convert newlines in files being transferred between systems with different newline representations when the transfer is done in "ASCII mode". However, transferring binary files in this mode usually has disastrous results: any occurrence of the newline byte sequence—which does not have line terminator semantics in this context, but is just part of a normal sequence of bytes—will be translated to whatever newline representation the other system uses, effectively corrupting the file. FTP clients often employ some heuristics (for example, inspection of filename extensions) to automatically select either binary or ASCII mode, but in the end it is up to users to make sure their files are transferred in the correct mode. If there is any doubt as to the correct mode, binary mode should be used, as then no files will be altered by FTP, though they may display incorrectly.
Conversion between newline formats
Text editors are often used for converting a text file between different newline formats; most modern editors can read and write files using at least the different ASCII / conventions.
For example, the editor Vim can make a file compatible with the Windows Notepad text editor. Within vim
:set fileformat=dos
:wq
Editors can be unsuitable for converting larger files or bulk conversion of many files. For larger files (on Windows NT/2000/XP) the following command is often used:
D:\>TYPE unix_file | FIND /V "" > dos_file
Special purpose programs to convert files between different newline conventions include , and , and , and .
The command is available on virtually every Unix-like system and can be used to perform arbitrary replacement operations on single characters. A DOS/Windows text file can be converted to Unix format by simply removing all ASCII characters with
$ tr -d '\r' < inputfile > outputfile
or, if the text has only newlines, by converting all newlines to with
$ tr '\r' '\n' < inputfile > outputfile
The same tasks are sometimes performed with awk, sed, or in Perl if the platform has a Perl interpreter:
$ awk '{sub("$","\r\n"); printf("%s",$0);}' inputfile > outputfile # UNIX to DOS (adding CRs on Linux and BSD based OS that haven't GNU extensions)
$ awk '{gsub("\r",""); print;}' inputfile > outputfile # DOS to UNIX (removing CRs on Linux and BSD based OS that haven't GNU extensions)
$ sed -e 's/$/\r/' inputfile > outputfile # UNIX to DOS (adding CRs on Linux based OS that use GNU extensions)
$ sed -e 's/\r$//' inputfile > outputfile # DOS to UNIX (removing CRs on Linux based OS that use GNU extensions)
$ perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\r\n/g' inputfile > outputfile # Convert to DOS
$ perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\n/g' inputfile > outputfile # Convert to UNIX
$ perl -pe 's/\r?\n|\r/\r/g' inputfile > outputfile # Convert to old Mac
The command can identify the type of line endings:
$ file myfile.txt
myfile.txt: ASCII English text, with CRLF line terminators
The Unix egrep (extended grep) command can be used to print filenames of Unix or DOS files (assuming Unix and DOS-style files only, no classic Mac OS-style files):
$ egrep -L '\r\n' myfile.txt # show UNIX style file (LF terminated)
$ egrep -l '\r\n' myfile.txt # show DOS style file (CRLF terminated)
Other tools permit the user to visualise the EOL characters:
$ od -a myfile.txt
$ cat -e myfile.txt
$ cat -v myfile.txt
$ hexdump -c myfile.txt
Interpretation
Two ways to view newlines, both of which are self-consistent, are that newlines either separate lines or that they terminate lines. If a newline is considered a separator, there will be no newline after the last line of a file. Some programs have problems processing the last line of a file if it is not terminated by a newline. On the other hand, programs that expect newline to be used as a separator will interpret a final newline as starting a new (empty) line. Conversely, if a newline is considered a terminator, all text lines including the last are expected to be terminated by a newline. If the final character sequence in a text file is not a newline, the final line of the file may be considered to be an improper or incomplete text line, or the file may be considered to be improperly truncated.
In text intended primarily to be read by humans using software which implements the word wrap feature, a newline character typically only needs to be stored if a line break is required independent of whether the next word would fit on the same line, such as between paragraphs and in vertical lists. Therefore, in the logic of word processing and most text editors, newline is used as a paragraph break and is known as a "hard return", in contrast to "soft returns" which are dynamically created to implement word wrapping and are changeable with each display instance. In many applications a separate control character called "manual line break" exists for forcing line breaks inside a single paragraph. The glyph for the control character for a hard return is usually a pilcrow (¶), and for the manual line break is usually a carriage return arrow (↵).
Reverse and partial line feeds
, (U+008D REVERSE LINE FEED, ISO/IEC 6429 8D, decimal 141) is used to move the printing position back one line (by reverse feeding the paper, or by moving a display cursor up one line) so that other characters may be printed over existing text. This may be done to make them bolder, or to add underlines, strike-throughs or other characters such as diacritics.
Similarly, (U+008B PARTIAL LINE FORWARD, decimal 139) and (U+008C PARTIAL LINE BACKWARD, decimal 140) can be used to advance or reverse the text printing position by some fraction of the vertical line spacing (typically, half). These can be used in combination for subscripts (by advancing and then reversing) and superscripts (by reversing and then advancing), and may also be useful for printing diacritics.
See also
ASA carriage control characters
C0 and C1 control codes
End-of-file
Line starve
Page break
Carriage return
Enter key
References
External links
The Unicode reference, see paragraph 5.8 in Chapter 5 of the Unicode 4.0 standard (PDF)
The End of Line Puzzle
"The End-of-Line Story"
Control characters
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238777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostwriter | Ghostwriter | A ghostwriter is hired to write literary or journalistic works, speeches, or other texts that are officially credited to another person as the author. Celebrities, executives, participants in timely news stories, and political leaders often hire ghostwriters to draft or edit autobiographies, memoirs, magazine articles, or other written material. Memoir ghostwriters often pride themselves in "disappearing" when impersonating others since such disappearance signals the quality of their craftsmanship. In music, ghostwriters are often used to write songs, lyrics, and instrumental pieces. Screenplay authors can also use ghostwriters to either edit or rewrite their scripts to improve them. Usually, there is a confidentiality clause in the contract between the ghostwriter and the credited author that obligates the former to remain anonymous. Sometimes the ghostwriter is acknowledged by the author or publisher for his or her writing services, euphemistically called a "researcher" or "research assistant", but often the ghostwriter is not credited.
Ghostwriting (or simply "ghosting") also occurs in other creative fields. Composers have long hired ghostwriters to help them to write musical pieces and songs; Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is an example of a well-known composer who was paid to ghostwrite music for wealthy patrons. Ghosting also occurs in popular music. A pop music ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician. In hip hop music, the increasing use of ghostwriters by high-profile hip-hop stars has led to controversy. In the visual arts, it is not uncommon in either fine art or commercial art such as comics for a number of assistants to do work on a piece that is credited to a single artist; Andy Warhol engaged in this practice, supervising an assembly line silk screen process for his artwork. However, when credit is established for the writer, the acknowledgement of their contribution is public domain and the writer in question would not be considered a ghostwriter.
Overview
A consultant or career-switcher may pay a ghostwriter to write a book on a topic in their professional area, to establish or enhance credibility as an 'expert' in their field. Public officials and politicians employ "correspondence officers" to respond to the large volume of official correspondence. A number of papal encyclicals have been written by ghostwriters. A controversial and scientifically unethical practice is medical ghostwriting, where biotech or pharmaceutical companies pay professional writers to produce papers and then recruit (via payment or as a perk) other scientists or physicians to attach their names to these articles before they are published in medical or scientific journals. Some university and college students hire ghostwriters from essay mills to write entrance essays, term papers, theses, and dissertations. This is largely considered unethical unless the actual ghostwriting work is just light editing.
Ghostwriters are hired for numerous reasons. In many cases, celebrities or public figures do not have the time, discipline, or writing skills to write and research a several hundred page autobiography or "how-to" book. Even if a celebrity or public figure has the writing skills to pen a short article, they may not know how to structure and edit a several hundred page book so that it is captivating and well-paced. In other cases, publishers use ghostwriters to increase the number of books that can be published each year under the name of well-known, highly marketable authors, or to quickly release a topical book that ties in with a recent or upcoming newsworthy event.
Remuneration and credit
Ghostwriters will often spend from several months to a full year researching, writing, and editing non-fiction and fiction works for a client, and they are paid based on a price per hour, per word or per page, with a flat fee, a percentage of the royalties of the sales, or some combination thereof. In 2013, literary agent Madeleine Morel stated that the average ghostwriter's advance for work for major book publishers was "between $40,000 and $70,000". These benchmark prices are mirrored approximately in the film industry by the Writers Guild, where a Minimum Basic Agreement gives a starting price for the screenplay writer of $37,073 (non-original screenplay, no treatment).
However, the recent shift into the digital age (15–20% world market share of books by 2015) has brought some changes, by opening newer markets that bring their own opportunities for authors and writers—especially on the more affordable side of the ghostwriting business. One such market is the shorter book, best represented at the moment by Amazon's Kindle Singles imprint: texts of 30,000 words and under. Such a length would have been much harder to sell before digital reader-technologies became widely available, but is now quite acceptable. Writers on the level of Ian McEwan have celebrated this recent change, mainly for artistic reasons.
As a consequence, the shorter format makes a project potentially more affordable for the client/author. Manhattan Literary, a ghostwriting company, states that "book projects on the shorter side, tailored to new markets like the Kindle Singles imprint and others (30,000–42,000 words) start at a cost of $15,000". And this shorter book appears to be here to stay. It was once financially impractical for publishers to produce such novella-length texts (they would have to charge too much); but this new market is, by 2015, already substantial and has been projected to be a solid part of the future of book publishing. So, with its appearance the starting price for the professional book writer has come down by about half, but only if this shorter format makes sense for the client.
On the upper end of the spectrum, with celebrities that can all but guarantee a publisher large sales, the fees can be much higher. In 2001, the New York Times stated that the fee that the ghostwriter for Hillary Clinton's memoirs would receive was probably about $500,000 of her book's $8 million advance, which "is near the top of flat fees paid to collaborators".
A recent availability also exists, of outsourcing many kinds of jobs, including ghostwriting, to offshore locations like India, China, and the Philippines where the customer can save money. The true tests of credibility—the writer's track record, and samples of his or her craft—become even more important in these instances, when the writer comes from a culture and first language that are entirely different from the client's.
In some cases, ghostwriters are allowed to share credit. For example, a common method is to put the client/author's name on a book cover as the main byline (by [author's name]) and then to put the ghostwriter's name underneath it (with [ghostwriter's name]). Sometimes this is done in lieu of pay or to decrease the amount of payment to the book ghostwriter for whom the credit has its own intrinsic value. Also, the ghostwriter can be cited as a co-author of a book, or listed in the movie or film credits when having ghostwritten the script or screenplay for film production.
For nonfiction books, the ghostwriter may be credited as a "contributor" or a "research assistant". In other cases, the ghostwriter receives no official credit for writing a book or article; in cases where the credited author or the publisher or both wish to conceal the ghostwriter's role, the ghostwriter may be asked to sign a nondisclosure contract that legally forbids any mention of the writer's role in a project. Some have made the distinction between "author" and "writer", as ghostwriter Kevin Anderson explains in a Washington Post interview: "A ghostwriter is an interpreter and a translator, not an author, which is why our clients deserve full credit for authoring their books."
Types
Nonfiction
Ghostwriters are widely used by celebrities and public figures who wish to publish their autobiographies or memoirs. The degree of involvement of the ghostwriter in nonfiction writing projects ranges from minor to substantial. In some cases, a ghostwriter may be called in just to clean up, edit, and polish a rough draft of an autobiography or a "how-to" book. In other cases, the ghostwriter will write an entire book or article based on information, stories, notes, an outline, or interview sessions with the celebrity or public figure. The credited author also indicates to the ghostwriter what type of style, tone, or "voice" they want in the book.
In some cases, such as with some "how-to" books, diet guides, or cookbooks, a book will be entirely written by a ghostwriter, and the celebrity (e.g., a well-known musician or sports star) will be credited as author. Publishing companies use this strategy to increase the marketability of a book by associating it with a celebrity or well-known figure. In several countries before elections, candidates commission ghostwriters to produce autobiographies for them so as to gain visibility and exposure. One of John F. Kennedy's books (Profiles in Courage) is almost entirely credited to ghostwriters. Donald Trump's famous autobiography (Trump: The Art of the Deal) was produced by a ghostwriter. Several of Hillary Clinton's books were produced by ghostwriters. Nelson Mandela's autobiography (Long Walk to Freedom) was also produced by a ghostwriter.
A consultant or career-switcher may pay to have a book ghostwritten on a topic in their professional area, to establish or enhance their credibility as an "expert" in their field. For example, a successful salesperson hoping to become a motivational speaker on selling may pay a ghostwriter to write a book on sales techniques. Often this type of book is published by a self-publishing press (or "vanity press"), which means that the author is paying to have the book published. This type of book is typically given away to prospective clients as a promotional tool, rather than being sold in bookstores.
Fiction
Ghostwriters are employed by fiction publishers for several reasons. In some cases, publishers use ghostwriters to increase the number of books that can be published each year by a well-known, highly marketable author. Ghostwriters mostly pen fictional works for well-known "name" authors in genres such as detective fiction, mysteries, and teen fiction.
Additionally, publishers use ghostwriters to write new books for established series where the "author" is a pseudonym. For example, the purported authors of the Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys mysteries, "Carolyn Keene" and "Franklin W. Dixon", respectively, are actually pseudonyms for a series of ghostwriters who write books in the same style using a template of basic information about the book's characters and their fictional universe (names, dates, speech patterns), and about the tone and style that are expected in the book (for more information, see pseudonyms and pen names). In addition, ghostwriters are often given copies of several of the previous books in the series to help them match the style.
The estate of gothic novelist V. C. Andrews hired ghostwriter Andrew Neiderman to continue writing novels after her death, under her name and in a similar style to her original works. Many of action writer Tom Clancy's books from the 2000s bear the names of two people on their covers, with Clancy's name in larger print and the other author's name in smaller print. Various books bearing Clancy's name were written by different authors under the same pseudonym. The first two books in the Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell franchise were written by Raymond Benson under the pseudonym David Michaels.
Sometimes famous authors will ghostwrite for other celebrities as well, such as when H. P. Lovecraft ghostwrote "Imprisoned with the Pharaohs" (also known as "Under the Pyramids") for Harry Houdini in Weird Tales in the 1920s.
Religious
A number of papal encyclicals have been written by ghostwriters. Pascendi, for instance, was written by Joseph Lemius (1860–1923), the procurator in Rome of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate. In June 1938, Pius XI summoned American Jesuit John La Farge, who began to prepare a draft of Humani generis unitas, which LaFarge and two other Jesuits—Gustav Gundlach and Gustave Desbuquois—on in Paris; the draft was approximately 100 pages long. Another Jesuit translated the draft encyclical into Latin, presenting it to Wlodimir Ledóchowski, then the General of the Society of Jesus who had chosen Gundlach and Desbuquois for the project. The draft encyclical was delivered to the Vatican in September 1938. Sebastian Tromp, a Dutch Jesuit, a solid Thomist theologian and close to Pope Pius XII, is considered to be the main ghostwriter of Mystici corporis.
Academic
Ghostwriting is considered to be academic dishonesty and can lead to repercussions if detected by universities, although it is not illegal in the United States, United Kingdom and Germany.
There are ghostwriting companies and freelancers that sell entrance essays, term papers, theses and dissertations to students. Such services are commonly known as "essay mills".
Although academic ghostwriting involves the sale of academic texts that are written on demand, it differs from plagiarism in that it does not involve an undisclosed appropriation of existing texts. As opposed to cases of plagiarism that stem from a copy-and-paste reuse of previous work, essays and assignments that are obtained through ghostwriting services as a rule have the originality of their text confirmed by plagiarism detection software packages or online services that are widely used by universities.
Universities have developed strategies to combat such academic services, which can be associated with academic fraud, that are offered to students and researchers. Some universities allow professors to give students oral examinations on papers which a professor believes to be ghostwritten. If the student is unfamiliar with the content of an essay that he or she has submitted, then the student can be charged with academic fraud.
Medical
With medical ghostwriting, pharmaceutical companies pay professional writers to produce papers and then pay other scientists or physicians to attach their names to these papers before they are published in medical or scientific journals. Medical ghostwriting has been criticized by a variety of professional organizations representing the drug industry, publishers, and medical societies, and it may violate American laws prohibiting off-label promotion by drug manufacturers as well as anti-kickback provisions within the statutes governing Medicare. Recently, it has attracted scrutiny from the lay press and from lawmakers, as well. including the University of Washington School of Medicine, while it is prohibited and considered a particularly pernicious form of plagiarism at others, such as Tufts University School of Medicine.
Professional medical writers can write papers without being listed as authors of the paper and without being considered ghostwriters, provided their role is acknowledged. The European Medical Writers Association have published guidelines which aim to ensure professional medical writers carry out this role in an ethical and responsible manner. The use of properly acknowledged medical writers is accepted as legitimate by organisations such as the World Association of Medical Editors and the British Medical Journal. Moreover, professional medical writers' expertise in presenting scientific data may be of benefit in producing better quality papers.
Website
Some websites, including blogs, are ghostwritten, because not all authors have the information technology skills or the time to dedicate to running a website. Nonetheless, the style, tone and content is modeled on that of the credited author. Many website ghostwriters are freelance but some are freelancers who work under contract, as with radio presenters and television presenters. Occasionally a "house pseudonym", or collective name is used by the author of the website.
Some celebrities, CEOs, or public figures set up blog websites—sometimes as a marketing, public relations, or lobbying tool. However, since these individuals are typically too busy to write their blog posts, they hire discreet ghostwriters to post to the blog under the celebrity or CEO's name. As with nonfiction ghostwriting, the blog ghostwriter models their writing style, content and tone on that of the credited author. This goes for social media as well. Many public figures have ghostwriters at least partially handle their Facebook and Twitter accounts, among others.
Music
Classical music and film scores
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is an example of a well-known composer who was paid to ghostwrite music for wealthy patrons. In the film industry, a music ghostwriter is a "person who composes music for another composer but is not credited on the cue sheet or in the final product in any way." The practice is considered one of the "dirty little secrets of the film and television music business" that is considered unethical, but has been common since the early stages of the film industry. In the early years of film, David Raksin worked as music ghostwriter and orchestrator for Charlie Chaplin; even though Chaplin was credited as the score writer, he was considered to be a "hummer" (pejorative film industry slang for a person who purports to be a film score composer but who in fact only gives a general idea of the melodies to a ghostwriter).
The practice is also common in television, as composers listed on cue sheets are entitled to music royalties every time an episode or theme score appears on television. A 1998 investigation by The Hollywood Reporter revealed that it was especially prevalent among animation companies such as Saban Entertainment, DiC, Ruby-Spears Productions and Hanna-Barbera, which often listed company executives as musicians for the purpose of royalties. Several composers later filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Saban Entertainment president Haim Saban, for allegedly taking ownership and credit for their musical compositions.
Popular music
Musical ghostwriting also occurs in popular music. When a record company wants to market an inexperienced young singer as a singer-songwriter, or help a veteran bandleader coping with writer's block (or a lack of motivation to finish the next album), an experienced songwriter may be discreetly brought in to help. In other cases, a ghostwriter writes lyrics and a melody in the style of the credited musician, with little or no input from the credited musician. A ghostwriter providing this type of service may be thanked, without reference to the service provided, in the album credits, or they may be a true 'ghost', with no acknowledgement in the album.
Legal disputes have arisen when musical ghostwriters have tried to claim royalties when an allegedly ghostwritten song becomes a money-making hit. In 1987, Darryl Neudorf was asked to work on a project for Nettwerk Productions involving a newly signed artist in their repertoire named Sarah McLachlan. This recording, the album Touch, resulted in garnering the interest of Arista Records. She signed a multi-album contract with them and two of the songs that Neudorf worked on with her became commercial hits in Canada. In 1991, Neudorf was invited back to work with McLachlan on her second album, Solace. In 1993, he filed a lawsuit against McLachlan and her label, Nettwerk, alleging that he had made a significant and uncredited contribution to the songwriting on Touch, and alleging that he wasn't paid properly for work done on Solace. The judge in this suit eventually ruled in McLachlan's favour on the songs; though Neudorf may have contributed to the songwriting, neither regarded each other as joint authors. The judge ruled in Neudorf's favour on the payment issue.
In hip hop music, the increasing use of ghostwriters by high-profile hip hop stars has led to controversy. Critics view the increasing use of hip hop ghostwriters as the "perversion of hip-hop by commerce." This is because of the limiting definition of "rapping" as "...about you expressing yourself through your own words, not someone else's." Chuck D of Public Enemy thinks this point of view is mistaken because "...not everyone is equipped to be a lyricist and not everyone is equipped to be a vocalist." He points out that creating a rap song may require multiple talents. Frank Ocean started his career as a ghostwriter for artists such as Justin Bieber, John Legend and Brandy.
Currently in hip-hop, the credit given to ghostwriters varies: "silent pens might sign confidentiality clauses, appear obliquely in the liner notes, or discuss their participation freely." In some cases, liner notes credit individuals for "vocal arrangement", which may be a euphemism for ghostwriting. In the early 2010s, hip-hop ghostwriting services like Rap Rebirth have appeared online, which provide recording artists who wish to purchase ghostwritten rhymes a greater degree of anonymity.
Visual art
Ghost-authorship also applies to the visual arts, most commonly paintings. The extent of the master artist's contribution varies widely, as little as composition adjustments and corrective brush strokes, or as much as entire works. A common practice is the use of art instruction class milieu in which the master artist makes significant contributions to the work of the student who then signs that work as his or her own. Services addressing complete works have historically been highly confidential. Less prevalent are advertised commercial services which may use the term "vanity artwork" as suggestive of "vanity publishing".
As blacklisting countermeasure
In countries where the freedom of speech is not upheld and authors that have somehow displeased the ruling regime are "blacklisted" (i.e. forbidden from having their works published), the blacklisted authors or composers may ghostwrite material for other authors or composers who are in the good graces of the regime. Examples include
Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson for Bridge on the River Kwai (credited to Pierre Boulle, who wrote the novel).
Dalton Trumbo for Roman Holiday (credited to Ian McLellan Hunter).
In culture
Movies and novels about ghostwriters include:
Philip Roth's 1979 novel The Ghost Writer
Chico Buarque's 2003 novel Budapeste about the tribulations of José Costa, its protagonist, between Rio de Janeiro and Budapest
Jennie Erdal's 2004 memoirs Ghosting: a Memoir about working as ghostwriter of Naim Attallah for 20 years
Claude Lelouch's 2006 film Roman de gare
Robert Harris's 2007 novel The Ghost and its 2010 film adaptation The Ghost Writer by Roman Polanski
Alan Cumming's 2007 horror film Ghost Writer, formerly Suffering Man's Charity
Jason Reitman's 2011 comedy-drama film Young Adult
The plot of the first season of the animated comedy-drama BoJack Horseman involves the title character BoJack dictating his memoirs to Diane Nguyen, a ghostwriter assigned by his publisher.
David Mitchell's first novel Ghostwritten (1999) plays on the notion of characters ghostwriting their own lives.
Haruki Murakami's 2009 novel 1Q84, in which one of the main plot lines revolves around a ghostwriter.
Kyoto Animation’s 2018 anime television series, Violet Evergarden, as well as the light novel of the same name, written by Kana Akatsuki.
See also
Automatic writing
Book-packaging
Content farm
Ghost singer
Hack writer
Script doctor
Speechwriter
References
Writing occupations
Occupations in music
Film music | [
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] |
238779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMA | CMA | CMA may stand for:
Accounting
Certified Management Accountant
Chartered market analyst, designation of the American Academy of Financial Management
Comparative market analysis, in real estate
Institute of Certified Management Accountants of Sri Lanka or CMA Sri Lanka
INSTITUTE OF COST ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA(ICAI).
Associations
California Medical Association, US
Canadian Malayalee Association
Canadian Medical Association
Canadian Motorcycle Association
Canadian Museums Association
Catholic Medical Association
Chess'n Math Association
Chinese Musicians' Association
Chinese Muslim Association, a religious organization in Taiwan
Christian Ministers' Association
Christian and Missionary Alliance
Christian Motorcyclists Association
Community Media Association
Constitutional Monarchy Association, a formation of the International Monarchist League
Country Music Association
Council of Magickal Arts
Crystal Meth Anonymous
Cumberland Miners' Association
Colleges and schools
Camden Military Academy, South Carolina, US
Columbia Military Academy, Tennessee, US
California State University Maritime Academy, Vallejo, California, US
Government
Capital Market Authority (disambiguation): regulatory bodies in various countries
Catchment Management Authority (disambiguation), Australia
Census metropolitan area, a Canadian census area
Chennai Metropolitan Area, India
China Meteorological Administration
Common Monetary Area
Competition and Markets Authority, a regulatory body in the United Kingdom
Computer Misuse Act 1990
Science
Biology
Chaperone-mediated autophagy
Chemistry
Calcium magnesium acetate, an inorganic compound
Chloromethamphetamine
Complex metallic alloys
Other science
Canis Major, astronomical constellation abbreviation "CMa"
Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES)
Critical medical anthropology
Transportation
Central Mountain Air, an airline based in Smithers, British Columbia, Canada
Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, a French airline
Cunnamulla Airport (IATA airport code CMA), Queensland, Australia
Camarillo Airport (FAA lid code CMA), California, USA
CMA CGM
Compact Modular Architecture platform, a modular car platform developed by Geely
Congestion management agency, a type of county-level agency in California
Other uses
Calculated Match Average, motorcycle speedway handicap
CMA (AAMA), medical assistant credential
Clearwater Marine Aquarium
Cleveland Museum of Art
Country Music Association Awards (CMA Awards or CMAs)
Cumbria, ceremonial county in England
Ćma, 1980 Polish film, The Moth in English
Koho language (ISO 639 language code cma)
See also
CMAS (disambiguation) | [
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238781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPad | ThinkPad | ThinkPad is a line of business-oriented laptop computers and tablets designed, developed and marketed by Lenovo, and formerly IBM. The line was originally sold by IBM until 2005, when a part of the company's business was acquired by Lenovo. ThinkPads have a distinct black, boxy design language, inspired by a Japanese bento lunchbox, which originated in 1990 and is still used in some models. Most models also feature a red-colored trackpoint on the keyboard, which has become an iconic and distinctive design characteristic associated with the ThinkPad line.
The ThinkPad line was first developed at the IBM Yamato Facility in Japan, and the first ThinkPads were released in October 1992. It has seen significant success in the business market. ThinkPad laptops have been used in outer space and for many years were the only laptops certified for use on the International Space Station. ThinkPads have also for several years been one of the preferred laptops used by the United Nations.
History
The ThinkPad was developed to compete with Toshiba and Compaq, who had created the first two portable notebooks, with an emphasis on sales to the Harvard Business School. The task of creating a notebook was given to the Yamato Facility in Japan, headed by , a Japanese engineer and product designer who had joined IBM in the 1970s, now known as the "Father of ThinkPad".
The name "ThinkPad" was a product of IBM's corporate history and culture. Thomas J. Watson, Sr., first introduced "THINK" as an IBM slogan in the 1920s. With every minicomputer and mainframe, IBM installed (almost all were leased – not sold), a blue plastic sign was placed atop the operator's console, with the text "Think" printed on an aluminium plate.
For decades IBM had also distributed small notepads with the word "THINK" emblazoned on a brown leatherette cover to customers and employees. The name "ThinkPad" was suggested by IBM employee Denny Wainwright, who had one such notepad in his pocket. The name was opposed by the IBM corporate naming committee as all the names for IBM computers were numeric at that time, but "ThinkPad" was kept due to praise from journalists and the public.
Early models
In April 1992, IBM announced the first ThinkPad model, the 700, later renamed the 700T after the release of three newer models, the 300, (new) 700 and 700C in October 1992. The 700T was a tablet computer.
This machine was the first product produced under IBM's new "differentiated product personality" strategy, a collaboration between Richard Sapper and Tom Hardy, head of the corporate IBM Design Program. Development of the 700C also involved a close working relationship between Sapper and Kazuhiko Yamazaki, lead notebook designer at IBM's Yamato Design Center in Japan and liaison between Sapper and Yamato engineering.
This 1990–1992 "pre-Internet" collaboration between Italy and Japan was facilitated by a special Sony digital communications system that transmitted high-res images over telephone lines. This system was established in several key global Design Centers by Hardy so IBM designers could visually communicate more effectively and interact directly with Sapper for advice on their projects. For his innovative design management leadership during ThinkPad development, Hardy was named "innovator of the Year 1992" by PC Magazine.
The first ThinkPad tablet, a PenPoint-based device formally known as the IBM 2521 ThinkPad, was positioned as a developer's release. The ThinkPad tablet became available for purchase by the general public in October of the same year.
IBM marketed the ThinkPad creatively, through methods such as early customer pilot programs, numerous pre-launch announcements, and an extensive loaner program designed to showcase the product's strengths and weaknesses, including loaning a machine to archaeologists excavating the ancient Egyptian city of Leontopolis. The resulting report documented the ThinkPad's excellent performance under difficult conditions; "The ThinkPad is an impressive machine, rugged enough to be used without special care in the worst conditions Egypt has to offer."
The first ThinkPads were very successful, collecting more than 300+ awards for design and quality.
Acquisition by Lenovo
In 2005, technology company Lenovo purchased the IBM personal computer business and the ThinkPad as a flagship brand along with it. Speaking about the purchase of IBM's personal computer division, Liu Chuanzhi said, "We benefited in three ways from the IBM acquisition. We got the ThinkPad brand, IBM's more advanced PC manufacturing technology and the company's international resources, such as its global sales channels and operation teams. These three elements have shored up our sales revenue in the past several years."
Although Lenovo acquired the right to use the IBM brand name for five years after its acquisition of IBM's personal computer business, Lenovo only used it for three years.
Today Lenovo manufactures and markets Think-branded products while IBM is mostly responsible for overseeing servicing and repairs for the Think line of products produced by Lenovo.
Both IBM and Lenovo play a key role in the design of their "Think" branded products.
Most of the Think line of products are designed at the Yamato Labs in Japan.
Manufacturing
The majority of ThinkPad computers since the 2005 acquisition of the brand by Lenovo have been made in Mexico, Slovakia, India and China.
Lenovo also employs ~300 people at a combined manufacturing and distribution centre near its American headquarters. Each device made in this facility is labelled with a red-white-and-blue sticker proclaiming "Whitsett, North Carolina."|alt=ThinkPad Logos|196x196px]]In 2012, Lenovo produced a short run of special edition anniversary ThinkPads in Yonezawa, Yamagata, in partnership with NEC, as part of a larger goal to move manufacturing from away from China and in to Japan.
In 2014, although sales rose 5.6 percent from the previous year, Lenovo lost its position as the top commercial notebook maker. However, the company celebrated a milestone in 2015 with the shipment of the 100 millionth unit of its ThinkPad line.
Design
The design language of the ThinkPad has remained very similar throughout the entire lifetime of the brand. Almost all models are solid black inside and out, with a boxy, right-angled external case design. Some newer Lenovo models incorporate more curved surfaces in their design. Many ThinkPads have incorporated magnesium, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or titanium into their chassis.
The industrial design concept was created in 1990 by Italy-based designer Richard Sapper, a corporate design consultant of IBM and, since 2005, Lenovo. The design was based on the concept of a traditional Japanese bento lunchbox, which revealed its nature only after being opened. According to later interviews with Sapper, he also characterized the simple ThinkPad form to be as elementary as a simple, black cigar box and with similar proportions, with the same observation that it offers a 'surprise' when opened.
Since 1992, the ThinkPad design has been regularly updated, developed and refined over the years by Sapper and the respective teams at IBM and later Lenovo. On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of ThinkPad's introduction, David Hill authored and designed a commemorative book about ThinkPad design titled ThinkPad Design: Spirit & Essence.
Features and technologies
Several unique features have appeared in the ThinkPad line, like drive protection, pointing stick or TPM chips.
While few features remain unique to the series, several laptop technologies originated on ThinkPads:
Current
Lenovo Vantage
Early known as "IBM Access", later "ThinkVantage", the Lenovo Vantage is a suite of computer management applications. This software can give additional support for system management (backup, encrypting, system drivers installation and upgrade, system monitoring and other). Currently some old features are replaced by internal Windows 10 features.
TPM chips
IBM was the first company that supported a TPM module. Modern ThinkPads still have this feature.
ThinkShutter
ThinkShutter is the branding of a webcam privacy shutter present in some ThinkPad notebook computers. It is a simple mechanical sliding cover that allows the user to obstruct the webcam's view. Some add-on webcams and other laptop brands provide a similar feature. IdeaPad notebooks carry the TrueBlock branding for their privacy shutters.
Spill-resistant keyboards
Some ThinkPad models have a keyboard membrane and drain holes (P series, classic T series and T###p models), and some have a solid rubber or plastic membrane (like X1 series and current T and X series), without draining holes.
UltraNav
The first ThinkPad 700 was equipped with the signature TrackPoint red dot pointing stick invented by Ted Selker. By 2000 the trackpad pointer had become more popular for laptops due to innovations by Synaptics so IBM introduced UltraNav as a complementary combination of TrackPoint and TouchPad designed by Dave Sawin, Hiroaki Yasuda, Fusanobo Nakamura, and Mitsuo Horiuchi to please all users.
A roll cage frame and stainless steel hinges with 180° or 360° opening angle
The "roll cage" is a internal frame, designed to minimize motherboard flex (current P series and T##p series) or magnesium composite case (all other hi-end models). The display modules lacks a magnesium frames, and some 2012-2016 models have a common issue with a cracked plastic lid. The 180° hinges is typical, the 360° hinges is Yoga line basic feature.
OLED screens
Introduced in 2018 as hi-end display option for some models.
The Active Protection System
Option for some ThinkPad that still uses the 2.5" drive bay; These systems use an accelerometer sensor to detect when a ThinkPad is falling and shut down the hard disk drive to prevent damage.
Biometric fingerprint reader and NFC Smart card reader options
The fingerprint reader was introduced as an option by IBM in 2004.ThinkPads were one of the first laptops to include this feature
Internal WWAN modules and Wi-Fi 3x3 MIMO
The Mobile broadband support is a common feature for most of actual ThinkPad models after 2006; the support of 3x3 MIMO is a common feature for most of hi-end models.
The some additional features (dock stations, UltraBay, accessories support) were listed in Accessories section.
Past
ThinkLight
External keyboard light, replaced by internal backlight; is an LED light located at the top of the LCD screen which illuminates the keyboard from above.
ThinkBridge
Only T, W and X series ThinkPad's feature (for some 2013-2018 models) — internal secondary battery (as succession of secondary UltraBay battery) that support a hot-swapping of primary battery.
7-row Keyboards
Original IBM keyboard design (1992-2012) — The original keyboard offered in the ThinkPad line until 2012, when it was swapped out for the chiclet style keyboard now used today.
IBM TrackWrite keyboard design — A unique keyboard designed by John Karidis introduced by Lenovo in 1995, used in the ThinkPad 701 series. When the machine is closed the keyboard is folded inwards, making the machine more compact. However when the machine is open and in use, it slides out, giving the user a normal sized keyboard. That keyboard, referred to as a butterfly keyboard, which is widely considered a design masterpiece and is in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
The ThinkPad 760 series also included an unusual keyboard design; the keyboard was elevated by two arms riding on small rails on the side of the screen, tilting the keyboard to achieve a more ergonomic design.
The keyboard design was replaced by the Chiclet style keyboard (2012-current) — The keyboard adopted by Lenovo in 2012 over the original IBM keyboard design. And does not support the ThinkLight to illuminate the keyboard, instead using a keyboard backlight. (Some ThinkPad models during the intermission period between the classic IBM design and the Lenovo chiclet design could be outfitted with both the backlit chiclet style keyboard and the ThinkLight.)
FlexView AFFS or IPS screens
The introduced in 2004 line of hi-end displays with wide view angles and optional high resolution (up to 15" 1600x1200 or (rarely) 2048x1536 pixels). Partially dropped in 2008 (after partial defunct of BOE-Hydis display supplier), and reintroduced as ordinary IPS screen option in 2013.
Batteries
Some Lenovo laptops (such as the X230, W530 and T430) block third-party batteries. Lenovo calls this feature "Battery Safeguard". It was first introduced on some models in May 2012. Laptops with this feature scan for security chips that only ThinkPad-branded batteries contain. Affected Thinkpads flash a message stating "Genuine Lenovo Battery Not Attached" when third-party batteries are used.
Operating systems
The ThinkPad has shipped with Microsoft Windows from its inception until present day. Alongside MS-DOS, Windows 3.1x was the default operating system on the original ThinkPad 700.
IBM and Microsoft's joint operating system, known as OS/2, although not as popular, was also made available as an option from the ThinkPad 700 in 1992, and was officially supported until the T43 in 2005.
IBM took its first steps toward ThinkPads with an alternative operating system, when they quietly certified the 390 model for SUSE Linux in November 1998. The company released its first Linux-based unit with the ThinkPad A20m in July 2000. This model, along with the closely-released A21m, T21 and T22 models, came preinstalled with Caldera OpenLinux. IBM shifted away from preinstalled Linux on the ThinkPad after 2002, but continued to support other distributions such as Red Hat Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise, and Turbolinux by means of customer installations on A30, A30p, A31p models. This continued through the Lenovo transition with the T60p, until September 2007.
The following year, ThinkPads began shipping with Linux again, when the R61 and T61 were released with SUSE Linux Enterprise as an option. This was shortlived, as Lenovo discontinued that practice in 2009. ThinkPad hardware continued to be certified for Linux.
In 2020, Lenovo shifted into much heavier support of Linux when they announced the ThinkPad X1 Carbon Gen 8, the P1 Gen 2, and the P53 would come with Fedora Linux as an option. This was the first time that Fedora Linux was made available as a preinstalled option from a major hardware vendor. Following that, Lenovo then began making Ubuntu available as a preinstalled option across nearly thirty different notebook and desktop models, and Fedora Linux on all of its P series lineup.
A small number of ThinkPads are preinstalled with Google's Chrome OS. On these devices, Chrome OS is the only officially supported operating system where installation of Windows and other operating systems requires putting the device into developer mode.
Use in space
ThinkPads have been used heavily in space programs. NASA purchased more than 500 ThinkPad 750 laptops for flight qualification, software development, and crew training, and astronaut (and senator) John Glenn used ThinkPad laptops on his spaceflight mission STS-95 in 1998.
ThinkPad models used on Shuttle missions include:
ThinkPad 750 (first use in December 1993 supporting the Hubble repair mission)
ThinkPad 750C
ThinkPad 755C
ThinkPad 760ED
ThinkPad 760XD (ISS Portable Computing System)
ThinkPad 770
ThinkPad A31p (ISS Portable Computing System)
ThinkPad T61p
ThinkPad P52
ThinkPad T490
ThinkPad P15
The ThinkPad 750 flew aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour during a mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope on 2 December 1993, running a NASA test program which checked if radiation in the space environment caused memory anomalies or other unexpected problems. ThinkPads were also used in conjunction with a joystick for the Portable In-Flight Landing Operations Trainer (PILOT).
ThinkPads have also been used on space stations. At least three ThinkPad 750C were left in the Spektr module of Mir when it depressurized, and the 755C and 760ED were used as part of the Shuttle–Mir Program, the 760ED without modifications. Additionally, for several decades ThinkPads were the only laptops certified for use on the International Space Station.
ThinkPads used aboard the space shuttle and International Space Station feature safety and operational improvements for the environment they must operate in. Modifications include Velcro tape to attach to surfaces, upgrades to the CPU and video card cooling fans to accommodate for microgravity (in which warmer air does not rise) and lower density of the cabin air, and an adapter for the station's 28 volt DC power.
Throughout 2006, a ThinkPad A31p was being used in the Service Module Central Post of the International Space Station and seven ThinkPad A31p laptops were in service in orbit aboard the International Space Station. As of 2010, the Space Station was equipped with ThinkPad A31 computers and 32 ThinkPad T61p laptops. All laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's LAN via Wi-Fi and are connected to the ground at 3 Mbit/s up and 10 Mbit/s down, comparable to home DSL connection speeds.
Since a new contract with HP in 2016 provided a small number of modified ZBook laptops for ISS use, ThinkPads are no longer the only laptops flown on the ISS but are the predominant laptop present there.
ThinkPads in the United Nations
For several years ThinkPads have been one of the preferred laptop brands used by the United Nations.
The models found in the UN today include:
L480
T480
T480s
T14
X1 carbon gen 6, gen 7 and gen 8
X380 Yoga
X390 Yoga
Certain ThinkVision monitors (T24v) are also used with ThinkPad docking stations.
Popularity
ThinkPads have enjoyed cult popularity for many years. There are large communities on the Internet dedicated to the line where people have discussions about it, share photos and videos of their own ThinkPads, etc. Older ThinkPad models remain popular among enthusiasts and collectors, who still see them as durable, highly usable machines, despite no longer being modern. They have gained a reputation for being reliable, or "indestructible", even. Newer models are also still popular among consumers and businesses nowadays (as of 2021), though Lenovo has received some backlash in recent years for the apparent declining quality of their ThinkPad line (as well as all their other lines in general), many customers being unhappy with the build quality and reliability, or lack thereof, of their devices.
Aftermarket parts have been developed for some models, such as the X60 and X200, for which custom motherboards with more modern processors have been created.
In January 2015, Lenovo celebrated one hundred million ThinkPads being sold. They also announced some new ThinkPad products for the occasion.
Reviews and awards
Laptop Magazine in 2006 called the ThinkPad the highest-quality laptop computer keyboard available. It was ranked first in reliability and support in PC Magazine's 2007 Survey.
The ThinkPad was the PC Magazine 2006 Reader's Choice for PC based laptops, and ranked number 1 in Support for PC based laptops. The ThinkPad Series was the first product to receive PC World's Hall of Fame award.
The Enderle Group's Rob Enderle said that the constant thing about ThinkPad is that the "brand stands for quality" and that "they build the best keyboard in the business."
The ThinkPad X Tablet-series was PC Magazine Editor's Choice for tablet PCs. The ThinkPad X60s was ranked number one in ultraportable laptops by PC World. It lasted 8 hours and 21 minutes on a single charge with its 8-cell battery. The Lenovo ThinkPad X60s Series is on PC World's Top 100 Products of 2006. The 2005 PC World Reliability and Service survey ranked ThinkPad products ahead of all other brands for reliability.
In the 2004 survey, they were ranked second (behind eMachines). Lenovo was named the most environment-friendly company in the electronics industry by Greenpeace in 2007 but has since dropped to place 14 of 17 as of October 2010.
The IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad T60p received the Editor's Choice award for Mobile Graphic Workstation from PC Magazine. Lenovo ThinkPad X60 is the PC Magazine Editor's Choice among ultra-portable laptops. The Lenovo ThinkPad T400-Series was on PC World's Top 100 Products of 2009.
Current model lines
Starting Weight
ThinkPad Yoga (2013–current)
The ThinkPad Yoga is an Ultrabook-class convertible device that functions as both a laptop and tablet computer. The Yoga gets its name from the consumer-oriented IdeaPad Yoga line of computers with the same form factor. The ThinkPad Yoga has a backlit keyboard that flattens when flipped into tablet mode. This was accomplished on 1st generation X1 Yoga with a platform surrounding the keys that rises until level with the keyboard buttons, a locking mechanism that prevents key presses, and feet that pop out to prevent the keyboard from directly resting on flat surfaces. On later X1 Yoga generations, the keys themselves retract in the chassis, so the computer rests on fixed small pads. Touchpad is disabled in this configuration. Lenovo implemented this design in response to complaints about its earlier Yoga 13 and 11 models being awkward to use in tablet mode. A reinforced hinge was required to implement this design. Other than its convertible form factor, the ThinkPad Yoga retains standard ThinkPad features such as a black magnesium-reinforced chassis, island keyboard, a red TrackPoint, and a large touchpad.
Tablets
ThinkPad Tablet
Released in August 2011, the ThinkPad Tablet is the first in Lenovo's line of business-oriented Tablets with the ThinkPad brand. The tablet has been described by Gadget Mix as a premium business tablet. Since the Tablet is primarily business-oriented, it includes features for security, such as anti-theft software, the ability to remotely disable the tablet, SD card encryption, layered data encryption, and Cisco Virtual Private Network (VPN).
Additionally, the ThinkPad Tablet is able to run software such as IBM's Lotus Notes Traveler. The stylus could be used to write notes on the Tablet, which also included software to convert this handwritten content to text. Another feature on the Tablet was a drag-and-drop utility designed to take advantage of the Tablet's touch capabilities. This feature could be used to transfer data between USB devices, internal storage, or an SD card.
Slashgear summarized the ThinkPad Tablet by saying, "The stylus and the styling add up to a distinctive slate that doesn't merely attempt to ape Apple's iPad."
ThinkPad Tablet 2
In order to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the ThinkPad, Lenovo held a large party in New York where it announced several products, including the Tablet 2. Lenovo says that the ThinkPad Tablet 2 will be available on 28 October 2012 when Windows 8 is released. The ThinkPad Tablet 2 runs the Windows 8 Professional operating system. It will be able to run any desktop software compatible with this version of Windows.
The Tablet 2 is based on the Clover Trail version of the Intel Atom processor that has been customized for tablets. The Tablet 2 has 2 gigabytes of RAM and a 64GB SSD. The Tablet 2 has a 10.1-inch IPS display with a 16:9 aspect ratio and a resolution of . In a preview, CNET wrote, "Windows 8 looked readable and functional, both in Metro and standard Windows-based interfaces." A mini-HDMI port is included for video output. An 8-megapixel rear camera and a 2-megapixel front camera are included along with a noise-canceling microphone in order to facilitate video conferencing.
ThinkPad 8
Announced and released in January 2014, the ThinkPad 8 is based on Intel's Bay Trail Atom Z3770 processor, with 2 GB of RAM and up to 128 GB of built-in storage. ThinkPad 8 has an 8.3-inch IPS display with a 16:10 aspect ratio and a resolution of pixels. Other features include an aluminum chassis, micro-HDMI port, 8-megapixel back camera (with flash), and optional 4G connectivity. It runs Windows 8 as an operating system.
ThinkPad 10
Announced in May 2014, Lenovo ThinkPad 10 is a successor to the ThinkPad Tablet 2 and was scheduled to launch in the summer of 2014 along with accessories such as a docking station and external detachable magnetic keyboards. It used Windows 8.1 Pro as its operating system. It was available in 64 and 128GB variants with 1.6GHz quad-core Intel Atom Baytrail processor and 2GB or 4GB of RAM. It optionally supported both 3G and 4G (LTE). Display resolution was announced to be , paired with a stylus pen.
ThinkPad X1 Tablet
The ThinkPad X1 Tablet is a fanless tablet powered by Core M CPUs. It is available with 4, 8 or 16GB of LPDDR3 RAM and SATA or a PCIe NVMe SSDs with up to 1TB. It has a IPS screen and supports touch and pen input.
ThinkPad 11e (2014–current)
The ThinkPad 11e is a "budget" laptop computer for schools and students with an 11-inch screen and without trackpoint. 11e Yoga is a convertible version of 11e.
E Series (2011–current)
The E Series is a low-cost ThinkPad line, designed for small business mass-market requirements, and currently contains only a 14" and 15" sub-lines. The E Series line of laptops replaced Lenovo's Edge Series, but somewhere (in some countries) currently (May 2019) offered as both of "Thinkpad Edge/E series" names. The E series also lack metals like magnesium and carbon fibre in their construction which other members of the ThinkPad family enjoy.
L Series (2010–current)
The L Series replaced the former R Series, and is positioned as a mid-range ThinkPad offering with mainstream Intel Core i3/i5/i7 CPUs. The L Series have 3 sub-lines, the long-running 14" and 15.6" (and as launched this line had two models, L412 and the L512 in 2010); and as of 2018 there is also a 13" L380 available, which replaces the ThinkPad 13.
T series (2000–current)
The T series is the most popular and most well-known line of ThinkPad. Being the successor of the 600 series, it historically had high-end features, such as magnesium alloy roll-cages, high-density IPS screens known as FlexView (discontinued after the T60 series), 7-row keyboards, screen latches, the Lenovo UltraBay, and ThinkLight. Models included both 14.1-inch and 15.4-inch displays available in 4:3 and 16:10 aspect ratios.
Since 2012, the entire ThinkPad line was given a complete overhaul, with modifications such as the removal of separate buttons for use with the TrackPoint (xx40 series – 2014, then reintroduced xx50 series – 2015), removal of separate audio control buttons, removal of screen latch, and the removal of LED indicator lights. Models starting from the xx40 series featured a Power Bridge battery system, which had a combination of a lower capacity built-in battery and a higher capacity external battery, enabling the user to switch the external without putting the computer into hibernation. However, beginning with the 2019 xx90 series models, the external battery was removed in favor of a single internal battery. Also, non-widescreen displays are no longer available, with 16:9 aspect ratio as the only remaining choice.
The Tx20 series ThinkPads came in two editions: 15" (T520) or a 14" (T420). These are the last ThinkPads to use the classic 7-row keyboard, with the exception of the Lenovo ThinkPad 25th anniversary edition released on Oct. 5, 2017, which was based on the ThinkPad T470.
As it can be seen above, over time, The T series ThinkPad's purpose has slightly changed. Initially, the T series ThinkPad was meant to have high-end business features and carry a 10–20% markup over the other ThinkPads. Starting with the T400, The ThinkPad T series became a less of a high-end business laptop and became more suited as a mobile workstation, becoming similar to the W-series or P-series ThinkPads. Achieving similar performance to the W-series, but with a 5–10% smaller profile than the W-series ThinkPads. In 2013, the T440 introduced another major shift in The ThinkPad T series. The ThinkPad became more of an overall office machine than a mobile workstation. By today's standards, The ThinkPad T series is thicker than most of its competitors.
X Series (2000–current)
The X Series is the main high-end ultraportable ThinkPad line, offering a lightweight, highly portable laptop with moderate performance. The current sub-lines for the X series includes:
13" X13 (mainstream);
X13 Yoga (convertible sub-line),
14" X1 Carbon (premium sub-line),
X1 Yoga (premium convertible sub-line), and
15" X1 Extreme (premium sub-line).
The daughter line includes the X1 Tablet (not to be confused with the 2005-2013 X Series tablets).
The mainstream current "workhorse" models is a X13 and X13 Yoga, the 13" successors of the classic discontinued 12" line of Lenovo X Series ThinkPads.
The premium 14"/15" thin-and-light line were the 13.3" ThinkPad models (the X300/X301) with ultrabay CD-ROM and removable battery, but are now replaced by the modern premium X1-series ultrabook line, such as the X1 Carbon, X1 Yoga, and X1 Extreme sub-series.
Discontinued mainstream lines such as the 12" X200(s), X201(s), and X220 models could be ordered with all of the high-end ThinkPad features (like Trackpoint, ThinkLight, a 7-row keyboard, a docking port, hot-swappable HDD, solid magnesium case and optional slice battery). The discontinued 12.5" X220 and X230 still featured a roll cage, a ThinkLight, and an optional premium IPS display (the first IPS display on a non-tablet ThinkPad since the T60p), but the 7-row keyboard was offered only with the X220. However, it lacked the lid latch mechanism which was present on the previous X200 and X201 versions. The discontinued slim 12" line contained only X200s and X201s with low power CPUs and high resolution displays, and X230s with low power CPUs. The 12.5" X series ThinkPads (such as X240 and later) had a more simplified design, and last 12" X280 model had only the Trackpoint feature, partially magnesium case and simplified docking port.
The obsolete low-cost 11.6" (netbook line) X100e and X120e were are all plastic, lacking both the latch and the ThinkLight, and using a variant of the island keyboard (known as chiclet keyboard) found on the Edge series. The X100e was also offered in red in addition to blue, and white in some countries. Those were more like high-end netbooks, whereas the X200 series were more like full ultraportables, featuring Intel Core (previously Core 2 and Celeron) series CPUs rather than AMD netbook CPUs.
The X Series with "tablet" suffixes is an outdated variant of the 12" X Series models, with low voltage CPUs and a flip-screen tablet resistive touchscreen. These include the traditional ThinkPad features, and have been noted for using a higher quality AFFS-type screen with better viewing angles compared to the screens used on other ThinkPads.
P Series (2015–current)
The P Series line of laptops replaced Lenovo's W Series and reintroduced 17" screens to the ThinkPad line. The P Series (excluding models with 's' suffix) is designed for engineers, architects, animators, etc. and comes with a variety of "high-end" options. All P Series models come included with fingerprint readers. The ThinkPad P Series includes features such as dedicated magnesium roll cages, more indicator LED lights, and high-resolution displays.
Z series (2022)
The Z series currently consists of two models: the 13-inch model, Z13, and the 16-inch model, Z16. It was introduced in January 2022 and will be available for purchase in May 2022; the Z13 model will start at $1549, while the Z16 model will start at $2099. The series is marketed towards business customers, as well as a generally younger audience. The Verge wrote: "Lenovo is trying to make ThinkPads cool to the kids. The company has launched the ThinkPad Z-series, a thin and light ThinkPad line with funky colors, eco-friendly packaging, and a distinctly modern look." The series features a new metal sleek, contemporary, thin design, which differs greatly from other recent, more traditional-looking ThinkPad models. The Z13 model was introduced in three new colors—black, silver, and black vegan leather with bronze accents—while the Z16 is only available in one of them, silver. The laptops are equipped with new AMD Ryzen Pro processors. Other notable features include 1080p webcams, OLED displays, new, redesigned touchpads, spill resistant keyboards, Dolby Atmos speaker systems, and Windows 11 with Windows Hello support.
Accessories
Lenovo also makes a range of accessories meant to complement and enhance the experience of using a ThinkPad device. These include:
ThinkPad Stack (2015–current)
The ThinkPad Stack line of products includes accessories designed for portability and interoperability. This line includes external hard drives, a wireless router, a power bank, and a Bluetooth 4.0 speaker. Each Stack device includes rubber feet, magnets, and pogo-pin power connections that allow the use of a single cable. The combined weight of all the Stack devices is slightly less than two pounds. The Stack series was announced in January 2015 at the International CES. The Stack series of accessories was expanded at the 2016 International CES to include a 720p resolution projector with 150 lumens of brightness and a wireless charging station.
The Stack has a "blocky, black, and rectangular" look with the ThinkPad logo. It shares a common design language with ThinkPad laptop computers.
Dock Stations (1993–current)
Current docking stations (or docks) add much of the functional abilities of a desktop computer, including multiple display outputs, additional USB ports, and occasionally other features. This allows the ThinkPads to be connected and disconnected from various peripherals quickly and easily.
Recent docks connect via a proprietary connector located on the underside of the laptops; or via USB-C.
UltraBay (1995–2014)
The internal replaceable (hot-swappable) CD-drive bay that supports a list of optional components, such as a CD-/DVD/Blu-ray drives, hard drive caddies, additional batteries, or device cradles.
Slice batteries (2000-2012)
Some classic models (IBM and early Lenovo T and X series) can support an additional slice battery instead of the UltraBay additional battery.
UltraPort (2000–2002)
ThinkPad USB 3.0 Secure Hard Drive
An external USB 3.0/2.0 hard drive that was designed by Lenovo in 2009. It requires the input of a 4 digit PIN to access data and this can be set by the user.
These drives are manufactured for lenovo by Apricorn, Inc.
ThinkPad keyboards (external)
IBM/Lenovo made several usb/Bluetooth keyboards with integrated UltraNav's and TrackPoints. Notable models include
SK-8845
SK-8835
SK-8855
ThinkPad Compact USB Keyboard (current model)
ThinkPad Compact Bluetooth Keyboard (current model)
ThinkPad TrackPoint Keyboard II (current model)
ThinkPad mice
ThinkPad mice come in several different varieties ranging from Bluetooth ones through wired ones, to even ones with a trackpoint built-in and labelled as a scroll point.
ThinkPad stands
Thinkplus laptop stands(asia markets only)
ThinkPlus charger
GaN charger with a USB-C output.
They are mostly sold with the "thinkplus" branding in Asia (notably south-east Asia) and are popular there.
Historical models
ThinkPad 235
The Japan-only ThinkPad 235 (or Type 2607) was the progeny of the IBM/Ricoh RIOS project. Also known as Clavius or Chandra2, it contains unusual features like the presence of three PCMCIA slots and the use of dual camcorder batteries as a source of power. Features an Intel Pentium MMX 233 MHz CPU, support for up to 160 MB of EDO memory, and a built-in hard drive with UDMA support. Hitachi marketed Chandra2 as the Prius Note 210.
ThinkPad 240
The ultraportable ThinkPad 240 (X, Z) started with an Intel Celeron processor and went up to the 600 MHz Intel Pentium III. In models using the Intel 440BX chipset, the RAM was expandable to 320 MB max with a BIOS update. Models had a screen and an key pitch (a standard key pitch is ). They were also one of the first ThinkPad series to contain a built-in Mini PCI card slot (form factor 3b). The 240s have no optical disc drives and an external floppy drive. An optional extended battery sticks out the bottom like a bar and props up the back of the laptop. Weighing in at , these were the smallest and lightest ThinkPads ever made.
300 Series
The 300-series (300, 310, 340, 345, 350, 360, 365, 370, 380, 385, 390 (all with various sub-series)) was a long-running value series starting at the 386SL/25 processor, all the way to the Pentium III 450. The 300 series was offered as a slightly lower-price alternative from the 700 series, with a few exceptions.
The ThinkPad 360P and 360PE was a low-end version of ThinkPad 750P, and was unique model in the 300 series in that it could be used as a regular laptop, or transform into a tablet by flipping the monitor on top of itself. Retailing for $3,699 in 1995, the 360PE featured a touch sensitive monitor that operated with the stylus; the machine could run operating systems that supported the touch screen such as PenDOS 2.2.
500 Series
The 500-series (500, 510, 560 (E, X, Z), 570 (E)) were the main line of the ultraportable ThinkPads. Starting with the 486SLC2-50 Blue Lightning to the Pentium III 500, these machines had only a hard disk on board. Any other drives were external (or in the 570's case in the UltraBase). They weighed in at around .
600 Series
The 600-series (600, 600E, and 600X) are the direct predecessors of the T series. The 600-series packed a SVGA or a XGA TFT LCD, Pentium MMX, Pentium II or III processor, full-sized keyboard, and optical bay into a package weighing roughly . IBM was able to create this light, fully featured machine by using lightweight but strong carbon fiber composite plastics. The battery shipped with some 600-series models had a manufacturing defect that left it vulnerable to memory effect and resulted in poor battery life, but this problem can be avoided by use of a third-party battery.
700 Series
The 700-series was a hi-end ThinkPad line; The released models (700T, 710T and 730T tablets; 700, 701, 720, 730, 750, 755, 760, 765, 770 laptops with various sub-models) can be configured with the best screens, largest hard drives and fastest processors available in the ThinkPad range; some features can be found only on a 700 series models, and was the first successful ThinkPad introduced in 1992 (that was a tablet PC 700T model without a keyboard and a mouse).
800 Series
The ThinkPad 800-series (800/820/821/822/823/850/851/860) were unique as they were based on the PowerPC architecture rather than the Intel x86 architecture. Most of the 800 Series laptops used the PowerPC 603e CPU, at speeds of 100 MHz, or 166 MHz in the 860 model. The PowerPC ThinkPad line was considerably more expensive than the standard x86 ThinkPads — even a modestly configured 850 cost upwards of $12,000. All of the PowerPC ThinkPads could run Windows NT 3.51 and 4.0, AIX 4.1.x, and Solaris Desktop 2.5.1 PowerPC Edition.
WorkPad
Based on ThinkPad design although branded WorkPad, the IBM WorkPad z50 was a Handheld PC running Windows CE, released in 1999.
i Series (1998–2002)
The ThinkPad i Series was introduced by IBM in 1999 and was geared towards a multimedia focus with many models featuring independent integrated CD players and multimedia access buttons. The 1400 and 1500 models were designed by Acer for IBM under contract (and are thus nicknamed the AcerPad) and featured similar hardware found in Acer laptops (including ALi chipsets, three way audio jacks and the internal plastics painted with a copper paint). Some of the i Series ThinkPads, particularly the Acer developed models, are prone to broken hinges and stress damage on the chassis.
One notable ThinkPad in the i Series lineup are the S3x (S30/S31) models: featuring a unique keyboard and lid design allowing a standard size keyboard to fit in a chassis that otherwise wouldn't be able to support the protruding keyboard. These models were largely only available in Asia Pacific. IBM offered an optional piano black lid on these models (designed by the Yamato Design lab). This is the only ThinkPad since the 701C to feature a special design to accommodate a keyboard that's physically larger than the laptop and also the only ThinkPad (aside from the Z61) to deviate away from the standard matte lid.
A Series (2000–2004)
The A-series was developed as an all-around productivity machine, equipped with hardware powerful enough to make it a desktop replacement. Hence it was the biggest and heaviest ThinkPad series of its time, but also had features not even found in a T-series of the same age. The A-series was dropped in favor of the G-series and R-series.
The A31 was released in 2002 as a desktop replacement system equipped with: A Pentium 4-M processor clocked at 1.6, 1.8, 1.9, or 2.0 GHz (max supported is a 2.6 GHz), An ATI Mobility Radeon 7500, 128 or 256 MB of PC2100 RAM (officially upgradable to 1 GB but can be unofficially upgraded to 2 GB), IBM High Rate Wireless (PRISM 2.5 Based, can be modified to support WPA-TKIP) and equipped with a 20, 30, or 40 GB hard disk drive.
R Series (2001–2010, 2018-2019)
The R Series was a budget line, beginning with the R30 in 2001 and ending with the R400 and R500 presented in 2008.
The successor of a R400 and R500 models is a ThinkPad L series L412 and L512 models.
A notable model is the R50p with an optional 15" IPS LCD screen (introduced in 2003).
The R series reintroduced in 2018 (for Chinese market only) with the same hardware as E series models, but with aluminum display cover, discrete GPU, TPM chip and fingerprint reader.
G Series (2003–2006)
The G-series consisted of only three models, the G40, G41 and G50. Being large and heavy machines, equipped with powerful desktop processors, this line of ThinkPads consequently served mainly as replacements for desktop computers.
Z Series (2005–2007)
The Z series was released as a high-end multimedia laptop; as a result this was the first ThinkPad to feature a widescreen (16:10 aspect ratio) display. The Z-Series was also unique in that certain models featured an (optional) titanium lid. Integrated WWAN and a webcam were also found on some configurations. The series has only ever included the Z60 (Z60m and Z60t) and Z61 (Z61m, Z61t and Z61p); the latter of which is the first Z-Series ThinkPad with Intel "Yonah" Dual-Core Technology. The processor supports Intel VT-x; this is disabled in the BIOS but can be turned on with a BIOS update. Running fully virtualised operating systems via Xen or VMware is therefore possible. Despite the Z61 carrying the same number as the T61, the hardware of the Z61 is closer to a T60 (and likewise the Z60 being closer to a T43).
ThinkPad Reserve Edition (2007)
The "15-year anniversary" Thinkpad model (based on a X60s laptop).
This model was initially known inside of Lenovo as the "Scout". This was the name of the horse ridden by Tonto, the sidekick from the 1950s television series The Lone Ranger. Lenovo envisioned the Scout as a very high-end ThinkPad that would be analogous to a luxury car. Each unit was covered in fine leather embossed with its owners initials. Extensive market research was conducted on how consumers would perceive this form factor. It was determined that they appreciated that it emphasised warmth, nature, and human relations over technology. The Scout was soon renamed the ThinkPad Reserve Edition. It came bundled with premium services including a dedicated 24-hour technical support hotline that would be answered immediately. It was released in 2007 and sold for $5,000 in the United States.
SL Series (2008–2010)
The SL Series was launched in 2008 as a low-end ThinkPad targeted mainly geared toward small businesses. These lacked several traditional ThinkPad features, such as the ThinkLight, magnesium alloy roll cage, UltraBay, and lid latch, and use a 6-row keyboard with a different layout than the traditional 7-row ThinkPad keyboard; also, SL-series models have IdeaPad-based firmware. Models offered included 13.3" (SL300), 14" (SL400 and SL410) and 15.6" (SL500 and SL510).
W Series (2008–2015)
The W-series laptops were introduced by Lenovo as workstation-class laptops with their own letter designation, a descendant of prior ThinkPad T series models suffixed with 'p' (e.g. T61p), and are geared towards CAD users, photographers, power users, and others, who need a high-performance system for demanding tasks.. The W-series laptops were launched in 2008, at the same time as the Intel Centrino 2, marking an overhaul of Lenovo's product lineup. The first two W-series laptops introduced were the W500 and the W700.
Previously available were the W7xx series (17" widescreen model), the W500 (15.4" 16:10 ratio model), the W510 (15.6" 16:9 ratio model), and W520 (15.6" 16:9 ratio model). The W700DS and the W701DS both had two displays: a 17" main LCD and a 10" slide-out secondary LCD. The W7xx series were also available with a Wacom digitizer built into the palm rest. These high-performance workstation models offered more high-end components, such as quad core CPUs and higher-end workstation graphics compared to the T-series, and were the most powerful ThinkPad laptops available. Until the W540, they retained the ThinkLight, UltraBay, roll cage, and lid latch found on the T-series. The W540 release marked the end of the lid latch, ThinkLight, and hot-swappable UltraBays found in earlier models.
The ThinkPad W-series laptops from Lenovo are described by the manufacturer as being "mobile workstations", and suit that description by being physically on the larger side of the laptop spectrum, with screens ranging from 15" to 17" in size. Most W-series laptops offer high-end quad-core Intel processors with an integrated GPU as well as an Nvidia Quadro discrete GPU, utilizing Nvidia Optimus to switch between the two GPUs as required. Notable exceptions are the W500, which has ATI FireGL integrated workstation-class graphics, and the W550s, which is an Ultrabook-specification laptop with only a dual-core processor. The W-series laptops offer ISV certifications from various vendors such as Adobe Systems and Autodesk for CAD and 3D modeling software.
The ThinkPad W series has been discontinued and replaced by the P series mobile workstations.
Edge Series (2010)
The Edge Series was released early in 2010 as small business and consumer-end machines. The design was a radical departure compared to the traditional black boxy ThinkPad design, with glossy surfaces (optional matte finish on later models), rounded corners, and silver trim. They were also offered in red, a first for the traditionally black ThinkPads. Like the SL, this series was targeted towards small businesses and consumers, and lack the roll cage, UltraBay, lid latch, and ThinkLight of traditional ThinkPads (though the 2011 E220s and E420s had ThinkLights). This also introduced an island-style keyboard with a significantly different layout.
Models included 13.3" (Edge 13), 14" (Edge 14), and 15.6" (Edge 15) sizes. An 11.6" (Edge 11) model was offered, but not available in the United States. The latest models of E series can be offered with Edge branding, but this naming is optional and uncommon.
S Series (2012–2014)
The S Series is positioned as a mid-range ThinkPad offering, containing ultrabooks derived from the Edge Series. As of August 2013, the S Series includes S531 and S440 models; their cases are made of aluminum and magnesium alloy, available in silver and gunmetal colors.
ThinkPad Twist (2012)
The Lenovo ThinkPad Twist (S230u) is a laptop/tablet computer hybrid aimed at high-end users. The Twist gets its name from its screen's ability to twist in a manner that converts the device into a tablet. The Twist has a 12.5" screen and makes use of Intel's Core i7 processor and SSD technology in lieu of a hard drive.
In a review for Engadget Dana Wollman wrote, "Lately, we feel like all of our reviews of Windows 8 convertibles end the same way. The ThinkPad Twist has plenty going for it: a bright IPS display, a good port selection, an affordable price and an unrivaled typing experience. Like ThinkPads past, it also offers some useful software features for businesses lacking dedicated IT departments. All good things, but what's a road warrior to do when the battery barely lasts four hours? Something tells us the Twist will still appeal to Lenovo loyalists, folks who trust ThinkPad's build quality and wouldn't be caught dead using any other keyboard. If you're more brand-agnostic, though, there are other Windows 8 convertibles with comfortable keyboards – not to mention, sharper screens, faster performance and longer battery life."
ThinkPad Helix (2013–2015)
The Helix is a convertible laptop satisfying both tablet and conventional notebook users. It uses a "rip and flip" design that allows the user to detach the display and then replace it facing in a different direction. It sports an 11.6" Full HD (1920 × 1080) display, with support for Windows 8 multi-touch. As all essential processing hardware is contained in the display assembly and it has multitouch capability, the detached monitor can be used as a standalone tablet computer. The Helix's high-end hardware and build quality, including Gorilla Glass, stylus-based input, and Intel vPro hardware-based security features, are designed to appeal to business users.
In a review published in Forbes Jason Evangelho wrote, "The first laptop I owned was a ThinkPad T20, and the next one may very likely be the ThinkPad Helix which Lenovo unveiled at CES 2013. In a sea of touch-inspired Windows 8 hardware, it's the first ultrabook convertible with a form factor that gets everything right. The first batch of Windows 8 ultrabooks get high marks for their inspired designs, but aren't quite flexible enough to truly be BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) solutions. Lenovo's own IdeaPad Yoga came close, but the sensation of feeling the keyboard underneath your fingers when transformed into tablet mode was slightly jarring. Dell's XPS 12 solved that problem with its clever rotating hinge design, but I wanted the ability to remove the tablet display entirely from both of those products."
ThinkPad 13 (2016–2017)
The ThinkPad 13 (Also known as the Thinkpad S2 in Mainland China) is a "budget" model with a 13-inch screen. Versions running Windows 10 and Google's Chrome OS were options. The most powerful configuration had a Skylake Core i7 processor and a 512GB SSD. Connectivity includes HDMI, USB 3.0, OneLink+, USB Type-C, etc. It weighs and is thick. As of 2017, a second generation Ultrabook model has been released with up to a Kaby Lake Core i7 processor and a FHD touchscreen available in certain countries. This lineup was merged into the L-Series in 2018, with the L380 being the successor to the 13 Second Generation.
25th anniversary Retro ThinkPad (2017)
Lenovo released the 25th anniversary Retro ThinkPad 25 in October 2017. The model is based on the T470, the difference being it having the 7-Row "Classic" keyboard with the layout found on the −20 Series, and the logo received a splash of colour reminiscent of the IBM era. The last ThinkPad models with the 7-row keyboard were introduced in 2011.
A Series (2017–2018)
In September 2017, Lenovo announced two ThinkPad models featuring AMD's PRO chipset technology – the A275 and A475. This sees the revival of the A Series nameplate not seen since the early 2000s when ThinkPads were under IBM's ownership, however it is likely the "A" moniker emphasised that it uses AMD technology rather than comparative product segment (workstation class) of the previous line.
While this isn't the first time Lenovo had offered an AMD derived ThinkPad, it is the first to be released as an alternative premium offering to the established T Series and X Series ThinkPads, which use Intel chipsets instead.
A275 and A475The A275 is a 12.5" ultraportable based on the Intel derived X270 model. Weighing in at 2.9 pounds (1.31 kg) this model features AMD Carrizo or Bristol Ridge APU's, AMD Radeon R7 graphics and AMD DASH (Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware) for enterprise computing.
The A475 is a 14" mainstream portable computer based on the Intel derived T470 model. Weighing at 3.48 pounds (1.57 kg), like the A275 it features AMD Carrizo or Bristol Ridge APU's, AMD Radeon R7 graphics and AMD DASH (Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware) for enterprise computing.
A285 and A485The A285 is a 12.5" laptop which is an upgraded version of the A275. Weighing in at , this model utilizes an AMD Raven Ridge APU with integrated Vega graphics, specifically the Ryzen 5 Pro 2500U. The laptop also contains a Discrete Trusted Platform Module (dTPM) for data encryption and password protection, supporting TPM 2.0. Optional security features include a fingerprint scanner and smart card reader. The display's native resolution can be either or depending on the configuration.
The A485 is a 14" laptop which is an upgraded version of the A475. Weighing , this model utilizes AMD's Raven Ridge APU's with integrated Vega graphics. This model can use multiple models of Raven Ridge APU's, unlike the A285. The laptop also contains a Discrete Trusted Platform Module (dTPM) for data encryption and password protection, supporting TPM 2.0. Optional security features include a fingerprint scanner and smart card reader. The display's native resolution can be either or depending on the configuration.
Rivals of ThinkPad
There are a lot of companies producing similar laptops to Lenovo/IBM ThinkPads, targeting the same market audience. These laptops often offer similar features to ThinkPad computers like a pointing stick or active hard drive protection. The ThinkPad series' main rivals have been Dell Latitude and HP EliteBook laptops for a long while.
Dell:
Dell Latitude 7xxx: Rivals ThinkPad T and X series
Dell Latitude 5xxx: Rivals ThinkPad L and E series
Dell Latitude 3xxx: Rivals ThinkPad E series
Dell Vostro 3xxx: Rivals ThinkPad E series
Dell XPS 9xxx: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad X1 series
Dell Precision 7xxx: Rivals ThinkPad P1 series
HP:
HP EliteBook 6xx: Rivals ThinkPad L series
HP EliteBook 8xx: Rivals ThinkPad T and X series
HP EliteBook 1040: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Carbon
HP Elite Dragonfly: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Nano
HP ZBook Firefly: Rivals ThinkPad P14, P15 and T15p
HP ZBook Power: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad P15 and P1
HP ZBook Studio: Rivals ThinkPad P1
HP ZBook Fury: Rivals ThinkPad P15
HP ProBook 4xx and 6xx: Rivals ThinkPad L and E series
Acer:
Acer TravelMate P6: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Carbon
Acer TravelMate P4: Rivals ThinkPad T14 and T14s
Acer TravelMate P2: Rivals ThinkPad L series
Acer TravelMate Spin B3: Rivals ThinkPad 11e Yoga
Acer Swift 7: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad X1 Nano
Fujitsu:
Fujitsu LifeBook U9xxx: Rivals ThinkPad X1 series
Fujitsu LifeBook U7xxx: Rivals ThinkPad T and X series
Fujitsu LifeBook U5xxx: Rivals ThinkPad L series
Fujitsu LifeBook U3xxx: Rivals ThinkPad E series
Dynabook (formerly Toshiba):
Dynabook Portégé: Rivals ThinkPad X series
Dynabook Tecra Xxx: Rivals ThinkPad T series
VAIO (formerly made by Sony):
VAIO Z: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Carbon and T14s
VAIO SX: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad L13
Apple:
Apple MacBook Pro: Indirectly rivals Thinkpad X1 Extreme, X1 Carbon, Z series and T14s
Apple MacBook Air: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad Z series, X1 Nano and X1 Carbon
Asus:
ASUSPRO Pxxx: Rivals ThinkPad T series
Asus Zenbook: Rivals ThinkPad X1 series
Asus ExpertBook: Rivals ThinkPad L and E series
Microsoft:
Microsoft Surface Pro: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Tablet
Microsoft Surface Laptop: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad X1 Carbon and X1 Nano
Huawei:
Huawei MateBook X Pro: Rivals ThinkPad X1 Carbon
Huawei MateBook X: Indirectly rivals ThinkPad X1 Nano
See also
ThinkBook
IBM/Lenovo ThinkCentre and ThinkStation desktops
List of IBM products
HP EliteBook
Dell Latitude and Precision
Fujitsu Lifebook and Celsius
Acer TravelMate
References
External links
ThinkPad models on ThinkWiki
Withdrawn models Specs Books
Think
Think
Consumer electronics brands
Computer-related introductions in 1992
Products introduced in 1992
2005 mergers and acquisitions
Divested IBM products | [
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] |
238782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonea | Nonea | Nonea is a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae. Sometimes known as monkswort, these are herbaceous perennials or annual plants, native to Europe, Asia and Africa.
The leaves are grayish-green, and the plants are hairy all over.
Species
Nonea includes 45 accepted species.
Nonea alpestris G.Don
Nonea anchusoides Boiss. & Buhse
Nonea anomala Hausskn. & Bornm.
Nonea armeniaca (Kusn.) Grossh.
Nonea calceolaris Nikif. & Pazij
Nonea calycina (Roem. & Schult.) Selvi, Bigazzi, Hilger & Papini
Nonea caspica (Willd.) G.Don
Nonea decurrens G.Don
Nonea dumanii Bilgili & Selvi
Nonea echioides (L.) Roem. & Schult.
Nonea edgeworthii DC.
Nonea flavescens (C.A.Mey.) Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
Nonea heterostemon Murb.
Nonea hypoleia Bornm.
Nonea intermedia Ledeb.
Nonea iranica Falat. & Pakravan
Nonea kandaharensis Riedl
Nonea karsensis Popov
Nonea longiflora Wettst.
Nonea lutea Desr.) DC.
Nonea macrantha (Riedl) A.Baytop
Nonea macropoda Popov
Nonea macrosperma Boiss. & Heldr.
Nonea melanocarpa Boiss.
Nonea micrantha Boiss. & Reut.
Nonea minutiflora Riedl
Nonea monticola (Rech.f.) Selvi & Bigazzi
Nonea ovczinnikovii Czukav.
Nonea pallens Petrovic
Nonea palmyrensis (Post) Sam.
Nonea persica Boiss.
Nonea philistaea Boiss.
Nonea pisidica Selvi, Bigazzi & Hilger
Nonea polychroma Selvi & Bigazzi
Nonea × popovii Gusul. & Tarn.
Nonea pulla (L.) DC.
Nonea pulmonarioides Boiss. & Balansa
Nonea rosea (M.Bieb.) Link
Nonea rossica Steven
Nonea setosa Roem. & Schult.
Nonea stenosolen Boiss. & Balansa
Nonea taurica Ledeb.
Nonea turcomanica Popov
Nonea versicolor (Steven) Sweet
Nonea vesicaria (L.) Rchb.
Nonea vivianii DC.
References
External links
Nonea info and pictures
Boraginoideae
Boraginaceae genera | [
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238788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy%20Davis | Judy Davis | Judith Davis (born 23 April 1955) is an Australian actress known for her work in film, television and stage. With a career spanning over 40 years, she is commended for her versatility and regarded as one of the finest actresses of her generation with frequent collaborator Woody Allen describing her as "one of the most exciting actresses in the world". She is the recipient of numerous accolades, including nine AACTA Awards, three Primetime Emmy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards.
Davis is a 1977 graduate of the National Institute of Dramatic Art, where she starred opposite Mel Gibson in Romeo and Juliet. Most of Davis's stage work has been in Australia, including Visions (1979), Piaf (1980), Miss Julie (1983), King Lear (1984), Hedda Gabler (1986), Victory (2004) and The Seagull (2011), but she also starred in the 1982 London production of Insignificance, for which she was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress, and the 1989 Los Angeles production of Hapgood. She returned to the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 2017 to direct the play Love and Money.
She has won British Academy Film Awards for both Best Actress and Most Promising Newcomer for the film My Brilliant Career (1979), two Australian Film Institute Awards as Best Actress for Winter of Our Dreams (1981) and Supporting Actress for Hoodwink (1981), and later received Academy Award nominations for A Passage to India (1984) and Husbands and Wives (1992). This made her the first Australian to receive nominations in both categories and the fourth Australian actress to receive an Academy Award nomination. Her other film roles include High Rolling (1977), Who Dares Wins (1982), Heatwave (1983), High Tide (1987), Georgia (1988), Alice (1990), George Sand in Impromptu (1991), Barton Fink (1991), Dark Blood (1993), Absolute Power (1997), Deconstructing Harry (1997), Celebrity (1998), The Man Who Sued God (2001), The Break-up (2006), Anne d'Arpajon in Marie Antoinette (2006), The Eye of the Storm (2011), To Rome with Love (2012), The Young and Prodigious T.S. Spivet (2013) and The Dressmaker (2015).
For her work on television, Davis won Primetime Emmy Awards for Serving in Silence: The Margarethe Cammermeyer Story (1995), for playing Judy Garland in Life with Judy Garland: Me and My Shadows (2001) and The Starter Wife (2007) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film for Life with Judy Garland: Me and My Shadows and One Against the Wind (1991). Other television roles include Water Under the Bridge (1980), A Woman Called Golda (1982), A Cooler Climate (1999), Nancy Reagan in The Reagans (2003), Coast to Coast (2003), Sante Kimes in A Little Thing Called Murder (2006), Page Eight (2011), Hedda Hopper in Feud: Bette and Joan (2017), Mystery Road (2018) and Ratched (2020).
Early and personal life
Davis was born in Perth, Western Australia in the suburb of Floreat Park and had a strict Catholic upbringing. She was educated at Loreto Convent and the Western Australian Institute of Technology and graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA), Sydney in 1977.
She has been married to actor and fellow NIDA graduate Colin Friels since 1984; they have two children, a son Jack and daughter Charlotte. Their relationship was briefly in the media when an argument led to a domestic violence court order against Friels – however, they remained together. They live in the Sydney suburb of Birchgrove, New South Wales.
Career
Rise to prominence (1979–1989)
After making her feature film debut in the buddy comedy High Rolling (1977), Davis first came to prominence for her role as Sybylla Melvyn in the coming-of-age saga My Brilliant Career (1979), for which she won BAFTA Awards for Best Actress and Best Newcomer. Davis was particularly praised for her performance; Janet Maslin of The New York Times admired her for bringing "an unconventional vigor to every scene she's in, even in a film that's as consistently animated as this one", while Luke Buckmaster, writing for The Guardian in 2014, commented that Davis gave "a rousing performance as bull-headed protagonist Sybylla Melvyn. The term "once in a lifetime" tends to be slapped around like a bumper sticker, but this meaty role lives up to the accolade." Her success continued with lead roles in the Australian New Wave films Winter of Our Dreams (1981), as a waif-like heroin addict; the drama Heatwave (1982), as a radical Sydney tenant organizer; and the thriller Hoodwink (1981), as a sexually-repressed clergyman's wife. Of her performance in Winter of Our Dreams, Roger Ebert wrote that: "Davis brought a kind of wiry, feisty intelligence to My Brilliant Career, playing an Australian farm woman who rather felt she would do things her own way. She's wonderful again this time, in a completely different role as an insecure, distrustful, skinny street waif. [She] performs her movement magnificently.
Her international film career began when she played the younger version of Ingrid Bergman's Golda Meir in the television docudrama A Woman Called Golda (1981), for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress – Miniseries or a Movie nomination. She then played a terrorist in the British film Who Dares Wins (1982).
She was cast as Adela Quested in David Lean's final film A Passage to India (1984), an adaptation of E. M. Forster's novel, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Variety praised Davis for having "the rare gift of being able to look very plain (as the role calls for) at one moment and uncommonly beautiful at another. Likewise, The Washington Post wrote, "With makeup the color of smudged ivory, her pallor enhanced by the off-white linens she wears, Davis is daringly unattractive for a leading lady; that plainness is emphasized in the book. Davis' neuroticism, her way of twitching and thrusting her jaw and looking up hungrily beneath the brim of her straw hat, brings to life the ravenous sexuality beneath Miss Quested's decorous exterior."
She returned to Australian cinema for her next two films, Kangaroo (1987), as a German-born writer's wife, and High Tide (also 1987), as a foot-loose mother attempting to reunite with her teenage daughter who is being raised by the paternal grandmother. Her performance in the latter won her glowing praise. Pauline Kael called Davis "a genius at moods" and wrote, "As one of three backup singers for a touring Elvis imitator, Judy Davis is contemptuous of the cruddy act, contemptuous of herself. The film's emotional suggestiveness makes it almost a primal woman's picture: Judy Davis has been compared with Jeanne Moreau, and that's apt, but she's Moreau without the cultural swank, the high-fashion gloss. She speaks to us more directly." She won additional Australian Film Institute Awards for both roles, and a National Society of Film Critics award for High Tides brief American theatrical run. Her final film of the decade, the Australian thriller Georgia (1988), saw her play dual roles, a mother, Georgia, and her daughter Nina. For her performance, Davis earned another Australian Film Institute nomination for Best Actress.
Established actress (1990–1999)
Davis had a cameo in Woody Allen's Alice (1990), her first appearance in an Allen-directed film. The following year, she was featured in Joel Coen's Barton Fink, which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, and in David Cronenberg's adaptation of the hallucinogenic novel Naked Lunch. She returned to E.M. Forster territory in Where Angels Fear to Tread and won an Independent Spirit Award for her work as mannish woman author George Sand in Impromptu, a romantic period drama with Hugh Grant as her consumptive lover, Frédéric Chopin. Davis was especially lauded for her performance as Sand, and Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote, "Judy Davis makes her entrances as if she were straddling a cyclone. She doesn't just walk in, she blows in on a torrent of extravagant self-assurance and wild temperament. Sand, who's the locus of this blissfully high-spirited romp about the circle of writers and musicians in 1830s Paris, never does anything halfway; her life is an experiment in full-throttle, passionate immersion, and that's why Davis is the ideal actress for the part. She's the most atmospheric of actors, perhaps the only one around capable of streaking the screen with lightning." She earned an Emmy nomination and her first Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film for her portrayal of a real-life Second World War heroine Mary Lindell in the CBS Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation One Against the Wind. Adrian Turner of Radio Times noted of her, "Judy Davis, one of the greatest and least "starry" actresses around, plays Lindell and shows the same sensitivity that she brought to her role in A Passage to India."
Cast in Woody Allen's Husbands and Wives (1992), Davis performed the major role of Sally Simmons, one half of a divorcing couple. Husbands and Wives was well received, and Davis's performance drew high praise. Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "Sally must be one of the most endearingly impossible characters Mr. Allen has ever written, and Ms. Davis nearly purloins the film" and Todd McCarthy of Variety thought Davis had revealed "a whole new side to her personality that has never surfaced onscreen before." For this performance, she earned both Oscar and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress.
She next co-starred with Kevin Spacey in the comedy film The Ref (1994), portraying a married couple whose relationship is on the rocks, with Denis Leary playing a thief who counsels their marriage. Roger Ebert called Davis "naturally verbal" and praised her for being able to "develop a manic counterpoint" in her arguments with Spacey "that elevates them to a sort of art form." Similarly, Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers found Davis "combustibly funny, finding nuance even in nonsense." Considered "one of the fiercest film actors around", Davis' other roles have included the mysterious, schizophrenic mother of a teenager in boarding school in On My Own (1993), the lifelong Australian Communist Party member reacting to the downfall of the Soviet Union in Children of the Revolution (1996), two more Allen films, Deconstructing Harry (1997) and Celebrity (1998) and a highly-strung White House chief of staff in Absolute Power (1997). After appearing in Celebrity, The Guardian newspaper wrote that Davis "in recent years has succeeded Diane Keaton and Mia Farrow as Allen's misfit muse."
Much of her work in the late nineties was for television, gaining a collection of Emmy Award nominations. She won her first Emmy for portraying the woman who gently coaxes a rigid military woman, Glenn Close, out of the closet in Serving in Silence: The Margarethe Cammermeyer Story, with subsequent nominations for her repressed Australian outback mother in The Echo of Thunder (1998), her portrayal of Lillian Hellman in Dash and Lilly (1999) and her frigid society matron in A Cooler Climate (1999).
Later work (2000–present)
Davis earned a second Emmy for her portrayal of Judy Garland in the television biographical film Life with Judy Garland: Me and My Shadows (2001). In 2003, she earned another Emmy nomination for her interpretation of Nancy Reagan in the controversial biopic The Reagans. In July 2006, she received her ninth Emmy nomination for her performance in the television film A Little Thing Called Murder. Her tenth nomination came in 2007 for Outstanding Supporting Actress in the U.S. miniseries The Starter Wife for which she was awarded the Emmy. In August 2007, she appeared opposite Sam Waterston in an episode of ABC's anthology series Masters of Science Fiction. She appeared on the TV mini-series Diamonds from 2008–2009.
In film, she continued to earn good notices for her supporting roles in Swimming Upstream (2003), as a working-class mother, and in the films The Break-Up (2006) and Marie-Antoinette. Davis appeared as Jill Tankard in a television drama film, Page Eight (2011), for which she was nominated for an Emmy. She played Dorothy de Lascabanes in The Eye of the Storm (2011), an adaptation of Patrick White's novel of the same title, for which she won the Australian Film Institute Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. She also had a major role as Woody Allen's psychiatrist wife in his To Rome with Love.
Davis co-starred with Helena Bonham Carter and Callum Keith Rennie in The Young and Prodigious T.S. Spivet (2013). She reprised her role of Jill Tankard in Salting the Battlefield (2014) and costarred with Kate Winslet in The Dressmaker (2015), for which she won an AACTA Award for Best Supporting Actress. Although the film received mixed reviews, Davis's supporting performance was lauded by critics: Richard Ouzounian of the Toronto Star called her "sublime" and Justin Chang of Variety wrote, "Davis, whose performance here as a booze-swilling, dementia-addled and infernally sharp-tongued old matriarch is enough of a hoot to make one further wonder what she might have done with the role of Violet Weston in August: Osage County, onscreen or onstage."
In 2017, Davis received a Primetime Emmy nomination for her supporting performance as gossip columnist Hedda Hopper in Ryan Murphy's anthology television series Feud. The following year, Davis co-starred with Aaron Pederson in the six-part ABC TV Series, Mystery Road. Davis's performance as the local police sergeant was praised, and The New York Times wrote, "The thing that really sets Mystery Road apart is the actress who signed on to play the outback sergeant Emma James: the great Judy Davis, playing a police officer for the first time in her career and starring in an Australian TV series for the first time in nearly 40 years. Ms. Davis is so firmly identified in the American mind with intense, often neurotic city-dwelling characters that it takes an episode or two to get used to her climbing in and out of a police car in the dusty, empty landscapes, wearing a baggy blue uniform that swallows her tiny frame. It seems at first as if she might not be right for the part, but eventually you see that she's perfect. James is a formidable woman stuck in the middle of nowhere because of the bonds of family and history, and Ms. Davis's preternatural intelligence and tightly capped energy serve her well."
In January 2019, it was announced that Davis will star in the Netflix drama series Ratched.
Stage
Davis's stage work has been mostly confined to Australia. Early in her career, she played Juliet opposite Mel Gibson's Romeo. In 1978, she appeared in Visions by Louis Nowra at the Paris Theatre Company in Sydney. In 1980, she portrayed French chanteuse Edith Piaf in Stephen Barry's production of the Pam Gems play Piaf at the Perth Playhouse. She played both Cordelia and the Fool in a 1984 staging of King Lear by the Nimrod Theatre Company, and also starred in its productions of Strindberg's Miss Julie, Chekhov's The Bear, Louis Nowra's Inside The Island and, in 1986, the title role of Ibsen's Hedda Gabler for the Sydney Theatre Company.
In 2004, she starred in and co-directed Howard Barker's play Victory, as a Puritan woman determined to locate her husband's dismembered corpse. Other stage directorial efforts include Sheridan's The School For Scandal and Barrymore by William Luce (all three for the Sydney Theatre Company). She created the role of The Actress in Terry Johnson's Insignificance at the Royal Court in London, receiving an Olivier Award nomination, and appeared in a brief 1989 Los Angeles production of Tom Stoppard's Hapgood. Writing for Philadelphia magazine, David Fox found her "marvelous in the title role, as charismatic and commanding on stage as she is in film."
In 2011, she portrayed the role of fading actress Irina Arkadina in Anton Chekhov's The Seagull at Sydney's Belvoir St Theatre. Paul Chai of Variety praised her performance as Irina, writing, "Davis manages to instill Irina with not only a diva's haughty air and crafty manipulation but also with the right hint of fragility, as evidenced in her concern about being upstaged by the youthful and beautiful Nina."
Filmography
Accolades
References
External links
Judy Davis in The Encyclopedia of Women and Leadership in the Twentieth Century
1955 births
Living people
20th-century Australian actresses
21st-century Australian actresses
Actresses from Perth, Western Australia
Australian film actresses
Australian stage actresses
Australian television actresses
Australian theatre directors
BAFTA Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles winners
Best Actress AACTA Award winners
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners
Best Supporting Actress AACTA Award winners
Curtin University alumni
National Institute of Dramatic Art alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners | [
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238789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantism | Gigantism | Gigantism (, gígas, "giant", plural γίγαντες, gígantes), also known as giantism, is a condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average. In humans, this condition is caused by over-production of growth hormone in childhood, resulting in people in height.
It is a rare disorder resulting from increased levels of growth hormone before the fusion of the growth plate which usually occurs at some point soon after puberty. This increase is most often due to abnormal tumor growths on the pituitary gland. Gigantism should not be confused with acromegaly, the adult form of the disorder, characterized by somatic enlargement specifically in the extremities and face.
Cause
Gigantism is characterized by an excess of growth hormone (GH). The excess of growth hormone that brings about gigantism is virtually always caused by pituitary growths (adenomas). These adenomas are on the anterior pituitary gland. They can also cause overproduction of GH's hypothalamic precursor known as growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH).
As a result of the excessive amounts of growth hormone, children achieve heights that are well above normal ranges. The specific age of onset for gigantism varies between patients and gender, but the common age that excessive growth symptoms start to appear has been found to be around 13 years. Other health complications, such as hypertension, may occur in pediatric patients with hyper-secretion of growth hormone. Characteristics more similar to those seen in acromegaly may occur in patients that are closer in age to adolescence since they are nearing growth plate fusion.
Hormonal cause
Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) are two substances that have been identified as influencing growth plate formation and bone growth and, therefore, gigantism. Their specific mechanisms are still not well understood.
More broadly, GH and IGF have both been identified to be involved in most stages of growth: embryonic, prenatal, and postnatal. Moreover, the receptor gene for IGF has been shown to be particularly influential throughout various stages of development, especially prenatally. This is the same for GH receptor genes which have been known to drive overall growth throughout various pathways.
Growth hormone is a precursor (upstream) of IGF-I, but each has its independent role in hormonal pathways. Yet both seem to ultimately come together to have a joint effect on growth.
Diagnostic testing
Evaluation of growth hormone hyper-secretion cannot be excluded with a single normal GH level due to diurnal variation. However, a random blood sample showing markedly elevated GH is adequate for diagnosis of GH hyper-secretion. Additionally, a high-normal GH level that fails to suppress with administration of glucose is also sufficient for a diagnosis of GH hyper-secretion.
Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is an excellent test for evaluation of GH hyper-secretion. It does not undergo diurnal variation and will thus be consistently elevated in GH hyper-secretion and therefore patients with gigantism. A single normal IGF-1 value will reliably exclude GH hyper-secretion.
Genetic
Finding a specific genetic cause for gigantism has proven to be difficult. Gigantism is the primary example of growth hormone hyper-secretion disorders, a group of illnesses that are not yet deeply understood.
Some common mutations have been associated with gigantism. Pediatric gigantism patients have shown to have duplications of genes on a specific chromosome, Xq26. Typically, these patients also experienced an onset of typical gigantism symptoms before reaching the age of 5. This indicates a possible linkage between gene duplications and the gigantism.
Additionally, DNA mutations in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein (AIP) gene are common in gigantism patients. They have been found to be present in about 29 percent of patients with gigantism. AIP is labeled as a tumor suppressor gene and a pituitary adenoma disposition gene.
Mutations in AIP sequencing can have deleterious effects by inducing the development of pituitary adenomas which in turn can cause gigantism.
Two specific mutations in the AIP gene have been identified as possible causes of pituitary adenomas. These mutations also have the ability to cause adenoma growth to occur early in life. This is typical in gigantism.
Additionally, a large variety of other known genetic disorders have been found to influence the development of gigantism such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and 4, McCune-Albright syndrome, Carney complex, familial isolated pituitary adenoma, X-linked acrogigantism (X-LAG).
Although various gene mutations have been associated with gigantism, over 50 percent of cases cannot be linked to genetic causes, showing the complex nature of the disorder.
Treatment
Many treatments for gigantism receive criticism and are not accepted as ideal. Various treatments involving surgery and drugs have been used to treat gigantism.
Pharmaceuticals
Pegvisomant is one pharmaceutical drug which has received attention for being a possible treatment route for gigantism. Reduction of the levels of IGF-I as a result of pegvisomant administration can be incredibly beneficial for the pediatric gigantism patients.
After treatment with pegvisomant, high growth rates, a feature characteristic of gigantism, can be significantly decreased. Pegvisomant has been seen to be a powerful alternative to other treatments such as somatostatin analogues, a common treatment method for acromegaly, if drug treatment is paired with radiation.
Finding the optimal level of pegvisomant is important so normal body growth is not negatively affected. In order to do this, titration of the medication can be used as a way to find the proper administration level.
See acromegaly for additional treatment possibilities.
Terminology
The term is typically applied to those whose height is not just in the upper 1% of the population but several standard deviations above mean for persons of the same sex, age, and ethnic ancestry. The term is seldom applied to those who are simply "tall" or "above average" whose heights appear to be the healthy result of normal genetics and nutrition. Gigantism is usually caused by a tumor on the pituitary gland of the brain. It causes growth of the hands, face, and feet. In some cases the condition can be passed on genetically through a mutated gene.
Other names somewhat obsolete for this pathology are hypersoma (Greek: hyper over the normal level; soma body) and somatomegaly (Greek; soma body, genitive somatos of the body; megas, gen. megalou great). In the past, while many of them were social outcasts because of their height, some (usually unintentionally) found employment in Friedrich Wilhelm I's famous Potsdam Giants regiment.
Many of those who have been identified with gigantism have suffered from multiple health problems involving the circulatory or skeletal system, as the strain of maintaining a large, heavy body places abnormal demands on both the bones and the heart.
Society and culture
Reports of gigantism exist throughout history, with some nations and tribes taller than others. The giants of Crete are listed in various historic sources, beginning with Titan, a Greek mythological giant, and including Gigantus, after whom giants and gigantism are named. Rhodes is another island where giants were said to have lived, with the Colossus of Rhodes, a giant statue of a giant patron god Helios. Goliath, a giant mentioned in the Bible, was a Philistine warrior who was killed by David in the war between the Israelites and the Philistines. A member of Goliath's family is also described as having six digits on each hand and each foot.
See also
References
External links
Gigantism Clinical Trials from U.S. National Institutes of Health
Gigantism information from U.S. National Library of Medicine, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & the National Institutes of Health
Epidemiology of acromegaly from Pubmed.gov US National Library of Medicine & National Institutes of Health
Growth disorders
Human height
Growth hormones
Neuroendocrinology
Rare diseases | [
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238790 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylene%20blue | Methylene blue | Methylthioninium chloride, commonly called methylene blue, is a salt used as a dye and as a medication. Methylene blue is a thiazine dye. It works by converting the ferric iron in hemoglobin to ferrous iron. As a medication, it is mainly used to treat methemoglobinemia. Specifically, it is used to treat methemoglobin levels that are greater than 30% or in which there are symptoms despite oxygen therapy. It has previously been used for cyanide poisoning and urinary tract infections, but this use is no longer recommended.
Methylene blue is typically given by injection into a vein. Common side effects include headache, vomiting, confusion, shortness of breath, and high blood pressure. Other side effects include serotonin syndrome, red blood cell breakdown, and allergic reactions. Use often turns the urine, sweat, and stool blue to green in color. While use during pregnancy may harm the baby, not using it in methemoglobinemia is likely more dangerous.
Methylene blue was first prepared in 1876, by Heinrich Caro. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Medical uses
Methemoglobinemia
Methylene blue is employed as a medication for the treatment of methemoglobinemia, which can arise from ingestion of certain pharmaceuticals, toxins, or broad beans. Normally, through the NADH or NADPH dependent methemoglobin reductase enzymes, methemoglobin is reduced back to hemoglobin. When large amounts of methemoglobin occur secondary to toxins, methemoglobin reductases are overwhelmed. Methylene blue, when injected intravenously as an antidote, is itself first reduced to leucomethylene blue, which then reduces the heme group from methemoglobin to hemoglobin. Methylene blue can reduce the half life of methemoglobin from hours to minutes. At high doses, however, methylene blue actually induces methemoglobinemia, reversing this pathway.
Methylphen
Cyanide poisoning
Since its reduction potential is similar to that of oxygen and can be reduced by components of the electron transport chain, large doses of methylene blue are sometimes used as an antidote to potassium cyanide poisoning, a method first successfully tested in 1933 by Dr. Matilda Moldenhauer Brooks in San Francisco, although first demonstrated by Bo Sahlin of Lund University, in 1926.
Dye or stain
Methylene blue is used in endoscopic polypectomy as an adjunct to saline or epinephrine, and is used for injection into the submucosa around the polyp to be removed. This allows the submucosal tissue plane to be identified after the polyp is removed, which is useful in determining if more tissue needs to be removed, or if there has been a high risk for perforation. Methylene blue is also used as a dye in chromoendoscopy, and is sprayed onto the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract in order to identify dysplasia, or pre-cancerous lesions. Intravenously injected methylene blue is readily released into the urine and thus can be used to test the urinary tract for leaks or fistulas.
In surgeries such as sentinel lymph node dissections, methylene blue can be used to visually trace the lymphatic drainage of tested tissues. Similarly, methylene blue is added to bone cement in orthopedic operations to provide easy discrimination between native bone and cement. Additionally, methylene blue accelerates the hardening of bone cement, increasing the speed at which bone cement can be effectively applied. Methylene blue is used as an aid to visualisation/orientation in a number of medical devices, including a Surgical sealant film, TissuePatch. In fistulas and pilonidal sinuses it is used to identify the tract for complete excision. It can also be used during gastrointestinal surgeries (such as bowel resection or gastric bypass) to test for leaks.
When methylene blue is "polychromed" (oxidized in solution or "ripened" by fungal metabolism, as originally noted in the thesis of Dr. D. L. Romanowsky in the 1890s), it gets serially demethylated and forms all the tri-, di-, mono- and non-methyl intermediates, which are Azure B, Azure A, Azure C, and thionine, respectively. This is the basis of the basophilic part of the spectrum of Romanowski-Giemsa effect. If only synthetic Azure B and Eosin Y is used, it may serve as a standardized Giemsa stain; but, without methylene blue, the normal neutrophilic granules tend to overstain and look like toxic granules. On the other hand, if methylene blue is used it might help to give the normal look of neutrophil granules and may also enhance the staining of nucleoli and polychromatophilic RBCs (reticulocytes).
A traditional application of methylene blue is the intravital or supravital staining of nerve fibers, an effect first described by Paul Ehrlich in 1887. A dilute solution of the dye is either injected into tissue or applied to small freshly removed pieces. The selective blue coloration develops with exposure to air (oxygen) and can be fixed by immersion of the stained specimen in an aqueous solution of ammonium molybdate. Vital methylene blue was formerly much used for examining the innervation of muscle, skin and internal organs. The mechanism of selective dye uptake is incompletely understood; vital staining of nerve fibers in skin is prevented by ouabain, a drug that inhibits the Na/K-ATPase of cell membranes.
Placebo
Methylene blue has been used as a placebo; physicians would tell their patients to expect their urine to change color and view this as a sign that their condition had improved. This same side effect makes methylene blue difficult to test in traditional placebo-controlled clinical studies.
Ifosfamide toxicity
Another use of methylene blue is to treat ifosfamide neurotoxicity. Methylene blue was first reported for treatment and prophylaxis of ifosfamide neuropsychiatric toxicity in 1994. A toxic metabolite of ifosfamide, chloroacetaldehyde (CAA), disrupts the mitochondrial respiratory chain, leading to an accumulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen (NADH). Methylene blue acts as an alternative electron acceptor, and reverses the NADH inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis while also inhibiting the transformation of chloroethylamine into chloroacetaldehyde, and inhibits multiple amine oxidase activities, preventing the formation of CAA. The dosing of methylene blue for treatment of ifosfamide neurotoxicity varies, depending upon its use simultaneously as an adjuvant in ifosfamide infusion, versus its use to reverse psychiatric symptoms that manifest after completion of an ifosfamide infusion. Reports suggest that methylene blue up to six doses a day have resulted in improvement of symptoms within 10 minutes to several days. Alternatively, it has been suggested that intravenous methylene blue every six hours for prophylaxis during ifosfamide treatment in people with history of ifosfamide neuropsychiatric toxicity. Prophylactic administration of methylene blue the day before initiation of ifosfamide, and three times daily during ifosfamide chemotherapy has been recommended to lower the occurrence of ifosfamide neurotoxicity.
Shock
It has also been used in septic shock and anaphylaxis.
Methylene blue consistently increases blood pressure in people with vasoplegic syndrome (redistributive shock), but has not been shown to improve delivery of oxygen to tissues or to decrease mortality.
Methylene blue has been used in Calcium Channel Blocker toxicity as a rescue therapy for distributive shock unresponsive to first line agents. Evidence for its use in this circumstance is very poor and limited to a handful of case reports.
Side effects
Methylene blue is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), and if infused intravenously at doses exceeding 5 mg/kg, may precipitate serious serotonin toxicity, serotonin syndrome, if combined with any selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or other serotonin reuptake inhibitor (e.g., duloxetine, sibutramine, venlafaxine, clomipramine, imipramine).
It causes hemolytic anemia in carriers of the G6PD (favism) enzymatic deficiency.
Chemistry
Methylene blue is a formal derivative of phenothiazine. It is a dark green powder that yields a blue solution in water. The hydrated form has 3 molecules of water per unit of methylene blue. Methylene blue has a pH of 6 in water(10g/l) at 25 °C (77 °F).
Preparation
This compound is prepared by oxidation of dimethyl-4-phenylenediamine in the presence of sodium thiosulfate:
Light absorption properties
The maximum absorption of light is near 670 nm. The specifics of absorption depend on a number of factors, including protonation, adsorption to other materials, and metachromasy - the formation of dimers and higher-order aggregates depending on concentration and other interactions:
Other uses
Redox indicator
Methylene blue is widely used as a redox indicator in analytical chemistry. Solutions of this substance are blue when in an oxidizing environment, but will turn colorless if exposed to a reducing agent. The redox properties can be seen in a classical demonstration of chemical kinetics in general chemistry, the "blue bottle" experiment. Typically, a solution is made of glucose (dextrose), methylene blue, and sodium hydroxide. Upon shaking the bottle, oxygen oxidizes methylene blue, and the solution turns blue. The dextrose will gradually reduce the methylene blue to its colorless, reduced form. Hence, when the dissolved dextrose is entirely consumed, the solution will turn blue again. The redox midpoint potential E' is +0.01 V.
Peroxide generator
Methylene blue is also a photosensitizer used to create singlet oxygen when exposed to both oxygen and light. It is used in this regard to make organic peroxides by a Diels-Alder reaction which is spin forbidden with normal atmospheric triplet oxygen.
Sulfide analysis
The formation of methylene blue after the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine and iron(III) at pH 0.4 – 0.7 is used to determine by photometric measurements sulfide concentration in the range 0.020 to 1.50 mg/L (20 ppb to 1.5 ppm). The test is very sensitive and the blue coloration developing upon contact of the reagents with dissolved H2S is stable for 60 min. Ready-to-use kits such as the Spectroquant sulfide test facilitate routine analyses. The methylene blue sulfide test is a convenient method often used in soil microbiology to quickly detect in water the metabolic activity of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). It should be observed that in this test, methylene blue is a product of reaction and not a reagent.
The addition of a strong reducing agent, such as ascorbic acid, to a sulfide-containing solution is sometimes used to prevent sulfide oxidation from atmospheric oxygen. Although it is certainly a sound precaution for the determination of sulfide with an ion selective electrode, it might however hamper the development of the blue color if the freshly formed methylene blue is also reduced, as described here above in the paragraph on redox indicator.
Water testing
A color reaction in an acidified, aqueous methylene blue solution containing chloroform can detect anionic surfactants in a water sample. Such a test is known as an MBAS assay (methylene blue active substances assay).
The MBAS assay cannot distinguish between specific surfactants, however. Some examples of anionic surfactants are carboxylates, phosphates, sulfates, and sulfonates.
Methylene blue value of fine aggregate
Methylene blue value reflects the amount of clay minerals in aggregate samples.
Methylene blue solution is successively added to fine aggregate which is being agitated in water. The presence of free dye solution can be checked with stain test on a filter paper.
Biological staining
In biology methylene blue is used as a dye for a number of different staining procedures, such as Wright's stain and Jenner's stain. Since it is a temporary staining technique, methylene blue can also be used to examine RNA or DNA under the microscope or in a gel: as an example, a solution of methylene blue can be used to stain RNA on hybridization membranes in northern blotting to verify the amount of nucleic acid present. While methylene blue is not as sensitive as ethidium bromide, it is less toxic and it does not intercalate in nucleic acid chains, thus avoiding interference with nucleic acid retention on hybridization membranes or with the hybridization process itself.
It can also be used as an indicator to determine whether eukaryotic cells such as yeast are alive or dead. The methylene blue is reduced in viable cells, leaving them unstained. However dead cells are unable to reduce the oxidized methylene blue and the cells are stained blue. Methylene blue can interfere with the respiration of the yeast as it picks up hydrogen ions made during the process.
Aquaculture
Methylene blue is used in aquaculture and by tropical fish hobbyists as a treatment for fungal infections. It can also be effective in treating fish infected with ich although a combination of malachite green and formaldehyde is far more effective against the parasitic protozoa Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. It is usually used to protect newly laid fish eggs from being infected by fungus or bacteria. This is useful when the hobbyist wants to artificially hatch the fish eggs.
Methylene Blue is also very effective when used as part of a "medicated fish bath" for treatment of ammonia, nitrite, and cyanide poisoning as well as for topical and internal treatment of injured or sick fish as a "first response".
History
Methylene blue has been described as "the first fully synthetic drug used in medicine." Methylene blue was first prepared in 1876 by German chemist Heinrich Caro.
Its use in the treatment of malaria was pioneered by Paul Guttmann and Paul Ehrlich in 1891. During this period before the first World War, researchers like Ehrlich believed that drugs and dyes worked in the same way, by preferentially staining pathogens and possibly harming them. Changing the cell membrane of pathogens is in fact how various drugs work, so the theory was partially correct although far from complete. Methylene blue continued to be used in the second World War, where it was not well liked by soldiers, who observed, "Even at the loo, we see, we pee, navy blue." Antimalarial use of the drug has recently been revived. It was discovered to be an antidote to carbon monoxide poisoning and cyanide poisoning in 1933 by Matilda Brooks.
The blue urine was used to monitor psychiatric patients' compliance with medication regimes. This led to interest - from the 1890s to the present day - in the drug's antidepressant and other psychotropic effects. It became the lead compound in research leading to the discovery of chlorpromazine.
Names
The International Nonproprietary Name (INN) of methylene blue is methylthioninium chloride.
Research
Malaria
Methylene blue was identified by Paul Ehrlich about 1891 as a possible treatment for malaria. It disappeared as an anti-malarial during the Pacific War in the tropics, since American and Allied soldiers disliked its two prominent, but reversible side effects: turning the urine blue or green, and the sclera (the whites of the eyes) blue. Interest in its use as an anti-malarial has recently been revived, especially due to its low price. Several clinical trials are in progress, trying to find a suitable drug combination. According to studies on children in Africa, it appears to have efficacy against malaria, but the attempts to combine methylene blue with chloroquine were disappointing.
Alzheimer's
A Phase 3 clinical trial of LMTM (TauRx0237 or LMT-X), a derivative of methylene blue, failed to show any benefit against cognitive or functional decline in people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. Disease progression for both the drug and the placebo were practically identical.
Bipolar disorder
Methylene blue has been studied as an adjunctive medication in the treatment of bipolar disorder.
Infectious diseases
It has been studied in AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, West Nile virus, and to inactivate Staphylococcus aureus, and HIV-1. Phenothiazine dyes and light have been known to have virucidal properties for over 70 years.
See also
New methylene blue
Phenothiazine structure
Romanowsky stain
Methyl violet
Gentian violet
Prussian blue
Egyptian Blue
Methyl blue
Han Purple
Potassium ferrocyanide
References
External links
Antidotes
Genetics techniques
Histology
Redox indicators
Thiazine dyes
Vital stains
World Health Organization essential medicines
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Phenothiazines
Chlorides
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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238796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20of%20Portugal | Barbara of Portugal | Barbara of Portugal (Maria Madalena Bárbara Xavier Leonor Teresa Antónia Josefa; 4 December 1711 – 27 August 1758) was an Infanta of Portugal, and a Queen of Spain by marriage to Ferdinand VI of Spain.
Life
Princess of Portugal
The marriage of King John V of Portugal and Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria remained childless for nearly three years. The king made a promise to God that if an heir to the throne was born, a great convent would be built as a sing of gratitude. On 4 December 1711, a daughter was finally born, and the king built the Convent of Mafra. The child was baptised Maria Madalena Bárbara Xavier Leonor Teresa Antónia Josefa, honouring a number of saints and relatives, and styled Princess of Brazil as the heir presumptive to the Portuguese throne. She was usually referred to as Bárbara or Maria Bárbara after Saint Barbara, the saint of her birthday, a name never used before among Portuguese royalty.
Two years later, Barbara's mother gave birth to a son, Pedro, and she ceased to be heir presumptive. Pedro died at the age of two, but by that time, the queen had already had another son, Joseph, and hence Barbara never became heir presumptive again.
Barbara had a fine education and loved music. A prodigiously talented keyboard player, she was the sole pupil of Domenico Scarlatti, the great harpsichordist and composer, from age 9 or 10 until 1757, when Scarlatti died, a year before her own death.
In 1725, Barbara was among the seventeen princesses seriously considered for marriage to king Louis XV of France, when the list of the original 99 had been reduced. However, there were concerns about the perceived weak physical and mental health of her family as well as her young age, and in the end she was removed from the list.
Princess of Asturias
In 1729 at the age 18, Barbara married the future Ferdinand VI of Spain, two years her junior. Her brother Joseph married Ferdinand's half-sister, the Spanish Infanta Mariana Victoria, who had been rejected as a bride for Louis XV. The double marriage, known as the Exchange of the Princesses, was meant to repair the Portuguese-Spanish alliance. Scarlatti followed Barbara to Madrid after her marriage and remained with her, composing hundreds of harpsichord sonatas for her.
During their time as Prince and Princess of the Asturias, Ferdinand and Barbara became the target of the opposition known as the Spanish party, in parallel with Spain's deteriorating relations with Portugal. From 1733 until 1737 they were kept more or less under house arrest in their apartments, prevented from appearing in public and watched by the spies of Queen Elizabeth. This gave Barbara the time to deepen her relationship with Ferdinand, a timid person who suffered also from ill health.
Barbara was not considered beautiful by her contemporaries, and her homely looks were thought by observers to have caused her future husband a visible shock when he was first presented to her. However, 'Ferdinand the Learned' (as he was later known) became deeply attached to her, sharing her passion for music and soon becoming dependent on her for advice and support. When he ascended the Spanish throne as Ferdinand VI, the French ambassador noted "it is rather Barbara who succeeds Elizabeth [Ferdinand's step-mother] than Ferdinand succeeding Philippe." Barbara was well-educated, and in addition to her musical talents was adept at languages and was an avid reader on many varied subjects.
Queen of Spain
Upon their succession, Barbara was exposed to attempts to drive a political wedge between her and Ferdinand, engineered by, among others, supporters of the Queen Dowager, and she formed an alliance with three members of the Spanish party, who had been in opposition during the previous regime, Ensenada, Huescar and Carvajal. She thus secured the Spanish party as her supporters and obtained the dismissal of all power holders of the previous regime who threatened her influence over Ferdinand. Encouraged by Barbara, Ferdinand fired the minister Villarias, who was replaced by Carvajal, and in July 1747 the Queen Dowager was banished from court.
During her husband's reign, Barbara was to preside over magnificent parties and concerts at her favorite retreat, the Royal Palace of Aranjuez. However, in contrast to her predecessor as queen, Barbara did not like to flaunt her influence over her spouse and the government policy, and she made a moderately positive impression upon the public. She was not as self-assured, nor did she have as much political ambition as Elisabeth Farnese, and her policy focused mainly upon a friendly relationship between Spain and Portugal in cooperation with her father and the Portuguese ambassador Belmonte.
Queen Barbara participated regularly in the affairs of state: the ministers, who respected her, presented to her all documents of state before they were given to the king, because: "only she knows what ought either be said or hidden from the king": she was the channel through which the ministers worked with the king, as it was she who advised them how to achieve the desired result from the king, and the ministers relied upon her for their work as, the British ambassador Benjamin Keene reported: "She can sway him as she pleases, with as much power, but much less difficulty, than ever the Dowager did with the late King, his father." In 1754, she was behind the fall of her previous ally Ensenada. Keene and Huascar presented the Queen with a paper implying that minister Ensenada was making puppets of the royal couple. They succeeded in convincing her to act against Ensenada, and in cooperation with Richard Wall and Huascar, Barbara convinced Ferdinand to exile Ensenada.
The couple produced no children who survived, with Barbara having a stillborn son in 1733. Barbara suffered from severe asthma for most of her life and in later years became overweight. She died at the Royal Palace of Aranjuez, on the outskirts of Madrid on 27 August 1758. Her death was said to have broken her husband's heart.
Ancestors
Notes
Bibliography
1711 births
1758 deaths
Princes of Brazil
Princes of Beira
House of Bourbon (Spain)
House of Braganza
Portuguese royalty
Spanish royal consorts
Princesses of Asturias
People from Lisbon
Spanish Baroque composers
Classical-period composers
Women classical composers
Portuguese infantas
Spanish infantas
18th-century Portuguese people
18th-century Spanish people
18th-century Portuguese women
18th-century classical composers
Portuguese Baroque composers
18th-century Spanish women
19th-century women composers | [
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238799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing%20stick | Pointing stick | A pointing stick (or trackpoint, also referred to generically as a nub or nipple) is a small analog stick used as a pointing device typically mounted centrally in a computer keyboard. Like other pointing devices such as mice, touchpads or trackballs, operating system software translates manipulation of the device into movements of the pointer or cursor on the monitor. Unlike other pointing devices, it reacts to sustained force or strain rather than to gross movement, so it is called an "isometric" pointing device. IBM introduced it commercially in 1992 on its laptops under the name "TrackPoint", patented in 1997.
The pointing stick senses applied force by using two pairs of resistive strain gauges. A pointing stick can be used by pushing with the fingers in the general direction the user wants the cursor to move. The velocity of the pointer depends on the applied force so increasing pressure causes faster movement. The relation between pressure and cursor or pointer speed can be adjusted, just as mouse speed is adjusted.
On a QWERTY keyboard, the stick is typically embedded between the G, H and B keys, and the mouse buttons are placed just below the space bar. The mouse buttons can be operated right-handed or left-handed due to their placement below the keyboard along the centerline. This pointing device has also appeared next to screens on compact-sized laptops such as the Toshiba Libretto and Sony VAIO UX.
Variants
Pointing sticks typically have a replaceable rubber cap, called a nub, which can be a slightly rough "eraser head" material or another shape.
The cap is red on ThinkPads, but is also found in other colors on other machines. For example, it may be gray, pink, black or blue on some Dell models, blue on some HP/Compaq laptops, and green or gray on most Toshiba laptops produced before the 2000s.
Button configurations vary depending on vendor and laptop model. ThinkPads have a prominent middle mouse button, but some models have no physical buttons. Toshiba employs concentric arcs.
In the early 1990s, Zenith Data Systems shipped a number of laptop computers equipped with a device called "J-Mouse", which essentially used a special keyswitch under the J key to allow the J keycap to be used as a pointing stick.
In addition to appearing between the G, H and B keys on a QWERTY keyboard, these devices or similar can also appear on gaming devices as an alternative to a D-pad or analog stick. On certain Toshiba Libretto mini laptops, the pointing stick was located next to the display. IBM sold a mouse with a pointing stick in the location where a scroll wheel is common now.
Optical pointing sticks are also used on some Ultrabook tablet hybrids, such as the Sony Duo 11, ThinkPad Tablet and Samsung Ativ Q.
On the Gateway 2000 Liberty laptop the pointing stick is above the enter key on the right side of the keyboard.
A pointing stick was featured in the New Nintendo 3DS as a secondary analog stick, known as the C-Stick.
Design challenges
The IBM TrackPoint III and the TrackPoint IV have a feature called Negative Inertia that causes the pointer's velocity to "overreact" when it is accelerated or decelerated. Negative Inertia is intended to avoid the feeling of inertia or sluggishness when starting or stopping movement. Usability tests at IBM have shown that it is easier for users to position the pointer with Negative Inertia, and performance is 7.8% better.
Another challenge with pointing stick design is identification of the zero position (the position where no motion is desired). Because the amount of motion is small, the sensitivity of the sensors must be high, and they are subject to noise interference.
A typical solution, which assumes that pointing sticks frequently go out of calibration, is to interpret a variation below a certain threshold (over a given interval, perhaps one or several seconds) as being a neutral stick. However, the recalibration can also allow brief periods of 'drifting' (movement of the cursor while the user is not moving the pointing stick).
In practice, if the re-calibration interval is set too short and if the user applies moderately consistent pressure to the stick for such an interval, this method results in an incorrect zero point. Additional pressure again moves the cursor, but the calibration may occur again, requiring even more force. If the user releases pressure at this point, the change will be interpreted as an instruction to move the opposite direction. In time, the software will re-calibrate and stop the motion.
Additionally, if "press-to-select" is enabled, the software may generate unexpected click events by touching the pointing stick during typing.
History
In 1984, Ted Selker, a researcher at PARC, worked on a pointing stick based on a study showing that it takes a typist 0.75 seconds to shift from the keyboard to the mouse, and comparable time to shift back. Selker built a model of a device that would minimize this time. It was only three years later, working at IBM, that Selker refined his design, resulting in the TrackPoint product for which IBM received US patents in 1996 and 2000.
Pointing sticks were the dominant pointing device for laptops before the advent of the touchpad. During later years, they faced a decline in popularity as most laptop-producing brands switched to touchpads, although as of 2021, some manufacturers like Lenovo still produce laptops with pointing sticks.
Problem scope
Space constraints
The pointing stick can be used in ultra-compact netbooks where there would be no place for a touchpad.
Finger motion reduction
The pointing stick is positioned such that the hands do not need to be removed from the home row to manipulate the mouse pointer.
Continuous motion
Some people find them more appealing for mobile gaming than a touchpad, because the trackpoint allows infinite movement without repositioning. This is because a user's finger may run off the edge of a touchpad while positioning the pointer, requiring them to reposition their finger in order to continue.
Ergonomics
Some users feel that pointing sticks cause less wrist strain because a user does not need to avoid resting wrists on a touchpad, which are usually located just below the keyboard. One criticism is that because the pointing stick depends on the user's applying pressure, it can cause hand cramps (although this can be partly solved by setting the sensitivity higher and lifting the finger when the pointer is not being moved).
Another criticism is that it stresses the index finger and may lead to repetitive strain injury.
A number of ergonomic studies to compare trackpoint and touchpad performance have been performed. Most studies find that touchpad is slightly faster; one study found that "the touchpad was operated 15% faster than the trackpoint". Another study found that average object selection time was faster with a touchpad, 1.7 seconds compared to 2.2 seconds with a trackpoint, and object manipulation took 6.2 seconds with a touchpad, on average, against 8.1 seconds with trackpoint.
Naming and brands
Informal names
Various informal names have been invented, including "nub", "clit mouse", which is an intercommunity term, usually seen on ThinkPad forums, and "nipple mouse".
Other uses
While typically employed on a computer keyboard, IBM included one on its Trackpoint Mouse product; suggested uses included scrolling (as with a scroll wheel) or a dual-cursor system.
See also
Optical trackpad
References
External links
Pointing stick USB Keyboard Comparison
How to configure the TrackPoint under Linux
Notebook input devices put to the age test : the usability of trackpoint and touchpad for middle-aged adults Ergonomics, 2007, vol. 50, no3, pp. 426–445
an OEM supplier for nubs: http://sofpoint.com/
ALPS (manufacturer)
Synaptics (manufacturer)
American inventions
Pointing devices | [
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238800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suppressed%20correlative | Suppressed correlative | The fallacy of suppressed correlative is a type of argument that tries to redefine a correlative (one of two mutually exclusive options) so that one alternative encompasses the other, i.e. making one alternative impossible. This has also been known as the fallacy of lost contrast and the fallacy of the suppressed relative.
Description
A conceptual example:
Person 1: "All things are either X or not X." (The correlatives: X–not X.)
Person 2: "I define X such that all things that you claim are not X are included in X." (The suppressed correlative: not X.)
Alternatively Person 2 can redefine X in way that instead concludes all things are not X.
A simple example based on one by Alexander Bain:
Person 1: "Things are either mysterious or not mysterious. Exactly when an earthquake will strike is still a mystery, but how blood circulates in the body is not."
Person 2: "Everything is mysterious. There are still things to be learned about how blood circulates."
Regardless of whether Person 2's statement about blood circulation is true or not, the redefinition of "mysterious" is so broad that it omits significant contrast in the level of scientific understanding between earthquakes and blood circulation. Bain argues that if we hold the origin of the universe as equally mysterious against simple equations such as 3×4=12, it seems unimaginable what kind of concepts would be described as non-mysterious. Through redefinition, the word "mysterious" has lost any useful meaning, he says.
The redefinition is not always so obvious. At first glance it might appear reasonable to define brakes as "a method to quickly stop a vehicle"; however, this permits all vehicles to be described as having brakes. Any car could be driven into a sturdy barrier to stop it, but to therefore say the car has brakes seems absurd.
This type of fallacy is often used in conjunction with one of the fallacies of definition. It is an informal fallacy.
Usage
The Scottish logician Alexander Bain discussed the fallacy of suppressed correlative, which he also called the fallacy of suppressed relative, in the 19th century. He provided many example relative pairs where the correlative terms find their meaning through contrast: rest-toil, knowledge-ignorance, silence-speech, and so on. Bain classified this type of error as a fallacy of relativity, which in turn was one of many fallacies of confusion.
J. Loewenberg rejected a certain definition of empirical method – one that seemed so broad as to encompass all possible methods – as committing the fallacy of suppressed correlative. This error has been said to be found in the philosophy of some empiricists, including Edgar S. Brightman, sometimes in broadening the meaning of other terms relevant to these arguments, such as "perception" (when taken to include entirely cognitive processes in addition to ones usually classified as perceptual).
Critics identify the fallacy in arguments for psychological egoism, which proposes that all actions conducted by individuals are motivated by their own self-interest. Outside of this idea it is believed that sometimes people do things selflessly, such as acts of charitable giving or self-sacrifice. Psychological egoism explains all scenarios entirely in terms of selfish motivations (e.g., that acting for one's own purposes is an act of self-interest); however, critics charge that in doing so they are redefining selfishness to the point where it encompasses all motivated actions and thus makes the term meaningless.
See also
Correlative-based fallacies
References
Notes
Works
Originally published in
Informal fallacies | [
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238802 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Anderson | Anna Anderson | Anna Anderson (16 December 1896 – 12 February 1984) was an impostor who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia. Anastasia, the youngest daughter of the last Tsar and Tsarina of Russia, Nicholas II and Alexandra, was murdered along with her parents and siblings on 17 July 1918 by communist revolutionaries in Yekaterinburg, Russia, but the location of her body was unknown until 2007.
In 1920, Anderson was institutionalized in a mental hospital after a suicide attempt in Berlin. At first, she went by the name Fräulein Unbekannt (German for Miss Unknown) as she refused to reveal her identity. Later, she used the name Tschaikovsky and then Anderson. In March 1922, claims that Anderson was a Russian grand duchess first received public attention. Most members of Grand Duchess Anastasia's family and those who had known her, including court tutor Pierre Gilliard, said Anderson was an impostor but others were convinced she was Anastasia. In 1927, a private investigation funded by the Tsarina's brother, Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, identified Anderson as Franziska Schanzkowska, a Polish factory worker with a history of mental illness. After a lawsuit lasting many years, the German courts ruled that Anderson had failed to prove she was Anastasia, but through media coverage, her claim gained notoriety.
Between 1922 and 1968, Anderson lived in Germany and the United States with various supporters and in nursing homes and sanatoria, including at least one asylum. She emigrated to the United States in 1968. Shortly before the expiration of her visa she married history professor Jack Manahan, who was later characterized as "probably Charlottesville's best-loved eccentric". Upon her death in 1984, Anderson's body was cremated, and her ashes were buried in the churchyard at Castle Seeon, Germany.
After the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union, the locations of the bodies of the Tsar, Tsarina, and all five of their children were revealed. Multiple laboratories in different countries confirmed their identity through DNA testing. DNA tests on a lock of Anderson's hair and surviving medical samples of her tissue showed that her DNA did not match that of the Romanov remains or that of living relatives of the Romanovs. Instead, Anderson's mitochondrial DNA matched that of Karl Maucher, a great-nephew of Franziska Schanzkowska. Most scientists, historians and journalists who have discussed the case accept that Anderson and Schanzkowska were the same person.
Dalldorf asylum (1920–1922)
On 27 February 1920, a young woman attempted to commit suicide in Berlin by jumping off the Bendlerstrasse bridge into the Landwehrkanal. She was rescued by a police sergeant and was admitted to the Elisabeth Hospital on Lützowstrasse. As she was without papers and refused to identify herself, she was admitted as Fräulein Unbekannt ("Miss Unknown") to a mental hospital in Dalldorf (now Wittenau, in Reinickendorf), where she remained for the next two years. The unknown patient had scars on her head and body and spoke German with an accent described as "Russian" by medical staff.
In early 1922, Clara Peuthert, a fellow psychiatric patient, claimed that the unknown woman was Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia, one of the four daughters of Tsar Nicholas II. On her release, Peuthert told Russian émigré Captain Nicholas von Schwabe that she had seen Tatiana at Dalldorf. Schwabe visited the asylum and accepted the woman as Tatiana. Schwabe persuaded other émigrés to visit the unknown woman, including Zinaida Tolstoy, a friend of Tsarina Alexandra. Eventually Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, a former lady-in-waiting to the Tsarina, visited the asylum with Tolstoy. On seeing the woman, Buxhoeveden declared "She's too short for Tatiana," and left convinced the woman was not a Russian grand duchess. A few days later, the unknown woman noted, "I did not say I was Tatiana."
A nurse at Dalldorf, Thea Malinovsky, claimed years after the patient's release from the asylum that the woman had told her she was another daughter of the Tsar, Anastasia, in the autumn of 1921. However, the patient herself could not recall the incident. Her biographers either ignore Malinovsky's claim, or weave it into their narrative.
Germany and Switzerland (1922–1927)
By May 1922, the woman was believed by Peuthert, Schwabe, and Tolstoy to be Anastasia, although Buxhoeveden said there was no resemblance. Nevertheless, the woman was taken out of the asylum and given a room in the Berlin home of Baron Arthur von Kleist, a Russian émigré who had been a police chief in Russian Poland before the fall of the Tsar. The Berlin policeman who handled the case, Detective Inspector Franz Grünberg, thought that Kleist "may have had ulterior motives, as was hinted at in émigré circles: if the old conditions should ever be restored in Russia, he hoped for great advancement from having looked after the young woman."
She began calling herself Anna Tschaikovsky, choosing "Anna" as a short form of "Anastasia", although Peuthert "described her everywhere as Anastasia". Tschaikovsky stayed in the houses of acquaintances, including Kleist, Peuthert, a poor working-class family called Bachmann, and at Inspector Grünberg's estate at Funkenmühle, near Zossen. At Funkenmühle, Grünberg arranged for the Tsarina's sister, Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine, to meet Tschaikovsky, but Irene did not recognize her. Grünberg also arranged a visit from Crown Princess Cecilie of Prussia, but Tschaikovsky refused to speak to her, and Cecilie was left perplexed by the encounter. Later, in the 1950s, Cecilie signed a declaration that Tschaikovsky was Anastasia, but Cecilie's family disputed her statement and implied that she was suffering from dementia.
By 1925, Tschaikovsky had developed a tuberculous infection of her arm, and she was placed in a succession of hospitals for treatment. Sick and near death, she suffered significant loss of weight. She was visited by the Tsarina's groom of the chamber Alexei Volkov; Anastasia's tutor Pierre Gilliard; his wife, Alexandra Tegleva, who had been Anastasia's nursemaid; and the Tsar's sister, Grand Duchess Olga. Although they expressed sympathy, if only for Tschaikovsky's illness, and made no immediate public declarations, eventually they all denied she was Anastasia. In March 1926, she convalesced in Lugano with Harriet von Rathlef at the expense of Grand Duchess Anastasia's great-uncle, Prince Valdemar of Denmark. Valdemar was willing to offer Tschaikovsky material assistance, through the Danish ambassador to Germany, Herluf Zahle, while her identity was investigated. To allow her to travel, the Berlin Aliens Office issued her with a temporary certificate of identity as "Anastasia Tschaikovsky", with Grand Duchess Anastasia's personal details. After a quarrel with Rathlef, Tschaikovsky was moved to the Stillachhaus Sanatorium at Oberstdorf in the Bavarian Alps in June 1926, and Rathlef returned to Berlin.
At Oberstdorf, Tschaikovsky was visited by Tatiana Melnik, née Botkin. Melnik was the niece of Serge Botkin, the head of the Russian refugee office in Berlin, and the daughter of the imperial family's personal physician, Dr. Eugene Botkin, who had been murdered by the communists alongside the Tsar's family in 1918. Tatiana Melnik had met Grand Duchess Anastasia as a child and had last spoken to her in February 1917. To Melnik, Tschaikovsky looked like Anastasia, even though "the mouth has changed and coarsened noticeably, and because the face is so lean, her nose looks bigger than it was." In a letter, Melnik wrote: "Her attitude is childlike, and altogether she cannot be reckoned with as a responsible adult, but must be led and directed like a child. She has not only forgotten languages, but has in general lost the power of accurate narration ... even the simplest stories she tells incoherently and incorrectly; they are really only words strung together in impossibly ungrammatical German ... Her defect is obviously in her memory and eyesight." Melnik declared that Tschaikovsky was Anastasia, and supposed that any inability on her part to remember events and her refusal to speak Russian was caused by her impaired physical and psychological state. Either inadvertently through a sincere desire to "aid the patient's weak memory", or as part of a deliberate charade, Melnik coached Tschaikovsky with details of life in the imperial family.
Castle Seeon (1927)
In 1927, under pressure from his family, Valdemar decided against providing Tschaikovsky with any further financial support, and the funds from Denmark were cut off. Duke George of Leuchtenberg, a distant relative of the Tsar, gave her a home at Castle Seeon. The Tsarina's brother, Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, hired a private detective, Martin Knopf, to investigate the claims that Tschaikovsky was Anastasia.
During her stay at Castle Seeon, Knopf reported that Tschaikovsky was actually a Polish factory worker called Franziska Schanzkowska. Schanzkowska had worked in a munitions factory during World War I when, shortly after her fiancé had been killed at the front, a grenade fell out of her hand and exploded. She had been injured in the head, and a foreman was killed in front of her. She became apathetic and depressed, was declared insane on 19 September 1916, and spent time in two lunatic asylums. In early 1920, she was reported missing from her Berlin lodgings, and since then had not been seen or heard from by her family. In May 1927, Franziska's brother Felix Schanzkowski was introduced to Tschaikovsky at a local inn in Wasserburg near Castle Seeon. Leuchtenberg's son, Dmitri, was completely certain that Tschaikovsky was an impostor and that she was recognized by Felix as his sister, but Leuchtenberg's daughter, Natalie, remained convinced of Tschaikovsky's authenticity. Leuchtenberg himself was ambivalent. According to one account, initially Felix declared that Tschaikovsky was his sister Franziska, but the affidavit he signed spoke only of a "strong resemblance", highlighted physical differences, and said she did not recognize him. Years later, Felix's family said that he knew Tschaikovsky was his sister, but he had chosen to leave her to her new life, which was far more comfortable than any alternative.
Visitors to Seeon included Prince Felix Yusupov, husband of Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia, who wrote, I simply cannot understand how anyone can be in doubt of this. If you had seen her, I am that you would recoil in horror at the thought that this frightful creature could be a daughter of our Tsar. [emphasis in original] Other visitors, however, such as Felix Dassel, an officer whom Anastasia had visited in hospital during 1916, and Gleb Botkin, who had known Anastasia as a child and was Tatiana Melnik's brother, were convinced that Tschaikovsky was genuine.
United States (1928–1931)
By 1928, Tschaikovsky's claim had received interest and attention in the United States, where Gleb Botkin had published articles in support of her cause. Botkin's publicity caught the attention of a distant cousin of Anastasia's, Xenia Leeds, a former Russian princess who had married a wealthy American industrialist. Botkin and Leeds arranged for Tschaikovsky to travel to the United States on board the liner at Leeds's expense. On the journey from Seeon to the States, Tschaikovsky stopped at Paris, where she met Grand Duke Andrei Vladimirovich of Russia, the Tsar's cousin, who believed her to be Anastasia. For six months Tschaikovsky lived at the estate of the Leeds family in Oyster Bay, New York.
As the tenth anniversary of the Tsar's execution approached in July 1928, Botkin retained a lawyer, Edward Fallows, to oversee legal moves to obtain any of the Tsar's estate outside of the Soviet Union. As the death of the Tsar had never been proved, the estate could only be released to relatives ten years after the supposed date of his death. Fallows set up a company, called the Grandanor Corporation (an acronym of Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia), which sought to raise funds by selling shares in any prospective estate. Tschaikovsky claimed that the Tsar had deposited money abroad, which fed unsubstantiated rumors of a large Romanov fortune in England. The surviving relatives of the Romanovs accused Botkin and Fallows of fortune hunting, and Botkin accused them of trying to defraud "Anastasia" out of her inheritance. Except for a relatively small deposit in Germany, distributed to the Tsar's recognized relations, no money was ever found. After a quarrel, possibly over Tschaikovsky's claim to the estate (but not over her claim to be Anastasia), Tschaikovsky moved out of the Leeds' mansion, and the pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff arranged for her to live at the Garden City Hotel in Hempstead, New York, and later in a small cottage. To avoid the press, she was booked in as Mrs. Anderson, the name by which she was subsequently known. In October 1928, after the death of the Tsar's mother, the Dowager Empress Marie, the 12 nearest relations of the Tsar met at Marie's funeral and signed a declaration that denounced Anderson as an impostor. The Copenhagen Statement, as it would come to be known, explained: "Our sense of duty compels us to state that the story is only a fairy tale. The memory of our dear departed would be tarnished if we allowed this fantastic story to spread and gain any credence." Gleb Botkin answered with a public letter to Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia, which referred to the family as "greedy and unscrupulous" and claimed they were only denouncing Anderson for money.
From early 1929 Anderson lived with Annie Burr Jennings, a wealthy Park Avenue spinster happy to host someone she supposed to be a daughter of the Tsar. For eighteen months, Anderson was the toast of New York City society. Then a pattern of self-destructive behavior began that culminated in her throwing tantrums, killing her pet parakeet, and on one occasion running around naked on the roof. On 24 July 1930, Judge Peter Schmuck of the New York Supreme Court signed an order committing her to a mental hospital. Before she could be taken away, Anderson locked herself in her room, and the door was broken in with an axe. She was forcibly taken to the Four Winds Sanatorium in Westchester County, New York, where she remained for slightly over a year. In August 1931, Anderson returned to Germany accompanied by a private nurse in a locked cabin on the liner Deutschland. Jennings paid for the voyage, the stay at the Westchester sanatorium, and an additional six months' care in the psychiatric wing of a nursing home at Ilten near Hanover. On arrival at Ilten, Anderson was assessed as sane, but as the room was prepaid, and she had nowhere else to go, she stayed on in a suite in the sanatorium grounds.
Germany (1931–1968)
Anderson's return to Germany generated press interest, and drew more members of the German aristocracy to her cause. She again lived itinerantly as a guest of her well-wishers. In 1932, the British tabloid News of the World published a sensational story accusing her of being a Romanian actress who was perpetrating a fraud. Her lawyer, Fallows, filed suit for libel, but the lengthy case continued until the outbreak of World War II, at which time the case was dismissed because Anderson was living in Germany, and German residents could not sue in enemy countries. From 1938, lawyers acting for Anderson in Germany contested the distribution of the Tsar's estate to his recognized relations, and they in turn contested her identity. The litigation continued intermittently without resolution for decades; Lord Mountbatten footed some of his German relations' legal bills against Anderson. The protracted proceedings became the longest-running lawsuit in German history.
Anderson had a final meeting with the Schanzkowski family in 1938. Gertrude Schanzkowska was insistent that Anderson was her sister, Franziska, but the Nazi government had arranged the meeting to determine Anderson's identity, and if accepted as Schanzkowska she would be imprisoned. The Schanzkowski family refused to sign affidavits against her, and no further action was taken. In 1940, Edward Fallows died virtually destitute after wasting all his own money on trying to obtain the Tsar's non-existent fortune for the Grandanor Corporation. Towards the end of World War II, Anderson lived at Schloss Winterstein with Louise of Saxe-Meiningen, in what became the Soviet occupation zone. In 1946, Prince Frederick of Saxe-Altenburg helped her across the border to Bad Liebenzell in the French occupation zone.
Prince Frederick settled Anderson in a former army barracks in the small village of Unterlengenhardt, on the edge of the Black Forest, where she became a sort of tourist attraction. Lili Dehn, a friend of Tsarina Alexandra, visited her and acknowledged her as Anastasia, but when Charles Sydney Gibbes, English tutor to the imperial children, met Anderson he denounced her as a fraud. In an affidavit, he swore "She in no way resembles the true Grand Duchess Anastasia that I had known ... I am quite satisfied that she is an impostor." She became a recluse, surrounded by cats, and her house began to decay. In May 1968, Anderson was taken to a hospital at Neuenbürg after being discovered semi-conscious in her cottage. In her absence, Prince Frederick cleaned up the property by order of the local board of health. Her Irish Wolfhound and 60 cats were put to death. Horrified by this, Anderson accepted her long-term supporter Gleb Botkin's offer to move back to the United States.
Final years (1968–1984)
Botkin was living in the university town of Charlottesville, Virginia, and a local friend of his, history professor and genealogist John Eacott "Jack" Manahan, paid for Anderson's journey to the United States. She entered the country on a six-month visitor's visa, and shortly before it was due to expire, Anderson married Manahan, who was 20 years her junior, in a civil ceremony on 23 December 1968. Botkin was best man. Jack Manahan enjoyed this marriage of convenience, and described himself as "Grand Duke-in-Waiting" or "son-in-law to the Tsar". The couple lived in separate bedrooms in a house on University Circle in Charlottesville, and also owned a farm near Scottsville. Botkin died in December 1969. In February of the following year, 1970, the lawsuits finally came to an end, with neither side able to establish Anderson's identity.
Manahan and Anderson, now legally called Anastasia Manahan, became well known in the Charlottesville area as eccentrics. Though Jack Manahan was wealthy, they lived in squalor with large numbers of dogs and cats, and piles of garbage. On 20 August 1979, Anderson was taken to Charlottesville's Martha Jefferson Hospital with an intestinal obstruction. A gangrenous tumor and a length of intestine were removed by Dr. Richard Shrum.
With both Manahan and Anderson in failing health, in November 1983, Anderson was institutionalized, and an attorney, William Preston, was appointed as her guardian by the local circuit court. A few days later, Manahan "kidnapped" Anderson from the hospital, and for three days they drove around Virginia eating out of convenience stores. After a 13-state police alarm, they were found and Anderson was returned to a care facility. In January she was thought to have had a stroke, and on 12 February 1984, she died of pneumonia. She was cremated the same day, and her ashes were buried in the churchyard at Castle Seeon on 18 June 1984. Manahan died on 22 March 1990.
DNA evidence
In 1991, the bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters were exhumed from a mass grave near Yekaterinburg. They were identified on the basis of both skeletal analysis and DNA testing. For example, mitochondrial DNA was used to match maternal relations, and mitochondrial DNA from the female bones matched that of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, whose maternal grandmother Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine was a sister of Alexandra. The bodies of Tsarevich Alexei and the remaining daughter were discovered in 2007. Repeated and independent DNA tests confirmed that the remains were the seven members of the Romanov family, and proved that none of the Tsar's four daughters survived the shooting of the Romanov family.
A sample of Anderson's tissue, part of her intestine removed during her operation in 1979, had been stored at Martha Jefferson Hospital, Charlottesville, Virginia. Anderson's mitochondrial DNA was extracted from the sample and compared with that of the Romanovs and their relatives. It did not match that of the Duke of Edinburgh or that of the bones, confirming that Anderson was not related to the Romanovs. However, the sample matched DNA provided by Karl Maucher, a grandson of Franziska Schanzkowska's sister, Gertrude (Schanzkowska) Ellerik, indicating that Karl Maucher and Anna Anderson were maternally related and that Anderson was Schanzkowska. Five years after the original testing was done, Dr. Terry Melton of the Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, stated that the DNA sequence tying Anderson to the Schanzkowski family was "still unique", though the database of DNA patterns at the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory had grown much larger, leading to "increased confidence that Anderson was indeed Franziska Schanzkowska".
Similarly, several strands of Anderson's hair, found inside an envelope in a book that had belonged to Anderson's husband, Jack Manahan, were also tested. Mitochondrial DNA from the hair matched Anderson's hospital sample and that of Schanzkowska's relative Karl Maucher, but not the Romanov remains or living relatives of the Romanovs.
Assessment
Although communists had murdered the entire imperial Romanov family in July 1918, including 17-year-old Grand Duchess Anastasia, for years afterwards communist disinformation fed rumors that members of the Tsar's family had survived. The conflicting rumors about the fate of the family allowed impostors to make spurious claims that they were a surviving Romanov.
Most of the impostors were dismissed; however, Anna Anderson's claim persisted. Books and pamphlets supporting her claims included Harriet von Rathlef's book Anastasia, ein Frauenschicksal als Spiegel der Weltkatastrophe (Anastasia, a Woman's Fate as Mirror of the World Catastrophe), which was published in Germany and Switzerland in 1928, though it was serialized by the tabloid newspaper Berliner Nachtausgabe in 1927. This was countered by works such as La Fausse Anastasie (The False Anastasia) by Pierre Gilliard and Constantin Savitch, published by Payot of Paris in 1929. Conflicting testimonies and physical evidence, such as comparisons of facial characteristics, which alternately supported and contradicted Anderson's claim, were used either to bolster or to counter the belief that she was Anastasia. In the absence of any direct documentary proof or solid physical evidence, the question of whether Anderson was Anastasia was for many a matter of personal belief. As Anderson herself said in her own idiomatic English, "You either believe it or you don't believe it. It doesn't matter. In no anyway whatsoever." The German courts were unable to decide her claim one way or another, and eventually, after 40 years of deliberation, ruled that her claim was "neither established nor refuted". Dr. Günter von Berenberg-Gossler, attorney for Anderson's opponents in the later years of the legal case, said that during the German trials "the press were always more interested in reporting her side of the story than the opposing bench's less glamorous perspective; editors often pulled journalists after reporting testimony delivered by her side and ignored the rebuttal, resulting in the public seldom getting a complete picture."
In 1957, a version of Anderson's story, pieced together by her supporters and interspersed with commentary by Roland Krug von Nidda, was published in Germany under the title Ich, Anastasia, Erzähle (I, Anastasia, an autobiography). The book included the "fantastic tale" that Anastasia escaped from Russia on a farm cart with a man called Alexander Tschaikovsky, whom she married and had a child by, before he was shot dead on a Bucharest street, and that the child, Alexei, disappeared into an orphanage. Even Anderson's supporters admitted that the details of the supposed escape "might seem bold inventions even for a dramatist", while her detractors considered "this barely credible story as a piece of far-fetched romance". Other works based on the premise that Anderson was Anastasia, written before the DNA tests, include biographies by Peter Kurth and James Blair Lovell. More recent biographies by John Klier, Robert Massie, and Greg King that describe her as an impostor were written after the DNA tests proved that she was not Anastasia.
Assessments vary as to whether Anderson was a deliberate impostor, delusional, traumatized into adopting a new identity, or someone used by her supporters for their own ends. Pierre Gilliard denounced Anderson as "a cunning psychopath". The equation of Anderson with members of the imperial family began with Clara Peuthert in the Dalldorf Asylum, rather than with Anderson herself. Anderson appeared to go along with it afterwards. Writer Michael Thornton thought, "Somewhere along the way she lost and rejected Schanzkowska. She lost that person totally and accepted completely she was this new person. I think it happened by accident and she was swept along on a wave of euphoria." Lord Mountbatten, a first cousin of the Romanov children, thought her supporters "simply get rich on the royalties of further books, magazine articles, plays etc." Prince Michael Romanov, a grandson of Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia, stated the Romanov family always knew Anderson was a fraud, and that the family looked upon her and "the three-ringed circus which danced around her, creating books and movies, as a vulgar insult to the memory of the Imperial Family."
Fictional portrayals
Since the 1920s, many fictional works have been inspired by Anderson's claim to be Anastasia. In 1928, the silent film Clothes Make the Woman was based very loosely on her story. In 1953, Marcelle Maurette wrote a play based on Rathlef's and Gilliard's books called Anastasia, which toured Europe and America with Viveca Lindfors in the title role. The play was so successful that in 1956 an English adaptation by Guy Bolton was made into a film, Anastasia, starring Ingrid Bergman. The plot revolves around a group of swindlers who attempt to raise money among Russian émigrés by pretending that Grand Duchess Anastasia is still alive. A suitable amnesiac, "Anna", is groomed by the swindlers to impersonate Anastasia. Anna's origins are unknown and as the play progresses hints are dropped that she could be the real Anastasia, who has lost her memory. The viewer is left to decide whether Anna really is Anastasia. Another film was released at the same time, Is Anna Anderson Anastasia? starring Lilli Palmer, which covers much the same ground, but the central character is "perhaps even more lost, mad and pathetic, but she, too, has moments when she is a woman of presence and dignity".
Playwright Royce Ryton wrote I Am Who I Am about Anna Anderson in 1978. Like the earlier plays, it depicts Anderson as "a person of intrinsic worth victimized by the greed and fears of others" and did not attempt to decide her real identity.
Sir Kenneth MacMillan's ballet Anastasia, first performed in 1967, used I, Anastasia, an autobiography as inspiration and "is a dramatic fantasy about Anna Anderson, the woman who believes herself to be Anastasia ... Either in memory or imagination, she experiences episodes from Anastasia's past ... The structure is a kind of free-wheeling nightmare, held together by the central figure of the heroine, played by Lynn Seymour". A contemporary reviewer thought Seymour's "tense, tormented portrait of the desperate Anna Anderson is quite extraordinary and really impressive". Anna Anderson was also used as a narrative device in Youri Vámos' 1992 ballet for Theater Basel, Sleeping Beauty – Last Daughter of the Czar, based on Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Sleeping Beauty.
In 1986, a two-part fictionalized made for television mini-series titled Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna appeared (NBC in the U.S.) which starred Amy Irving and won her a Golden Globe nomination. In the words of Hal Erickson, "Irving plays the leading character in a lady-or-the-tiger fashion, so that we never know if she truly swallows her own tale or if she's merely a clever charlatan."
The central character ("Anastasia" or "Anya") of the 1997 animated fantasy Anastasia is portrayed as the actual Grand Duchess Anastasia, even though the film was released after DNA tests proved that Anna Anderson was not Anastasia. The film is an entirely fictional musical entertainment, and in the words of one reviewer, "historical facts are treated with particular contempt".
Notes
References
External links
1896 births
1984 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia in Virginia
People from Charlottesville, Virginia
People from Kartuzy County
People from West Prussia
Polish expatriates in the United States
Romanov impostors
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia | [
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238806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eosinophilia | Eosinophilia | Eosinophilia is a condition in which the eosinophil count in the peripheral blood exceeds . Hypereosinophilia is an elevation in an individual's circulating blood eosinophil count above 1.5 x 109/L (i.e. 1,500/μL). The hypereosinophilic syndrome is a sustained elevation in this count above 1.5 x 109/L (i.e. 1,500/μL) that is also associated with evidence of eosinophil-based tissue injury.
Eosinophils usually account for less than 7% of the circulating leukocytes. A marked increase in non-blood tissue eosinophil count noticed upon histopathologic examination is diagnostic for tissue eosinophilia. Several causes are known, with the most common being some form of allergic reaction or parasitic infection. Diagnosis of eosinophilia is via a complete blood count (CBC), but diagnostic procedures directed at the underlying cause vary depending on the suspected condition(s). An absolute eosinophil count is not generally needed if the CBC shows marked eosinophilia. The location of the causal factor can be used to classify eosinophilia into two general types: extrinsic, in which the factor lies outside the eosinophil cell lineage; and intrinsic eosinophilia, which denotes etiologies within the eosiniphil cell line. Specific treatments are dictated by the causative condition, though in idiopathic eosinophilia, the disease may be controlled with corticosteroids. Eosinophilia is not a disorder (rather, only a sign) unless it is idiopathic.
Informally, blood eosinophil levels are often regarded as mildly elevated at counts of 500–1,500/μL, moderately elevated between 1,500–5,000/μL, and severely elevated when greater than 5,000/μL. Elevations in blood eosinophil counts can be transient, sustained, recurrent, or cyclical.
Eosinophil counts in human blood normally range between 100–500 per/μL. Maintenance of these levels results from a balance between production of eosinophils by bone marrow eosinophil precursor cells termed CFU-Eos and the emigration of circulating eosinophils out of the blood through post-capillary venules into tissues. Eosinophils represent a small percentage of peripheral blood leucocytes (usually less than 8%), have a half-life in the circulation of only 8–18 hours, but persist in tissues for at least several weeks.
Eosinophils are one form of terminally differentiated granulocytes; they function to neutralize invading microbes, primarily parasites and helminthes but also certain types of fungi and viruses. They also participate in transplant rejection, Graft-versus-host disease, and the killing of tumor cells. In conducting these functions, eosinophils produce and release on demand a range of toxic reactive oxygen species (e.g. hypobromite, hypobromous acid, superoxide, and peroxide) and they also release on demand a preformed armamentarium of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, lipid mediators (e.g. leukotrienes, prostaglandins, platelet activating factor), and toxic proteins (e.g. metalloproteinases, major basic protein, eosinophil cationic protein, eosinophil peroxidase, and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin). These agents serve to orchestrate robust immune and inflammatory responses that destroy invading microbes, foreign tissue, and malignant cells. When overproduced and over-activated, which occurs in certain cases of hypereosinophilia and to a lesser extent eosinophilia, eosinophils may misdirect their reactive oxygen species and armamentarium of preformed molecules toward normal tissues. This can result in serious damage to such organs as the lung, heart, kidneys, and brain.
Classification
Based on their causes, hypereosinophilias can be sorted into subtypes. However, cases of eosinophilia, which exhibit eosinophil counts between 500 and 1,500/μL, may fit the clinical criteria for, and thus be regarded as falling into, one of these hypereosinophilia categories: the cutoff of 1,500/μL between hypereosinophilia and eosinophilia is somewhat arbitrary. There are at least two different guidelines for classifying hypereosinophilia/eosinophilia into subtypes. The General Haematoloy and Haemato-oncology Task Forces for the British Committee for Standards in Haematology classifies these disorders into a) Primary, i.e. caused by abnormalities in the eosinophil cell line; b) Secondary, i.e. caused by non-eosinophil disorders; and c) Idiopathic, cause unknown. The World Health Organization classifies these disorders into a) Myeloid and lymphoid neoplasms with eosinophilia and abnormalities of PDGFRA, PDGFRB, or FGFR1 (i.e. high eosinophil blood counts caused by mutations in the eosinophil cell line of one of these three genes), 'b) Chronic eosinophilic leukemia, and c) the Idiopathic hypereosinophiic syndrome. In the latter classification, secondary hypereosinophilia/eosinophilia is not viewed as a true disorder of eosinophils. Here these two classifications are merged and expanded to include the many forms of secondary, i.e. reactive hypereosinophilia/eosinophilia, disorders and also includes another subtype, organ-restricted hypereosinophilias, a disorder in which eosinophil-mediated tissue damage is restricted to one organ and is often but not always associated with increased blood eosinophil counts.
Primary hypereosinophilia
Primary hypereosinophilia is due to the development of a clone of eosinophils, i.e. a group of genetically identical eosinophils derived from a significantly mutated ancestor cell. The clone may prove to be benign, pre-malignant, or overtly malignant. The fundamental driver of these hypereosinophilic (or uncommonly eosinophilic) disorders is the mutation which increases the proliferation, survival, and further mutation of cells descendant from the originally mutated cell. There are several subtypes of primary hypereosinophilia.
Clonal hypereosinophilia
Clonal hypereosinophilia is hypereosinophilia caused by a pre-malignant or malignant clone of eosinophils that bear mutations in genes for PDGFRA, PDGFRB, or FGFR1 or, alternatively, a chromosome translocation that creates the PCM1-JAK2 fusion gene. These genes code for dysfunctional protein products capable of enhancing proliferation and/or survival of their parent cells which, in consequence, become an evolving and constantly growing clone of eosinophils. These mutations are recognized by the World Health Association as causing distinct entities differing from idiopathic hypereosinophilia and the idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome. Presence of these clones may be associated with tissue injury but in any case suggests specific therapy be directed at reducing the size and suppressing the growth of the eosinophil clone. More recently, mutations in other genes have been described as causing a similar type of clonal hypereosinophilia but have not yet been recognized as entities distinct from idiopathic hypereosinophilia and the idiopathic hyperesoniphilic syndrome. These include gene mutations in JAK2, ABL1, and FLT2 and chromosomal translocations that create the ETV6-ACSL6 fusion gene.
Chronic eosinophilic leukemia (NOS)
Chronic eosinophilic leukemia, not otherwise specified (i.e. CEL, NOS), is a leukemia-inducing disorder in the eosinophil cell lineage that causes eosinophil blood counts greater than 1,500/μL. The most recent (2017) World health organization criteria specifically excludes from this disorder hypereosinophilia/eosinophilia associated with BCR-ABL1 fusion gene-positive chronic myeloid leukemia, polycythemia vera, essential thrombocytosis, primary myelofibrosis, chronic neutrophilic leukemia, chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia, clonal eosinophilias involving gene rearrangements of PDGFRA, PDGFRB, or FGFR1, and chromosome translocations that form PCM1-JAK2, ETV6-JAK2, or BCR-JAK2 fusion genes. For this diagnosis, immature eosinophil (e.g. myeloblast) cell counts in the bone marrow and peripheral blood must be less than 20% and the chromosomal alterations (inv(16)(p13.1q22)) and t(16;16)(p13;q22) as well as other features diagnostic of acute myelogenous leukemia must be absent. The latter diagnostic features include clonal cytogenetic abnormalities and molecular genetic abnormalities diagnostic for other forms of leukemia or the presence of myeloblast counts greater than 55% in bone marrow or 2% in blood. Chronic eosinophilic leukemia may transform into acute eosinophilic or other types of acute myelogenous leukemia.
Familial eosinophilia
Familial eosinophilia is a rare congenital disorder characterized by the presence of sustained elevations in blood eosinophil levels that reach ranges diagnostic of eosinophilia or, far more commonly, hypereosinophilia. It is an autosomal dominant disorder in which genetic linkage gene mapping family studies localize the gene responsible for it to chromosome 5 at position q31-q33, between markers D5S642 and D5S816. This region contains a cytokine gene cluster which includes three genes whose protein products function in regulating the development and proliferation of eosinophils viz., interleukin 3, interleukin 5, and colony stimulating factor 2. However, no functional sequence genetic polylmophisms are found within the promoter, exons, or introns, of these genes or within the common gene enhancer for interleukin 3 or colony stimulating factor 2. This suggests that the primary defect in familial eosinophilia is not a mutation in one of these genes but rather in another gene within this chromosome area. Clinical manifestations and tissue destruction related to the eosinophilia in this disorder are uncommon: familial eosinophilia typically has a benign phenotype compared to other congenital and acquired eosinophilic diseases.
Idiopathic hypereosinophilia
Idiopathic hypereosinophilia (also termed hypereosinophilia of undetermined significance, i.e. HEUS) is a disorder characterized by an increase in eosinophil blood counts above 1,500/μL, as detected on at least 2 separate examinations. The disorder cannot be associated with eosinophil-based tissue damage or a primary or secondary cause of eosinophilia. That is, it is a diagnosis of exclusion and has no known cause. Over time, this disorder can resolve into a primary hypereosinphilia, typically clonal hyperesinophilia, chronic eosinphilic leukemia, or an eosinophilia associated with another hematological leukemia. The disorder may also become associated with tissue or organ damage and therefore be diagnosed as the hypereosinophilic syndrome. Idiopathic hyereosinophilia is treated by observation to detect development of the cited more serious disorders.
Idiopathic hypereosiophilic syndrome
The idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome is a disorder characterized by hypereosiophilia that is associated with eosinophil-based tissue or organ damage. While almost any organ or tissue may be damaged, the lung, skin, heart, blood vessels, sinuses, kidneys, and brain are the most commonly afflicted. The World Health Organization restrict this diagnosis to cases which have no well-defined cause. That is, all cases of secondary (i.e. reactive) eosinophilia (including lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia) and primary hypereosinophilia (including chronic eosinophilic leukemia (NOS), clonal eosinophilia, and hypereosinophilia associated with hematological malignancies) are excluded from this diagnosis.
Secondary hypereosinophilia
Secondary (or reactive) eosinophilias are non-clonal increases in blood eosinophil levels caused by an underlying disease. The pathogenesis of the hypereosinophilia in these diseases is thought to be the release of one or more cytokines (e.g. granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor, interleukin 3, interleukin 5) that: a) cause bone marrow precursor cells, i.e. CFU-Eos, to proliferate and mature into eosinophils; b) promote release of bone marrow eosinophils into the circulation, c) stimulate circulating eosinophils to enter tissues and release tissue-injuring agents. These cytokines may be released by the diseased cells or the diseased cells may cause the release of these cytokines by non-diseased cells. Primary disorders associated with and known or presumed to cause hypereosinophilia or eosinophilia are given below.
Infections
Helminths are common causes of hypereosiophilia and eosinophilia in areas endemic to these parasites. Helminths infections causing increased blood eosinophil counts include: 1) nematodes, (i.e. Angiostrongylus cantonensis and Hookworm infections), ascariasis, strongyloidiasis trichinosis, visceral larva migrans, Gnathostomiasis, cysticercosis, and echinococcosis; 2) filarioidea, i.e. tropical pulmonary eosinophilia, loiasis, and onchocerciasis; and 3) flukes, i.e. schistosomiasis, fascioliasis, clonorchiasis, paragonimiasis, and fasciolopsiasis. Other infections associated with increased eosinophil blood counts include: protozoan infections, i.e. Isospora belli and Dientamoeba fragilis) and sarcocystis); fungal infections (i.e. disseminated histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis [especially in cases with central nervous system involvement]), and coccidioides); and viral infections, i.e. Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 and HIV.
Autoimmune diseases
Hypereosiophilia or eosinophilia may be associated with the following autoimmune diseases: systemic lupus erythematosus eosinophilic fasciitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, dermatomyositis, severe rheumatoid arthritis, progressive systemic sclerosis, Sjögren syndrome, thromboangiitis obliterans, Behçet's disease, IgG4-related disease, inflammatory bowel diseases, sarcoidosis, bullous pemphigoid, and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Allergic diseases
Eosinophilia and comparatively fewer cases of hypereosinophilia are associated with the following known diseases that are known or thought to have an allergic basis: allergic rhinitis, asthma, atopic dermatitis, eosinophilic esophagitis, chronic sinusitis, aspirin-induced asthma, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, and Kimura's disease.
Certain types of food allergy disorders may also be associated with eosinophilia or, less commonly, hypereosinophilia. Allergic eosinophilic esophagitis and the Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome are commonly associated with increased blood eosinophil levels.
Drugs
A wide range of drugs are known to cause hypereosinophilia or eosinophilia accompanied by an array of allergic symptoms. Rarely, these reactions are severe causing, for example, the drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome. Drug- induced hepatitis marked by immunoallergic pathology, which has much bidirectional crossover with DRESS syndrome, is typically accompanied by some severity of eosinophilia. While virtually any drug should be considered as a possible cause of these signs and symptoms, the following drugs and drug classes are some of the most frequently reported causes: penicillins, cephalosporins, dapsone, sulfonamides, carbamazepine, phenytoin, lamotrigine, valproic acid, nevirapine, efavirenz, and ibuprofen. These drugs may cause severely toxic reactions such as the DRESS syndrome. Other drugs and drug classes often reported to cause increased blood eosinophil levels accompanied by less severe (e.g. non-DRESS syndrome) symptoms include tetracyclins, doxycycline, linezolid, nitrofurantoin, metronidazole, carbamazepine, phenobarbital, lamotrigine, valproate, desipramine, amitriptyline, fluoxetine, piroxicam, diclofenac, ACE inhibitors, abacavir, nevirapine, ranitidine, cyclosporin, and hydrochlorothiazide.
The toxic oil syndrome is associated with hypereosinophilia/eosinophilia and systemic symptoms due to one or more contaminants in rapeseed oil and the Eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome, also associated with hypereosinophilia, appears due to trace contaminants in certain commercial batches of the amino acid, L-tryptophan.
Allergic reactions to drugs are a common cause of eosinophilia, with manifestations ranging from diffuse maculopapular rash, to severe life-threatening drug reactions with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Drugs that has, allopurinol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), some antipsychotics such as risperidone, and certain antibiotics. Phenibut, an analogue of the neurotransmitter GABA, has also been implicated in high doses. The reaction which has been shown to be T-cell mediated may also cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome.
Malignancies
Certain malignancies cause a secondary eosinophilia or, less commonly, hypereosinophilia. These increases in blood eosinophils appear due to the release of stimulatory cytokines or invasion of the bone marrow and thereby irritation of resident eosinophils or their precursors. Malignancies associated with these effects include gastric, colorectal, lung, bladder, and thyroid cancers, as well as squamous cell cancers of the cervix, vagina, penis, skin, and nasopharyrnx. Some hematological malignancies are likewise associated with secondary rises in blood eosinophil counts; these include Hodgkin disease, certain T-cell lymphomas, acute myeloid leukemia, the myelodysplastic syndromes, many cases of systemic mastocytosis, chronic myeloid leukemia, polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, myelofibrosis, chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, and certain cases of T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma-associated or myelodysplastic–myeloproliferative syndrome-associated eosinophilias.
Hodgkin lymphoma (Hodgkin's disease) often elicits severe eosinophilia; however, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia produce less marked eosinophilia. Of solid tumor neoplasms, ovarian cancer is most likely to provoke eosinophilia, though any other cancer can cause the condition. Solid epithelial cell tumors have been shown to cause both tissue and blood eosinophilia, with some reports indicating that this may be mediated by interleukin production by tumor cells, especially IL-5 or IL-3. This has also been shown to occur in Hodgkin lymphoma, in the form of IL-5 secreted by Reed-Sternberg cells. In primary cutaneous T cell lymphoma, blood and dermal eosinophilia are often seen. Lymphoma cells have also been shown to produce IL-5 in these disorders. Other types of lymphoid malignancies have been associated with eosinophilia, as in lymphoblastic leukemia with a translocation between chromosomes 5 and 14 or alterations in the genes which encode platelet-derived growth factor receptors alpha or beta. Patients displaying eosinophilia overexpress a gene encoding an eosinophil hematopoietin. A translocation between chromosomes 5 and 14 in patients with acute B lymphocytic leukemia resulted in the juxtaposition of the IL-3 gene and the immunoglobulin heavy-chain gene, causing overproduction production of IL-3, leading to blood and tissue eosinophilia.
Primary immunodeficiency diseases
Primary immunodeficiency diseases are inborn errors in the immune system due to defective genes. Certain of these disorders are sometimes or often associated with hypereosinophilia. The list of such disorders includes ZAP70 deficiency (defective ZAP70 gene), CD3gamma chain deficiency (defective CD3G gene), MCHII deficiency (defective RFXANK gene), Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome (defective WAS gene), IPEX syndrome (defective IPEX gene), CD40 gene defect, and autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (defective Fas receptor gene). More than 30 other primary immunodeficiency diseases are sometimes associated with modest increases in eosinophil counts, i.e. eosinophilia. The hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome is associated with hypereosionphilia or eosinophilia due to mutations in any one of the following genes: STAT3, DOCK8, PGM3, SPINK5, and TYK2 (see mutations in the hymperimmoglobulin E syndrome). Omenn syndrome is a severe combined immunodeficiency disease characterized by skin rash, slenomegaly, and lymphadenopathy due to a causative mutation in RAG1, RAG2, or, more rarely, one of several other genes.
Lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia
Lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia is a disorder attributed to the expansion of a cytokine-producing, aberrant population of a particular T-cell phenotype. The disorder is clonal with regard to the
production of abnormal T-cell lymphocytes not eosinophils which appear phenotypically normal. The phenotypically aberrant lymphocytes function abnormally by stimulating the proliferation and maturation of bone marrow eosinophil-precursor cells which in studied cases appears due to their excess production of interleukin 5, interleukin 3, or interleukin 13. The disorder is usually indolent but infrequently progresses to T-cell lymphoma or Sezary syndrome. Accumulation of partial deletions in the short arm of chromosome 6, the long arm of chromosome 10, or the acquirement of an extra chromosome (i.e. trisomy) 7) in T-cells or the proliferation of lymphocytes with the CD3 negative, CD41 positive immunophenotype may occur during the disorders progression to lymphoma. Reports on treatment of the disorder are rare. In on study of 16 lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia patients with the aberrant CD3 negative, CD41 positive immunophenotype, good responds to corticosteroid drugs were uniform but 16 ultimately required corticosteroid-sparing agents. Hydroxyurea and imatinib are less likely to have efficacy in this variant of hypereosinophilia than in many cases of clonal eosinophilia or chronic eosinophilic leukemia.
Gleich's syndrome
Gleich's syndrome, which may be a form of lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia, involves hypereosinophilia, elevated blood levels of IgM antibodies, and clonal expansion of T cells. Similar to lymphocyte=variant hypereosinophilia, the increased levels of blood eosinophils in Gleich's syndrome is thought to be secondary to the secretion of eosinophil-stimulating cytokines by a T cell clones.
IgG4-related disease
IgG4-related disease or Immunoglobulin G4-related disease is a condition dacryoadenitis, sialadenitis, lymphadentitis, and pancreatitis (i.e. inflammation of the lacrimal glands, salivary glands, lymph nodes, and pancreas, respectively) plus retroperitoneal fibrosis. Less commonly, almost any other organ or tissue except joints and brain may be beleaguered by the inflammatory disorder. About 1/3 of cases exhibit eosinophilia or, rarely, hypereosinophilia. This increase in blood eosinophil count is often associated with abnormal T-lymphocyte clones (e.g. increased numbers of CD4 negative, CD7 positive T cells, CD3 negative, CD4 positive T cells, or CD3 positive, CD4 negative, CD8 negative T cells) and is thought to be secondary to these immunological disturbances. The disorder often exhibits are recurrent-relapsing course and is highly responsive to corticosteroids or rituximab as first-line therapy and interferon gamma as second-line therapy.
Angiolymphoid hyperplasia with eosinophilia
Angiolymphoid hyperplasia with eosinophilia is a disorder initially classified as a form of IgG4-related diseases but now considered a distinct entity. The disorder involves inflamed benign tumors of the vasculature in skin and, less commonly, other tissues. The tumors consist of histiocytoid endothelial cells prominently infiltrated by lymphocytes and eosinophils and is associated with hypereosinophilia or eosinophilia.
Cholesterol embolism
Transient, fluctuating hypereosinophilia occurs in 60%-80% of individuals suffering cholesterol embolisms. In this disorder, cholesterol crystals located in an atherosclerotic plaque of a large artery dislodge, travel downstream in the blood, and clog smaller arteries. This results in obstructive damage to multiple organs and tissues. Afflicted tissues exhibit acute inflammation involving eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. The cause for this hypereosinophilic response is not known.
Adrenal insufficiency
A class of steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal gland, glucocorticoids, inhibit eosinophil proliferation and survival. In adrenal insufficiency, low levels of these hormones allow increased eosinophil proliferation and survival. This leads to increases in blood eosinophil levels, typically eosinophilia and, less commonly, hypereosinophilia.
Organ-restricted hypereosinophilias
Hypereosinophilia may occur in the setting of damage to a single specific organ due to a massive infiltration by eosinophils. This disorder is sub-classified based on the organ involved and is not considered to be a form of primary hypereosinophilia, secondary hypereosinophilia, or the idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome because: a) the eosinophils associated with the disorder have not been shown to be clonal in nature; b) a reason for the increase in blood eosinophils has not been determined; c) organ damage has not been shown to be due to eosinophils; and d) the disorder in each individual case typically is limited to the afflicted organ. Examples of organ-restricted hypereosinopilia include eosinophilic myocarditis, eosinophilic esophagitis, eosinophilic gastroenteritis, eosinophilic cystitis, eosinophilic pneumonia, eosinophilic fasciitis, eosinophilic folliculitis, eosinophilic cellulitis, eosinophilic vasculitis, and eosinophilic ulcer of the oral mucosa. Other examples of organ-restricted hepereosinophilia include those involving the heart, kidney, liver, colon, pulmonary pleurae, peritoneum, fat tissue, myometrium, and synovia.
Pathophysiology
IgE-mediated eosinophil production is induced by compounds released by basophils and mast cells, including eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis, leukotriene B4 and serotonin mediated release of eosinophil granules occur, complement complex (C5-C6-C7), interleukin 5, and histamine (though this has a narrow range of concentration).
Harm resulting from untreated eosinophilia potentially varies with cause. During an allergic reaction, the release of histamine from mast cells causes vasodilation which allows eosinophils to migrate from the blood and localize in affected tissues. Accumulation of eosinophils in tissues can be significantly damaging. Eosinophils, like other granulocytes, contain granules (or sacs) filled with digestive enzymes and cytotoxic proteins which under normal conditions are used to destroy parasites but in eosinophilia these agents can damage healthy tissues. In addition to these agents, the granules in eosinophils also contain inflammatory molecules and cytokines which can recruit more eosinophils and other inflammatory cells to the area and hence amplify and perpetuate the damage. This process is generally accepted to be the major inflammatory process in the pathophysiology of atopic or allergic asthma.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is by complete blood count (CBC). However, in some cases, a more accurate absolute eosinophil count may be needed. Medical history is taken, with emphasis on travel, allergies and drug use. Specific test for causative conditions are performed, often including chest x-ray, urinalysis, liver and kidney function tests, and serologic tests for parasitic and connective tissue diseases. The stool is often examined for traces of parasites (i.e. eggs, larvae, etc.) though a negative test does not rule out parasitic infection; for example, trichinosis requires a muscle biopsy. Elevated serum B12 or low white blood cell alkaline phosphatase, or leukocytic abnormalities in a peripheral smear indicates a disorder of myeloproliferation. In cases of idiopathic eosinophilia, the patient is followed for complications. A brief trial of corticosteroids can be diagnostic for allergic causes, as the eosinophilia should resolve with suppression of the immune over-response. Neoplastic disorders are diagnosed through the usual methods, such as bone marrow aspiration and biopsy for the leukemias, MRI/CT to look for solid tumors, and tests for serum LDH and other tumor markers.
Treatment
Treatment is directed toward the underlying cause. However, in primary eosinophilia, or if the eosinophil count must be lowered, corticosteroids such as prednisone may be used. However, immune suppression, the mechanism of action of corticosteroids, can be fatal in patients with parasitosis.
List of causes
Eosinophilia can be idiopathic (primary) or, more commonly, secondary to another disease. In the Western World, allergic or atopic diseases are the most common causes, especially those of the respiratory or integumentary systems. In the developing world, parasites are the most common cause. A parasitic infection of nearly any bodily tissue can cause eosinophilia.
Diseases that feature eosinophilia as a sign include:
Allergic disorders
Asthma
Hay fever
Drug allergies
Allergic skin diseases
Pemphigus
Dermatitis herpetiformis
IgG4-related disease
Parasitic infections
Addison's disease and stress-induced suppression of adrenal gland function
Some forms of malignancy
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Chronic myelogenous leukemia
Eosinophilic leukemia
Clonal eosinophilia
Hodgkin lymphoma
Some forms of non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Lymphocyte-variant hypereosinophilia
Systemic mastocytosis
Systemic autoimmune diseases
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Kimura disease
Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Eosinophilic fasciitis
Eosinophilic myositis
Eosinophilic myocarditis
Eosinophilic esophagitis
Eosinophilic gastroenteritis
Cholesterol embolism (transiently)
Coccidioidomycosis (Valley fever), a fungal disease prominent in the US Southwest.
Human immunodeficiency virus infection
Interstitial nephropathy
Hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome, an immune disorder characterized by high levels of serum IgE
Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome.
Congenital disorders
Hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome
Omenn syndrome
Familial eosinophilia
See also
Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome
References
External links
Hypereosinophilic Syndrome research in UK
Hypereosinophilic Syndrome on patient.info
on eMedicine
Hypereosinophilic Syndrome (HES) on American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology
Hypereosinophilic syndrome on Mayo Clinic
Monocyte and granulocyte disorders | [
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238810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Force%20One%20%28film%29 | Air Force One (film) | Air Force One is a 1997 American political action thriller film directed and co-produced by Wolfgang Petersen and starring Harrison Ford, Gary Oldman, Glenn Close, Wendy Crewson, Xander Berkeley, William H. Macy, Dean Stockwell, and Paul Guilfoyle. It was written by Andrew W. Marlowe. It is about a group of terrorists who hijack Air Force One and the president's attempt to rescue everyone on board by retaking his plane.
The film was a box office success and received mostly positive critical reviews.
Plot
A joint American and Russian Special Forces team captures General Ivan Radek, the dictator of a rogue neo-Soviet regime in Kazakhstan that retained its nuclear weapons, threatening to start a new Cold War. Three weeks after the mission, U.S. President James Marshall attends a diplomatic dinner in Moscow, Russia, during which he praises the operation and insists the U.S. will no longer negotiate with terrorists. Marshall and his entourage, including his wife Grace and daughter Alice, and several of his cabinet and advisers, prepare to return home on Air Force One. In addition, members of the press have been invited aboard, including six Radek loyalists disguised as journalists led by Egor Korshunov.
After takeoff, Secret Service agent Gibbs, a mole, enables Korshunov and his men to obtain weapons and storm the plane, killing many of the other security and military personnel before taking the rest hostage, including Grace and Alice. Marshall is raced to an escape pod in the cargo hold while pursued by Korshunov's men, but they are too late as the pod is ejected. Korshunov breaches the cockpit and slays the crew, narrowly preventing the plane from making an emergency landing at Ramstein Air Force Base in Germany. A squadron of F-15s escort Air Force One as Korshunov has it piloted towards a Radek-loyal airbase in Kazakhstan.
Unknown to Korshunov, Marshall, a veteran of the Vietnam War and a Medal of Honor recipient, has remained hidden in the cargo hold instead of using the pod, and stealthily observes the loyalists. He silently kills some of Korshunov's men and uses a satellite phone to communicate with Vice President Kathryn Bennett, letting his staff know he is alive after all. Korshunov, assuming that it is merely a Secret Service agent that is in the cargo hold, contacts Bennett and demands Radek's release, threatening to kill a hostage every half-hour. Marshall and military advisors devise a plan to trick Korshunov to take Air Force One to a lower altitude for a mid-air refueling, buying time for the hostages to parachute safely off the plane. As a KC-10 tanker docks with Air Force One, Marshall helps to capture another loyalist and escorts the hostages to the cargo hold, where most parachute away. Korshunov discovers the deception and forces Air Force One to leave, causing the fuel to ignite and thus destroying the tanker; the consequent shockwave disrupts the escape process, and Korshunov is able to stop Marshall, Chief of Staff Lloyd Shepherd, Major Caldwell and Gibbs from escaping. Some hostages and the captured loyalist fall out of the plane without parachutes.
With the president and his family under his control, Korshunov violently scolds Marshall (in revenge for killing his men) and forces him to contact Russian President Petrov and arrange for Radek's release. Bennett is urged by Defense Secretary Walter Dean to declare the president incapable under the 25th Amendment, thus overriding Radek's release, but she refuses. While Korushunov and his men celebrate the news of Radek's release, Marshall breaks his bonds and kills Korshunov and his remaining henchmen. Marshall then lifts his order to release Radek who is subsequently shot dead when he attempts to escape.
Marshall and Caldwell direct the plane back to friendly airspace, accompanied by the F-15s, only to be quickly tailed by a second batch of Radek-loyal MiG-29s. Marshall is saved by one F-15 pilot who sacrifices himself to intercept a missile; the resultant explosion damages the plane's tail, and they start to lose altitude. A standby USAF Rescue HC-130 with the callsign Liberty 24 is called to help, sending parajumpers on tether lines to rescue the survivors. Marshall insists that his family and the injured Shepherd be transferred first. When there is time for only one more transfer, Gibbs reveals himself as the traitor, killing Caldwell and the last parajumper. Marshall and Gibbs fight for control of the transfer line; Marshall grabs and detaches it at the last moment. As the HC-130 airmen reel Marshall to safety, the now inoperable Air Force One crashes into the Caspian Sea, killing Gibbs. With Marshall and his family safe, Liberty 24 is given the callsign Air Force One as they fly back to safety.
Cast
Harrison Ford as President James Marshall, the popular President of the United States and a family man, who loves his wife, Grace, and daughter, Alice. Marshall is also a decorated helicopter-rescue pilot, Vietnam veteran and Medal of Honor recipient who speaks reasonably fluent Russian. Feigning escape during Air Force One's hijacking, he attempts to retake his aircraft and rescue everyone.
Gary Oldman as Egor Korshunov, a ruthless Radek loyalist and terrorist ringleader, who leads the hijacking of Air Force One. Korshunov believes that the collapse of the Soviet Union has ruined his country. The character is erroneously named Ivan Korshunov by the end credits.
Glenn Close as Vice President Kathryn Bennett, the first female Vice President of the United States, who commands the situation in the White House Situation Room.
Wendy Crewson as First Lady Grace Marshall
Liesel Matthews as Alice Marshall, the President's daughter.
Paul Guilfoyle as White House Chief of Staff Lloyd Shepherd
William H. Macy as Major Norman Caldwell, USAF, military aide to the President
Dean Stockwell as Defense Secretary Walter Dean
Elya Baskin as Andrei Kolchak, Korshunov's close friend and pilot.
Levan Uchaneishvili as Sergei Lenski, Korshunov's communications expert.
David Vadim as Igor Nevsky, Korshunov's henchman.
Andrew Divoff as Boris Bazylev, Korshunov's henchman.
Ilia Volok as Vladimir Krasin, Korshunov's trusted lieutenant and best friend, whom he served with in the Soviet-Afghan War.
Xander Berkeley as Secret Service Special Agent Gibbs, the head of the Presidential Protective Division and the hijacking mole. The hijackers never reveal that Gibbs is their inside man.
Alan Woolf as Russian President Stolicha Petrov
Tom Everett as National Security Advisor Jack Doherty. Korshunov executes Doherty, the first hostage to die.
Jürgen Prochnow as General Ivan Radek, the dictator of a rogue terrorist regime in Kazakhstan, which has taken possession of former stolen Soviet nuclear weapons, threatening to start a new Cold War. Radek's regime is responsible for the killing of 200,000 people. Captured by a joint Russian–American military ops team, Radek is imprisoned in Russia, awaiting trial for his crimes against humanity. The terrorists who take over Air Force One demand his release, threatening to kill a hostage every half-hour. The character is erroneously named Alexander Radek by the end credits.
Donna Bullock as Deputy Press Secretary Melanie Mitchell: Korshunov, believing that a Secret Service agent is in the cargo hold, kills her.
Michael Ray Miller as Colonel Axelrod, USAF, pilot of Air Force One
Carl Weintraub as Lieutenant Colonel Ingraham, USAF, co-pilot of Air Force One
Spencer Garrett as White House aide Thomas Lee
Bill Smitrovich as General William Northwood, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Glenn Morshower as U.S. Secret Service Agent Walters
David Gianopoulos as U.S. Secret Service Agent Johnson
Dan Shor as Notre Dame aide
Philip Baker Hall as Attorney General Andrew Ward
Richard Doyle as Colonel Bob Jackson, USAF, Air Force One Backup Pilot
Willard Pugh as White House Communications officer
Diana Bellamy as White House switchboard operator Pananides
Don McManus as Lt. Colonel Jack Carlton, F-15 "Halo Flight" Leader
J.A. Preston as Major General Samuel Greely: Having been President Marshall's commanding officer during the Vietnam War, he is the first to anticipate that Marshall is battling the hijackers.
Michael Monks as Assistant White House Press Secretary
Production
A large part of the crew took a tour of the real Air Force One before filming. They based some of the film's scenes on the touring experience when the terrorists disguised as journalists survey the plane's layout and begin to take their seats. The character of Deputy Press Secretary Melanie Mitchell was based largely on their real-life tour guide, and the crew felt uncomfortable having to film the character's execution by the terrorists. For the exterior scenes, the producers rented a Boeing 747-146 aircraft, N703CK from Kalitta Air and repainted it to replicate the Air Force One livery.
Air Force One is shown as being equipped with a one-person escape pod for emergency use by the President of the United States. It was also done this way in at least three other films, Escape from New York, Bermuda Tentacles and Big Game. The actual Air Force One does not have an escape pod.
Paul Attanasio was brought in as a script doctor to work on the film prior to shooting. Scenes explaining Agent Gibbs' motivation for being the mole were cut from the final script. According to director Wolfgang Petersen, Gibbs was a former CIA agent who lost a lot after the end of the Cold War and thus became angry with the American government and wanted revenge. He knew the terrorists from his CIA days and so they included him in their operation. The scene was considered too long to tell and so it was cut from the film. The director also felt that it was unnecessary to have in the film so it was removed as it was irrelevant to the plot. Petersen also said that in the original draft, Gibbs revealed himself as the mole early and joined the terrorists in hijacking the plane. The director felt it was more suspenseful to keep the audience guessing in the final cut and specifically pointed to the scene in which Marshall gives Gibbs a gun before escorting the hostages from the conference room to the parachutes in the cargo hold.
Gary Oldman did not stay in character between the scenes. The director later said he called the filming experience "Air Force Fun" because of how comic and genial Oldman would be off-screen. He also said that Oldman would suddenly return to the menacing film persona like a shot. Oldman used his acting fee for the film to help finance his directorial debut, Nil by Mouth.
Kevin Costner was offered the role of James Marshall but turned it down as he had other commitments, and the script was given to Harrison Ford who accepted it.
General Radek's palace, seen in the film's opening, was portrayed by two locations in Cleveland, Ohio: the exterior was Severance Hall, and the interior was the Cuyahoga County Courthouse. The Russian prison where Radek was incarcerated was the Ohio State Reformatory, previously seen in The Shawshank Redemption and also used for Godsmack's music video for Awake in 2000. Ramstein Air Base, Germany was portrayed by Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base, Ohio. The diplomatic dinner scene was shot at the Ebell of Los Angeles while a second unit captured scenes in Red Square in Moscow. Scenes featuring Sheremetyevo International Airport, the departure airport of Air Force One in the film, were shot at Los Angeles International Airport.
F-15 Eagle aircraft from the 33rd Operations Group, 33rd Fighter Wing at Eglin AFB, Florida were used in the film.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Air Force One has a "Certified Fresh" 78% rating, based on 59 reviews, with an average score of 7.10/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "This late-period Harrison Ford actioner is full of palpable, if not entirely seamless, thrills." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film 3.5/4 stars, describing it as "superior escapism", and concluding, "Air Force One doesn't insult the audience. It is crafted by a film-maker who takes pride in the thrills and sly fun he packs into every frame. Welcome to something rare in a summer of crass commercialism: a class act." Todd McCarthy of Variety described the film as "a preposterously pulpy but quite entertaining suspense meller" that is "spiked by some spectacularly staged and genuinely tense action sequences." He lauded the film's antagonist: "[Gary] Oldman, in his second malevolent lead of the summer, after The Fifth Element, registers strongly as a veteran of the Afghan campaign pushed to desperate lengths to newly ennoble his country."
In a mixed review, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4 and found it flawed and cliché-ridden yet "well-served by the quality of the performances ... Air Force One is a fairly competent recycling of familiar ingredients, given an additional interest because of Harrison Ford's personal appeal." Adam Mars-Jones of The Independent was more critical, calling it "so preposterous that it begins to seem like a science-fiction artifact...the product of a parallel-universe 1990s which somehow by-passed the decades since the 1950s."
President Bill Clinton saw the film twice while in office and gave it good reviews. He noted that certain elements of the film's version of Air Force One, such as the escape pod and the rear parachute ramp, did not reflect features of the actual Air Force One (though since many Air Force One features are highly classified and "need-to-know", these features cannot be completely ruled out). In the audio commentary, Wolfgang Petersen mused that although the real plane did not have those features at the time of the filming, they would probably be added by future governments.
During his campaign for the Presidency of the United States in the 2016 presidential election, businessman and Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump said he admired Ford for his role in Air Force One because he "stood up for America". Ford responded by reasoning that "it was just a film" and doubted Trump's presidential bid would be successful.
A Wall Street Journal poll in 2016 named Harrison Ford's James Marshall as the greatest fictional president.
Box office
One of the most popular action films of the 1990s, Air Force One earned $172,650,002 (54.9%) domestically and $142,200,000 (45.1%) in other countries. It grossed a total of $315,156,409 worldwide in the box office. It was the year's fifth highest-grossing film worldwide.
Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated
Home media
Air Force One was released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD on February 10, 1998, and on Blu-ray on June 2, 2009. A 4K UHD Blu-ray followed on November 6, 2018.
The US LaserDisc release of the film is notorious among LaserDisc collectors as being extremely prone to "Laser rot", a form of optical disc degradation, due to repeat production issues at the Sony DADC facility where the discs were produced.
Score
Randy Newman was initially hired to write the film score; however, Petersen considered his composition to be almost a parody and commissioned Jerry Goldsmith to write and record a more somber and patriotic score in just twelve days, with assistance from Joel McNeely. After the experience, Goldsmith vowed to never again take on such a last-minute task.
The music label Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album featuring Goldsmith's music. McNeely receives a credit on the back cover for "Additional Music in the Motion Picture", but none of his work is on the CD, although his cues include the material heard when Air Force One is under attack. On September 27, 2019, a 2-CD release featuring the full score was released.
The first track of the soundtrack, "The Parachutes", was used by Donald Trump during his campaign for President of the United States in 2016. The track was played in the background at the New York Hilton Midtown prior to Trump's victory speech, following Hillary Clinton's concession. The track was used repeatedly at campaign events with the Trump plane as background, leading the film's producer to ask him to stop using it.
Novelization
A novelization of the film was published in June 1997 by author Max Allan Collins. Although the book has the same central plot and outcomes as the film, its main storyline has additional scenes and lines not in the film. The book develops characters more than the film. Marshall is described as possessing a smile that is described in the novel as "the most valuable weapon in his public relations arsenal" (p. 11). He promotes an interventionist line on foreign policy and a strong stance against terrorism (met with political opposition from opposition Speaker of the House, Franklin Danforth, in the novel). He is described as a first-term President, up for re-election later on in the year that the film is set in. Marshall's home state is Iowa. A two-term former governor of Iowa in the novel, he first campaigns in the film for the US House.
He graduated from University of Iowa in the early 1970s in the novel and may also have attended the University of Notre Dame. His senior Staff and Cabinet include Vice President Kathryn Bennett (former congresswoman and trial attorney from New Jersey), Chief of Staff Lloyd Shepherd (an old friend from U of I), National Security Advisor Jack Doherty, Secretary of Defense Walter Dean, Deputy NSA Director Thomas Lee, Deputy Press Secretary Melanie Mitchell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Northwood, Air Force General Greeley (who Marshall served under in Vietnam). His Party is Republican in the novel.
Marshall is described in the novel as "a moderate-Republican version of Bill Clinton, minus the womanizing reputation, and without a hint of personal or professional scandal" (p. 99–100). Korushunov's family is expanded upon, and it is revealed that Korushunov is not his real name. Unlike the movie, Gibbs's identity as the traitor is not revealed until the end of the book. It also hints at his motivation: "What he did remember, as he sipped his coffee, was that he knew these men, had worked with these men, and it was a damn shame they had to die so that he could be wealthy." Korushunov later tells Marshall he "paid" him off. It also presents a slightly alternative ending: in the novel, Air Force One crashes in the Russian countryside, but in the film, it crashes into the Caspian Sea.
References
Further reading
External links
1997 action thriller films
1997 films
American action thriller films
American aviation films
American disaster films
American films
American political thriller films
Beacon Pictures films
Columbia Pictures films
1990s English-language films
Films scored by Jerry Goldsmith
Films about aviation accidents or incidents
Films about fictional presidents of the United States
Films about aircraft hijackings
Films about terrorism
Films directed by Wolfgang Petersen
Films set in the Caspian Sea
Films set in Germany
Films set in Kazakhstan
Films set in Moscow
Films set in the White House
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films set on airplanes
Films shot in Cleveland
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Moscow
Films shot in Washington, D.C.
Films produced by Gail Katz
Touchstone Pictures films
Films about the United States Air Force
United States presidential succession in fiction
Films about Air Force One | [
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238811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Trebia | Battle of the Trebia | The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic War, fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and a Roman army under Sempronius Longus on 22 or 23 December 218 BC. It took place on the flood plain of the west bank of the lower Trebia River, not far from the settlement of Placentia (modern Piacenza), and resulted in a heavy defeat for the Romans.
War broke out between Carthage and Rome in 218 BC. The leading Carthaginian general, Hannibal, responded by leading a large army out of Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), through Gaul, across the Alps and into Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy). The Romans went on the attack against the reduced force which had survived the rigours of the march and Publius Scipio personally led the cavalry and light infantry of the army he commanded against the Carthaginian cavalry at the Battle of Ticinus. He was soundly beaten and personally wounded. The Romans retreated to near Placentia, fortified their camp and awaited reinforcement. The Roman army in Sicily under Sempronius was redeployed to the north and joined with Scipio's force. After a day of heavy skirmishing in which the Romans gained the upper hand, Sempronius was eager for a battle.
Numidian cavalry lured Sempronius out of his camp and onto ground of Hannibal's choosing. Fresh Carthaginian cavalry routed the outnumbered Roman cavalry, and Carthaginian light infantry outflanked the Roman infantry. A previously hidden Carthaginian force attacked the Roman infantry in the rear. Most of the Roman units then collapsed and most Romans were killed or captured by the Carthaginians, but 10,000 under Sempronius maintained formation and fought their way out to the safety of Placentia. Recognising the Carthaginians as the dominant force in Cisalpine Gaul, Gallic recruits flocked to them and their army grew to 60,000. The following spring it moved south into Roman Italy and gained another victory at the Battle of Lake Trasimene. In 216 BC Hannibal moved to southern Italy and inflicted the disastrous defeat of the Battle of Cannae on the Romans, the last of what the modern historian Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war.
Primary sources
The main source for almost every aspect of the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius ( – ), a Greek general sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is now known for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible personally interviewed participants, from both sides, in the events he wrote about. The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it at face value, and the details of the battle in modern sources are largely based on interpretations of Polybius's account. The modern historian Andrew Curry sees Polybius as being "fairly reliable"; while Craige Champion describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian".
Livy, who relied heavily on Polybius, is the other major source for this battle and the events around it. The classicist Adrian Goldsworthy considers Livy's "reliability is often suspect", especially with regard to his descriptions of battles, and he is generally considered untrustworthy by modern historians. Other, later, ancient accounts of the battle exist, although often in fragmentary or summary form. Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman annalists, some contemporary; the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus; Plutarch; Appian; and Dio Cassius. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions such as the trireme Olympias.
Background
Pre-war
The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome: the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC struggled for supremacy primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. The war lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC, until the Carthaginians were defeated. The Treaty of Lutatius was signed by which Carthage evacuated Sicily and paid an indemnity of 3,200 talents over ten years. Four years later Rome seized Sardinia and Corsica on a cynical pretence and imposed a further 1,200 talent indemnity. The seizure of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome and the additional indemnity fuelled resentment in Carthage. Polybius considered this act of bad faith by the Romans to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again nineteen years later.
Shortly after Rome's breach of the treaty the leading Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca led many of his veterans on an expedition to expand Carthaginian holdings in south-east Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal); this was to become a quasi-monarchial, autonomous Barcid fiefdom. Carthage gained silver mines, agricultural wealth, manpower, military facilities such as shipyards and territorial depth; which encouraged it to stand up to future Roman demands. Hamilcar ruled as a viceroy and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, in the early 220s BC and then his son, Hannibal, in 221 BC. In 226 BC the Ebro Treaty was agreed, specifying the Ebro River as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian sphere of influence. A little later Rome made a separate treaty with the city of Saguntum, well south of the Ebro. In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum. In spring 218 BC Rome declared war on Carthage.
War in Cisalpine Gaul
It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year, known as consuls, to each lead an army. In 218 BC the Romans raised an army to campaign in Iberia under the consul Publius Scipio, who was accompanied by his brother Gnaeus. The major Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), antagonised by the founding of several Roman settlements on traditionally Gallic territory, attacked the Romans, capturing several towns. They repeatedly ambushed a Roman relief force and blockaded it in Tannetum. The Roman Senate detached one Roman and one allied legion from the force intended for Iberia to send to the region. The Scipios had to raise fresh troops to replace these and thus could not set out for Iberia until September.
Carthage invades Italy
Meanwhile, Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern Cartagena) over the winter, marching north in May 218 BC he entered Gaul to the east of the Pyrenees, then took an inland route to avoid the Roman allies along the coast. Hannibal left his brother Hasdrubal Barca in charge of Carthaginian interests in Iberia. The Roman fleet carrying the Scipio brothers' army landed at Rome's ally Massalia (modern Marseille) at the mouth of the River Rhone in September, at about the same time as Hannibal was fighting his way across the river against a force of local Allobroges at the Battle of Rhone Crossing. A Roman cavalry patrol scattered a force of Carthaginian cavalry, but Hannibal's main army evaded the Romans and Gnaeus Scipio continued to Iberia with the Roman force; Publius returned to Italy. The Carthaginians crossed the Alps with 38,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry in October, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain and the guerrilla tactics of the native tribes.
Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephantsthe survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia in what is now Piedmont, northern Italy. The Romans had already withdrawn to their winter quarters and were astonished by Hannibal's appearance. The Carthaginians needed to obtain supplies of food, as they had exhausted theirs during their journey, and obtain allies among the north-Italian Gallic tribes from which they could recruit, in order to build up their army to a size which would enable it to effectively take on the Romans. The local tribe, the Taurini, were unwelcoming, so Hannibal promptly besieged their capital, (near the site of modern Turin) stormed it, massacred the population and seized the supplies there. With these brutal actions Hannibal was sending out a clear message to the other Gallic tribes as to the likely consequences of non-cooperation.
Hearing that Publius Scipio was operating in the region, he assumed the Roman army in Massalia which he had believed en route to Iberia had returned to Italy and reinforced the army already based in the north. Believing that he would therefore be facing a much larger Roman force than he had anticipated, Hannibal felt an even more pressing need to recruit strongly among the Cisalpine Gauls. He determined that a display of confidence was called for and advanced boldly down the valley of the Po. However, Scipio led his army equally boldly against the Carthaginians, causing the Gauls to remain neutral. Both commanders attempted to inspire the ardour of their men for the coming battle by making fiery speeches to their assembled armies. Hannibal is reported to have stressed to his troops that they had to win, whatever the cost, as there was no place they could retreat to.
First contact
After camping at Placentia (modern Piacenza), a Roman colony founded earlier that year, the Romans created a pontoon bridge across the lower River Ticinus and continued west. With his scouts reporting the nearby presence of Carthaginians, Scipio ordered his army to encamp. The Carthaginians did the same. Next day each commander led out a strong force to personally reconnoitre the size and make up of the opposing army, things of which they would have been almost completely ignorant. Scipio mixed a large force of (javelin-armed light infantry) with his main cavalry force, anticipating a large-scale skirmish. Hannibal put his close-order cavalry in the centre of his line, with his light Numidian cavalry on the wings.
On sighting the Roman infantry the Carthaginian centre immediately charged and the javelinmen fled back through the ranks of their cavalry. A large melee ensued, with many cavalry dismounting to fight on foot and many of the Roman javelinmen reinforcing the fighting line. This continued indecisively until the Numidians swept round both ends of the line of battle, and attacked the still disorganised , the small Roman cavalry reserve to which Scipio had attached himself, and the rear of the already engaged Roman cavalry, throwing them all into confusion and panic. The Romans broke and fled, with heavy casualties. Scipio was wounded and only saved from death or capture by his 16-year-old son, also named Publius Cornelius Scipio. That night Scipio broke camp and retreated over the Ticinus; the Carthaginians captured 600 of his rearguard the next day.
The Romans withdrew as far as Placentia. Two days after this clash the Carthaginians crossed the River Po, and marched towards Placentia. They formed up outside the Roman camp and offered battle, which Scipio refused. The Carthaginians set up their own camp some away. That night 2,200 Gallic troops serving with the Roman army attacked the Romans closest to them in their tents, and deserted to the Carthaginians, taking the Romans' heads with them as a sign of good faith. Hannibal rewarded them and sent them back to their homes to enrol more recruits. Hannibal also made his first formal treaty with a Gallic tribe, and supplies and recruits started to come in. The Romans abandoned their camp and withdrew under cover of night. The next morning the Carthaginian cavalry bungled their pursuit and the Romans were able to set up camp on an area of high ground by the River Trebia at what is now Rivergaro, a little south west of Placentia. Even so, they had to abandon much of their baggage and heavier gear, and many stragglers were killed or captured. Scipio waited for reinforcements while Hannibal camped at a distance on the plain on the other side of the river, gathering supplies and training the Gauls now flocking to his standard.
Prelude
Rome's other consul, Sempronius Longus, was meanwhile assembling an army in western Sicily, with which it was planned to invade Africa the following year. Shocked by Hannibal's arrival and Scipio's setback, the Senate ordered this army to move north to assist Scipio. It probably covered part of the distance by sea as it arrived at Ariminum (modern Rimini) only 40 days later. Sempronius's army then marched to join Scipio's on the Trebia and set up camp alongside it. As Scipio was still partially incapacitated by his wounds Sempronius took overall command. Meanwhile, Hannibal bribed a force of Roman allies from Brundisium (modern Brindisi) garrisoning a large grain depot at Clastidium, to the west, into surrendering the place. This resolved any remaining Carthaginian logistical difficulties.
Formal battles were usually preceded by the two armies camping two to twelve kilometres (1–8 miles) apart for days or weeks; sometimes forming up in battle order each day. During these periods when armies were encamped in close proximity it was common for their light forces to skirmish with each other, attempting to gather information on each other's forces and achieve minor, morale-raising victories. These were typically fluid affairs and viewed as preliminaries to any subsequent battle. In such circumstances either commander could prevent a battle from occurring, and unless both commanders were to at least some degree willing to give battle, both sides might march off without engaging. Forming up in battle order was a complicated and premeditated affair, which took several hours. Infantry were usually positioned in the centre of the battle line, with light infantry skirmishers to their front and cavalry on each flank. Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was partially or wholly enveloped and attacked in the flank or rear. In 218 BC the two armies established camps about from each other on opposite sides of the River Trebia. The Romans' was on an easily defended low hill to the east of the Trebia, and the Carthaginians' was on high ground to the west.
While waiting to see what Sempronius would do, Hannibal came to believe some of the Gauls in the immediate area were communicating with the Romans. He sent a force of 3,000 men, partly composed of Gauls, to devastate the area and plunder their settlements. Sempronius sent a force of cavalrylarge, but of unknown sizesupported by 1,000 to challenge them. As they were dispersed between a large number of settlements and many were burdened with plunder and looted food, the Carthaginians were easily routed and fled back to their camp. The Romans pursued, but were in turn thrown back by the Carthaginian reserve force on duty at the camp. Roman reinforcements were called in, eventually amounting to all 4,000 of their cavalry and 6,000 light infantry. How many Carthaginians were involved is unclear, but a large, fast-moving conflict sprawled across the plain. Hannibal was concerned that it would develop into a full-scale battle in a manner which he would not be able to control, so he recalled his troops and took personal command of reforming them immediately outside his camp. This brought the fighting to an end, as the Romans were unwilling to attack uphill against an enemy who would be supported by missile fire from within their camp. The Romans withdrew claiming the victory: they had inflicted more casualties and the Carthaginians had abandoned the field of battle to them.
Hannibal had deliberately brought the battle to a close, but Sempronius interpreted events as the Roman cavalry having dominated the Carthaginians. Sempronius was eager for a full-scale battle: he wished it to take place before Scipio fully recovered and so would be able to share the glory of an imagined victory, and he was aware that he would be superseded in his position in less than three months, when the new consuls took up their positions. Hannibal was also ready for a set piece battle: he wished his new Gallic allies to participate in a victory before boredom and winter weather provoked desertions; and was possibly concerned by the recent suspected Gallic treachery in the immediate area. From the enthusiastic way in which Sempronius had reinforced his cavalry, Hannibal felt confident that he could provoke a battle at a time and place of his choosing.
Opposing forces
Roman
Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin-armed skirmishers, known as ; they carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword, and a shield. The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords. They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second carried a short-sword and third rank had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones.
The combined force which Sempronius led into battle included four Roman legions. At full strength these should have mustered 16,800 men, including 4,800 ; at least one of the legions is known to have been significantly understrength. Polybius gives a total of 16,000 Romans, Livy 18,000. In addition there were approximately 20,000 allied infantry, comprising four Latin allied legions and a strong force of Gauls. Mention is made of 6,000 light infantry and it is unclear whether these are included in the 36,000, or 38,000, infantry or in addition to them. As the nominal total number of from eight legions is 9,600, and it is known that many were lost at the Battle of the Ticinus, most modern historians assume that the 6,000 are included within the total number of infantry given. There were also 4,000 cavalry, a mixture of Romans, Latin allies and Gauls.
Carthaginian
Carthage usually recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many would be from North Africa (often referred to as "Libyans") which provided several types of fighters including: close-order heavy infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat (these were usually Numidian). Iberia provided large numbers of experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. The close-order North African infantry would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a phalanx and were well trained and disciplined. Slingers were recruited from the Balearic Islands. The Carthaginians also famously employed the war elephants which Hannibal had brought over the Alps; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.
Hannibal had arrived in Italy with 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. At Trebia this had grown to 29,000 infantry21,000 close-order and 8,000 light infantry and 11,000 cavalry. In each case they would be a combination of Africans, Iberians and Gauls; the proportions in each case are not known, other than that 8,000 of the close-order infantry were Gauls. In addition there were the elephantsthe survivors of the 37 with which he had left Iberia.
Battle
Early stages
The terrain between the Carthaginian camp and the Trebia was a unwooded flood plain, where it was apparently impossible to stage an ambush. Hannibal however, had Mago (a Carthaginian general and one of Hannibal's younger brothers) take 1,000 cavalry and 1,000 infantry during the night to the south of where he intended to fight the battle and secret themselves in an old watercourse full of brush.
The next morning, either 22 or 23 December, was cold and snowy. Shortly before daybreak Hannibal sent his Numidian cavalry across the river to force back the Roman pickets and provoke a fight. Meanwhile, the rest of his army ate an early breakfast and prepared for battle. When the Numidians appeared Sempronius ordered out all of his cavalry to chase them off. Polybius writes "the Numidians easily scattered and retreated, but afterwards wheeled round and attacked with great daring—these being their peculiar tactics." The confrontation broke down into a wheeling mass of cavalry, but with the Numidians refusing to withdraw, Sempronius promptly ordered out first his 6,000 and then his whole army. He was so eager to give battle that few, if any, of them had eaten breakfast. The Numidians withdrew slowly and Sempronius pushed his whole army after them, in three columns, each long, through the icy waters of the Trebia, which was running chest-high. The Romans were met by the Carthaginian light infantry, with behind them the entire Carthaginian army forming up for battle. The Romans also organised themselves in battle formation and advanced.
The cavalry fell back to their positions on the wings. The large number of light infantry in each armyentirely javelinmen for the Romans, a mixture of javelinmen and slingers from the Balearics for the Carthaginiansskirmished between the main armies. The Roman had used many of their javelins against the Carthaginian cavalry, while the Carthaginian skirmishers were fully supplied; as opposed to their opponents, the were unfed, and also tired and cold from having forded the Trebia; and the slingers among the Carthaginians outranged the by some distance. For these reasons the Carthaginians got the better of the initial skirmishing and drove the back through the gaps in their supporting heavy infantry. The Carthaginian light infantry then moved towards the flanks of their army and harassed the Roman cavalry with their missiles, before finally falling back behind their own cavalry as the gap between the armies closed.
Formations
The Carthaginian army formed up symmetrically: the 8,000 Gallic infantry were in the centre; on each side of them was a formation of 6,000 African and Iberian veteran infantry; on the far side of each of these were half of the surviving elephants; and on each wing were 5,000 cavalry. The Romans too formed up symmetrically: the Roman heavy infantry were in the centre, perhaps 13,000 strong; on each side of them were part of their allied force, some 17,000 in totalthis included a large force of Cenomani Gauls, but the sources are unclear as to how many or where they were positioned. The survivors of the 6,000 were regrouping to their rear. Like the Carthaginians, the Romans divided their 4,000 cavalry between their wings.
Engagement
The Romans had a total of approximately 30,000 heavy infantry to the Carthaginians' 20,000 and could expect sooner or later to overwhelm their opponents by weight of numbers. The Carthaginian line was also in danger of being outflanked by the stronger Roman force; to guard against this Hannibal thinned the Carthaginian line, especially that of the Gauls in the centre, to be able to lengthen it to match the Romans'. Also, with tactical forethought typical of him, he had positioned the elephants on either side of the infantry, which discouraged the Roman infantry from approaching their flanks too closely.
On each wing 5,000 Carthaginian and 2,000 Roman cavalry charged each other. The Roman cavalry were not only outnumbered, but their horses were tired from chasing the Numidian cavalry and many had been wounded by the fire of the Carthaginian light infantry. Both encounters ended rapidly, with the Romans fleeing back over the Trebia, and most of the Carthaginian cavalry pursuing them. Goldsworthy describes the fight put up by the Roman cavalry as "feeble", while the military historian Philip Sabin says that the two contests were "speedily decided". The Carthaginian light infantry, who had withdrawn to the wings behind the cavalry, moved forward and round the now exposed Roman flanks. The Roman light infantry, who had withdrawn to the rear of Roman heavy infantry, turned to face this developing Carthaginian threat. Many of the Roman allied heavy infantry on each flank also turned to their flanks to face this new threat; this inevitably took much of the impetus out of their parent formation's push against the African and Iberian infantry to their fronts.
At the same time, unnoticed in the heat of battle, Mago's force of 2,000 had been making its way down the watercourse, and then onto the plain and into a position where they could attack the Romans' left rear. While all this was happening, the fighting between the two heavy infantry contingents had continued fiercely, with the more numerous and better armoured Romans getting the better of it; despite being weakened by many of their component units having to turn to the flank or rear. Mago's force charged into the who were already fending off the Carthaginian light infantry, but their formation held. Increasing numbers of Carthaginian cavalry broke off their pursuit, returned and attacked the Roman rear. Eventually the strain told and the units of Latin allies and Gauls on the flanks and the to the rear started to break up.
Meanwhile, the Roman infantry in the centre routed the 8,000 Gauls facing them, as well as a unit of African heavy infantry, and broke clean through the centre of the Carthaginian army. By the time they halted their pursuit and reorganised it was clear the rest of their army behind them had dissolved and that the battle was lost. Sempronius, who was fighting with the Roman infantry, ordered them away from the site of the battle and, maintaining their formation, 10,000 of them re-crossed the Trebia and reached the nearby Roman-held settlement of Placentia without interference from the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians concentrated on pursuing and cutting down the partially-surrounded balance of the Roman army.
Casualties
There is debate among modern historians as to the Roman losses. Dexter Hoyos states that the only Roman survivors were the infantry who broke through the Carthaginian centre. Richard Miles says that "many" not in this group were killed; although Nigel Bagnall writes that this was only a minority of the Roman cavalry. Adrian Goldsworthy states that the Romans "suffered heavily", but that "numbers of soldiers" straggled into Placentia or one of their camps in addition to the formed group of 10,000; while John Lazenby argues that in addition outside of the 10,000, "few" infantry escaped, although "most" of the cavalry did; as does Leonard Cottrell. According to Paul Erdkamp, the Romans lost 20,000 killed during the battle, half of their force; this excludes those captured.
Carthaginian losses are generally agreed to have been several thousand of the Gallic infantry in the centre, a smaller number of his other infantry and of his cavalry; and several elephants.
Aftermath
As was usual at the time, the Romans had left a strong guard at their camps. On hearing the news of the defeat the wounded Scipio gathered them together and marched to Placentia, where he joined Sempronius. When news of the defeat reached Rome it initially caused panic. But this calmed once Sempronius arrived, to preside over the consular elections in the usual manner. Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Gaius Flaminius were selected and Sempronius then returned to Placentia to see out his term to 15 March. The Carthaginian cavalry isolated both Placentia and Cremona, but these could be supplied by boat up the Po. The consuls-elect recruited further legions, both Roman and from Rome's Latin allies; reinforced Sardinia and Sicily against the possibility of Carthaginian raids or invasion; placed garrisons at Tarentum and other places for similar reasons; built a fleet of 60 quinqueremes; and established supply depots at Ariminum and Arretium in Etruria in preparation for marching north later in the year. Two armiesof four legions each, two Roman and two allied, but with stronger than usual cavalry contingentswere formed. One was stationed at Arretium, and one on the Adriatic coast; they would be able to block Hannibal's possible advance into central Italy, and be well positioned to move north to operate in Cisalpine Gaul.
According to Polybius, the Carthaginians were now recognised as the dominant force in Cisalpine Gaul and most of the Gallic tribes sent plentiful supplies and recruits to his camp. Livy, however, claims the Carthaginians suffered from a shortage of food throughout the winter. In Polybius's account there were only minor operations during the winter and most of the surviving Romans were evacuated down the Po and assigned to one of the two new armies being formed, while the flow of Gallic support for the Carthaginians became a flood and their army grew to 60,000. Livy retails dramatic accounts of winter confrontations, but Adrian Goldsworthy describes these as "probably an invention".
Subsequent campaigns
In spring 217BC, probably early May, the Carthaginians crossed the Apennines unopposed, taking a difficult but unguarded route. Hannibal attempted without success to draw the main Roman army under Gaius Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the area they had been sent to protect. The Carthaginians then cut off the Roman army from Rome, which provoked Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Hannibal set an ambush and in the Battle of Lake Trasimene completely defeated the Roman army, killing Flaminius and another 15,000 Romans and taking 15,000 prisoner. A cavalry force of 4,000 from the other Roman army were also engaged and wiped out.
The prisoners were badly treated if they were Romans; the Latin allies who were captured were well treated by the Carthaginians and many were freed and sent back to their cities, in the hope that they would speak well of Carthaginian martial prowess and of their treatment. Hannibal hoped some of these allies could be persuaded to defect, and marched south in the hope of winning over some of the ethnic Greek and Italic city states. There, the following year, Hannibal won a victory at Cannae which Richard Miles describes as "Rome's greatest military disaster". The historian Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war. Subsequently the Carthaginians campaigned in southern Italy for a further 13 years.
In 204 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio, the son of the Scipio who had been wounded at Ticinus, invaded the Carthaginian homeland and defeated the Carthaginians in two major battles and won the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa. Hannibal and the remnants of his army were recalled from Italy to confront him. They met at the Battle of Zama in October 202BC and Hannibal was decisively defeated. As a consequence Carthage agreed a peace treaty which stripped it of most of its territory and power.
Notes
References
Sources
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238813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlative-based%20fallacies | Correlative-based fallacies | In philosophy, correlative-based fallacies are informal fallacies based on correlative conjunctions.
Correlative conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a relationship between two statements where one must be false and the other true. In formal logic this is known as the exclusive or relationship; traditionally, terms between which this relationship exists have been called contradictories.
Examples
In the following example, statement b explicitly negates statement a:
Statements can also be mutually exclusive, without explicitly negating each other as in the following example:
Fallacies
Fallacies based on correlatives include:
False dilemma or false correlative.
Here something which is not a correlative is treated as a correlative, excluding some other possibility.
Denying the correlative
where an attempt is made to introduce another option into a true correlative.
Suppressed correlative
where the definitions of a correlative are changed so that one of the options includes the other, making one option impossible.
See also
Logical conjunction
Logical disjunction
Informal fallacies | [
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238815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocytosis | Monocytosis | Monocytosis is an increase in the number of monocytes circulating in the blood. Monocytes are white blood cells that give rise to macrophages and dendritic cells in the immune system.
In humans, monocytosis occurs when there is a sustained rise in monocyte counts greater than 800/mm3 to 1000/mm3.
Monocytosis has sometimes been called mononucleosis, but that name is usually reserved specifically for infectious mononucleosis.
Causes
Monocytosis often occurs during chronic inflammation. Diseases that produce such a chronic inflammatory state:
Infections: tuberculosis, brucellosis, listeriosis, subacute bacterial endocarditis, syphilis, and other viral infections and many protozoal and rickettsial infections (e.g. kala azar, malaria, Rocky Mountain spotted fever).
Blood and immune causes: chronic neutropenia and myeloproliferative disorders.
Autoimmune diseases and vasculitis: systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.
Malignancies: Hodgkin's disease and certain leukaemias, such as chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia (CMML) and monocytic leukemia.
Recovery phase of neutropenia or an acute infection.
Obesity (cf. Nagareddy et al. (2014), Cell Metabolism, Vol. 19, pp 821–835)
Miscellaneous causes: sarcoidosis and lipid storage disease.
During these stages of extreme inflammation, monocytosis can damage tissues because it increases the activation of the immune response and prevents the inflammation from subsiding which is seen in cases where sepsis occurs.
Diagnosis
Blood Test (CBC) (Normal range of Monocytes: 1-10%) (Normal range in males: 0.2-0.8 x 103/microliter)
Blood test checking for monocytosis (Abnormal ranges: >10%) (Abnormal range in males: >0.8 x 103/microliter)
Treatment
Ceftriaxone if there is typhoid fever and levofloxacin or moxifloxacin.
Gentamicin and doxycyclin if brucellosis.
References
External links
Monocyte and granulocyte disorders | [
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238822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol-fa | Sol-fa | Sol-fa may refer to:
Sol-fa (album), a 2004 album by Asian Kung-Fu Generation
Solfège, a music education method
Tonic sol-fa, a method of teaching sight-singing
Tonic Sol-fa (a cappella group), a quartet from Minnesota | [
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238832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie%20Mauresmo | Amélie Mauresmo | Amélie Simone Mauresmo (; born 5 July 1979) is a French retired tennis player and former world No. 1. Mauresmo won two Grand Slam singles titles, at the Australian Open and at Wimbledon, and also won the silver medal in singles at the 2004 Summer Olympics.
Mauresmo first attained the top ranking on 13 September 2004, holding it for five weeks on that occasion. She was the 15th world No. 1 in women's tennis since the computer rankings began. She is well known for her powerful one-handed backhand and strong net play. She officially announced her retirement from professional tennis on 3 December 2009, ending a career of 15 years. In 2010, she started her career as a coach for several WTA and ATP players, including Andy Murray.
Mauresmo was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2015.
Early life
Mauresmo was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, slightly northwest of Paris. She began playing tennis at the age of four, after being inspired by Yannick Noah's win in the 1983 French Open on television. It was after his win that Mauresmo's parents bought her her first tennis racket. Later on in 1998 Yannick Noah picked her on the French team for the Fed Cup. Her mother Françoise is a housewife and her father Francis, who died in March 2004, was an engineer. She has a brother, Fabien, who is an engineer.
In 1996, Mauresmo captured both the junior French Open and Wimbledon women's singles titles. She was named 1996 Junior World Champion by the International Tennis Federation.
Player career
The unseeded Mauresmo reached the Australian Open final in 1999 with wins over three seeded players, including world No. 1, Lindsay Davenport, before falling to world No. 2, Martina Hingis. Mauresmo was only the second Frenchwoman ever to reach the Australian Open final; (Mary Pierce was the first, winning the championship in 1995). She was only the third Frenchwoman to reach any Grand Slam final during the Open Era.
Mauresmo defeated Hingis later in the year, en route to the final of the Paris indoor event.
After the defeat of Davenport at the Australian Open, Mauresmo, 19 at the time, came out as gay to the international press. She "attributed her success on the court to coming to terms with her sexuality and finding love."
2004: Olympic silver, world No. 1
Mauresmo reached the semifinals at Wimbledon, where she lost to Serena Williams in three sets after winning the first set and up a break in the second set. She reached the quarterfinals of the three other Grand Slam tournaments and won three Tier I titles in Rome, Berlin, and Montreal.
Mauresmo won a silver medal in singles at the Olympic Games in Athens, where she was defeated by Justine Henin in the final.
On 13 September 2004, Mauresmo became the first French tennis player to become world No. 1 since the computer rankings began in the 1970s. She held that ranking for five weeks and was the second woman, after Kim Clijsters, to have attained the top spot without having won a Grand Slam title.
2005: WTA Tour Championships crown
Mauresmo reached the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, but was defeated there by eventual champion Serena Williams.
At the French Open, seeded third, Mauresmo was upset in the third round by the then little-known 17-year-old Ana Ivanovic, in three sets. Mauresmo had, at the Australian Open earlier in the year, become the first player to defeat the Serb in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament, winning in straight sets also in the third round.
At the US Open, Mauresmo lost in the quarterfinals to Mary Pierce, in straight sets. That followed a semifinal loss to Lindsay Davenport at Wimbledon.
Mauresmo claimed her first singles title at the WTA Tour Championships. She defeated Pierce in the final after losing to Pierce in a round-robin match at that tournament, in three sets.
2006: Two Grand Slam titles, back to No. 1
At the Australian Open, Mauresmo captured her first Grand Slam singles title, defeating Belgian former world No. 1 players, Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin, en route. Both opponents retired from their respective matches, Clijsters with a right ankle sprain in the third set of their semifinal and Henin from gastroenteritis in the final. Mauresmo was leading in both matches at the time of the retirements, by 6–1, 2–0 against Henin.
Mauresmo then won her next two tournaments, the Open Gaz de France tournament in Paris (defeating Mary Pierce in the final) and the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp, Belgium (defeating Clijsters in the final).
At the Qatar Open in Doha, Mauresmo defeated Martina Hingis in a semifinal, 6–2, 6–2, but lost to Nadia Petrova in the final. Had she won the final, she would have immediately regained the world No. 1 ranking from Clijsters. Nonetheless, the outcome was sufficient to ensure Mauresmo's return to the world number-one ranking on 20 March 2006.
Mauresmo then reached the semifinals of the Miami Open in Key Biscayne, Florida, where she lost to the eventual champion Svetlana Kuznetsova.
Mauresmo lost in the fourth round of the French Open to Czech teenager Nicole Vaidišová, 6–7, 6–1, 6–2. Mauresmo next suffered a first-round loss at the Wimbledon warm-up tournament in Eastbourne. However, Mauresmo and Kuznetsova won the doubles title there, their first as a team and Mauresmo's second overall.
Mauresmo was the top seed at Wimbledon. She defeated Anastasia Myskina in a quarterfinal and Maria Sharapova in a semifinal, and then came back from one set down to defeat Henin in the final 2–6, 6–3, 6–4. The victory was Mauresmo's second Grand Slam singles title and the first on grass. She was also the first Frenchwoman since Suzanne Lenglen to win Wimbledon. She remains the most recent woman to win Wimbledon with a single-handed backhand. The Wimbledon final was notable because it was the first and only time in the decade that neither Williams sister qualified for the final.
She then pulled out of the Fed Cup World Group I playoff tie against the Czech Republic due to a groin injury sustained during Wimbledon. She also withdrew from the Rogers Cup in Montreal.
Her next tournament was the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven, Connecticut, where she lost in the quarterfinals to Lindsay Davenport, 4–6, 5–7.
At the US Open, Mauresmo lost to Sharapova in the semifinals 0–6, 6–4, 0–6. This was the first time in the open era that a female had lost two sets at love in a US Open semifinal.
Mauresmo then reached the final of the China Open, losing to Kuznetsova. During the tournament, Mauresmo won 137 ranking points to help preserve her world no. 1 ranking and ended a nine-match losing streak to Davenport stretching back to January 2000 in Sydney.
To conclude the year, Mauresmo reached the final of the WTA Tour Championships in Madrid, losing to Henin, 4–6, 3–6. Mauresmo finished the year ranked world No. 3, behind Henin and Sharapova.
2007: Out of the top 5
Mauresmo started the year in Australia with a quarterfinal loss to Jelena Janković at the Sydney International. At the Australian Open, Mauresmo lost in the fourth round to Lucie Šafářová, 4–6, 3–6, after winning her first three matches in straight sets.
Mauresmo's next tournament was the Open Gaz de France, where she lost in the semifinals to Nadia Petrova, 7–5, 4–6, 6–7, after Mauresmo led 4–1 in the final set and had a match point in the tiebreak. This was Mauresmo's third loss in the last four matches with Petrova. In her next tournament at the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp, Mauresmo defeated Kim Clijsters in the final. This was Mauresmo's third consecutive title there, earning her the diamond-encrusted racquet that comes with winning the title at least three times in five years. The trophy cost US$1.3 million. Mauresmo then played the Dubai Open, where she lost to Justine Henin in the final.
On 16 March 2007, Mauresmo received the Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur from President Jacques Chirac.
Mauresmo was scheduled to play the Miami Open, but was forced to withdraw because of acute appendicitis. She also withdrew from the Bausch & Lomb Championships in Amelia Island, Florida, for the same reason. Although she had resumed training, she was not fit enough to compete at the J & S Cup in Warsaw, Poland.
At the German Open in Berlin, Mauresmo lost in the third round to Julia Vakulenko of Ukraine, and at the Rome Masters, she lost in the second round to Samantha Stosur, 7–5, 7–6, 6–7, after Mauresmo led 5–3 in the third set. Going into the French Open, Mauresmo had played only three tournaments since the end of February. Mauresmo lost to Czech Lucie Šafářová in the third round, 3–6, 6–7, committing eight double faults and 49 unforced errors.
After losing to Henin in the final of the International Women's Open in Eastbourne, 5–7, 7–6, 6–7, after being up 4–1 in the deciding set, defending champion Mauresmo went into Wimbledon saying that she was ready to win another major title. However, she lost her fourth round match against Czech teen Nicole Vaidišová, 6–7, 6–4, 1–6. The loss dropped her to world No. 6, her first time outside the top five since November 2003.
Mauresmo withdrew from the US Open, because of a lack of fitness.
She made her return to the tour at the China Open in Beijing. However, she lost in the quarterfinals to home-crowd favourite Peng Shuai. She then entered the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, where she lost to Elena Dementieva in straight sets. At the Kremlin Cup in Moscow, Mauresmo lost in the first round to Vera Zvonareva. In Zürich, Mauresmo lost in the second round to Alona Bondarenko in three sets.
Mauresmo left Dunlop for HEAD racquets. The partnership was to run through 2010.
2008: Shadow of the champion
Her first tournament of the year was the Tier III Australian Hardcourts in Gold Coast, where she lost in the quarterfinals to fourth-seeded Patty Schnyder. At the Australian Open in Melbourne, Mauresmo lost in the third round to Casey Dellacqua, 6–3, 4–6, 4–6.
At her next tournament, the Tier II Open Gaz de France in Paris, Mauresmo lost in the quarterfinals to Anna Chakvetadze, 6–3, 3–6, 3–6.
Mauresmo played both tournaments in the Middle East. At the Tier I Qatar Open, she lost in the second round to Tamarine Tanasugarn, 6–7, 5–7. At the Tier II Dubai Tennis Championships, Mauresmo reached her third quarterfinal of the year, but was unable to hold off second seed and eventual finalist Svetlana Kuznetsova, losing 1–6, 6–7.
Mauresmo then lost in the third round of Tier-I events, the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells and the Miami Open in Key Biscayne.
On clay at the Bausch & Lomb Championships in Amelia Island, Mauresmo lost in the quarterfinals to eventual runner-up Dominika Cibulková.
At the French Open, Mauresmo lost in the second round to Spanish qualifier Carla Suárez Navarro, 3–6, 4–6.
At the Eastbourne International, Mauresmo defeated sixth-seeded French woman Alizé Cornet in the first round, 6–1, 4–6, 7–5, but lost in the second round after retiring due to injury from her match with Sam Stosur while Mauresmo was leading 2–1.
At Wimbledon, Mauresmo lost in the third round to two-time former champion Serena Williams, 6–7, 1–6. Hampered by a thigh injury, Mauresmo trailed 5–0 in the second set before breaking Williams's serve, only to be broken herself in the next game and lose the match. Mauresmo said after the match, "I was not 100% in my movement but overall I thought there were some good moments in the first set. But I really started to feel the injury in the tiebreak, and I'm not going to talk about the second set."
Mauresmo declined the nomination by the French Tennis Federation to play in the Olympic Games after Mary Pierce withdrew. Pauline Parmentier was then nominated.
Mauresmo, after a two-month hiatus from tennis due to a thigh injury sustained at Wimbledon, lost in the semifinals of the Cincinnati Open to Nathalie Dechy, 4–6, 6–3, 2–6. After the match, Mauresmo, sounding optimistic about her chances at the upcoming US Open, said "I got four matches in this week, which is what I was looking for. It would have been great to play five but I'll go to New Haven (Connecticut) hoping to find a little more rhythm and build up to the US Open." Mauresmo then lost in the semifinals of the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament (in New Haven) to top-seeded Chakvetadze 3–6, 6–3, 1–6. At the US Open, Mauresmo lost in the fourth round to 16th-seeded Flavia Pennetta 3–6, 0–6.
On 29 September, Mauresmo announced that she would split from her long-time coach, Loïc Courteau.
Mauresmo lost in the first round at Tokyo and Beijing, both times in long three-set defeats by Dominika Cibulková. She reached the second round in Moscow, falling to Dinara Safina, 7–6, 4–6, 4–6, and fell in the first round at Zurich to Belarusian teenager Victoria Azarenka.
She ended her year with a quarterfinal result at Luxembourg, losing to eventual champion Elena Dementieva. Mauresmo ended the year ranked world No. 24, with a singles record of 32–19.
2009: Final year and retirement
At the Brisbane International tournament, Mauresmo defeated world no. 177 Jelena Dokić in the first round, 7–6, 7–6, before defeating French compatriot Julie Coin in the second round, 5–7, 6–2, 7–6 in 3 hours, 14 minutes. The fifth-seeded Mauresmo then defeated top-seeded Ana Ivanovic in the quarterfinals, before retiring in her semifinal match against third-seeded Marion Bartoli, while trailing 0–4 in the first set. At the Australian Open, Mauresmo lost in the third round to Victoria Azarenka.
Mauresmo won her first tournament since 2007 by defeating Elena Dementieva in the final of the Open Gaz de France tournament in Paris.
Mauresmo lost in the third round of the Indian Wells Open in California, the first Premier Mandatory event of the year, to Li Na, 5–7, 2–6. The next event on the WTA Tour was another Premier Mandatory tournament at Key Biscayne. Mauresmo was seeded 20th there and lost in the fourth round to unseeded Sam Stosur, 4–6, 4–6, but ended up winning the doubles event with her tennis partner Svetlana Kuznetsova, after ousting the world champions on their way to the cup.
At the Madrid Masters, Mauresmo defeated Zheng Jie in the second round, 6–2, 7–5. She then came from behind to defeat Elena Dementieva, 1–6, 6–4, 6–2, and Ágnes Szávay, 5–7, 6–1, 6–1, in the third round and quarterfinal respectively. She lost against fast-rising teenager star Caroline Wozniacki, 6–7, 3–6, in the semifinals.
Mauresmo lost against Anna-Lena Grönefeld, 4–6, 3–6, in the first round of the French Open.
Mauresmo was the 17th seed at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships. She opened with a 6–1, 4–6, 6–2 win over Melinda Czink. She then defeated Kristína Kučová and Flavia Pennetta. Her fourth round match against the first seed Dinara Safina became a part of tennis history as it was the first competitive match in which the new, multimillion-pound roof closed due to rain. Mauresmo went on to lose the match, 6–4, 3–6, 4–6.
At the 2009 US Open, Mauresmo was the 17th seed, but lost to unseeded Aleksandra Wozniak, 4–6, 0–6, in the second round.
Mauresmo announced at a press conference on 8 October 2009 that she was considering retiring from tennis. On 3 December 2009, she officially announced her retirement at a press conference in Paris. She ended her career ranked world No. 21.
Coaching career
2010–2011
In June and July 2010, Mauresmo temporarily coached fellow French player Michaël Llodra during the grass season.
On 7 November, Mauresmo ran her first marathon at the 2010 New York City Marathon, finishing 3hr: 40m: 20s.
At the 2011 French Open, Mauresmo was set to be reunited with Llodra, making her professional return in the mixed doubles competition, but was disqualified before competing, as she had not re-registered for the anti-doping procedures required to compete on the tour.
2012
In 2012, Mauresmo joined forces with 2012 Australian Open champion and then-world No. 1, Victoria Azarenka, and her team as a support coach to help the Belarusian in defending her world No. 1 ranking and launching an assault on the remaining three Grand Slams of 2012 and the 2012 Olympics.
2013
In 2013, Mauresmo started coaching French No. 1, Marion Bartoli, joining forces with her shortly before the 2013 Wimbledon Championships. Under her tutelage, Bartoli would win her first Grand Slam title there without dropping a set (or even playing a tiebreak set), and credited her for her career revival (entering these Championships, Bartoli had yet to even reach a semi-final in 2013).
2014–2016
On 8 June 2014, Mauresmo was announced as the new coach of Andy Murray. In December the FFT announced that it was extending Mauresmo's Fed Cup contract for another two years. Under her coaching Murray reached the Australian Open final but he lost to Novak Djokovic in four sets. In May 2015, Mauresmo oversaw Murray's first career titles on clay, including the Madrid Masters, which culminated in a first ever clay court victory over Rafael Nadal. Murray also reached the semi-finals of the French Open and Wimbledon. On 9 May 2016, Mauresmo announced that she had stepped down as Murray's coach.
Simultaneously, she had captained the France Fed Cup team since 2013. After the 2016 final, which they lost to the Czech Republic, she announced she was quitting that post due to her pregnancy.
2018
In June 2018, she was appointed captain of the France Davis Cup team for the following season. Nevertheless, she never came to fulfill this position, since at the end of the year she renounced in order to coach French player Lucas Pouille during the 2019 season.
2019
Under Mauresmo's coaching, Pouille, who had never previously won a match at the Australian Open, reached the semifinals of the 2019 edition, where he lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic.
Playing style
Mauresmo was an aggressive player with an all-court game, who was noted for her technical mastery. Her strongest groundstroke was her one-handed backhand, which was one of the most effective on the WTA tour. Mauresmo could hit her backhand flat and with depth, with topspin, or with slice; her backhand was responsible for most of the winners she accumulated on court. Her forehand was more erratic, and players acquainted with Mauresmo's game would hit relentlessly to her forehand to try to force an error. Throughout her career, however, Mauresmo made improvements to her forehand, and, by 2005, it became a stroke she utilised more frequently and with more success. Her serve was powerful, with her first serve averaging 107 mph (172 km/h), and being recorded as high as 116 mph (186 km/h), enabling her to serve aces regularly. A reliable second serve, typically delivered at 92 mph (148 km/h), meant that double faults were uncommon. Mauresmo was one of the strongest net players on the WTA tour, and would frequently choose to finish points at the net. An exceptional volleyer, she had deft touch at the net, and had a complete repertoire of shots to perform there. Although not a net-rusher like Martina Navratilova or Billie Jean King, Mauresmo was a proficient serve and volleyer; this tactic was especially effective on grass courts. She was an aggressive returner, standing on the baseline to receive first serves, neutralising them effectively with a backhand down-the-line or an inside-out forehand. She would stand several feet within the baseline to receive second serves, and could hit return winners frequently. Despite her exceptional skill, Mauresmo's greatest weakness was her lack of confidence, nerves, and inconsistency; these were discussed at length by the media throughout her career. Mauresmo's game was effective on all surfaces, and she won tournaments on all four surfaces.
Performance at Grand Slam tournaments
Although Mauresmo had been one of the top singles players for several years, she did not have success in winning Grand Slam tournaments until 2006. Mauresmo was criticized for her mental strength after succumbing to nerves in those events. In consecutive Wimbledon semifinals, she lost to Serena Williams and Lindsay Davenport after leading comfortably. Before her 2006 Australian Open title, Mauresmo was often touted as "the greatest women's player never to win a Grand Slam." After winning the 2006 Wimbledon title, Mauresmo openly joked, "I don't want anyone to talk about my nerves any more."
Mauresmo is one of several tennis players, male or female, to have reached the top ranking without first winning a Grand Slam singles title. Other players who had done so were Kim Clijsters, Ivan Lendl, Marcelo Ríos, Jelena Janković, Dinara Safina, Caroline Wozniacki, Karolina Pliskova and Simona Halep.
Personal life
On 16 August 2015, Mauresmo announced that she had given birth to a baby boy. She gave birth to her daughter, Ayla, in April 2017.
Equipment and endorsements
Mauresmo's apparel and footwear on court was manufactured by Nike, and later Reebok. In the early 2000s, she used Dunlop 200G+1.00 racquet.
Career statistics
Grand Slam singles performance timeline
1 Mauresmo withdrew prior to quarterfinal match, which does not count as a loss.
2 Mauresmo won three qualifying matches to enter the main draw.
Grand Slam finals
Singles: 3 (2 titles, 1 runner-up)
Doubles: 1 (runner-up)
Olympic finals
Singles: 1 (silver medal)
Fed Cup and Olympic teams
French Fed Cup team: 1998–99, 2001–05.
French Olympic team: 2000, 2004
See also
List of Grand Slam Women's Singles champions
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
Australian Open (tennis) champions
French expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
French female tennis players
French Open junior champions
French tennis coaches
Hopman Cup competitors
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
LGBT sportspeople from France
Lesbian sportswomen
LGBT tennis players
Olympic medalists in tennis
Olympic silver medalists for France
Olympic tennis players of France
Sportspeople from Geneva
Sportspeople from Saint-Germain-en-Laye
Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Wimbledon champions
Wimbledon junior champions
World No. 1 tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' doubles
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
21st-century LGBT people | [
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] |
238833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baykal%20%28disambiguation%29 | Baykal (disambiguation) | Baykal, or Lake Baikal, is a lake in southern Siberia, Russia.
Baykal or Baikal may also refer to:
Places
Baykal, Belarus, a village in Vitsebsk Voblast
Baykal, Bulgaria, a village in Dolna Mitropoliya Municipality of Pleven Province, Bulgaria
Baykal, Russia, several rural localities in Russia
Baykal, Çermik
North Baikal Highlands, Buryatia, Russia
Baikal Mountains, Irkutsk Oblast, Russia
Pik Baikal, Buryatia, Russia
Science, technology and engineering
Baikal (rocket booster), a booster for Angara rocket
Baikal bullfinch, a small passerine bird
Baykal-class motorship, a class of Russian river passenger ships
SS Baikal, an ice-breaking train ferry which operated in Lake Baikal
Shuttle 2.01, aka "Baikal", an unfinished Soviet space shuttle
Baikal CPU, Russian-made processors based on the ARM Cortex-A57
Baikal, a brand of Makarov pistol
Baïkal, a CalDAV and CardDAV server
People with the given name
Baykal Kulaksızoğlu (born 1983), Turkish Swiss footballer
People with the surname
Aysel Baykal (1939–2003), Turkish female jurist, politician and former government minister
Deniz Baykal (born 1938), former leader of the Turkish Republican People's Party
Other uses
Baikal (drink), a Russian non-alcoholic drink
Baikal Highway, a federal highway in Russia
See also
Baikal black grayling, a species of fish
Baikal bush warbler, a species of bird
Baycol, a brand name of cerivastatin
Baykalsky (disambiguation) | [
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238836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner%20for%20the%20British%20Antarctic%20Territory | Commissioner for the British Antarctic Territory | The Commissioner for the British Antarctic Territory (BAT), is the head of government in the Antarctic Territory of the United Kingdom. As one of the British Overseas Territories, the commissioner is appointed by the monarch of the United Kingdom on the advice of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
The British Antarctic Territory was established as a separate British overseas territory in 1962. Originally from 1962 to 1990, a High Commissioner was appointed to oversee the territory who was also Governor of the Falkland Islands. In 1990, administration of the BAT was transferred to a Commissioner based in London.
Since 1998, the Commissioner of the BAT has also served as Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory.
Prior to 1962, the area was a part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies and as such was administered by the Governor of the Falkland Islands
This is a list of High Commissioners and Commissioners of the British Antarctic Territory (BAT), the area of Antarctica claimed by the United Kingdom.
High Commissioners
(also Governors of the Falkland Islands)
Edwin Porter Arrowsmith (1962–1964)
Cosmo Dugal Patrick Thomas Haskard (1964–1970)
Ernest Gordon Lewis (1971–1975)
Neville Arthur Irwin French (1975–1977)
James Roland Walter Parker (1977–1980)
Rex Masterman Hunt (1980–1985)
Gordon Wesley Jewkes (1985–1988)
William H. Fullerton (1988–1990)
Commissioners
(non-resident; based in London)
Merrick Stuart Baker-Bates (1990–1992)
P. Newton (1992–1995)
Anthony Longrigg (1995–1997)
John White (1997–2001)
Alan Huckle (2001–2004)
Tony Crombie (2004–2006)
Leigh Turner (2006–2008)
Colin Roberts (2008–2012)
Peter Hayes (2012–2016)
John Kittmer (2016–2017)
Ben Merrick (2017–2021)
Paul Candler (2021–present)
See also
British Antarctic Territory
References
World Statesmen: British Antarctic Territory. Accessed 4 April 2007.
Commissioners of the British Antarctic Territory
Antarctic Territory | [
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238839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrodotoxin | Tetrodotoxin | Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovered in these fish and found in several other animals (e.g., in blue-ringed octopuses, rough-skinned newts, and moon snails), it is actually produced by certain infecting or symbiotic bacteria like Pseudoalteromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio as well as other species found in animals.
Tetrodotoxin is a sodium channel blocker. It inhibits the firing of action potentials in neurons by binding to the voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cell membranes and blocking the passage of sodium ions (responsible for the rising phase of an action potential) into the neuron. This prevents the nervous system from carrying messages and thus muscles from contracting in response to nervous stimulation.
Its mechanism of action, selective blocking of the sodium channel, was shown definitively in 1964 by Toshio Narahashi and John W. Moore at Duke University, using the sucrose gap voltage clamp technique.
Sources in nature
Apart from their bacterial species of most likely ultimate biosynthetic origin (see below), tetrodotoxin has been isolated from widely differing animal species, including:
all octopuses and cuttlefish in small amounts, but specifically several species of the blue-ringed octopus, including Hapalochlaena maculosa (where it was called "maculotoxin"),
various pufferfish species,
certain angelfish,
species of Nassarius gastropods,
species of Naticidae (moon snails),
several starfish, including Astropecten species,
several species of xanthid crabs.
species of Chaetognatha (arrow worms),
species of Nemertea (ribbon worms),
a polyclad flatworm,
land planarians of the genus Bipalium,
toads of the genus Atelopus,
toads of the genus Brachycephalus,
the eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens)
the western or rough-skinned newts (Taricha; wherein it was originally termed "tarichatoxin"),
Tarichatoxin was shown to be identical to TTX in 1964 by Mosher et al., and the identity of maculotoxin and TTX was reported in Science in 1978, and the synonymity of these two toxins is supported in modern reports (e.g., at Pubchem and in modern toxicology textbooks) though historic monographs questioning this continue in reprint.
The toxin is variously used by metazoans as a defensive biotoxin to ward off predation, or as both a defensive and predatory venom (e.g., in octopuses, chaetognaths, and ribbon worms). Even though the toxin acts as a defense mechanism, some predators such as the common garter snake have developed insensitivity to TTX, which allows them to prey upon toxic newts.
The association of TTX with consumed, infecting, or symbiotic bacterial populations within the metazoan species from which it is isolated is relatively clear; presence of TTX-producing bacteria within a metazoan's microbiome is determined by culture methods, the presence of the toxin by chemical analysis, and the association of the bacteria with TTX production by toxicity assay of media in which suspected bacteria are grown. As Lago et al. note, "there is good evidence that uptake of bacteria producing TTX is an important element of TTX toxicity in marine metazoans that present this toxin." TTX-producing bacteria include Actinomyces, Aeromonas, Alteromonas, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio species; in the following animals, specific bacterial species have been implicated:
Aeromonas species from the puffer fish, Takifugu obscurus,
Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio species from the gastropod Nassarius conoidalis,
Alteromonas, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio species from the Southern blue-ringed octopus, Hapalochlaena maculosa,
Vibrio alginolyticus, from the starfish species Astropecten polyacanthus,
Vibrio species including Vibrio alginolyticus, from the puffer fish, Takifugu vermicularis,
Vibrio species including Vibrio alginolyticus again, in arrow worms, phylum Chaetognatha,
Vibrio species, again, in ribbon worms, phylum Nemertea.
The association of bacterial species with the production of the toxin is unequivocal – Lago and coworkers state, "[e]ndocellular symbiotic bacteria have been proposed as a possible source of eukaryotic TTX by means of an exogenous pathway," and Chau and coworkers note that the "widespread occurrence of TTX in phylogenetically distinct organisms… strongly suggests that symbiotic bacteria play a role in TTX biosynthesis" – although the correlation has been extended to most but not all metazoans in which the toxin has been identified. To the contrary, there has been a failure in a single case, that of newts (Taricha granulosa), to detect TTX-producing bacteria in the tissues with highest toxin levels (skin, ovaries, muscle), using PCR methods, although technical concerns about the approach have been raised. Critically for the general argument, Takifugu rubripes puffers captured and raised in laboratory on controlled, TTX-free diets "lose toxicity over time," while cultured, TTX-free Takifugu niphobles puffers fed on TTX-containing diets saw TTX in the livers of the fishes increase to toxic levels. Hence, as bacterial species that produce TTX are broadly present in aquatic sediments, a strong case is made for ingestion of TTX and/or TTX-producing bacteria, with accumulation and possible subsequent colonization and production. Nevertheless, without clear biosynthetic pathways (not yet found in metazoans, but shown for bacteria), it remains uncertain whether it is simply via bacteria that each metazoan accumulates TTX; the question remains as to whether the quantities can be sufficiently explained by ingestion, ingestion plus colonization, or some other mechanism.
Biochemistry
Tetrodotoxin binds to what is known as site 1 of the fast voltage-gated sodium channel. Site 1 is located at the extracellular pore opening of the ion channel. The binding of any molecules to this site will temporarily disable the function of the ion channel, thereby blocking the passage of sodium ions into the nerve cell (which is ultimately necessary for nerve conduction); neosaxitoxin and several of the conotoxins also bind the same site.
The use of this toxin as a biochemical probe has elucidated two distinct types of voltage-gated sodium channels present in mammals: tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated sodium channels (TTX-s Na+ channels) and tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channels (TTX-r Na+ channels). Tetrodotoxin inhibits TTX-s Na+ channels at concentrations of around 1-10 nM, whereas micromolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin are required to inhibit TTX-r Na+ channels. Nerve cells containing TTX-r Na+ channels are located primarily in cardiac tissue, while nerve cells containing TTX-s Na+ channels dominate the rest of the body.
TTX and its analogs have historically been important agents for use as chemical tool compounds, for use in channel characterization and in fundamental studies of channel function. The prevalence of TTX-s Na+ channels in the central nervous system makes tetrodotoxin a valuable agent for the silencing of neural activity within a cell culture.
Chemical synthesis
In 1964, a team of scientists led by Robert B. Woodward elucidated the structure of tetrodotoxin. The structure was confirmed by X-ray crystallography in 1970. Yoshito Kishi and coworkers reported the first total synthesis of racemic tetrodotoxin in 1972. M. Isobe and coworkers and J. Du Bois reported the asymmetric total synthesis of tetrodotoxin in 2003. The two 2003 syntheses used very different strategies, with Isobe's route based on a Diels-Alder approach and Du Bois's work using C–H bond activation. Since then, methods have rapidly advanced, with several new strategies for the synthesis of tetrodotoxin having been developed.
Poisoning
Toxicity
TTX is extremely toxic. The Material Safety Data Sheet for TTX lists the oral median lethal dose (LD50) for mice as 334 μg per kg. For comparison, the oral LD50 of potassium cyanide for mice is 8.5 mg per kg, demonstrating that even orally, TTX is more poisonous than cyanide. TTX is even more dangerous if injected; the amount needed to reach a lethal dose by injection is only 8 μg per kg in mice.
The toxin can enter the body of a victim by ingestion, injection, or inhalation, or through abraded skin.
Poisoning occurring as a consequence of consumption of fish from the order Tetraodontiformes is extremely serious. The organs (e.g. liver) of the pufferfish can contain levels of tetrodotoxin sufficient to produce the described paralysis of the diaphragm and corresponding death due to respiratory failure. Toxicity varies between species and at different seasons and geographic localities, and the flesh of many pufferfish may not be dangerously toxic.
The mechanism of toxicity is through the blockage of fast voltage-gated sodium channels, which are required for the normal transmission of signals between the body and brain. As a result, TTX causes loss of sensation, and paralysis of voluntary muscles including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, stopping breathing.
History
The therapeutic uses of puffer fish (tetraodon) eggs were mentioned in the first Chinese pharmacopoea Pen-T’so Ching (The Book of Herbs, allegedly 2838–2698 BC by Shennong; but a later date is more likely), where they were classified as having “medium” toxicity, but could have a tonic effect when used at the correct dose. The principal use was “to arrest convulsive diseases”. In the Pen-T’so Kang Mu (Index Herbacea or The Great Herbal by Li Shih-Chen, 1596) some types of the fish Ho-Tun (the current Chinese name for tetraodon) were also recognized as both toxic yet, at the right dose, useful as part of a tonic. Increased toxicity in Ho-Tun was noted in fish caught at sea (rather than river) after the month of March. It was recognized that the most poisonous parts were the liver and eggs, but that toxicity could be reduced by soaking the eggs, noting that tetrodotoxin is slightly water-soluble, and soluble at 1 mg/ml in slightly acidic solutions.
The German physician Engelbert Kaempfer, in his "A History of Japan" (translated and published in English in 1727), described how well known the toxic effects of the fish were, to the extent that it would be used for suicide and that the Emperor specifically decreed that soldiers were not permitted to eat it. There is also evidence from other sources that knowledge of such toxicity was widespread throughout southeast Asia and India.
The first recorded cases of TTX poisoning affecting Westerners are from the logs of Captain James Cook from 7 September 1774. On that date Cook recorded his crew eating some local tropic fish (pufferfish), then feeding the remains to the pigs kept on board. The crew experienced numbness and shortness of breath, while the pigs were all found dead the next morning. In hindsight, it is clear that the crew survived a mild dose of tetrodotoxin, while the pigs ate the pufferfish body parts that contain most of the toxin, thus being fatally poisoned.
The toxin was first isolated and named in 1909 by Japanese scientist Dr. Yoshizumi Tahara. It was one of the agents studied by Japan's Unit 731, which evaluated biological weapons on human subjects in the 1930s.
Symptoms and treatment
The diagnosis of pufferfish poisoning is based on the observed symptomatology and recent dietary history.
Symptoms typically develop within 30 minutes of ingestion, but may be delayed by up to four hours; however, if the dose is fatal, symptoms are usually present within 17 minutes of ingestion. Paresthesia of the lips and tongue is followed by developing paresthesia in the extremities, hypersalivation, sweating, headache, weakness, lethargy, incoordination, tremor, paralysis, cyanosis, aphonia, dysphagia, and seizures. The gastrointestinal symptoms are often severe and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain; death is usually secondary to respiratory failure. There is increasing respiratory distress, speech is affected, and the victim usually exhibits dyspnea, mydriasis, and hypotension. Paralysis increases, and convulsions, mental impairment, and cardiac arrhythmia may occur. The victim, although completely paralyzed, may be conscious and in some cases completely lucid until shortly before death, which generally occurs within 4 to 6 hours (range ~20 minutes to ~8 hours). However, some victims enter a coma.
If the patient survives 24 hours, recovery without any residual effects will usually occur over a few days.
Therapy is supportive and based on symptoms, with aggressive early airway management. If ingested, treatment can consist of emptying the stomach, feeding the victim activated charcoal to bind the toxin, and taking standard life-support measures to keep the victim alive until the effect of the poison has worn off. Alpha adrenergic agonists are recommended in addition to intravenous fluids to combat hypotension; anticholinesterase agents "have been proposed as a treatment option but have not been tested adequately".
No antidote has been developed and approved for human use, but a primary research report (preliminary result) indicates that a monoclonal antibody specific to tetrodotoxin is in development by USAMRIID that was effective, in the one study, for reducing toxin lethality in tests on mice.
Geographic frequency of toxicity
Poisonings from tetrodotoxin have been almost exclusively associated with the consumption of pufferfish from waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean regions. Pufferfishes from other regions are much less commonly eaten. Several reported cases of poisonings, including fatalities, involved pufferfish from the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf of California. There have been no confirmed cases of tetrodotoxicity from the Atlantic pufferfish, Sphoeroides maculatus, but in three studies, extracts from fish of this species were highly toxic in mice. Several recent intoxications from these fishes in Florida were due to saxitoxin, which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning with very similar symptoms and signs. The trumpet shell Charonia sauliae has been implicated in food poisonings, and evidence suggests it contains a tetrodotoxin derivative. There have been several reported poisonings from mislabelled pufferfish, and at least one report of a fatal episode in Oregon when an individual swallowed a rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa.
In 2009, a major scare in the Auckland Region of New Zealand was sparked after several dogs died eating Pleurobranchaea maculata (grey side-gilled seaslug) on beaches. Children and pet owners were asked to avoid beaches, and recreational fishing was also interrupted for a time. After exhaustive analysis, it was found that the sea slugs must have ingested tetrodotoxin.
Statistical factors
Statistics from the Tokyo Bureau of Social Welfare and Public Health indicate 20–44 incidents of fugu poisoning per year between 1996 and 2006 in the entire country, leading to 34–64 hospitalizations and 0–6 deaths per year, for an average fatality rate of 6.8%. Of the 23 incidents recorded within Tokyo between 1993 and 2006, only one took place in a restaurant, while the others all involved fishermen eating their catch. From 2006 through 2009 in Japan there were 119 incidents involving 183 people but only 7 people died.
Only a few cases have been reported in the United States, and outbreaks in countries outside the Indo-Pacific area are rare. In Haiti, tetrodotoxin is thought to have been used in voodoo preparations, in so-called zombie poisons, where subsequent careful analysis has repeatedly called early studies into question on technical grounds, and have failed to identify the toxin in any preparation, such that discussion of the matter has all but disappeared from the primary literature since the early 1990s. Kao and Yasumoto concluded in the first of their papers in 1986 that "the widely circulated claim in the lay press to the effect that tetrodotoxin is the causal agent in the initial zombification process is without factual foundation.”
Genetic background is not a factor in susceptibility to tetrodotoxin poisoning. This toxicosis may be avoided by not consuming animal species known to contain tetrodotoxin, principally pufferfish; other tetrodotoxic species are not usually consumed by humans.
Fugu as a food
Poisoning from tetrodotoxin is of particular public health concern in Japan, where "fugu" is a traditional delicacy. It is prepared and sold in special restaurants where trained and licensed chefs carefully remove the viscera to reduce the danger of poisoning. There is potential for misidentification and mislabelling, particularly of prepared, frozen fish products.
Food analysis
The mouse bioassay developed for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) can be used to monitor tetrodotoxin in pufferfish and is the current method of choice. An HPLC method with post-column reaction with alkali and fluorescence has been developed to determine tetrodotoxin and its associated toxins. The alkali degradation products can be confirmed as their trimethylsilyl derivatives by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
Detection in body fluids
Tetrodotoxin may be quantified in serum, whole blood or urine to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to assist in the forensic investigation of a case of fatal overdosage. Most analytical techniques involve mass spectrometric detection following gas or liquid chromatographic separation.
Modern therapeutic research
Tetrodotoxin has been investigated as a possible treatment for cancer-associated pain. Early clinical trials demonstrate significant pain relief in some patients.
In addition to the cancer pain application mentioned, mutations in one particular TTX-sensitive Na+ channel are associated with some migraine headaches, although it is unclear as to whether this has any therapeutic relevance for most people with migraine.
Tetrodotoxin has been used clinically to relieve the headache associated with heroin withdrawal.
Regulation
In the U.S., tetrodotoxin appears on the select agents list of the Department of Health and Human Services, and scientists must register with HHS to use tetrodotoxin in their research. However, investigators possessing less than 500 mg are exempt from regulation.
Popular culture
Tetrodotoxin serves as a plot device for characters to fake death, as in the films Hello Again (1987), The A-Team (2010) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), War (2019), and in episodes of “Jane the Virgin”, Miami Vice (1985), Nikita, MacGyver Season 7, Episode 6, where the antidote is Datura stramonium leaf, CSI: NY (Season 4, episode 9 "Boo") and Chuck. In Law Abiding Citizen (2009) and Alex Cross (2012), its paralysis is presented as a method of assisting torture. The toxin is used as a weapon in both the second season of Archer, in Covert Affairs and in the Inside No. 9 episode "The Riddle of the Sphinx".
Based on the presumption that tetrodotoxin is not always fatal, but at near-lethal doses can leave a person extremely unwell with the person remaining conscious, tetrodotoxin has been alleged to result in zombieism, and has been suggested as an ingredient in Haitian Vodou preparations. This idea first appeared in the 1938 non-fiction book Tell My Horse by Zora Neale Hurston in which there were multiple accounts of purported tetrodotoxin poisoning in Haiti by a voodoo sorcerer called the Bokor. These stories were later popularized by Harvard-trained ethnobotanist Wade Davis in his 1985 book and Wes Craven's 1988 film, both titled The Serpent and the Rainbow. James Ellroy includes "blowfish toxin" as an ingredient in Haitian Vodou preparations to produce zombieism and poisoning deaths in his dark, disturbing, violent novel Blood's a Rover. But this theory has been questioned by the scientific community since the 1990s based on analytical chemistry-based tests of multiple preparations and review of earlier reports (see above).
See also
Clairvius Narcisse, Haitian man allegedly buried alive under the effect of TTX
Tetrodocain, North Korean medical injection derived from tetrodotoxin
4-Aminopyridine
Brevetoxin
Ciguatoxin
Conotoxin
Domoic acid
Neosaxitoxin
Neurotoxin
Okadaic acid
Saxitoxin
Tectin
References
Further reading
External links
Tetrodotoxin: essential data (1999)
Tetrodotoxin from the Bad Bug Book at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration website
New York Times, "Whatever Doesn't Kill Some Animals Can Make Them Deadly"
U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Tetrodotoxin
Marine neurotoxins
Ion channel toxins
Guanidine alkaloids
Biological toxin weapons
Alcohols
Ichthyotoxins
Sodium channel blockers
Orthoesters
Adamantane-like molecules
Secondary metabolites
Analgesics
Non-protein ion channel toxins
Zwitterions
Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers
Octopus toxins | [
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238840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimer%20Great%20Books%20School | Shimer Great Books School | Shimer Great Books School (pronounced ) is a Great Books college that is part of North Central College in Naperville, Illinois. Since its founding, it has alternated between being an independent institution and part of another institution.
Founded in 1853 as the Mount Carroll Seminary in Mount Carroll, Illinois, the school became affiliated with the University of Chicago in 1896 and was renamed the Frances Shimer Academy after founder Frances Wood Shimer. It was renamed Shimer College in 1950, when it began offering a four-year curriculum based on the Hutchins Plan of the University of Chicago. After the University of Chicago parted with both the college and the Hutchins Plan in 1958, Shimer continued to use a version of that curriculum. The college relocated to Waukegan in 1978 and to Chicago in 2006. In 2017, it was acquired by North Central College which established the Shimer Great Books School to continue offering its curriculum.
Its academic program was based on a core curriculum of sixteen required courses in the humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. All courses were small seminars with no more than twelve students, and were based on original sources from a list of about 200 core texts broadly based on the great books canon. Classroom instruction was Socratic discussion. Considerable writing was required, including two comprehensive examinations and a senior thesis. Students were admitted primarily on the basis of essays and interviews; no minimum grades or test scores were required. Shimer had one of the highest alumni doctorate rates in the country.
According to The New York Times, students "share[d] a love of books [and] a disdain for the conventional style of education. Many say they did not have a good high school experience". Students, who tend to be individualistic and creative thinkers, are encouraged to ask questions. Shimer historically averaged 125 students, and enrolled 97 in 2014. Most Shimer alumni went on to graduate studies.
Shimer was, until joining North Central College, governed internally by an assembly in which all community members had a vote. In 2016, Shimer announced an agreement to be acquired by North Central College. The agreement came to fruition on June 1, 2017, when Shimer's faculty and curriculum were subsumed into North Central as a department known as the Shimer Great Books School of North Central College.
History
In 1852, the pioneer town of Mount Carroll, Illinois, lacking a public school, incorporated the Mount Carroll Seminary with no land, no teachers and no money. The town persuaded Frances Wood and Cindarella Gregory, two schoolteachers from Ballston Spa, New York, to come and teach. On May 11, 1853, the new seminary opened in a local church with eleven students.
Unable to raise sufficient funds locally, the seminary's founders borrowed money to construct a building in 1854. They were discouraged by the school's finances and sold it to Wood and Gregory, who borrowed money for the purchase. In 1857, Wood married Henry Shimer, a mason who was a creditor of the seminary. In 1864, the overcrowded school began accepting female students only.
To ensure the seminary's long-term survival, in 1896 Frances Shimer reached an agreement with the University of Chicago in which the school became the Frances Shimer Academy of the University of Chicago and was loosely affiliated with the Baptist Church. She retired to Florida, never returning to the school, and died in 1901. University of Chicago president William Rainey Harper was the first to champion junior colleges in the United States, and in 1907 Shimer became one of the first schools to offer a junior-college program. The two-year junior-college program, operating with the original
preparatory program, was accredited in 1920.
The college had a precipitous decline in enrollment and financial stability during and after the Great Depression, weathering the storm under five successive presidents. Its survival was due in part to the reorganization of the six-year preparatory program into a four-year junior college program and in part to steep salary reductions. In 1943, Shimer president Albin C. Bro invited the Department of Education at the University of Chicago to evaluate the college community; its 77 recommendations became the basis for Shimer's transformation from a conservative finishing school to a nontraditional, co-educational four-year college.
The school was renamed Shimer College in 1950, adopting the great-books curriculum then in place at the University of Chicago. The university connection dissolved in 1958 after the latter's decision to abandon the great-books plan, and Shimer narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 1957. The great-books program at Shimer continued, and the school enjoyed national recognition and a rapid growth in enrollment during the 1960s. In 1963, a Harvard Educational Review article listed Shimer as one of 11 colleges with an "ideal intellectual climate". According to a 1966 article in the education journal Phi Delta Kappan, Shimer "present[ed] impressive statistical evidence that their students are better prepared for graduate work in the arts and sciences and in the professions than those who have specialized in particular areas".
During the late 1960s, Shimer experienced a period of internal unrest known as the Grotesque Internecine Struggle, with disputes over curriculum changes, the extent to which student behavior should be regulated and inadequate fundraising by president Francis Joseph Mullin. Half the faculty and a large portion of the student body left as a result. Its financial problems worsened, and the school's survival was uncertain. Although Shimer's trustees voted to close the college at the end of 1973, the school was saved by intense student and faculty fundraising. In the school's 1977 bankruptcy filing, the trustees, in the words of board chair Barry Carroll, "put responsibility for the school's continuing on the shoulders of a very dedicated faculty of 12 and students who volunteered".
During the 1978 Christmas break, the faculty and 62 students borrowed trucks and moved the college into two "run-down" homes in Waukegan, Illinois, a suburb north of Chicago.
Shimer emerged from bankruptcy in 1980. During the next 25 years, the college purchased 12 surrounding homes and the former YWCA facility at Genesee and Franklin Streets to form a makeshift campus and slowly progressed towards financial stability. By 1988 its enrollment had grown from a low of 40 to 114, and income exceeded expenses. In 1991, Shimer received a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities with the help of NEH chair and core-curriculum advocate Lynne Cheney; the grant revitalized the school's fundraising, helping it raise $2 million.
In 2006, Shimer again moved to the campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in Chicago. Although the institutions operated independently, they cooperated closely under a long-term agreement.
Shimer received national attention in 2009, when it was embroiled in "a battle over what some saw as a right-wing attempt to take over its board and administration". In February 2012 the college announced the appointment of Susan Henking, former professor of religious studies at Hobart and William Smith Colleges, as Shimer's 14th president.
In September 2014 Shimer again received media attention when Ben Miller of Washington Monthly ranked it as one of the worst colleges in America, according to a formula adjusting graduation rates to the percentage of minority and low-income students and factoring net expense to low-income students. In December 2014 Jon Ronson of The Guardian disputed Miller's claim, citing Miller's assertion that the ranking was "at least partly due to small sample sizes".
Academics
Curriculum history
Shimer was one of four colleges in the U.S. which follow the great-books tradition begun by John Erskine. Erskine's Socratic seminar at Columbia University (begun in 1919) impacted his colleague, Mortimer J. Adler, who came to believe that the purpose of education was to engage student minds "in the study of individual works of merit ... accompanied by a discussion of the ideas, the values, and the forms embodied in such products of human art". Robert Maynard Hutchins, head of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951, brought Adler to the university and implemented a program (known as the Chicago Program and, later, the Hutchins Plan) based on Adler's ideas.
The Chicago program comprised sequences in the natural sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences which were supposed to integrate past and present work within these divisions of knowledge. In addition, these sequences were capped by work in philosophy and history. The emphasis in teaching was on small classes with bright students, where discussion could supplant monologue as the dominant pedagogic technique.... At the same time, in order to retain high academic standards and contact with the "frontiers of knowledge", the College's pedagogy emphasized reading originals (sometimes although not invariably, defined as Great Books).
Shimer, affiliated with the University of Chicago since 1896, adopted the Hutchins plan (including University of Chicago syllabi, comprehensive examinations and several university instructors) in 1950. When Hutchins left the university in 1951 and it abandoned the Hutchins Plan, Shimer continued to use it and it is still reflected in the college's curriculum.
Degree program
Shimer was accredited by the Higher Learning Commission of the Higher Learning Commission. Its core curriculum was a sequence of sixteen required courses in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and interdisciplinary studies. Basic-studies courses are generally taken during the first two years, advanced-studies during the final two years and integrative-studies courses in the final year. In addition to core courses students take electives, which offer basic instruction or in-depth work in particular subjects. Students may also take tutorials, with one or two students per course, tailored to their interests and similar in structure to the Oxford tutorial system.
Shimer College students did not pursue traditional majors, instead having broad concentrations in the humanities, natural sciences or social sciences. Within these areas, students could specialize in literature, mathematics, philosophy, political science or psychology.
The school's 200-book reading list remained largely faithful to the original Hutchins plan, with new works judiciously added to the core curriculum. These included voices originally overlooked in the formation of the canon, or not yet published when it originated, including Martin Luther King Jr., Carol Gilligan, Frantz Fanon, Michel Foucault and other contemporary authors. Readings were organized by broad historical and philosophical themes.
Small seminars were the sole form of instruction in all subjects, from mathematics to poetry. Classes were composed of no more than twelve students (the average class size was seven), who read and discussed only source material. In a process Shimer called "shared inquiry", "the text is the teacher, and thus the faculty member's role is to facilitate interaction between the text and the students". According to a former Shimer professor:
At Shimer, the professor is a facilitator, a guide on the side, not a sage on the stage – encouraging each student to contribute to the intellectual light being kindled in every class. Each student was expected to question and comment upon the text, to respond to one other’s insights, actively taking part in every discussion.... Students know their insights matter; they have something to offer to their peers, and to the life of the text being discussed. Some students are more exuberant than others, some would rather talk than listen; others may be a bit shy. The professor/facilitator must make sure that each student has a chance to shine, that each can feel confident, each can have the courage to ask what they think might be a stupid question. What are feared to be stupid questions are often the most provocative ones.
The curriculum emphasized writing; students were required to complete a semester project each term on a topic chosen in conjunction with an advisor, and were required to complete a research paper during their third year. All students needed to pass a basic-studies comprehensive examination to register for upper-level courses, and at least one area-studies comprehensive examination (usually in their area of concentration) to graduate. A senior thesis was required of all students. Usually an analytic or expository essay, it could also be a piece of original fiction, poetry, a performance or work of visual art. Students were encouraged to present their theses orally, and the public was invited to the presentations.
Special programs
Early Entrance program
The Early Entrance program, which admitted students who had not yet graduated from high school, was pioneered by Hutchins at the University of Chicago in 1937 and adopted by Shimer in 1950. It continued with the support of the Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Foundation and the Surdna Foundation. In the past, up to 80 percent of Shimer's student body was composed of Early Entrance students.
Early entrants were admitted after the 10th or 11th grade, and followed the regular curriculum. The college considered applications from any interested students, with motivation, willingness to learn and intellectual curiosity the most important qualifications. Shimer encouraged applications from home-schooled students, accommodating their lack of credentials such as transcripts. In 2008, 16 percent of new students were early entrants or home-schooled.
Joint programs
The Great Books + Law program, introduced in 2007, was offered in conjunction with the Chicago-Kent College of Law (the law school of the Illinois Institute of Technology) and the Vermont Law School and allowed students to complete undergraduate and law degrees in six (instead of seven) years. Shimer had a dual-enrollment program with Harold Washington College, one of the few community colleges in the U.S. with a great-books program. The program allowed HWC students to take a Shimer course, and was intended to encourage students to transfer to Shimer to complete their bachelor's degree. Whether these programs will continue at North Central is unknown.
Study abroad
Shimer first offered a year of study abroad (in Paris) in 1961, and the college has had a biennial program in Oxford since 1963. The Shimer-in-Oxford program allowed third- or fourth-year students to study for one or two semesters in Oxford, supervised by a Shimer professor. Students took a core class each term with the supervising faculty; the rest of their work is completed in tutorials of self-selected subjects under the guidance of academics associated with the University of Oxford.
Teaching Fellows Program
The Teaching Fellows Program, now discontinued, was a graduate-level great-books course designed for kindergarten through 12th-grade teachers. Although Shimer does not award graduate degrees, teachers could then earn professional development credit with the program; it complements traditional education courses by providing background knowledge for teachers to impart more content-rich instruction. The program was developed in conjunction with the Core Knowledge Foundation, founded in 1986 by E. D. Hirsch (author of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know) to promote a common core in U.S. elementary education.
Faculty
In 2014, Shimer had eleven full-time faculty and one part-time faculty member, and the student-faculty ratio was eight to one. All full-time faculty had doctoral degrees. Shimer instructors teach across disciplines; the "ideal is that any faculty member can teach any one of the core courses".
In 2017, seven Shimer faculty joined the Shimer School of Great Books at North Central College.
Admission
Shimer applicants were evaluated according to their academic potential, and no minimum grade-point average or test score was required. Applicants were required to write essays analyzing their academic experience and demonstrating their creative talent. These essays and interviews were the primary criteria for admission. The college accepts students it believes will benefit from, and contribute to, its intellectual community. Barron’s Profiles of American Colleges rates Shimer "very competitive plus". Candidates were counseled before applying, and nearly 90 percent of those who applied were admitted.
In 2010, the average GPA of incoming students was 3.29 out of 4.0. Average composite scores on standardized college-admissions tests were 28 on the ACT (the 92nd percentile) and 1917 on the SAT (the 90th percentile).
Tuition and fees
In 2014 full-time tuition was $27,491, and the total cost of attendance (including room, board and fees) was $41,615. All students received financial aid, with the average aid package $13,956. As of 2017, tuition and fees for the Shimer School will be identical to those of North Central College.
Recognition and rankings
Shimer had one of the highest rates of doctoral candidates in the U.S. In a 1998 University of Wisconsin–Madison study, the college had the highest rate of graduates receiving doctoral degrees of any liberal-arts college and the third-highest rate of any undergraduate program in the nation. A 2009 report by Washington Monthly ranked Shimer third in graduate Ph.D. rate among U.S. liberal-arts colleges. Studies based on Higher Education Data Sharing Consortium data found that Shimer had the seventh-highest alumni Ph.D. rate of U.S. colleges and universities, and the highest rate for Ph.D.s in linguistics.
Shimer students who took the Graduate Record Exam outscored three out of four potential graduate students, "consistently rank[ing] among the best in the nation in scores on the verbal and analytical portions of the test" with average analytic scores in the 91st percentile.
The conservative Insight magazine named Shimer one of its "15 Most Politically-Incorrect Colleges": "colleges that had strong and effective traditional curricula that were not 'obsessed with the recent educational fads and fetishes such as multiculturalism and diversity. Barron's called Shimer one of the 300 best buys in college education, noting that "the success of the Shimer curriculum depends a great deal on the knowledge and skill of the faculty facilitators, who receive accolades ranging from 'fantastic' to 'brilliant. Shimer was one of the top 50 colleges in All-American Colleges: Top Schools for Conservatives, Old-Fashioned Liberals, and People of Faith, which highlights "programs that connect in a special way with the core values of the American founding and the vibrant intellectual traditions of the West".
In 2007, Shimer joined a national effort by the Education Conservancy to boycott participation in college-ranking surveys. President William Craig Rice said, "What Shimer does well – educating ourselves in on-going dialogue with the greatest minds of the past – can't be captured in the U.S. News measurements". Washington Monthly ranks Shimer 200th among liberal-arts colleges, based on social mobility, research and service. The college is unranked by U.S. News & World Report.
Campus
Through May 2017, Shimer was located on the main campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology. IIT's campus is at the intersection of 33rd and State Streets, about south of the Chicago Loop, and borders the Bridgeport and Bronzeville neighborhoods of Chicago's Near South Side. In 1976 the American Institute of Architects named the IIT campus one of the 200 most significant works of architecture in the United States, and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.
Shimer occupied on two floors of the former Institute of Gas Technology complex. The complex, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, consists of four buildings (the southernmost formerly hosting the first industrial nuclear reactor in the U.S.) The college has access to the Paul V. Galvin Library, IIT's main research library, and Shimer's collection of 15,000 books has also been housed in the Galvin Library since the school relocated from Waukegan.
As of June 1, 2017, the Shimer School of Great Books of North Central College is located on the campus of North Central in Naperville, Illinois.
Organization and administration
Until its move to become part of North Central College, "As a function of its mission to promote active citizenship" Shimer was "devoted to internal self-governance to an extent that is rare among institutions of higher education". Since 1977, Shimer has been governed internally by a body known as the Assembly. Begun informally in the years before the move to Waukegan, the Assembly was formalized with a constitution in 1980. Voting members included students, faculty, administrators, staff and trustees; alumni were members, but do not vote. This inclusive model of governance was unique in American higher education.
The Assembly had no independent legal authority, but governed "by virtue of the moral suasion established by communal deliberation". Its goal was to foster an environment in which "all the top-down bureaucracy of traditional colleges and universities has been replaced by participatory democracy committed to dialogue." In Chicago, Shimer students participated in the IIT Student Government Association, a liaison between students and university administration and a forum for student opinion.
In addition, Shimer had a Board of Trustees who appointed its presidents – including long serving president Don Moon and Shimer's last president Susan E. Henking, who successfully led the College to its new future at North Central College and was awarded an honorary doctorate in April 2017 in recognition of her service.
Student life
The New York Times, calling Shimer "one of the smallest liberal arts colleges in the United States", described its students as "both valedictorians and high school dropouts. What the students share, besides a love of books, is a disdain for the conventional style of education. Many say they did not have a good high school experience." Shimer students tended to be individualistic, creative thinkers and are encouraged to be inquisitive. The college enrolled 97 students in 2014, about half from Illinois. Of these students 41 were women, 25 percent were students of color and 76 percent were age 24 or over. Forty percent were first-time, full-time college students. Of the full-time students attending for the first time in 2012, 86 percent returned for their second year. Sixty percent of students who entered in 2007 completed a bachelor's degree in six years.
The college has a tradition of community meals dating back to the Waukegan campus, when the community would meet for potluck meals and discuss matters of general interest. The Orange Horse, Shimer's biennial talent show since the 1960s, invites students, faculty and alumni to read poetry, sing, play music or tell jokes, individually or in groups. The Shimer theater program produces plays complementing its curriculum, offering anyone who wants to participate the chance to do so. Recent productions have included Anton Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and Eve Ensler's The Vagina Monologues.
In addition to student services at the McCormick Tribune Campus Center and its health and athletic facilities, while located in Chicago Shimer students could participate in the more than 150 student organizations sponsored by IIT (including Liit Magazine, IIT's student-run literary magazine and IIT's on-campus radio station, WIIT, where students can host a show). As students at North Central, Shimerians will have access to the full range of student services and student organizations.
Alumni
Many Shimer alumni continued to graduate school; 50 percent earn master's degrees, and 21 percent earn doctorates. Another ten percent attend law school and five percent go to business school. As of 2008, Shimer had 5,615 living alumni. Nearly 25 percent of graduates are employed in education (elementary school through college), seven percent are attorneys and seven percent work in the computer-software industry.
Notable alumni
Young Kim: Lawyer, legal educator and philosopher best known for Justice as Right Actions: An Original Theory of Justice in Conversation with Major Contemporary Accounts.
Mary Anita Snook Southern: pioneer aviatrix
Peter Cooley: Prize-winning poet, author, and professor of English at Tulane University
Alan Dowty: Arab–Israeli conflict scholar and professor emeritus at the University of Notre Dame
Robert Keohane: Political scientist, international relations scholar and professor at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs best known for After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy
Phoebe Snow: Grammy-nominated singer-songwriter best known for her 1974 hit, "Poetry Man"
Laurie Spiegel: Composer, software engineer and electronic and computer music pioneer
Sydney Spiesel: Medical inventor, Slate columnist and professor at the Yale University School of Medicine
Daniel Perlman: Former president of Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts and Webster University in Webster Groves, Missouri
Nick Pippenger: Computing researcher and theorist, IBM Fellow and professor at Harvey Mudd College. Known for his work on the foundations of computer science, including complexity, computability and communications theory
Jen Richards: Emmy nominated actor and producer of HerStory
Tucker Viemeister: Award-winning industrial designer and holder of 32 US patents, called "industrial design's elder wonderkind" by I.D.
Mary Wings: Writer, artist, and musician known for publishing the first lesbian underground comic book and a series of novels with lesbian detective Emma Victor
Roland Winston: Leading figure in nonimaging optics and its applications to solar energy who has been called the "father of non-imaging optics". Director of the California Advanced Solar Technologies Institute
Dorian Electra: American singer, songwriter, video and performance artist.
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
Liberal arts colleges in Illinois
Universities and colleges in Chicago
Educational institutions established in 1853
1853 establishments in Illinois
Great Books
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention
Defunct private universities and colleges in Illinois | [
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238841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifid%20Nebula | Trifid Nebula | The Trifid Nebula (catalogued as Messier 20 or M20 and as NGC 6514) is an H II region in the north-west of Sagittarius in a star-forming region in the Milky Way's Scutum-Centaurus Arm. It was discovered by Charles Messier on June 5, 1764. Its name means 'three-lobe'. The object is an unusual combination of an open cluster of stars, an emission nebula (the relatively dense, reddish-pink portion), a reflection nebula (the mainly NNE blue portion), and a dark nebula (the apparent 'gaps' in the former that cause the trifurcated appearance, also designated Barnard 85). Viewed through a small telescope, the Trifid Nebula is a bright and peculiar object, and is thus a perennial favorite of amateur astronomers.
The most massive star that has formed in this region is HD 164492A, an O7.5III star with a mass more than 20 times the mass of the Sun.
This star is surrounded by a cluster of approximately 3100 young stars.
Characteristics
The Trifid Nebula was the subject of an investigation by astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope in 1997, using filters that isolate emission from hydrogen atoms, ionized sulfur atoms, and doubly ionized oxygen atoms. The images were combined into a false-color composite picture to suggest how the nebula might look to the eye.
The close-up images show a dense cloud of dust and gas, which is a stellar nursery full of embryonic stars. This cloud is about
away from the nebula's central star. A stellar jet protrudes from the head of the cloud and is about long. The jet's source is a young stellar object deep within the cloud. Jets are the exhaust gasses of star formation and radiation from the nebula's central star makes the jet glow.
The images also showed a finger-like stalk to the right of the jet. It points from the head of the dense cloud directly toward the star that powers the Trifid nebula. This stalk is a prominent example of evaporating gaseous globules, or 'EGGs'. The stalk has survived because its tip is a knot of gas that is dense enough to resist being eaten away by the powerful radiation from the star.
In January 2005, NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope discovered 30 embryonic stars and 120 newborn stars not seen in visible light images.
It is centered about from Earth. Its apparent magnitude is 6.3.
Gallery
See also
List of Messier objects
List of nebulae
Messier object
New General Catalogue
Wikipedia Project: Astronomical Objects
The Alternative Factor
Islands (King Crimson album), which uses an image of the nebula as its cover
References
External links
Spitzer IR Trifid discoveries
Messier 20, SEDS Messier pages
Trifid Nebula at ESA/Hubble
Trifid Nebula at Constellation Guide
Carina–Sagittarius Arm
H II regions
Messier objects
NGC objects
Sagittarius (constellation)
17640605
Articles containing video clips
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238843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Conn | Billy Conn | William David Conn (October 8, 1917 – May 29, 1993) was an Irish American professional boxer and Light Heavyweight Champion famed for his fights with Joe Louis. He had a professional boxing record of 63 wins, 11 losses and 1 draw, with 14 wins by knockout. His nickname, throughout most of his career, was "The Pittsburgh Kid." He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 1990.
Early career
Conn debuted as a professional boxer winning on July 20, 1934, against Johnny Lewis, via a knockout in round three.
Conn built a record of 47 wins, 9 losses and 1 draw (tie), with 7 knockout wins, before challenging for the World Light Heavyweight title. Along the way, he beat former or future world champions Fritzie Zivic, Solly Krieger and Fred Apostoli, as well as Teddy Yarosz and Young Corbett III.
On July 13, 1939, he met World Light Heavyweight Champion Melio Bettina in New York, outpointing him in 15 rounds and winning the World Light Heavyweight Championship as a result. Conn defended his title against Bettina and twice against another World Light Heavyweight Champion, Gus Lesnevich, each of those three bouts resulting in 15-round decision wins for Conn. Conn also beat former World Middleweight Champion Al McCoy and heavyweights Bob Pastor, Lee Savold, Gunnar Barlund and Buddy Knox in non-title bouts during his run as World Light Heavyweight Champion.
Joe Louis Era
In May 1941, Conn gave up his World Light Heavyweight title to challenge World Heavyweight Champion Joe Louis. Conn attempted to become the first World Light Heavyweight Champion in boxing history to win the World Heavyweight Championship when he and Louis met on June 18 of that year, and incredibly, to do so without going up in weight. The fight became part of boxing's lore because Conn held a secure lead on the scorecards leading to round 13. According to many experts and fans who watched the fight, Conn was outmaneuvering Louis up to that point. In a move that Conn would regret for the rest of his life, he tried to go for the knockout in round 13, and instead wound up losing the fight by knockout in that same round himself.
Ten minutes after the fight, Conn told reporters, "I lost my head and a million bucks." When asked by a reporter why he went for the knockout, Conn replied famously, "What's the use of being Irish if you can't be thick [i.e. stupid]?" In his long account in Sports Illustrated of the life and boxing career of Conn, sportswriter Frank Deford wrote that afterwards Conn would joke, "I told Joe later, 'Hey, Joe, why didn't you just let me have the title for six months?' All I ever wanted was to be able to go around the corner where the guys are loafing and say, 'Hey, I'm the heavyweight champeen of the world.' "And you know what Joe said back to me? He said, 'I let you have it for twelve rounds, and you couldn't keep it. How could I let you have it for six months?'"
In 1942, Conn beat Tony Zale and had an exhibition with Louis. World War II was at one of its most important moments, however, and both Conn and Louis were called to serve in the Army. Conn went to war and was away from the ring until 1946.
By then, the public was clamoring for a rematch between him and the still World Heavyweight Champion Louis. This happened, and on June 19, 1946, Conn returned into the ring, straight into a World Heavyweight Championship bout. Before that fight, it was suggested to Louis that Conn might outpoint him because of his hand and foot speed. In a line that would be long-remembered, Louis replied: "He can run, but he can't hide." The fight, at Yankee Stadium, was the first televised World Heavyweight Championship bout ever, and 146,000 people watched it on TV, also setting a record for the most seen world heavyweight bout in history. Most people who saw it agreed that both Conn and Louis' abilities had eroded with their time spent serving in the armed forces, but Louis was able to retain the crown by a knockout in round eight. Conn's career was basically over after this fight, but he still fought two more fights, winning both by knockout in round nine. On December 10, 1948, he and Louis met inside a ring for the last time, this time for a public exhibition in Chicago. Conn would never climb into a ring as a fighter again. He also hung out with Jimmy Ray Devin, brother-in-law of famous 1954 army Kansas state heavyweight boxing champ James Travis Sr. (Boxing record 54-1-1) in Fort Riley, Kansas .
Personal life
Billy married Mary Louise Smith, also from Pittsburgh. They have pictures of themselves at the vacation spot Ocean City, New Jersey. Billy did not get along with Mary's father, former major league baseball player for the Cincinnati Reds, Jimmy "Greenfield Jimmie" Smith. A fight broke out between them in Smith's Squirrel Hill home on Beechwood Boulevard. Conn punched his father-in-law in the head and broke his hand. As a result of the injury, the fight with Joe Louis was postponed. Frank Deford wrote colorfully about the kitchen brawl in his Sports Illustrated story "The Boxer and the Blonde".
Retirement
Retiring from the ring as a boxer did not mean retiring as a public figure for Conn. Conn, who appeared in a 1941 movie called The Pittsburgh Kid, maintained his boxing skills into his later years. He stepped into the middle of a robbery at a Pittsburgh convenience store in 1990 after the robber punched the store manager. Conn took a swing at the robber and ended up on the floor of the store, scuffling with him. "You always go with your best punch—straight left," Conn told television station WTAE afterward. "I think I interrupted his plans." The robber managed to get away, but not before Conn pulled off his coat, which contained his name and address, making the arrest an easy one. His wife said jumping into the fray was typical of her husband. "My instinct was to get help," she said at the time. "Billy's instinct was to fight."
Conn was a great friend of Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney.
As he became an older citizen, he participated in a number of documentaries for HBO and was frequently seen at boxing-related activities until his death in 1993, at the age of 75.
In 1995, Conn's picture appeared on the cover of British pop singer Morrissey's single "Boxers". The photo was taken from an issue of Ring magazine.
Conn is now a member, along with Louis and Zivic, of the International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota, New York.
In April 2017, Conn's widow Mary Louise Conn died. She was 94 years old.
In popular culture
Billy Conn was mentioned in the 2006 Hollywood movie, The Black Dahlia.
A portion of North Craig Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh is named Billy Conn Boulevard.
Billy Conn is also mentioned in the classic movie On the Waterfront. In the famous scene in the back of the cab—"I could have been a contender." Rod Steiger (playing Marlon Brando's brother) reflects on Brando's character Terry's early promise as a boxer with the words "You could have been another Billy Conn."
London-based band The BibleCode Sundays released an EP of four songs in 2011 titled 'The Pittsburgh kid.' The title track is a tribute to Billy Conn.
Billy Conn is also mentioned in the 1966 Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau classic comedy movie The Fortune Cookie. In the apartment scene where Lemmon asks Boom Boom (Ron Rich) "Where'd you learn that? Don't tell me, your father was a Pullman porter", for which Boom Boom replies "He was a fighter, light heavyweight. Once went rounds with Billy Conn."
Billy Conn's first fight with Joe Louis is prominently discussed in chapter 42 of Eric Flint's novel 1636: The Eastern Front.
Jack Webb referenced the famous 1946 Conn-Louis rematch in his "Pat Novak: For Hire" radio show. Webb plays a character on the San Francisco waterfront who takes on dark, edgy jobs. In the 'Dixie Gillian' episode (broadcast 24NOV46) a client wants to get Novak to frighten someone with an empty gun, and promises nothing will happen to him. Novak says "Yeah, that's what they told Billy Conn".
Conn played a character named Billy Conn in the 1941 film The Pittsburgh Kid, although it was not a biography.
Professional boxing record
See also
List of light heavyweight boxing champions
References
External links
Billy Conn, 75, an Ex-Champion Famed for His Fights With Louis: May 30, 1993
Billy Conn - CBZ Profile
|-
|-
|-
1917 births
1993 deaths
American people of Irish descent
American Roman Catholics
Burials at Calvary Catholic Cemetery (Pittsburgh)
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Light-heavyweight boxers
Boxers from Pittsburgh
World boxing champions
American male boxers | [
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238846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.O.A.%20%281950%20film%29 | D.O.A. (1950 film) | D.O.A. is a 1950 American film noir directed by Rudolph Maté, starring Edmond O'Brien and Pamela Britton. It is considered a classic of the genre. A fatally poisoned man tries to find out who has poisoned him and why. It was the film debuts of Beverly Garland (as Beverly Campbell) and Laurette Luez.
Leo C. Popkin produced D.O.A. for his short-lived Cardinal Pictures. Due to a filing error, the copyright to the film was not renewed on time, causing it to fall into the public domain: it was subsequently remade as Color Me Dead (1969), D.O.A. (1988), and Dead On Arrival (2017).
Plot
An opening sequence features Frank Bigelow walking through the long hallway of a police station to report his own murder. From here to the end, the story is told in flashback. Bigelow is a hard-driving accountant and notary public in Banning, California, who decides to escape for a fun vacation in San Francisco. At the hotel, he is invited to join a group of conventioneers for a night out. He ends up at a nightclub where, unnoticed, a stranger swaps his drink for another one. The next morning, he feels extremely ill. Doctors determine that he swallowed a poison, "luminous toxin," for which there is no antidote.
With only days to live, Bigelow embarks on a desperate search to discover the motive for his poisoning. A call to his secretary Paula provides a possible lead: a Eugene Philips has been urgently trying to contact him. Bigelow travels to Philips' import-export company, meeting Halliday, the company comptroller, who says that Philips has committed suicide.
Bigelow locates Eugene Philips' widow and brother Stanley Philips. Months earlier, Eugene had purchased iridium, a "luminous toxin", which had been stolen by a criminal named Majak. The seller was a George Reynolds (aka Raymond Rakubian), Majak's nephew. As a result of this illegal sale/purchase transaction, Eugene Philips faced criminal charges.
The bill of sale would have cleared Eugene, but has gone missing -- and that document had been notarized by Bigelow himself. He learns that Reynolds/Rakubian is now dead. He realizes that someone seems intent on eliminating all evidence of this sale.
That someone turns out, in a plot twist, to be Halliday. Stanley Phillips -- who has now been poisoned -- reveals that Eugene discovered that his wife and Halliday were having an affair. Mrs. Philips affirms that during a confrontation that turned violent, Halliday threw Eugene over a balcony. To make it look like suicide, the pair insisted that Eugene had killed himself over his legal troubles. When they discovered that there was exonerating evidence of his innocence in the notarized iridium bill of sale, Halliday began disposing of anyone knowing about the document, and that led to Bigelow.
In the final scene, Bigelow tracks Halliday to the Philips company and finds him wearing the same distinctive coat and scarf as the man who switched the drinks. Halliday draws a gun and fires first, but Bigelow fatally shoots him.
Bigelow finishes telling his story and dies. The police detective taking down the report instructs that his file be marked "dead on arrival."
Cast
Additional cast members:
Jess Kirkpatrick as Sam
Cay Forrester as Sue
Frank Jaquet as Dr. Matson
Lawrence Dobkin as Dr. Schaefer
Frank Gerstle as Dr. MacDonald
Carol Hughes as Kitty
Frank Cady as Eddie the bartender in Banning (uncredited)
Michael Ross as Dave the bartender in San Francisco
Donna Sanborn as the nurse
Reception
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 88% based on reviews from 25 critics.
The New York Times, in its May 1950 review, described it as a "fairly obvious and plodding recital, involving crime, passion, stolen iridium, gangland beatings and one man's innocent bewilderment upon being caught up in a web of circumstance that marks him for death". O'Brien's performance had a "good deal of drive", while Britton adds a "pleasant touch of blonde attractiveness".
In 1981 Foster Hirsch carried on a trend of more positive reviews, calling Bigelow's search for his own killer noir irony at its blackest. He wrote, "One of the film's many ironies is that his last desperate search involves him in his life more forcefully than he has ever been before... Tracking down his killer just before he dies — discovering the reason for his death — turns out to be the triumph of his life." Critic A. K. Rode notes Rudolph Maté's technical background, writing:
D.O.A. reflects the photographic roots of director Rudolph Maté. He compiled an impressive resume as a cinematographer in Hollywood from 1935 (Dante's Inferno, Stella Dallas, The Adventures of Marco Polo, Foreign Correspondent, Pride of the Yankees, and Gilda, among others) until turning to directing in 1947. The lighting, locations, and atmosphere of brooding darkness were captured expertly by Mate and director of photography Ernest Lazlo.
David Wood of the BBC described the opening as "perhaps one of cinema's most innovative opening sequences."
Michael Sragow, in a Salon web review (2000) of a DVD release of the film, characterized it as a "high-concept movie before its time." Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide (2008) gave D.O.A. 3½ stars (out of 4).
Accolades
In 2004, D.O.A. was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
The film was nominated for two American Film Institute lists:
2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 mystery
Production
The shot of Edmond O'Brien running down Market Street (between 4th and 6th Streets) in San Francisco was a "stolen shot," taken without city permits, with some pedestrians visibly confused as O'Brien bumps into them. D.O.A. producer Harry Popkin owned the Million Dollar Theater at the southwest corner of Broadway and Third Street in downtown Los Angeles, directly across the street from the Bradbury Building at 304 South Broadway, where O'Brien's character confronted his murderer. Director Rudolph Maté liberally used Broadway and the Bradbury Building during location shooting and included the Million Dollar Theater's blazing marquee in the background. The theater would later serve the same function when Ridley Scott filmed Blade Runner at the Bradbury Building.
After "The End" and before the listing of the cast, a credit states the medical aspects of this film are based on scientific fact, and that "luminous toxin is a descriptive term for an actual poison."
The bop jazz band playing at the Fisherman's Club while O'Brien's glass is being spiked was filmed on a Los Angeles soundstage after principal photography was completed. According to Jim Dawson in his 1995 book Nervous Man Nervous: Big Jay McNeely and the Rise of the Honking Tenor Sax, the sweating tenor saxophone player was James Streeter, also known as James Von Streeter. Other band members were Shifty Henry (bass), Al "Cake" Wichard (drums), Ray LaRue (piano), and Teddy Buckner (trumpet). However, rather than use the live performance, the music director went back and rerecorded the soundtrack with a big band, not a quintet as seen in the film, led by saxophonist Maxwell Davis. Film score was composed by Dimitri Tiomkin.
Remakes and influence
The March 16, 1951, radio episode of The Adventures of Sam Spade features a victim reporting his own murder at police headquarters. D.O.A. was dramatized as an hour-long radio play on the June 21, 1951, broadcast of Screen Director's Playhouse, starring Edmond O'Brien in his original role.
The film has been remade four times:
In Australia in 1969 as Color Me Dead, directed by Eddie Davis. Because copyright had lapsed, Color Me Dead was basically an exact copy of D.O.A.
In 1988, a new version was released as D.O.A., directed by Annabel Jankel and Rocky Morton, with Dennis Quaid as the protagonist.
In 2006, a modernised action thriller version was released as Crank
In 2017, a new version was released as Dead On Arrival.
In 2011, the Overtime Theater staged a world-premiere musical based on the classic film noir. D.O.A. a Noir Musical was written and adapted by Jon Gillespie and Matthew Byron Cassi, directed by Cassi, with original jazz and blues music composed by Jaime Ramirez and lyrics by Ramirez and Gillespie. The new musical played to sold-out audiences during its five-week run, and received two ATAC Globe Awards in 2012 for "Best Adapted Script" and "Best Original Score."
See also
List of films in the public domain in the United States
References
Bibliography
D.O.A. by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 434-435
External links
San Francisco in Cinema: D.O.A.
1949 films
English-language films
1940s crime drama films
1940s psychological thriller films
American crime thriller films
American films
American black-and-white films
Film noir
Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin
Films directed by Rudolph Maté
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Palm Springs, California
Films set in San Francisco
Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area
United Artists films
United States National Film Registry films
Films adapted into radio programs
Poisoning in film
Articles containing video clips
1940s crime thriller films
American crime drama films
1949 drama films | [
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238847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylactery | Phylactery | Phylactery () originally referred to tefillin, leather boxes containing Torah verses worn by some Jews when praying.
In Mandaeism, some different types of phylacteries are known as zrazta and qmaha, a list of which can be found at list of Mandaean scriptures.
Phylactery may also refer to:
Other religious or superstitious beliefs
An amulet or charm, worn for its supposed magical or supernatural power
A speech scroll in medieval art, which contains or represents speech
A reliquary, a case in which (Christian) relics were preserved
Phylactery (Dungeons & Dragons), an object used to store a monster's soul to protect it from death as introduced by the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game and now ubiquitous within fantasy fiction
Music
Phylactery Factory, the second album by American singer-songwriter Casey Dienel, but the first under the White Hinterland name
See also
Hunping, a type of Chinese funerary urn also known as a soul jar
Amulets
Objects believed to protect from evil
Practical Kabbalah
Talismans | [
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238848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOA | DOA | DOA may refer to:
Dead on arrival
Dead or Alive (disambiguation)
Film
D.O.A. (1949 film), a film noir
D.O.A. (1988 film), a remake of the 1949 film
D.O.A.: A Rite of Passage (1980 film), a documentary on the genesis of punk rock
DOA: Dead or Alive, a 2006 film based on the video game series produced by Tecmo
Television
D.O.A., a 2010 television comedy starring Kris Marshall
"D.O.A." (Tru Calling), an episode of American drama series Tru Calling
"D.O.A.", an episode of NBC's crime drama Crossing Jordan
"DOA for a Day", an episode of CSI: NY
DOA, the finale of Unforgettable's 3rd season
Music
D.O.A. (band), a Vancouver punk band
doa (Japanese band), a rock band from Japan
Dogs on Acid (also known as DOA), an electronic music website
Do'a or Do'ah, a musical group founded by Randy Armstrong
Albums
D.o.A: The Third and Final Report of Throbbing Gristle, an album by Throbbing Gristle
Dead on Arrival: A Punk Rock Anthology, a live/compilation album by Charged GBH
Songs
"D.O.A.", a song by Bloodrock
"DOA" (Foo Fighters song), a song by Foo Fighters
"D.O.A. (Death of Auto-Tune)", a song by Jay-Z
"D.O.A.", a song by Brotha Lynch Hung from their album Dinner and a Movie
"D.O.A.", a song by Coroner from No More Color
"D.O.A.", a song by Dead Moon from 13 Off My Hook
"D.O.A", a song by Diablo from Mimic47
"D.O.A", a song by The Haunted from One Kill Wonder
"D.O.A.", a song by Lil Wayne from No Ceilings
"D.O.A.", a song by Loverboy from the album Loverboy
"D.O.A.", a song by Van Halen from Van Halen II
"Dead on Arrival" (song), a song by Fall Out Boy
"Dead on Arrival", a song by Evol Intent from Era of Diversion
" DOA ", a song by Rich Brian from the ep 1999
"DOA", a song by I Prevail from Trauma
"DOA", a remix by I Prevail and Joyner Lucas
"D.O.A. (Drunk on Arrival)", a song by Johnny Paycheck
Places
Doa District, in Mozambique
Other uses
Dead or Alive (series), a video game series produced by Tecmo and developed by Team Ninja
wikt:defective on arrival
Design Organization Approval, an approval granted by European Aviation Safety Agency to design and approve certain changes on aircraft
Dioctyl adipate, an ester of n-octanol and adipic acid, to form a plasticizer oil
Direction of arrival
Disciples of Apocalypse, a biker-themed professional wrestling stable
Delegation of Authority log
Software specific
Debian on Android, running Debian chrooted on Android.
Debian on ARM architecture
See also
Doa (moth) | [
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238849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation%20matrix | Permutation matrix | In mathematics, particularly in matrix theory, a permutation matrix is a square binary matrix that has exactly one entry of 1 in each row and each column and 0s elsewhere. Each such matrix, say , represents a permutation of elements and, when used to multiply another matrix, say , results in permuting the rows (when pre-multiplying, to form ) or columns (when post-multiplying, to form ) of the matrix .
Definition
Given a permutation of m elements,
represented in two-line form by
there are two natural ways to associate the permutation with a permutation matrix; namely, starting with the m × m identity matrix, , either permute the columns or permute the rows, according to . Both methods of defining permutation matrices appear in the literature and the properties expressed in one representation can be easily converted to the other representation. This article will primarily deal with just one of these representations and the other will only be mentioned when there is a difference to be aware of.
The m × m permutation matrix P = (pij) obtained by permuting the columns of the identity matrix , that is, for each i, if j = (i) and otherwise, will be referred to as the column representation in this article. Since the entries in row i are all 0 except that a 1 appears in column (i), we may write
where , a standard basis vector, denotes a row vector of length m with 1 in the jth position and 0 in every other position.
For example, the permutation matrix P corresponding to the permutation is
Observe that the jth column of the identity matrix now appears as the (j)th column of P.
The other representation, obtained by permuting the rows of the identity matrix , that is, for each j, pij = 1 if i = (j) and otherwise, will be referred to as the row representation.
Properties
The column representation of a permutation matrix is used throughout this section, except when otherwise indicated.
Multiplying times a column vector g will permute the rows of the vector:
Repeated use of this result shows that if is an appropriately sized matrix, the product, is just a permutation of the rows of . However, observing that
for each shows that the permutation of the rows is given by −1. ( is the transpose of matrix .)
As permutation matrices are orthogonal matrices (i.e., ), the inverse matrix exists and can be written as
Multiplying a row vector h times will permute the columns of the vector:
Again, repeated application of this result shows that post-multiplying a matrix by the permutation matrix , that is, , results in permuting the columns of . Notice also that
Given two permutations and of elements, the corresponding permutation matrices and acting on column vectors are composed with
The same matrices acting on row vectors (that is, post-multiplication) compose according to the same rule
To be clear, the above formulas use the prefix notation for permutation composition, that is,
Let be the permutation matrix corresponding to in its row representation. The properties of this representation can be determined from those of the column representation since In particular,
From this it follows that
Similarly,
Matrix group
If (1) denotes the identity permutation, then is the identity matrix.
Let denote the symmetric group, or group of permutations, on {1,2,...,}. Since there are permutations, there are permutation matrices. By the formulas above, the permutation matrices form a group under matrix multiplication with the identity matrix as the identity element.
The map that sends a permutation to its column representation is a faithful representation.
Doubly stochastic matrices
A permutation matrix is itself a doubly stochastic matrix, but it also plays a special role in the theory of these matrices. The Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem says that every doubly stochastic real matrix is a convex combination of permutation matrices of the same order and the permutation matrices are precisely the extreme points of the set of doubly stochastic matrices. That is, the Birkhoff polytope, the set of doubly stochastic matrices, is the convex hull of the set of permutation matrices.
Linear algebraic properties
The trace of a permutation matrix is the number of fixed points of the permutation. If the permutation has fixed points, so it can be written in cycle form as where has no fixed points, then are eigenvectors of the permutation matrix.
To calculate the eigenvalues of a permutation matrix , write as a product of cycles, say, . Let the corresponding lengths of these cycles be , and let be the set of complex solutions of . The union of all s is the set of eigenvalues of the corresponding permutation matrix. The geometric multiplicity of each eigenvalue equals the number of s that contain it.
From group theory we know that any permutation may be written as a product of transpositions. Therefore, any permutation matrix factors as a product of row-interchanging elementary matrices, each having determinant −1. Thus the determinant of a permutation matrix is just the signature of the corresponding permutation.
Examples
Permutation of rows and columns
When a matrix M is multiplied by a permutation matrix P on the left to make PM, the product is the result of permuting the rows of M. As a special case, if M is a column vector, then PM is the result of permuting the entries of M:
When instead M is multiplied by a permutation matrix on the right to make MP, the product is the result of permuting the columns of M. As a special case, if M is a row vector, then MP is the result of permuting the entries of M:
Permutation of rows
The permutation matrix Pπ corresponding to the permutation is
Given a vector g,
Explanation
A permutation matrix will always be in the form
where eai represents the ith basis vector (as a row) for Rj, and where
is the permutation form of the permutation matrix.
Now, in performing matrix multiplication, one essentially forms the dot product of each row of the first matrix with each column of the second. In this instance, we will be forming the dot product of each row of this matrix with the vector of elements we want to permute. That is, for example, v = (g0,...,g5)T,
eai·v = gai
So, the product of the permutation matrix with the vector v above, will be a vector in the form (ga1, ga2, ..., gaj), and that this then is a permutation of v since we have said that the permutation form is
So, permutation matrices do indeed permute the order of elements in vectors multiplied with them.
Restricted forms
Costas array, a permutation matrix in which the displacement vectors between the entries are all distinct
n-queens puzzle, a permutation matrix in which there is at most one entry in each diagonal and antidiagonal
See also
Alternating sign matrix
Generalized permutation matrix
Rook polynomial
Permanent
References
Matrices
Permutations
Sparse matrices | [
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238850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocytosis | Lymphocytosis | Lymphocytosis is an increase in the number or proportion of lymphocytes in the blood. Absolute lymphocytosis is the condition where there is an increase in the lymphocyte count beyond the normal range while relative lymphocytosis refers to the condition where the proportion of lymphocytes relative to white blood cell count is above the normal range. In adults, absolute lymphocytosis is present when the lymphocyte count is greater than 5000 per microliter (5.0 x 109/L), in older children greater than 7000 per microliter and in infants greater than 9000 per microliter. Lymphocytes normally represent 20% to 40% of circulating white blood cells. When the percentage of lymphocytes exceeds 40%, it is recognized as relative lymphocytosis.
Causes
Lymphocytosis is a feature of infection, particularly in children. In the elderly, lymphoproliferative disorders, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia and lymphomas, often present with lymphadenopathy and a lymphocytosis.
Causes of absolute lymphocytosis include:
acute viral infections, such as infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever), hepatitis and Cytomegalovirus infection
other acute infections such as pertussis
some protozoal infections, such as toxoplasmosis and American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)
chronic intracellular bacterial infections such as tuberculosis or brucellosis
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
acute lymphoblastic leukemia
lymphoma
post-splenectomy state
CARD11-related congenital B cell lymphocytosis (rare, also known as BENTA disease)
Causes of relative lymphocytosis include:
age less than 2 years;
acute viral infections;
connective tissue diseases,
thyrotoxicosis,
Addison's disease,
splenomegaly with splenic sequestration of granulocytes.
Diagnosis
Lymphocytosis is usually detected when a complete blood count is obtained. If not provided the lymphocyte count can be calculated by multiplying the total white blood cell (WBC) count by the percentage of lymphocytes found in the differential count. The lymphocyte count can also be directly measured by flow cytometry.
See also
Lymphocytopenia
References
External links
Lymphocytic disorders | [
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238851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer | Pulitzer | Pulitzer may refer to:
Joseph Pulitzer, a 20th century media magnate
Pulitzer Prize, an annual U.S. journalism, literary, and music award
Pulitzer (surname)
Pulitzer, Inc., a U.S. newspaper chain
Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting, a non-profit organization for journalists
See also
Politzer (disambiguation)
Politz (disambiguation)
Pollitz, Germany | [
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238852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geas | Geas | In Irish, a geas (alternatives: geis, géis, deas; plural geasa) is an idiosyncratic taboo, whether of obligation or prohibition, similar to being under a vow. The plural geasa is also used to mean specifically a spell prohibiting some action, common in Irish folklore and mythology. It is this additional meaning of the plural which the article discusses.
The equivalent Scottish Gaelic word, also used in English, is geas (, plural geasan).
In Irish mythology
A geas can be compared with a curse or, paradoxically, a gift. If someone under a geas violates the associated taboo, the infractor will suffer dishonor or even death. On the other hand, the observing of one's geas is believed to bring power. Often it is women who place geasa upon men. In some cases the woman turns out to be a goddess or other sovereignty figure.
The geas is often a key device in hero tales, such as that of Cúchulainn in Irish mythology. Traditionally, the doom of heroes comes about due to their violation of their geas, either by accident, or by having multiple geasa which then come into conflict. For instance, Cúchulainn has a geas to never eat dog meat, and he is also bound by a geas to eat any food offered to him by a woman. When a hag offers him dog meat, he has no way to emerge from the situation unscathed; this leads to his death.
In some cases the placing of a geas can lead to tragedy even when it is not violated. Aoife imposed three geasa on Connla, her son with Cú Chulainn: He cannot turn back once he starts his journey; he must not refuse a challenge; and he must never tell anyone his name. She then sent Connla, aged seven, to seek out his father—but he was a child of such extraordinary skill that he was seen as a threat after having defeated all Ulster heroes who met him. Because of the geas placed on him by his mother, he refuses to identify himself which leads to his own father, Cú Chulainn, killing him in single combat using the Gáe Bulg before recognising too late who he was. He then introduces his dying son to the men of Ulster as a fitting hero.
A geas might appear beneficial by involving a prophecy that a person would die in a particular way so bizarre that they could then avoid their fate for many years. However as with Conaire Mór, in the tale of Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, who strictly observed a number of geasa, a small unconnected infraction can escalate to one's undoing. By initially making exceptions to crimes of stealing by his foster-brothers contravening fír flathemon, the king's upholding of true judgement, things proceed until they deliberately contravene a geis of Conaire's against marauding in his reign. Though he tries to rectify the situation by exiling them his fate intervenes so the remaining geasa are involuntarily and accidentally broken one after the other with a sense of gathering doom which cannot be checked.
In the Irish saga of Conchobar mac Nessa, the king is said to have the right to the first night with any marriageable woman and the right to sleep with the wife of anyone who hosted him. This is called the Geis of the king. Whether this right actually existed and was exercised by the Celts is not attested outside the sagas. It is similar to the Droit du seigneur of feudal Europe.
Welsh mythology
There is a considerable similarity between the Goidelic geasa and the Brythonic tynged. This is not surprising given the close origins of many of the variants of Celtic mythology.
For example, the Welsh hero Lleu Llaw Gyffes (in one version of his story) was destined to die neither "during the day or night, nor indoors or outdoors, neither riding nor walking, not clothed and not naked, nor by any weapon lawfully made." He was safe until his wife, Blodeuwedd, learning of these foretold conditions, convinced him to show her how he could theoretically be stepping out of a river onto a riverbank sheltered by a roof and put one foot on a goat, and so on, thus enabling the conditions that allowed him to be wounded.
Parallels in English literature
Prohibitions and taboos similar to geasa are also found in more recent English literature, though they are not described as geasa in those texts. For example, in William Shakespeare's play Macbeth, the title character believes he is safe because "no man of woman born shall harm Macbeth". However, his nemesis Macduff was "from his mother's womb untimely ripp'd" (i.e., born by Caesarean section), and was therefore not "of woman born".
Another example is the Witch-King of Angmar from Tolkien's Legendarium, who has a geas-like prophecy described by the Elven hero, Glorfindel: "Far off yet is his doom, and not by the hand of man shall he fall." In this the meaning is quite literal, for the Witch-king eventually falls at the hands of Eowyn and Meriadoc, one a shieldmaiden of Rohan, and thus not a man but a woman, and the other a hobbit, and thus not a Man as in species.
References in popular culture
Lelouch Lamperouge in the Japanese anime television series Code Geass uses a power called "Geass" in order to force people to obey his commands.
In the Tapestry series by author Henry H. Neff, Max McDaniels the son of Lugh Lamhfada has two Celtic geasa: Max is forbidden to kill his kin, knowingly, and he cannot deny a person who is near death their dying requests.
In the Halo franchise, geas is a Forerunner term that refers to genetic commands imposed by the Forerunners on an individual or an entire species, being this the reason behind some of humanity's progress, as part of the Librarian's plan for humanity.
The term geas is used frequently in S. M. Stirling's Emberverse series among a neo-Celtic tribe of modern Wiccans living in a post apocalyptic Willamette Valley.
The role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons features a spell called Geas which allows a character to place magical restrictions upon another.
The character Lord Loss from Darren Shan's Bec in the Demonata series places a geas on the members of the travelling party after their angering him.
See also
References
Further reading
Qiu Fangzhe, ‘Geis, a Literary Motif in Early Irish Literature’, St Anne's Academic Review, 2 (2010), 13–16
Irish mythology
Oaths
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238854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket%20Power | Rocket Power | Rocket Power is an American animated television series created by Arlene Klasky and Gábor Csupó, the creators of Rugrats. The series aired on Nickelodeon from 1999 to 2004.
Premise
Rocket Power revolves around the day-to-day adventures of a gang of four young friends; the adventurous and vain sports enthusiast and perfectionist: Oswald "Otto" Rocket (Joseph Ashton); his tomboyish and kind-hearted older sister: Regina "Reggie" Rocket (Shayna Fox); the brainy newcomer and techno whiz kid who moves from Kansas in the first episode: Sam "Squid" Dullard (Sam Saletta in Season 1; Gary LeRoi Gray in Seasons 2–3; Sean Marquette in Season 4); and Otto's dim-witted but loyal best friend and videographer: Maurice "Twister" Rodriguez (Ulysses Cuadra in Seasons 1–3; Gilbert Leal in Season 4) — who live in the fictional beach community of Ocean Shores, California, where they spend their free time playing extreme sports (such as Skateboarding, Surfing, Snowboarding, Biking, Street Hockey, etc.), getting into various situations and overcoming the trials and challenges of growing up.
Otto and Reggie live with their widowed strict-but-loving dad, Ray "Raymundo" Rocket (John Kassir), who along with his best friend and business partner, retired surfer and self-styled philosopher Tito Makani (Ray Bumatai), owns and operates the Shore Shack, a restaurant and surf shop where the gang usually hang out. In most episodes, they get involved in competitions, but end up learning that their friendship is more important than winning.
Voice cast
Main cast
Joseph Ashton as Oswald "Otto" Rocket
Shayna Fox as Regina "Reggie" Rocket
Sam Saletta as Sam "Squid" Dullard (Season 1)
Gary LeRoi Gray as Sam "Squid" Dullard (Seasons 2–3)
Sean Marquette as Sam "Squid" Dullard (Season 4)
Ulysses Cuadra as Maurice "Twister" Rodriguez (Seasons 1–3)
Gilbert Leal as Maurice "Twister" Rodriguez (Season 4)
John Kassir as Ray "Raymundo" Rocket
Ray Bumatai as Tito Makani
Additional cast
Obba Babatundé as Conroy Blanc
CCH Pounder as Officer Shirley (Season 1)
Denise Dowse as Officer Shirley (Seasons 2–4)
Henry Gibson as Merv Stimpleton
Edie McClurg as Violet Stimpleton
David Gallagher as Oliver Van Rossum
Jordan Blake Warkol as Eddie Valentine
Lauren Tom as Trish, Sherry Chin
Lombardo Boyar as Lars Rodriguez
Jamie Maria Cronin as Clio Rodriguez
Carlos Alazraqui as Raoul Rodriguez
Dyana Ortelli as Sandy Rodriguez
Dale Dye as Lieutenant Tice Ryan
Matthew Stephen Liu as Keoni Makani
Armin Shimerman as Ben Robbins, Shopkeeper
Jason Spisak as Pi Piston, Sputz Ringley (1st voice)
Dominic Armato as Sputz Ringley (2nd voice)
Gregg Berger as Doug Dullard
Jennifer Hale as Paula Dullard
Tony Hawk as Himself
Eric Lloyd as Josh Grody
Olivia Hack as Lizzie
Greg Coolidge as Trent
Kathy Najimy as Patsy
David Berry as Ralph
Mark Hamill as Ralph Sr.
R. Lee Ermey as Major Madison
Jane Krakowski as Bree "Breezy" Copeley
Rosslynn Taylor-Jordan as Mackenzie Benders
Xander Berkeley as Mackenzie's Father
Iona Morris as Mackenzie's Mother
Chi McBride as Big Tony Santos
Glenn Shadix as Mayor
Ralph Waite as Doctor Freimuth
Mario Lupian as Little Scotty
Jamie Alcroft as The Rhino
James B. Sikking as Vice Principal Healy
Dan Butler as Slack Brizack
Chris Marquette as Donnie Lightning
Diane Delano as Coach Lurlene Barker
Daran Norris as TV Reporter
John DiMaggio as Mongo
Fergie as Shaffika
Cree Summer as Crystal Bianca
Kim Mai Guest as Noelani Makani
Michael Welch as Theodore McGill
Michael Gough as Chester McGill
Aaron Carter as Clutch Koerner
Brian Doyle-Murray as Kam Koerner
Ruth Buzzi as Dog Owner
Steve Guttenberg as Billie Joe
Danny Cooksey as Production Assistant
Alison Inconstanti as Carla
Episodes
Home media
A VHS tape entitled Maxing Out was released containing five episodes ("Bruised Man's Curve" • "Super McVarial 900" • "Big Thursday" • "Big Air Dare" • "Otto's Big Break"). In 2004, Nickelodeon released four episodes of the series ("Island of the Menehune" • "Tito's Lucky Shell" • "Welcome to Ottoworld" • "Follow the Leader") on the Island of the Menehune DVD. Other episodes were featured on Nickelodeon compilation DVDs such as Nicktoons Christmas, Nicktoons Halloween and Nickstravaganza! 2.
Nickelodeon and Amazon.com teamed up to release Rocket Power and other Nick shows on manufacture-on-demand DVD-R discs available exclusively through Amazon.com's CreateSpace arm.
Broadcast
Rocket Power premiered on Nickelodeon on August 16, 1999, and its final episode (a television movie called "The Big Day") aired on July 30, 2004. Reruns were then aired on the channel until October 7, 2011.
Nicktoons aired the series from 2002 to 2010. Nick GAS also aired the series from 2003 to 2005. The series reran on TeenNick's block NickRewind (formerly The '90s Are All That, The Splat and NickSplat) from 2014 to 2017.
Other projects
Other projects related to Rocket Power and developed under the aegis of Klasky-Csupo and/or Nickelodeon have included Rocket Power: Beach Bandits, and Maximum Rocket Power Live: The Battle for Madtown Park, a live-action extreme-sports dramatic arena play that briefly toured the U.S. Midwest in spring 2002, before being canceled over low ticket sales (it had originally been scheduled to tour about 40 cities all over the U.S., all the way into fall).
Video games
Several video games based on the series was released on the PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance and PC throughout the years, including Rocket Power: Team Rocket Rescue, Rocket Power: Beach Bandits, Rocket Power Gettin' Air, Rocket Power: Dream Scheme, Rocket Power: Zero Gravity Zone and Rocket Power: Extreme Arcade Games.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack album to Rocket Power was released on February 6, 2002. It is officially the soundtrack to the television film Rocket Power: Race Across New Zealand.
Track listing
"Rocket Power Theme Song" by The Wipeouters
"Individuality" by Area-7
"99 Red Balloons" by Goldfinger
"Valentino" by Bowling for Soup
"I'm Cool" by Reel Big Fish
Reception
Common Sense Media give the series a three out of five stars, writing "Parents need to know that watching this show just might inspire future X-games participation. The kids -- never without a skateboard, bike, hockey stick, or surfboard -- perform incredible stunts, seemingly without risk of injury. A boy with less sports ability than the others shows kids that it's OK to need a lot of practice and only take the risks you're personally comfortable with."
See also
Rugrats
Wild Grinders
References
External links
1990s American animated television series
1990s American children's comedy television series
2000s American animated television series
2000s American children's comedy television series
1999 American television series debuts
2004 American television series endings
1990s Nickelodeon original programming
2000s Nickelodeon original programming
American children's animated action television series
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated comedy television series
American children's animated sports television series
English-language television shows
Nickelodeon original programming
Nicktoons
YTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming
Television series by Klasky Csupo
Animated television series about children
Television shows set in Orange County, California
Skateboarding mass media
Television series created by Gábor Csupó
Television series created by Arlene Klasky | [
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238856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialized%20velar%20consonant | Labialized velar consonant | A labialized velar or labiovelar is a velar consonant that is labialized, with a -like secondary articulation. Common examples are , which are pronounced like a , with rounded lips, such as the labialized voiceless velar plosive . Such sounds occur across Africa and the Americas, in the Caucasus, etc.
Labialized velar approximants
The most common labiovelar consonant is the voiced approximant . It is normally a labialized velar, as is its vocalic cousin . (Labialization is called rounding in vowels, and a velar place is called back.)
and its voiceless equivalent are the only labialized velars with dedicated IPA symbols:
1 - In dialects that distinguish between which and witch.
The voiceless approximant is traditionally called a "voiceless labial–velar fricative", but true doubly articulated fricatives are not known to be used in any language, as they are quite difficult to pronounce and even more difficult to distinguish.
Historical development
Labialized velars frequently derive from a plain velar followed by a rounded (labialized) vowel, such as or . In turn, they may sometimes develop into simple bilabial consonants. An example of this is the development of Proto-Indo-European *kʷ, *gʷ before *a or *o into Greek /p, b/, producing cognates as different as English come and basis. The full sequence is demonstrated by the Satsuma dialect of Japanese: in northern Satsuma, Standard Japanese 'eat!' has contracted to ; in southern Satsuma, it has proceeded further to .
A notable development is the initial *kʷ in Proto-Indo-European interrogative words. In English, it developed into wh or h (how), pronounced /w/ in most dialects and /h/, respectively, via Grimm's law followed by wh-cluster reductions. By contrast, in Latin and its descendants, the Romance languages, that developed into qu (later Spanish cu (cuando) and c (como)), pronounced variously as /kw/ or /k/. See etymology of English interrogative words for details. The English phonemic spelling kw for qu (as in kwik) echoes its origin.
See also
Co-articulated consonant
Doubly articulated consonant
Voiced bilabial fricative
Voiceless bilabial fricative
Phonology
Labialized consonants
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238857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSP | HSP | HSP may refer to:
Biology, chemistry, and medicine
Hansen solubility parameters
Heat shock protein
Henoch–Schönlein purpura
Hereditary spastic paraplegia
Highly sensitive person, with high sensory processing sensitivity
Mathematics, software, and technology
Hidden subgroup problem, in mathematics
High Speed Photometer, Hubble Space Telescope instrument
Host signal processing, software emulating hardware
Hot Soup Processor, a programming language
High-Scoring Segment Pair, in the BLAST algorithm
List of Bluetooth profiles#Headset Profile (HSP)
Education
Harvard Sussex Program, an inter-university collaboration
Holy Spirit Preparatory School, in Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Political parties
Croatian Party of Rights (Croatian: )
People's Voice Party (Turkish: ), Turkey
Other uses
Halal snack pack, an Australian dish | [
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238859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20W%C3%B6rth | Battle of Wörth | The Battle of Wörth, also known as the Battle of Reichshoffen or as the Battle of Frœschwiller, refers to the second battle of Wörth, which took place on 6 August 1870 in the opening stages of the Franco-Prussian War (the first Battle of Wörth occurred on 23 December 1793 during the French Revolutionary Wars). In the second battle, troops from Germany commanded by Crown Prince Frederick William and directed by his chief of staff, General Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal, defeated the French under Marshal MacMahon near the village of Wœrth in Alsace, on the Sauer River, north of Haguenau.
Prelude
During 5 August 1870 the French were concentrated in a selected position running nearly north and south along the western banks of the Sauer on the left front of the German Third Army, which was moving south in an attempt to find them. The French position was marked from right to left by Morsbronn, the Niederwald, the heights west of Wœrth and the woods northeast of Frœschwiller.
East of the Sauer the German Third Army was moving south towards Haguenau, when their cavalry found the French position about noon. Thereafter the German vedettes held the French under close observation, while the latter moved about within their lines and as far as the village of Wœrth as if in peace, notwithstanding the defeat of a portion of the French army at the Battle of Wissembourg on the previous day. The remnant of the force which had been engaged there, with many of its wounded still in the ranks, marched in about noon with so soldierly a bearing that, so far from their depressing the morale of the rest, their appearance actually raised it.
About 17:00 the French watered some horses at the Sauer as if in peace, without escort, though hostile scouts were insight. A sudden swoop of German hussars drove the party back to camp. The alarm sounded, tents were struck and the troops fell in all along the line and remained under arms until the confusion died down when orders were sent to fall out, but not to pitch tents. The army therefore bivouacked; but for this incident, the battle of the next day would probably not have been fought. A sudden and violent storm broke over the bivouacs, and when it was over, the men, wet and restless, began to move about, light fires, etc. Many of them broke camp and went into Wœrth, which was unoccupied, though Prussians were only 300 meters from the sentries. These fired, and the officer commanding the Prussian outposts, hearing the confused murmur of voices, ordered up a battery which, as soon as there was enough light, fired several shells into Wœrth. The stragglers rushed back, the French lines were again alarmed, and several batteries on the French side took up the challenge.
Battle
Bavarian II Corps
The Prussian guns, strict orders having been given to avoid all engagement that day, soon withdrew and were about to return to camp, when renewed artillery fire was heard from the south, and presently also from the north. In the latter direction, the II Bavarian Corps, led by Jakob von Hartmann, had bivouacked along the Mattstall–Langen–Sulzbach road with orders to continue the march if artillery were heard to the south. This order was contrary to the spirit of the Third Army orders; moreover, the V Prussian Corps to the south was in ignorance of its having been given.
The outpost battery near Wörth was heard and the Bavarians at once moved forward. Soon the leading troops were on the crest of the ridge between the Sauer and the Sulzbach, and the Bavarian divisional commander, anxious to prove his loyalty to his new allies—his enemies in 1866–ordered his troops to attack, giving the spire of Frœschwiller, which was visible over the woods, as the point of direction.
Prussian V Corps
The French, however, were quite ready and a furious fusillade broke out, the sound being multiplied out of proportion to the numbers engaged by the echoes of the forest-clad hills. The Prussian officers of the V Corps near Dieffenbach, knowing nothing of the orders the Bavarians had received, were amazed; but at length, at about 10:30 h, when their comrades were seen retiring, in some cases in great disorder, the corps commander, General Hugo von Kirchbach, decided that an effort must at once be made to relieve the Bavarians. His chief of staff had already ordered up the divisional and corps artillery (84 guns in all), and he himself communicated his intention of attacking to the XI Corps (General Julius von Bose) on his left and asked for all available assistance. A report was also dispatched to the crown prince at Sulz, away.
Meanwhile, the Prussian XI Corps had become involved in an engagement. The left of the V Corps' outposts had overnight occupied Gunstett and the bank of the Sauer, and the French, shortly after daylight on 6 August 1870, sent down an unarmed party to fetch water. As this appeared through the mist, the Prussians naturally fired upon it, and the French General Lartigue (to whose division the party belonged), puzzled to account for the firing, brought up some batteries in readiness to repel an attack. These fired a few rounds only, but remained in position as a precaution.
Prussian XI Corps
Hearing the firing, the XI Corps advanced guard, which had marched up behind in accordance with the general movement of the corps in changing front to the west, and had halted on reaching the Kreuzhecke Wood, promptly came up to Spachbach and Gunstett. In this movement across the country to Spachbach some bodies appear to have exposed themselves, for French artillery at Elsasshausen suddenly opened fire, and the shrapnel bursting high sent showers of bullets on the house roofs of Spachbach, in which village a French battalion had just halted. As the falling tiles made the position undesirable, the major in command ordered the march to be resumed, and as he gave the order, his horse ran away with him towards the Sauer. The leading company, seeing the battalion commander gallop, moved off at the double, and the others of course followed. Coming within sight of the enemy, they drew heavy shellfire, and, still under the impression that they were intended to attack, deployed into a line of columns and doubled down to the river, which they crossed. One or two companies in the neighborhood had already begun to do so, and the stream is too wide for the mounted officers to jump, presently eight or ten companies were across the river and out of superior control. By this time the French outposts (some 1500 rifles), lining the edge of the Niederwald, were firing heavily. The line of smoke was naturally accepted by all as the objective, and the German companies with a wild rush reached the edge of the wood.
The same thing had happened at Gunstett. A most obstinate struggle ensued and both sides brought up reinforcements. The Prussians, with all their attention, concentrated on the wood in their front, and having as yet no superior commanders, soon exhibited signs of confusion, and thereupon General Lartigue ordered a counterattack towards the heights of Gunstett, before which all the Prussians between the Niederwald and the Sauer gave way. The French followed with a rush, and, fording the Sauer opposite Gunstett, for a moment put the long line of German guns upon the heights in considerable danger. At this crisis, a fresh battalion of the Prussian XI corps arrived by the road from Surbourg to Gunstett and attacked the French on one flank whilst the guns swept the other. The momentum of the charge died out, and the French drifted backward. The French effort compelled the admiration of both sides.
Prussian V Corps
In the center, the fight had been going badly for the V corps. As soon as the 84 guns between Dieffenbach and Spachbach opened fire, the French disappeared from sight. There was no longer a target, and, perhaps to compel his adversary to show himself, von Kirchbach ordered four battalions to cross the river. These battalions, however, were widely separated and came under fire as soon as they appeared. They attacked in two groups, one from Wœrth towards Frœschwiller, the other from near Spachbach towards the Calvary spur, east of Elsasshausen. Both were overpowered by French infantry fire. A fraction of the southern party maintained itself all day in the elbow of the Hagenau Chaussee, which formed a starting point for subsequent attacks. But the rest were driven back in great confusion. Once more the dashing counter-attack of the French was thrown into confusion by Prussian shell fire, and as the French fell back, the Prussian infantry, now reinforced, followed them up (about 13:00 h). The commander in chief of the German Third Army (Crown Prince Frederick William) now appeared on the field and ordered Kirchbach to stand fast until the pressure of the XI corps and of the Württemberg division could take effect against the French right-wing. The majority of these troops had not yet reached the field. Von Bose, however, seeing the retreat of the troops of the V Corps, had independently determined to renew the attack against the Niederwald with much of his forces as had arrived, and had ordered General von Schkopp's brigade, which was then approaching, to join the troops collecting to the east of Gunstett. Schkopp, however, seeing that his present line of advance led him directly onto the French right about Morsbronn and kept him clear of the confusion to be seen around Gunstett, disregarded the order and continued to advance on Morsbronn. This deliberate acceptance of responsibility really decided the battle, for Schkopp's brigade quietly deployed as a unit and compelled the French right-wing to fall back.
French cavalry
To cover the French retreat General Michel's brigade of cavalry was ordered to charge. The order was somewhat vague, and in his position under cover near Eberbach-Seltz, General Michel had no knowledge of the actual situation. Thus it came about that, without reconnoitering or manoeuvering for position, the French cavalry rode straight at the first objective which offered itself, and struck the victorious Prussians as they were crossing the hills between the Albrechtshäuserhof and Morsbronn. Hence the charge was costly and only partly successful. However, the Prussians were ridden down here and there, and their attention was sufficiently absorbed while the French infantry rallied for a fresh counterstrike. This was made about 13:20 h. The Prussians were driven off the hillsides between the Albrechtshäuserhof and Morsbronn which they had already won. But the counter-attack turned into disaster when 700 French cuirassiers were trapped inside Morsbronn and massacred within a few minutes by rapid close-range fire. The rest of the French cavalry eventually came under fire from the great artillery mass above Gunstett; von Bose having at length concentrated the main body of the XI corps in the meadows between the Niederwald and the Sauer, the French had to withdraw. Their withdrawal involved the retreat of the troops who had fought all day in defence of the Niederwald.
French counter-attack
By 15:00 h the Prussians were masters of the Niederwald and the ground south of it on which the French right-wing had originally stood, but they were in indescribable confusion after the prolonged fighting in the dense undergrowth. Before order could be restored the French launched another fierce counterstroke. As the Prussians emerged from the north edge of the wood, the French reserves suddenly emerged from behind the Elsasshausen heights and striking due south drove the Prussians back. It was a grave crisis, but at this moment von Schkopp, who throughout all this had kept two of his battalions intact, came around the northwest corner of the Wald, and these fresh battalions again brought the French to a standstill. Meanwhile, von Kirchbach, seeing the progress of the XI Corps, had ordered the whole of his command forward to assault the French center; away to the right the two Bavarian corps moved against the French left, which still maintained its original position in the woods northeast of Frœschwiller.
MacMahon, however, was not beaten yet. Ordering Bonnemains's cavalry division to charge by squadrons to gain time, he brought up his reserve artillery, and sent it forward to case-shot range to cover a final counter-stroke by his last intact battalions. But from his position near Frœschwiller he could not see into the hollow between Elsasshausen and the Niederwald. The order came too late, and the artillery unlimbered just as the aforementioned counter-attack on the Niederwald gave way before von Schkopp's reserve. The guns were submerged in a flood of fugitives and pursuers. Elsasshausen passed into the hands of the Germans. To rescue the guns, the nearest French infantry attacked in a succession of groups, charging at bayonet-point with the utmost determination. The Prussians immediately in front gave way to each attack, but those on the flanks swung inwards and under this converging fire each French attempt died out, the Prussians following up the French retreat. In this manner, step by step, in confusion which almost defies analysis, the Prussians conquered the whole of the ground to the south of the Frœschwiller-Wœrth road, but the French still held on in the village of Frœschwiller itself and in the woods to the north of the road, where throughout the day they had held the two Bavarian corps in check with little difficulty. To break down this last stronghold, the guns of the Prussian V and XI Corps, which had now come forward to the captured ridge of Elsasshausen, took the village as their target; the great mass of infantry, now flushed with victory but in the direst confusion, encouraged by the example of two horse artillery batteries which galloped boldly forward to case-shot range, delivered one final rush which swept all resistance before it.
French retreat
The battle was won, and cavalry only were needed to reap its consequences, but the Prussian cavalry division had been left behind without orders and did not reach the battlefield until late at night. The divisional cavalry squadrons did their best, but each pursued on its own account, and the results in prisoners and guns taken fell far short of what the opportunity offered. The French, under cover of darkness, escaped, and on the following day the Prussian cavalry division was quite unable to discover the direction of the retreat.
Aftermath
Analysis
MacMahon received no support from the neighbouring French troops. The battle was won by overpowering weight of numbers: the Prussian general staff were able to field no fewer than 75,000 infantry, 6000 cavalry, and 300 guns, of which 71,000 rifles, 4250 sabers, and 234 guns came into action, against 32,000 rifles, 4850 sabers and 101 guns on the French side. The superiority of the French chassepot over the Prussian needle guns was canceled by the higher number of rifles on the German side; although the Prussians could generally use their numerical superiority to bring a converging fire upon the French, the latter made nearly twice the number of hits for about the same weight of ammunition fired. The French, however, had no answer to the superior German artillery, and in almost every instance it was the terrible shellfire that broke up French counterattacks. All of these attacks were in the highest degree honorable to the French army, and many came closer to foiling the ultimate success of the Germans than was supposed.
Casualties
The Germans lost 103 officers and 1,483 men killed, 383 officers and 7,207 men wounded and 1,373 men missing. Horse casualties amounted to 341. The French lost 8,000 men killed and wounded, and perhaps 12,000 missing, and prisoners, representing a total loss of about 41%. Some French regiments retained a semblance of discipline after suffering enormous losses. The 2nd Turcos lost 93%, 13th Hussars 87%, and thirteen regiments in all lost over 50% of their strength. Frederick William's army captured 200 officers, 9,000 enlisted men, 1 eagle, 4 Turco standards, 28 guns, 5 mitrailleuses, 91 limbers, 23 wagons of rifles and side arms, 158 other carriages and 1,193 horses.
See also
Pascal Olivier Count de Negroni
References
Sources
Attribution:
Endnotes:
See the French and German official histories of the war;
External links
Woerth's war museum
1870 War of 1870 in pictures
Woerth Battlefield pictures
Article on the Battle of Woerth at 'Battlefields Europe'
Battle of Worth
Conflicts in 1870
Battles of the Franco-Prussian War
Battles involving Prussia
Battles involving Württemberg
Wörth
August 1870 events | [
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238860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ppingen%20%28district%29 | Göppingen (district) | Göppingen is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are Rems-Murr, Ostalbkreis, Heidenheim, Alb-Donau, Reutlingen and Esslingen.
History
In 1817, Württemberg was divided into four kreise (districts), the southeastern one of which was named Donaukreis. The four kreise were in turn divided into oberämter. In Donaukreis, the most northern of these oberämter were Göppingen and, to its east, Geislingen. In 1938, the four kreise were abolished, and Geislingen was merged with Göppingen. During the communal reform of 1973 the district was not changed much, only a few municipalities from the districts Schwäbisch Gmünd and Ulm were added.
The district is sometimes called Stauferkreis, because the Staufen family had their roots in this area. However, when that family had no heir anymore, the land became part of Württemberg in the 14th century.
Partnerships
In 1990 a partnership with the district Löbau (now merged into Löbau-Zittau) in the Free State of Saxony was started, to help to build the administration according to western German standards. The municipality Boll already had a partnership with Herrnhut in Löbau before. After the districts started their partnership, several other municipalities of the two districts started partnership as well.
Geography
The district is located in the northern foothills of the Swabian Jura (Schwäbische Alb). It is crossed by the Fils, a tributary of the Neckar.
Coat of arms
The lion is the symbol of the Staufen family, which had its roots in the district. The deer antler above is the symbol of Württemberg and symbolizes the change of ownership after the Staufer family died out.
Cities and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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238864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombin | Thrombin | Thrombin (, fibrinogenase, thrombase, thrombofort, topical, thrombin-C, tropostasin, activated blood-coagulation factor II, blood-coagulation factor IIa, factor IIa, E thrombin, beta-thrombin, gamma-thrombin) is a serine protease, an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the F2 gene. Prothrombin (coagulation factor II) is proteolytically cleaved to form thrombin in the clotting process. Thrombin in turn acts as a serine protease that converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble strands of fibrin, as well as catalyzing many other coagulation-related reactions.
History
After the description of fibrinogen and fibrin, Alexander Schmidt hypothesised the existence of an enzyme that converts fibrinogen into fibrin in 1872.
Prothrombin was discovered by Pekelharing in 1894.
Physiology
Synthesis
Thrombin is produced by the enzymatic cleavage of two sites on prothrombin by activated Factor X (Xa). The activity of factor Xa is greatly enhanced by binding to activated Factor V (Va), termed the prothrombinase complex. Prothrombin is produced in the liver and is co-translationally modified in a vitamin K-dependent reaction that converts 10-12 glutamic acids in the N terminus of the molecule to gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla). In the presence of calcium, the Gla residues promote the binding of prothrombin to phospholipid bilayers. Deficiency of vitamin K or administration of the anticoagulant warfarin inhibits the production of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid residues, slowing the activation of the coagulation cascade.
In human adults, the normal blood level of antithrombin activity has been measured to be around 1.1 units/mL. Newborn levels of thrombin steadily increase after birth to reach normal adult levels, from a level of around 0.5 units/mL 1 day after birth, to a level of around 0.9 units/mL after 6 months of life.
Mechanism of action
In the blood coagulation pathway, thrombin acts to convert factor XI to XIa, VIII to VIIIa, V to Va, fibrinogen to fibrin, and XIII to XIIIa.
Factor XIIIa is a transglutaminase that catalyzes the formation of covalent bonds between lysine and glutamine residues in fibrin. The covalent bonds increase the stability of the fibrin clot. Thrombin interacts with thrombomodulin.
As part of its activity in the coagulation cascade, thrombin also promotes platelet activation and aggregation via activation of protease-activated receptors on the cell membrane of the platelet.
Negative feedback
Thrombin bound to thrombomodulin activates protein C, an inhibitor of the coagulation cascade. The activation of protein C is greatly enhanced following the binding of thrombin to thrombomodulin, an integral membrane protein expressed by endothelial cells. Activated protein C inactivates factors Va and VIIIa. Binding of activated protein C to protein S leads to a modest increase in its activity. Thrombin is also inactivated by antithrombin, a serine protease inhibitor.
Structure
The molecular weight of prothrombin is approximately 72,000 Da. The catalytic domain is released from prothrombin fragment 1.2 to create the active enzyme thrombin, which has a molecular weight of 36,000 Da. Structurally, it is a member of the large PA clan of proteases.
Prothrombin is composed of four domains; an N-terminal Gla domain, two kringle domains and a C-terminal trypsin-like serine protease domain.
Factor Xa with factor V as a cofactor leads to cleavage of the Gla and two Kringle domains (forming together a fragment called fragment 1.2) and leave thrombin, consisting solely of the serine protease domain.
As is the case for all serine proteases, prothrombin is converted to active thrombin by proteolysis of an internal peptide bond, exposing a new N-terminal Ile-NH3. The historic model of activation of serine proteases involves insertion of this newly formed N-terminus of the heavy chain into the β-barrel promoting the correct conformation of the catalytic residues. Contrary to crystal structures of active thrombin, hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry studies indicate that this N-terminal Ile-NH3 does not become inserted into the β-barrel in the apo form of thrombin. However, binding of the active fragment of thrombomodulin appears to allosterically promote the active conformation of thrombin by inserting this N-terminal region.
Gene
The thrombin (prothrombin) gene is located on the eleventh chromosome (11p11-q12).
There are an estimated 30 people in the world that have been diagnosed with the congenital form of Factor II deficiency, which should not be confused with the prothrombin G20210A mutation, which is also called the factor II mutation. Prothrombin G20210A is congenital.
Prothrombin G20210A is not usually accompanied by other factor mutations (i.e., the most common is factor V Leiden). The gene may be inherited heterozygous (1 pair), or much more rarely, homozygous (2 pairs), and is not related to gender or blood type. Homozygous mutations increase the risk of thrombosis more than heterozygous mutations, but the relative increased risk is not well documented. Other potential risks for thrombosis, such as oral contraceptives may be additive. The previously reported relationship of inflammatory bowel disease (i.e., Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis) and prothrombin G20210A or factor V Leiden mutation have been contradicted by research.
Role in disease
Activation of prothrombin is crucial in physiological and pathological coagulation. Various rare diseases involving prothrombin have been described (e.g., hypoprothrombinemia). Anti-prothrombin antibodies in autoimmune disease may be a factor in the formation of the lupus anticoagulant (also known as antiphospholipid syndrome). Hyperprothrombinemia can be caused by the G20210A mutation.
Thrombin, a potent vasoconstrictor and mitogen, is implicated as a major factor in vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Blood from a ruptured cerebral aneurysm clots around a cerebral artery, releasing thrombin. This can induce an acute and prolonged narrowing of the blood vessel, potentially resulting in cerebral ischemia and infarction (stroke).
Beyond its key role in the dynamic process of thrombus formation, thrombin has a pronounced pro-inflammatory character, which may influence the onset and progression of atherosclerosis. Acting via its specific cell membrane receptors (protease activated receptors: PAR-1, PAR-3 and PAR-4), which are abundantly expressed in all arterial vessel wall constituents, thrombin has the potential to exert pro-atherogenic actions such as inflammation, leukocyte recruitment into the atherosclerotic plaque, enhanced oxidative stress, migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, apoptosis and angiogenesis.
Thrombin is implicated in the physiology of blood clots. Its presence indicates the existence of a clot. In 2013 a system for detecting the presence of thrombin was developed in mice. It combines peptide-coated iron oxide attached to "reporter chemicals". When a peptide binds to a thrombin molecule, the report is released and appears in the urine where it can be detected. Human testing has not been conducted.
Applications
Research tool
Due to its high proteolytic specificity, thrombin is a valuable biochemical tool. The thrombin cleavage site (Leu-Val-Pro-Arg-Gly-Ser) is commonly included in linker regions of recombinant fusion protein constructs. Following purification of the fusion protein, thrombin can be used to selectively cleave between the arginine and glycine residues of the cleavage site, effectively removing the purification tag from the protein of interest with a high degree of specificity.
Medicine and surgery
Prothrombin complex concentrate and fresh frozen plasma are prothrombin-rich coagulation factor preparations that can be used to correct deficiencies (usually due to medication) of prothrombin. Indications include intractable bleeding due to warfarin.
Manipulation of prothrombin is central to the mode of action of most anticoagulants. Warfarin and related drugs inhibit vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of several coagulation factors, including prothrombin. Heparin increases the affinity of antithrombin to thrombin (as well as factor Xa). The direct thrombin inhibitors, a newer class of medication, directly inhibit thrombin by binding to its active site.
Recombinant thrombin is available as a powder for reconstitution into aqueous solution. It can be applied topically during surgery, as an aid to hemostasis. It can be useful for controlling minor bleeding from capillaries and small venules, but ineffective and not indicated for massive or brisk arterial bleeding.
Food production
Thrombin, combined with fibrinogen, is sold under the brand name Fibrimex for use as a binding agent for meat. Both proteins in Fibrimex derives from porcine or bovine blood. According to the manufacturer it can be used to produce new kinds of mixed meats (for example combining beef and fish seamlessly). The manufacturer also states that it can be used to combine whole muscle meat, form and portion these, thus cutting down on production costs without a loss in quality.
General secretary Jan Bertoft of Swedish Consumers' Association has stated that "there is danger of misleading the consumers since there is no way to tell this reconstituted meat from real meat".
See also
Cerastocytin
Fibrin glue
Fibrinogen
PA clan of proteases
The Proteolysis Map
References
Further reading
External links
The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: S01.217
by The Proteolysis Map-animation
PMAP: The Proteolysis Map/Thrombin
Thrombin: RCSB PDB Molecule of the Month
Prothrombin Structure
PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human Thrombin.
PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Mouse Thrombin.
Coagulation system
Acute-phase proteins
EC 3.4.21
Pfizer brands
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238867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backtracking | Backtracking | Backtracking is a general algorithm for finding solutions to some computational problems, notably constraint satisfaction problems, that incrementally builds candidates to the solutions, and abandons a candidate ("backtracks") as soon as it determines that the candidate cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution.
The classic textbook example of the use of backtracking is the eight queens puzzle, that asks for all arrangements of eight chess queens on a standard chessboard so that no queen attacks any other. In the common backtracking approach, the partial candidates are arrangements of k queens in the first k rows of the board, all in different rows and columns. Any partial solution that contains two mutually attacking queens can be abandoned.
Backtracking can be applied only for problems which admit the concept of a "partial candidate solution" and a relatively quick test of whether it can possibly be completed to a valid solution. It is useless, for example, for locating a given value in an unordered table. When it is applicable, however, backtracking is often much faster than brute-force enumeration of all complete candidates, since it can eliminate many candidates with a single test.
Backtracking is an important tool for solving constraint satisfaction problems, such as crosswords, verbal arithmetic, Sudoku, and many other puzzles. It is often the most convenient technique for parsing, for the knapsack problem and other combinatorial optimization problems. It is also the basis of the so-called logic programming languages such as Icon, Planner and Prolog.
Backtracking depends on user-given "black box procedures" that define the problem to be solved, the nature of the partial candidates, and how they are extended into complete candidates. It is therefore a metaheuristic rather than a specific algorithm – although, unlike many other meta-heuristics, it is guaranteed to find all solutions to a finite problem in a bounded amount of time.
The term "backtrack" was coined by American mathematician D. H. Lehmer in the 1950s. The pioneer string-processing language SNOBOL (1962) may have been the first to provide a built-in general backtracking facility.
Description of the method
The backtracking algorithm enumerates a set of partial candidates that, in principle, could be completed in various ways to give all the possible solutions to the given problem. The completion is done incrementally, by a sequence of candidate extension steps.
Conceptually, the partial candidates are represented as the nodes of a tree structure, the potential search tree. Each partial candidate is the parent of the candidates that differ from it by a single extension step; the leaves of the tree are the partial candidates that cannot be extended any further.
The backtracking algorithm traverses this search tree recursively, from the root down, in depth-first order. At each node c, the algorithm checks whether c can be completed to a valid solution. If it cannot, the whole sub-tree rooted at c is skipped (pruned). Otherwise, the algorithm (1) checks whether c itself is a valid solution, and if so reports it to the user; and (2) recursively enumerates all sub-trees of c. The two tests and the children of each node are defined by user-given procedures.
Therefore, the actual search tree that is traversed by the algorithm is only a part of the potential tree. The total cost of the algorithm is the number of nodes of the actual tree times the cost of obtaining and processing each node. This fact should be considered when choosing the potential search tree and implementing the pruning test.
Pseudocode
In order to apply backtracking to a specific class of problems, one must provide the data P for the particular instance of the problem that is to be solved, and six procedural parameters, root, reject, accept, first, next, and output. These procedures should take the instance data P as a parameter and should do the following:
root(P): return the partial candidate at the root of the search tree.
reject(P,c): return true only if the partial candidate c is not worth completing.
accept(P,c): return true if c is a solution of P, and false otherwise.
first(P,c): generate the first extension of candidate c.
next(P,s): generate the next alternative extension of a candidate, after the extension s.
output(P,c): use the solution c of P, as appropriate to the application.
The backtracking algorithm reduces the problem to the call backtrack(root(P)), where backtrack is the following recursive procedure:
procedure backtrack(c) is
if reject(P, c) then return
if accept(P, c) then output(P, c)
s ← first(P, c)
while s ≠ NULL do
backtrack(s)
s ← next(P, s)
Usage considerations
The reject procedure should be a boolean-valued function that returns true only if it is certain that no possible extension of c is a valid solution for P. If the procedure cannot reach a definite conclusion, it should return false. An incorrect true result may cause the backtrack procedure to miss some valid solutions. The procedure may assume that reject(P,t) returned false for every ancestor t of c in the search tree.
On the other hand, the efficiency of the backtracking algorithm depends on reject returning true for candidates that are as close to the root as possible. If reject always returns false, the algorithm will still find all solutions, but it will be equivalent to a brute-force search.
The accept procedure should return true if c is a complete and valid solution for the problem instance P, and false otherwise. It may assume that the partial candidate c and all its ancestors in the tree have passed the reject test.
The general pseudo-code above does not assume that the valid solutions are always leaves of the potential search tree. In other words, it admits the possibility that a valid solution for P can be further extended to yield other valid solutions.
The first and next procedures are used by the backtracking algorithm to enumerate the children of a node c of the tree, that is, the candidates that differ from c by a single extension step. The call first(P,c) should yield the first child of c, in some order; and the call next(P,s) should return the next sibling of node s, in that order. Both functions should return a distinctive "NULL" candidate, if the requested child does not exist.
Together, the root, first, and next functions define the set of partial candidates and the potential search tree. They should be chosen so that every solution of P occurs somewhere in the tree, and no partial candidate occurs more than once. Moreover, they should admit an efficient and effective reject predicate.
Early stopping variants
The pseudo-code above will call output for all candidates that are a solution to the given instance P. The algorithm can be modified to stop after finding the first solution, or a specified number of solutions; or after testing a specified number of partial candidates, or after spending a given amount of CPU time.
Examples
Examples where backtracking can be used to solve puzzles or problems include:
Puzzles such as eight queens puzzle, crosswords, verbal arithmetic, Sudoku, and Peg Solitaire.
Combinatorial optimization problems such as parsing and the knapsack problem.
Logic programming languages such as Icon, Planner and Prolog, which use backtracking internally to generate answers.
The following is an example where backtracking is used for the constraint satisfaction problem:
Constraint satisfaction
The general constraint satisfaction problem consists in finding a list of integers , each in some range }, that satisfies some arbitrary constraint (boolean function) F.
For this class of problems, the instance data P would be the integers m and n, and the predicate F. In a typical backtracking solution to this problem, one could define a partial candidate as a list of integers , for any k between 0 and n, that are to be assigned to the first k variables . The root candidate would then be the empty list (). The first and next procedures would then be
function first(P, c) is
k ← length(c)
if k = n then
return NULL
else
return (c[1], c[2], …, c[k], 1)
function next(P, s) is
k ← length(s)
if s[k] = m then
return NULL
else
return (s[1], s[2], …, s[k − 1], 1 + s[k])
Here length(c) is the number of elements in the list c.
The call reject(P, c) should return true if the constraint F cannot be satisfied by any list of n integers that begins with the k elements of c. For backtracking to be effective, there must be a way to detect this situation, at least for some candidates c, without enumerating all those mn − k n-tuples.
For example, if F is the conjunction of several boolean predicates, , and each F[i] depends only on a small subset of the variables , then the reject procedure could simply check the terms F[i] that depend only on variables , and return true if any of those terms returns false. In fact, reject needs only check those terms that do depend on x[k], since the terms that depend only on will have been tested further up in the search tree.
Assuming that reject is implemented as above, then accept(P, c) needs only check whether c is complete, that is, whether it has n elements.
It is generally better to order the list of variables so that it begins with the most critical ones (i.e. the ones with fewest value options, or which have a greater impact on subsequent choices).
One could also allow the next function to choose which variable should be assigned when extending a partial candidate, based on the values of the variables already assigned by it. Further improvements can be obtained by the technique of constraint propagation.
In addition to retaining minimal recovery values used in backing up, backtracking implementations commonly keep a variable trail, to record value change history. An efficient implementation will avoid creating a variable trail entry between two successive changes when there is no choice point, as the backtracking will erase all of the changes as a single operation.
An alternative to the variable trail is to keep a timestamp of when the last change was made to the variable. The timestamp is compared to the timestamp of a choice point. If the choice point has an associated time later than that of the variable, it is unnecessary to revert the variable when the choice point is backtracked, as it was changed before the choice point occurred.
See also
Ariadne's thread (logic)
Backjumping
Backward chaining
Enumeration algorithm
Sudoku solving algorithms
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
HBmeyer.de, Interactive animation of a backtracking algorithm
Solving Combinatorial Problems with STL and Backtracking, Article and C++ source code for a generic implementation of backtracking
Pattern matching
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238871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed%20Racer | Speed Racer | Speed Racer, also known as , is a Japanese media franchise about automobile racing. Mach GoGoGo was originally serialized in print in Shueisha's 1966 Shōnen Book. It was released in tankōbon book form by Sun Wide Comics and later re-released in Japan by Fusosha. Adapted into anime by Tatsunoko Productions, its 52 episodes aired on Fuji TV from April 1967 to March 1968. In the US, the program aired on ABC. at approximately the same time. The anime was later re-broadcast on Tokyo MX from July 1 to September 25, 2008.
Selected chapters of the manga were released by NOW Comics in the 1990s under the title Speed Racer Classics. These were later released by Wildstorm Productions, a division of DC Comics, as Speed Racer: The Original Manga. In 2008, under its Americanized title, Speed Racer, Mach GoGoGo was republished in its entirety in the United States by Digital Manga Publishing and was released as a box set to commemorate the franchise's 40th anniversary, as well as serving as a tie-in with the 2008 film. The television series was very successful in the United States and is said to have defined anime in that country until the 1990s, being watched by a total estimated audience of viewers during the 1960s1970s.
Media
Manga
Mach GoGoGo was first created and designed by anime pioneer Tatsuo Yoshida (1932–1977) as a manga series in the 1960s and made the jump to TV as an anime series in 1967. The actual manga was inspired by Yoshida's earlier and more popular automobile racing comics, Pilot Ace. Pilot Ace's main storyline formed the structure for Mach GoGoGo, which followed the adventures of an ambitious young man, who soon became a professional racer.
The characters’ designs in Pilot Ace set the main ground for the character design in Mach GoGoGo. Yoshida got his idea for the story after seeing two films that were very popular in Japan at the time, Viva Las Vegas and Goldfinger. By combining the look of Elvis Presley's race-car driving image, complete with neckerchief and black pompadour, and James Bond's gadget-filled Aston Martin DB5, Yoshida had the inspiration for his creation. Soon enough, Mach GoGoGo hit shelves in the early 1960s. The central character in the anime and manga was a young race car driver named Gō Mifune (Mifune Gō).
The name of the series, Mach GoGoGo has a triple meaning: is the name of the car; the name of the main character is Gō Mifune; and finally, it contains the English word, go. In the American adaptation, the Mach 5 stems from the number 5 on the door. Although, in Japanese, is the word for the number 5, the Kanji character which is used in the car name actually means "item number" (i.e. it is an ordinal suffix). In addition, gogogo, is used as a general Japanese sound effect for rumble. Taken together, the program's title means, "Mach-gō Gō Mifune Go!"
The manga (compiled into two deluxe volumes for Fusosha's re-release) has several storylines, such as "The Great Plan," "Challenge of the Masked Racer," "The Fire Race," "The Secret Engine" and "Race for Revenge", that were adapted to the anime. However, minor changes occur between both the original manga and the anime series, such as differences between back stories of several characters and places.
A few years after the volumes were released, Yoshida decided to release his manga series as an anime program, adding additional plots. 52 episodes aired in Japan, each one emulating the fast-paced action of the manga.
Selected chapters of the original Mach GoGoGo manga series were reprinted by NOW Comics as two volumes of Speed Racer Classics (1988–1989), and by DC Comics/Wildstorm Productions as Speed Racer: The Original Manga (2000). In 2008, a hardcover box set of the complete manga series was released by Digital Manga Publishing as the two volume Speed Racer: Mach Go Go Go.
An Armenian version is found on youtube, with "Arak Mrtsogh" the title.
Anime
The manga spawned an anime adaptation which actually became a bigger success. 52 episodes were produced from 1967 to 1968. In 1997, Tatsunoko produced a modernized version of Mach GoGoGo which aired on TV Tokyo, ABC lasting for 34 episodes. An English adaptation of this remake was produced by DiC titled Speed Racer X, which aired in 2002 on Nickelodeon. Only the first 13 episodes were adapted due to licensing disputes between DiC and Speed Racer Enterprises. Mach Girl was a web-based series by Tatsunoko Productions, created by Tatsuo Yoshida's daughter, Suzuka.
English adaptation
The English rights to Mach GoGoGo were acquired by syndicator Trans-Lux (which originally was, and still exists as, an electronics manufacturer), and Speed Racer premiered on American television in the summer of 1967. In the series, Speed's full name was Go Mifune, in homage to Japanese film star Toshiro Mifune. His name, Americanized, became Speed Racer. His adventures centered on his powerful Mach 5 car, his girlfriend Trixie, his little brother Spritle, Spritle's pet chimpanzee Chim-Chim, and his mysterious older brother, Racer X, whose real name was Rex Racer.
For American consumption, major editing and dubbing efforts were undertaken by producer Peter Fernandez, who likewise not only wrote and directed the English-language dialogue but also provided the voices of many of the characters, most notably Racer X and Speed Racer himself. Fernandez was also responsible for a rearrangement of the theme song's melody, written and composed by Nobuyoshi Koshibe, and he subsequently also wrote its English lyrics.
A Speed Racer daily comic strip written and drawn by Mort Todd ran in the New York Post from 2000–2001. IGN ranked the original Speed Racer series at #29 on its "Best 100 Animated Series" list.
At Otakon 2015, Funimation announced that it had acquired the license to Speed Racer from Tatsunoko and would release it on Blu-ray for the first time. Funimation gave Speed Racer two separate home video releases: a standard release for the English version on May 30, 2017, and a collector's edition for the Japanese version with English subtitles on November 7, 2017, the first such North American release.
Development
Names
The large red M on the hood of the Mach 5, as well as on Gō's helmet, is the emblem of Mifune Motors, the family business, and an homage to Japanese film star Toshiro Mifune. In North America it was assumed to stand for Mach 5 and in the Latin American version for Meteoro. His given name, Gō, is a Japanese homophone for the number 5 (the number on his race car) which is also represented by the yellow letter G embroidered on his short-sleeve blue shirt. The tradition of symbolism on characters' shirts was also used on Michi (Trixie) and Sabu (Sparky), who had the letter "M" and "S" on their shirts, respectively.
Audience
The overall purpose of the anime was to please a growing fan base worldwide with exciting stories that involved facing adversity on the race track and beyond. Review of the episodes in the Speed Racer: Collector's Edition of Japanese and English-language episodes reveals frequent changes to the sound-track (dialogue and the addition of an off-screen narrator) but very little editing of the image-track. Most significantly, the names of villains are often changed to be more cartoony, e.g. Professor Anarchy in episode 31 ("Lightning-Quick Ninja Cars" in Japanese, "Gang of Assassins" in English).
Characters
Racer family
Speed Racer /
The protagonist of both the anime and the manga is Speed Racer, originally Gō Mifune. He is known for his love of racing and valuing his family. He drives the Mach 5 (as well as other cars, such as the Mach 6 in the movie) and always manages to wind up in extreme danger with either his younger brother or his girlfriend Trixie. Speed is shown to miss his older brother, Rex (secretly disguised as Racer X), in both versions. He is portrayed by Emile Hirsch in the 2008 film, while his younger self is portrayed by Nicholas Elia.
Off the track, he wears a blue shirt with an orange "G" (standing for his Japanese first name, Gō) with a white collar, a red racing bandanna around his neck, white pants, red socks, brown loafers, and yellow gloves. He is 18 years old, has a brown, almost black, pompadour, and his eyes are brown (in the anime version they are blue). In racing, he sports a white open-face helmet with an M (representing Mifune Motors) on top. In the anime, on special occasions, Speed wears a red blazer with a yellow "G" embroidered on it. In the live-action film, he wears a white leather racing jacket unzipped over his classic outfit. He wears his classic outfit (without the embroidered "G") in the first half of the Casa Cristo 5000. To strengthen the character's back-story continuity between Speed and his older brother Rex, Speed's red socks were considered "lucky socks."
Spritle Racer / and
Speed Racer has a younger brother named Spritle (Kurio Mifune in the Japanese original). Spritle has a pet chimpanzee, who responded to the name of Chim-Chim in the American version (Sanpei in the Japanese original). Their rebellious attitudes often lead them to trouble. Often in Speed's way, their mischief somehow aids Speed away from danger. Spritle and Chim-Chim dress in identical jumpsuits and striped hats and often perform identical physical actions. They both have an extreme appetite for candy and they are usually bribed with dessert or other presents. Spritle and Chim-Chim often use a slingshot to combat any threats that come to both themselves and/or Speed.
According to Peter Fernandez's introduction in the American release of the Mach GoGoGo manga, Spritle got his name for being an energetic "sprite." Chim-Chim got his name because he was considered a chimpanzee. In the live-action film, they are portrayed faithfully to their characterizations in both the anime and manga. Spritle was portrayed by Paulie Litt in the film.
Pops Racer /
Speed's father, Pops, (Daisuke Mifune) is a former wrestler-turned race car owner and builder. After quitting his job in a corporate car manufacturing company, he founded his own company, Mifune Motors. (In America, the company was changed to Racer Motors.) He is portrayed as a hothead who is overprotective of his family. His eldest son, Rex, ran away (although he would return as Racer X). In addition to Spritle and Chim-Chim, Pops' attitude is a running gag in the anime series as well as the live-action film. Overweight, he wears an athletic red shirt and a beige mechanic's cap. Despite his build, Pops is nearly unmatched in combat, as he was once a champion heavyweight wrestler. His design skills allow him to create powerful engines, especially his (in the film) prized "Mach" Series, giving the car the ability to travel at high speeds while sustaining maximum performance. He is portrayed by actor John Goodman in the 2008 film.
Mom Racer /
Speed's mother, Mom Racer (originally Aya Mifune), is a side character in the series. She rarely appears in the anime or manga, having limited dialogue, and many episodes of the anime did not feature her at all. In the live-action film, however, she is portrayed by Susan Sarandon as an encouraging parental figure.
The enigmatic Racer X (Fukumen Racer in the Japanese version) is a frequent recurring character, driving car number 9, the "Shooting Star". Racer X is a mysterious, selfless, sympathetic, and often brooding soldier of fortune whose secret identity is that of Rex Racer (Kenichi Mifune in Japan), Speed's older brother. Six years prior, Rex had a falling out with Pops after wrecking a race car that Pops had built. Pops had told Rex prior to the race that he was not prepared to compete at the professional racing level. With less than one lap to go, Rex was leading and cruising toward victory, but lost control of the car, wrecking it. Pops exploded with anger and berated Rex, and in response, Rex exiled himself, vowing to become the world's greatest race car driver. In both Speed Racer X and in the 2008 movie, Rex is thought to have died in that accident. In the film, he is portrayed by Matthew Fox, while his younger self is portrayed by Scott Porter.
Pops and Speed always acknowledged that Racer X was the superior driver, and the greatest driver that they had ever seen; however, Speed still vowed to defeat Racer X. In the anime, Speed was often suspicious of Racer X's identity and motives, because Racer X would sacrifice winning races to protect Speed from drivers who tried to harm him. The assistance from Racer X nearly always led to Speed winning races, while Racer X came in second place. Racer X always left the scene unnoticed, receding into his secret life.
Supporting characters
Trixie /
Trixie, or Michi Shimura (named after actor Takashi Shimura, who collaborated with Toshiro Mifune on several films), is Speed's girlfriend. The "M" adorning her blouse stands for Michi. Trixie often flies around in a helicopter during a race, acting as Speed's spotter, a function she also serves in the live-action film during the Casa Cristo 5000. In the manga, it is mentioned that her father is the president of Shimura Aviation, which explains why she has her own helicopter. To add comic relief in the anime, Trixie becomes jealous if Speed pays too much attention to another girl or if she feels ignored. In the 2008 live-action film, she is portrayed by actress Christina Ricci, while her younger self was played by Ariel Winter. She had an auburn bob cut with bangs; in the anime, her hair was dark brunette.
Unlike most female characters in cartoons at that time, Trixie is not portrayed as a helpless perpetual victim. Trixie often proves herself the equal of Speed when forced into physical altercations. While Trixie has been captured on occasion by the villains, she refuses to cower or plead for her release, more often giving the bad guy a serious tongue-lashing until she is either rescued or escapes on her own. On some occasions, Trixie has even been the one to rescue Speed or other male characters from their predicaments. In the spin-off Speed Racer: The Next Generation, she is assumed to be the mother of X and Speed Jr.
Casually, Trixie wears a pink blouse with the aforementioned "M" on her left side. She also wears red pants. In racing events, she wears a white long-sleeve shirt underneath pink overalls, which also have the embroidered "M". During races, she also wears a pink cap with racing goggles. On special occasions, Trixie wears a blue hat and dress.
Other regular characters included Sparky, whose full name in the movie and in Speed Racer: The Next Generation is Wilson Sparkolemew (in the manga and anime, he is only called Sparky). In the Japanese original, he was Sabu, and he was Bujía in the Latin American version. He is the company mechanic, a quirky young man who is a best friend of Speed and knows everything about cars. In the live-action movie, he is portrayed as older than Speed, but is still his close friend. He wears a yellow shirt bearing the letter S. He is portrayed by actor Kick Gurry in the live-action film. He makes a cameo in Speed Racer: The Next Generation.
The Car Acrobatic Team
The Car Acrobatic Team (or Car Acrobats) is one of the original set of characters appearing in both the manga and anime. The 16 racers' uniforms are embroidered with a letter from the English alphabet. All of the cars in the team (automobiles numbered 11 through 26), except for number 11, look and act the same. The cars sprout wings from both sides, making them capable of jumping large gaps and gorges. The most notable of the team are Captain Terror and Snake Oiler (the latter being a character exclusive to the anime).
Captain Terror, the leader of the Car Acrobatic Team, is shown as an arrogant driver in the manga, sabotaging races for his own benefit. His arrogance gets the best of him, and he gets severely injured in an explosion after not heeding Speed's warning about his car leaking oil. He has a "Z" embroidered on his racing uniform, a face of skeletal features, and a lone feather atop his helmet. He drives the number 11 car, the only car different in appearance to the rest of the Car Acrobatic team.
In the anime, Captain Terror's character exists, but many of his appearances are played by a new character, Snake Oiler. He replaces Captain Terror in terms of hotheaded attitude. Embroidered with an "S" on his uniform and tinted visor on his striped helmet, Snake Oiler drives the number 12 car, similar in appearance to the other cars in the Car Acrobatic Team. The role Captain Terror had in the manga was lifted onto the Snake Oiler character, therefore Captain Terror's role in the Alpine Race (and injuries from a crash related to an oil leak) was replaced by Snake. Although Snake did not exist in the original manga, he was notable in the West due to his appearance in the anime. Snake Oiler's name and acrobatic skills are an homage to Haro Bora.
In the live-action movie, Snake has completely changed in appearance. Since the Car Acrobatic Team didn't exist in the film, he is instead leader of his own racing team, named "Hydra-Cell". He wears large sunglasses and sports a black pompadour. His racing uniform is made entirely of snake skin (complete with a yellow snake on his helmet) and his car is completely orange. Despite the change in appearance, Snake's car number and attitude are still intact in the film. He is portrayed by Christian Oliver.
In the next-to-last episode of the original series, the Car Acrobatic Team and Speed are tricked into racing against each other in a grudge race by a terrorist organization hoping to use the race as a means to kill Speed and Racer X. After the two sides learn of the deception (which involved planting time bombs in the Car Acrobatic Team's cars), they agree to a truce in order to foil the plan. The Car Acrobatic Team park their cars around the terrorists' secret headquarters and the explosion destroys the building and kills the leaders. After that, Speed and Captain Terror part amicably, with Terror wishing Speed the best of luck next time they meet. Snake Oiler does not appear in the episode.
In Speed Racer: The Next Generation, Zile Zazic was seen wearing a racing outfit similar to Captain Terror's during the "Comet Run" episodes, implying that Zile was Captain Terror. Stan, Zile's main henchman, also noted that Speed Racer had raced against Zile's racing team at one point.
Vehicles
Many of the show's cars have special abilities in the series. *Note: The names of the cars that have appeared in both the manga and the original anime have been fitted with Italics.
The Mach 5
The Mach 5, Speed Racer's car ("Mahha Gō," or "Mahha," in the Japanese version), is a technological marvel, containing useful pieces of equipment. Gō Mifune/Speed Racer easily deployed these gadgets by pressing buttons marked "A" through "G" on the steering wheel hub (although there are buttons on the steering wheel in the manga, the letter designations are exclusive to the anime and the 2008 live action film). This uniquely designed car, built with a sleek Coke bottle bodystyle, has a white exterior with a large "M" on its hood, the logo for the family business, Mifune Motors (changed to Pops Motors in the anime and Racer Motors in the live action film). The two-seat car had a mostly red-colored interior. The number 5 is emblazoned on both side doors of the car. In the manga and anime this is the car's racing number; in the film, it is because it is the fifth car built in Pops' "Mach" series of racing vehicles. Although technically inferior to other racing vehicles such as the Mammoth Car and the GRX, the Mach 5 manages to win most races because of Speed's superior driving skills.
The Mach 5 has been stolen from Speed a few times, once when Cornpone Blotch took the car to add it to his car collection in the "Girl Daredevil" saga. However, Speed always gets it back at the end of the episode. At one point, the car was replicated, functions and all, by Dr. Nightcall. However, this replica included other new abilities that inspired later functions of the car in remakes of the show, one of which were the Aero-Jacks, used as a replacement for the Auto Jacks in Speed Racer X. In manga continuity, the Mach 5 was destroyed and rebuilt. See Manga and Anime Differences for more information on the Mach 5's manga continuity.
In both American comic and movie continuity, Pops is portrayed as having built a "Mach" Series consisting of other variants, such as the Mach 4 and Mach 6, in addition to Rex Racer's Mach 1 and the Mach 5.
The Shooting Star
The Shooting Star is Racer X's car, colored bright yellow with a black front bumper and numbered 9 on the hood and sides. The car's engine is located in the back, and it is a very agile machine, often displaying abilities akin to and even above those of the Mach Five. Many of its high-tech features allowed Racer X to keep an eye on Speed Racer, who is his younger brother.
In later comics written by Tommy Yune, Rex acquires the car that he names the "Shooting Star" from Prince Kabala of Kapetapek. During his time training with the royal leader, Rex is informed that he is the ninth student of Kabala, hence the number 9. Rex also builds other cars numbered 9 with similar paint schemes and names them with variants like the "Falling Star."
In the 2008 film adaptation, the car makes an appearance but is not named. The car was the only car built in addition to the Mach Five for the movie, and it features weapons like machine guns mounted above the cockpit and under the chassis. In addition to this car, Racer X also drives a car built for the competitions in the film, a T180. This car was titled the "Augury" in the film's video game counterpart. Like Racer X's unnamed street car, it features a number 9 and has the black and yellow color scheme, with a large black "X" on the front bumper. The T180 only makes one appearance in the film, when Racer X competes to protect Speed in the Fuji race after he has rejected Royalton's offer.
The Mammoth Car
Appearing only in the anime, it is supposedly the largest racing vehicle in the world. Similar in design to an extremely long trailer truck, the Mammoth Car is mostly red and is built by Speed Racer villain Cruncher Block. The Mammoth Car was built almost entirely of $50,000,000 in stolen gold bars. This amount of gold, however, would actually occupy only 74 cubic feet, based on the then price of gold of $35 per ounce. By entering it in "The No Limit World Race", Cruncher wished to smuggle the gold out of the country. The Mammoth Car's main engine has . Each wheel also has an engine with , giving it a total of . It can travel at , on any kind of road or terrain. It makes screeching sounds reminiscent of Godzilla. It has magnetic brakes and is over long, making the Mammoth Car one of the most interesting cars in the series. It was destroyed after it crashed into an oil refinery and melted into its original gold form by the intense heat.
The Mammoth Car makes a small cameo in the 2008 film in the scene where Cruncher Block interrogates Taejo Togokhan (a character created for the movie) after he resists Royalton Industries in the race-fixing business. They were interrupted by Racer X, who battles the Mammoth and saves Taejo. The Mammoth Car in this movie is shown to have view ports for its drivers to shoot out of, just like in the original series, and it is shown to fire missiles from its grill.
The Mammoth Car also makes an appearance along with Flash Marker Jr.'s X3 in Speed Racer: The Next Generation in the second and third episodes of "The Fast Track" saga, as an enemy program of the show's virtual racing track. Although the Mammoth Car is rendered in CGI after its original anime design, the car is missing its grill and many other details that had appeared in the original anime. The Mammoth Car in this episode makes the same sound as it did in the anime. It pays homage to the original series by using its signature attack of surrounding and circling a rival.
The Melange and the X3
The Melange was a roofless racing car numbered with a "3," driven by Flash Marker. When investigating the mysterious car, Speed recalls the name Melange was the name of Napoleon's horse, who saved his life several times in battles. (The name was actually Marengo but became Melange due to an erroneous transliteration from Japanese to English.) When Speed recalls his knowledge of French history, a rendition of Jacques-Louis David's painting of Napoleon Crossing the Alps, which depicts Napoleon riding Marengo, is drawn in the episode. Pops Racer, however, identified the name "Melange" as a car driven 15 years earlier by a young driver named Flash Marker. The Melange's chassis was colored with two shades of purple and had an exposed engine on its hood. During the "Race at Danger Pass", the Melange, along with Marker, was finally destroyed in a crash caused by the Three Roses Club.
Since then, Flash's son, Flash Marker Jr., had plotted revenge on the Three Roses Club by building a car with a sleek, black body marked "X3." The car was driven through remote control and a robot dummy was placed in the driver's seat, broadcasting the phrases "Melange still races" and "Melange is alive" to haunt the Three Roses Club. The X3 was used primarily to deliberately crash into and kill those affiliated with the Three Roses Club, leaving behind a card marked X3 to taunt the remaining members. Speed, who had volunteered to help the police, was chasing down the X3 when it narrowly avoided colliding with a train, leaving the robot dummy hanging over the level crossing's boom gate.
Speed noticed its robot "driver" and brought it back to the police for further investigation. Meanwhile, Flash Marker Jr. secretly brought back the damaged car and replaced its body with a replica of the original Melange, placing it over the X3 chassis in his secret underground car factory, to prepare for the next Race at Danger Pass. Since it is the same car with the chassis of the Melange, the car can still be controlled remotely. While the new Melange is still numbered "3", it has the ability to be changed through remote control to X3, which makes the drivers of the Three Roses Club realize that the "new Melange" is actually the X3. The car, controlled by Flash Jr. in his helicopter, was used to fatally crash into two Three Roses drivers before it was destroyed when it lost control and crashed into the final member of the Three Roses Club.
The first episode has been translated into Armenian, using the Western Armenian dialect.
The GRX
The GRX was technically an engine, but it has become more identified with the gold-colored car that housed the engine in the series episode "The Fastest Car on Earth." The engine was designed by Ben Cranem, and it was responsible for crashes and deaths of four test drivers and its inventor due to the impossible speeds it could attain. Cranem died and the GRX engine was buried with him, but Oriana Flub and her men exhumed the engine and placed it into the car with a sleek, golden, and markless body.
Oriana convinced Speed to test drive the car with the GRX and Speed was sprayed with a special serum known as the V-gas to artificially sharpen his reflexes. The V-gas causes its driver to become extremely thirsty and if the driver consumed any compound containing water, they would develop a strong phobia of speed. The car got a new driver, Cranem's son, Curly. Curly was given the V-gas and soon experienced its side effects. The GRX and its engine were destroyed when he fatally crashed the car due to Curly drinking water during a pit stop.
The GRX episodes mark one of the few continuity errors introduced by the English dubbing. In the first episode the GRX's speedometer with a maximum speed of on it is shown in the beginning of the episode, however, due to a continuity error in the Japanese animation, as Speed drives it, the speedometer tops out at This would make the GRX slower than the Mammoth Car by the English dialogue.
In the 2008 film adaptation, the name makes an appearance as a car developed by Royalton Industries and driven by Jack "Cannonball" Taylor. The car retains none of the back story from its anime counterpart. It is numbered 66 and colored purple and gold and was transformed from a two-seater to a single-seater. In the Grand Prix race that closes the film, the GRX is the main competitor for Speed in the Mach 6 and features a secret weapon called a "spear-hook" that is illegal in professional racing. After Taylor deploys the device against Speed during the Grand Prix, Speed uses the Mach 6's auto-jacks to flip the cars and reveal the hook to the track cameras, automatically disqualifying Taylor and aiding the case built by Inspector Detector against Royalton.
Manga and anime differences
Like most manga series adapted to anime, changes occur in both timelines of the Speed Racer series. Besides the obvious Americanization of the original Japanese characters' names, other changes include character's backstory and new characters. (See Manga section for more information)
Continuity changes
Most of the manga stories were slightly changed in the anime version. There are also stories never adapted into the anime series, thus making them manga exclusives.
In the manga, Speed (Go Mifune) always wears his standard outfit, even on special occasions. In the case of the anime, however, Speed wears a special outfit, exclusive to formal occasions. The same is true of Trixie.
The meeting between Spritle (Kurio) and Racer X occurs twice (once in each volume) in the manga, along with other scenes preceding and following it. However, several dialogue changes are present and the outcome of each meeting is extremely different.
The manga has a dramatically different ending than the anime. In the manga, Rex Racer (Kenichi Mifune) reunites with Speed, revealing to him that he was the mysterious masked racer, Racer X, all along. In "The Trick Race," Speed confronts him, asking if he is his older brother, prompting Rex (as Racer X) to punch him in the stomach, knocking him unconscious, then declaring that he can never go home again. In both instances, Speed finally knows that his brother is Racer X.
Character backstories
It is mentioned in passing that Trixie's (Michi) father is the president of Shimura Aviation (Shimura is Michi/Trixie's family name in the Japanese releases). This is not mentioned in the anime.
Some characters, such as Snake Oiler, are exclusive to the anime, which also contains some original stories not found in the manga.
Prince Kabala was considered a separate character in the manga and is in no way shown affiliated with Racer X (in the anime, Prince Kabala dies and his guise was used by Racer X to help maintain his homeland of Kapetapek). Racer X, on the other hand, disguises himself as another person in the manga.
Vehicle backstories
Although many of the Mach 5's special features are seen in the manga, including buttons on the steering wheel, they are not marked with letters, except for the large, central button, which is marked with an M (instead of G).
In the manga, the Mach 5 is destroyed once. When it is rebuilt, the Mach 5 is fitted with gadgets that are technologically upgraded from the gadgets that were on the old Mach 5. The auto-jacks are superseded by the aero-jacks, which did not make an appearance in the original anime series (this idea was used in the 1990s Japanese remake, replacing the auto-jacks). This new Mach 5 is also fitted with regenerating tires, called the auto-spare, which did not appear in the original anime. However, the concept of regenerating tires is used in the 2008 live-action film. The new Mach 5 is also fitted with small aerodynamic wings, to assist Speed in longer and farther jumps. This idea was adapted to the original anime version, although the reason behind the upgrade is different from that of the original manga.
At the end of the manga, Rex Racer is portrayed driving the Mach 5 — a scene that may have inspired the backstory of the car in the live-action film, in which it originally belonged to Rex, who relinquished ownership to his younger brother, Speed.
A car, the E-RX, appears in a chapter of the manga, but does not appear in the anime. It functions similarly to the anime's GRX, being portrayed as the fastest car in the world. Although it does not appear in the anime, the E-RX appears in many of the American comics.
Speed Racer Enterprises
The show's mainstream success in the United States spawned an ongoing Speed Racer franchise. This ranged from comics, video releases, merchandise, a live-action film, and newer series either rebooting or continuing the original series . The franchise began in the early 1990s when a company, Speed Racer Enterprises, acquired rights to the original series. At the time when the series was originally released, very little merchandise was released in the United States. However, during the series' re-airing during the 1990s, Speed Racer Enterprises was responsible for the creation of actual Speed Racer merchandise, ranging from small collectible die-cast cars, to action figures, to home video releases of episodes from the original series. Speed Racer Enterprises was also involved in creating original American takes on the Japanese series such as The New Adventures of Speed Racer and Speed Racer: The Next Generation.
Due to Speed Racer Enterprises, the original 1967 series made a comeback through reruns on MTV, broadcast in the early morning hours. In 1993, the series was rebroadcast in syndication concurrently with a new American-created remake. Since all the rights were now under Speed Racer Enterprises, all references to the original rights holder, Trans-Lux, were removed. Therefore, the opening sequence included an entirely recreated logo, which most people are familiar with today; however when Speed Racer Enterprises authorized Volkswagen to use Speed Racer in a July 1996 GTI commercial, J.J. Sedelmaier faithfully replicated the look of the original episode title cards, including the original logo.
This is the version that later aired on the Cartoon Network in the late afternoon (and later on in late night/overnight) programming, and it is also the version released on Region 1 DVD. This version can also be seen on the streaming video service Hulu.
In December 2013, Tatsunoko gained all rights to the Speed Racer franchise, retroactively as to May 2011, as part of a settlement of lawsuits between Speed Racer Enterprises and the animation studio. Tatsunoko had claimed that SRE had exceeded its contractual rights in continuing to license the property after 2011.
American comic adaptations
NOW Comics launched an American Speed Racer comic book series in 1987. The series became a hit with the high production values of airbrush artist Ken Steacy. The comics continued for 38 issues and included a spin-off Racer X series and crossovers. A miniseries adapting The New Adventures of Speed Racer was also released, which included art by Oscar González Loyo. In 1993, NOW Comics and Antarctic Press also published a four-issue intercompany crossover between Speed Racer and the characters of Ben Dunn's Ninja High School.
In 1999, DC Comics/Wildstorm Productions released a new Speed Racer limited series, which became the #1 pick of industry publication Wizard magazine. The manga style of writer/artist Tommy Yune recaptured the look of the original anime, which was soon followed by an industry-wide revival of comic adaptations of other classic animated series. The limited series was collected as the trade paperback Speed Racer: Born to Race , and a Racer X limited series featuring the artwork of Chinese manga artist Jo Chen.
In 2008, IDW Productions re-released the Wildstorm series as Speed Racer/Racer X: The Origins Collection, and previously published issues from NOW Comics as Speed Racer Vol. 1–5. A new limited series, Speed Racer: Chronicles of the Racer, was also produced.
Seven Seas published an adaptation by Dwayne Alexander Smith in 2007 with art by Elmer Damaso.
Latin American comic adaptation
Editorial Abril, an Argentine company established by César Civita, published a Spanish-language comic book in the 1970s. Soon after, his brother, Victor Civita, published a magazine in Brazil through Editora Abril. In 2000, Editora Abril published a series by Tommy Yune.
American TV series
In 1993, The New Adventures of Speed Racer, an American-produced series, had a much more contemporary art style. It was not a direct continuation of the original series; therefore, it is considered a reboot. While the original series had more realistic themes, such as gang violence and family ties, this series introduced science fiction themes, like robots and mutants. Tatsunoko did not authorize the production of this series, and it was off the air after only 13 episodes.
For the original series' 40th anniversary in 2006, a Flash-based series of "webisodes" titled Speed Racer Lives was released. This series was depicted as a continuation of the original series, taking place many years after it. The series was made available on the Internet solely to promote a new line of toys made by Art Asylum.
In 2008, Speed Racer: The Next Generation, a new series, was released on Nicktoons. Like Speed Racer Lives, this series was conceived as taking place years after the original. It focuses on the sons of the original Speed Racer. Its premiere coincided with the live-action feature film in May 2008. Peter Fernandez voices a middle-aged version of Spritle, Speed's younger brother from the original Japanese series. The show's protagonist, also named Speed, and one of Spritle's nephews, is voiced by New Jersey native Kurt Csolak. Larry Schwarz is the creator of the TV series, which is produced by Animation Collective, the creators of Kappa Mikey and Three Delivery. Like the 1993 remake, this series was not authorized by Tatsunoko. Pangea Corporation has been working with Speed Racer Enterprises for over 20 years and has created several new show iterations.
The original series was also revived on MTV for a short period of time in 1993, moved to Cartoon Network in 1996, and again to its sister network Boomerang until 2005.
Speed Racer: The Movie (1993 film)
In 1993, the episodes "The Car Hater" and "Race Against the Mammoth Car" were combined into a feature-length film and briefly released in theaters. It was later released on VHS and DVD and has been available on Hulu. The film also featured old commercials for Bondex ready-mix cementing, National Forest Service (featuring Smokey The Bear), Flit insecticide spray, and Pure-Pak milk cartons (featuring Old King Cole), and a bonus cartoon, the Colonel Bleep episode The Treacherous Pirate.
Live-action film
The Wachowskis wrote and directed a live-action adaptation of Speed Racer, released on May 9, 2008. It was poorly received by most critics and was a box office failure, making just under $93 million worldwide against a production budget of at least $120 million (before prints and advertising).
One-act play
In 1994, Pangea Corporation wrote and produced a one-act play titled Spridle: A One Man Show, [Sic] which debuted at the San Diego Comic Con and was a huge success. It chronicled what happened to all the Speed Racer characters after the show was canceled, following the concept that the characters were real and had private lives. Spritle, Speed's younger brother, relates the tell-all confessional piece as a disgruntled grown-up who is now sour that his career floundered after his celebrity status on the show. It was cited by Wizard magazine as one of the top 10 best sessions at Comic Con 1994. The show was written by John Schulte and John Besmehn, produced, directed and moderated by Cheryl Ann Wong.
Other appearances
Sequences from the original TV show were used for the entirety of Ghostface Killah's music video for "Daytona 500."
Merchandise
Toys
The first major toy line of Speed Racer was developed in 1992 by Pangea Corporation for Ace Novelty Toy Company. Products focused on both the classic Speed Racer anime program from Tatsunoko, plus a whole new line based on the Fred Wolf series, The New Adventures of Speed Racer. Lego released new Speed Racer construction sets to coincide with the release of the Speed Racer film. These include a 242 piece Speed and Snake Oiler set, a 237 piece Racer X and Taejo Togokhan set, a 367 piece Racer X and Cruncher Block set, and a 595 piece Grand Prix set, which includes Trixie, Pops, Speed, Spritle, Chim-Chim, 2 racers, and a racing announcer. Mattel had the master toy license for the 2008 Speed Racer film, including action figures, related vehicles, and accessories. Mattel's Hot Wheels division produced miniature replicas of the Mach 5 called the Second Wind, and their Barbie Collector division released a collector doll set featuring Trixie and Speed as they appeared in the film. Also, a Mattel product called UB FunKeys got a new patch, which included a Speed Racer zone.
Jada Toys held the rights to produce die-cast replicas of the Mach 5 from the original animated series.
Playing Mantis released a wide range of the Speed Racer die-cast miniatures, including replicas of the villains' cars and mini-dioramas under their "Johnny Lightning" line. A limited-edition release of the Mach Four from the Wildstorm comic series remains one of the hardest-to-find collectibles to this day. In 1998 Playing Mantis acquired the rights to the "Captain Action" action figure line, a vintage line about a crusading adventurer who disguises himself as famous super-heroes. Playing Mantis had planned to produce new costumes of Speed Racer, Racer X, and Captain Terror for the revamp of the line, but they were never produced. Control art for the Speed Racer costume appears on the packaging of some figures, and pictures of the prototypes are available online.
Resaurus produced two series of five-inch (127 mm) action figures, rich with articulation and accessories; as well as a full-sized Mach V in 1999. A third series of figures and a full-sized Shooting Star were planned, but the line folded before this could happen. Toynami is currently releasing a large-scale version of the Speed Racer vehicles, including a Mach Five playset complete with all of its gadgets. The company Polar Lights is currently manufacturing two 1/25-scale (according to the box) model kits in standard "glue" and snap-together variations (though the scale of the model inside is closer to 1/32). These can be built with or without the waterproof bubble canopy at the modeler's discretion. The kits feature a homing robot and separate jacks; and a rear engine (possibly a tip to NOW comics, which illustrated the engine in the rear).
RC ERTL has produced Speed Racer's Mach 5 in 1:18 Die Cast Form with many features of the animated car, including pop out saw blades, ion jacks, opening doors, hood and trunk. It includes Spritle Racer and Chim-Chim figures. Special variants were made with decals celebrating Racer X and other characters from the series as part of the 35th Anniversary Edition in 2001. A similar die-cast version of Racer X's Shooting Star was produced as well. It has now been retired from production and is a sought-after collectible.
Art Asylum made a line of toys consisting primarily of their block-figure Minimates in 2006.
Video games
In 1992, Accolade made Speed Racer in The Challenge of Racer X for DOS. Two years later, that company made Speed Racer in My Most Dangerous Adventures for SNES, Which developed by Radical Entertainment.
In 1993, Pangea Corporation created and authored a CD-Rom title that featured game elements, a video clip creator that allowed players to make a classic Speed Racer mash-up moment, along with other themed interactive content. It was marketed under the name "The Compleat Speed Racer."
Namco created a Speed Racer arcade game in 1995.
Speed Racer game was released for the PlayStation. It was published in Japan by Tomy (1996) and in North America by Jaleco (1998).
A video game based on the 1997 series, simply titled Mach Go Go Go, was released by TOSE and Tomy for the Game Boy (with Super Game Boy support) in Japan.
In 2006, a joint production of enterthemonkey.com and blitinteractive.com, titled Speed Racer — The Great Plan, was released as a Web browser game to Shockwave.com. The game stays very true to the original television show, with all the original voices, sounds, and Mach 5 controls. The game featured the operational steering wheel buttons from the original animated series. Each button activated a customized accessory to avoid obstacles and take on rough terrains.
A game based on the movie was created for the Wii, Nintendo DS and PlayStation 2 platforms. Stars Emile Hirsch (Speed), Christina Ricci (Trixie) and Matthew Fox (Racer X) reprise their roles.
DVD releases
Artisan Home Entertainment/Lionsgate Entertainment (through Family Home Entertainment) released episodes 1 through 11 of the original series in DVD format in the U.S. and Canada on April 22, 2003. This turned out to be the first in a series of five DVD re-releases of the show. The second volume, containing episodes 12 through 23, went on sale on May 18, 2004. The DVD came in a special package where one could push a button on the cover and the Mach 5's headlights would light up, while a portion of the show's English theme song played. Volumes 1 and 2 were re-released as a two-disc set on April 20, 2010. The third volume came out on May 24, 2005, with the discs packaged in a round metal box made to resemble the steering wheel of the Mach 5. It contains episodes 24 through 36. This volume was later released to promote the live action film in a standard keep case. Lionsgate Family Entertainment released the fourth volume, which featured episodes 37 through 44, on March 14, 2006; this volume included a die-cast toy Mach 5. The last episode, "Race the Laser Tank", was time-compressed (in other words, sped up), similar to when Cartoon Network aired the series in the mid-1990s. Although nothing was removed from the episode, the higher-pitched voices of the characters and the diminished quality of the episode due to the time-compression upset some fans. The fifth and last volume was released on October 31, 2006. This volume included episodes 45 through 52 and for a limited time it came with a miniature license plate with the inscription, "Go-Speed Racer-Go!"
The entire anime series was released in Australia on April 30, 2008 and in the United States later that year, on October 7. The U.S. release of the entire anime series is a repackaging of all five individually released volumes into a comic book style box set, in homage to the Mach GoGoGo manga. In addition, a bonus disc containing special featurettes and an episode of Speed Racer: The Next Generation is included. These discs, six in total, were packaged in an exclusive die-cast casing modeled after the Mach 5.
All previous DVD releases went out of print after Tatsunoko gained worldwide rights to the franchise.
After FUNimation garnered the rights, they released the English version on separate DVD and Blu-ray sets on May 30, 2017. On November 7, they released a Blu-ray + DVD Combo Collector's Edition of both the English and Japanese versions, as well as the Japanese version of Speed Racer X, known as Mach Go Go Go: Restart on DVD. It has a bust of Speed Racer with sound effects, as well as a key chain and an exclusive interview with the voice actress of Trixie and Spritle, Corinne Orr.
Footnotes
References
Johnson, Glen. "Speed Racer." Glen Johnson's 60's Anime. 3 April 2007. 19 October 2007.
Patrick Macias and Tomohiro Machiyami. Cruising the Anime City: An Outer Guide to Neo Tokyo. Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Press, 2004.
External links
Speed Racer GoGoGo (archived)
Mach GoGoGo at Tokyo MX (archived)
Official digital manga publishing website
1960s Japanese television series
1967 anime television series debuts
Japanese children's animated action television series
Japanese children's animated adventure television series
Japanese children's animated sports television series
Asahi Sonorama manga
Children's manga
Digital Manga Publishing titles
Fictional motorsports in anime and manga
Fictional racing drivers
Fuji TV original programming
Funimation
Fusosha Publishing manga
NOW Comics titles
Shogakukan manga
Shōnen manga
Shueisha manga
Tatsunoko Production franchises
Television series by Lionsgate Television
TV Tokyo original programming
Westinghouse Broadcasting
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238873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serviceability | Serviceability | Serviceability may refer to:
Serviceability (structure)
Serviceability (computer)
Serviceability (telecommunications)
Serviceability (banking) | [
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238881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmidiales | Desmidiales | Desmidiales, commonly called desmids (Gr. desmos, bond or chain), are an order in the Charophyta, a division of green algae in which the land plants (Embryophyta) emerged. Or in other words, Desmid, (order Desmidiales), order of single-celled (sometimes filamentous or colonial) microscopic green algae. Desmids are sometimes treated as a family (Desmidiaceae) of the order Zygnematales.
The desmids belong to the class Zygnematophyceae. Although they are sometimes grouped together as a single family Desmidiaceae, most classifications recognize three to five families, either within the order Zygnematales or as their own order Desmidiales.
The Desmidiales comprise around 40 genera and 5,000 to 6,000 species, found mostly but not exclusively in fresh water. Many species may be found in the fissures between patches of sphagnum moss in marshes. With a pH level of approximately 4.0, sphagnum peat provides the ideal environment for this flora.
Morphology
The structure of these algae is unicellular, and lacks flagella. Although most desmids are unicellular, the species Desmidium swartzii forms chains of cells resembling the algae genus Spirogyra. However, these filaments are arranged in a helix pattern.
The cell of a desmid is often divided into two symmetrical compartments separated by a narrow bridge or isthmus, wherein the spherical nucleus is located. Each semi-cell houses a large, often folded chloroplast for photosynthesizing. One or more pyrenoids can be found. These form carbohydrates for energy storage. The cell-wall, of two halves (termed semicells), which, in a few species of Closterium and Penium, are of more than one piece, has two distinct layers, the inner composed mainly of cellulose, the outer is stronger and thicker, often furnished with spines, granules, warts et cetera. It is made up of a base of cellulose impregnated with other substances including iron compounds, which are especially prominent in some species of Closterium and Penium and is not soluble in an ammoniacal solution of copper oxide.
Desmids assume a variety of highly symmetrical and generally attractive shapes, among those elongated, star-shaped and rotund configurations, which provide the basis for their classification. The largest among them may be visible to the unaided eye.
Desmids possess characteristic crystals of barium sulphate at either end of the cell which exhibit continuous Brownian motion. The function of these crystals is completely unknown.
Many desmids also secrete translucent, gelatinous mucilage from pores in the cell wall that acts as a protecting agent. These pores are either, as in Micrasterias, uniformly distributed across the cell-wall but always appear to be absent in the region of the isthmus, or, in highly ornamented forms, as many genera of Cosmarium, grouped symmetrically around the bases of the spines, warts and so on with which the cell is provided.
In the inner layer of the wall the pore is a simple canal, but in the outer, except in Closterium, the canal is surrounded by a specially differentiated cylindrical zone, not composed of cellulose, through which the canal passes. This is termed the pore-organ. The canals are no doubt in all cases occupied by threads of mucilage in process of excretion. At the inner surface of the wall they terminate in lens- or button-shaped swellings, while from the outer end of the pore-organ there sometimes arise delicate radiating or club-shaped masses of mucilage through which the canal passes and which appear to be more or less permanent in character. In most cases, however, these are absent or only represented by small perforated buttons.
Reproduction
Desmids commonly reproduce by asexual fission, however, in adverse conditions, Desmidiales may reproduce sexually, through a process of conjugation, which are also found among the closely related Zygnematales.
Classification
Classification of the families and genera in the Desmidiales:
Closteriaceae
Closterium
Spinoclosterium
Gonatozygaceae
Genicularia
Gonatozygon
Leptocystinema
Peniaceae
Penium
Desmidiaceae
Actinotaenium
Arthrodesmus
Bambusina
Cosmarium
Cosmocladium
Desmidium
Docidium
Euastrum
Groenbladia
Haplotaenium
Heimansia
Hyalotheca
Micrasterias
Onychonema
Phymatodocis
Pleurotaenium
Sphaerozosma
Spondylosium
Staurastrum
Staurodesmus
Teilingia
Tetmemorus
Triploceras
Xanthidium
The family Gonatozygaceae is sometimes included within the Peniaceae, reducing the number of families from four to three. A fifth family Mesotaeniaceae was formerly included in the Desmidiales, but analysis of cell wall structure and DNA sequences show that the group is more closely related to the Zygnemataceae, and so is now placed together with that family in the order Zygnematales. However, the Zygnemataceae may have emerged in the Mesotaeniaceae.
References
Further reading
Survey of Clare Island 1990 - 2005, noting the Desmidiales recorded. Ed. Guiry, M.D., John, D.M., Rindi, F. and McCarthy, T.K. 2007. New Survey of Clare Island. Volume 6: The Freshwater and Terrestrial Algae. Royal Irish Academy.
External links
Microphotographs of desmids
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238882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rivers%20of%20Switzerland | List of rivers of Switzerland | The following is a list of rivers in Switzerland:
Rivers by length
(> 100 km, only the length in Switzerland)
Rhine - 375 km - 36,494 km2
Aare (or Aar) - 295 km - 17,779 km2
Rhône - 264 km - 10,403 km2
Reuss - 158 km - 3,425 km2
Linth and Limmat together - 140 km - 2,416 km2
Saane/La Sarine - 128 km - 1,892 km2
Thur - 125 km
Rivers by drainage area
(> 1000 km2, only the area in Switzerland)
Rhine - 375 km - 36,494 km2
Aare - 295 km - 17,779 km2
Rhône - 264 km - 10,403 km2
Reuss - 158 km - 3,425 km2
Linth / Limmat - 140 km - 2,416 km2
Inn - 104 km - 2,150 km2
Saane/La Sarine - 128 km - 1,892 km2
Thur - 125 km - 1,724 km2
Ticino - 91 km - 1,616 km2
Hinterrhein - 57.3 km - 1,693 km2
Vorderrhein - 67.5 km - 1,514 km2
Doubs - 74 km - 1,310 km2
Kander - 44 km - 1,126 km2
Rivers by orography
Switzerland is drained into four directions:
North Sea, via the Rhine.
Mediterranean Sea, via the Rhône.
Adriatic Sea, via the Po and the Adige.
Black Sea, via the Danube.
Rivers that flow into other rivers are sorted by the proximity of their points of confluence to the sea (the lower in the list, the more upstream). Some rivers (e.g. Danube) do not flow through Switzerland themselves, but they are mentioned for having Swiss tributaries. They are given in italics.
Rhine (main branch in Hook of Holland, Netherlands)
High Rhine - 375 km - 36,494 km2
Wiese - km - km2 (in Basel)
Birsig 21 km - 82 km2 (in Basel)
Birs - 73 km - 924 km2 (in Basel)
Aare - 295 km - 17,779 km2 (in Koblenz)
Linth / Limmat - 140 km - 2,416 km2 (in Brugg)
Sihl - 73 km - 341 km2 (in Zürich)
Reuss - 158 km - 3,425 km2 (in Brugg)
Kleine Emme - 58 km - 477 km2 (near Luzern)
Emme - 80 km - 983 km2 (in Solothurn)
Orbe / Thielle - 57 km - 488 km2 (into Lake Biel in La Neuveville)
Broye - 86 km - 850 km2 (into Lake Neuchâtel in La Sauge)
Saane/La Sarine - 128 km - 1,892 km2 (near Bern)
Kander - 44 km - 1,126 km2 (into Lake Thun near Thun)
Simme - 53 km - 594 km2 (in Wimmis)
Lütschine - km - (into Lake Brienz near Interlaken)
Glatt - 67 km - 416 km2
Töss - 58 km - 442 km2 (in Teufen)
Thur - 125 km - 1724 km2 (near Flaach)
Lake Constance; Alpine Rhine - 170 km
Landquart - 43 km - 618 km2 (in Landquart)
Plessur - 33 km - 267 km2
Hinterrhein - 57.3 km - 1,693 km2 (at Reichenau)
Albula - 36 km - 950 km2 (near Thusis)
Gelgia - km - km2 (in Tiefencastel)
Landwasser - 30.5 km
Vorderrhein - 67.5 km - 1,514 km2 (at Reichenau, near Chur)
Rabiusa - 32 km
Valser Rhine - 30 km - 186 km2
Rein da Curnera - 7 km - 27 km2
Rein da Medel - 25 km - 128 km2
(see sources of the Rhine)
Rhône - 264 km - 10,403 km2 (in Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône, France)
Saône - km - km2 (in Lyon, France)
Doubs - 74 km - 1,310 km2 (in Verdun-sur-le-Doubs, France)
Allaine - 28 km - 197 km2 (near Montbéliard, France)
Arve - km - km2 (in Geneva)
Drance - 43 km - 678 km2 (in Martigny)
Lonza - km - km2 (in Gampel)
Vispa - 40 km - 787 km2 (in Visp)
Po (near Venice, Italy)
Adda - km - km2 (in Cremona, Italy)
Breggia - km - km2 (into Lake Como, between Cernobbio and Como, Italy)
Mera - km - km2 (into Lake Como in Sorico, Italy)
Poschiavino - km - km2 (in Tirano, Italy)
Ticino - 91 km - 1,616 km2 (in Pavia, Italy)
Toce - km - km2 (into Lake Maggiore in Verbania, Italy)
Diveria - km - m2 (near Domodossola, Italy)
Tresa - 13 km - 754 km2 (into Lake Maggiore in Luino, Italy)
Maggia - 55 km - 926 km2 (into Lake Maggiore in Locarno)
Adige (near Venice, Italy)
Rom - km - km2 (in Glurns, Italy)
Danube (in Sulina, Romania)
Inn - 104 km - 2,150 km2 (in Passau, Germany)
See also
Hydrology of Switzerland
Geography of Switzerland
Rivers of Europe
Valleys of the Alps
List of islands of Switzerland
List of lakes of Switzerland
:Category:Rivers of Switzerland
References
External links
Hydrological data of some Swiss rivers
Daily forecast of Swiss rivers
Switzerland
Rivers | [
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238883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow%20University%20Scottish%20Nationalist%20Association | Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association | The Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association (GUSNA) is a student organisation formed in 1927 at the University of Glasgow which supports Scottish independence.
History
GUSNA is important historically as it predated many pro-independence organisations including the Scottish National Party itself. It is the forerunner of the National Party of Scotland (NPS) which is itself a forerunner of the modern Scottish National Party. One of the three founding members of GUSNA was John MacCormick who had previously been involved in the Glasgow University Labour Club.
GUSNA was thrown into prominence in the early 1950s when a group of its members (including Ian Hamilton who would later become a well known Queen's Counsel) took the Stone of Destiny from Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1950. This caused a huge scandal among the British establishment and it was not until April 1951 that the stone was found by the authorities.
GUSNA has, almost since its inception, tried to play an active part in the life of Glasgow University with its members regularly being involved in the Students' Representative Council as well as regularly nominating candidates for the election of the Rectorship of the university.
Notable GUSNA Rectorial candidates of the past have included Robert Cunninghame-Graham and John MacCormick (who with Ian Hamilton as his campaign manager was successful in being elected). More recent candidates have been Ian Hamilton, Alasdair Gray and Alan Bissett; with the most recent being Aamer Anwar, who was elected in 2017.
GUSNA is affiliated to SNP Students, the student wing of the Scottish National Party, and played a leading role in its formation in the 1960s.
Prominent former members of GUSNA have included Winnie Ewing, Nicola Sturgeon MSP and Neil MacCormick (son of John MacCormick). The current president is Nico Matrecano.
Executive committee
The members of the 2020-21 executive committee are:
President: Nico Matrecano
Vice President: Daniel Holland (Dual Mandate)
Secretary: Emma Hill
Treasurer: Daniel Coulstock
Organiser: Tom Coyle
Equalities Officer: Daniel Holland (Dual Mandate)
Past President: Abby Hastings
Notable Members
Alasdair Allan MSP: Minister for Learning, Science and Scotland's Languages and Member of the Scottish Parliament for Na h-Eileanan an Iar
Angela Constance MSP: Minister for Youth Employment and Member of the Scottish Parliament for Almond Valley
Winnie Ewing: Former President of the Scottish National Party and winner of the 1967 Hamilton by-election
Ian Hamilton QC: Advocate and one of the students involved in the removal of the Stone of Scone from Westminster Abbey in 1950
Jamie Hepburn MSP: Member of the Scottish Parliament for Cumbernauld and Kilsyth
Neil MacCormick: Former Regius Chair of Public Law and the Law of Nature and Nations at the University of Edinburgh and Member of the European Parliament
Derek Mackay MSP: Minister for Local Government and Planning and Member of the Scottish Parliament for Renfrewshire North and West
Nicola Sturgeon MSP: First Minister of Scotland and Member of the Scottish Parliament for Glasgow Southside
References
External links
Glasgow University Scottish Nationalist Association on Facebook
1927 establishments in Scotland
Scottish National Party
Scottish Nationalist Association
Scottish Nationalist Association
Student organizations established in 1927 | [
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238893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbleizing | Marbleizing | Marbleizing or faux marbling is the preparation and finishing of a surface to imitate the appearance of polished marble. It is typically used in buildings where the cost or weight of genuine marble would be prohibitive. Faux marbling is a special case of faux painting used to create the distinctive and varied patterns of marble - the most imitated stone by far.
History
Faux stone painting was widely used in Pompeii, but it really took off in Europe during the Renaissance with two schools of faux painting developing. The Italian school was loose and artistic, the French school was formal and realistic. It typically took an apprentice 10 years or more to fully master the art.
The sophistication of the techniques are such that visitors are frequently unable to distinguish between false and real marble in many churches, palaces and public buildings in Europe. The techniques were perfected by the 17th century and have been used in all styles of construction well into the 20th century, including Baroque, palladian, neoclassical and historical Revival styles as well as Art Nouveau and Art Deco buildings. Craftsmen who are able to replicate this work are still available, as evidenced, for example, by the extensive restorations of faux marble surfaces in important Eastern Europe buildings since 1990.
The art of marbling and graining reached its apogee in Britain between 1845 and 1870, and during this period the acknowledged master was Thomas Kershaw.
Thomas Kershaw
Kershaw was born in Standish, Lancashire England in April 1819.
He achieved international fame, winning a number of prestigious awards at the major exhibitions of the age; The Great Exhibition, London, 1851 - a first prize medal; Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1855 - a first class medal; London Exhibition, 1862 - first prize.
Kershaw's work was often considered to be indiscernible from the original. He undertook work in many large houses, mansions and stately homes throughout England and Wales and once declined an offer from the Russian Ambassador to imitate marbles on the interior of the Imperial Palace in St Petersburg. In 1858 he produced one of his important works in the Blue Room in Buckingham Palace where all the pillars were done in imitation marble.
William Holgate
In modern times, William Holgate (1931-2002) from Clitheroe, Lancashire, was possibly the finest grainer and marbler in the world since Thomas Kershaw held the title 150 years before. His achievements include the prestigious award known as the "Freedom of the City and Guilds of London" and was made “Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Painter Stainers of Trinity Lane, London," in 1995. He was also given the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2001 Paris Salon.
Techniques
Other techniques for producing faux marble include Scagliola, a costly process which involves the use of specially pigmented plasters, and terrazzo. For flooring, marble chips are imbedded in cement, then ground and polished to expose the marble aggregate.
Some professional faux finishers are very skilled and will use a variety of techniques to reproduce the colors, veining and luster of real marble or other building materials. However, many decorators will merely suggest the appearance of marble rather than accurately imitate a particular stone.
See also
Faux painting
Paper marbling
Terrazzo
References
Faux painting
Decorative arts
Artistic techniques
Surface decorative techniques in woodworking | [
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238894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonaldization | McDonaldization | McDonaldization is a McWord developed by sociologist George Ritzer in his 1993 book The McDonaldization of Society. For Ritzer, "McDonaldization" is when a society adopts the characteristics of a fast-food restaurant. The process of McDonaldization can be summarized as the way in which "the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of recent idea about the worldwide homogenization of cultures due to globalization.
McDonaldization is a reconceptualization of rationalization and scientific management. Where Max Weber used the model of the bureaucracy to represent the direction of this changing society, Ritzer sees the fast-food restaurant as a more representative contemporary paradigm.
Aspects
Ritzer highlighted four primary components of McDonaldization:
Efficiency – the optimal method for accomplishing a task. In this context, Ritzer has a very specific meaning of "efficiency". In the example of McDonald's customers, it is the fastest way to get from being hungry to being full. Efficiency in McDonaldization means that every aspect of the organization is geared toward the minimization of time.
Calculability – objective should be quantifiable (e.g., sales) rather than subjective (e.g. taste). McDonaldization developed the notion that quantity equals quality, and that a large amount of product delivered to the customer in a short amount of time is the same as a high quality product. This allows people to quantify how much they are getting versus how much they are paying. Organizations want consumers to believe that they are getting a large amount of product for not a lot of money. Workers in these organizations are judged by how fast they are instead of the quality of work they do.
Predictability – standardized and uniform services. "Predictability" means that no matter where a person goes, they will receive the same service and receive the same product every time when interacting with the McDonaldized organization. This also applies to the workers in those organizations. Their tasks are highly repetitive, highly routine, and predictable.
Control – standardized and uniform employees, replacement of human by non-human technologies
With these four principles of the fast food industry, a strategy which is rational within a narrow scope can lead to outcomes that are harmful or irrational. As these processes spread to other parts of society, modern society's new social and cultural characteristics are created. For example, as McDonald's enters a country and consumer patterns are unified, cultural hybridization occurs.
De-McDonaldization
Organizations have been making an effort to deny the rationalization of McDonaldization. Efforts are related to focusing on quality instead of quantity, enjoying the unpredictability of service and product and employing more skilled workers without any outside control.
Protests have also been rising in nation-states in order to slow down the process of McDonaldization and to protect their localization and traditional value.
Some local case studies show how adjusting the rational model of McDonald's to suit local cultural preferences results in a diminution of the original McDonald's product. The more the company adjusts to local conditions, the more appeal the scientific calculations of the specifically American product may be lost. This can be used to justify McDonald's uniform approach. The ubiquity of McDonald's and the uniformity of its practices is a contributing factor to globalization.
Examples
Junk food news, defined here as inoffensive and trivial news served up in palatable portions, is an example of McDonaldization. Another example could be McUniversities, which features modularized curricula, delivering degrees in a fast-track pick-and-mix fashion to satisfy all tastes. The diminished quality of these products can only be disguised by extensive advertising which constantly repackages them to look new.
In penology, there has been a shift from punishments and treatment tailored to individual offenders, to attempting to control classes of offenders who are considered to be at high risk of recidivism through standardized penalties, such as those specified by three-strikes laws or sentencing guidelines. Offenders are classified by security level and sent to facilities deemed capable of adequately incapacitating prisoners in their risk category. Technology such as electronic surveillance, electronic monitoring, urinalysis, and computer-based offender tracking systems are often used in place of humans in the penal system.
Response of McDonald's
The response from McDonald's, expressed by its representatives in the United Kingdom, is that Ritzer, like other commentators, uses the company's size and brand recognition to promote ideas that do not necessarily relate to the company's business practices.
Education
It has been argued by a westerner that an example of the phenomenon of McDonaldization can be seen in education, where there is seen to be increasing similarity between that of Western classrooms and the rest of the world. Slater argues that the class size, layout and pedagogy in Peru closely resemble that of America, with clear examples of Western culture focused on efficiency of transfer of knowledge in other parts of the world. Furthermore, Slater goes on to demonstrate that the McDonaldization of education could have many negative side effects; particularly that it does not promote inquiry or creativity. Therefore, schools will become less effective at educating children as they will fail to develop critical and creative thinkers.
According to Wong, the influence of McDonaldization has also affected Higher Education classrooms.
Efficiency – Computer graded exams limit the amount of time necessary for instructors to grade their students.
Calculability – Letter Grades and Grade Point Averages are used and calculated to measure a student's success over the course of their academic career.
Predictability – Course availability and requirements have become more standardized amongst universities, making it easier to find similar courses and content at different locations.
Control – Courses are structured very specifically and must meet certain requirements and follow certain guidelines. Courses begin and end at the same time on the same predetermined days and last for a specific number of weeks.
A study by Carroll (2013) describes how e-learning has become one of the biggest phenomena of educational literature in recent years. Although the potential promise of e-learning is often expected within the process of learning, much of the emphasis is in fact on the electronic issues to facilitate learning, with little regard for its consequences on the learning process. Consequently, this often erodes the human factor in learning – making the learning process a more isolated experience. This article suggests that academics should become more cautious with their acceptance of facilitating learning through e-learning platforms without fully understanding the impact on students learning experiences. It also explores the changing role of students in discovering, questioning, and seeking knowledge into that of ‘consumers of pre-packed education.
The McDonaldization of Education is not only limited to physical classroom settings. It is predicted by George Ritzer that MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) will make future education even more McDonaldized. While it is possible to create a new original MOOC every semester, it is more likely a basic structure will be created and subsequently altered each time in order to make their creation more efficient. Over time as the interest and quality of MOOCs increases, the same pre recorded MOOCs may be used by many different universities, creating predictable content for MOOC students. Computer graded exams will be used more frequently than written essay exams to make it more efficient for the instructors. Yet since MOOCs limit the amount of contact between student and teacher, it will be difficult to engage the course on a deeper and more meaningful level.
See also
Americanization
Cocacolonization
Cultural globalization
Disneyfication
Fast Food Nation, 2001 book
Food, Inc.
Fordism
Globalization
Golden Arches Theory of Conflict Prevention
Jihad vs. McWorld
McWords
McWorld
Super Size Me, 2004 documentary film
Walmarting
References
Ritzer, G. (2013) ‘MOOCs and the McDonaldisation of Education’ Introduction to Sociology.. http://georgeritzer.wordpress.com/2013/01/12/moocs-and-the-mcdonaldization-of-education/ (Date accessed 30 October 2013)
Slater, R.O. (1999),(trans.)‘La MacDonalizacion de la Educacion’, Educacion, Vol. 8, No. 15. http://firgoa.usc.es/drupal/node/5029 (Date accessed 30 October 2013)
Wong D. (2010),http://www.stanford.edu/group/ccr/ccrblog/2010/02/mcdonaldization_and_higher_edu.html. (Date accessed 30 October 2013)
Further reading
The McDonaldization of Society by George Ritzer ()
McDonaldization: The Reader by George Ritzer ()
The McDonaldization Thesis: Explorations and Extensions by George Ritzer ()
McCitizens by Bryan Turner ()
Resisting McDonaldization, ed. Barry Smart ()
Golden Arches East: McDonald's in East Asia by James L. Watson ()
Sociology of Consumption: Fast Food, Credit Cards and Casinos, ed. George Ritzer ()
The McDonaldization of Higher Education, ed. Dennis Hayes & Robert Wynyard ()
Enchanting a Disenchanted World by George Ritzer ()
The McDonaldization of the Church by John Drane ()
Ization
Economic globalization
McWords
1990s neologisms
Criticism of fast food
Sociological terminology
Social impact of advertising
1993 neologisms | [
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238899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Saint%20Francis%20%28Canada%29 | Lake Saint Francis (Canada) | Lake Saint Francis () is a lake which borders southeastern Ontario, southwestern Quebec and northern New York State. It is located on the Saint Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal, Quebec. The lake forms part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
The city of Salaberry-de-Valleyfield is located at the east end of the lake.
Lac Saint-François National Wildlife Area, located on the south shore of the lake, protects wetlands located on the shores of the lake. This area provides important habitat for Redhead ducks and other waterfowl. Thousands of migrating waterfowl stop over in this region. In 1987, it was recognized as a wetland of international significance under the Ramsar Convention.
The Charlottenburgh Marsh, including Cooper Marsh, is an important wetland area located on the north shore of the lake.
References
External links
St-Francis Jigger
Saint Francis
Saint Francis
Landforms of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry
Ramsar sites in Ontario
Borders of Quebec
Borders of Ontario
Canada–United States border
Tourist attractions in Montérégie
Saint Lawrence River
Le Haut-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality
Vaudreuil-Soulanges Regional County Municipality | [
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238901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo | Echo | In audio signal processing and acoustics, an echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct sound. The delay is directly proportional to the distance of the reflecting surface from the source and the listener. Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true echo is a single reflection of the sound source.
The word echo derives from the Greek ἠχώ (ēchō), itself from ἦχος (ēchos), "sound". Echo in the Greek folk story is a mountain nymph whose ability to speak was cursed, leaving her able only to repeat the last words spoken to her. Some animals use echo for location sensing and navigation, such as cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and bats.
Acoustic phenomenon
Acoustic waves are reflected by walls or other hard surfaces, such as mountains and privacy fences. The reason of reflection may be explained as a discontinuity in the propagation medium. This can be heard when the reflection returns with sufficient magnitude and delay to be perceived distinctly.
When sound, or the echo itself, is reflected multiple times from multiple surfaces, the echo is characterized as a reverberation.
The human ear cannot distinguish echo from the original direct sound if the delay is less than 1/10 of a second. The velocity of sound in dry air is approximately 343 m/s at a temperature of 25 °C. Therefore, the reflecting object must be more than from the sound source for echo to be perceived by a person located at the source. When a sound produces an echo in two seconds, the reflecting object is away. In nature, canyon walls or rock cliffs facing water are the most common natural settings for hearing echoes. The strength of echo is frequently measured in dB sound pressure level (SPL) relative to the directly transmitted wave. Echoes may be desirable (as in sonar) or undesirable (as in telephone systems).
In music
In music performance and recording, electric echo effects have been used since the 1950s. The Echoplex is a tape delay effect, first made in 1959 that recreates the sound of an acoustic echo. Designed by Mike Battle, the Echoplex set a standard for the effect in the 1960s and was used by most of the notable guitar players of the era; original Echoplexes are highly sought after. While Echoplexes were used heavily by guitar players (and the occasional bass player, such as Chuck Rainey, or trumpeter, such as Don Ellis), many recording studios also used the Echoplex. Beginning in the 1970s, Market built the solid-state Echoplex for Maestro. In the 2000s, most echo effects units use electronic or digital circuitry to recreate the echo effect.
Famous echoes
Inchindown oil tanks, current record holder for longest echo.
Hamilton Mausoleum, Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, Scotland: Its high stone means it takes 15 seconds for the sound of a slammed door to delay.
Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur, India: Any whisper, clap or sound gets echoed repeatedly.
The Golkonda Fort of Hyderabad, India
The Echo Wall at the Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China
The Whispering Gallery of St Paul's Cathedral, London, England, UK
Echo Point, the Three Sisters, Katoomba, Australia
The Temple of Kukulcan El Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico
The Baptistry of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
The echo near Milan visited by Mark Twain in The Innocents Abroad
The echo in Chinon, France which is used in a traditional local rhyme
The gazebo of Napier Museum in Trivandrum, Kerala, India
See also
Light echo
References
External links
More information on Chinon echo.
Listen to Duck echoes and an animated demonstration of how an echo is formed.
Acoustics
Audio effects | [
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238903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semmering%20railway | Semmering railway | The Semmering railway () in Austria, which starts at Gloggnitz and leads over the Semmering to Mürzzuschlag, was the first mountain railway in Europe built with a standard gauge track. It is commonly referred to as the world's first true mountain railway, given the very difficult terrain and the considerable altitude difference that was mastered during its construction. It is still fully functional as a part of the Southern Railway which is operated by the Austrian Federal Railways.
History
The Semmering railway was constructed between 1848 and 1854 by some 20,000 workers under the project's designer and director Carl von Ghega born in Venice as Carlo Ghega in an Albanian family. The construction features 14 tunnels (among them the 1,431 m summit tunnel), 16 viaducts (several two-storey) and over 100 stone arch bridges and 11 small iron bridges. The stations and the buildings for the supervisors were often built directly from the waste rock dug out when making the tunnels.
Across an overall track length of 41 km the Semmering railway overcomes an altitude difference of 460 m; on 60% of its length the gradient is 2.0-2.5% (equivalent to a 1-meter difference in altitude on a 40 m route distance) and 16% exhibit a curvature radius of only 190 m. This was an entirely new technical dimension of railway construction, and new instruments and methods of surveying had to be developed to handle the resulting challenges. Also, new technologies were employed for the Engerth locomotives because the types in general use at this time could not handle the extreme gradients and turning radii.
Even while being built, the Semmering railway was perceived as an effort of "landscape gardening", i.e. it attempted a harmonious combination of technology and nature. The unique travel experience which the Semmering railway offered contributed significantly to the original opening of the Semmering region for tourism. Numerous hotels and mansions are witnesses of this epoch. This enormous upswing to the turn of the century and the re-evaluation of the region as a winter sports area in the first third of the 20th Century were interrupted first by World War I and then by the changed recreational needs of the population. Therefore, this unique culture landscape could be preserved with little change. A trip on the Semmering railway, which is in full use 160 years after its building, still impresses the traveller as a special experience by its varied landscape, the typical style of its mansions and the characteristic sequence of viaducts and tunnels.
In 1998 the Semmering railway was added to the list of the UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Locomotives
The Semmering trials
A competition was held to decide which locomotives would be bought for operation on the Semmering Railway. One stretch of the line had gradients of 1 in 40 (2.5%) and curves with a minimum radius of and a maximum radius of . A speed of was required to be maintained and a maximum axle loading of , with a boiler pressure not exceeding .
Entrants
There were four entrants, Bavaria, built by Maffei; Neustadt built by Wiener Neustädter Lokomotivfabrik; Seraing built by Société anonyme John Cockerill in Belgium; and Vindobona built by the Locomotive Factory of Wien-Gloggnitzer Bahn in Vienna. All four locomotives fulfilled the conditions of the trial, but did not prove reliable in practice.
Developments
The Semmering Trials led to a number of developments in locomotive design: Fairlie's Patent of 1863, the Meyer locomotive and the Mallet locomotive.
Engerth design
The Engerth design articulated the tender with the main locomotive frame, allowing some of the weight of the fuel and water to be carried on the driving wheels to improve adhesion. Because the tender was articulated, rather than directly attached to the frame, the locomotive could traverse relatively sharp curves, while still enjoying the advantage of the additional adhesive weight gain. The original design also included an indirect drive from the main driving wheels to the wheels under the tender. This arrangement proved too complex to maintain and was dropped from the design.
Sixteen locomotives were supplied to the Semmering Railway between November 1853 and May 1854. They proved capable of uphill on gradients of 1 in 40 (2.5%). An Engerth locomotive was featured on an Austrian stamp commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Semmering Railway in 2004. The Engerth locomotive also appeared on a 25 Euro coin issued by Austria in 2004.
Present day
Currently, the Semmering railway uses the well-known Siemens ES64U2 locomotives for this route as the main workhorse of the ÖBB. Starting with 1963 it also uses ÖBB class 1142 locomotives, now used as banking engines on the line, and also the ÖBB Class 1144 since 1977 as banking engines and also freight/passenger engines. In 1971 this is where a SJ Rc locomotive conducted trials that put the basis of the ÖBB Class 1043.
For local trains the Bombardier Talent and ÖBB Class 4020 are used.
Semmering Base Tunnel
On April 25, 2012, ground was broken for the construction of the 27.3 km Semmering base tunnel. This tunnel will bypass 41 km of the Semmeringbahn. The tunnel is expected to open in 2024, with a total cost of €3.1b.
The Railway in numismatics
The Semmering alpine railway has been the main motive for many collector coins and medals. One of the most famous and recent ones is the 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway Coin. The obverse shows two locomotives: a historical and a modern one. The reverse of the coin shows a typical Semmering view. An Engerth steam locomotive just emerged from a tunnel crossing one of the distinctive viaducts.
The 1967 Austrian schilling note features the engineer on one side, and a Semmering scene (including one of the distinctive two-tier bridges) on the other.
See also
Culture of Austria
List of World Heritage Sites in Austria
References
External links
Pictures from the Semmering railway
World Heritage Site Semmering Railway
SÜDBAHN museum in Mürzzuschlag
Lower Austria
Styria
Bruck-Mürzzuschlag District
Neunkirchen District, Austria
World Heritage Sites in Austria
Railway lines in Austria
Railway lines opened in 1854 | [
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238906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues%20Brothers%202000 | Blues Brothers 2000 | Blues Brothers 2000 is a 1998 American musical comedy film which is a sequel to the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, written and produced by John Landis and Dan Aykroyd. Directed by Landis, the film stars Aykroyd and John Goodman, with cameo appearances by various musicians. The film is dedicated to John Belushi, Cab Calloway, and John Candy, cast members from the original film who had died prior to the sequel's production, as well as Junior Wells, who died one month before it was released. Unlike the first film, Blues Brothers 2000 received generally mixed reviews, and was a box-office bomb, grossing around $14 million on a budget of $30 million.
Plot
Elwood Blues is released from prison after serving eighteen years for the events of the previous film and stands outside waiting for his brother "Joliet" Jake Blues for 24 hours before the warden realizes that nobody has informed Elwood that his brother has died. As the warden informs Elwood of the tragic news, he is picked up by Matara, a dancer who works for the Blues Brothers' former drummer Willie Hall, who now runs a nightclub. Willie hires Elwood to help him recover.
Before meeting up with Willie, Elwood asks to be dropped off to see his surrogate mother figure, nun Mother Mary "The Penguin" Stigmata, who is now working at a hospital after the St Helen of the Blessed Shroud Orphanage, where Jake and Elwood were raised, closed, despite Jake and Elwood supposedly saving it. She informs him that Curtis, his surrogate father, has also died, but that he had years ago fathered an illegitimate son, Cabel Chamberlain, who is now an Illinois State Police commander. She also introduces Elwood to a ten-year-old orphan, Buster, and encourages him to mentor the boy.
Against Stigmata's advice, Elwood tracks down Cabel at the police headquarters, to inform him of his real father, and to ask him to join The Blues Brothers Band, which he plans on reforming. Cabel, upset by the news about his paternity and offended by the suggestion to join him after learning of Elwood's and Jake's criminal history, throws him out of the building, but Buster steals his wallet, containing enough money for Elwood to purchase a new Bluesmobile at a police surplus lot - similar to its predecessor, the new Bluesmobile is a police car, this one a 1990 Ford "Crown Vic".
Elwood and Buster begin tracking down members of the former band to recruit them from their current jobs. Willie joins after the Russian mafia burns down his strip club, but not before Elwood enlists the help of Willie's barman, "Mighty" Mack McTeer, to try to convince them to leave the club alone; Mack becomes the band's new lead singer. Two other members, Matt "Guitar" Murphy and "Blue" Lou Marini, join again against the advice of Murphy's wife, with whom they now run a Mercedes-Benz car dealership. Three members (Steve "The Colonel" Cropper, Donald "Duck" Dunn and Tom "Bones" Malone) work at a radio station and quickly agree to join, Alan "Mr Fabulous" Rubin (currently a funeral director) is forced to join against his will after Elwood again insults the Russian mafia (for whom Mr Fabulous has organized a funeral), and finally Murphy Dunne joins after his boss at a call center gives him permission.
The newly reformed band uses their old agent, Maury Sline, to book them a show. En route to the show, Cabel and the Illinois and Indiana state police services follow them, now looking for Elwood for stealing Cabel's wallet earlier, and believing that he has kidnapped Buster. Later on, even the FBI joins the chase. While avoiding a police roadblock that now includes Kentucky State Police units, Elwood interrupts a white supremacist militia group meeting, unintentionally destroying their boat full of explosives they planned to use. The band arrives at the show to find they have been mistakenly booked as a Bluegrass Band, but they perform anyway. Afterwards, they evade capture by the police and an assassination attempt by the Russians. However, en route to the next concert, the Bluesmobile runs out of fuel and the band threatens to quit, with Elwood acknowledging defeat. Buster inspires Elwood to give an impassioned speech defending blues music, and the band relents, accompanying him again - save Blue Lou, who, in a rare show of intelligence, goes to refuel the Bluesmobile.
The police, now with the Indiana and Illinois state troopers replaced by the Mississippi Highway Patrol, Kentucky State Police, and including Sharkey County deputies along with the FBI, catch up with the band at a tent revival, where Elwood's old friend, Reverend Cleophus James, is preaching. Before Cabel can arrest them, he has an epiphany brought on by Reverend Cleophus that he should join the band instead of being a police officer - and magically trades in his police uniform for a Blues Brothers black suit, black hat and sunglasses. The band evades capture once more, now with Cabel joining them, although his fellow police officers believe that the band members have brainwashed him. The Bluesmobile escapes through a construction zone, leaving the massive group of pursuing county, state, and federal patrol cars to end up in a massive pileup.
The band proceeds to their next booking, a tryout for a Battle of the Bands put on by Queen Mousette, allegedly a 130-year-old extremely powerful cannibalistic voodoo witch. Mousette requests the band play "something Caribbean", and when Elwood explains they don't play that kind of music, she casts a spell on them to play anyway. She accepts the band; however, when the song ends, Elwood, Mack, and Cabel are turned into hollow plastic statues, forcing the band to stay overnight.
At the show, Mousette undoes the spell to allow the Blues Brothers band to play against the Louisiana Gator Boys; a supergroup of blues musicians, one of whom is Malvern Gasperone, who sold Elwood the Bluesmobile. The Louisiana Gator Boys win the battle. After the battle, both the Russian mafia and the militia group arrive and interrupt the show, but Mousette turns both groups into rats when they threaten a shootout. The police arrive, but stand down after Cabel informs them that he is all right and with the band by choice. Elwood suggests that the two bands jam together on stage, which they do, and when Stigmata arrives, he uses the performance as cover to say goodbye to Cabel and Mack and escape with Buster, with the police chasing them.
Cast and characters
Bands and musical guests
The Blues Brothers Band
Dan Aykroyd as Elwood J. Blues – harmonica and vocals
John Goodman as "Mighty" Mack McTeer – lead vocals
Joe Morton as Commander Cabel Chamberlain / Cab Blues – vocals
J. Evan Bonifant as Buster "Scribbles" Blues – vocals and harmonica (harmonica recorded by John Popper)
Steve Cropper as Steve "The Colonel" Cropper – rhythm guitar and vocals
Donald "Duck" Dunn – bass guitar
Murphy Dunne – keyboards
Willie Hall as Willie "Too Big" Hall – drums and percussion
Tom Malone as Tom "Bones" Malone – trombone, tenor saxophone and vocals
Lou Marini as "Blue" Lou Marini – alto saxophone and tenor saxophone and vocals
Matt Murphy – lead guitar
Alan Rubin as Alan "Mr. Fabulous" Rubin – trumpet, percussion and vocals
Musical guests
Erykah Badu as Queen Moussette
Blues Traveler as Themselves
Lonnie Brooks as Himself
Eddie Floyd as Ed
Aretha Franklin as Mrs. Murphy
James Brown as Reverend Cleophus James
Jonny Lang as Janitor
Sam Moore as Reverend Morris
Wilson Pickett as Mr. Pickett
Junior Wells as Himself
The Louisiana Gator Boys
The Louisiana Gator Boys is a blues supergroup created for the film. They face The Blues Brothers in a Battle of the Bands. The band is composed of:
Jeff "Skunk" Baxter – guitar
Gary U.S. Bonds – vocals
Eric Clapton – vocals and guitar
Clarence Clemons – vocals, tenor saxophone and tambourine
Jack DeJohnette – drums
Bo Diddley – vocals and guitar
Jon Faddis – trumpet
Isaac Hayes – vocals
Dr. John – vocals and piano
B.B. King as Malvern Gasperone – vocals and guitar
Tommy "Pipes" McDonnell – vocals
Charlie Musselwhite – vocals and harmonica
Billy Preston – vocals and synthesizer
Lou Rawls – vocals
Joshua Redman – tenor saxophone
Paul Shaffer as Marco / Himself – keyboards
Koko Taylor – vocals
Travis Tritt – vocals and guitar
Jimmie Vaughan – vocals and guitar
Grover Washington Jr. – baritone saxophone
Willie Weeks – bass guitar
Steve Winwood – vocals and organ
Kathleen Freeman, Frank Oz, Steve Lawrence, Jeff Morris, Aretha Franklin and James Brown appeared in cameos, all reprising their roles from The Blues Brothers film. Nia Peeples portrays a state police lieutenant who serves as Cabel's second-in-command, Darrell Hammond as Robertson the militia leader, John Lyons as a Russian thug, and Paul Shaffer as Marco, Queen Moussette's majordomo. The film is dedicated to John Belushi, Cab Calloway, and John Candy, cast members from the original film who had died prior to the sequel's production.
Production
Blues Brothers 2000 made it into the Guinness Book of Records for the biggest car pile-up, a record previously held by the original film. 63 cars were used in the scene after Elwood says to the band, "Don't look back." Inevitably, everyone looks back and sees the massive pile-up. Portions of this scene were filmed in Niagara Falls, Ontario.
The movie held the record for Most Cars Destroyed in the course of production for nine years at 104, one more than was wrecked in The Blues Brothers, until G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra surpassed it in 2009 with 112 cars destroyed.
Casting
The film was originally intended to include Brother Zee Blues (Jim Belushi, brother of John Belushi). But due to an already existing television deal (Belushi had been cast in the ABC drama Total Security), Belushi was unable to appear and the script was altered to include Cab Blues (Joe Morton). This character was named Cabel as an homage to Cab Calloway, who died four years prior to the film's release. (His character Curtis was revealed to have died in the film along with Jake.)
The Blues Brothers' original keyboardist, Paul Shaffer, had been committed to Gilda Radner's one-woman show on Broadway and was therefore unable to appear in the first film. He was replaced by actor-musician Murphy Dunne. Shaffer does appear in Blues Brothers 2000, taking a week off from Late Show with David Letterman to film his role as Queen Moussette's majordomo and emcee of the Battle of the Bands (Warren Zevon took his place that week on Letterman's show). Shaffer shaved his head for the role, a change in appearance he chose to retain permanently.
During the "Funky Nassau" number, Shaffer, in his character of "Marco," asks to cut in on keyboards, which Murph allows.
Release
Blues Brothers 2000 was screened out of competition at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
Box office
The film grossed a little over $14 million in box office sales in North America.
Critical reception
The film received mixed reviews, averaging a 46% positive rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews, and a critical consensus that reads "Braving onward without the late John Belushi, Blues Brothers 2000 gets the band back together with a spirited soundtrack, but a mission that's far less divine". It earned a D score from Entertainment Weekly. Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars, saying, "The film is lame comedy surrounded by high-energy blues (and some pop, rock and country music)."
Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B-" on an A+ to F scale.
Video game
A Blues Brothers 2000 video game was released for the Nintendo 64 on November 17, 2000, two years after the film's release. The plot of the game involves Elwood as the main character going through different chapters and levels while trying to save the kidnapped members of the band one by one. Like the film on which it based, it was poorly received.
Soundtrack
References
External links
The Blues Brothers
1998 films
1990s English-language films
1990s action films
1990s buddy films
1990s musical comedy films
1990s road movies
1990s musical films
American films
American action comedy films
American buddy films
American musical comedy films
American road movies
American sequel films
Films about musical groups
Films directed by John Landis
Films set in Chicago
Films set in Louisiana
Films shot in Chicago
Nuns in fiction
Saturday Night Live films
Saturday Night Live in the 1990s
Films with screenplays by Dan Aykroyd
Films with screenplays by John Landis
Universal Pictures films
Films produced by John Landis
1998 comedy films | [
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238907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Callinicum | Battle of Callinicum | The Battle of Callinicum took place on Easter Saturday, 19 April 531 AD, between the armies of the Byzantine Empire under Belisarius and a Sasanian cavalry force under Azarethes. After a defeat at the Battle of Dara, the Sasanians moved to invade Syria in an attempt to turn the tide of the war. Belisarius' rapid response foiled the plan, and his troops pushed the Persians to the edge of Syria through maneuvering before forcing a battle in which the Sasanians proved to be the pyrrhic victors.
Prelude
In April 531 AD, the Persian king Kavadh I sent an army under Azarethes, consisting of a cavalry force numbering about 15,000 Aswaran with an additional group of 5,000 Lakhmid Arab cavalry under Al-Mundhir, to start a campaign, this time not through the heavily fortified frontier cities of Mesopotamia, but through the less conventional but also less defended route in Commagene in order to capture Syrian cities like Antioch.
The Persian army crossed the frontier at Circesium on the Euphrates and marched north. As they neared Callinicum, Belisarius, who commanded the Byzantine army, set out to follow them as they advanced westwards. Belisarius' forces consisted of about 5,000 men and another 3,000 Ghassanid Arab allies, for the remainder of his army had been left to secure Dara. The Byzantines finally blocked the Persian advance at Chalcis, where reinforcements under Hermogenes also arrived, bringing the Byzantine force to some 20,000 men. The Persians were forced to withdraw, and the Byzantines followed them east.
The battle would occur on Easter Sunday, and the convention at the time was to fast on the day and well into the night. Due to this, if Belisarius were to give battle he would have to fight using inevitably hungry troops. Azarethes sent a message to Belisarius asking to honor the fast for the sake of the Christians and Jews in his army, as well as the Christian forces of Belisarius himself. Belisarius was willing to agree and originally intended to drive off the Persians without a risky battle. The Byzantine troops, however, were restless and anxious, and had become over-confident after their recent victories at Dara and Stala, and clamored for battle. After failing to convince his men, and realizing they would not fight, and possibly mutiny unless he agreed, Belisarius prepared his force for battle.
Deployment
Belisarius anchored his left flank, composed of the Byzantine infantry under command of Jusitinian's bodyguard Peter, on the Euphrates. His center was composed of his cavalry. The right flank was composed of the Ghasanid cavalry. Unlike his deployment at Dara (530), he concentrated his best cavalry in the center and infantry on the wings, possibly because he anticipated the infantry and Ghassanid cavalry could flee.
Azarethes's deployment was similar; his left flank was composed of Lakhmid cavalry under al-Mundhir and corresponded to the Ghassanid section of his opposing force, while his own cavalry was in the center.
The two armies met outside Callinicum on 19 April 531 AD. Both armies formed up differently, Belisarius again choosing an "odd" formation that confused the opposing general. In this case he anchored his left flank on the bank of the river with heavy Byzantine infantry, to their right the army's centre, all of the Byzantine cavalry, many of which were cataphracts under the command of Ascan. Linking the centre to the Byzantine right was a detachment of Lycaonian and/or Isaurian infantry (under Stephanacius and Longinus), positioned such that their right was anchored on a rising slope occupied by the army's right wing, which consisted of the 5,000 Ghassanid allies. Belisarius himself took up position in the centre of his deployment.
Āzārethes, who was an "exceptionally able warrior" according to Byzantine historian and chronicler Procopius, chose a much more conventional deployment by dividing his army into three equal parts with the Lakhmid allies under Al-Mundhir's command constituting the left wing such that they corresponded to the Ghassanid section of the Byzantine army. It is possible that he also held an elite tactical reserve behind his divisions of Persian Savārān.
Battle
The battle began with extensive exchange of arrow shots, with Procopius noting the rapidness of the Persian archery. This difference in archery is also mentioned Strategikon of Maurice, who advises to close in with the Persians without any delay. This, combined with a westerly wind, caused the Byzantine side to suffer more casualties at this stage. According to Ian Hughes, however, the casualties were balanced due to the greater penetrative force of Byzantine archery.
Later, after "two-thirds of the day" had elapsed, Azarethes found a weak spot in the Byzantine force and redeployed some of his cavalry to his left wing; this was a similar tactic used at Dara (530), where the Persians tried to find a weak spot and overwhelm it by creating local superiority in that spot. This maneuver was unobserved by Belisarius and proved to be a turning point. The Ghassanids were routed off the field with such ease as to later inspire accusations of treachery. This exposed the right flank of the Lycaonian infantry, who were no match for the Persian cavalry and were routed, while their commanders were killed. Ascan's heavy cavalry was now exposed and showed some resistance, but he was killed and his force was defeated too.
The Persian cavalry and their Lakhmid allies were now placed upon the rising ground looking down on the rest of the Byzantine force. As the rest of the Byzantine cavalry fled and Belisarius failed to reform his line, the Byzantine infantrymen found themselves pressed against the river. The formed a U-shaped phoulkon (fulcum) formation to defend against the missile attacks, with the top of the "U" being closed by the river and foot-archers at the center of the "U" firing supporting arrow shots at the attacking forces, withstanding the Persian attacks until nightfall when they safely escaped across the river to Callinicum. Apparently, repeated charges by the Persian cavalry did not result in much more than mounting casualties on both sides.
The primary sources reporting this phase of the battle are confusing. According to Procopius, Belisarius dismounted and fought alongside the infantry until nightfall, while Malalas reports that Belisarius had fled using a boat earlier, while Sunnicas and Simmas dismounted and fought alongside the infantry. According to Hughes argues the latter to be more probable.
Zacharias of Mytilene said of the battle: "[The Romans] turned and fled before the Persian attack. Many fell into the Euphrates and were drowned, and others were killed." However, it is unknown what stage of the battle Zachariah was referring to.
The factuality of Procopius's description of the events in this battle has been questioned. Both Procopius and Malalas provide a detailed description of the events, but their emphasis is different: Procopius emphasizes Belisarius' success in preventing a rout and the losses in Sasanian forces, while Malalas emphasizes Belisarius' early fleeing from the battlefield, noting that the successful prevention of the rout was led by Sunicas and Simmas. Both accounts agree on the poor performance of the Lycoaninan infantry and possible treachery on part of the Ghassanids.
Aftermath
The Byzantine defeat wiped out the benefits of the victory at Dara (530) and gave the initiative once again to the Persians. The strategic outcome of the battle was something of a stalemate; the Byzantine army had lost many soldiers and would not be in fighting condition again for months, but the Persian army had also taken such heavy losses that it was useless for its original purpose, the invasion of Syria.
Following the battle, an inquiry against Belisarius was held under Constantoilus due to the defeats at Thannuris and Callinicum. Belisarius blamed the troops for their impetuous urge to engage in battle in Callinicum and thus was cleared from the blame, but was recalled from his position of magister militum per Orientem and was recalled by Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople.
Emperor Kavadh I removed General Āzārethes from command and stripped him of his honors, as the casualties were high.
This mutual disaster was the first of Emperor Justinian's series of (relatively) unsuccessful wars against Sassanids, which led Byzantium to pay heavy tributes in exchange for a peace treaty and the remaining Byzantine land still in Persian hands.
Callinicum ended the first of Belisarius' Persian campaigns, returning all of the land lost to them to Byzantine rule under Justinian I in the Eternal Peace agreement signed in summer 532 AD.
See also
Iberian War
References
Sources
531
Callincum 531
Callincum 531
Callinicum
530s in the Byzantine Empire
6th century in Iran
Raqqa
Callincum 531
Callincum 531
Iberian War | [
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238908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20balloon | Water balloon | A water balloon or water bomb is a balloon, often made of latex rubber, filled with water. Water balloons are used in a summer pastime of cooling off through water balloon fights. Water balloons are also popular for celebrations, including celebrating Holi and Carnival in India, Nepal, and several other countries.
Types
Water balloons are common in sizes from though larger sizes are available. Typically water balloons are sold in quantity and often include a filling nozzle in the packaging. Many of the low cost brands use small water balloons and generic nozzles which both tend to be difficult to use.
Another form of water bomb is a sheet of paper folded to form a container capable of holding water. These are then filled and used in a similar way to latex versions.
Gas balloons (air or helium types) may be used as water balloons, but are not typically preferred because the balloon wall thickness is different. A water balloon is designed to be filled up to the approximate size of a baseball in a pear shape (so as to be thrown more easily), whereas some gas balloons, when filled with water, may reach the size of a basketball; this is disadvantageous because those balloons are harder to handle, usually requiring two hands. Mainly for safety reasons, water balloon walls are designed to be thick enough to be held without bursting yet thin enough to burst upon impact.
In a similar process to gas balloons, water balloons may be molded into various shapes at manufacturing. One process involves a patented mandrel for making elastomeric articles.
Filling and tying devices
Water balloons are typically filled at an indoor faucet, an outside tap, or at the end of a garden hose. Multiple types of filling nozzles are available on the consumer market and come in threaded ( standard in the U.S.) and non-threaded types. Non-threaded nozzles are called filling funnels and may be difficult to use. Some brands of nozzles are called loader instead of nozzle, but no differentiation exists between other types of nozzles. Nozzles may include a valve feature for turning the water source on or off as needed.
Homemade water balloon filling stations may incorporate water balloon nozzles or valves that are on the market or use common plumbing fixtures. These stations may have one or more nozzles or valves. Portable and fixed station designs each have distinct pros and cons depending on the location of use, number of system users, and the quantity of filled water balloons needed. Multi-nozzle stations not only enable more water balloons to be filled for adults planning upcoming youth events or for preventing boredom in children upset with how challenging it may be to fill a balloon at a hose spigot, but greatly enhance group social interactions which is very important in toys for children and adult volunteers that work with children.
Multiple toy companies have created balloon tying and filling devices, enabling the user to easily fill and tie water balloons.
Environmental impact
Water balloons, like air balloons, are generally made from latex, which naturally decomposes. While there still could be some environmental impact if burst water balloons are left behind in the wild where animals might ingest them, that impact would be low. However, some air balloons are made from mylar, which does not decompose (or only extremely slowly). If mylar balloons are used as water bombs, then littering or leaving behind mylar balloons will have a much bigger environmental impact.
Yo-yo balloon
Yo-yo balloons, also known as Yo-yo Tsuris, are a common type of water balloon found at matsuri festivals in Japan. Typically small, round, and colourful, the balloons are filled to a diameter of about with air and roughly of water. The balloon is clipped or tied closed and hung from an elastic string with a finger loop tied at the end. This gives them enough weight and bounce to function as a yo-yo, earning them their name. The balloons are often won in a game (Yo-yo Tsuri or just yo-yo) where they are set floating in a tub of water. Players "fish" for the balloons with a hook at the end of a twisted paper string. As the wet paper line breaks easily, the game is often likened to goldfish scooping in terms of difficulty.
The Wii video game Ennichi no Tatsujin includes a virtual Yo-yo Tsuri game.
World record
Guinness World Records maintains a record category for largest water balloon fight. The current holder is the University of Kentucky Christian Student Fellowship, a campus ministry of the Christian churches and churches of Christ.
Gallery
See also
List of inflatable manufactured goods
References
Toy weapons
Balloons (entertainment)
Projectiles
Water Balloon
Inflatable manufactured goods
Articles containing video clips | [
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238911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimson | Crimson | Crimson is a rich, deep red color, inclining to purple.
It originally meant the color of the kermes dye produced from a scale insect, Kermes vermilio, but the name is now sometimes also used as a generic term for slightly bluish-red colors that are between red and rose. It is the national color of Nepal.
History
Crimson (NR4) is produced using the dried bodies of a scale insect, Kermes, which were gathered commercially in Mediterranean countries, where they live on the kermes oak, and sold throughout Europe. Kermes dyes have been found in burial wrappings in Anglo-Scandinavian York. They fell out of use with the introduction of cochineal, also made from scale insects, because although the dyes were comparable in quality and color intensity, it needed ten to twelve times as much kermes to produce the same effect as cochineal.
Carmine is the name given to the dye made from the dried bodies of the female cochineal, although the name crimson is sometimes applied to these dyes too. Cochineal appears to have been brought to Europe during the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniard Hernán Cortés, and the name 'carmine' is derived from the French carmin. It was first described by Pietro Andrea Mattioli in 1549. The pigment is also called cochineal after the insect from which it is made.
Alizarin (PR83) is a pigment that was first synthesized in 1868 by the German chemists Carl Gräbe and Carl Liebermann and replaced the natural pigment madder lake. Alizarin crimson is a dye bonded onto alum which is then used as a pigment and mixed with ochre, sienna and umber. It is not totally colorfast.
Etymology
The word crimson has been recorded in English since 1400, and its earlier forms include cremesin, crymysyn and cramoysin (cf. cramoisy, a crimson cloth). These were adapted via Old Spanish from the Medieval Latin cremesinus (also kermesinus or carmesinus), the dye produced from Kermes scale insects, and can be traced back to Arabic qirmiz ("red"), also borrowed in Turkic languages kırmız and many other languages, e.g. German Karmesin, Italian cremisi, French cramoisi, Portuguese carmesim, Dutch “karmozijn”, etc. (via Latin). The ultimate source may be Sanskrit कृमिज kṛmi-jā meaning "worm-made".
A shortened form of carmesinus also gave the Latin carminus, from which comes carmine.
Other cognates include the Persian ghermez "red" derived from "kermest" the red worm, Old Church Slavonic čruminu, archaic Russian чермный (čermnyj), and Serbo-Croatian crven "red". Cf. also vermilion.
Dyes
Carmine dyes, which give crimson and related red and purple colors, are based on an aluminium and calcium salt of carminic acid. Carmine lake is an aluminium or aluminium-tin lake of cochineal extract, and crimson lake is prepared by striking down an infusion of cochineal with a 5 percent solution of alum and cream of tartar. Purple lake is prepared like carmine lake with the addition of lime to produce the deep purple tone. Carmine dyes tend to fade quickly.
Carmine dyes were once widely prized in both the Americas and in Europe. They were used in paints by Michelangelo and for the crimson fabrics of the Hussars, the Turks, the British Redcoats, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
Nowadays carmine dyes are used for coloring foodstuffs, medicines and cosmetics. As a food additive in the European Union, carmine dyes are designated E120, and are also called cochineal and Natural Red 4'''. Carmine dyes are also used in some oil paints and watercolors used by artists.
In nature
The crimson tide which sometimes occurs on beaches is caused by a type of algae known as Karenia brevis.
Crimson rosellas are a subspecies of parrot that are common in Australia.
The crimson sunbird is the national bird of Singapore.
Northern cardinal
Scarlet tanager
Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) is a clover species native to Europe
Crimson glory vine (Vitis coignetiae) is a vine species native to Asia
In culture
Literature
In George R.R. Martin's series A Song of Ice and Fire, crimson is the family color of House Lannister.
There is a Space Marine chapter in Warhammer 40,000 called the "Crimson Fists", who also paint the left glove of every warrior a deep red.
In The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower by Stephen King, the principal antagonist is the Crimson King.
The Flash (Barry Allen), a DC Comics superhero, wears a red costume and runs at super-speed. He is sometimes called The Crimson Comet.
Music
"Crimson and Clover" (1968 song)
King Crimson (band)
In the Court of the Crimson King (1969)
"The Court of the Crimson King"
W.A.S.P. - The Crimson Idol (album)
Crimson white and Indigo is how jerry Garcia describes the American Flag in “standing on the moon”
Film
In Guillermo del Toro's 2015 gothic romance film Crimson Peak, the Sharpes' dilapidated mansion Allerdale Hall, which is steadily sinking into the red clay, is referred to as "Crimson Peak" due to the warm red clay seeping through the snow.
The 1952 film The Crimson Pirate starred Burt Lancaster and Nick Cravat. Set late in the 18th century, on the fictional Caribbean islands of San Pero and Cobra, where a rebellion on Cobra is underway by the mysterious "El Libre". Pirate Captain Vallo captures the King's ship carrying His Majesty's envoy.
Nobility
In Polish, karmazyn (crimson) is a synonym for a magnate, i.e., a member of the rich, high nobility as only they may wear robing dyed from the scale insect.
Religion
In scriptures of the Baháʼí Faith, crimson stands for tests and sacrifice, among other things
Food
Rhubarb is sometimes poetically referred to as crimson stalks.Rhubarb plants—the crimson stalks:
Military
The Danish hussar regiment's ceremonial uniform for enlisted, have a crimson pelisse.
A regiment of the British Army, The King's Royal Hussars still wears crimson trousers as successors to the 11th Hussars (the "Cherrypickers")
In the United States Army, crimson is the color of the Ordnance Corps.
School colors
Multiple Greek letter organizations use crimson as one of their official colors: Delta Sigma Theta (ΔΣΘ), Kappa Alpha Psi (ΚΑΨ), and Kappa Alpha Order (ΚΑ).
Crimson is the school color of several universities, including: Harvard University, University of Kansas, Indiana University, Korea University, New Mexico State University, Saint Joseph's University, Tuskegee University, University of Alabama, University of Belgrano, University of Denver, University of Mississippi, University of Nebraska at Omaha, University of Oklahoma, University of Utah, Washington State University, Worcester Polytechnic Institute and University of Talca
The daily newspaper at Harvard is The Harvard Crimson.
The daily newspaper at Alabama is called The Crimson White''.
Harvard's athletic teams are the Crimson, and those of the University of Alabama are the Crimson Tide.
Vexillology
Crimson is the national color of Nepal and forms the background of the country's flag, and it also appears on the flag of Poland.
See also
Alizarin crimson (color)
List of colors
Amaranth (color)
Ruby (color)
Scarlet
National symbols of Nepal
Red dye insects:
Armenian cochineal
Polish cochineal
References
Etymology OnLine
External links
Quaternary colors
Food additives
Organic pigments
Natural dyes
Pigments
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238913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNP%20Students | SNP Students | SNP Students (also known as the Federation of Student Nationalists) is the student wing of the Scottish National Party (SNP), representing students in Scottish higher education. It was formed in 1961 when various student organisations supportive of Scottish independence and the SNP in particular decided to join forces into a new constituent body.
Unlike Young Scots for Independence, which is the youth wing of the SNP, the group is for those in higher education and membership is not restricted by age.
The organisation has branches at most of Scotland's universities, and regularly campaigns for independence and a host of other policies across the country.
History
The organisation was formed in 1961 and key figures were Neil MacCormick and Allan Macartney who would both later become SNP members of the European Parliament. By 1975 the group had around 1,500 members in Scotland.
It has played an active part in the affairs of the SNP and is represented on the party's National Executive Committee, in the past with a representative position shared with the Young Scots for Independence, but now each organisation has its own representative. The SNP Students can send up to 15 delegates to the SNP Annual National Conference and 6 delegates to meetings of its National Council.
In the 2000 SNP leadership election the organisation supported Alex Neil who lost to John Swinney. In the two subsequent leadership campaigns the organisation did not officially endorse any candidate.
It has informal links with Plaid Ifanc, the youth wing of Plaid Cymru. Until its September 2019 conference, it was also a part of the European Free Alliance Youth.
As of November 2021, they had a membership of 5,800 people who were at colleges and universities across Scotland.
Activity
SNP Students has been very active in recent years, organising high-profile campaigns on issues such as Equal Marriage, zero-hours contracts and the stripping of charitable status from fee-paying schools.
In September 2008, during a debate at the University of Edinburgh, a student member stated that the SNP Students executive was opposed to the proposals from the SNP-led Scottish Government to raise the minimum purchase age for alcohol in off-sales from 18 to 21.
In 2012, during the SNP's policy change on NATO membership of an independent Scotland, SNP Students publicly came out in favour of retaining the anti-NATO policy, however at SNP conference the vote was lost despite SNP Students delegates voting against, and as a result the SNP is now pro-NATO.
At the SNP Students conference in 2015, they voted in favour of reintroducing rent controls in Scotland.
At the SNP Students conference in September 2019, SNP Students voted to disaffiliate from the European Free Alliance Youth, citing a fundamental disagreement with the ethos of the organisation and expressing the desire to build relationships with mainstream social democratic forces in Europe instead.
In 2019, SNP Students successfully campaigned for an end to graduation fees in Scotland, passing a resolution at the October 2019 SNP Conference calling on all universities in Scotland to abolish graduation fees.
During the COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020, SNP Students campaigned with others for the introduction of a Summer SAAS, and a No Detriment Policy at Scotland's universities.
On the 31st of December 2020 the day the Brexit transition period ended, SNP Students published a co-authored statement with the Scottish Young Liberals, Scottish Labour Students, and the Scottish Young Greens, condemning the UK Government for Brexit and calling for Scotland to continue as a member of the Erasmus+ scheme.
In the SNP's manifesto for the 2021 Holyrood Election, the SNP committed to abolishing all core curriculum charges, implementing an SNP Students policy, pushed for at the 2020 National Conference. This came into effect on the 14th of July 2021.
At its 2021 National Conference on the 25th September 2021, SNP Students unanimously passed a motion calling for the extension of free bus travel to all students at colleges and universities in Scotland.
Organisation
The organisation is run by a National Executive Committee (NEC) elected each year at the SNP Students' Annual Conference. The Committee currently comprises a Convener, Vice Convener, Secretary, Treasurer, Organiser, Equalities Officer and Communications Officer.
References
External links
Scottish National Party
Student political organizations
Student wings of political parties in Scotland
Universities in Scotland | [
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238914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaduct | Viaduct | A viaduct is a specific type of bridge that consists of a series of arches, piers or columns supporting a long elevated railway or road. Typically a viaduct connects two points of roughly equal elevation, allowing direct overpass across a wide valley, road, river, or other low-lying terrain features and obstacles. The term viaduct is derived from the Latin via meaning "road", and ducere meaning "to lead". It is a 19th-century derivation from an analogy with ancient Roman aqueducts. Like the Roman aqueducts, many early viaducts comprised a series of arches of roughly equal length.
Over land
The longest in antiquity may have been the Pont Serme which crossed wide marshes in southern France. At its longest point, it measured 2,679 meters with a width of 22 meters.
Viaducts are commonly used in many cities that are railroad hubs, such as Chicago, Atlanta, Birmingham, London and Manchester. These viaducts cross the large railroad yards that are needed for freight trains there, and also cross the multi-track railroad lines that are needed for heavy rail traffic. These viaducts provide grade separation and keep highway and city street traffic from having to be continually interrupted by the train traffic. Likewise, some viaducts carry railroads over large valleys, or they carry railroads over cities with many cross-streets and avenues.
Many viaducts over land connect points of similar height in a landscape, usually by bridging a river valley or other eroded opening in an otherwise flat area. Often such valleys had roads descending either side (with a small bridge over the river, where necessary) that become inadequate for the traffic load, necessitating a viaduct for "through" traffic. Such bridges also lend themselves for use by rail traffic, which requires straighter and flatter routes. Some viaducts have more than one deck, such that one deck has vehicular traffic and another deck carries rail traffic. One example of this is the Prince Edward Viaduct in Toronto, Canada, that carries motor traffic on the top deck as Bloor Street, and metro as the Bloor-Danforth subway line on the lower deck, over the steep Don River valley. Others were built to span settled areas, crossing over roads beneath—the reason for many viaducts in London.
Over water
Viaducts over water make use of islands or successive arches. They are often combined with other types of bridges or tunnels to cross navigable waters as viaduct sections, while less expensive to design and build than tunnels or bridges with larger spans, typically lack sufficient horizontal and vertical clearance for large ships. See the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.
The Millau Viaduct is a cable-stayed road-bridge that spans the valley of the river Tarn near Millau in southern France. It opened in 2004 and is the tallest vehicular bridge in the world, with one pier's summit at 343 metres (1,125 ft). The viaduct Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge in China was the longest bridge in the world .
Land use below viaducts
Where a viaduct is built across land rather than water, the space below the arches may be used for businesses such as car parking, vehicle repairs, light industry, bars and nightclubs. In the United Kingdom, many railway lines in urban areas have been constructed on viaducts, and so the infrastructure owner Network Rail has an extensive property portfolio in arches under viaducts. In Berlin the space under the arches of elevated subway lines (S-Bahn) is used for several different purposes, including small eateries or bars.
Past and future
Elevated expressways were built in major cities such as Boston (Central Artery), Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seoul, Tokyo and Toronto (Gardiner Expressway). Some were demolished because they were unappealing and divided the city. In other cases, viaducts were demolished because they were structurally unsafe, such as the Embarcadero Freeway in San Francisco, which was damaged following an earthquake in 1989. However, in developing nations such as Thailand, India (Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway), China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nicaragua elevated expressways have been built and more are under construction to improve traffic flow, particularly as a workaround of land shortage when built atop surface roads.
Other uses have been found for some viaducts. In Paris, France, à repurposed rail viaduct provides a garden promenade on top and workspace for artisans below. The garden promenade is called the Coulée verte René-Dumont while the workspaces in the arches below are the Viaduc des Arts. The project was inaugurated in 1993. Manhattan’s High Line, inaugurated in 2009, also uses an elevated train line as a linear urban park.
In Indonesia viaducts are used for railways in Java and also for highways such as the Jakarta Inner Ring Road. In January 2019 the Alaskan Way Viaduct in Seattle was closed and replaced with a tunnel after several decades of use due to being seismically unsafe.
See also
Causeway
Flying junction
List of bridge types
References
Bridges by structural type | [
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238919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem%2C%20Tamil%20Nadu | Salem, Tamil Nadu | Salem () () is a major city in Salem district, located on the banks of Thirumanimutharu river in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.Salem is the fifth largest urban agglomeration and metropolitan city in the state by population next to Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai and Trichy and the fifth largest city in Tamil Nadu by area covering .
History
Early period
During the 3rd century BCE, there was period of Bogar – a notable Tamil Siddhar and at that time Jainism and Buddhism arrived. Around the beginning of the common era, the existence of a culturally and economically advanced society in Salem two thousand years ago is evident from the discovery of silver coins of the Roman Emperor Tiberices Claudices Nero (37–68 CE) in Koneripatti of Salem in 1987. Later Pandya dynasty started ruling the region around Salem. Later Pallava dynasty rises in Salem. After that Mahendra Varma Pallava came to Salem and Saivite principles rise. After Mahednra Varma Pallava, Narasimha Varma Pallava came. Soon Pandya dynasty came to Salem. The Hoysala rule established in Salem and parts of few Salem remained under Pandya dynasty.
Medieval period
The city has been a part of Chola Dynasty. A mosque in the city is believed to be built by Tipu Sultan the ruler of Mysore Kingdom in the present day of Karnataka. The town and the surrounding hilly regions were part of the Chola dynasty and was part of the trade route with the Roman empire. It was later governed by Poligars, who built temples and forts in and around the city. It was part of the Vijayanagara empire before being captured by Hyder Ali during the early 18th century, after the Mysore-Madurai war. It was ceded to the British in 1768 and the area became part of the struggle between Kongu Nadu led by Dheeran Chinnamalai and the British.
Modern period
Salem became part of Salem district since independence in 1947. Salem district was the first district to be formed in India on 4 April 1792 that spread over 7,530 sq km comprising the present-day Namakkal, Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri. Alexander Reed was the collector of the Salem district from 1792 to 1799.
Until 2008, the city was part of the Salem I and Salem II assembly constituencies.
Geography and climate
Salem is located at , at an average elevation of 278 m (912 ft.). The city is surrounded by hills: Nagaramalai on the north, Jarugumalai on the south, Kanjamalai on the west, Godumalai on the east and the Shevaroy Hills on the northeast. Kariyaperumal Hill is in southwestern Salem. The Thirumanimutharu River flows through the city, dividing it in two. The fort area is the oldest part of Salem.
Location
Salem lies in the foothills of Shevaroy hills which houses the famous hill Station 'Yercaud'. It is located about northwest of Tiruchirappalli, northeast of Coimbatore, southeast of Bangalore and about southwest of the state capital, Chennai.
Water bodies
Mettur Dam is the main water resource for Salem District.
Climate
Salem has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). January and February are generally pleasant; the hot summer begins in March, with the year's highest temperatures during April. Pre-monsoon thunderstorms occur during April and May. The Southwest monsoon season lasts from June to September. The northeast monsoon occurs from October to December.
Administration and politics
Municipal corporation
Salem is the headquarters of Salem district. The town was constituted as a municipality in 1867, and was upgraded to a special-grade municipality in 1979 and to a municipal corporation on 1 April 1994. The Salem municipal corporation has 72 wards, each with an elected councillor. The functions of the municipal corporation are divided into six departments: general administration and personnel, engineering, revenue, public health, city planning and information technology (IT). All six departments are governed by a municipal commissioner. Legislative power is vested in the 60-member council, headed by an elected chairperson and assisted by a deputy chairperson.
State Assembly
In 2008, the constituencies of Salem were redrawn as Salem North, Salem South and Salem West. The city elects the three members to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. Present MLAs are R. Rajendhran (Salem North) from Desiya Murpokku Dravidar Kazhagam, Arul Ramadoss (Salem West) from Paattali Makkal Katchi and Balasubramanian (Salem South) from All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.
Parliament
The city is part of the Salem Lok Sabha constituency. The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is S. R. Parthiban from the DMK.
Law enforcement
Law and order is maintained by the Salem city subdivision of the Tamil Nadu Police, headed by a Police commissioner. Special units include prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and a district-level special branch headed by a superintendent of police.
Economy
Salem is a major textile centre in Tamil Nadu, with more than 125 spinning mills, weaving units and garment units. Until the 1960s, it had fewer spinning mills. Private handloom weaving began to increase in the region after the 1960s and during the 1980s, the textile industry expanded with major spinning mills and dyeing units established supporting the industry.
The area also houses a number of sago factories for the production starch. In Salem district, of land are devoted to cassava and 650 industrial units are engaged in tapioca processing. In 1981, the Salem Starch and Sago Manufacturers Service Industrial Co-operative Society (SAGOSERVE) was established to promote the sago industry and nearly 80 percent of the national demand for sago and starch is met by SAGOSERVE. In and around Salem cassava yields are 25–30 tons per hectare, one of the highest in the world; the national average is 19 tons per hectare, and the world average is 10 tons.
The Salem Steel Plant, a unit of the Steel Authority of India, produces cold-rolled stainless steel and a hot-rolled stainless-carbon steel alloy. The plant is being expanded and modernized, with plans for steel-melting and continuous-casting facilities. The Southern Iron and Steel Company (part of JSW Steel) have their first integrated steel plant in Salem for the production of TMT corrosion-resistant bars and alloy steels. The Salem region is rich in mineral ores, with some of the largest magnesite and bauxite deposits in India. Public and private magnesite factories include Burn Standard and Company, Dalmia Magnesites and Tata Refractories.
Salem Mango belt contributes the economy in large scale by exporting mangoes to foreign countries and supplying mangoes all over India. The Leigh Bazaar is the region's largest market for agricultural products. The Tamil Nadu government and the Electronics Corporation of Tamil Nadu are planning a IT park in the city. The Steel Authority of India is planning a steel special economic zone in its Salem plant, and an electrical and electronics industrial estate is in the Suramangalam area of the city.
Salem is also famous for its silver jewelry. Shevapet, Sivathapuram and Panangadu are the areas where the Silver Products are made in cottage industries. Salem produces World Class Artistic Silver Anklets, Toe Rings, Neck Chains, Pendents and Silverware. Salem has the presence of Multi-National Corporations, including Capgemini, First American (India) Financial Corporation (FAI), Whirlpool Warehouse, Vee Technologies, and SourceHOV LLC. The Tamil Nadu government is trying to get Hindustan Aeronautics Limited onboard to set up a manufacturing unit at Salem as the state has been chosen for establishing the Center's ambitious defense corridor project with Salem being one of the nodes.
Demographics
Salem had a population of 826,267 in the 2011 census. There were 987 females for every 1,000 males, significantly higher than the national average of 929. The main language spoken is Tamil. Kannada is spoken among Devayanga community. A total of 79,067 were under age six: 40,570 males and 38,497 females. The city's literacy rate was 76.37 percent, higher than the national average of 72.99 percent. Salem had 215,747 households and a total of 332,147 workers: 1,599 farmers, 3,040 agricultural laborers, 32,597 in household industries, 278,892 other workers, 16,019 part-time workers, 165 part-time farmers, 544 part-time agricultural workers, 1,937 part-time workers in household industries and 13,373 other part-time workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Salem had 89.79% Hindus, 7.48% Muslims, 2.36% Christians, 0.11% Jains, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.01% Buddhists, 0.2% following other religions and 0.02% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.
Religious Landmarks
Salem has a number of Hindu temples. The Kottai Mariamman Temple, dedicated to the goddess Mariamman, has an annual five-day festival during the Tamizh month of Aadi (mid-July to mid-August). The temple's gopuram is made up of seven tiers. Sugavaneshwarar Temple is dedicated to Shiva, and according to mythology the sage Sugha Brahmarishi worshiped here. Arunagirinadhar sang a song about Muruga in the temple, which was built during the 13th century by Mamannan Sundara Pandiyan. Kottai Perumal Temple, Skandhashram,
Jamia Masjid, on the southern bank of the Thirumanimutharu River in the heart of the city, is Salem's oldest mosque. It was reportedly built by the Kingdom of Mysore ruler Tipu Sultan, who is said to have prayed here. The Masjid Inam granted to the mosque in 1862 was confirmed by the British with a special resolution in 1880.
Christ Church is located on Fort Road and the church was consecrated in 1875. The other popular churches in and around the city includes Lechler Memorial Church, the oldest church in Salem, was built in 1856 by a German missionary in Fort Salem.
Shopping and recreation
Salem's traditional shopping areas are in the Town area, with major retailers in Bazaar Street, Car Street, First Agraharam and Chinna Kadai Street. Shevapet and the Fort area are noted for hardware and furniture, and Leigh Bazaar in Shevapet is the main wholesale market.
Reliance Shopping Mall, the city's largest shopping complex is situated near Five Roads. Other malls in the city are Nirmal Skywin mall and Kandaswarna Mega mall.
Kurumbapatti Zoological Park and Anna Park are government-run parks. Paravasa Ulagam and Dream Land are amusement parks in the city. Mookaneri (Kannankurichi) within the city limits is a popular tourist place and bird watching destination.
Yercaud, a major hill station in Tamil Nadu is about 20 KM from Salem City. The ghat road starts at the end of the Salem City limits. The ghat road is a picturesque spot and attracts a lot of early morning walkers and joggers. Yercaud is also a famous weekend getaway for the people of Salem and nearby districts and states.
Cuisine
Thattu vadai Set (or simply called as settu) is a savory snack and popular street food, which originated in Salem and is now available in other cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai. It is a very famous street snack available at almost every small stall set up on the streets of Salem. The sandwich consists of two crunchy thattai discs with fillings such as crispy beetroot, carrot and other vegetables smeared with green and red chutneys. Norukkal Mix, another popular snack is smashed murukku mixed with chutney, groundnut, coconut, sliced tomatoes and Chillipowder (Molagapodi). Egg Settu, Murukku Settu and Maanga Settu are the different varieties of Thattu vadai Set .
Transport
Road
Salem has six arterial roads: Omalur Road, Cherry Road, Saradha College Road, Junction Main Road, Trichy Road and Attur Road. Three National Highways originate from or pass through Salem: NH 44 (Srinagar via Madurai and Tirunelveli Kanyakumari), NH 544 (Salem – Kochi via Erode and Coimbatore and Tiruppur )and NH 79 (Salem – Ulundurpet).
Salem is the headquarters of the Salem division of TNSTC. The city has two major bus stations: the MGR Integrated Bus Terminus in Meyyanoor and the Town Bus Station (Old Bus Stand) in the town area. Intercity and interstate routes and private buses originate at the Central Bus Stand (New Bus Stand), and local buses originate at the Old Bus Stand. The Anna Flyover is the oldest in the city, and the Trumpet Interchange was built in the realignment of NH 544 to ease traffic towards Coimbatore. A new double-decker flyover runs within main city centres like New bus stand, 5 roads, saratha college road, 4 roads to ease congestion on these roads. It is the longest double-decker flyover in Tamil Nadu covering a length of 7.87 km.
The Town Bus terminus is being upgraded into a double decker bus terminus, the first of this kind in the state under the smart City scheme
. The terminal building of the New Bus terminus is also reconstructed under the smart City scheme.
A new bus port has also been proposed for the city at Jagirammapalayam near IT park with an area of about 61 acres. This includes a bypass road to connect the Ayothiapattinam area of the city with the bus port.
Other bus stands include the Omalur bus station and Attayampatti bus station in the outskirts of the city.
Rail
Salem Junction is an A-1 category ISO-14001 certified railway junction located in Suramangalam area, west of the city. In 2005, the Railway Board approved the creation of a Salem railway division from Palakkad and Tiruchirapalli divisions. It is the fourth-largest of the six Southern Railway zone divisions. Salem Railway Junction has been rated as the cleanest station among the divisional headquarters railway stations and also the ninth cleanest railway station in the entire country, according to a survey report published in June 2017. Other major railway stations catering to the city include Salem Town, Salem Market, Omalur Junction, Karuppur railway station and Ayothiapattinam railway station.
Air
Salem Airport (IATA SXV, ICAO VOSM) is located on the Salem-Bengaluru Highway (NH44) in Kaamalapuram about from the city. Airports Authority of India (AAI) opened the airport in 1993 for commercial operations. Kingfisher Airlines flew from Chennai but ended its service in October 2011 due to low occupancy. Trujet started services to Chennai in March 2018 as a part of the Udaan scheme by Government of India as well as Air Odisha gives connectivity to Bengaluru and Pondicherry from June 2018. The nearest major airports are Tiruchirappalli (152 km) and Coimbatore (148 km).
Sports
Gandhi Stadium, built originally for cricket, also hosts athletic meets, football, Volleyball and basketball. Salem District Cricket Association (SDCA) has 47 teams in league cricket. The city has 2 international standard turf grounds. The Green Valley Sports club Cricket ground is on the outskirts of Salem city. The state chief minister Edappadi K. Palaniswami inaugurated the Salem Cricket Foundation Stadium with international standards on 10 February 2020 in the presence of former cricketer Rahul Dravid and former ICC and BCCI president N. Srinivasan built at a cost of in Karivepilapatti near Vazhapadi. This newly inaugurated ground is the home ground for Salem Spartans, a TNPL team and also the second home ground for the Indian Premier League team of Chennai Super Kings.
T. Natarajan, who hails from Salem, made his international debut for the India cricket team in December 2020 He plays in the Indian Premier League for Sunrisers Hyderabad and is nicknamed as "Yorker King" for his accurate Yorkers at death overs in T20 games. In the 2020 IPL season, delivered a whopping 96 yorkers in 16 IPL matches this year. He played a major role for India to win the Dettol T20 Series 2020 in Australia.
Mariyappan Thangavelu from Salem is an Indian Paralympic high jumper. He represented India in the 2016 Summer Paralympic games held in Rio de Janeiro in the men's high jump T-42 category, winning the gold medal in the finals.
City-based teams
Education
Salem has several educational institutions with Arts and Science colleges affiliated to Periyar University founded in 1997.
The Government College of Engineering was founded in 1966.
The Government Mohan Kumaramangalam Medical College was established in 1986.
The Institute of Handloom Technology (IIHT), Salem was established in 1960 by Ministry of Textiles.
The Government Law College was opened in August 2019.
Sona College of Technology founded 1997
Vinayaka Mission's Kirupananda Variyar Engineering College founded 1987
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College founded 1958
Sister cities
Salem has one sister city:
Salem, Oregon, USA
As of 2014, there was talk of reviving the now-stagnant Sister City project launched in 1964 with Salem in Oregon, USA.
Notable people
Politics
Edappadi K. Palaniswami, Former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (Feb 2017 to May 2021).
Veerapandy S. Arumugam, served as the Minister for Rural Development and Local Administration and the Minister for Agriculture.
P. Dhanapal, Ex- Speaker for the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly.
Rangarajan Kumaramangalam, served as the Minister of State for Law, Justice and Company Affairs in the P. V. Narasimha Rao government from July 1991 to December 1993 and as the Union Minister for Power in the Vajpayee Government from 1998 to 2000.
K. Rajaram, served as the Speaker of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 1980 to 1985.
T. V. Rajeswar, Governor of Arunachal Pradesh (1983-1985), Sikkim (1985-1989), West Bengal (1989-1990), Uttar Pradesh (2004-2009).
Vazhappady K. Ramamurthy, served as minister of state for Labour with independent charge in the Congress government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao for a brief period in 1991.
T. M. Selvaganapathy, Minister of Local Administration in J.Jayalalitha Government between 1991 and 1996.
P. Subbarayan, was the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, India's ambassador to Indonesia and Union Minister of Transport and Communications in Jawaharlal Nehru's government.
Media
P. Varadarajulu Naidu, the founder of The Indian Express.
Sports
Thangarasu Natarajan, an Indian cricketer.
M. R. Srinivasaprasad, cricketer, represented Young India in Zimbabwe (1983/84).
Mariyappan Thangavelu, an Indian Paralympic high jumper, India's first Paralympian gold medalist since 2004.
P. V. Nandhidhaa, Indian Chess player, India's 17th Woman Grandmaster. Refer List of Indian chess players.
Arts, entertainment and television
Sasi, film director
S. D. Sundharam, Indian Tamil playwright, dialogue writer and lyricist.
Arivazhagan Venkatachalam, Tamil film director
Arthur A. Wilson, cinematographer
Taj Noor, music director
Satish, actor
Mathematics, Science and technology
A. R. Rao, Indian mathematician.
Tiruvadi Sambasiva Venkataraman, an Indian botanist, agronomist and plant geneticist.
Salem Day
The Salem city was formed on 1 November 1866. Salem City Municipal Council celebrated its Centenary in 1966. Fittingly the Municipality was upgraded into a special grade Municipality on 1 April 1979. The Centurion Municipality was declared as the Salem City Municipal Corporation from 1 June 1994. The date of formation of Salem city is recognised as Salem day and it is celebrated by the people all over the city. Salem city celebrates its birthday every year on the 1st of November.
See also
Salem metropolitan area
Economy of Salem, Tamil Nadu
References
External links
NIC website for Salem, Tamil Nadu
Police and prisons
Salem, Tamil Nadu
Cities and towns in Salem district
Metropolitan cities in India
Smart cities in India | [
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238920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming%20Research%20Group | Programming Research Group | The Programming Research Group (PRG) was part of the Oxford University Computing Laboratory (OUCL) in Oxford, England, along with the Numerical Analysis Group, until OUCL became the Department of Computer Science in 2011.
The PRG was founded by Christopher Strachey (1916–1975) in 1965. It was originally located at 45 Banbury Road.
After Strachey's untimely death, C.A.R. Hoare, FRS took over the leadership in 1977. The PRG ethos is summed up by the following quotation from Strachey, found and promulgated by Tony Hoare after he arrived at the PRG:
The PRG moved to 8–11 Keble Road in 1984. During the later 1980s and early 1990s, some members of the PRG were housed at 2 South Parks Road, including Joseph Goguen (who was at the PRG during 1988–1996). Tony Hoare retired in 1999 and the PRG was led by Samson Abramsky from 2000. The PRG continued until the renaming of the Oxford University Computing Laboratory to the Department of Computer Science on 1 June 2011, under the leadership of Bill Roscoe, a former member of the PRG.
The PRG was a centre of excellence in the field of formal methods, playing a leading role in the development of the Z notation (initiated by a visit of Jean-Raymond Abrial) and CSP (together with the associated Occam programming language). It won Queen's Awards with IBM and Inmos for work in this area.
References
External links
PRG website (Archive.org, 2010)
Educational institutions established in 1965
1965 establishments in England
2011 disestablishments in England
Educational institutions disestablished in 2011
Departments of the University of Oxford
Formal methods organizations
Computer science institutes in the United Kingdom
Oxford University Computing Laboratory | [
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238922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geatish%20Society | Geatish Society | The Geatish Society (Götiska Förbundet, also Gothic Union, Gothic League) was created by a number of Swedish poets and authors in 1811, as a social club for literary studies among academics in Sweden, with a view to raising the moral tone of society through contemplating Scandinavian antiquity. The society was formally dissolved in 1844, being dormant for more than 10 years.
History
In the context of contentious debate over the suitability of Norse mythology as subjects of high art, in which the strong neoclassical training of northern academies, both Swedish and Danish, furnished powerful prejudices in favor of Biblical and Classical subjects, the members of the Götiska Förbundet sought to revive Viking spirit and related matters. When in 1800 the University of Copenhagen had made the debate the subject of a competition, the Danish Romantic Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger expressed himself in favor of Norse mythology. Not only was it native, but because it had not become hackneyed and characteristically for the direction Northern European Romanticism nationalism was to take, because it was considered morally superior to Greek mythology. In 1817 Förbundet announced a competition for sculpture on Nordic themes.
The club published a magazine, Iduna, in which it printed a great deal of poetry, and expounded its views, particularly as regards the study of old Icelandic literature and history.
Swedish antiquarian Jakob Adlerbeth (1785–1844) was a leader in this organization and one of its most active members. He wrote several essays which were published in Iduna including translations of Edda and Vaulundurs saga.
The members wrote extensively on the Æsir and other parts of Norse mythology. The historical writings of Olaus Rudbeck were also revived and used for creating vivid imagery. In their poems, especially the rich illustrations, actual Norse elements would be mixed with, for instance Nordic Bronze Age, Anglo-Saxon and Viking Era elements in order to create a modern mythology of the past.
Among the most famous members were Esaias Tegnér and Erik Gustaf Geijer, both editors of Iduna. Some of their most famous poems were composed under the influence of the ideas and sentiments of the Geatish Society, notably the Frithiofs saga i form of epic verse and the shorter poem Skidbladner by Tegnér, as well as Geijer's poems Vikingen and Odalbonden. All were at least in part published in Iduna. Other well-known members were Arvid Afzelius, an editor of the ground-breaking anthology of Swedish folksong, Svenska visor från forntiden, the lyric poet Karl August Nicander, Swedish teacher Pehr Henrik Ling and Gustaf Vilhelm Gumaelius (1789–1877) author of the historical novel, Tord Bonde.
Members of the society would write extensively on the Vikings, often in a romanticized manner which described a largely heroic and noble ancient people. Members of the Geatish Society would occasionally wear horned helmets, which is the source of the myth that Vikings would have worn such helmets. In actuality, there is not evidence to suggest they ever did.
In 1844, following the death of Jakob Adlerbeth and the dissolution of the Society, part of the library accumulated by the Götiska förbundet, together with its archive, was given to the library of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities (Vitterhetsakademiens bibliotek); there the materials are maintained among the special collections.
The mythology and imagery of this movement was also very popular in the German Empire, where comparable societies were part of the "Völkisch movement". In the next century, similar themes would be taken up in Nazi Germany. To some extent they remain popular among Neo-Nazis to this day. Ideologically there seems no obvious connection, save the common concerns with sentimental patriotic interest in ethnic folklore, local history and a "back-to-the-land" anti-urbanism that are commonplaces of National Romanticism, employed as critiques of modern urban industrialism and its degenerative impact; however, Viking imagery alludes to conceptions of pristine Germanic tribes unaltered either culturally or racially by contact with non-Germanic tribes and cultures like Judaeo-Christianity. It thus provides an artistic ideal that was easily interpreted in terms of Nazi biological, cultural and political ideals. The idealized Vikings were associated with a warrior manliness that is transgressive of modern values; thus the imagery alludes to radical Nazi or pan-Germanic militarism.
See also
Swedish Romantic literature
Viking Revival
Folklore
Gothicismus
References
Sources
This article is fully or partially based on material from Nordisk familjebok, Adlerbeth, 2. Jakob 1904–1926.
Other sources
Molin, Torkel (2003) Den rätta tidens mått : Göthiska förbundet, fornforskningen och det antikvariska landskapet (Umeå Institutionen för historiska studier, Umeå univ)
Hägg, Göran (2003) Svenskhetens historia (Wahlström & Widstrand)
Algulin, Ingemar (1989) A History of Swedish Literature (Swedish Institute)
Tigerstedt, E.N. (1971) Svensk litteraturhistoria (Solna: Tryckindustri AB)
External links
Hans Kuhn, "Greek gods in Northern costumes: visual representations of Norse mythology in 19th-century Scandinavia"
Nordiska Halföns Föreningby Jakob Adlerbeth
Swedish writers' organizations | [
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238923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20and%20Maine%20Railroad | Boston and Maine Railroad | The Boston and Maine Railroad was a U.S. Class I railroad in northern New England. It became part of what is now the Pan Am Railways network in 1983.
At the end of 1970, B&M operated on of track, not including Springfield Terminal. That year it reported 2,744 million ton-miles of revenue freight and 92 million passenger-miles.
History
The Andover and Wilmington Railroad was incorporated March 15, 1833, to build a branch from the Boston and Lowell Railroad at Wilmington, Massachusetts, north to Andover, Massachusetts. The line opened to Andover on August 8, 1836. The name was changed to the Andover and Haverhill Railroad on April 18, 1837, reflecting plans to build further to Haverhill, Massachusetts (opened later that year), and yet further to Portland, Maine, with renaming to the Boston and Portland Railroad on April 3, 1839, opening to the New Hampshire state line in 1840.
The Boston and Maine Railroad was chartered in New Hampshire on June 27, 1835, and the Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts Railroad was incorporated March 12, 1839, in Maine, both companies continuing the proposed line to South Berwick, Maine. The railroad opened in 1840 to Exeter, New Hampshire, and on January 1, 1842, the two companies merged with the Boston and Portland to form a new Boston and Maine Railroad.
On February 23, 1843, the B&M opened to Agamenticus, on the line of the Portland, Saco and Portsmouth Railroad in South Berwick. On January 28 of that year, the B&M and Eastern Railroad came to an agreement to both lease the PS&P as a joint line to Portland.
The Boston and Maine Railroad Extension was incorporated on March 16, 1844, due to a dispute with the Boston and Lowell Railroad over trackage rights rates between Wilmington and Boston. That company was merged into the main B&M on March 19, 1845, and opened on July 1, leading to the abandonment of the old connection to the B&L (later reused by the B&L for its Wildcat Branch). In 1848, another original section was abandoned, as a new alignment was built from Wilmington north to North Andover, Massachusetts in order to better serve Lawrence, Massachusetts.
A new alignment to Portland opened in 1873, splitting from the old route at South Berwick, Maine. The old route was later abandoned. This completed the B&M "main line", which would become known as the Western Route to distinguish it from the Eastern Route (described below), which also connected Boston and Portland.
Acquisitions
As the B&M grew, it also gained control of former rivals, including:
Eastern
On March 28, 1883, the boards of directors of B&M and the Eastern Railroad Company voted to ratify the proposition that Eastern Railroad would be leased by B&M. However, a disagreement about the wording of the contract delayed its execution until December 2, 1884. On May 9, 1890, B&M purchased Eastern Railroad outright. This provided a second route to Maine, ending competition along the immediate route between Boston and Portland. Along with the Eastern, the B&M also acquired many branch lines, including the Conway Branch, the Saugus Branch, the South Reading Branch, and branches to Marblehead and Rockport, Massachusetts.
Worcester, Nashua and Portland
The Worcester and Nashua Railroad was organized in 1845 (opened 1848) and the Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1847, forming a line between Worcester, Massachusetts, and Rochester, New Hampshire, via Nashua. The W&N leased the N&R in 1874, and the two companies merged into the Worcester, Nashua and Rochester Railroad in 1883. The B&M leased the line on January 1, 1886. This acquisition also included the continuation from Rochester to Portland, Maine, incorporated in 1846 as the York and Cumberland Railroad. It opened partially in 1851 and 1853, was reorganized as the Portland and Rochester Railroad in 1867, and opened the rest of the way in 1871. It was again reorganized in 1881 and then operated in conjunction with the line to Worcester.
Boston and Lowell
On April 1, 1887, the B&M leased the Boston and Lowell Railroad, adding not only trackage in the Boston area, but also the Central Massachusetts Railroad west to Northampton, the Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad into northern New Hampshire, the St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad to northwestern Vermont, and the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad from White River Junction into Quebec. However, the BC&M was separated in 1889 and merged with the Concord Railroad to form the Concord and Montreal Railroad, which the B&M leased on April 1, 1895, gaining the Concord Railroad's direct line between Nashua and Concord. Additionally, the St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlain Railroad, owned by the B&M through stock, was leased to the Maine Central Railroad by 1912. The Central Massachusetts Railroad stayed a part of the B&M, as did the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad (as the Passumpsic Division).
Northern
The Northern Railroad was leased to the Boston and Lowell in 1884, but that lease was canceled and the Northern was on its own until 1890, when it was re-leased to the B&L, then part of the B&M. The Northern owned a number of lines running west from Concord.
Connecticut River
On January 1, 1893, the B&M leased the Connecticut River Railroad, with the main line from Springfield, Massachusetts north along the Connecticut River to White River Junction, Vermont, where the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad (acquired in 1887) continued north. Along with this railroad came the Ashuelot Railroad, which had been acquired in 1877.
Concord and Montreal
The B&M acquired the Boston, Concord and Montreal Railroad in 1887, but gave it up in 1889, allowing it to merge with the Concord Railroad to form the Concord and Montreal Railroad. That company did poorly on its own and was leased by the B&M on April 1, 1895, giving the B&M the majority of lines in New Hampshire.
Fitchburg
The B&M leased the Fitchburg Railroad on July 1, 1900. This was primarily the main line from Boston west via the Hoosac Tunnel to the Albany, New York, area, with various branches. On December 1, 1919, the B&M purchased the Fitchburg Railroad.
At one point, the B&M also owned a majority of stock of the Maine Central Railroad, stretching from Quebec via northern New Hampshire to southern and eastern Maine.
20th century
The B&M flourished with the growth of New England's mill towns in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but still faced financial struggles. It came under the control of J. P. Morgan and his New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad around 1910, but anti-trust forces wrested control back. Later, it faced heavy debt problems from track construction and from the cost of acquiring the Fitchburg Railroad, causing a corporate reorganization in 1919.
Beginning in the 1930s, freight business was hurt by the leveling-off of New England manufacturing growth and by new competition from trucking. In 1925, B&M reported 2.956 million net ton-miles of revenue freight and 740 million passenger-miles; at the end of the year it operated 2291 route-miles, including "42.85 miles of electric street railway". (Those totals do not include B&C, M&WR, StJ&LC or YH&B.)
The B&M's most traveled and well known passenger trains included the Alouette, Ambassador, Cheshire, Day White Mountains, East Wind, Green Mountain Flyer, Gull, Kennebec, Minute Man, Montrealer/Washingtonian, Mountaineer, Pine Tree, Red Wing, and State of Maine. However, the popularization of the automobile doomed B&M as a passenger carrier.
Passenger service cuts
After steady growth from 1901 to 1913, passenger rail ridership around Boston peaked in 1920 and began to decline due to competition from private automobiles and service cuts during World War I. In the mid-1920s, after several difficult years, the B&M discontinued service on some marginal lines and began using small self-propelled railcars on others. A second round of discontinuances occurred from 1931 to 1936 as the Great Depression reduced traffic. Ridership sharply increased during World War II; the B&M had a slower postwar decline than its contemporaries, though major frequency reductions occurred in 1949-50. The B&M began testing Budd Rail Diesel Cars (RDCs) in 1952; in 1954, the railroad decided to switch all commuter service to RDCs to cut costs.
Discontinuances in the 1920s and 1930s primarily affected minor branches and rural intercity routes, but the 1950s saw the loss of more significant intercity routes. September, 1952 saw the first cut to the four main intercity mainlines, as Eastern Route service was cut from Portland, Maine to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. (Portland continued to see service to Boston on the Western Route through Dover, New Hampshire.) The New York–Montreal Green Mountain Flyer/Mount Royal, which had Boston sections running on the B&M via Bellows Falls, ended when the Rutland Railroad discontinued all passenger service, in 1953. The northern section of the Boston–Wells River, Vermont route ended in 1954 (thus ending connections to Quebec City), as did Manchester–Portsmouth service. Concord–Claremont Junction service ended in 1955, and the Boston section of the Ambassador was reduced to a Boston–White River Junction RDC connecting train in 1956. Fitchburg mainline service was trimmed from Troy, New York, to Williamstown, Massachusetts, in January 1958, and discontinued soon afterward.
The B&M became unprofitable in 1958 and moved to shed its money-losing passenger operations. On May 18, 1958, the B&M severely reduced Boston commuter service. The Maynard Branch, Saugus Branch, Essex Branch, and Stoneham Branch were cut, and the Central Mass Branch was cut from Clinton to Hudson. Almost all inner-suburb commuter stations within the MTA transit district were closed. Intercity service to Bellows Falls, Vermont and Brattleboro, Vermont (the Cheshire) via the Cheshire Branch was also cut. Service was trimmed again from Williamstown to Greenfield on December 30, 1958, and cut to on April 23, 1960. Further cuts on June 14, 1959 terminated the Swampscott Branch, Marblehead Branch, Danvers Branch, and the north half of the Woburn Loop. The State of Maine Express - the last through service between New York City and Maine - and the Boston–Halifax Gull were discontinued in 1960. Long rural lines to North Conway and Berlin, New Hampshire were cut on December 3, 1961. By 1962, the B&M was preparing ICC applications to discontinue all remaining service.
After the major cuts by the B&M and the New Haven Railroad in the late 1950s, public opinion in Massachusetts began to favor supporting Boston commuter service to prevent it from being cut entirely. From January, 1963 to March, 1964, the state Mass Transportation Commission funded an experiment testing various fares and service levels on the two railroads. On August 3, 1964, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) was formed (as an expansion of the MTA funding district) to subsidize suburban commuter rail operations. In December, 1964, the MBTA and B&M reached an agreement for the MBTA to subsidize in-district service (within about of Boston) should the ICC applications be approved. Municipalities outside the MBTA district could directly subsidize continued service.
After approval of the applications, the B&M discontinued most interstate service on January 4, 1965. Service via Concord to Laconia, New Hampshire and to Montreal via White River Junction ended, though a single Boston–Concord round trip remained. Western Route service to Portland and Eastern Route service to Portsmouth were discontinued; single Boston–Dover and Boston– round trips were retained. On January 18, 1965, commuter service was cut to the MBTA district and subsidies began. Fitchburg Route service was cut to West Concord; New Hampshire Route and Western Route service to Wilmington, save for the Concord and Dover trip; Eastern Route service to and Wenham except for the Newburyport trip; and Central Mass service to . After out-of-district communities agreed to subsidies, service was re-extended to , , , and on June 28.
The Montrealer was discontinued in September, 1966; local service on the Connecticut River Line lasted until the end of that year. On June 30, 1967, the Concord trip was cut to Lowell, and the Dover trip to . The four routes with single daily round-trips slowly ended: South Sudbury on November 26, 1971; Newburyport in April 1976; Haverhill in June 1976; and Bedford on January 10, 1977. (However, Haverhill service was restored by MVRTA subsidy in 1979.) On December 27, 1976, the MBTA bought all B&M commuter equipment, as well as most of the B&M's trackage on Boston's northside (including several abandoned lines). On March 12, 1977, the B&M also won the contract for the southside commuter rail lines that had once been part of the New Haven and B&A: the first time that Boston's commuter rail system had been operated by a single entity. The B&M operated the whole MBTA Commuter Rail system under contract to the MBTA until 1987. The final B&M line to lose passenger service was the Woburn Branch (former Woburn Loop), which was cut on January 30, 1981, due to poor track quality. Under public control, commuter rail service has returned to several lines cut by the B&M, and Portland intercity service returned with the Amtrak Downeaster, in 2001.
Regrowth
The B&M filed for bankruptcy in December, 1970. During bankruptcy the B&M reorganized. It rebuilt its existing fleet of locomotives, leased new locomotives and rolling stock and secured funds for upgrading its track and signal systems.
For much of the 1970s, the Boston and Maine limped along. In 1973 and 1974 the B&M was on the brink of liquidation. The B&M was offered the opportunity to merge its properties into the new Conrail in 1976, but opted out.
By 1980, though still a sick company, the B&M started turning-around thanks to aggressive marketing and its purchase of a cluster of branch lines in Connecticut. The addition of coal traffic and piggyback service also helped. In 1983, the B&M emerged from bankruptcy when it was purchased by Timothy Mellon's Guilford Transportation Industries for $24 million. This was the beginning of the end of the Boston & Maine corporate image, and the start of major changes, such as new labor issues which caused the strikes of 1986 and 1987, and drastic cost-cutting such as the 1990 closure of B&M's Mechanicville, New York, site: the largest rail yard and shop facilities on the B&M system.
21st century
Guilford Rail System changed its name to Pan Am Railways in 2006. Technically, Boston & Maine Corporation still exists today but only as a non-operating ward of PAR. Boston & Maine owns the property (and also employs its own railroad police), while Springfield Terminal Railway, a B&M subsidiary created by owner Timothy Mellon to break the unions' higher wage scales, operates the trains and performs maintenance. This complicated operation is due to more favorable labor agreements existing under Springfield Terminal's rules.
Pan Am entered a joint venture with Norfolk Southern Railway (NS) in April, 2009 to form Pan Am Southern (PAS). PAR transferred to the PAS assets that included its main line track between Mechanicville, New York, and Ayer, Massachusetts, including the Hoosac Tunnel and Fitchburg line as far as Littleton, Massachusetts, and of secondary and branch lines, plus trackage rights, in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York and Vermont. NS transferred cash and other property valued at $140 million to the joint venture, $87.5 million of which was expected to be invested within a three-year period in capital improvements on the Patriot Corridor, such as terminal expansions, track and signal upgrades. Springfield Terminal provides all railroad services for the joint venture.
Service at B&M's former yard in Mechanicville, New York, was restored as an intermodal and automotive terminal in January 2012, under PAS.
Named passenger trains
The B&M operated a number of named passenger trains, which were often the premier intercity service on their routes. Most were through service that were shared between the B&M and other railroads, including the Canadian National Railroad (CN), Canadian Pacific Railway (CP), Central Vermont Railway (CV), Maine Central Railroad (MEC), New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (NH), Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), Quebec Central Railway (QC), and Rutland Railroad (RUT). Trains originating in New York City or Washington, D.C., ran through Springfield (using the Connecticut River Line) or Worcester (using the Worcester Branch) and bypassed Boston. Certain commuter trains with wealthy clientele were also named; several of these lasted into the MBTA era. These tables list major named intercity trains operated by the B&M.
Boston trains
New York/Washington trains via Springfield
New York/Washington trains via Worcester
See also
Alexander Bonner Latta
Footnotes
References
External links
Boston & Maine Railroad Historical Society
July 1, 1923 Official List - Officers, Agents and Stations
Boston & Maine All-Time Pre-Guilford Diesel Roster
Selected Annual Reports for Boston and Maine, Internet Archive; 1849-1965, years missing
Railway companies established in 1963
Predecessors of Pan Am Railways
Connecticut railroads
Maine railroads
New Hampshire railroads
Massachusetts railroads
Vermont railroads
New York (state) railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Companies based in Boston
Non-operating common carrier freight railroads in the United States
American companies established in 1963 | [
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238928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20variance | Cosmic variance | The term cosmic variance is the statistical uncertainty inherent in observations of the universe at extreme distances. It has three different but closely related meanings:
It is sometimes used, incorrectly, to mean sample variance – the difference between different finite samples of the same parent population. Such differences follow a Poisson distribution, and in this case the term sample variance should be used instead.
It is sometimes used, mainly by cosmologists, to mean the uncertainty because we can only observe one realization of all the possible observable universes. For example, we can only observe one Cosmic Microwave Background, so the measured positions of the peaks in the Cosmic Microwave Background spectrum, integrated over the visible sky, are limited by the fact that only one spectrum is observable from Earth. The observable universe viewed from another galaxy will have the peaks in slightly different places, while remaining consistent with the same physical laws, inflation, etc. This second meaning may be regarded as a special case of the third meaning.
The most widespread use, to which the rest of this article refers, reflects the fact that measurements are affected by cosmic large-scale structure, so a measurement of any region of sky (viewed from Earth) may differ from a measurement of a different region of sky (also viewed from Earth) by an amount that may be much greater than the sample variance.
This most widespread use of the term is based on the idea that it is only possible to observe part of the universe at one particular time, so it is difficult to make statistical statements about cosmology on the scale of the entire universe, as the number of observations (sample size) must be not too small.
Background
The standard Big Bang model is usually supplemented with cosmic inflation. In inflationary models, the observer only sees a tiny fraction of the whole universe, much less than a billionth (1/109) of the volume of the universe postulated in inflation. So the observable universe (the so-called particle horizon of the universe) is the result of processes that follow some general physical laws, including quantum mechanics and general relativity. Some of these processes are random: for example, the distribution of galaxies throughout the universe can only be described statistically and cannot be derived from first principles.
Philosophical issues
This raises philosophical problems: suppose that random physical processes happen on length scales both smaller than and bigger than the particle horizon. A physical process (such as an amplitude of a primordial perturbation in density) that happens on the horizon scale only gives us one observable realization. A physical process on a larger scale gives us zero observable realizations. A physical process on a slightly smaller scale gives us a small number of realizations.
In the case of only one realization it is difficult to draw statistical conclusions about its significance. For example, if the underlying model of a physical process implies that the observed property should occur only 1% of the time, does that really mean that the model is excluded? Consider the physical model of the citizenship of human beings in the early 21st century, where about 30% are Indian and Chinese citizens, about 5% are American citizens, about 1% are French citizens, and so on. For an observer who has only one observation (of his/her own citizenship) and who happens to be French and cannot make any external observations, the model can be rejected at the 99% significance level. Yet the external observers with more information unavailable to the first observer, know that the model is correct.
In other words, even if the bit of the universe observed is the result of a statistical process, the observer can only view one realization of that process, so our observation is statistically insignificant for saying much about the model, unless the observer is careful to include the variance. This variance is called the cosmic variance and is separate from other sources of experimental error: a very accurate measurement of only one value drawn from a distribution still leaves considerable uncertainty about the underlying model. Variance is normally plotted separately from other sources of uncertainty. Because it is necessarily a large fraction of the signal, workers must be very careful in interpreting the statistical significance of measurements on scales close to the particle horizon.
In physical cosmology, the common way of dealing with this on the horizon scale and on slightly sub-horizon scales (where the number of occurrences is greater than one but still quite small), is to explicitly include the variance of very small statistical samples (Poisson distribution) when calculating uncertainties. This is important in describing the low multipoles of the cosmic microwave background and has been the source of much controversy in the cosmology community since the COBE and WMAP measurements.
Similar problems
A similar problem is faced by evolutionary biologists. Just as cosmologists have a sample size of one universe, biologists have a sample size of one fossil record. The problem is closely related to the anthropic principle.
Another problem of limited sample sizes in astronomy, here practical rather than essential, is in the Titius–Bode law on spacing of satellites in an orbital system. Originally observed for the Solar System, the difficulty in observing other solar systems has limited data to test this.
References
Sources
Stephen Hawking (2003). Cosmology from the Top Down. Proceedings of the Davis Meeting on Cosmic Inflation.
External links
Cosmology from the Top Down (online)
Physical cosmology
Statistical deviation and dispersion | [
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238933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partick | Partick | Partick (, Scottish Gaelic: Partaig) is an area of Glasgow on the north bank of the River Clyde, just across from Govan. To the west lies Whiteinch, to the east Yorkhill and Kelvingrove Park (across the River Kelvin), and to the north Broomhill, Hyndland, Dowanhill, Hillhead, areas which form part of the West End of Glasgow. Partick was a Police burgh from 1852 until 1912 when it was incorporated into the city. Partick is the area of the city most connected with the Highlands, and several Gaelic agencies, such as the Gaelic Books Council (Scottish Gaelic: Comhairle nan Leabhraichean) are located in the area. Some ATMs in the area display Gaelic.
Etymology
The modern name derives from the ancient Cumbric Peartoc (as in the modern Welsh word perth, meaning "bush or thicket").
This was adopted into Scottish Gaelic as Peart(h)aig, giving modern Gaelic Pearraig or Partaig (the latter is used on signs at Partick railway station). Older anglicised forms include Perdyc and Perthick. Partick, of old Perdyec, from the Gaelic aper dhu ec, meaning the place at the confluence or mouth of the dark river.
History
Although Partick remained a village until the middle of the 18th century, it is an ancient place. The Kings of Strathclyde had a residence there, and in 1136 David I (1124–53) granted the lands of Perdyc to the see of Glasgow. The Bishops of Glasgow had a country seat in Partick. It was later the site of Partick Castle, a country home of George Hutcheson (demolished 1836). The burgh, which had its headquarters at Partick Burgh Hall, was annexed by Glasgow in 1912.
Areas
It is historically divided into three social areas; south of Dumbarton Road, north of Dumbarton Road and the Partick Hill grand villas. Being within the sphere of influence of the University of Glasgow and neighbouring Glasgow's salubrious "West End" it has a high student population. Traditional industries for the area were shipbuilding and the huge Meadowside Granary (recently demolished to make way for the new Glasgow Harbour residential development) employed many residents also. The main street in Partick, Dumbarton Road, has a number of services for residents to use.
Community
Partick Burgh Hall is a venue (much like a community centre) located within Partick. It regularly holds community events and is owned and managed by Culture & Sport Glasgow (part of Glasgow City Council). The hall was originally built in 1872 and has multiple rooms. The hall is staffed in order to accommodate events and to handle security. Private events are also held in the hall.
Partick Community Council is an organization which exists in the area to deal with issues within the community. It is the oldest community group in Partick and consists of around twenty elected members. The boundary of this council runs from Byres Road to Crow Road and from the River Clyde to Highburgh Road. The council is funded by Glasgow City Council by way of an annual grant.
Examples of activities of the Community Council include:
Neighbourhood Watch coordination.
Lobbying of Glasgow City Council
Promoting cleanliness and security in the area
Sport
Partick is home to the West of Scotland Cricket Club's Hamilton Crescent ground, which was the site of the first ever international football match (between Scotland and England) on 30 November 1872.
Partick Thistle Football Club were formed in the area in 1876, but left to play in the Maryhill area of Glasgow in 1909. Partick F.C. were also active in the 1870s and 1880s.
Transport
Partick station is a trunk station serving as an interchange between the local rail, Glasgow Subway and local bus systems. As well as being the fifth busiest train station in Scotland, it is the only transport hub to connect three different types of public transport. It replaced the former Partickhill railway station in 1979. There were previously three other stations in the area, Partick Central railway station (renamed Kelvin Hall station in 1959), Merkland Street and Partick West railway station.
The Partick interchange was redeveloped in 2012 due to its immense potential as a top-class interchange not only between Rail, Bus and Subway but also as the main interchange station between the Argyle and North Clyde rail lines.
Religion
There is an old Quaker burial ground, the 'Quakers Graveyard', situated at the bottom of Keith Street. Now a visitors' attraction the graveyard was given over to the city of Glasgow. It was last used in 1857. Purdon Street, which runs parallel with Keith Street, was named after John Purdon, a prominent Quaker who lived in Partick in the 17th century. His wife is buried in the graveyard.
The local Church of Scotland congregation is served by Partick South Parish Church and Partick Trinity Church.
Partick's Catholic community is served by St Peter's church situated in Hyndland Street. St Simon's church was located in Bridge Street, before a devestating arson attack in 2021 left it a ruin.
Notable people
Billy Connolly, lived on White Street and Stewartville Street during his childhood and attended St Peter's Boys School.
Bud Neill, cartoonist
References
External links
Partick Castle Article, Glasgow Evening Times.
Partick - Origins and History
Partick: Glasgow's Girnal at Pat's Guide to Glasgow West End
Burghs
Areas of Glasgow | [
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238942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacton%2C%20Herefordshire | Bacton, Herefordshire | Bacton () is a small village in a rural area of south-west Herefordshire, England, 14 miles (23 km) from Hereford.
History
One mile to the north are some earthwork remains of a small motte and bailey castle known as Newcourt Tump – "Tump" is a dialect word for a rounded hill or tumulus. The castle seems to have fallen out of use by the 14th century.
According to Domesday Book in 1086, Bacton, then in the hundred of Stradel, had only two households. The Lord of the Manor was Gilbert of Eskecot, whose tenant-in-chief was Roger of Lacy. The manor's history becomes clearer from the 13th century onwards.
Parish church
The parish church of St Faith's dates from 13th century and has a lengthy entry in Pevsner's survey of the county's buildings.
Inside is a memorial to Blanche Parry. It is possible that an altar cloth belonging to the church was made from a dress once worn by Queen Elizabeth I of England and given to Blanche Parry. The material of the cloth appears to form part of the clothing of the Queen in the early 17th-century "Rainbow Portrait", attributed to Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger.
The church belongs to the Ewyas Harold group of parishes and has a service about once a month. Next to it is a village hall.
Listed buildings
Bacton parish church is listed Grade II*. A further 16 buildings, barns and monuments from the 17th to 20th centuries are listed as Grade II, several of them in the churchyard.
Transport
Bacton has a single, daytime bus service to Hereford on Wednesdays. The nearest railway station is at Hereford (14 miles, 23 km). Bacton is 4 miles (6.5 km) on the secondary B4347 road from the main A465 road between Hereford and Abergavenny.
References
External links
Villages in Herefordshire | [
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238947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Gr%C3%A4be | Carl Gräbe | Carl Gräbe (; 24 February 1841 – 19 January 1927) was a German industrial and academic chemist from Frankfurt am Main who held professorships in his field at Leipzig, Königsberg, and Geneva. He is known for the first synthesis of the economically important dye, alizarin, with Liebermann, and for contributing to the fundamental nomenclature of organic chemistry.
Biography
Gräbe was born in Frankfurt in 1841. He studied at a vocational high school in Frankfurt and Karlsruhe Polytechnic and in Heidelberg. Later he worked for the chemical company Meister Lucius und Brüning (today Hoechst AG). He supervised the production of Fuchsine and researched violet colorants made using iodine. The work with iodine resulted in eye problems, so he returned to academia.
Carl Gräbe received his Ph.D. from the University of Heidelberg in 1862 under the supervision of Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. In 1868 he wrote his habilitation, and became a professor in Leipzig. Gräbe was Professor of Chemistry at the University of Königsberg from 1870 until 1877, and at the University of Geneva from 1878 until 1906. This was a period rich in the development of structural theory and nomenclature, and Gräbe is known for introducing the "ortho", "meta" and "para" nomenclature for naphthalene ring substitution.
Amongst Gräbe's students was Vera Bogdanovskaia, an early victim of the inherent risks of chemical research (dying as a result of later independent research on methylidynephosphane); her doctoral dissertation under Gräbe was on dibenzyl ketone (1892).
Gräbe synthesized the dye alizarin in 1868 with Carl Theodore Liebermann. Alizarin had been isolated from madder root some forty years earlier in 1826 by the French chemist Pierre Robiquet. Its chemical synthesis was a milestone in the development of the German and international dye industry, and foreshadowed collapse of the French agricultural sector that produced madder root (after synthesis became the more economical means of producing alizarin).
Gräbe died in Frankfurt in 1927.
References
1841 births
1927 deaths
19th-century German chemists
Scientists from Frankfurt
University of Königsberg faculty
University of Geneva faculty
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology alumni
Heidelberg University alumni
Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery | [
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238964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing%20the%20Seas%20of%20Cheese | Sailing the Seas of Cheese | Sailing the Seas of Cheese is the second studio album and major-label debut by the American rock band Primus, released on May 14, 1991. It spawned three singles: "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver", "Tommy the Cat", and "Those Damned Blue-Collar Tweekers". "Jerry Was a Race Car Driver" appeared in the video games ATV Offroad Fury, Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, Rock Band 3, The Bigs and as downloadable content for Rocksmith 2014, while "American Life" appears in Tony Hawk's Project 8, as well as in the first season of True Detective.
Album information
"Jerry Was a Race Car Driver" contains a sample from the movie The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 in which the character Chop Top exclaims "Dog will hunt!"
"Los Bastardos" contains samples from the BBC television series The Young Ones including Vyvyan shouting, "Shut up, you bastards!", Vyvyan's mother saying, "He is a bastard isn't he?", as well as Rick saying, "You just called me a bastard, didn't you?" and "Mike, you bastard!"
The lyrics "sail the seas of cheese" from "Seas of Cheese" would later appear in the song "DMV" on their next album Pork Soda, as well as the song "Dirty Drowning Man" on 1999's Antipop.
The song "Eleven" is in an unusual time-metric of 11/8, hence the name.
The song "Tommy The Cat" is considered by many to contain Les Claypool's single most difficult bassline. Due to its complex nature, there is not a clear consensus on exactly what notes are being played, and as a result, dozens of different interpretations exist.
Live performance
The album was performed live in its entirety in 2003 and 2004 on their Tour De Fromage, on December 30, 2010 and once more during a two night show at Royal Albert Hall in April 2012.
Critical reception
Reviewing the album for AllMusic, Steve Huey contends that "Sailing the Seas of Cheese completely redefined the possibilities of the electric bass in rock music for those who'd never heard the group before." He describes the album as "mostly riff-driven, fleshing out their heavy metal roots with prog rock tricks from Rush and Frank Zappa, as well as the novelty side of Zappa's sense of humor." He notes that "the willful goofiness may alienate some listeners, but... it never detracts from the band's frequently stunning musicianship" and concludes that this album is "the tightest, most song-oriented representation of their jaw-dropping, one-of-a-kind style." Simon Reynolds reviews the album for Entertainment Weekly by describing Primus as "too self-consciously goofy for their own good, but their rubber-boned thrash-funk can be cartoonish fun."
Release history
Sailing the Seas of Cheese reached Gold status in March 1993. It was certified platinum in December 2001.
2009
Plain Recordings released a 180 gram version of the LP.
2013 reissue
A deluxe edition of the album was released on May 21, 2013. It is available in two six-panel Digipak configurations, each featuring the album’s new stereo mix on CD and the new 5.1 surround mix on Blu-ray or DVD, plus three exclusive, previously unreleased bonus tracks, and liner notes by music journalist Greg Prato.” Claypool stated, “Musically, it holds up incredibly well. Sonically, it holds up fairly well. There’s some old-style reverbs that are a little bit syrupy. With modern technology, we can fix some of that stuff. But we don’t want to mess with it too much, because it is what it is. We want to fatten it up a little bit.”
Track listing
Personnel
Primus
Les Claypool - vocals, electric bass, string bass, six-string fretless bass, clarinet
Larry LaLonde - electric guitar, six-string banjo
Tim "Herb" Alexander - drums, percussion, water jug
Jay Lane - drums (on tracks 13, 14 & 15)
Production
Chris Bellman – mastering
Mike Bordin – two-skinned foreskin drum
Adam Gates – additional fisherman
Lance Link – additional fisherman
Primus – producer
Ron Rigler – engineering
Trouz – whistle
Tom Whalley – A&R director
Tom Waits – voice of Tommy the Cat
Matt Winegar – accordion, guitar
Visual Art
Paul Haggard – jacket design, photography
Mark Kohr – cheese coordinator, scenery
Michael Lavine – band photo
Mitch Romanowski – ship (sculpture)
Snap – airbrushing
Bastardos
Drums: Brain Mantia, Mike Bordin, Herb
Guitars: MIRV Haggard, Todd Huth, Derek Greenberg, Matt Winegar, Ler
Bass: Butthouse, Adam Gates, Les
Vocals: Adam Gates, Puffster, Herb, Ler, Les
Charts
References
1991 albums
Albums with cover art by Lance Montoya
Funk metal albums
Interscope Records albums
Primus (band) albums | [
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238966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warrior | Warrior | A warrior is a person specializing in combat or warfare as an institutionalized or professionalized career, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracies, class, or caste.
History
Warriors seem to have been present in the earliest pre-state societies. Most of the basic weapons used by warriors appeared before the rise of most hierarchical systems. Bows and arrows, clubs, spears, swords, and other edged weapons were in widespread use. However, with the new findings of metallurgy, the aforementioned weapons had grown in effectiveness.
When the first hierarchical systems evolved 5000 years ago, the gap between the rulers and the ruled had increased. Making war to extend the outreach of their territories, rulers often forced men from lower orders of society into the military role. This had been the first use of professional soldiers —a distinct difference from the warrior communities.
The warrior ethic in many societies later became the preserve of the ruling class. Egyptian pharaohs would depict themselves in war chariots, shooting at enemies, or smashing others with clubs. Fighting was considered a prestigious activity, but only when associated with status and power. European mounted knights would often feel contempt for the foot soldiers recruited from lower classes. In Mesoamerican societies of pre-Columbian America, the elite aristocratic soldiers remained separated from the lower classes of stone-throwers. The samurai were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of Japan from the 12th to the late 19th century.
In contrast to the beliefs of the caste and clan-based warrior, who saw war as a place to attain valor and glory, warfare was a practical matter that could change the course of history. History always showed that men of lower orders would almost always outfight warrior elites through an individualistic and humble approach to war, provided that they were practically organized and equipped. This was the approach of the Roman legions who had only the incentive of promotion, as well as a strict level of discipline. When Europe's standing armies of the 17th and 18th centuries developed, discipline was at the core of their training. Officers had the role of transforming men that they viewed as lower class to become reliable fighting men.
Inspired by the Ancient Greek ideals of the 'citizen soldier', many European societies during the Renaissance began to incorporate conscription and raise armies from the general populace. A change in attitude was noted as well, as officers were told to treat their soldiers with moderation and respect. For example, men who fought in the American Civil War often elected their own officers. With the mobilization of citizens in the armies sometimes reaching the millions, societies often made efforts in order to maintain or revive the warrior spirit. This trend continues to the modern day.
Due to the heroic connotations of the term "warrior", this metaphor is especially popular in publications advocating or recruiting for a country's military.
Warrior communities
Ahir
Akinji
Al-Haras
Amazons
Anglo-Saxons
Apache
Armatoloi
Ashigaru
Assassin
Aswaran
Batavi
Berserker
Bogatyr
Boxers
Boyars
Carthaginian
Cataphract
Celts
Cheyenne
Comanche
Comitatus
Condottieri
Cossacks
Crusader
Curetes
Dacians
Dog soldier
Druzhina
Eagle warrior
Eso Ikoyi
Eight Banners
Gabiniani
Gargareans
Ghazi
Gladiator
Gurkha
Hajduks
Harii
Hashashin
Hersir
Herules
Hessian
Highlander
Hippeis
Hird
Hoplite
Hospitaller
Housecarl
Hulubalang
Huns
Hyksos
Hwarang
Immortals
Zulu's Impi
Jaguar warrior
Janissary
Jat
Jinyiwei
Jund
Karaiyar
Karava
Kassites
Khalsa
Kheshig
Kipchaks
Klephts
Knights
Knights Templar
Kshatriya
Kshetri
Leidang
Maccabees
Maharlika
Mangudai
Mamluk
Maravar
Maratha
Maryannu
Maurya/Kushwaha
Maori
Mongols
Morlachs
Moro People
Medjay
Meenas
Mesedi
Mingghan
Mukkuvar
Nair
Nakh peoples
Ninja/Kunoichi
Normans
Numerus Batavorum
Onna-musha
Optimatoi
Pirates
Quilombo
Rajput
Red Lantern Sect
Reddy
Romans
Ror
Rus' people
Saini
Samurai
Scordisci
Scythians
Seminole
Sengunthar
Shaolin
Shieldmaiden
Sioux
Sipahi
Sohei
Somatophylakes
Spartan
Timawa
Teutonic Knights
Thingmen
Triballi
Uskoks
Valkyrie
Vanniyar/Vanniar (Chieftain)
Varangian Guard
Velir or Vellalar
Vikings
Virago
Voynuks
White Lotus Sect
Yadav
See also
Endemic warfare
Deadliest Warrior
Honour
Martial races
Soldier
Warg
Women warriors in literature and culture
References
Bibliography
Ayvazyan A. "The Code of Honor of the Armenian Military (4-5th centuries)" (2000).
Shannon E. French, Code of the Warrior - Exploring Warrior Values Past and Present (2003).
External links
Roman Warriors: The Myth of the Military Machine
Anthropology
Combat occupations
Social classes
Social divisions
Stock characters
Warrior code
Gendered occupations
Men's social titles
Western (genre) staples and terminology | [
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238967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Joshua%20Tree | The Joshua Tree | The Joshua Tree is the fifth studio album by Irish rock band U2. It was produced by Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno, and was released on 9 March 1987 on Island Records. In contrast to the ambient experimentation of their 1984 release, The Unforgettable Fire, the band aimed for a harder-hitting sound within the limitation of conventional song structures on The Joshua Tree. The album is influenced by American and Irish roots music, and through sociopolitically conscious lyrics embellished with spiritual imagery, it contrasts the group's antipathy for the "real America" with their fascination with the "mythical America".
Inspired by American experiences, literature, and politics, U2 chose America as a theme for the album. Recording began in January 1986 in Ireland, and to foster a relaxed, creative atmosphere, the group primarily recorded in two houses. Several events during the sessions helped shape the conscious tone of the album, including the band's participation in the Conspiracy of Hope benefit concerts for Amnesty International, the death of roadie Greg Carroll, and lead vocalist Bono's travels to Central America. Recording was completed in November 1986; additional production continued into January 1987. Throughout the sessions, U2 sought a "cinematic" quality for the record, one that would evoke a sense of location, in particular, the open spaces of the United States. They represented this in the sleeve photography depicting them in American desert landscapes.
The Joshua Tree received critical acclaim, topped the charts in over 20 countries, and became the fastest-selling album in British history. According to Rolling Stone, the album increased the band's stature "from heroes to superstars". It produced the hit singles "With or Without You", "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For", and "Where the Streets Have No Name", the first two of which became the group's only number-one singles in the US. The album won Grammy Awards for Album of the Year and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1988. The group supported the record with the Joshua Tree Tour throughout 1987, during which they began to perform in stadiums for the first time in their career.
Frequently listed among the greatest albums of all time, The Joshua Tree is one of the world's best-selling albums, with over 25 million copies sold. U2 commemorated the record's 20th anniversary with a remastered re-release, and its 30th anniversary with concert tours and a reissue. In 2014, The Joshua Tree was selected for preservation in the US National Recording Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress.
Background
Prior to The Joshua Tree, U2 had released four studio albums and were an internationally successful band, particularly as a live act having toured every year in the 1980s. The group's stature and the public's anticipation for a new album grew following their 1984 record The Unforgettable Fire, their subsequent tour, and their participation in Live Aid in 1985. U2 began writing new material in mid-1985 following the Unforgettable Fire Tour.
U2's manager Paul McGuinness recounted that The Joshua Tree originated from the band's "great romance" with the United States, as the group had toured the country for up to five months per year in the first half of the 1980s. Leading up to the album sessions, lead vocalist Bono read the works of American writers such as Norman Mailer, Flannery O'Connor, and Raymond Carver so as to understand, in the words of Hot Press editor Niall Stokes, "those on the fringes of the promised land, cut off from the American dream". Following a September–October 1985 humanitarian visit to Egypt and Ethiopia with his wife Ali, Bono said: "Spending time in Africa and seeing people in the pits of poverty, I still saw a very strong spirit in the people, a richness of spirit I didn't see when I came home... I saw the spoiled child of the Western world. I started thinking, 'They may have a physical desert, but we've got other kinds of deserts.' And that's what attracted me to the desert as a symbol of some sort."
After recording vocals for Steven Van Zandt's anti-apartheid project Sun City in August 1985, Bono made an additional contribution to the album in October that was inspired by his burgeoning interest in roots music. While in New York, he spent time with musicians Keith Richards and Mick Jagger, who played him blues and country music. Bono was embarrassed by his lack of familiarity with the genres, as most of U2's musical knowledge began with punk rock in their youth in the mid-1970s. He realised that U2 "had no tradition" and felt as if they "were from outer space". This inspired him to write the blues-influenced song "Silver and Gold", which he recorded with Richards and Ronnie Wood and convinced Van Zandt to add to Sun City. Until that time, U2 had been apathetic towards roots music, but after spending time with the Waterboys and fellow Irish band Hothouse Flowers, they felt a sense of indigenous Irish music blending with American folk music. Nascent friendships with Bob Dylan, Van Morrison, and Richards encouraged Bono to look back to rock's roots and to focus on building his skills as a songwriter and lyricist. He explained: "I used to think that writing words was old-fashioned, so I sketched. I wrote words on the microphone. For The Joshua Tree, I felt the time had come to write words that meant something, out of my experience." Dylan told Bono about his own debt to Irish music, while Bono further demonstrated his interest in music traditions in his duet with Irish Celtic and folk group Clannad on the track "In a Lifetime".
U2 wanted to build on the textures of The Unforgettable Fire, but in contrast to that record's often out-of-focus experimentation, they sought a harder-hitting sound within the limitations of conventional song structures. The group referred to this approach as working within the "primary colours" of rock music—guitar, bass, and drums. Guitarist the Edge was more interested in the European atmospherics of The Unforgettable Fire and was initially reluctant to follow Bono's lead to seek a more American sound. The Edge was eventually convinced otherwise after discovering blues and country artists such as Howlin' Wolf, Robert Johnson, Hank Williams, and Lefty Frizzell on American public radio stations during the Unforgettable Fire Tour. Despite lacking a consensus on their musical direction, the group members agreed that they felt disconnected from the dominant synthpop and new wave music of the time, and they wanted to continue making music that contrasted with these genres.
In November 1985, U2 moved into drummer Larry Mullen Jr.'s newly purchased home to work on material written during the Unforgettable Fire Tour. This included demos that would evolve into "With or Without You", "Red Hill Mining Town", and "Trip Through Your Wires", as well as a song called "Womanfish". The Edge recalled it as a difficult period with a sense of "going nowhere", although Bono was set on America as a theme for the album. Supplementary recording sessions at STS Studios in Dublin with producer Paul Barrett saw the development of "With or Without You" and the genesis of "Bullet the Blue Sky".
Recording and production
Based on their success with producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois on The Unforgettable Fire, U2 wanted the duo to produce their new album. Mullen was excited about working with them again, as he felt the pair, Lanois in particular, were the band's first producers who "really [took] an interest in the rhythm section". Mark "Flood" Ellis was selected to be the recording engineer for the sessions, marking the first time he worked with U2. The band were impressed by his work with Nick Cave, and Bono's friend Gavin Friday recommended Flood based on their work experiences together when Friday was a member of the Virgin Prunes. U2 asked Flood for a sound that was "very open... ambient... with a real sense of space of the environment you were in", which he thought was a very unusual request at that time.
Intending to release an album in late 1986, U2 set up a studio in January of that year in Danesmoate House, a Georgian house in Rathfarnham, Ireland, in the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains. The Edge had viewed the residence months prior while househunting with his wife and convinced the owner to rent it to the band. Their plan was to find inspiration from the converted recording space and use it to musically create atmosphere, much like they did with Slane Castle for The Unforgettable Fire sessions in 1984.
A makeshift control room with tape machines, a mixing console, and other outboard equipment was set up in Danesmoate's dining room, with the adjacent drawing room used for recording and performing. The large doors separating the rooms were replaced with a glass screen, and to maintain a relaxed "non-studio" atmosphere for the sessions, the control room was dubbed the "lyric room" and the recording space was called the "band room". Lanois' strategy was to encourage the band members to have their parts worked out in advance and to capture as much of the essence of a live band take as possible, without having the possibility of subsequent overdubbing on which to fall back. This was a change for U2, who previously recorded each instrument separately and then layered them into the mix. To support his approach of having all the band members recording in a room together, Lanois eschewed having them wear headphones in favour of using monitor speakers due to their power; Mullen and bassist Adam Clayton used two each. To aid in sound isolation, gobos were built in the drawing room, although the production staff still faced issues with audio spill from the monitor speakers. Lanois said that due to the setup, "you have to make a commitment to what you put down and either use it or throw it all away." This recording setup was duplicated at subsequent locations during the album sessions.
U2's initial time at Danesmoate was spent recording and refining "extensive demos" that the Edge anticipated could turn into final backing tracks. They began with their usual songwriting methods of sorting through tapes from soundcheck jams, working through Bono's lyric book, and recording jam sessions. The sessions saw the group's songwriting beginning to evolve; not all material was being worked out as a band, but rather Bono and the Edge often brought basic song ideas to Mullen and Clayton. The group were first joined at Danesmoate by Eno, with Flood and fellow engineer Dave Meegan recording their jams. Meegan said of Eno's involvement: "Usually he was in first every morning and he'd start some dodgy sequence on his DX-7 [synthesiser]—it would be just like a cello line with no intentions of ever staying forever, just something to inspire people when they walked into the room." One of the first songs worked on was "Heartland", which originated during The Unforgettable Fire sessions and was later released on the band's 1988 album, Rattle and Hum. The arrangements for "With or Without You" and "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" were completed early in the Danesmoate sessions, giving the band the confidence to experiment. Eno and Lanois intentionally worked with the band at alternate times—one producer for a week or two, followed by the other. The producers encouraged an interest in older songs, especially American roots music. More contemporary references included the textural guitar work of the Smiths and My Bloody Valentine. The band's musical vocabulary had improved after their previous album, facilitating communication and collaboration with the production team.
The band found Danesmoate to have a very creative atmosphere, but according to the Edge, they "just couldn't settle in". The large drawing room, with a tall ceiling and wooden floors, created an "ear-splitting" drum sound that caused issues for the group. Lanois had a higher opinion of the house, saying: "It was loud, but it was really good loud, real dense, very musical. In my opinion it was the most rock and roll room of the lot." According to him, "the Danesmoate sessions were the backbone of the tonality of the record—we got a lot of the drums done in there." He thought that the house sounded better than Slane Castle, and he was particularly impressed with the drawing room's "low mid-range ... where the music lives", a property that he believes was a major factor in the success of The Joshua Tree.
Over the course of recording The Joshua Tree, the band twice paused to participate in benefit concerts. On 17 May 1986, U2 performed at Self Aid in Dublin. Intended to help alleviate Ireland's unemployment crisis by raising funds and job pledges, the event was harshly criticised in the media for taking pressure off the Irish government to resist Margaret Thatcher's economic policies. The band in particular were labelled hypocrites for their participation. Their appearance included a cover of Bob Dylan's "Maggie's Farm", reinterpreted as a criticism of Thatcher. Hot Press Niall Stokes called their performance "the blackest and most ferocious set of their entire career". In June 1986, U2 embarked on the six-show Conspiracy of Hope tour for Amnesty International, halting the album's recording sessions for about two months. Rather than distract the band, the tour invigourated their new music and provided extra focus on what they wanted to say. For Clayton, the tour validated the "rawness of content" and their attempts to capture the "bleakness and greed of America under Ronald Reagan". The band used soundchecks on the tour to test out various guitar compositions they had. Meegan believed that U2's time with the other artists on the tour affected their own sound: "Their musical heroes were bleeding into the music and they weren't embarrassed by it, which gave them a lot of space to work in."
On 3 July, the band experienced a tragedy when Greg Carroll, their roadie and Bono's personal assistant, was killed in a motorcycle accident in Dublin. The 26-year-old's death overwhelmed the U2 organisation, and the band travelled to his native New Zealand to attend his traditional Māori funeral; the experience inspired the lyrics to "One Tree Hill". After the funeral, Bono and his wife visited Nicaragua and El Salvador, where they saw firsthand the distress of peasants affected by political conflicts and US military intervention, experiences which formed the basis of the lyrics for "Bullet the Blue Sky" and "Mothers of the Disappeared".
On 1 August 1986, U2 regrouped in Dublin to resume work on the album and begin the recording stage proper. During this more intense phase of the sessions, the group began to work at the Edge's newly purchased house, Melbeach, in seaside Monkstown. Lanois said of Melbeach, "That was less of a rock 'n' roll room but we made it work. I think there were a lot of headaches, isolating people and having to build baffles around the place." The Edge called the house "more sombre" but said it had a "solid unpretentious quality that seemed to hold the energy in". "Mothers of the Disappeared" and "Bullet the Blue Sky" were among the songs that evolved at Melbeach. Lanois said that most of the record was done there, and that it was the preferred location for mixing. Writing and recording alternated between the two houses and Windmill Lane Studios. In late August during Hurricane Charley, U2 were visited at Danesmoate by Robbie Robertson, the former guitarist of the Band. Robertson was in Ireland to complete his self-titled debut solo album that he had begun with Lanois. Together, U2 and Robertson recorded the tracks "Sweet Fire of Love" and "Testimony", both of which appear on Robertson's album.
As the sessions progressed, U2 attempted to record a suitable take of the song "Where the Streets Have No Name", which began as a demo that the Edge had composed by himself. However, the group struggled with the chord and time signature shifts, forcing significant "screwdriver work" to fix a recorded version of the song. Eno estimated approximately 40% of the time spent on The Joshua Tree was dedicated to that song alone. During takes, Lanois used a pointer and a chalkboard to help walk the band through the song's changes. In an attempt to force the group to start anew, Eno intended to "stage an accident" whereby the song's tapes would be erased. According to Flood, engineer Pat McCarthy had to restrain Eno to prevent this from happening. Ultimately, the erasure never occurred. Another aspect of the album that required re-work was Bono's lyrics. The vocalist had another set of lyrics for most of the record, but the other group members were dissatisfied with them, forcing rewrites. Lanois said the production team extensively screened Bono's lyrics and offered suggestions, as many lines did not sound as good when sang against a backing track as they did when written down. Bono's revised lyrics were described as "absolutely stunning" by Meegan, who believed that the insecurity the singer felt from having his work critiqued further motivated him.
After a creative spurt in October resulted in new song ideas, Bono proposed that the group release a double album. The Edge said: "There would have been two records, depending on which songs we decided to finish. There was this one album, the 'blues' album that Bono was talking about, and another, much more 'European', which is kind of the way I was led." Eno cautioned the group about pursuing the material, telling the Edge: "I know that any one of these new ideas is good enough to make the record, but we have to draw the line somewhere. If we even consider any of them we'll still be here in three months time." U2 relented, shelving the new songs to avoid missing their deadline to complete the album. Recording for The Joshua Tree wrapped up in November 1986. Rough mixes had been created throughout the sessions after each song was recorded to, in Lanois' words, take "snapshots along the way ... because sometimes you go too far". The Edge explained that the arrangement and production of each song was approached individually and that while there was a strong uniform direction, they were prepared to "sacrifice some continuity to get the rewards of following each song to a conclusion".
The final weeks were a frantic rush to finish, with the band and production crew all suffering from exhaustion. Eno and Flood had minimal involvement with the final mixes, as they had other commitments. Facing understaffing, in late December, U2 hired Steve Lillywhite, producer of their first three albums, to remix the potential singles and make them more appealing to commercial radio. His eleventh-hour presence and changes caused discontent among the production crew, including Eno and Lanois. Of the approximately 30 songs that were created during the album's sessions, 11 were selected for the final track listing. Lillywhite mixed four songs with engineer Mark Wallis on an SSL desk at Windmill Lane Studios. At the same time, Lanois, McCarthy, and Meegan mixed seven songs at Melbeach on a 24-track AMEK 2500 mixing desk; all three were required to operate the console due to the lack of mix automation.
On the night before the 15 January 1987 deadline set by Island Records to complete the record, the band and the crew completed mixing. As they worked at Melbeach, Lillywhite's wife, singer Kirsty MacColl, volunteered to set the running order for the album. The band told her to put "Where the Streets Have No Name" first and "Mothers of the Disappeared" last, with the rest sequenced according to her preference. Bono said of MacColl's contribution, "Your hope for your album is that it will always be greater than the sum of its parts. It wasn't happening for The Joshua Tree and she came in and she organized it and it worked as an old-fashioned album: a beginning, middle and end." Around 2am, just seven hours before the album was due to Island for mastering, the Edge tried to convince Lillywhite to allow him to add backing vocals to "Where the Streets Have No Name", but he was denied. In the morning, Meegan and Lillywhite flew with the album's tapes to Island's offices in Hammersmith, London.
Following the completion of the album proper, U2 returned to the studio with Meegan and McCarthy to complete the new material they had shelved in October. These tracks, which included "Walk to the Water", "Luminous Times (Hold on to Love)", and "Spanish Eyes", were completed as B-sides for the planned singles. The Edge said that with no producers around and "without the sense of significance that imbued the album sessions", the group worked quickly and productively, preventing the songs from, in his opinion, sounding overworked. The song "Sweetest Thing" was left off the album and released as a B-side, as the band felt it was incomplete and did not fit with the other songs. They later expressed regret that it had not been completed for The Joshua Tree. The track was re-recorded as a single for the group's 1998 compilation The Best of 1980–1990. U2 agreed that one track, "Birdland", was too strong for a B-side and they withheld it for a future album release. In 2007, a re-recorded version of the song, retitled "Wave of Sorrow (Birdland)", was included with the 20th anniversary edition of the album.
After completing The Joshua Tree, Bono said that he was "as pleased with the record as I can ever be pleased with a record", calling The Joshua Tree their most complete album since their debut. Clayton bought Danesmoate House in 1987 and made it his home.
Composition
Music
U2 is credited with composing all of The Joshua Trees music. The album's sound draws from American and Irish roots music more than the group's previous albums, following the counsel and influence of Bob Dylan, Van Morrison, and Keith Richards. "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" has strong gospel influences, with Bono singing of spiritual doubt in an upper register and Eno, Lanois, and the Edge providing choir-like backing vocals. The slow piano-based ballad "Running to Stand Still" exhibits traits of folk music and acoustic blues in the track's slide acoustic guitar and harmonica. "Trip Through Your Wires", another song on which Bono plays harmonica, was described by Niall Stokes as a "bluesy romp". Summarising the stylistic direction, Chicago Tribune journalist Joshua Klein writes that the album "showed how U2's obsession with American roots flavored its art-rock".
The Edge's guitar playing on The Joshua Tree is characteristic of what came to be his trademark sound. His minimalist style sharply contrasted with the emphasis placed on virtuosity and speed by heavy metal in the 1980s. The Edge views musical notes as "expensive", preferring to play as few of them as possible and to instead focus on simpler parts that serve the moods of the songs. Much of this was achieved with a delay effect, contributing to a chiming, echo-laden sound. For example, the riff in the introduction of the opening track "Where the Streets Have No Name" is a repeated six-note arpeggio, with delay used to repeat notes. The riffs to "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" and "With or Without You" also prominently use delay, with Bono likening the guitar hook from the former track to "chrome bells".
The Edge continued to employ the ambient techniques of guitar playing that he used on The Unforgettable Fire; for "With or Without You", he used a prototype of the Infinite Guitar to add layers of sustained notes, an approach he first took on his 1986 solo album, the Captive soundtrack. On other songs, his guitar playing is more aggressive; "Exit" was described by Colin Hogg as a "decidedly scary... guitar-driven barrage", while Andrew Mueller said the guitar sounds from "Bullet the Blue Sky" evoke images of fighter planes. The Edge developed the harsh, feedback-charged guitar part for the latter song at Bono's instruction to "put El Salvador through an amplifier", after Bono returned angry from a visit to the war-torn country. Bono also contributed to songwriting on guitar; the Spanish guitar melody in "Mothers of the Disappeared" originated from a song that he wrote in Ethiopia to teach children about basic hygiene.
Much like on , Bono exhibits an expressive, open-throated vocal delivery, which many critics described as "passionate". Spin found that the group's exploration of roots music resulted in Bono's style expanding, saying that he "commands the full whisper-to-shout range of blues mannerisms". Bono attributes this maturation to "loosening up", "discover[ing] other voices", and employing more restraint in his singing. His vocals became, in the words of Thom Duffy, more "dynamic" than they had been on previous records. On "Where the Streets Have No Name", his voice varies greatly in its timbre (as writer Mark Butler describes, "he sighs; he moans; he grunts; he exhales audibly; he allows his voice to crack") and its timing by his usage of rubato to slightly offset the sung notes from the beat. For author Susan Fast, "With or Without You" marks the first track on which he "extended his vocal range downward in an appreciable way".
Lyrics
Bono is credited as the album's sole lyricist. Thematically, the album juxtaposes antipathy towards the United States against the band's deep fascination with the country, its open spaces, freedoms, and ideals. Anger is directed particularly at the perceived greed of the Ronald Reagan administration and its foreign policy in Central America. Bono said, "I started to see two Americas, the mythic America and the real America", hence the album's working title, The Two Americas. Having toured the US extensively in the past, the group were inspired by the country's geography. As such, the desert, rain, dust, and water appear as lyrical motifs throughout the record. In many cases, the desert is used as a metaphor for "spiritual drought". One track that chiefly represents these themes is "In God's Country", which critic Barbara Jaeger interpreted as addressing America's role as the "promised land". Clayton explained the impact of the desert imagery: "The desert was immensely inspirational to us as a mental image for this record. Most people would take the desert on face value and think it's some kind of barren place, which of course is true. But in the right frame of mind, it's also a very positive image, because you can actually do something with blank canvas, which is effectively what the desert is."
Political and social concerns were the basis for several tracks. Bono wrote the lyrics for "Bullet the Blue Sky" after visiting El Salvador during the Salvadoran Civil War and witnessing how the conflict between rebels and the US-backed government affected local civilians. During the mid-song spoken passage, he talks of a man with a "face red like a rose on a thorn bush", a reference to Reagan. Bono's trip also inspired "Mothers of the Disappeared", after he met members of COMADRES—the Mothers of the Disappeared—a group of women whose children were killed or "disappeared" during the civil war at the hands of the local government. The 1984 UK mining strike inspired the lyrics for "Red Hill Mining Town", which Bono wrote from the perspective of a couple affected by the strike. The story of a heroin-addicted couple was the basis for "Running to Stand Still", which Bono set in the Ballymun Flats residential towers in Dublin near which he was raised. The buildings are referenced in the lyric "I see seven towers / But I only see one way out". For "Where the Streets Have No Name", he wrote the lyrics in response to the idea that, in Belfast, a person's religion and income can be deduced based on the street they live on. "Exit" portrays the thoughts of a psychotic killer, although Clayton suggested that the line "He saw the hands that build could also pull down" is also a jab at the US government's conflicting roles in international relations.
Bono described 1986 as "an incredibly bad year" for him, which was reflected in the lyrics. His marriage was under strain, in part due to the album's long gestation period, the band were criticised by the Irish media for their involvement in Self Aid, and his personal assistant Greg Carroll was killed in a motorcycle accident. Bono said, "That's why the desert attracted me as an image. That year was really a desert for us." "With or Without You" was written while he was struggling to reconcile his wanderlust as a musician with his domestic responsibilities. "One Tree Hill", named after a volcanic peak in Carroll's native New Zealand, describes how Bono felt at Carroll's funeral. The album is dedicated to his memory.
The group's religious faith was a source of inspiration for many lyrics. On "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For", Bono affirms this faith but sings of spiritual doubt ("I believe in Kingdom Come"... "But I still haven't found what I'm looking for"). Some critics surmised that the place Bono is referring to on "Where the Streets Have No Name" is Heaven. These two songs were singled out by some critics as demonstrating that the band was on a "spiritual quest". Hot Press editor Niall Stokes and Richard Harrington of The Washington Post interpreted "With or Without You" in both romantic and spiritual manners. Biblical references are made on other songs like "Bullet the Blue Sky" ("Jacob wrestled the angel", images of fire and brimstone) and "In God's Country" ("I stand with the sons of Cain"). Thom Duffy interpreted the album as an exploration of the "uncertainty and pain of a spiritual pilgrimage through a bleak and harsh world".
Packaging and title
Designed by Steve Averill, the album sleeve was based on U2's request to depict the record's "imagery, and cinematic location" in the desert. Since the album's provisional titles were The Desert Songs and The Two Americas, the initial concept for the sleeve was to represent where the desert met civilisation. The group decided early in the creative process to photograph in the US, contrasting with all of their previous albums, which had been shot in Ireland. They asked their photographer Anton Corbijn to search for locations in the US that would capture their ideas. A week prior to the photo shoot, he travelled to the US to compile a list of locations.
Over several days in December 1986, U2 travelled with Corbijn and Averill on a bus around the Mojave Desert for a photo shoot. The group stayed in small hotels and shot in the desert landscape, beginning at Reno, Nevada, before moving to locations in California such as the ghost town of Bodie, the Harmony Hotel in Twentynine Palms, Zabriskie Point, Death Valley Junction, and other sites in Death Valley. Corbijn rented a panoramic camera to capture more of the desert landscapes, but having no prior experience with the camera, he was unfamiliar with how to focus it. This led to him focusing on the background and leaving the band slightly out of focus. Corbijn said, "Fortunately there was a lot of light." Averill filmed portions of the trip with an 8 mm film camera. The photo shoots took place in the mornings and evenings, with mid-days spent travelling and on preparation. Corbijn later recounted that the main idea of the shoot was to juxtapose "man and environment, the Irish in America". Averill said of their photographic approach, "What I was trying to do with the way we shot the pictures and framed the cover was to suggest the landscape vision and cinematic approach that was taken to the recording."
On the evening after the first day's shooting, Corbijn told the band about Joshua trees (Yucca brevifolia), hardy and twisted plants in the deserts of the American Southwest, and he suggested their use on the sleeve. Bono was pleased to discover the religious significance of the plant's etymology; according to Mormon legend, early settlers named the plant after the Old Testament prophet Joshua, as the tree's stretching branches reminded them of Joshua raising his hands in prayer. The following day, Bono declared that the album should be titled The Joshua Tree. That morning, while driving on Route 190 near Darwin, they spotted a lone-standing tree in the desert. Corbijn had been hoping to find a single tree, as he thought it would result in better photographs than if he shot the band amongst a group of trees. They stopped the bus and photographed with the lone plant for about 20 minutes, something the Edge called "fairly spontaneous". Despite shooting in the desert, the group dealt with cold weather during parts of the trip. Bono explained, "it was freezing and we had to take our coats off so it would at least look like a desert. That's one of the reasons we look so grim." Regarding the serious tone of the images, Corbijn said, "I guess people felt they took themselves too seriously. It was definitely the most serious, I think, that you can photograph a band. You couldn't go any further down that line unless you start photographing graves."
For the vinyl record release, Corbijn originally wanted to have a shot of the Joshua tree on the front of the sleeve, with U2 in a continuation of the photograph on the back. Averill tried out a concept with just the landscape on the front that he said resembled a "jazz ECM record". Ultimately, separate photographs were used for each side of the sleeve; an image of the group at Zabriskie Point was placed on the front, while an image of them with the tree appears on the back cover. For the front cover, Averill said that the framing of the band in the left half of the photo was meant to evoke the cinematography of film directors John Ford and Sergio Leone. The centre gatefold showed an image of U2 with the Joshua tree in the middle; a mirror used by them to check their appearance was mistakenly left in frame. Since the compact disc was a relatively new format at the time, the creative team decided to experiment with the album cover, selecting different cover images for each format on which the album was released; the original compact disc release used a blurry, distorted photo of the band, while the cassette used a clear, but alternate photo. Later CD reissues used the LP photo. Rolling Stone said that the album's title and the images of the tree befit a record concerned with "resilience in the face of utter social and political desolation, a record steeped in religious imagery". In 1991, the magazine ranked The Joshua Tree at number 97 on its list of the "100 Greatest Album Covers of All Time".
The tree photographed for the sleeve fell around 2000, yet the site remains a popular tourist attraction for U2 fans. One person inserted a plaque into the ground reading, "Have you found what you're looking for?", in reference to the album's track "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For". It is a common misconception that the site is within Joshua Tree National Park, when in fact it is over 200 miles away from the park.
Release
Just prior to the release of The Joshua Tree, Bono was stricken with a sudden panic about the quality of the completed album. He said that he contemplated calling the production plants to order a halt of the record's pressing, but he ultimately held off. Island Records spent over $100,000 on store displays advertising the album; president Lou Maglia called it "the most complete merchandising effort ever assembled". The Joshua Tree was released on 9 March 1987, with an initial shipment of 300,000 copies in the US. It was the first new release to be made available on the compact disc, vinyl record, and cassette tape formats on the same date. Record stores in Britain and Ireland opened at midnight to accommodate the large number of fans who had queued outside to buy the album.
The Joshua Tree debuted on the UK Albums Chart on 21 March 1987 at number one with 235,000 copies sold in its opening week, making it the fastest-selling album in UK history to that point. It received a platinum certification in the UK within 48 hours of being released. The album spent two weeks atop the UK Albums Chart and spent its first 28 weeks within the top ten. In total, it charted in the UK for 201 weeks, ranking it among the longest-charting albums in the nation's history. On the US Billboard Top Pop Albums chart, the album debuted on 4 April 1987 at number seven, the highest debut for a studio album in the US in almost seven years. Three weeks later, it reached number one, becoming the group's first album to top the charts in the US. It remained at that position for nine consecutive weeks, the band's longest number-one reign on the chart and the second-longest reign in the US that year. The album spent a total of 120 weeks on the Billboard Top Pop Albums, 35 of them in the top ten. On 13 May 1987, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album double-platinum. All of the group's previous albums re-entered the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart in 1987. In Canada, the album debuted at number 51 on the RPM Top 100 Albums chart on 21 March 1987, and climbed to number one just two weeks later. Within 14 days of release, it sold 300,000 units in Canada and was certified triple-platinum. The Joshua Tree also topped the charts in Austria, Switzerland, New Zealand, and Sweden. In total, the album reached number one in over 20 countries. Rolling Stone said that the album increased the band's stature "from heroes to superstars". It was the first album by any artist to sell one million copies on CD in the US. U2 were featured on the cover of the 27 April 1987 issue of Time, which declared them "Rock's Hottest Ticket"; they were just the fourth rock band to appear on the magazine's cover, following the Beatles, the Band, and the Who.
"With or Without You" was released as the lead single on 21 March 1987, with the B-sides "Luminous Times (Hold on to Love)" and "Walk to the Water". The single quickly topped the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band's first number-one hit in America. The song topped the singles chart in Canada, while reaching number four in the UK and number two in the Netherlands. The group originally planned to use "Red Hill Mining Town" as the second single. However, the group were unhappy with the music video filmed by Neil Jordan, and Bono had difficulty singing the song. Ultimately, the group canceled the single. Instead, "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" was chosen as the second single, and it was released in May 1987 with the tracks "Spanish Eyes" and "Deep in the Heart" as B-sides. Like its predecessor, it topped the Hot 100, giving U2 consecutive number-one singles in the US. The single peaked at number six in the UK, Canada, and the Netherlands. By May, sales of the album surpassed 7 million copies worldwide.
"Where the Streets Have No Name" was released in August 1987 as the third single, with "Sweetest Thing", "Silver and Gold", and "Race Against Time" as B-sides. The single reached number seven in the Netherlands, number four on the UK Singles Chart, and number 13 in the US. The album's first three singles all topped the Irish Singles Charts, while charting within the top 20 of the singles charts in the UK, the US, Canada, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. "In God's Country" was released as a fourth single exclusively in North America in November 1987, peaking at number 44 on the Hot 100 and number 48 as an import single in the UK. "One Tree Hill" was released as a fourth single in Australia and New Zealand in March 1988, and having been written for the New Zealand-native Carroll, it reached number one in his home country. By the end of 1988, The Joshua Tree had sold more than 14 million copies worldwide. It was the ninth-best-selling album in the UK during the 1980s.
In 1996, Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab remastered the album and released it as a special gold CD. This edition rectified the incorrect track splitting between "One Tree Hill" and "Exit" that affected some CD releases; the quiet coda that concludes "One Tree Hill" had previously been included in the same track as "Exit".
Following its 30th anniversary reissue, The Joshua Tree re-entered the Billboard 200 chart the week of 8 June 2017, climbing to number 16—its highest position on the chart since 13 February 1988. That week, it shifted 27,000 album-equivalent units, 23,000 of which were sales, making it the album's highest-selling week in the US since 3 January 1993.
Critical reception
The Joshua Tree received critical acclaim, and the best reviews of U2's career to that point. Steve Pond of Rolling Stone wrote, "For a band that's always specialized in inspirational, larger-than-life gestures—a band utterly determined to be Important—The Joshua Tree could be the big one, and that's precisely what it sounds like." The review described the album's sound as "wed[ding] the diverse textures of The Unforgettable Fire to fully formed songs, many of them as aggressive as the hits on War". Steve Morse of The Boston Globe echoed these sentiments in his review, stating, "It's another spiritual progress report, enwrapped in music that strikes a healthy balance between the lushness of their last album, 1984's The Unforgettable Fire, and the more volcanic rock of their early years." Morse called it "their most challenging work to date" and the "most rewarding rock record of the new year". John McCready of NME praised the album as "a better and braver record than anything else that's likely to appear in 1987... It's the sound of people still trying, still looking..." Thom Duffy of the Orlando Sentinel said the songs have "exultant power" that, "like the Joshua Tree's branches, stretch upward in stark contrast to their barren musical surroundings on rock radio". He praised the musicianship of the group members, calling Bono's vocals "wrenching", the rhythm section of Mullen and Clayton "razor-sharp", and the Edge's guitar playing "never... better". Colin Hogg of The New Zealand Herald called The Joshua Tree "the most compelling collection of music yet from a band that has cut its career with passionate, exciting slashes". It judged that the record's "power lies in its restraint" and that there is an "urgency underlying virtually all of the 11 songs". Robin Denselow of The Guardian called the album "epic", saying "what U2 have achieved is an exhilarating and varied blend of controlled power and subtelty". The review praised U2 for maturing and expanding their musical range, yet "retain[ing] their sense of power" and the "brave passion and emotion" of Bono's vocals.
Qs Paul Du Noyer said that the source of The Joshua Trees "potency lies in a kind of spiritual frustration – a sense of hunger and tension which roams its every track in search of some climactic moment of release, of fulfilment, that never arrives." He concluded his review by writing that the music "has the one thing vital to worthwhile rock, a thing so often absent: the urge to exist". Spin hailed the record as U2's "first wholly successful album because it finally breaks free from the seductive but limiting chant-and-drone approach of earlier material". The review stated, "There isn't a bad song on the record" and that "every one has a hook". The magazine praised U2 for eschewing ambient experimentation in favour of uncomplicated but layered arrangements. Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times said the album "confirms on record what this band has been slowly asserting for three years now on stage: U2 is what the Rolling Stones ceased being years ago—the greatest rock and roll band in the world". Hilburn noted that the band showed "sometimes breathtaking signs of growth" and played more "tailored and assured" music. Hot Press editor and longtime U2 supporter Bill Graham said that "The Joshua Tree rescues rock from its decay, bravely and unashamedly basing itself in the mainstream before very cleverly lifting off into several higher dimensions," and that U2 "must be taken very seriously indeed after this revaluation of rock". John Rockwell of The New York Times was complimentary of the band for expanding its musical range but said Bono's vocals were "marred throughout by sobbing affectation" and sounded too much like other singers, resulting in a "curious loss of individuality". The Houston Chronicles Marty Racine felt it has "music that both soothes and inspires, music that is anthemic, music with style". Racine, however, believed the group took itself too seriously, resulting in a record that is "not a whole lot of fun, bordering on the pretentious", which caused him to lose interest by the second side. Robert Christgau from The Village Voice found the lyrics tasteful and the music "mournful and passionate, stately and involved", but lamented what he felt was pompous singing by Bono, calling it "one of the worst cases of significance ever to afflict a deserving candidate for superstardom".
In a retrospective review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said "their focus has never been clearer, nor has their music been catchier". His review concluded, "Never before have U2's big messages sounded so direct and personal." Entertainment Weeklys Bill Wyman wrote that the album combined "easy-to-grasp themes – alienation and an outsider’s ambivalent view of America – with an extremely focused musical attack". A 2008 retrospective by Q said "their reinvention of stadium rock sounds as impassioned as ever" and that the album strikes "a finely balanced mix of intimacy and power". Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone compared the album to Bruce Springsteen's Born in the U.S.A., stating that both records "lifted a populist artist to mega-stardom", and that the musicians' uplifting live shows and the "sheer aural pleasure" of the two records obscured their foreboding nature. DeCurtis summarized The Joshua Trees examination of America both lyrically and musically as such:
In voting for Rolling Stones 1987 end-of-year readers' polls, U2 won in the categories "Best Album", "Artist of the Year", "Best Band", "Best Single ("With or Without You)", and "Best Male Singer" (Bono). The album placed fourth on the "Best Albums" list from The Village Voices 1987 Pazz & Jop critics' poll, and sixth on NMEs list. In 1988, U2 received four Grammy Award nominations for the album and its songs, winning honours for Album of the Year (to beat artists such as Michael Jackson, Prince, and Whitney Houston) and Best Rock Performance By a Duo or Group With Vocal for The Joshua Tree. "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" was nominated for Song of the Year and Record of the Year, but lost in both categories. U2 were the only act that year to be nominated in each of the "Big Three" categories (Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Album of the Year).
The Joshua Tree Tour
Following the album's release, U2 embarked on a worldwide concert tour, the Joshua Tree Tour. Lasting from April to December 1987, it comprised 109 shows over three legs. The first and third legs visited the US, while the second leg toured Europe. The Joshua Tree elevated the group to a new level of popularity; the tour sold-out arenas and stadiums around the world—the first time they consistently performed at venues of that size. Songs from the album became staples of the tour's set lists, as the group regularly performed eight of the record's eleven tracks, and the only song not to be played was "Red Hill Mining Town".
Like their previous tours, the Joshua Tree Tour was a minimalistic, austere production, and U2 used this outlet for addressing political and social concerns. One such issue was Arizona Governor Evan Mecham's canceling the state's observance of Martin Luther King Jr. Day. Throughout the tour, the group continued to explore American roots music: they collaborated with folk artist Bob Dylan, blues musician B. B. King, and Harlem's New Voices of Freedom gospel choir; U2 also visited Graceland and Sun Studio in Memphis, where they recorded new material. These new songs and the band's experiences on tour were documented for the 1988 Rattle and Hum album and Phil Joanou-directed motion picture.
The tour grossed $40 million and drew 3 million attendees, but despite its commercial success and positive reviews, U2 were dissatisfied creatively, and Bono believed they were musically unprepared for their success. Mullen said, "We were the biggest, but we weren't the best", and for Bono the tour was "one of the worst times of [their] musical life". On the road, the group dealt with death threats, along with injuries that Bono sustained from performing. The band hinted that the stresses of touring led them to enjoy the "rock and roll lifestyle" they previously avoided.
Legacy
The Joshua Tree is the band's best-selling album, and with 25 million copies sold worldwide, it is among the best-selling albums of all time. It ranks as one of the best-selling albums in the US; in 1995, the RIAA certified it 10× platinum for shipping 10 million units, and the album subsequently received the Diamond Award for reaching this level. Similarly, the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified the album diamond in Canada. In the UK, The Joshua Tree ranks in the top 40 of the best-selling records with 2.88 million copies sold, having been certified 9× platinum, with an additional gold certification for the 20th anniversary edition. In the Pacific, it is certified 5× platinum and 14× platinum in Australia and New Zealand, respectively.
The Joshua Tree has been acclaimed by writers and music critics as one of the greatest albums of all time; according to Acclaimed Music, it is the 40th most acclaimed record based on critics' lists. In 1997, The Guardian collated worldwide data from a range of renowned critics, artists, and radio DJs, who placed the record at number 57 on the list of the "100 Best Albums Ever". It was ranked 25th in Colin Larkin's 2000 book All Time Top 1000 Albums. In a poll of VH1 viewers the following year, The Joshua Tree was voted the greatest pop album of all time, based on responses from over 250,000 people. Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 26 on their 2003 list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". Subsequent updates to the list re-ranked the album; the 2012 version ranked it 27th, writing that the album "turn[ed] spiritual quests and political struggles into uplifting stadium singalongs", and the 2020 version of the list ranked it 135th. In 2006, Time named The Joshua Tree one of the magazine's 100 best albums, while Hot Press ranked it 11th on a similar list. Q named it the best record of the 1980s, while Entertainment Weekly included the album on its list of the 100 best records released between 1983 and 2008.
In 2010, the album appeared at number 62 on Spins list of the 125 most influential albums in the 25 years since the magazine launched. The publication said, "The band's fifth album spit out hits like crazy, and they were unusually searching hits, each with a pointed political edge." The same year, Consequence of Sound ranked The Joshua Tree 34th on its list of "The 100 Greatest Albums of All Time", calling it "Arguably the biggest album of the 1980s" and "proof that lightning can be captured in a bottle". In 2012, Slant Magazine ranked it 24th on its list of the "Best Albums of the 1980s", saying that The Joshua Trees opening trio of songs helped "the band became lords and emperors of anthemic '80s rock" and that "U2 no longer belonged to Dublin, but the world." In 2018, Pitchfork ranked the record 47th on its list of "The 200 Best Albums of the 1980s", writing that the album's "brilliant tension" and continued resonance was the result of Eno and Lanois "steer[ing] U2 toward a moody impressionism where slide guitars and three chord progressions sound cavernous, even ominous". The Buffalo News said the record "made [U2] the first mainstream band since the Beatles to capture the spirit of the age in a manner that was both populist and artistically, politically and socially incisive", while humanities scholar Henry Vyverberg considered it among the minority of attempts at "serious art" during a decade in which the rock genre largely "remained musical junk-food". From Josh Tyrangiel's perspective, The Joshua Tree began a "towering period" of U2's history lasting through 1993's Zooropa when they "made stadium-size art rock with huge melodies that allowed Bono to throw his arms around the world while bending its ear about social justice". WYMS journalist Mitchell Kreitzman credited it with exposing "alternative music to the masses", and Kevin J. H. Dettmar cited it as the most commercially and critically successful album "yet to emerge from alternative or college rock". In 2014, The Joshua Tree was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for becoming "part of our musical, social, and cultural history". That same year, the album was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the US Library of Congress for being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". It is the only Irish work to be so honoured.
The band's penchant for addressing political and social issues, as well as their staid depiction in Corbijn's black-and-white sleeve photographs, contributed to the group's earnest and serious image as "stone-faced pilgrim[s]". This image became a target for derision after the band's critically maligned Rattle and Hum project in 1988. Various critics called them "po-faced", "pompous bores", and "humourless". The group's continued exploration of American music for the project was labelled "pretentious" and "misguided and bombastic". After Bono told fans on the 1989 Lovetown Tour that U2 would "dream it all up again", the band reinvented themselves in the 1990s. They incorporated alternative rock, electronic dance music, and industrial music into their sound, and adopted a more ironic, flippant image by which they embraced the "rock star" identity they struggled with in the 1980s. Bono referred to their 1991 album Achtung Baby as "the sound of four men chopping down the Joshua Tree". Author Bill Flanagan summarised the impact of The Joshua Tree on the group's career in his liner notes for the album's 20th anniversary release: "The Joshua Tree made U2 into international rock stars and established both a standard they would always have to live up to and an image they would forever try to live down."
20th anniversary remastered edition
On 20 November 2007, a 20th anniversary edition of The Joshua Tree was released. The album was remastered from the original analogue recordings under the direction of the Edge, with the original vinyl album artwork restored. The release was made available in four formats: a single CD; a two-disc deluxe edition with a bonus audio CD of B-sides, rarities, and demos; a three-disc box set with the bonus audio CD and DVD, photograph prints, and hardcover book; and a double vinyl edition. All editions included liner notes by author Bill Flanagan and previously unseen photographs by Anton Corbijn. Manager Paul McGuinness explained, "There has been continuous demand from U2 fans to have The Joshua Tree properly re-mastered. As always, the band had to make sure it was right, and now it is." Some formats include expanded liner notes from the band members, the production team, and Anton Corbijn. In an otherwise favourable review of the remastered album, Andrew Mueller of Uncut said that "any casual listener who can perceive a meaningful difference between this and the original has i) ears like a bat and/or ii) needs to get out more".
The bonus audio CD contains 14 additional tracks, including the B-sides "Luminous Times (Hold on to Love)", "Walk to the Water", "Spanish Eyes", "Deep in the Heart", "Silver and Gold", "Sweetest Thing", and "Race Against Time". Two versions of "Silver and Gold" are included—U2's version, and the original recording from the Sun City album by Bono, Keith Richards, and others. The edited single version of "Where the Streets Have No Name" appears on the bonus CD. "Beautiful Ghost/Introduction to Songs of Experience" contains lyrics from the introduction of William Blake's Songs of Experience, while "Drunk Chicken/America" contains an excerpt of Allen Ginsberg's recitation of his poem, "America". "Wave of Sorrow (Birdland)", "Desert of Our Love", "Rise Up", and "Drunk Chicken/America" are all previously unreleased recordings from The Joshua Tree sessions.
The bonus DVD includes live concert footage, a documentary, and two music videos. The disc includes Live from Paris, an 85-minute concert from 4 July 1987 that was originally broadcast on British television in celebration of the 25th anniversary of Island Records. The documentary, titled Outside It's America, was a 1987 MTV production about The Joshua Tree Tour. The two music videos are an alternate version "With or Without You" and the previously unreleased video for "Red Hill Mining Town". Footage of U2's alter ego country band, the Dalton Brothers, is included on the disc as an Easter egg.
30th anniversary tour and reissue
For the 30th anniversary of The Joshua Tree, U2 staged a 2017 concert tour in North America, Europe, and Latin America, on which they played the album in its entirety at each show. It was the first time the group toured in promotion of an album from their back catalogue, rather than a new release. As part of the tour, U2 headlined the Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester, Tennessee, in June. In rationalising the tour, the Edge cited the 2016 US presidential election and other world events for what he judged to be renewed resonance of The Joshua Trees subject matter: "That record was written in the mid-Eighties, during the Reagan–Thatcher era of British and U.S. politics. It was a period when there was a lot of unrest. Thatcher was in the throes of trying to put down the miners' strike; there was all kinds of shenanigans going on in Central America. It feels like we're right back there in a way... It just felt like, 'Wow, these songs have a new meaning and a new resonance today that they didn't have three years ago, four years ago.'" The 2017 tour grossed more than $316 million from over 2.7 million tickets sold, making it the highest-grossing tour of the year. Additional tour dates were added for Oceania and Asia in 2019, which included the band's first ever performances in South Korea, Singapore, India, and the Philippines. The 2019 shows grossed $73.8 million and sold 567,000 tickets, bringing the cumulative totals for the group's Joshua Tree anniversary tours to $390.8 million grossed and 3.3 million tickets sold.
On 2 June 2017, the album was reissued in several formats in commemoration of its 30th anniversary. Standard editions of the album were released on CD, vinyl record, and via digital download. Deluxe editions, available on CD and digitally, include a concert recording of a 1987 show at Madison Square Garden from the Joshua Tree Tour. In addition to the concert, the super deluxe editions, available on CD, vinyl record, and digitally, include: B-sides and rarities; and remixes of the album's songs made in 2017 by Daniel Lanois, St Francis Hotel, Jacknife Lee, Steve Lillywhite, and Flood. The physical copies of the super deluxe edition include eight folio prints and an 84-page book of photography shot by the Edge during the album cover's 1986 photoshoot in the Mojave Desert. The 2017 remix of "Red Hill Mining Town" was released as a single on vinyl picture disc for Record Store Day in April 2017.
Track listing
Track 4, "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For", includes a snippet of "Exodus" by Bob Marley and the Wailers at the end of the song. The snippet is not included on the CD and vinyl track list but is listed on some streaming services.
Personnel
U2
Bono – lead vocals, harmonica, guitars
The Edge – guitars, backing vocals, piano
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen Jr. – drums, percussion
Additional performers
Brian Eno – keyboards, DX7 programming, backing vocals
Daniel Lanois – tambourine, Omnichord, additional rhythm guitar , backing vocals
The Armin Family – strings
The Arklow Silver Band – brass
Paul Barrett – brass arrangement and conducting
Technical
Daniel Lanois – production
Brian Eno – production
Flood – recording
Dave Meegan – additional engineering
Pat McCarthy – additional engineering
Steve Lillywhite – mixing
Mark Wallis – mix engineering
Mary Kettle – assistant mix engineering
Bob Doidge – string recording
Joe O'Herlihy – studio crew
Des Broadberry – studio crew
Tom Mullally – studio crew
Tim Buckley – studio crew
Marc Coleman – studio crew
Mary Gough – studio crew
Marion Smyth – studio crew
Kirsty MacColl – album track sequencing
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications and sales
}
See also
List of best-selling albums in New Zealand
References
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
The Joshua Tree at U2.com
1987 albums
U2 albums
Grammy Award for Album of the Year
Albums produced by Brian Eno
Albums produced by Steve Lillywhite
Albums produced by Daniel Lanois
Island Records albums
Grammy Award for Best Rock Album
United States National Recording Registry albums | [
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238968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit%20of%20America%20%28automobile%29 | Spirit of America (automobile) | Spirit of America is the trademarked name used by Craig Breedlove for his land speed record-setting vehicles.
First Spirit of America
Spirit of America was the first of the modern record breaking jet-propelled cars, built with a narrow streamlined fuselage, three-wheel chassis, and, most significantly, turbojet engine. Like most of the other competing vehicles, the engine was ex-military. The first Spirit had a General Electric J47 engine from an F-86 and was tested at Bonneville Salt Flats in 1962, where difficult handling resulted in failure. Before trying again, a new stabilizer and steerable front wheel were added.
Breedlove set his first record on September 5, 1963 at Bonneville, the first man to set an average speed of over during a land speed record attempt. (John Cobb had already exceeded this 400 mph mark in 1947, but had not sustained it as an average over both runs.)
At the time of Spirit of Americas construction the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) rules for a land speed record required four wheels. Spirits record was thus not recognised by the FIA. The Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) did recognise it, however, classing Spirit as a motorcycle. Although this controversy has been widely reported since as being due to the use of a jet engine, FIA rules describing a qualifying car as being "driven through its wheels", the only issue raised seriously at the time was over the number of wheels, hence the FIM acceptance.
For a period there were thus two simultaneous land speed records, the 1947 Railton Mobil Special record remaining as the FIA four-wheel Class A record, which from July 1964 went to Campbell's Bluebird. Although Bluebird also used a "jet engine", it was a turboshaft that drove the wheels.
Both FIA & FIM records were broken in October 1964 by Tom Green and further extended by Art Arfons. Breedlove returned to Bonneville with Spirit and pushed the record over , setting it at on October 15, a record that stood for almost two weeks. In setting the new record, at the end of his second run, the Spirit lost its braking parachutes, skidding for five miles (8 km), through a row of telephone poles and crashing into a brine pond at around . Drenched but uninjured, Breedlove climbed out of the cockpit and declared, "And now for my next act I'm going to set myself on fire." This feat earned a place in the Guinness Book of World Records for longest skid marks. Spirit was recovered and taken to the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago as an exhibit. Spirit of America also left the ground for the longest distance ever recorded for a ground-based vehicle, when it hit rough ground at the end of the run.. The vehicle is no longer on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago.
Spirit of America – Sonic 1
A new Spirit was built over 1964–1965 to attempt to beat Arfons, dubbed Spirit of America – Sonic I a four-wheel design with a much higher rated GE J79 engine originally from an F-4 Phantom II, the same type as that used by Arfons' Green Monster. Another tit-for-tat with Arfons ended with Breedlove setting the record at 600.601 mph (966.574 km/h) on November 15, 1965, a record that stood until 1970, broken by Gary Gabelich's The Blue Flame land speed record rocket car. The Sonic I vehicle is currently on display at Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum.
Spirit of America – Formula Shell LSRV
After a lengthy break from world records Breedlove began work on a new Spirit in 1992, eventually named the Spirit of America Formula Shell LSRV. The vehicle is 44 ft 10 in long, 8 ft 4 in wide, and 5 ft 10 in high (13.67 m by 2.54 m by 1.78 m) and weighs 9,000 lb (4 t), construction is on a steel tube frame with an aluminium skin body. The engine is the same as in the second Spirit, a GE J79, but it is modified to burn unleaded gasoline and generates a maximum thrust of 22,650 lbf (100.8 kN).
The first run of the vehicle on October 28, 1996 in the Black Rock Desert, Nevada ended in a crash at around 675 mph (1,086 km/h). Returning in 1997 the vehicle badly damaged the engine on an early run. The British ThrustSSC twin-Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan-engined LSR car upped the record to 763 mph (1,228 km/h) on 15 October 1997, and became the first car to officially break the sound barrier. The re-engined Spirit could do no better than 676 mph (1088 km/h).
Breedlove sold the Spirit of America Formula Shell LSRV to Steve Fossett, holder of many sailing, ballooning and other aviation records, and the car was undergoing rebuilding in hopes of some preliminary shakedown runs in late September 2007 at Bonneville. However, Steve Fossett disappeared in early September 2007 while scouting for alternative land speed record venues in Nevada; his body and aircraft were later located in the Sierra Nevada mountains in California.
The Spirit of America Sonic Arrow, as it was rechristened by Fossett, was rolled out on the Black Rock Desert for a photo opportunity on October 15, 2007. The effort to run the car continued.
Cultural references
The Beach Boys song "Spirit of America" is about Breedlove and his cars.
See also
List of motorized trikes
References
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238971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kira | Kira | Kira may refer to:
People
Kira clan, a Japanese clan, descended from Emperor Seiwa (850–880)
Kira (given name), including a list of people with the given name
Kira Chikazane (1563–1588), Japanese retainer
Kira (German singer) (Janine Scholz, born 1978)
Kira (Belgian singer) (Natasja de Witte, born 1977)
Kira, uploader of pictures in the Edison Chen photo scandal, named after the Death Note character
Fictional characters
Kira (given name), including a list of fictional characters with the given name
Izuru Kira, in the anime Bleach
Kira Nerys, in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine
Kira Yoshikage, in the manga series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure
Sakuya Kira, in the manga and anime Angel Sanctuary
Tsubasa Kira, in the anime Love Live!
Kira, an alias of Light Yagami in the manga/anime series Death Note
Places
Kira, Aichi, Japan
Kirən or Kira, Azerbaijan
Kira, Burkina Faso
Kira Rural LLG, Papua New Guinea
Kira Town, Uganda
Kira (crater), on the far side of the Moon
Other uses
Kira (Bhutan), the national dress for women in Bhutan
Kira (title), for women who acted on behalf of the Imperial Harem of the Ottoman Empire
Kira Institute, a non-profit organization
See also
Kira Kira (disambiguation)
Keira (disambiguation)
Kiera, a given name
Kirra (disambiguation)
Kyra (disambiguation)
Ciara (given name) | [
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238972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dip%20pen | Dip pen | A dip pen or nib pen or pen nib usually consists of a metal nib with capillary channels like those of fountain pen nibs, mounted in a handle or holder, often made of wood. Other materials can be used for the holder, including bone, metal and plastic; some pens are made entirely of glass.
Generally, dip pens have no ink reservoir, so the user must recharge the ink from an ink bowl or bottle to continue drawing or writing. There are simple, tiny tubular reservoirs that illustrators sometimes clip onto dip pens, which allow drawing for several minutes without recharging the nib. Recharging can be done by dipping into an inkwell, but it is also possible to charge the pen with an eyedropper, a syringe, or a brush, which gives more control over the amount of ink applied. Thus, "dip pens" are not necessarily dipped; many illustrators call them "nib pens".
Dip pens emerged in the early 19th century, when they replaced quill pens and, in some parts of the world, reed pens. Dip pens were generally used before the development of fountain pens in the later 19th century, and are now mainly used in illustration, calligraphy, and comics.
The dip pen has certain advantages over a fountain pen. It can use waterproof, pigmented, iron gall ink, particle-and-binder-based inks, such as India ink, drawing ink, and acrylic inks with virtual impunity while fountain pens must use water based inks (except in a few special cases), should be thoroughly and regularly cleaned to prevent clogging when used with pigmented or waterproof inks and can corrode when used with iron gall ink (dip pen nibs may also corrode when used with iron gall ink but it is not as likely nor as problematic as the nib of a dip pen is often cleaned after each use and is easily replaced if irreparably damaged). Dip pens are also more sensitive to variations of pressure and speed, producing a line that naturally varies in thickness.
There is a wide range of exchangeable nibs for dip pens, so different types of lines and effects can be created. The nibs and handles are far cheaper than most fountain pens, and allow color changes much more easily.
History
The earliest known split-nib metal dip pen is a surviving copper-alloy pen found in Roman Britain (AD 43 to 410). Several other surviving all-metal and removable-nib pens from the Middle Ages and Renaissance have been found, suggesting they were used alongside quill pens.
The steel pen is first attested in Daniel Defoe's book A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain – 1724–26. In Letter VII Defoe wrote: "the plaster of the ceilings and walls in some rooms is so fine, so firm, so entire, that they break it off in large flakes, and it will bear writing on it with a pencil or steel pen." In Newhall Street, John Mitchell pioneered mass production of steel pens in 1822; prior to that the quill pen had been the most common form of writing instrument. His brother William Mitchell later set up his own pen making business in St Paul's square. The Mitchell family is credited as being the first manufacturers to use machines to cut pen nibs, which greatly sped up the process.
The Jewellery Quarter and surrounding area of Birmingham, England was home to many of the first dip pen manufacturers, which some companies establishing there to produce pens. Some of those companies were Joseph Gillott's (established in 1827), Sir Josiah Mason (1827), Hink Wells & Co. (1836), Baker and Finnemore (1850), C. Brandauer & Co. (1850), D. Leonardt & Co. (1856).
Baker and Finnemore operated in James Street, near St Paul's Square. C Brandauer & Co Ltd., founded as Ash & Petit, traded at 70 Navigation Street. Joseph Gillott & Sons Ltd. made pen nibs in Bread Street, now Cornwall Street. Hinks Wells & Co. traded in Buckingham Street, Geo W Hughes traded in St Paul's Square, D. Leonardt & Co./Leonardt & Catwinkle traded in George Street and Charlotte Street, and M Myers & Son. were based at 8 Newhall Street. By 1830 John and William Mitchell, Joseph Gillott and Josiah Mason were the major manufacturers in Birmingham.
In Germany the industrial production of dip pens started in 1842 at the factory of Heintze & Blanckertz in Berlin.
By the 1850s, Birmingham was a world centre for steel pen and steel nib manufacture. More than half the steel nib pens manufactured in the world were made in Birmingham. Thousands of skilled craftsmen and women were employed in the industry. Many new manufacturing techniques were perfected in Birmingham, enabling the city's factories to mass produce their pens cheaply and efficiently. These were sold worldwide to many who previously could not afford to write, which encouraged the development of education and literacy. By 1860 there were about 100 companies making steel nibs in Birmingham, but 12 large firms dominated the trade. In 1870 Mason, Sommerville, Wiley, and Perry, merged to form Perry & Co. Ltd. which later became one of the largest manufacturers in the world, with near 2,000 employees.
Richard Esterbrook manufactured quill pens in Cornwall. In the 19th century, he saw a gap in the American market for steel nib pens. Esterbrook approached five craftsmen who worked for John Mitchell in Navigation Street with a view to setting up business in Camden, New Jersey, US. Esterbrook founded his company in 1858, and it grew to become one of the largest steel pen manufacturers in the world. In 1971 it went out of business.
The oblique dip pen was designed for writing the pointed pen styles of the mid 19th to the early 20th century such as Spencerian Script, although oblique pen holders can be used for earlier styles of pointed penmanship such as the copperplate scripts of the 18th and 19th centuries. As the name suggests, the nib holder holds the nib at an oblique angle of around 55° pointing to the right hand side of the penman. This feature helps greatly in achieving the steep angle required for writing certain scripts, but more importantly, it prevents the right hand nib tine from dragging on the paper as can be experienced when using a straight nib holder with a straight nib for this purpose.
The decreasing production of dip pens and the subsequent demise of the industry in Birmingham is often blamed on the invention of the ballpoint pen in 1938 by the Hungarian Laszlo Biro.
One improved version of the dip pen, known as the original "ballpoint", was the addition of a curved point (instead of a sharp point) which allows the user to have slightly more control on upward and sideways strokes. This feature, however, produces a thicker line rather than the razor-sharp line produced by a sharp point.
Pen makers
The following is a list of some of the most prominent dip pen manufacturers (in past and present times):
Uses
Dip pens continued in use in schools into the 1950s and 1960s, mainly on grounds of cost, since fountain pens were expensive to buy. Even when ballpoint pens became cheaply available, some schools banned their use, perhaps because writing with a dip pen had to be done with greater care. School desks were made with a socket for a small ceramic inkwell which had to be refilled on a daily basis, a task often delegated to one of the pupils.
Dip pens are rarely used now for regular writing, most commonly having been replaced by fountain pens, rollerball pens, or ballpoint pens. However, dip pens are still appreciated by artists, as they can make great differences between thick and thin lines, and generally write more smoothly than other types of pens. Dip pens are also preferred by calligraphers for fine writing. Dip pens are still in use for nib paintings, mostly round tip ones with a slit in the centre.
Although most of the factories ceased manufacturing dip pens, some companies are still active, such as Speedball, Brause (currently owned by French company Exacompta Clairefontaine), William Mitchell and Joseph Gillott's.
Gallery
See also
Birmingham pen trade
Calligraphy
Lettering
Nib (pen)
References
External links
Kallipos, Calligraphy German website
Manuscript Pen Company
Scribblers, calligraphy website
Blam! Design, calligraphy and vintage pens
The Pen Museum at Birmingham Heritage forum
Birmingham Pen Room, writing and pen museum (Archive)
Writing implements
Visual arts materials
Pens | [
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238973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip%20Humphrey | Skip Humphrey | Hubert Horatio "Skip" Humphrey III (born June 26, 1942) is a former Minnesota politician who served as attorney general of the state (1983–99) and State Senator (1973–83). Humphrey led the Office of Older Americans as the assistant director at the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB).
A Democrat, Humphrey is the son of Vice President Hubert Humphrey and the U.S. Senator Muriel Humphrey Brown. He was the Democratic nominee for governor in the hotly contested three-way election of 1998.
Early life
Hubert Horatio Humphrey III was born on June 26, 1942, in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Humphrey graduated from American University, where he was a member of Alpha Sigma Phi, Beta Chi chapter, and is a graduate of the University of Minnesota Law School.
Political career
Humphrey was elected to the Minnesota Senate in 1972 and served as a state senator from 1973 to 1983. He was elected Minnesota Attorney General in 1982, one of the DFL Party's most popular candidates ever in terms of popular vote. He served in the office for four consecutive terms, from 1983 to 1999.
On January 13, 1978, his father died of cancer at the age of 66.
In 1988, he ran for the same US Senate seat that his father and his mother previously held, but was defeated by incumbent Independent-Republican Senator David Durenberger. After this loss he served as president of the National Association of Attorneys General, and in 1996 he was state chair of President Bill Clinton's reelection campaign.
By 1998 he was again encouraged to run for higher office, and entered the DFL gubernatorial primary, winning handily in a crowded field (which included another scion of an eminent Minnesota political family, Ted Mondale). In the general election, both Humphrey and Republican candidate Norm Coleman lost to the third-party candidacy of Jesse Ventura in a tumultuous race.
On September 20, his mother died at the age of 86.
Political legacy
Humphrey was an enthusiastic successor of his father's New Deal-inspired political philosophy, and throughout his career he remained devoted to traditional progressive ideals as well as their more modern manifestations: "If you think that being too liberal means raising the minimum wage, advocating health care for everyone, protecting the environment, taking on the tobacco industry, enacting campaign finance reform, and putting more cops on the streets, then guess what? That's what Minnesotans want." One of his most passionately held principles was his opposition to tobacco and its powerful political lobby: in 1999, the World Health Organization awarded him the Director-General's Prize for outstanding global contribution to tobacco control.
Personal life
While a student at American University, Humphrey met Nancy Lee Jeffery, the daughter of a US Navy captain. The two were married while spending the summer of 1963 in Europe. The Humphreys are the parents of three children, including Hubert H. "Buck" Humphrey IV, who ran for Minnesota Secretary of State in 2002, losing by three percentage points to Republican nominee Mary Kiffmeyer.
Humphrey was a senior fellow at the University of Minnesota, where he taught public health policy and law, and was also Senior Vice President at Tunheim Partners, a Minnesota-based communications and public affairs firm. Beginning in 2004, Humphrey served as the president of the Minnesota chapter of the AARP, and later was a member of the Board of Directors of the National AARP. In October 2011, Humphrey was appointed the assistant director of the Office of Older Americans at the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
Electoral history
1972
1976
1980
1982
1986
1988
1990
1994
1998
References
External links
|-
|-
1942 births
American people of English descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American United Methodists
American University alumni
Children of vice presidents of the United States
Living people
Minnesota Attorneys General
Minnesota Democrats
Minnesota state senators
University of Minnesota Law School alumni
Humphrey family
People of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
Candidates in the 1988 United States elections
Candidates in the 1998 United States elections | [
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] |
238975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo%20Girls%20%28album%29 | Indigo Girls (album) | Indigo Girls is the second studio album and first major label release by American folk rock duo the Indigo Girls. It was originally released in 1989 by Epic Records, and reissued and remastered in 2000 with two bonus tracks.
Upon its release, the album received mostly positive reviews from critics, went gold after six months and eventually went platinum. The duo was nominated for a Best New Artist Grammy (losing to Milli Vanilli, who later vacated the award), and won one for Best Contemporary Folk Recording.
Michael Stipe sang on "Kid Fears", and the other members of R.E.M. performed on "Tried to Be True". In addition, the Irish band Hothouse Flowers contributed background vocals on several tracks, notably "Closer to Fine".
Track listing
Personnel
Indigo Girls
Amy Ray – lead vocals, guitars
Emily Saliers – lead vocals, guitars, twelve string electric guitar on 2, lead electric guitar on 6
Additional personnel
Peter O'Toole – mandolin on 1 2, backing vocals on 1
Fiachna Ó Braonáin – tin whistle on 1, backing vocals on 1, Hammond organ on 2
Liam Ó Maonlaí – bodhrán on 1, backing vocals on 1
Luka Bloom – backing vocals on 1
Paulinho Da Costa – percussion on 1, 2, 4, 8
Dede Vogt – bass on 2, 3, 7, 10
Jay Dee Daugherty – drums on 2, 4, 8
John Keane – twelve string electric guitar on 3, bass on 4, shaker on 6, slide guitar on 8, 9, bass drum on 9
Michael Stipe – backing vocals on 3
Bill Berry – drums on 6
Peter Buck – electric guitar on 6
Mike Mills – bass on 6
Jai Winding – piano on 7
Kasim Sulton – bass on 8
John Van Tongeren – keyboards on 10
Charts
Certifications
References
Indigo Girls albums
Epic Records albums
1989 albums
Albums produced by Scott Litt
Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album | [
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238978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyromania%20%28album%29 | Pyromania (album) | Pyromania is the third studio album by English rock band Def Leppard, released on 20 January 1983 through Vertigo Records in UK and Europe and through Mercury Records in the US. The first album to feature guitarist Phil Collen who replaced founding member Pete Willis, Pyromania was produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange. The album was a shift away from the band's traditional heavy metal roots toward a more radio-friendly sound, finding massive mainstream success. Pyromania charted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200, No. 4 on the Canadian RPM Album chart and No. 18 on the UK Albums Chart. Selling over ten million copies in the US, it has been certified diamond by the RIAA.
Recording
The album was partially recorded with original guitarist Pete Willis, whose rhythm guitar tracks appear on all songs. Toward the end of the recording sessions, Willis was fired for excessive alcohol abuse, and was replaced by guitarist Phil Collen, who contributed a few guitar solos as well as additional guitar parts that had not yet been recorded by Willis. On the original LP release, Willis is visible in the background of the photograph of lead singer Joe Elliott, while Collen is given his own personal photo as the new full-time member of the group.
The album can also be seen as a transitional one between the heavy metal sound of their first two albums and the beginning of the radio-friendly direction of later releases. The album featured heavy metal rockers such as "Rock! Rock! (Till You Drop)", "Stagefright" and "Die Hard the Hunter" as well as Top-40 hits "Photograph", "Rock of Ages" and "Foolin'".
Reception and legacy
Pyromania has received mostly positive reviews, being commonly considered, along with its follow-up, Hysteria, one of the band's finest efforts to date, and one of "Mutt" Lange's best productions. David Fricke of Rolling Stone praised Leppard for putting "much-needed fire back on the radio", producing sophisticated music "more emotionally charged than most of the synthesized disco that passes for 'modern music'" over the airwaves; adding that the band "may not be highly original, but they mean what they play" and "Lange's artfully busy mix" easily covers up any fault. AllMusic reviewer Steve Huey stated that Pyromania was "where the band's vision coalesced and gelled into something more." He described the songs as "driven by catchy, shiny melodic hooks instead of heavy guitar riffs, although the latter do pop up once in a while", and added that "transcendent hard rock perfection on Pyromania was surprisingly successful; their reach never exceeded their grasp, which makes the album an enduring (and massively influential) classic." Sputnikmusic staff reviewer, equally enthusiastic, thoroughly recommended the album, "filled with tight musicianship, infectious melodies and anthemic choruses" "to pretty much anyone… No matter what their taste in music is."
In contrast, Canadian journalist Martin Popoff considers Pyromania the beginning of Leppard's "creative degeneration" and criticizes Lange's "painstaking approach to detail" that strips the album "of its sweat and grit", making it sound "phony".
"I remember meeting Phil Lynott…" recalled Joe Elliott. "We'd delivered Pyromania and, with us sharing a label with Lizzy, he'd heard it. He put his hand on my shoulder and said, 'I heard your album – it's the reason I've split the band. I can't compete with that.' The crappiest backhand compliment I've ever had. I wish I had been brave enough to shove him up against the wall and say, 'Well, make a better album then!' But I just said, 'Oh,' and scuttled off."
With its melodic hooks and heavy MTV exposure, Pyromania became a massive success, and was a major catalyst for the 1980s pop-metal movement. The album sold six million copies in the US in its original release (about 100,000 copies per week for much of the year). It has since sold over ten million there and been certified diamond. In 1989, it was re-released by audio fidelity company Mobile Fidelity Sound Labs as part of their Ultradisc series.
"Photograph", "Rock of Ages" and "Foolin'" became top 40 singles on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, with "Photograph" peaking at No. 13 and "Rock of Ages" at No. 16. "Photograph" (6 weeks) and "Rock of Ages" (1 week) both topped the Billboard Top Rock Tracks while "Foolin'" and "Too Late for Love" made the Top 10. "Comin' Under Fire", "Billy's Got a Gun" and "Action! Not Words" made the top 40 of the Top Rock Tracks chart.
In Canada, "Rock of Ages" charted highest at No. 24, while "Photograph" and "Foolin'" reached No. 32 and No. 39, respectively. At CHUM-AM in Toronto, one of Canada's largest audience Top 40 stations at the time, "Rock of Ages" never reached its Top 30 countdown; whereas 70 km away in Hamilton, at the CKOC-AM Top 40 radio station, it peaked at No. 2. It also topped the chart at many album-oriented rock stations such as Q107 in Toronto. "Rock of Ages" also charted the highest in the UK at No. 41 compared to No. 66 for "Photograph".
In 2004, the album was ranked No. 384 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2006, Q magazine placed the album at No. 35 in its list of "40 Best Albums of the '80s". In 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Pyromania at No. 17 among the 50 Greatest Hair Metal Albums of All Time, and in 2017, the same magazine listed the album at No. 52 on its list of the 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time.
Track listing
Original release
"Comin' Under Fire" and "Action! Not Words" are listed inversely on the original Mercury vinyl release, but play in the order above.
2009 deluxe edition bonus disc
Personnel
Def Leppard
Joe Elliott – lead vocals
Steve Clark – lead and rhythm guitars
Phil Collen – guitar solos on 1–3, 6 & 7, additional rhythm guitars
Rick Savage – bass
Rick Allen – drums
Pete Willis – rhythm guitars (all tracks)
Additional musicians
"The Leppardettes" – backing vocals
John Kongos – Fairlight CMI programming
Thomas Dolby – keyboard (credited as Booker T. Boffin)
Tony Kaye – additional keyboards (uncredited)
Production
Robert John "Mutt" Lange – producer
Mike Shipley – engineer
Brian "Chuck" New – assistant engineer (Battery Studios)
Craig "Too Loud for Boys" Thomson – assistant engineer (Park Gate Studios)
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Bernard Gudynas – front cover illustration
David Landslide – back cover photograph
Satori – album sleeve concept and design
Charts
Weekly charts
Singles
Certifications
Catalog numbers
USA: Mercury Records 810-308-1/2/4
USA/JAPAN: Mobile Fidelity Sound Labs UDCD 520 (Mobile Fidelity Ultradisc Reissue)
UK: Vertigo Records 6359 119 [LP]/7150 119 [Cassette]/810,308-2 [CD]
USA: Mercury Records/Island Records/UMe B0012491-02 (Eco Friendly packaging of Mercury Records 810-308-2)
See also
List of best-selling albums in the United States
List of glam metal albums and songs
References
Def Leppard albums
1983 albums
Mercury Records albums
Vertigo Records albums
Albums produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange
Albums recorded at Morgan Sound Studios | [
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238979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey%20locust | Honey locust | The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), also known as the thorny locust or thorny honeylocust, is a deciduous tree in the family Fabaceae, native to central North America where it is mostly found in the moist soil of river valleys. Honey locust is highly adaptable to different environments, has been introduced worldwide, and is an aggressive, invasive species.
Description
The honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos, can reach a height of . They exhibit fast growth, but live a medium life span of about 120 years. The leaves are pinnately compound on older trees but bipinnately compound on vigorous young trees. The leaflets are (smaller on bipinnate leaves) and bright green. They turn yellow in the autumn. Honey locusts leaf out relatively late in spring, but generally slightly earlier than the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). The strongly scented, cream-colored flowers appear in late spring, in clusters emerging from the base of the leaf axils.
The fruit of the honey locust is a flat legume (pod) that matures in early autumn. The pods are generally between . The seeds are dispersed by grazing herbivores such as cattle and horses, which eat the pod pulp and excrete the seeds in droppings; the animal's digestive system assists in breaking down the hard seed coat, making germination easier. In addition, the seeds are released in the host's manure, providing fertilizer for them. Honey locust seed pods ripen in late spring and germinate rapidly when temperatures are warm enough.
Honey locusts commonly have thorns long growing out of the branches, some reaching lengths over ; these may be single, or branched into several points, and commonly form dense clusters. The thorns are fairly soft and green when young, harden and turn red as they age, then fade to ash grey and turn brittle when mature. These thorns are thought to have evolved to protect the trees from browsing Pleistocene megafauna, which may also have been involved in seed dispersal, but the size and spacing of them is less useful in defending against smaller extant herbivores such as deer. Thornless forms (Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis) are occasionally found growing wild and are available as nursery plants. Hybridization of honey locust with water locust (G. aquatica) has been reported.
Cultivation and history
Its cultivars are popular ornamental plants, especially in the northern plains of North America where few other trees can survive and prosper. It tolerates urban conditions, compacted soil, road salt, alkaline soil, heat, and drought. The popularity is in part due to the fact that it transplants so easily. The fast growth rate and tolerance of poor site conditions make it valued in areas where shade is wanted quickly, such as new parks or housing developments, and in disturbed and reclaimed environments, such as mine tailings. Cultivars with narrow upright growth habit, such as Northern Sentinel, are especially prized as street trees. It is resistant to gypsy moths but is defoliated by another pest, the mimosa webworm. Spider mites, cankers, and galls are a problem with some trees. Many cultivated varieties do not have thorns.
Agriculture
The species is a major invasive environmental and economic weed in agricultural regions of Australia. The plant forms thickets and destroys the pasture required for livestock to survive. The thickets choke waterways and prevent both domestic and native animals from drinking and also harbour vermin. The spines cause damage to both people and domestic and native wildlife and puncture vehicle tires. In much of the Midwest of the United States the honey locust is also considered a weed tree and a pest that establishes itself in farm fields. In other regions of the world, ranchers and farmers who employ monocropping deem honey locust a nuisance weed; its fast growth allows it to out-compete grasses and other crops.
Uses
Food
The pulp on the inside of the pods is edible (unlike the black locust, which is toxic) and consumed by wildlife and livestock.
Despite its name, the honey locust is not a significant honey plant. The name derives from the sweet taste of the legume pulp, which was used for food and traditional medicine by Native American people, and can also be used to make tea. The long pods, which eventually dry and ripen to brown or maroon, are surrounded in a tough, leathery skin that adheres strongly to the pulp within. The pulp—bright green in unripe pods—is strongly sweet, crisp and succulent in ripe pods. Dark brown tannin-rich beans are found in slots within the pulp.
Timber
Honey locusts produce a high quality, durable wood that polishes well, but the tree does not grow in sufficient numbers to support a bulk industry. However, a niche market exists for honey locust furniture. It is also used for posts and rails because of the dense, rot-resistant nature of the wood. In the past, the hard thorns of the younger trees were used as nails and the wood itself was used to fashion treenails for shipbuilding.
Nitrogen fixation
The ability of Gleditsia to fix nitrogen is disputed. Many scientific sources state that Gleditsia does not fix nitrogen. Some support this statement with the fact that Gleditsia does not form root nodules with symbiotic bacteria, the assumption being that without nodulation, no nitrogen fixation can occur. In contrast, many popular sources, permaculture publications in particular, claim that Gleditsia does fix nitrogen but by some other mechanism.
There are anatomical, ecological, and taxonomic indications of nitrogen fixation in non-nodulating legumes. Both nodulating and non-nodulating species have been observed to grow well in nitrogen-poor soil with non-nodulating legumes even dominating some sites. The litter and seeds of non-nodulating species contain levels of higher nitrogen than non-legumes and sometimes even higher than nodulating legumes growing on the same site. How this happens is not yet well understood but there has been some observations of nitrogenase activity in non-nodulating leguminous plants, including honey locust. Electron microscopy indicates the presence of clusters around the inner cortex of roots, just outside the xylem, that resemble colonies of rhizobial bacterioids. These may well constitute the evolutionary precursors in legumes for nitrogen fixation through nodulation. It is not known whether the non-nodulating nitrogen fixation, if it exists, does benefit neighboring plants as is said to be the case with nodulating legumes.
Research
In research using databases, more than 60 phytochemicals were identified from honey locust, including polyphenols, triterpenes, sterols, and saponins, with in vitro studies assessing for possible biological activity.
References
Further reading
External links
Gleditsia triacanthos images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
Gleditsia triacanthos images at Forestry Images
Gleditsia triacanthos at the USDA Plants Database
Edible legumes
Garden plants of North America
Gleditsia
Nearctic realm flora
Ornamental trees
Plants described in 1753
Plants used in Native American cuisine
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Trees of humid continental climate
Trees of Ontario
Trees of the Eastern United States
Trees of the North-Central United States
Trees of the Northeastern United States
Trees of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Trees of the Southeastern United States
Trees of the United States | [
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238982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Real%20Thing%20%28Faith%20No%20More%20album%29 | The Real Thing (Faith No More album) | The Real Thing is the third studio album by American rock band Faith No More, released on June 20, 1989 by Slash and Reprise Records. It was the first album by the band not to feature vocalist Chuck Mosley, instead, the album featured Mike Patton from the experimental/funk band Mr. Bungle. On this album, Faith No More continued to advance their sound range, combining thrash metal, funk, hip hop, rap metal, progressive rock, synthpop, carousel music and hard rock, along with what has been described as "a black sense of humor".
Background
Faith No More underwent several line-up changes before releasing their first album, We Care a Lot, released in 1985 and distributed through San Francisco-based label Mordam Records. On the original vinyl release, the band is credited as "Faith. No More" on the album's liner notes, back cover, and on the record itself. Within a year the band signed up with Slash Records. The debut album's title track "We Care a Lot" was later rerecorded, for their follow-up album Introduce Yourself in 1987, and released as their first single. Membership remained stable until vocalist Chuck Mosley was replaced by Mike Patton in 1988.
Production
The writing for the majority of the music for The Real Thing took place after the tour for Introduce Yourself. A demo version of "The Morning After", under the moniker "New Improved Song", with alternate lyrics written and sung by Chuck Mosley was released on the Sounds·Waves 2 extended play with the Sounds magazine. "Surprise! You're Dead!" was composed by Jim Martin in the 1970s, while he was guitarist for Agents of Misfortune; Agents of Misfortune also featured Cliff Burton in their line up. The recording of the song took place in December 1988 after Chuck Mosley was fired from the band, and was completed prior to the hiring of Mike Patton, who then wrote all the lyrics for the songs, and recorded them the following month over the music.
Producer Matt Wallace said, "All the music was written before Mike joined the band, which had gotten rid of the original singer, Chuck Mosley, and the tracks were either in preproduction or being recorded when Mike came in. And when he'd ask if he could make a section longer or different, the band would say "No, this is it, so you have to do it this way." So Mike Patton wrote every lyric and melody to that record over a ten to twelve day period. And it is stunning, because he was nineteen or twenty, and pulled all that out of the air, and put together an incredible record. The only thing we did was spend a couple of days at this coffee shop in San Francisco, because a lot of the songs were really dark and heavy lyrically, crazily so, and I would sit there and go, "Mike, these are some great lyrics, but we need to at least use some metaphor, or couch some of the concepts, but I think you've got some great ideas here." In the end, they really pulled some great songs together."
The recording sessions yielded several songs that did not appear on the album. Two of them, "The Grade" and "The Cowboy Song", later appeared on the singles and on the UK edition of Live at the Brixton Academy. A third song, "Sweet Emotion", was later rerecorded with different lyrics as "The Perfect Crime" for the soundtrack to the film that also starred a cameo appearance from guitarist Jim Martin, Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey. The original version was released on Flexible Fiend 3 with Kerrang! magazine issue 258 and, more recently The Very Best Definitive Ultimate Greatest Hits Collection, the greatest hits compilation released to coincide with the band's reunion tour.
Controversy
After the release of the album, Faith No More developed somewhat of a rivalry with fellow Californian group Red Hot Chili Peppers, whom they had previously played with on The Uplift Mofo Party Tour. Singer Anthony Kiedis accused Mike Patton of stealing his "style" in the "Epic" music video. He told Kerrang! magazine "My drummer says he's gonna kidnap [Patton], shave his hair off and cut off one of his feet, just so he'll be forced to find a style of his own". In a separate interview, he clarified his comment, remarking "I love The Real Thing, and I liked his vocals on that record. I mean, when I heard the record I noticed subtle similarities, but when I saw that video it was like, 'Wait a second here, what the fuck?'". Roddy Bottum responded by saying "To me, our band sounds nothing like Red Hot Chili Peppers. If you're talking about long hair, rapping with his shirt off, then yeah, I can see similarities. But beyond that, I can't see any. I haven't talked to them since this whole thing started. We're really good friends with that band and I'd like to think they're doing It ... like as a favour". Mike Patton finally addressed the allegations from Kiedis in 1990, commenting that "It just kind of came out of the blue. It doesn't bother me a bit. I got a real big kick out of it to tell you the truth. I mean, if he's gonna talk about me in interviews, that's fine - it's free press! Either he's feeling inadequate or old or I don't know, but I have no reason to talk shit about him." Later in 2001, Patton also theorized that "I think Anthony, deep down, feels like I'm a better dancer than he is. I think I shake my booty just a little bit fresher than he does. And if he would stop doing drugs I think he could outdance me. Maybe one day we'll have a breakoff, just breakdance."
Touring and support
Tours
The tour in support of The Real Thing was the first Faith No More tour conducted with Mike Patton. The band had begun to be marketed as "alternative metal" by the media after the album's release, and they were now primarily playing with bands from the heavy metal genre, along with other metal-influenced punk/alternative bands. Notable artists Faith No More performed with during the touring cycle include Metallica, Billy Idol, Soundgarden, Voivod, Sacred Reich, Forbidden, Primus, Babes in Toyland and Poison. They managed to attract controversy for mocking the party/sex-filled lifestyles of glam metal tourmates such as Poison at several shows in Europe during 1990. The second show of the tour was filmed for the music video to "From out of Nowhere" in the I-Beam nightclub. During the show, Patton had a beer bottle smashed over his right hand, causing lacerations to some tendons. He regained use of his hand after it healed, but he no longer has feeling in it.
Singles
The first single to be released from the album was "From Out of Nowhere" on August 30, 1989 which failed to make the UK Singles Chart. It was re-released on April 2, 1990 and made number twenty-three on the UK Singles Chart. In between these releases was "Epic" on January 30, 1990, the music video for which received extensive airplay on MTV throughout the year, despite provoking anger from animal rights activists for a slow motion shot of a fish flopping out of water. "Falling to Pieces" then saw release on July 2, 1990 and made it to number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 before the reissue of "Epic", which became the band's first number one hit single, on the ARIA Charts, as well their only top ten single on the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached ninth position.
"Surprise! You're Dead!" had a music video produced for it, directed by bassist Billy Gould, featuring footage shot in Chile during a South American tour in 1991. However, the song never saw release as an official single, and the video was not released until its appearance on Video Croissant. "Edge of the World" saw limited release as a two track promo single in Brazil on CD and 12" vinyl, with the album version as track one and the Brixton Academy live version as the second track, in a yellow slipcase with basic black text.
Critical reception
The Real Thing is one of Faith No More's most successful albums to date. It is now considered a classic metal album by fans and critics alike. Although released in mid-1989, The Real Thing did not enter the Billboard 200 until February 1990, after the release of the second single from the album, "Epic". The album eventually peaked at number eleven on the chart in October 1990, following the reissue of "Epic" almost a year and half after the initial release of the album. It was eventually certified platinum in U.S. and Canada as well as being certified Silver in the United Kingdom.
The Dillinger Escape Plan frontman Greg Puciato named The Real Thing one of the albums that changed his life and, on the month of the album's 30th anniversary, he wrote an article for Faith No More Followers about the impact that it had on him and alternative music. In 2015, Korn vocalist Jonathan Davis stated:
My favorite Faith No More record is The Real Thing. That's when Mike Patton took over. That's the one. [Although] I do like We Care a Lot. We got a lot of our influences from The Real Thing. It showed everybody you could do heavy music and not be "metal". It was something completely different.
In a January 1997 interview with Guitar World, Korn's guitarist Brian "Head" Welch listed it as an album that changed his life, recalling:
I was about 17 when I first heard it, and listening to a lot of Metallica, 24-7 Spyz, Living Colour and Fishbone. I dug them all, but Faith No More moved me in a different way, a way more than anything else. It totally changed my direction. It said to me that you didn't have to follow a certain path, that you could just create anything, go out and mess around with anything, that there were no rules. I remember seeing them open up for Metallica, and everyone started booing them going "Rap sucks!" I was so bummed. I felt like screaming at everyone, "Quit fucking booing them and listen." They all just heard the rap beat and didn't give them a chance. Then, six months later, they were all over MTV and the same fuckers who were booing were probably lining up to see them.
James "Munky" Shaffer, another of Korn's guitarists, also praised the album, recalling:
Fieldy and I were big Faith No More fans. In the late 80s they were playing a kind of funk rock; so were the Red Hot Chili Peppers, but we tended to lean more towards the minor progressions. When Patton joined in '89 they dropped a single called "From Out of Nowhere" and we were sold all the way. At that point we became real fanatics – started researching the guy and going up to San Francisco to see them play. Every song on this record was super inspiring to us. The song structures and Patton's sense of melody – it was alternative metal at its best.
Legacy
"Epic" was ranked number thirty on VH1's 40 Greatest Metal Songs, and number sixty-seven on their 100 Greatest One-hit Wonders list.
Cover versions
"From Out of Nowhere" has been covered by Canadian new wave/electronic rock band The Birthday Massacre on their compilation album Imagica, Finnish band Apocalyptica on their second album, Inquisition Symphony, German power metal band Helloween covered the song on their cover album Metal Jukebox and the Danish metal band, Raunchy covered the song on their album Velvet Noise Extended. It has also been covered by the band Five Finger Death Punch, and is featured on the UK version of their album The Way of the Fist as well as the soundtrack for The Avengers.
"The Real Thing" was covered by American progressive metal band Redemption on the album The Fullness of Time as a bonus track.
"Epic" has been covered both in concerts and on the Kerrang! Higher Voltage CD, a compilation of artists covering other songs. Such artists include the Welsh rock band The Automatic; the CD was released June 20, 2007. The metalcore band Atreyu also covered the song on their album Lead Sails Paper Anchor, and the Swedish indie band Love Is All covered it on their 2008 tour.
"Surprise! You're Dead!" has been covered by Jim Martin following his departure from the band, on his solo release Milk and Blood, and by Humans Being for the Tribute of the Year album. It was also covered by Belgian death metal band Aborted on their album Slaughter & Apparatus: A Methodical Overture, by American technical death metal band Revocation as a bonus track on their album Chaos of Forms, and by American deathcore band All Shall Perish as a bonus track on their album This Is Where It Ends.
"Zombie Eaters" was covered by Ill Niño with Chino Moreno for their extended play The Under Cover Sessions.
"Edge of the World" is covered twice on the Tribute of the Year album by both Hate Dept. and Combine Heathen.
Awards
The Real Thing was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance category in 1989 and "Epic" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1991.
Accolades
Track listing
Personnel
Mike Bordin – drums
Roddy Bottum – keyboards
Bill Gould – bass
James Martin – guitars
Mike Patton – vocals
Production
Matt Wallace – producer, engineer
Jim "Watts" Vereecke – assistant engineer
Craig Doubet – assistant engineer
John Golden – mastering
Lendon Flanagon – photography
Jeff Price – artwork
Terry Robertson – CD design
Charts
Weekly charts
Year end charts
Certifications
References
Bibliography
External links
1989 albums
Albums produced by Matt Wallace
Faith No More albums
Slash Records albums | [
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238988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrasing%20%28DJ%29 | Phrasing (DJ) | In DJing, phrasing, also called stage matching, refers to alignment of phrases of two tracks in a mix. This allows the transition between the tracks to be done without breaking the musical structure.
Phrasing is an aspect of beatmixing, not a separate technique. Because most electronic dance music tracks have 4/4 time signature and a simple structure of 16-bar phrases, to align the phrases of two tracks it is often enough to start the track to be mixed in at a phrase boundary in the track currently playing. Careful phrasing can produce a seamless mix by making the breaks in two tracks coincide, or aligning the break in one track with the start of the beat in the other.
See also
Beatmatching
Beatmixing
Segue
References
Stage Matching from the Advanced Vinyl Handling DJing tutorial
DJing | [
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238989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrieli%20Quartet | Gabrieli Quartet | The Gabrieli String Quartet is a well-known string quartet musical ensemble founded in 1966. It has a long residency association with Essex University, UK.
Personnel
1st violin:
Kenneth Sillito (1966-1986)
John Georgiadis (1986-1990)
Yossi Zivoni (1995-2000)
2nd violin:
Claire Simpson (1966-1969)
Brendan O'Reilly (1969-2015)
viola
Ian Jewel
cello
Keith Harvey
Origins and activities
The foundation date of the Quartet is given as 1966 or 1967. It has toured to Europe, North America, the Far East and Australia. In UK it performs at Aldeburgh Festival, the City of London Festival and the Cheltenham Festival. It also performs every year in the Mostly Mozart Festival of the London Barbican Centre. The Quartet have been resident artists at Essex University since 1971. They have given world premieres of works by William Alwyn, Benjamin Britten, Alan Bush, Daniel Jones, Gordon Crosse, Nicholas Maw, Panufnik and John McCabe. They also gave the British premiere of the Sibelius piano quintet. They have made many recordings.
Keith Harvey, cellist of the quartet, died on 28 April 2017, aged 79.
Notes and references
External links
Kenneth Sillito profile
John Georgiadis website
Notice of Ian Jewell
Notice of Keith Harvey
Notice of Brendan O'Reilly
English string quartets
Musical groups established in 1966
1966 establishments in England | [
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238991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desticius | Desticius | Desticius is a Roman nomen.
Titus Desticius Juba, governor in Roman Britain, 250s
Titus Desticius Severus, governor in Raetia c. 166 | [
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238996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20Park | Love Park | LOVE Park, officially known as John F. Kennedy Plaza, is a public park located in Center City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The park is nicknamed LOVE Park for its reproduction of Robert Indiana's 1970 LOVE sculpture which overlooks the plaza.
The area has a following in the skate world due to its prominence in the early 2000s cult classic video game Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2.
History
Former Philadelphia city planner Edmund Bacon and architect Vincent G. Kling planned and designed the original LOVE Park. The park is across from the Philadelphia City Hall and serves as a visual terminus for the Benjamin Franklin Parkway.
The park was built in 1965 and covered an underground parking garage. The main feature of the plaza became a centrally-located single spout fountain added in 1969. The city's visitor center (built in 1960, before LOVE Park) was closed for five years, but re-opened in 2006 as The Fairmount Park Welcome Center. The park was dedicated in 1967 as John F. Kennedy Plaza after President John F. Kennedy.
A "LOVE" sculpture, designed by Robert Indiana, was first placed in the plaza in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration. The sculpture was removed in 1978 after the celebration ended. However, the chairman of Philadelphia Art Commission, Fitz Eugene Dixon Jr., was able to purchase the sculpture and to have it permanently placed it in the plaza during that year.
From 2016 to 2018, a major reconstruction project converted the largely hardscaped plaza into a predominantly green area that contains large and small lawns for casual uses, two gardens with native plantings, an open viewshed of City Hall and the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, new seating and pathways, and public restrooms. A redesigned fountain features a monumental jet and a basket-weave of smaller jets with programmable up-lighting within a large oval paved open space.
See also
List of parks in Philadelphia
References
External links
2004 video documentary about the rise and fall of skateboarding in LOVE Park
Love Park videos and photos from SkateSpotter
Municipal parks in Philadelphia
Skateboarding spots
Center City, Philadelphia
Love | [
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238997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba%20%28disambiguation%29 | Juba (disambiguation) | Juba is the capital of South Sudan.
Juba may also refer to:
Locations
Juba, Estonia, a village in Võru Parish, Võru County, Estonia
Jubaland, Somalia
Jubba River, Somalia
People
Ancient
Juba I of Numidia, King (85 BC–46 BC)
Juba II, client King of Numidia and Mauretania (52 BC–AD 23)
Juba of Mauretania (2nd century writer)
Titus Desticius Juba (3rd century Roman governor)
Modern
Stephen Juba (1914–1993), mayor of the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada from 1957 to 1977
Master Juba (1825–1852), stage name for William Henry Lane
Jussi Tuomola (born 1965), Finnish cartoonist with the pen name Juba
Juba (sniper), a nickname associated with a supposed sniper involved with the Iraqi insurgency
Juba Kalamka (born 1970), African American bisexual artist and activist
Other
Juba Arabic
Juba dance
Juba skipper (Hesperia juba), a butterfly
"Juba", a song by DJ Spooky from the album Songs of a Dead Dreamer
Juba (food), a New World slave food
Juba, the Latin name of the star Gamma Leonis
Alternate spelling of the jubba, a type of garment
See also
Joba (disambiguation)
Yuba (disambiguation) | [
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239002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW%20in%20Formula%20One | BMW in Formula One | BMW has been involved in Formula One in a number of capacities since the inauguration of the World Drivers' Championship in . The company entered occasional races in the 1950s and 1960s (often under Formula Two regulations), before building the BMW M12/13 inline-four turbocharged engine in the 1980s. This engine was the result of a deal between BMW and Brabham, which resulted in the team's chassis being powered by BMW engines from until , a period in which Nelson Piquet won the championship driving a Brabham BT52-BMW. BMW also supplied the M12/13 on a customer basis to the ATS, Arrows, Benetton and Ligier teams during this period, with various degrees of success. In , Brabham temporarily withdrew from the sport and BMW withdrew its official backing from the engines, which were still used by the Arrows team under the Megatron badge. Turbocharged engines were banned by the revised Formula One Technical Regulations for , rendering the M12/13 obsolete.
BMW decided to return to Formula One in the late 1990s by signing an exclusive contract with the Williams team, which needed a new long-term engine supplier after the withdrawal of Renault in . The programme resulted in the creation of a new V10 engine which made its race début in the Williams FW22 in . The following year saw the partnership move from the midfield to challenging for race victories, but the desired championship remained elusive due to the dominance of Michael Schumacher and Ferrari in the first half of the 2000s. By , the relationship between BMW and Williams had deteriorated, and BMW chose to part company and buy the rival Sauber team outright.
The BMW Sauber project lasted from until , and resulted in a substantial increase in competitiveness for the Swiss former privateer team. Two podium finishes in the first year were followed by a solid third in the Constructors' Championship in (which became second when McLaren was disqualified). In , Robert Kubica won the team's only race, the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix, and led the Drivers' Championship at one point, but the team chose to focus on development of its 2009 car and slipped back in the standings by the end of the season. The 2009 season was a major disappointment as the F1.09 chassis proved uncompetitive. Combined with the global financial recession and the company's frustration about the limitations of the contemporary technical regulations in developing technology relevant to road cars, BMW chose to withdraw from the sport, selling the team back to its founder, Peter Sauber.
Entries in the 1950s and 1960s
The early years of the post-war World Drivers' Championship saw private BMW racing cars, based on the pre-war BMW 328 chassis, entered in the 1952 and 1953 German Grands Prix. BMW-derived cars were also entered by the Alex von Falkenhausen Motorenbau (AFM) and Veritas companies in occasional races from to . The entries occurred during this period because the championship was effectively run to Formula Two regulations, allowing the BMW cars to take part. Amongst the modified 328s was one driven by an engine in the rear of the car (known as the "Heck", the German automotive term for "back" or "rear"), a design feature which became standard in Formula One in the early 1960s after later success by the Cooper team.
In the 1960s, the Formula One German Grand Prix was often held concurrently with a Formula Two race on the same circuit, allowing BMW F2 cars to take part. In 1967, BMW entered Hubert Hahne in a Lola F2 chassis powered by an enlarged BMW engine which meant that it conformed with the Formula One regulations, while David Hobbs was entered by Lola in the same combination with the standard smaller BMW engine. For the 1968 race, Hahne returned with the previous year's combination and finished tenth, BMW's best result up to this point in its Formula One history. BMW then entered three of its own 269 F2 chassis for the 1969 race, for the trio of Hahne, Gerhard Mitter and Dieter Quester, but Mitter was fatally injured in a practice accident and the remainder of the team withdrew from the race.
Engine supplier
Brabham, ATS, Arrows, Benetton and Ligier (1982–1988)
Following the commencement in of Renault's Formula One project with a turbocharged engine and increasing success thereafter, BMW decided to develop its own turbo engine for the sport, a programme which it announced to the media in April 1980. The engine was based on the M10 unit, a four-cylinder, 1.5-litre, normally aspirated engine that had originally been designed in the late 1950s. Its racing derivative, the M12 had also been used in racing throughout the intervening period, winning races in Formula Two and other categories. In and , BMW provided a fleet of identical M1 cars for Formula One and other professional drivers to race in the BMW M1 Procar Championship, the rounds of which were held during Grand Prix race weekends, thus strengthening the marque's ties with the sport. At the same time, Jochen Neerpasch oversaw the development by Paul Rosche of a prototype 1.4-litre turbo engine, which soon developed 600 bhp at a pressure of 2.8 bar. It was equipped with a single Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch (KKK) turbocharger and Bosch electronics, including fuel injection. This engine formed the basis of the M12/13 design, the race unit that BMW ultimately supplied to five teams from 1982 to 1988.
Initial discussions were held with double World Champion Niki Lauda and McLaren on the subject of a 1980 campaign, but the BMW board denied Neerpasch's request for the programme. Neerpasch then left his position to join the French Talbot marque, which was also planning to enter Formula One, in this case with the Ligier team. Neerpasch had arranged the sale of Rosche's M12/13 engine to Talbot, but Rosche and Neerpasch's successor, Dieter Stappert, successfully protested to their board that such an undertaking deserved full works commitment, particularly as the fact that M12/13 was derived from a production road car engine meant that potential success could be extremely valuable to BMW from a marketing and sales point of view. BMW thus negotiated an exclusive supply of M12/13 engines to the Brabham team.
Testing of the M12/13 got underway in late 1980 with a Brabham BT49 chassis converted to accept the engine. The team's designer, Gordon Murray, designed a new car, the BT50 for the engine, but it was not completed until well into the season. The BT50 featured a longer wheelbase and a larger fuel cell than the BT49 to accommodate the requirements of the more powerful turbo engine, and was also one of the first Formula One cars to feature onboard telemetry as a means of monitoring the engine's fuel injection. The team's lead driver, Nelson Piquet, tested the BT50 throughout 1981, but the car proved chronically unreliable until Bosch introduced a digital electronic management system at the end of the year, which immediately improved the situation. The BT50 made a solitary race weekend appearance at the 1981 British Grand Prix, where Piquet set a qualifying time 0.7 seconds slower than his effort in the Cosworth DFV-powered BT49. The BT50 handled poorly but recorded through the speed trap, some faster than the BT49. Meanwhile, Brabham won the Drivers' Championship with Piquet, who drove the BT49 throughout the season.
Brabham began the 1982 season with two BMW-powered BT50 chassis at the South African Grand Prix, where Piquet and Patrese qualified second and fourth respectively, but retired early in the race. Team principal Bernie Ecclestone was under pressure from the team's title sponsor, Parmalat, to defend Piquet's championship, and opted to race with the Cosworth-powered BT49 chassis at the Brazilian Grand Prix, which Piquet won but was later disqualified for circumventing the minimum weight limit by running "water-cooled brakes". Both drivers also raced the BT49 at the Long Beach Grand Prix, and the team boycotted the San Marino Grand Prix as part of the ongoing FISA–FOCA war. For the following race, the Belgian Grand Prix, Piquet and Patrese switched back to the BT50, but Piquet finished three laps behind the winner and Patrese retired. As the relationship between Brabham, BMW and Parmalat became strained, Ecclestone was forced to compromise, with Piquet continuing development of the BT50 whilst Patrese raced with the Cosworth chassis. At the Monaco Grand Prix, Patrese won, whilst Piquet was more than two seconds slower in qualifying and retired from the race. The nadir of BMW's Formula One involvement thus far came at the Detroit Grand Prix, where engine reliability problems prevented Piquet from qualifying.
BMW's fortunes suddenly improved, however, at the next race in Canada, where the cool conditions suited the turbocharged engines and allowed Piquet to lead home Patrese (still in the BT49), to record BMW's first Formula One victory. For the remainder of the season, both drivers raced with the BT50, and used Murray's radical strategy of a planned pit stop for refuelling midway through the race to run at the front of the field on numerous occasions. The car was still unreliable, though, restricting Piquet and Patrese to just four further finishes before the end of the season. The BMW engine's competitiveness was shown by the fact that Piquet retired from the lead of the British, French and German Grands Prix, whilst Patrese likewise retired from the lead of the Austrian Grand Prix. Patrese also secured BMW's first fastest lap at the French Grand Prix, whilst Piquet took the marque's maiden pole position at the Austrian race.
In , the improved reliability of the BMW engine in the new BT52 allowed Piquet to win the Drivers' Championship, after overhauling Alain Prost (Renault) in the points standings. Brabham also finished third in the Constructors' Championship, although Patrese's lack of consistency in the second car prevented the team challenging for this title. Piquet won three races and Patrese won the season finale. BMW also began supplying its engines to the German ATS team this season, but sole driver Manfred Winkelhock was unable to score any points.
For , BMW expanded to three teams by also supplying the M12/13 to Arrows. The team's A7 chassis was not ready at the beginning of the season, and drivers Marc Surer and Thierry Boutsen drove the Cosworth-engined A6 on ten out of 32 entries, but scored three points with BMW engines later in the year. ATS again failed to score with either Winkelhock or Gerhard Berger, and withdrew from the sport at the end of the season. At the front of the field, Piquet was unable to defend his title, which was dominated by the two McLaren drivers, Niki Lauda and Prost. Piquet took nine pole positions during the season, but retired from the same number of races, and the McLarens were usually faster in race conditions, although he did win the Canadian and Detroit Grands Prix. The second Brabham was filled in most races by Teo Fabi, who attempted to compete in a full season of IndyCars, but committed to F1 full-time part-way through the year. Due to his American commitments he missed three races, in which he was substituted by his brother, Corrado. Winkelhock also raced for the team in the final race of the season after the Fabis' father died shortly before the event.
In , Brabham switched to Pirelli tyres, which had previously not been very competitive against the established Goodyear and Michelin suppliers, in the hope that the Italian company could provide bespoke tyres that would especially suit the new BT54 chassis. This proved to be a misjudgement, as Piquet only won one race—the French Grand Prix—and the team dropped from fourth to fifth in the Constructors' Championship. The team again had a clear number-one driver policy, with the second seat again being shared, this time between François Hesnault and Surer. Arrows, by contrast, had a much improved season, scoring 17 points with Berger and Boutsen, including a podium finish for the latter at the San Marino Grand Prix.
For the 1986 season, Murray designed the radical low-line BT55 chassis, whose aim was to significantly reduce the car's drag and lower its centre of gravity. BMW produced the M12/13/1 engine, which was tilted sideways to fit in the reduced space allocated to the engine. Despite its theoretical advantages, the BT55 proved uncompetitive, suffering from poor traction and numerous mechanical failures caused by oil scavenge problems in the tilted engine. Moreover, the team suffered the death of Elio de Angelis in a testing accident after four races; his replacement Derek Warwick and team returnee Patrese scored two points between them all season. The Arrows team also slipped backwards, scoring just one point with Boutsen, Surer and Christian Danner, and also lost Surer's services mid-season when the Swiss driver was seriously injured in a rallying accident. BMW's most successful 1986 partnership was thus with the new Benetton team, which scored 19 points, won the Mexican Grand Prix and took two pole positions with Berger and Teo Fabi. Arrows and Benetton continued to use the original "upright" version of the M12/13 engine.
BMW reduced its full works commitment to the sole supply of Brabham in ; the team produced the more conservative BT56 chassis and scored ten points with Patrese, Andrea de Cesaris and Stefano Modena. At the end of the year, team owner Bernie Ecclestone, who was increasingly involved in running the commercial side of the sport, decided not to compete the following year, ending BMW's tenure as a supplier of works turbo engines. The Arrows team, however, was still keen to use the upright version of the M12/13, and arranged for its title sponsor, USF&G, to purchase the remaining stock. The engines were rebadged as "Megatrons", and were used to power the Arrows cars in 1987 and , and the Ligier team in 1987 only. Arrows finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship in the latter of these two seasons, a result which stands as the best in the team's 25-year history.
For , the technical regulations were changed to ban turbocharged engines, outlawing the M12/13 engine. During its time in F1, the engine had won the 1983 Drivers' Championship and nine Grands Prix. It also took 14 pole positions and set 13 fastest laps.
Williams (2000–2005)
After a ten-year absence from Formula One, BMW began evaluating a return to the sport in the late 1990s. In , the marque signed a contract to supply the Williams team with engines. Williams had won the , , and Drivers' Championships, and the Constructors' Championships in all of these years as well as , in a successful partnership with Renault, but the French company withdrew from the sport at the end of , leaving team owner Frank Williams and Technical Director Patrick Head in need of a new engine partnership to remain competitive. As BMW spent 18 months building and testing a normally aspirated, three-litre V10 engine to comply with technical regulations that had changed significantly since the 1980s, the team used old Renault engines rebadged as first Mecachrome and then Supertec.
BMW's E41 engine was ready to compete in the 2000 season, fitted in the FW22 and driven by Ralf Schumacher and Jenson Button. Schumacher scored a podium finish in the engine's first race, and added two more during the course of the season. A series of consistent points-scoring finishes meant that Williams finished a competitive third in the Constructors' Championship, some distance behind the dominant Ferrari and McLaren teams, but ahead of engine manufacturers with more recent experience.
After the relatively conservative E41, BMW designed the more aggressive P80 engine for , a basic type number that was maintained for the remainder of the company's involvement in Formula One. The engine immediately proved to have a significant power improvement, and propelled Schumacher and new teammate Juan Pablo Montoya into contention for race victories. In all, the two drivers scored four race wins, but lost other opportunities through unreliability and racing incidents. The FW23 chassis also lacked the ultimate downforce to compete with the Ferrari and McLaren drivers at every circuit, although it was the class of the field at "power circuits" such as Hockenheim and Monza.
For , the reliability and consistency of the FW24 chassis was much improved, but Ferrari made a more significant step forward with its own F2002 chassis and dominated both championships. The team scored twelve more points than in the previous year and beat McLaren to second place in the Constructors' Championship, but only won a single race with Schumacher at the Malaysian Grand Prix. Moreover, Montoya was unable to win a single race, despite taking seven pole positions.
The Williams team was more competitive in , as both drivers won on two occasions and Montoya remained in contention for the Drivers' Championship until the penultimate race of the season. However, he ultimately fell short, as did the team in the Constructors' Championship, as although the FW25 was often the car to beat in the second half of the season, it took too much time to reach this point.
For , the team produced the FW26 chassis, which featured a radical nose section designed by Antonia Terzi. This design proved ineffective, however, in another year of Ferrari dominance, and Williams slipped to fourth in the Constructors' Championship, with Montoya's victory in the Brazilian Grand Prix its sole win in the 2004 season. Before this result, the team had suffered the embarrassment of a double disqualification from the Canadian Grand Prix due to brake duct irregularities, and then Schumacher sustaining spinal injuries as a result of a high-speed crash at the United States Grand Prix, which caused him to miss six races until he recovered. Both drivers left the team at the end of the season.
The final year of BMW's association with Williams, , saw the team's decline in competitiveness continue, dropping to fifth in the Constructors' Championship. None of the team's three drivers—Mark Webber, Nick Heidfeld and Antônio Pizzonia—were able to win a race; the team's best result was a double podium finish at the Monaco Grand Prix. By this time, the team's relationship with its engine supplier had deteriorated, with BMW believing that its engines were capable of winning championships but were being let down by the Williams chassis they were powering. BMW offered to buy the team outright in the hope of gaining overall control of its Formula One endeavours, but Frank Williams refused; as a result, BMW chose to buy the rival Sauber team instead for and end its deal with Williams.
BMW Sauber
BMW bought Swiss team Sauber in June 2005 to form the BMW Sauber F1 Team (initially BMW was supposed planned to utilized BMW F1 Team naming). The takeover came after BMW's relationship with Williams had deteriorated in the previous months, the partnership ending at the end of the season. The team, operated under a German racing licence, was based at Sauber's headquarters in Hinwil, Switzerland and BMW's headquarters in Munich, Germany. BMW retained Sauber naming for 2006 to 2009 seasons due to historical reasons despite BMW ownership.
The team scored two podium finishes and came fifth in 2006, its first season in Formula One. This was followed by a second place in 2007 after the McLaren team had been excluded from the championship. Robert Kubica took the team's only Grand Prix victory at the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix. Following a poor season, BMW withdrew from Formula One and sold the team back to founder Peter Sauber.
2006
For the 2006 season, BMW Sauber signed Nick Heidfeld from Williams to be the lead driver, while World Champion Jacques Villeneuve had his existing two-year contract with Sauber honoured. Robert Kubica was signed as the team's third driver. The team continued to use Sauber's facilities, mostly for chassis construction and wind tunnel testing, while BMW's headquarters in Munich were responsible for building the new 2.4-litre P86 V8 engine, revised technical regulations forcing a change from the 3-litre V10 formula. This replaced the Petronas-badged Ferrari engines which the team had used since 1997. The Sauber team's existing major sponsors, Petronas and Credit Suisse, renewed their contracts with BMW. The team also announced a technical partnership with technology company Intel. The team's new livery, which was maintained throughout its tenure in Formula One, consisted of the traditional BMW blue and white with a hint of red.
Villeneuve scored the team's first points with a seventh-place finish at the Malaysian Grand Prix, after Heidfeld retired from fifth with an engine failure late in the race. Over the first two thirds of the season the drivers picked up points with a succession of seventh and eighth-place finishes, plus a fourth-place finish for Heidfeld at the Australian Grand Prix. The team ran a radical "twin towers" aero enhancement on the front of the car for the French Grand Prix, which was meant improve the flow of air over the top of the chassis. The parts were promptly banned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) as they were adjudged to impede the drivers' vision and thus compromise safety.
Heidfeld scored the team's first podium finish at the Hungarian Grand Prix from tenth on the grid. This race also saw the début of Robert Kubica, who replaced Villeneuve after the latter had crashed heavily at the preceding German Grand Prix. Kubica finished seventh, although he was later disqualified after his car was found to be underweight. The official reason for Villeneuve's absence was that he was recovering from his previous accident, but the team later announced that the driver change was permanent. Kubica scored BMW Sauber's second podium finish of the season at the Italian Grand Prix, after running in third place for most of the race and leading briefly during the first round of pit stops while Heidfeld finished in eighth. The team scored a total of 36 points to finish fifth in the Constructors' Championship, an improvement on Sauber's eighth position with 20 points in .
2007
On 19 October 2006, BMW announced that Robert Kubica would partner Nick Heidfeld for the 2007 Formula One season with Sebastian Vettel taking the test and reserve driver role. Timo Glock was later signed as the team's second test driver. The team launched its 2007 car, the F1.07, on January 16, 2007.
The new car showed promising form throughout winter testing, topping the times sheets on occasions. However, team principal Mario Theissen declared some reliability concerns before the season's opening race in Australia. Kubica retired from fourth place with a gearbox problem, but Heidfeld took over the position and held it to the end of the race. In the early races of the season, Heidfeld and Kubica scored a series of points finishes and established BMW Sauber as the third-fastest team, behind Ferrari and McLaren. Theissen also made the point that the performance gap between BMW Sauber and the two top teams was less than the gap between BMW Sauber and the teams behind it.
The Canadian Grand Prix brought mixed fortunes for the team. While Heidfeld scored BMW Sauber's best result thus far with a second-place finish, Kubica suffered a huge crash that resulted in a long safety car period. The media was initially told Kubica had broken his leg, but it later proved that he had escaped with only a sprained ankle and concussion. Vettel took his place in the United States Grand Prix, finishing in eighth place and therefore becoming the youngest driver to score a Formula One World Championship point. Later in the season, Vettel moved teams to take a race seat at the Toro Rosso team.
Kubica returned to racing action at the French Grand Prix and proved his recovery by finishing in fourth position. Over the remainder of the season, he and Heidfeld continued their form to score a total of 101 points, which secured the team second in the Constructors' Championship after McLaren's disqualification. Heidfeld scored another podium finish at the Hungarian Grand Prix and scored 61 points to Kubica's 39, while Vettel's sole appearance produced an additional point.
2008
On August 21, 2007, BMW confirmed its driver line-up of Heidfeld and Kubica for the season.
Their 2008 car, the F1.08 was officially launched in Munich at BMW Welt on January 14, 2008. It made its track debut at Valencia the next day, with Robert Kubica driving. Team principal Mario Theissen set the target of the team's first win.
BMW Sauber started the season well with Kubica narrowly missing out on pole after a mistake in his main qualifying lap in Melbourne. He later retired after being hit by Kazuki Nakajima but Heidfeld finished second. Kubica took second in Malaysia, with Heidfeld in 6th setting the fastest lap of the race. The team's points total of 11 was their largest score up to that time. In Bahrain, Kubica scored his and the team's first ever pole position, beating Felipe Massa by just under three hundredths of a second. The team went on to finish 3rd and 4th in the race, equalling their highest round points total and promoting them to first place in the constructors' championship for the first time.
The team also attained a second-place finish in the Monaco Grand Prix with Robert Kubica, beating both Ferraris and only trailing the McLaren of Lewis Hamilton by three seconds.
BMW Sauber's first race victory came in the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix, the team achieving a one-two finish with Robert Kubica's first race win and Nick Heidfeld taking second place. The victory came after Lewis Hamilton collided with Kimi Räikkönen in the pitlane, ending the race for both drivers. Kubica was on a different refueling strategy from Heidfeld, who also briefly led the race before securing the one-two finish for BMW Sauber in comfortable fashion.
After the team's breakthrough win, development was switched to the 2009 season where new regulations come into play. This greatly annoyed Kubica, (who was leading the championship after the Canadian Grand Prix), as he felt they could have had a realistic chance of taking at least one title. The lack of development was reflected with a drop of form throughout the second half of the season, causing BMW to be outpaced by Renault, Toyota and even Toro Rosso (who started the season as one of the slowest teams) by the end of the season. Despite this, Kubica remained with an outside chance of taking the drivers championship until the Chinese Grand Prix, the 17th round out of 18.
In October the team confirmed that they would stick with Robert Kubica and Nick Heidfeld as their drivers for the Season.
2009
Although BMW Sauber targeted the season as the year they would challenge for the title, their start to the season was a disappointment. Kubica was running in 3rd place in the opening round when he collided with Vettel while battling for 2nd place and was forced to retire. Heidfeld then secured the team's first podium of the year in Malaysia, but after 6 races BMW Sauber had collected a mere 6 points, and occupied 8th place in the Constructors' Championship out of 10 teams. A raft of upgrades were set for Turkey, including an improved regenerative braking system (KERS) and a double deck diffuser. While the new diffuser was implemented, the KERS could not be made to fit the new car and both drivers raced without the device. After the qualifying session for the British Grand Prix Mario Theissen announced that the team had decided to halt further development KERS; of which BMW had been one of the strongest proponents, and focus instead on improving the car's aerodynamics. This left Ferrari and McLaren as the only remaining users of the KERS system. In the European Grand Prix at Valencia Robert Kubica scored the team's first points since the race in Turkey.
Following a meeting of the BMW board on July 28, the company held at press conference the following morning in which it confirmed the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the end of 2009. Chairman Norbert Reithofer described the decision as a strategic one. The Formula One Teams Association released a statement in response pledging its support to help the team remain in F1.
On 15 September 2009 it was announced that BMW Sauber had secured a buyer, Qadbak Investments Limited which said to represent European and Middle Eastern interests. However Lotus had been given the 13th and final slot in the 2010 Championship. The team were awarded what was termed a 14th entry, which hinged either on another team dropping out or all the other teams agreeing to allow 28 cars to enter the 2010 Championship.
On November 22, Swiss newspaper SonntagsZeitung revealed that Qadbak's attempt to purchase the team had failed as it did not have the necessary funds. Qadbak turned out to be a shell company with no assets and no investors behind it. On November 27, 2009, it was announced that Peter Sauber would repurchase the team conditional upon the team receiving a FIA entry for the 2010 season. The FIA subsequently granted Sauber an entry on December 3. The team used Ferrari engines in .
Formula One customer engine results (1952–2005)
* Excludes factory team.
† BMW engine re-badged as Megatron in 1987 and 1988.
Formula One results
See also
BMW in motorsport
References
Books
Journals
Footnotes
External links
BMW Sauber
BMW Motorsport
Sauber Motorsport
1967 establishments in West Germany
1969 disestablishments in West Germany
2006 establishments in Germany
2009 disestablishments in Germany
Formula One constructors
Formula One engine manufacturers
Formula One entrants
German auto racing teams
German racecar constructors
Auto racing teams established in 1967
Auto racing teams disestablished in 1969
Auto racing teams established in 2006
Auto racing teams disestablished in 2009
Sauber Motorsport
Alex von Falkenhausen Motorenbau | [
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239003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Fosse | Ray Fosse | Raymond Earl Fosse (April 4, 1947 – October 13, 2021) was an American professional baseball player and television sports color commentator. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a catcher from 1967 to 1979, most prominently as an All-Star player for the Cleveland Indians, and then as a two-time World Series champion with the Oakland Athletics dynasty of the early 1970s. He also played for the Seattle Mariners and the Milwaukee Brewers. After his playing career, Fosse became a television and radio color commentator for the Athletics.
Fosse was selected by the Indians to become the team's first draft pick when MLB implemented its first amateur draft in 1965. Fosse was a two-time All-Star and won two Gold Glove Awards in a playing career that was marred by numerous injuries. In 2001, Fosse was voted one of the 100 greatest players in Cleveland Indians' history. He was named to the Oakland Athletics' 50th-anniversary team in 2018, and was inducted into the St. Louis Hall of Fame on February 11, 2019.
Early life and career
Fosse was born in Marion, Illinois, where he grew up listening to the St. Louis Cardinals on the radio. He considered Stan Musial to be his favorite player. Fosse played as a catcher for the Marion High School baseball team and was named the team's Most Valuable Player three consecutive years. He also played football and basketball in high school. After high school, Fosse attended Southern Illinois University.
In 1974 in batted a career high .301.
Professional career
Cleveland Indians
The Cleveland Indians selected Fosse in the first round of the 1965 MLB draft. Fosse played three seasons in the minor leagues before making his major-league debut with the Indians on September 8, 1967, at the age of 20. He returned to the minor leagues for the 1968 season, where he posted a .301 batting average in 103 games for the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League.
Returning to the Indians in 1970, he platooned alongside Duke Sims. In the first half of 1970, he posted a .313 batting average with 16 home runs and 45 runs batted in. He hit in 23 consecutive games beginning June 9, the longest American League (AL) hitting streak since 1961, and was chosen as a reserve for the 1970 All-Star Game by Earl Weaver, the American League manager.
In the final play of the 1970 All-Star Game, Fosse was injured in a collision with Pete Rose at home plate. Initial X-rays revealed no fractures or other damage, although a re-examination the following year found Fosse had sustained a fractured and separated shoulder, which healed incorrectly, causing chronic pain that was never entirely resolved. Rose asserted that he was simply trying to win the game, and that Fosse — who had moved a few feet up the third-base line to receive the throw from Amos Otis — was blocking the plate, but Rose was widely criticized for over-aggressive play in an exhibition game. Fosse went on to play 42 games in the second half of the season, hitting .297 and winning the AL Gold Glove Award.
Fosse continued to be plagued by injuries in 1971 when he was kicked in his right hand during a brawl against the Detroit Tigers on June 18, sustaining a gash that required five stitches and sidelined him for more than a week. When he returned, he tore a ligament in his left hand during an at-bat against Denny McLain, forcing him to miss the 1971 All-Star Game. Despite these injuries, Fosse appeared in 133 games and led the league's catchers in assists and in double plays to win his second consecutive Gold Glove Award. He also posted a .276 batting average and contributed 12 home runs and a career-high 62 runs batted in for the last place Indians.
Fosse's contributions at calling pitches was evident when Indians pitcher Gaylord Perry won the American League Cy Young Award in 1972. Perry gave Fosse credit for his success: "I've got to split it up and give part, a big part, to my catcher, Ray Fosse. He kept pushing me in games when I didn't have good stuff. He'd come out and show me that big fist of his when I wasn't bearing down the way he thought I should."
Oakland Athletics
In 1973, Cleveland traded Fosse and Jack Heidemann to the Oakland Athletics for Dave Duncan and George Hendrick. He played in 143 games that season, the most of his career, on a team with three 20-game-winning pitchers: Ken Holtzman, Vida Blue, and Catfish Hunter. Fosse guided the Athletics pitching staff to the second best team earned run average as well the second most shutouts in the American League as, the Athletics won the AL Western Division pennant by six games over the Kansas City Royals. The Athletics then defeated the Baltimore Orioles in the AL Championship Series. Fosse made his mark in the series, throwing out five would-be base stealers. The Athletics went on to win the World Series against the New York Mets.
The Athletics repeated as world champions in 1974, defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers in the World Series, but injuries once again plagued Fosse. On June 5, he suffered a crushed disc in his neck attempting to break up a locker room fight between teammates Reggie Jackson and Billy North, and spent three months on the disabled list. The Athletics won a fifth consecutive division title in 1975, but by then, Gene Tenace had replaced Fosse as the starting catcher. Fosse did participate in a combined no-hitter in the final game of the season, catching for Paul Lindblad and Rollie Fingers in the final three innings.
Later career
The Athletics traded Fosse back to the Indians in 1976 where he again became the starting catcher, only to return to the disabled list after a home-plate collision with Jim Rice. When he returned he was platooned with Alan Ashby. Fosse ended the year with a .301 batting average. On May 30, 1977, he caught Dennis Eckersley's no-hitter versus the California Angels. Eckersley acknowledged Fosse's contribution to the no-hitter: "Give Fosse a lot of credit too," he said. "He called a helluva game. I think I only shook him off three times." When Jeff Torborg replaced Frank Robinson as manager of the Indians in June 1977, he again placed Fosse in a platoon role with Fred Kendall. In September, he was traded to the Seattle Mariners.
After finishing the year with the Mariners, he signed a contract to play for the Milwaukee Brewers, but during spring training, he tripped in a hole while running down the first base line and sustained injuries to his right leg. The most serious injury required the reconstruction of a knee ligament, forcing him to miss the entire season. He came back in 1979, but played in only 19 games; in 1980, he was released at the close of spring training.
Career statistics
In a 12-year MLB career, Fosse played in 924 games, accumulating 758 hits in 2,957 at bats for a .256 career batting average along with 61 home runs, 324 runs batted in, and a .301 on-base percentage. He ended his career with a .986 fielding percentage. Fosse led AL catchers in 1970 with 854 putouts and 48 baserunners caught stealing, and in range factor (7.81). In 1971 he led the league with 73 assists, and in 1973, he led AL catchers in baserunners caught stealing and in caught stealing percentage.
Fosse was a member of two World Series Champion clubs: the 1973 and 1974 A's, and also a member of the inaugural Seattle Mariners team that began playing in 1977. He won Gold Glove Awards in 1970 and 1971. Fosse was named to the 100 Greatest Cleveland Indians in 2001.
Television and radio career
From 1986 to 2021, Fosse was a color commentator for the Oakland Athletics on NBC Sports California and occasionally on Athletics radio broadcasts when a game was not on local television. In 2004, he was nominated for a Ford C. Frick Award.
Personal life and death
Fosse married his wife Carol in April 1970. They maintained residences in Oakland, California, and Scottsdale, Arizona.
On August 5, 2021, Fosse revealed that he had cancer, which he had been fighting for 17 years, and needed to step away from his job as an announcer to focus on his treatment. Fosse died of cancer on October 13, 2021, at the age of 74.
References
External links
Ray Fosse biography at The Society for American Baseball Research
1947 births
2021 deaths
People from Marion, Illinois
Baseball players from Illinois
Major League Baseball catchers
Cleveland Indians players
Milwaukee Brewers players
Oakland Athletics players
Seattle Mariners players
American League All-Stars
Reading Indians players
Reno Silver Sox players
Portland Beavers players
Navegantes del Magallanes players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Gold Glove Award winners
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Oakland Athletics announcers
Southern Illinois University alumni
Place of death missing | [
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] |
239007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Practice%20Effect | The Practice Effect | The Practice Effect is a novel by David Brin, written in 1984. The story involves a world in which entropy works in reverse.
Plot summary
A scientist by the name of Dennis Nuel is working at, and attending, an institute of scientific research and pioneering work into the fictional scientific field of "Zievatronics", the manipulation of Time and Space. After the death of his mentor, however, he is taken off the project and another professor takes over.
After a time, the device that has been created to move through space and time, known as the "Zievatron" encounters operational problems and is fixed to the co-ordinates of a world that appears to be very similar to our Earth in most respects, and Dennis is re-recruited to help fix it. He volunteers to be sent to the other world in order to fix the other part of the Zievatron. On arriving to this planet, he finds the Zievatron dismantled and critical parts of it missing. Of the three surveillance robots sent through to this planet, he finds two have also been broken apart. After a while, he finds the last robot, intact and still functioning, and uses it to view any recorded images that might help him identify what it was that happened to the Zievatron.
In this world, instead of objects wearing out as you use them, they improve. This is referred to as the Practice Effect. For example, swords get sharper with use, baskets get stronger the more things they carry, mirrors, furniture and decorations look more attractive the more they are looked at. The downside to this being that an object's condition deteriorates over time if not put to use. Under this system, members of society's higher strata employ servants to Practice their own possessions to perfection.
It is eventually discovered that the Practice Effect is the result of an elusive, biologically-engineered creature known as a Krenegee Beast that causes a change in a law of thermodynamics. This creature emits a field under which the Practice Effect works. The closer one is to the Krenegee Beasts, the more efficient the Practice that is done. The Practice Effect can take many months before an object reaches its maximum point of "practice", but the process is sped up if one is under a Felthesh Trance. The presence of a Krenegee Beast speeds up the process more than a Felthesh Trance.
Table of contents
The chapter titles are all jokes, some puns, most in Latin with one (ch. 6) in French. The translations are included.
Sooee generis – "'Sooee' is a classic call farmers would use to summon pigs for a meal. Pixolet resembles a pig. Hence "Sooee Generis" is a one-of-a-kind pig."
Cogito, ergo tutti frutti – "'Cogito, Ergo Tutti Fruitti' refers to a flavor of ice cream and hence stands for "I think, therefore I scream," which is spelled out in the chapter."
Nom de Terre – tr. 'name of the land' but in the context of the chapter a play on 'Nom de Guerre'. This is also a pun on 'pomme de terre' the french word for potato which translates directly to, apple of the earth. The name of the planet being 'Tater' a common slang for potato. Making the nomme de terre a pomme de terre.
The best way to Carnegie Hall – (... is practice)
Transom dental – a play on 'transcendental' "'Transom Dental' - refers to the chapter's chief event, practicing dental floss into a cutting tool that lets characters escape over a wall. A transom was a window that would open part way over an office door to let in air. Hence the phrase "I got in over the transom" meant "I used an unconventional means to pass over a barrier." Combining that with dental floss offers a pun on 'transcendental' surpassing an obstacle."
Ballon d'essai – trial balloon
Pundit Nero – Pandit Nehru, first Prime Minister of India.
"Eurekaarrgh" – a more accurate variation of 'eureka' A portmanteau of eureka and arrgh, a commonly used distressed scream in literature
Discus jestus – majesty Disc. An alternate Latin meaning, in the chapter context: "Quoit Jester" = "Court Jester"
Sic biscuitus disintegratum – or 'this is how the cookie crumbles'
Et two toots – or 'Et tu, Brute?'
Semper ubi sub ubi – tr. 'always where under where' but in the context of the chapter, 'always wear underwear'
Reception
Algis Budrys found the novel's premise appealing, praising Brin's "really first-rate SFnal idea," but its execution disappointing, leaving little of interest but plot details once the central mystery was explained at the novel's midpoint, "and as a plotsmith Brin is just another guy." The SF Encyclopedia considers it "less successful" than Brin's series work, and notes that its premise is "oddly Lamarckian". Charlie Jane Anders, however, has cited it as a work that will "make [the reader] more passionate about science".
References
1984 American novels
Novels by David Brin
American science fiction novels
1984 science fiction novels
Novels set on fictional planets
Bantam Books books | [
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239009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Catch%20a%20Thief | To Catch a Thief | To Catch a Thief is a 1955 American romantic thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, from a screenplay by John Michael Hayes based on the 1952 novel of the same name by David Dodge. The film stars Cary Grant as a retired cat burglar who has to save his reformed reputation by catching an impostor preying on the wealthy tourists (including the daughter of a wealthy widow, played by Grace Kelly) of the French Riviera.
Plot
Retired jewel thief John "The Cat" Robie is suspected by the police in a string of burglaries on the French Riviera. When they come to his hilltop villa to question him, he slips their grasp and heads to a restaurant owned by his friend Bertani. The restaurant's staff are members of Robie's old gang, who have been paroled for their work in the French Resistance during World War II. They are angry at Robie because they are all under suspicion as long as the new Cat is active. When the police arrive at the restaurant looking for Robie, Foussard's daughter spirits him to safety; Danielle is a young woman who fancies him dearly.
Robie realizes he can prove his innocence by catching the new Cat in the act. He enlists the aid of an insurance man, H. H. Hughson, who reluctantly discloses a list of the most expensive jewelry owners currently on the Riviera. American tourists Jessie Stevens, a wealthy nouveau riche widow, and her daughter Frances, top the list. Robie strikes up a friendship with them. Frances feigns modesty at first, but kisses Robie at the end of the night before retiring to her room.
The day after, Frances invites Robie to a swim at the beach, where Robie runs into Danielle. He keeps up his cover of being a wealthy American tourist, despite Danielle's jealous barbs about his interest in Frances. Frances accompanies Robie on a "picnic" to a villa where Robie suspects the new Cat might break in. Frances reveals that she knows Robie's real identity. He initially denies it, but concedes it that evening when she has invited him to her room to watch a fireworks display. They kiss passionately.
The next morning, Jessie discovers her jewels are gone. Frances accuses Robie of using her as a distraction so he could steal her mother's jewelry. The police are called, but by the time they reach Jessie's room, Robie has disappeared.
Later, Robie is staking out an estate at night when he is attacked by an unknown assailant. A second attacker raises a wrench and appears to hit Robie, who falls off the estate's seawall into the water. But when the police reach the body in the water, it turns out to be Foussard, one of the staff at Bertani's restaurant.
The police chief publicly announces that Foussard was the jewel thief, but, as Robie points out privately in the abashed Hughson's presence, this would have been impossible because Foussard had a wooden leg, and could not climb on rooftops.
Foussard's funeral is interrupted by Danielle's loud accusation that Robie is responsible for her father's death. Outside the graveyard, Frances apologizes to Robie and confesses her love. Robie asks Frances to arrange his attendance at a fancy masquerade ball, where he believes the Cat will strike again.
Robie accompanies Frances to the ball dressed as a masked Moor. The police hover nearby. Upstairs, the cat burglar silently cleans out several jewel boxes. When Jessie addresses the Moor as "John" and asks him to go and get her "heart pills", the authorities are tipped off as to his identity. Upon the masked Moor's return, the police wait as he and Frances dance together all night. When the masked Moor and Frances go to her room, the mask is removed: it was Hughson, who switched places with Robie to conceal Robie's exit.
Robie lurks on the rooftop, and his patience is finally rewarded when he spots a figure in black. However, just as his pursuit begins, the police throw a spotlight on him and demand he halt. He flees as they shoot at him, but he nonetheless manages to corner his foe with jewels in hand. Unmasked, his nemesis turns out to be Danielle. She loses her footing on the roof, but Robie grabs her hand before she can fall. While she hangs in his grasp, he forces her to confess to the police and admit that Bertani was the ringleader of this gang.
Robie speeds back to his villa. Frances follows to convince him that she has a place in his life. He agrees but looks less than thrilled when she says, "Mother will love it up here."
Cast
Cary Grant as John Robie ("The Cat")
Grace Kelly as Frances Stevens
Jessie Royce Landis as Jessie Stevens
John Williams as H. H. Hughson
Charles Vanel as Monsieur Bertani
Brigitte Auber as Danielle Foussard
Jean Martinelli as Foussard, Danielle's father
Georgette Anys as Germaine, housekeeper
René Blancard as Commissaire Lepic (uncredited)
Paul Newlan as Vegetable Man in Kitchen (uncredited)
Cast notes
Alfred Hitchcock makes his signature cameo, approximately ten minutes into the film, as a bus passenger sitting next to Cary Grant.
Production
To Catch a Thief was the director's first film (of five) made using the VistaVision widescreen process, and the last of the three Hitchcock films with Grace Kelly. The film was the penultimate collaboration with Cary Grant; only North by Northwest (1959) followed. It is also about a man with a mistaken identity who goes on a breakneck adventure to prove his innocence.
The costumes were by Edith Head, including Kelly's memorable gold lamé gown for the film's costume ball.
The car driven by Grace Kelly was a metallic blue 1953 Sunbeam Alpine Mk I.
Locations
To Catch a Thief was filmed largely in the Paramount Studios, Hollywood, California, and on location in the Alpes-Maritimes of southeastern France, on the Mediterranean coast. It included the resorts of Cannes, Nice, Villefranche-sur-Mer and Saint-Jeannet.
Crucial to the film's success in shooting on location was the presence of unit production manager C.O. "Doc" Erickson. He had developed a reputation for his work on prior Paramount films that had relied on a great amount of location photography such as Shane (1953) and Secret of the Incas (1954). Erickson thoroughly researched the logistics of shooting in the South of France and communicated with Bill Mull, the production manager on Little Boy Lost (1953).
Production credits
The production credits on the film were as follows:
Director - Alfred Hitchcock
Writing - John Michael Hayes (screenplay)
Cinematography - Robert Burks (director of photography)
Art direction - Hal Pereira and Joseph MacMillan Johnson (art direction); Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams (set decoration)
Editor - George Tomasini
Assistant director - Daniel McCauley
Technicolor color consultant - Richard Mueller
Special effects - John P. Fulton (special photographic effects), Farciot Edouart (process photography)
Makeup supervision - Wally Westmore
Sound recording - Harold Lewis and John Cope
Musical score - Lyn Murray
Second unit director - Herbert Coleman
Costumes - Edith Head
Distribution
To Catch a Thief is the only Hitchcock film released by Paramount that is still owned and controlled by the company. The others were sold to Hitchcock in the early 1960s and are currently distributed by Universal Studios.
Reception
The film drew mixed reviews from critics, with some enjoying Grant and Kelly in the lead roles as well as the French Riviera setting, while others expressed disappointment at the lack of suspense compared to earlier Hitchcock films.
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote in a positive review that the film "comes off completely as a hit in the old Hitchcock style ... Mr. Grant and Miss Kelly do grandly, especially in one sly seduction scene." Variety wrote that while the film was "not the suspense piece one usually associated with the Alfred Hitchcock name," it was "strong on sight and performance values" though it had "some plot weaknesses and is not as smooth in the unfolding as one might expect from an upper 'A' presentation."
Harrison's Reports wrote, "Alfred Hitchcock has not endowed the action with as much suspense as one might expect in a picture produced and directed by him; nevertheless, its story of a one-time jewel robber who sets out to establish his innocence by catching a thief who was using his technique is tight and swiftly-paced, and constantly offers dramatic and comical developments." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it "one of those de luxe pictures in which everyone lives in glorious workless luxury on the French Rivera, looks wonderful, speaks amusingly and is unconcerned with transit strikes or hurricanes. I loved every minute of it."
Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times was also positive, calling Grant and Kelly "ideal in the romantic leads" and the dialogue "daring but delightful," adding, "Above all, there is the spell of the French Riviera—a lazy, laissez-faire thing that apparently captivated the director as much as it will audiences in the soft, beguiling hues of its Technicolor and VistaVision."
John McCarten of The New Yorker dismissed the film as "an Alfred Hitchcock picture that makes you wonder what has happened to the man ... As the heiress, Grace Kelly is very pretty. She does not, presumably, try to act." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Even a comedy thriller needs considerably more in the way of plain excitement and tension than To Catch a Thief provides, and Hitchcock's celebrated habit of playing tricks with the audience ... seem a poor substitute for the real thing."
The Guardian called the film "a thorough disappointment," writing that Hitchcock had "failed so completely that one can only wonder if, in this tale of high-class burglary on the Côte d'Azur, he has not altogether abandoned his devotion to 'tension.' Certainly the 'whodunnit' element in this film is remarkably slack; the unmasking of the master criminal, which is the climax of the story, comes as mildly as bread and milk."
François Truffaut wrote "To Catch a Thief completely satisfies all [Hitchcock's] fans—the snobbiest and the most ordinary—and still manages to be one of the most cynical films Hitchcock has ever made."
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 96% based on reviews from 50 critics, with an average rating of 8.00/10, with the critical consensus reading: "It may occasionally be guilty of coasting on pure charm, but To Catch a Thief has it in spades -- as well as a pair of perfectly matched stars in Cary Grant and Grace Kelly."
Accolades
Robert Burks won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography, while Hal Pereira, Joseph McMillan Johnson, Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams were nominated for Best Art Direction, and Edith Head was nominated for Best Costume Design.
In 2002, American Film Institute included the film in AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions (#46).
Adaptations
In May 2018, it was announced that Viacom was set to adapt the film as a Spanish-language television series. It was launched in October 2019 as Atrapa a un ladrón (es).
See also
List of American films of 1955
References
Bibliography
Further reading
"Two Interviews About To Catch a Thief by Tifenn Brisset, Film International magazine Vol. 11, No. 6, 2013, pages 13–21. Interviews with French script supervisor Sylvette Baudrot conducted September 2011 and actress Brigitte Auber, September 2011, March 2013, regarding their work on the film and with Cary Grant and Alfred Hitchcock. Discussion of a different ending and script differences. Twelve color photographs, nine pages.
External links
Historic reviews, photo gallery at CaryGrant.net
1955 films
1950s mystery thriller films
1950s romantic thriller films
American films
American mystery thriller films
American romantic thriller films
English-language films
Films based on American novels
Films based on mystery novels
Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock
Films scored by Lyn Murray
Films set in Monaco
Films set on the French Riviera
Films shot in France
Films shot in Monaco
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
French-language films
Paramount Pictures films
Films with screenplays by John Michael Hayes | [
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239012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolo%20Ohno | Apolo Ohno | Apolo Anton Ohno (; born May 22, 1982) is an American retired short track speed skating competitor and an eight-time medalist (two gold, two silver, four bronze) in the Winter Olympics. Ohno is the most decorated American at the Winter Olympics and was inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame in 2019.
Raised by his father, Ohno began training full-time in 1996. At the age of 14, he became the youngest U.S. national champion in 1997 and was the reigning champion from 2001–2009, winning the title a total of 12 times. In December 1999, he became the youngest skater to win a World Cup event title, and became the first American to win a World Cup overall title in 2001, which he won again in 2003 and 2005. Ohno has been the face of short track in the United States since winning his medals at the 2002 Winter Olympics. He won his first overall World Championship title at the 2008 championships.
Ohno's accolades and accomplishments include the United States Olympic Committee's Male Athlete of the Month in October 2003 and March 2008, U.S. Speedskating's Athlete of the Year for 2003, and a finalist for the 2002, 2003, and 2006 Sullivan Award, which recognizes the best amateur athlete in the United States.
Since gaining recognition through his sport, Ohno has worked as a motivational speaker, philanthropist, started a nutritional supplement business, and won the 2007 season of Dancing with the Stars. Ohno later became host of a revival of Minute to Win It on Game Show Network and served as a commentator for NBC's coverage of the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi and the 2018 Winter Games in Pyeongchang. Outside of competing, he has expressed entrepreneurship in the health, wellness, and technology industries.
Early life
Ohno was born in Seattle, Washington, to a Japanese-born father, and a European-American mother, Jerrie Lee. Ohno's parents divorced when he was an infant, and he was raised in Seattle by his father. He has had little contact with his biological mother and as of 2002 had expressed no interest in knowing her or his older half-brother. Ohno's father, a hair stylist and owner of the salon Yuki's Diffusion, often worked 12-hour shifts, and with no extended family in the United States, found it hard to balance his career with raising a child. His father chose to name his son Apolo after the Greek words apo, which means to "steer away from" and lo, which means "look out; here he comes."
When Ohno was very young, his father meticulously researched childcare providers to care for his son during his long work hours. As Apolo grew older, his father became concerned his son would become a latchkey kid, so Yuki got his son involved with competitive swimming and quad-speed roller skating at age 6. He later switched from the instruction of Benton Redford, a National Champion, to a team in Federal Way, Washington, called Pattison's Team Extreme and became a national inline speedskating champion and record holder himself. His father used inline speed skating to fill his spare time. Ohno's days were spent with morning swimming practices, followed by schooling, and finally skating practices in the afternoon.
When Ohno was 12, he won the Washington state championship in the breaststroke, but preferred inline speed skating over swimming. He has stated that by the time he turned 13, he attended parties with older teenagers if he did not have competitions on the weekends. His father has stated that it was a struggle balancing his son's desire for independence while helping him reach his potential as a young athlete.
Skating career
Beginnings
When he was 13 years old, Ohno became interested in short track speed skating after seeing the sport during the 1994 Olympics in Lillehammer. His father capitalized on this interest by driving him to short track competitions throughout the northwest United States and Canada, and Ohno won several competitions in his age divisions. His father wanted to encourage Ohno to develop his skills and, although Ohno was underage, he got him admitted to the Lake Placid Olympic Training Center in 1996 to train full-time for short track. At 13, Ohno was the youngest skater admitted to the center.
At first, Ohno's commitment at Lake Placid was low until his teammates nicknamed him "Chunky", which motivated him to train harder. In January, he failed to make the 1997 U.S. Junior World Team. Ohno adjusted his training and made a comeback winning the 1997 U.S. Senior Championships overall title, taking a gold medal in the 1500 m, a silver in the 300 m, and came in fourth in the 500 m races. At the age of 14, he became the youngest person to win the title. Ohno then relocated to the Colorado Springs Olympic Training Center to begin training with the senior level skaters, despite being only 14 years old.
However, Ohno would struggle at the 1997 World Championships in Nagano, Japan, finishing 19th overall. After this disappointing defeat at his first appearance at a world championships, Ohno returned home to Seattle. He did not train from April to August 1997, so he gained weight and was ill-prepared for the 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics. As a result, he finished last in the Olympic trials and did not qualify for the Olympic team. Because of his losses at the World Championships and his failure to qualify for the Olympic team, Ohno recommitted himself to the sport and returned to junior-level skating at Lake Placid, rather than at Colorado Springs.
At the 1999 World Junior Championships, Ohno won first overall, placing first in the 1000 m and 1500 m, and winning silver in the 500 m. He won his second senior U.S. national championship in 1999. He finished fourth overall at the 1999 World Championships and earned a silver medal in the 500 m. At the 2000 U.S. Championships, Ohno was unable to defend his title and finished third overall. At the 2000 World Championships, Ohno finished ninth overall. In the 2000–2001 season, Ohno won his first World Cup overall title, regained his National title, and finished second overall in the World Championships, losing to Chinese skater Li Jiajun.
2002 Winter Olympics
Qualification race controversy
In December 2001, during the U.S. Short Track Speed Skating 2002 Olympic Trials, speed skater Shani Davis was racing for a position on the short track team. Ohno and fellow skater Rusty Smith had already earned slots on the six-man team due to points earned from earlier races. In order for Davis to qualify, he had to place first in the final race—the 1000 m—by overcoming stronger skaters Ohno, Smith, and Ron Biondo. Since Ohno had been dominant in the meet to this point by winning every race he entered, a win by Davis seemed to be unlikely.
Though Ohno, Smith, and Biondo were heavily favored to win the 1000 m, the race ended with Ohno finishing third, Smith second, and Davis at the top of the podium. Prior to crossing the finish line, Ohno started celebrating for Davis and Smith. Davis' first-place finish earned enough points to move past Tommy O'Hare in the final point standings and to qualify for sixth place. By finishing second, Smith earned the opportunity to skate individually in the 1000 m. The victory celebration was short-lived as rumors began that Ohno and Smith, both good friends of Davis, intentionally threw the race so Davis would win.
After returning to Colorado Springs, O'Hare, who did not skate in the 1000 m, filed a formal complaint. The complaint was founded on Ohno's seemingly deliberate attempt to stop Biondo from being able to pass Smith. Because of that blocking move on Biondo, Smith finished in second place and Davis finished first. For three days, Ohno, Smith, and Davis stood before an arbitration panel of the United States Olympic Committee. During the hearing, Davis was never accused of being at fault and Smith made the statement: "Any allegation that there was a fix, conspiracy, or understanding between Apolo and me, or anyone else, to let Shani win the race is completely false. Shani is a great athlete, skated a great race, and deserves to be on the team." The final verdict was that O'Hare's claims went unproven, all three were absolved of guilt, and the claim was dismissed. After the dismissal, Ohno stated, "I am thrilled that the arbitration process has officially vindicated me... As I've said since the moment of these accusations, they were untrue and I did nothing wrong".
Games
At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, Ohno emerged as the face of short-track speed skating among American fans. He was a medalist in two events but there was controversy associated with the results.
After a disqualification in the 500 m race, he was leading the skaters in the 1000 m race. During a turn around the final corner, Ohno, Ahn Hyun Soo, Li Jiajun, and Mathieu Turcotte all fell in a series of collisions. The last man standing was Steven Bradbury from Australia, who was trailing behind at the time, and skated through to win the gold medal, becoming the first person from the southern hemisphere to win a gold medal at a Winter Olympics. Ohno quickly got to his feet and crossed the finish line to win silver with Turcotte winning the bronze. Ohno, coincidentally, was wearing skates made by Bradbury's own boot company, Revolutionary Boot Company. Bradbury emailed Ohno, saying "If you win gold, make sure you give me a mention!"
In the 1500 m final race A, with one lap remaining and currently in second place, Ohno attempted to make a pass on the leader Kim Dong-Sung of South Korea, who then drifted to the inside and as a result, Ohno raised his arms to imply he was blocked. Kim finished first ahead of Ohno, but the Australian referee James Hewish disqualified Kim for what appeared to be impeding, awarding the gold medal to Ohno. The South Korean team immediately protested the decision, appealing to the International Skating Union (ISU), the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). But the challenges were all denied. South Korean media accused Ohno of simulating foul, using the Konglish word "Hollywood action".
The disqualification of Kim upset South Korean supporters, many of whom directed their anger at Ohno and the IOC. A large number of e-mails protesting the race results crashed the IOC's email server, and thousands of accusatory letters, many of which contained death threats, were sent to Ohno and the IOC. Ohno shared his thoughts on the Koreans' hostile reaction by saying, "I was really bothered by it. I grew up around many Asian cultures, Korean one of them. A lot of my best friends were Korean growing up. I just didn't understand. Later on I realized that was built up by certain people and that was directed at me, negative energy from other things, not even resulting around the sport, but around politics, using me to stand on the pedestal as the anti-American sentiment".
After Salt Lake
Ohno continued to perform well in the sport after the 2002 Winter Games. He declined to participate in a 2003 World Cup short-track event in Korea for security reasons. Despite the absence, he successfully defended his World Cup title during the 2003 season. He continued his dominance by winning the World Cup title again in the 2004–2005 season.
At the first event of the 2005 World Cup event in China, Ohno severely sprained his ankle and withdrew from the event. At the second event in South Korea, an estimated 100 riot police stood guard at Incheon International Airport to prevent harm from happening to Ohno. Their concern stemmed from a possible lingering negative reaction from the 2002 Olympic Games disqualification controversy.
Ohno won two gold medals, as well as the overall title at the meet despite suffering from a severe stomach illness, and was surprised when the Korean crowd cheered his victories, saying, "I was really happy with the crowd's reaction. It was pretty positive right from the time we landed. I was really happy it wasn't (hostile). Everything went really smooth. We were happy." He was unable to defend his World Cup title from the previous three seasons, finishing third in the 2005–2006 overall standings. At the 2005 World Championships, he finished second overall, winning the 1000 m and 3000 m races.
2006 Winter Olympics
In the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, Ohno stumbled during a semifinal heat in the 1500 m. Finishing fifth, he was unable to defend his 2002 gold medal in the event. Ohno was able to win the bronze medal in the 1000 m, with Korean skaters Ahn Hyun Soo and Lee Ho-suk finishing before him.
After two false starts from other skaters, Ohno won gold in the 500 m when he took the lead with an explosive start and held it until the finish. Despite criticism that he appeared to move before the start, a violation of the rules, the race start was validated by the officials. Afterward, Ohno said, "I was in the moment at the time. I thought I timed the start just perfect. The starter had been pretty quick all day, so that's why there were so many false starts at the beginning. But that was really good for me."
On the same day as his 500 m gold win, he earned a bronze medal in the men's 5000 m relay, with an inside pass on Italian skater Nicola Rodigari on the final leg to put the United States in third position. Later, during the medals ceremony for the event, the winning South Korean team and the Americans embraced, followed by a group picture featuring the medalists.
Post-Olympic hiatus and return
Having taken a year off from competitive skating when the 2006 Winter Olympics ended, Ohno returned to win his eighth national title, placing first in every event during the U.S. Championships held from February 23–25, 2007. On April 26, 2007, he was inducted into the Asian Hall of Fame, an award which honors achievements of Asian Americans.
From March 9–11, 2007, he competed at the 2007 World Championships held in Milan, Italy, winning gold in the 1500 m due to the disqualification of Song Kyung-Taek, who had blocked a passing attempt made by Ohno. He won bronze in the 1000 m, 3000 m, and the 5000 m relay with teammates, Jordan Malone, Travis Jayner, and Ryan Bedford. Because of his wins, he became the overall bronze medalist, behind silver medalist Charles Hamelin and Ahn Hyun Soo, who became the first man to become a five-time World Champion.
On December 24, 2007, in Kearns, Utah, Ohno won his ninth national title, finishing first in the 1000 m and the 1500 m. He also finished first in the 500 m, but was disqualified for crosstracking. In the 3000 m, he finished second. At the 2008 World Championships in Gangneung, South Korea, Ohno won his first overall title, placing first place in the 500 m, second in the 1000 m, and third place in the 3000 m. He defeated South Koreans Lee Ho-Suk, silver medalist and Song Kyung-Taek who finished third in points. He was initially met with loud booing by the crowd, but managed to earn their applause with a clean skate in the 500 m.
In 2009, he won his 10th national title and qualified for the world team. Unable to defend his championship, he finished fifth in the overall rankings at the 2009 World Championships in Vienna, Austria, placing second at the 1000 m, and winning gold with the 5000 m relay team.
2010 Winter Olympics
In preparation for the 2010 Winter Olympics, Ohno lost over from his weight at the 2002 Winter Games. He went down to a bodyframe and a 2.5% body fat percentage, enduring a 5-month 3-a-day training program combined with a strict nutritional program. As a result, he could lift double the weight he could before the training. With respect to his training regimen, Ohno said: "Come these Games, there's no one who's going to be fitter than me. There's just no way. Whether I can put it together on the ice or not and feel good, that's a different story. But I know, from a physical training standpoint, nobody's even close... I've never prepared like this in my life—for anything. I want to leave nothing on the table."
Trials
During the U.S. Olympic Trials held September 8–12, 2009, in Marquette, Michigan, Ohno won the overall meet title and defended his national title. He won the finals during the 500 m, 1000 m, and 1500 m races. However, during the 1000 m time trial, Ohno came in second to J. R. Celski despite skating a personal best of 1:24.500 to Celski's personal best of 1:23.981. Celski, who finished second overall and was leading in points after the first two nights of the trials, was injured during a crash in the semifinals of the 1000 m race when his right skate sliced into his left leg; he did not skate in the 1000 m finals. Ohno had a narrow victory in the 500 m, beating out the silver place finisher Jeff Simon by only .039 of a second. Ohno, Celski, Jordan Malone, Travis Jayner, and Simon Cho were the top five finishers at the trials. Afterwards, Ohno said of the nominated team: "This is the strongest team we've ever had. I feel really good about how we will do in the next Olympics."
Games
In the 1500 m final, Ohno placed second after two Korean skaters, Lee Ho-Suk and Sung Si-Bak, made contact and crashed into the wall during the final turn of the final lap. He was in fourth place leading into the crash, and as a result, moved into second place, earning the silver. Fellow American skater J. R. Celski finished with the bronze medal. The gold medal went to South Korea's Lee Jung-Su. Lee Jung-Su criticized Ohno as "too aggressive" in a post-race news conference. Ohno said in an interview that he was held by one of the Korean skaters, which affected the match's outcome. He drew anger in South Korea after adding, "I was hoping for another disqualification, kind of like what happened in Salt Lake City." His win had the American, with six career medals, tie Bonnie Blair for most medals won by a U.S. Winter Olympian.
Heading into the 1000 m final, Ohno had won the overall silver medal for the 1000 m during the 2009–10 World Cup by competing in three of the four competitions during the season. During the finals of the 1000 m, Ohno finished in third place, making a comeback from a slip with less than three laps remaining. With the bronze medal win, he became the most decorated American athlete ever at the Winter Games with seven career medals. Bonnie Blair, the former record holder, said she was happy for his accomplishment, adding: "It's a great feat for him, U.S. speedskating, and the United States of America. We hope that more kids will see his accomplishments and want to try our great sport that has been so good to us and taught us so much about what it takes to be successful in life."
In the 500 m final, Ohno finished the race in second place behind Canada's Charles Hamelin. However, he was disqualified after impeding François-Louis Tremblay of Canada around the final turn. The silver medal went to Sung Si-Bak, with Tremblay taking the bronze.
The 5000 m relay team for the United States finished with the bronze medal. The team, consisting of J. R. Celski, Simon Cho, Travis Jayner, Jordan Malone, and Ohno, were in the fourth position for the majority of the race. With a strong push from Celski with two laps to go, Ohno as the anchor leg was able to pass the Chinese team for third place; Canada won the gold and South Korea took silver. This bronze medal was the eighth Olympic medal of his career.
Sponsorships
Using his recognition and fame from his sport, he has accumulated a list of sponsors that includes McDonald's, General Electric, The Century Council, Vicks, and Coca-Cola. Ohno's father, Yuki, said about sponsorships: "He's not like a professional athlete who has a multi-million-dollar contract with a team... He has to have sponsorships to pay the bills". Capitalizing on Ohno's fame, Alaska Airlines was his primary sponsor for the 2010 Winter Games and designed a Boeing 737-800 jet with his image on the side.
On the other hand, Ohno has criticized the lack of support for athletes who are not at the very pinnacle of their sport. In the HBO documentary The Weight Of Gold (2020), Ohno characterized the attitude of potential sponsors as "How many golds do you have because if you're silver, you're not making money. You're bronze? You're not making money. You didn't medal? I don't even know your name, pal. Go back to the end of the line, OK?"
He was critical of the leaders of the U.S. Speedskating Organization when a donation of $250,000 was raised by viewers of the Comedy Central show The Colbert Report for the organization after their largest commercial sponsor, the Dutch DSB Bank, declared bankruptcy and was unable to donate its $300,000 in November 2009. In an email to Time, he wrote it was "a bit embarrassing that our leadership couldn't secure other sponsors three months before the Olympic Games" but credited the show's host Stephen Colbert for "his willingness to help out our nation's greatest athletes". In return for The Colbert Report donation, long track and short track skaters had the "Colbert Nation" logo on their uniforms for World Cup events leading up to the 2010 Winter Games. Ohno did not wear the logo because Alaska Airlines was his primary sponsor for the 2010 Games. He was also part of Oreo's Team DSRL sketch in 2011.
Retirement
Ohno retired after the 2010 Olympics and appeared as an NBC commentator for the 2014 Sochi Games and 2018 Pyeongchang Games. In November 2014 Ohno sponsored a speedskating race in Salt Lake City, UT that featured the four top men and women skaters from the US, China, Canada and the Netherlands. He has appeared in a number of television shows as a host, actor and guest star since his retirement.
In 2019, he was inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame. Also in 2019, he announced he is writing a book that chronicles his transition from Olympic athlete to entrepreneur. He says the book will "...pull back the curtain, in a sense, and showcases all the inner workings that go into making an Olympic athlete and then also the other side of what happens after day 17 of the Games when you're no longer competing. You're at the top of your game, you're in top physical condition, top mental condition, and now you're thrust into a world that is very unfamiliar to you and you feel like an alien". The book, Hard Pivot is scheduled for a winter 2022 release.
Television career
Ohno has had an interest in pursuing a career in the entertainment world. He participated and won the fourth season of the U.S. reality show Dancing with the Stars with his partner Julianne Hough. He returned for the 15th season which features all-star celebrities. Ohno's interests in fashion led him to be a guest judge on the fashion reality show Project Runway in 2008, and to an endorsement deal with Omega, the maker of luxury watches, in 2010. Omega president Stephen Urquhart said, "We are very proud to support Apolo here in Vancouver and congratulate him on his outstanding performance. He is poised to make history of his own here and we are thrilled that he is part of the Omega family". He also appeared on Minute to Win It as the host of the GSN revival in 2013 since he is a fan of the show.
Dancing with the Stars
Season 4 – with Julianne Hough
Ohno participated on the fourth season of the reality show, Dancing with the Stars. He was paired with dancing partner Julianne Hough, and both appeared on the show for the first time on March 19, 2007. Together, they received the competition's first perfect score of 30 for their samba routine on April 16, 2007. The dancing duo became finalists in the competition, and went on to become the champions in May 2007.
Season 15 – with Karina Smirnoff
In July 2012, it was announced Ohno would return for the all-star fifteenth season for a second chance to win the mirrorball trophy; this time he was paired with Season 13 champion professional Karina Smirnoff. They were voted off during the ninth week of the competition.
Other appearances
Ohno has appeared in a number of television shows as a guest star, an actor and as a host. He has guest starred in the 17th episode of the 2nd season of Hawaii Five-0, (2012) as a suspect and guest starred in The Biggest Loser in Season 12, Episode 9 and Season 15, Episode 12. He appeared as the live guest during the season finale of NBC's live variety show Best Time Ever with Neil Patrick Harris in 2015. Later the following year, Ohno appeared as a guest star on Hollywood Game Night hosted by Jane Lynch on NBC. Also, Ohno appeared in the Nick Jr. series Ryan's Mystery Playdate. The clues Ryan got was an ice rink, 8 medals, and ice skates.
In 2012, he appeared as a grocery store produce worker on the CBS show I Get That a Lot.
In 2013, Ohno appeared as the character "Stone" in the Syfy Original Movie Tasmanian Devils, as well as the host of GSN's Minute to Win It. In 2016, he made a guest appearance as himself in an American single-camera sitcom television series Superstore. In 2017, Ohno appeared as a host in the second season of the reality-competition series Spartan: Ultimate Team Challenge the second season premiered on June 12, 2017. In the same year, Ohno appeared on an episode of The $100,000 Pyramid this episode aired on July 9, 2017.
In 2021, Ohno appeared as a contestant on the NBC game show The Wall to raise money for the Team USA Fund. The episode aired on February 22, 2021.
Business
After retirement from short track, Ohno began traveling between the U.S. and countries in Asia to pursue business in manufacturing, infrastructure development, software and hardware technologies, and health and wellness supplements. He invested in a Finnish company called Oura Health and is also the cofounder of Allysian Sciences, a health and supplement company. He is writing a book about his post-skating career that he plans to release early 2020. He studied business at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.
Legacy
During his skating career in the United States, Ohno is credited with popularizing and being the face of his sport. He said it is amazing being able to be a role model to younger skaters since growing up, he did not have that influence within his sport, but looked up to other athletes outside his sport, such as Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, and Lance Armstrong. After the 2010 Winter Games, he created the Apolo Anton Ohno Foundation and partnered with the Century Council's Ask, Listen, Learn Program to discourage underage drinking of alcohol and to promote a healthy lifestyle.
Activism
Ohno has supported several causes. He participated in GAP's campaign to fight the spread of HIV/AIDS in Africa by joining Product Red. Half of the proceeds went to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Besides working with The Salvation Army and the Clothes off our Back Foundations, he used his fame to help raise funds for a Ronald McDonald House in Seattle after the 2002 Winter Games. He helped raise $20,000 for Nikkei Concerns, a provider of care and services for Japanese elders living in the Pacific Northwest. Later that year, Ohno joined Senator Ted Kennedy in Washington, D.C. to show the importance of math and science education by helping launch the "Math Moves U Hippest Homework Happening" program, which gave students the opportunity to do math homework online with celebrities and athletes.
He has also volunteered with the Special Olympics and taken part in Unified Sports, which brings together athletes with intellectual disabilities and without on the same team. Ohno served as a Special Olympics Global Ambassador ahead of the 2015 World Summer Games in Los Angeles, California.
Personal life
In 2016, he met and began dating Bianca Stam, an actress and restaurant investor.
References
Notes
Sources
Ohno, Apolo Anton; Richardson, Nancy Ann. A Journey: the autobiography of Apolo Anton Ohno, New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers, 2002. .
Gordon, Harry. The time of our lives: Inside the Sydney Olympics: Australia and the Olympic Games 1994–2002, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland, 2003. .
Epstein, Adam. Sports Law (The West Legal Studies Series): Volume 2002, Clifton Park, NY : Thomson/Delmar Learning, 2003. .
Further reading
Ohno, Apolo Anton; Abrahamson, Alan. Zero Regrets: Be Greater Than Yesterday, New York: Atria Books, 2010. .
Ohno, Apolo Anton; Richardson, Nancy Ann. A Journey: the autobiography of Apolo Anton Ohno, New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers, 2002. .
Lang, Thomas. Going for the gold: Apolo Anton Ohno: Skating on the edge, New York: Avon Books, 2002. .
Aldridge, Rebecca. Apolo Anton Ohno, New York: Chelsea House, 2009. .
External links
Apolo Anton Ohno at the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Hall of Fame
1982 births
American autobiographers
American writers of Japanese descent
American game show hosts
American male short track speed skaters
American sportspeople of Japanese descent
Dancing with the Stars (American TV series) winners
Living people
Medalists at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in short track speed skating
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in short track speed skating
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in short track speed skating
Participants in American reality television series
People from Federal Way, Washington
Short track speed skaters at the 2002 Winter Olympics
Short track speed skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Short track speed skaters at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Sportspeople from Seattle
University of Colorado Colorado Springs alumni
American male speed skaters | [
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239021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badlands | Badlands | Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density. Ravines, gullies, buttes, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands.
Badlands are found on every continent except Antarctica, being most common where there are unconsolidated sediments. They are often difficult to navigate by foot, and are unsuitable for agriculture. Most are a result of natural processes, but destruction of vegetation by overgrazing or pollution can produce anthropogenic badlands.
Badlands topography
Badlands are characterized by a distinctive badlands topography. This is terrain in which water erosion has cut a very large number of deep drainage channels, separated by short, steep ridges (interfluves). Such a drainage system is said to have a very fine drainage texture, as measured by its drainage density. Drainage density is defined as the total length of drainage channels per unit area of land surface. Badlands have a very high drainage density of 77 to 747 miles per square mile (48 to 464 kilometers per square kilometer). The numerous deep drainage channels and high interfluves creates a stark landscape of hills, gullies, and ravines.
In addition to a dense system of drainages and interfluves, badlands often contain buttes and hoodoos ("mushroom rocks"). These are formed by resistant beds of sandstone, which form the caprock of the buttes and hoodoos.
Origin
Badlands arise from a combination of an impermeable but easily eroded ground surface, sparse vegetation, and infrequent but heavy rainfall. The surface bedrock is typically mudrock, sometimes with evaporites, with only occasional beds of more resistant sandstone. Infrequent heavy rains lead to heavy erosional dissection. Where sudden precipitation cannot penetrate impermeable clays, it is channeled into a very dense system of streamlets that erode a dense system of ever-enlarging, coalescing gulleys and ravines. Erosion is enhanced by pelting raindrops that dislodge soft sediments. The presence of bentonite clay further increases erodability, as can rejuvenation of the drainage system from regional uplift, as occurred at Badlands National Park.
In addition to surface erosion, badlands sometimes have well-developed piping, which is a system of pipes, joints, caverns, and other connected void spaces in the subsurface through which water can drain. However, this is not a universal feature of badlands. For example, the Henry Mountains badlands show very little piping.
The precise processes by which the erosion responses take place vary depending on the precise interbedding of the sedimentary material. However, it has been estimated that the badlands of Badlands National Park erode at the relatively high rate of about per year. The White River draining Badlands National Park was so named for its heavy load of bentonite clay eroded from the badlands.
Regolith
Badlands are partially characterized by their thin to nonexistent regolith layers. The regolith profiles of badlands in arid climates are likely to resemble one another. In these regions, the upper layer (~) is typically composed of silt, shale, and sand (a byproduct of the weathered shale). This layer can form either a compact crust or a looser, more irregular aggregation of "popcorn" fragments. Located beneath the top layer is a sublayer (~), below which can be found a transitional shard layer (~), formed largely of loose disaggregated shale chips, which in turn eventually gives way to a layer of unweathered shale. Badlands such as those found in the Mancos Shale, the Brule Formation, the Chadron Formation, and the Dinosaur Provincial Park can be generally said to fit this profile.
In less arid regions, the regolith profile can vary considerably. Some badlands have no regolith layer whatsoever, capping instead in bare rock such as sandstone. Others have a regolith with a clay veneer, and still others have a biological crust of algae or lichens.
In addition to lacking significant regolith, they also lack much vegetation. The lack of vegetation could very well be a result of the lack of a substantial regolith.
Anthropogenic badlands
Although most badland topography is natural, badlands have been produced artificially by destruction of vegetation cover, through overgrazing, acid rain, or acid mine drainage. An example of badlands created by mining is the Roman gold mine of Las Médulas in northern Spain. The Cheltenham Badlands in Caledon, Ontario, is an example of badlands produced by poor farming practices.
Terminology
The word badlands is a calque from the Canadian French phrase , as the early French fur traders called the White River badlands or 'bad lands to traverse', perhaps influenced by the Lakota people who moved there in the late 1700s and who referred to the terrain as , meaning 'bad land' or 'eroded land'.
The term malpaís means 'badlands' in Spanish, but refers to a terrain of lava flows that is unlike the eroded badlands of the White River.
Human impact
Badlands are generally unsuitable for agriculture, but attempts have been made to remediate badlands. For example, reforestation is being attempted in the Garhbeta, Eastern India, badlands Revegetation and reforestation have been studied in the black marl badlands of the French Alps. Austrian black pine can become established and then be gradually replaced by native deciduous species. However, the time scale for this process is many decades.
Locations
Badlands are found on all the continents except Antarctica. The presence of unconsolidated sediments is a strong control on their locations.
Argentina
The Valle de la Luna ("Valley of the Moon") is one of many examples of badland formations in midwestern Argentina.
Canada
The Cheltenham Badlands are in Caledon, Ontario, not far from the largest city Toronto.
The Big Muddy Badlands in Saskatchewan gained notoriety as a hideout for outlaws.
There is a large badland area in Alberta, particularly in the valley of the Red Deer River, where Dinosaur Provincial Park is located, as well as in Drumheller, where the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology is located.
India
Garhbeta, Eastern India is a badlands located in a monsoon climate.
Italy
In Italy, badlands are called "calanchi". Some examples are Aliano (Basilicata), Crete Senesi (Tuscany) and Civita di Bagnoregio (Lazio).
New Zealand
A well-known badlands formation in New Zealand – the Putangirua Pinnacles, formed by the erosion of the conglomerate of an old alluvial fan – is located at the head of a small valley near the southern tip of the North Island.
Spain
The Bardenas Reales near Tudela, Navarre, the Tabernas Desert in Tabernas, Almería, parts of the Granada Altiplano near Guadix and possibly Los Monegros in Aragon are examples of Spanish badlands.
Turkey
Turkey has extensive badlands, including Göreme National Park.
United States
In the U.S., Makoshika State Park in Montana and Badlands National Park in South Dakota are examples of extensive badland formations. Also located in this region is Theodore Roosevelt National Park, a United States National Park composed of three geographically separated areas of badlands in western North Dakota named after former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona which is part of Navajo County encompasses numerous badlands that also abuts the Navajo Indian Reservation and is directly North of Joseph City, Arizona. Many dinosaurs are believed to be buried in the immediate area and exploration has been ongoing since the early 20th century.
Among the Henry Mountains area in Utah, about above sea level, Cretaceous- and Jurassic-aged shales are exposed. Another popular area of badland formations is Toadstool Geologic Park in the Oglala National Grassland located in northwestern Nebraska. Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado and Utah are also badlands settings, along with several other areas in southern Utah, such as the Chinle Badlands in Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. A small badland called Hell's Half-Acre is present in Natrona County, Wyoming. Additional badlands also exist in various places throughout southwest Wyoming, such as near Pinedale and in the Bridger Valley near the towns of Lyman and Mountain View, near the high Uintah Mountains. Pinnacles National Park in California also has areas of badlands, as does the Mojave Desert in eastern California.
Culture and media
Badlands have become a popular trope inside various different media, particularly westerns.
Image gallery
See also
Earth forest
Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve
References
External links
Badlands National Park (U.S. National Park Service)
The Badlands: Nature’s Time Capsule – Documentary about the badlands of South Dakota.
Sedimentology
Geomorphology
Erosion landforms | [
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239025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Do%20Not%20Want%20What%20I%20Haven%27t%20Got | I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got | I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got is the second album by Irish singer Sinéad O'Connor, released in March 1990 on Ensign/Chrysalis Records. It contains O'Connor's version of the Prince song "Nothing Compares 2 U", which was released as a single and reached number one in multiple countries. The album was nominated for four Grammy Awards in 1991, including Record of the Year, Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and Best Music Video, Short Form for "Nothing Compares 2 U", winning the award for Best Alternative Music Performance. However, O'Connor refused to accept the nominations and award.
Content
The critically acclaimed album contains O'Connor's most famous single, "Nothing Compares 2 U", which was one of the best selling singles in the world in 1990, topping the charts in many countries including the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. This rendition of the Prince song reflected on O'Connor's mother, who had lost her life in an auto accident five years earlier. The single "Emperor's New Clothes" found moderate success, although it did top the Modern Rock Tracks chart in the US.
The first song on the album, "Feel So Different", starts with The Serenity Prayer by Reinhold Niebuhr. The album also includes O'Connor's rendition of "I Am Stretched on Your Grave", an anonymous 17th century poem that was written in Irish, translated into English by Frank O'Connor, and composed by musician Philip King in 1979. O'Connor's sings her version over the oft-sampled loop of "Funky Drummer" by James Brown.
Critical reception
I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got received critical acclaim. In 2012, it was ranked number 408 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The album was ranked number 457 on the 2020 edition of the list.
Track listing
Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Sinéad O'Connor – vocals, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, keyboards, programming, arranger, producer, string arrangements
Marco Pirroni – guitar on "The Emperor's New Clothes"
David Munday – acoustic guitar and piano on "You Cause As Much Sorrow"
Andy Rourke – bass guitar on "The Emperor's New Clothes", "Jump in the River" and "You Cause As Much Sorrow", acoustic guitar on "Jump in the River"
Jah Wobble – bass guitar on "The Last Day of Our Acquaintance"
John Reynolds – drums and percussion on "The Emperor's New Clothes", "You Cause As Much Sorrow" and "The Last Day of Our Acquaintance"
Kieran Kiely – keyboards, accordion, piano
Steve Wickham – fiddle on "I am Stretched Out On Your Grave"
The Muses – backing vocals
Philip King – vocals, melody arrangement
Nick Ingman – conductor, orchestra director, string arrangement on "Feel So Different"
Karl Wallinger – arranger
Technical
Nellee Hooper – co-producer on "Nothing Compare 2 U"
Chris Birkett, Sean Devitt – engineers
Dave Hoffman, Dominique Le Rigoleur – photography
John Maybury – cover design
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
!scope="row"|Worldwide
|
|7,000,000
|-
References
1990 albums
Sinéad O'Connor albums
Albums produced by Nellee Hooper
Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album | [
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239026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ich%20Troje | Ich Troje | Ich Troje ("The Three of Them") is a Polish pop band. Ich Troje was founded in 1996 by songwriter Michał Wiśniewski and composer Jacek Łągwa. Since 2000, Ich Troje has been one of the most successful Polish groups. They have sold more than 1.5 million records since June 2001. Their songs are typically about love, betrayal and break-ups. They represented Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest twice: with "Keine Grenzen – Żadnych granic" in 2003 and "Follow My Heart" in 2006.
Members
Former members are Magdalena Pokora (a.k.a. Magda Femme, 1996–2000), Justyna Majkowska (2000–2003), Elli Mücke (2003) and Ania Wisniewska (2003–2010). After a series of auditions including fan votes, Norwegian singer Jeanette Vik was in December 2010 chosen as the band's next lead singer.
Eurovision 2003
On 25 January 2003, Polish TV viewers chose Ich Troje to represent them in 2003 Eurovision Song Contest by televoting. The band took part in the contest with the song "Keine Grenzen – Żadnych granic" (English translation: "No Borders"), a trilingual song performed in German, Polish and Russian. The song is a dramatic ballad, in which the singers express their desire to be astronauts, gazing down from space at the earth. As well as the beauty of the spectacle, they sing that from that distance it is impossible to see borders, flags and warfare. The theme of the need for peace is underscored by the multilingual lyrics, in which Polish is performed alongside the languages of two neighbouring states which have historically fought with Poland. The song received the maximum 12 points from Germany but none from Russia. The song finished 7th in a field of 26 entries.
A fully German version of the song was recorded as well. Another trilingual version (French, English, Esperanto) was recorded in 2016.
Eurovision 2006
The group setup was arranged to add a fifth member when taking part in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006, by adding the German rapper O-Jay (Olaf Jeglitza) of the German Eurodance act, Real McCoy. For Eurovision, credit was Ich Troje featuring Real McCoy and the song was "Follow My Heart". Their music was castigated by critics. The song finished 11th in the semi-final failing to qualify to the final.
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
References
External links
Polish pop music groups
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Poland
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2003
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2006 | [
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239027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstar%20Car%20Wash | Superstar Car Wash | Superstar Car Wash is the fourth studio album by American rock band Goo Goo Dolls, released in February, 1993 on Warner Bros. John Rzeznik wrote the song "We Are the Normal" with his idol, The Replacements' singer Paul Westerberg. The two corresponded by mail but never sat in a studio together. The song "Fallin' Down" was featured in the 1993 Pauly Shore movie Son In Law. Also, the song "So Far Away" was originally written and recorded with the title "Dancing In Your Blood"; the song had the same basic structure, but different lyrics, more minimal instrumentation, and a slightly different melody.
Superstar Car Wash was an actual car washing business on William Street just outside the downtown region of Buffalo, the hometown of the band.
Remixed versions of songs "Fallin' Down", "Another Second Time Around", "Cuz You're Gone", "We Are The Normal", "Girl Right Next To Me", "Lucky Star", and "On The Lie" appear in the 2001's compilation What I Learned About Ego, Opinion, Art & Commerce. These mixes sound slightly different from their original versions, with crisper and clearer background noises, such as accompanying acoustic guitars and choruses which have been emphasized.
Track listing
All songs written by The Goo Goo Dolls (Johnny Rzeznik, Robby Takac and George Tutuska) except when noted.
Personnel
Johnny Rzeznik – lead and rhythm guitar, lead and backing vocals
Robby Takac – bass guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals
George Tutuska – drums
Charts
Album
Single
References
Goo Goo Dolls albums
1993 albums
Warner Records albums | [
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239029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%20Scratch%20Fever | Cat Scratch Fever | Cat Scratch Fever is the third studio album by American rock musician Ted Nugent. It was released on May 13, 1977, by Epic Records. Vocalist Derek St. Holmes, who had left the band during the recording of the album Free-for-All, had come back for touring in 1976 and was again the principal lead singer on this album.
A commercial success, the album has been certified multi-platinum by the RIAA. Nugent released his next album, Double Live Gonzo!, the following year.
Reception
Cat Scratch Fever received a mostly positive review from Greg Prato of AllMusic, who remarked that it "matched the focused ferocity of Nugent's excellent 1975 debut", proclaiming it a "first-rate set of brash hard rockers".
Track listing
All songs written by Ted Nugent, except "Live It Up" (written by Nugent and Derek St. Holmes). All songs arranged by Nugent, Rob Grange, St. Holmes, and Cliff Davies.
Personnel
Band members
Derek St. Holmes – rhythm and lead guitar, lead and backing vocals, arrangements
Ted Nugent – lead and rhythm guitar, backing and lead (1, 2, 7) vocals, percussion
Rob Grange – bass guitar, backing vocals, arrangements
Cliff Davies – drums, backing vocals, arrangements, producer
Additional musicians
Alan Spenner, Boz Burrell, Rory Dodd – backing vocals
Montego Joe – percussion
Tom Werman – percussion, backing vocals, producer
Production
Lew Futterman – producer
Tim Geelan, Wayne Tarnowski – engineers
Jim Houghton, Robert Alford, Ron Pownall – photography
Bruce Dickinson – 1999 reissue producer
Vic Anesini – remastering
Howard Fritzson – 1999 reissue art director
Gary Graff – 1999 reissue liner notes
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
References
1977 albums
Ted Nugent albums
Albums produced by Tom Werman
Epic Records albums | [
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239032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20control | Cultural control | In agriculture cultural control is the practice of modifying the growing environment to reduce the prevalence of unwanted pests. Examples include changing soil pH or fertility levels, irrigation practices, amount of sunlight, temperature, or the use of beneficial animals (e.g. chickens) or insects (e.g. ladybugs) (biological control). Cultural control can help avoid pest population build-up, strengthen the overall resilience of a farming system and thereby reduce a need for curative interventions e.g., chemical pesticide applications. As such, a systematic implementation of cultural control practices can avert pesticide-induced detrimental effects on farmland biodiversity and the environment.
Agriculture | [
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239033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nose%20piercing | Nose piercing | Nose piercing is the piercing of the skin or cartilage which forms any part of the nose, normally for the purpose of wearing jewelry, called a nose-jewel. Among the different varieties of nose piercings, the nostril piercing is the most common.
Nostril piercing
Nostril piercing is a body piercing practice for the purpose of wearing jewelry, much like ear piercing, which is most primarily and prominently associated with Indian culture and fashion since classical times, and found commonly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, South and Southeast Asia, and Europe, particularly Poland. Nostril piercing is also part of traditional Australian Aboriginal culture and the culture of the Ilocano, a tribe in the Philippines.
Since the introduction and diffusion of Indian fashion and culture in the 1960s, punks and subsequent youth cultures of the 1980s and 1990s adopted nostril piercing. Today, nostril piercing is popular in the wider world including South America, United States of America, Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa, Japan and Europe, with piercings being performed on either the left or right nostril. For some cultures, this practice is simply for ornament, while for others it is for religious practices. Initially in America, this practice was for subcultures and was seen to be associated with minority youth.
In the United States, nose piercings may have negative connotations. For example, in a 2006 survey done in the hospitality industry, 81% of hiring managers stated that piercings and tattoos affect their perception of the candidate negatively.
Historically in the Indian Subcontinent, nose piercings were done by women only. However the spread of this fashion has resulted in both men and women having nostril piercings in the wider world. Several different types of nostril rings are found.
In India, the outside of the left side of the nose is the preferred position of the piercing. This is followed by some orthodox folk also because Ayurvedic medicine associates this location with the female reproductive organs. In India, like any other jewelry, piercings and the jewelry are regarded as a mark of beauty and social standing as well as a Hindu's honor to Parvati, the goddess of marriage. Nose piercing is still popular in India and the subcontinent. The piercings are often an integral part of Indian wedding jewelry. In Maharashtra, women wear very large intricate nose pieces that often cover the mouth or the side of the face.
This practice is very common among Bengali women and South Indian women. Tamil women traditionally pierce their right nostril. Numerous traditions are associated with it. Many women from the Indian subcontinent are cremated with just their nose studs as jewelry is removed before the funeral. Indian widows usually remove their nose studs as a sign of respect. Nose piercing has historically been strictly forbidden among many families of Kashmiris belonging to the Butt, Dar, Lone and Mir castes settled in Pakistan, as their ancestors associated nose piercing with people of menial descent in ancient Kashmiri society.
Nose piercing can be dated through pre-Columbian and colonial times throughout North and South America. Numerous status ceremonies are carved into the North Temple of the Great Ballcourt at Chichin Itza. One of these processions is a nose piercing ceremony that is depicted on the North Temple vault. Rather than depicting sacrifice, the common theme of the temple's carvings, the central figure is shown aiming what most likely is a bone awl to pierce the figure's nose. The ritual of the nostril piercing signified the elevated status of this figure. His place in society is symbolized by his nose piercing. Similarly, nose piercing signified elevated status in Colonial Highland Maya. The two prominent lords, Ajpop and the Ajpop K'ama, of the K'iche were pierced through the nose at the pinnacle of an elaborate ceremony. Similar to a crowning of a king, the nose piercing was to show their newfound leadership of the K'iche.
In Yucatan, explorers Oviedo y Valdes, Herrera y Tordesillas, Diego de Landa, and Jeronimo de Aguilar all noted different nose piercings that they observed in Mayans and other cultures in Yucatan in general. They reported that different stones could have different meaning within each civilization. In addition, they believed the different placement and size and shape of beads could denote the specific society the person came from. The Toltecs were believed to have piercings through the ala of the nose that was adorned with a bead. While the Mayans pierced through the septum and consisted of an oblong bead rather than a spherical.
Septum piercing
The nasal septum is the cartilaginous dividing wall between the nostrils. Generally, the cartilage itself is not pierced, but rather the small gap between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose (sometimes called the "sweet spot" by piercers), typically at 14ga (1.6 mm) although it is often stretched to a larger gauge (size). This piercing heals within a month and a half to three months also depending on the individual. It should only be stretched by 1mm at a time, and waiting at least a month between stretches is advisable. If a certain point is exceeded, usually about 8mm, the cartilage gets forced towards the top of the nose, which can be uncomfortable.
Many types of jewelry generally are worn in a septum piercing, such as: Captive bead rings (CBRs), rings that close with a bead held in the center by the tension of the ring, circular barbells (as shown in the picture), a circular bar with a bead that screws onto either end, a "tusk" that is a straight or shaped piece of material generally tapered on either end, or pinchers. For large gauge septums, many individuals choose to wear plugs, as the plugs do not weigh their noses down, which is helpful in healing. This measure allows the piercing not to be damaged by the sudden movement of the jewelry.
Another option is a septum retainer, which is staple-shaped. This type of nose piercing is particularly easy to hide when desired, for example to comply with a dress code. A septum retainer makes possible turning the jewelry up into the nose, thus concealing it. With black jewelry flipped up into the nostrils, this piercing can be made practically invisible. A circular barbell can also be hidden by pushing it to the back into the nose, but it may be uncomfortable.
Septum piercing is a popular trend among South Indian dancers (Kuchipudi, Bharatnatyam) and among certain Native American peoples in history; the Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, for example, had such piercings.
The septum piercing is popular in countrysides of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In India such piercing is called the 'Nathori' and popular with the Banjara ethnic groups and Adivasi tribes. Lord Krishna and his consort Radharani are often depicted wearing the 'Nathori' style jewel nose pieces.
Bengali women traditionally would wear the nathori as a sign of being a married woman. The nathori would be gold with a tear drop that would move along the ring. Many lower-class women in rural Bengal still keep this tradition. This practice is now declining as many women prefer the nose studs.
In southern Nepal the septum piercing is still common. Many older women still adorn their noses with both the septum and left nostril rings. Many women have gold nose piercings to show their social, tribal, and religious status in society.
In Central Australia, nose piercing was central to the development of a boy to a man. The Arunta, an aboriginal tribe in Central Australia, rite of passage for a boy. The rite of passage began with dancing ceremonies and developed into the boy moving to the men's camp and learning to hunt. The boys are usually between the ages of eleven and thirteen. The women at first throw the boy into the air and then is handed the men to throw him into the air to symbolize the boy belonging to the men from then on after. The boy learns to hunt larger animals that requires a tactful skill set that was not needed for smaller game. After some time, the boy's nasal septum was pierced and inserted with a bone by his father or grandfather to flatten his nose according to aesthetics.
Likewise, girls' symbol of coming of age was a nose piercing, but was done by her husband after marriage. Culturally, the piercings signified the social status of the individual and their right to access other ceremonies. For women, it displayed their ability to acquire a husband. For the husband, it displayed his ownership and right to his wife. For men, it presented the boy now as a man and his place is society with men. He no longer belonged to the children and the women who raised him. In addition, he now had the right to ceremonies such as circumcision, subincision and an elevated position in society.
Risks
The septum or nasal septum is the cartilaginous wall that divides the two nostrils. The cartilage is, however, usually not pierced. It is the thin strip of very soft and flexible skin, just between the cartilage and the bottom of the nose, where septum piercing is mostly done. Piercing the skin instead of the cartilage can greatly minimize the pain, as well as other discomforts associated with this type of body piercing. This piercing should be done only with a needle. As far as jewelry is concerned, captive bead rings, circular barbells, plugs, tusks, curls, and septum retainers can be used. Some metals used in nose rings are safe, but may cause allergies or sensitivity. Risk of bacterial infection is also present in swimming pools, bodies of water and baths.
All types of body piercings, including septum piercing, are associated with the risk of contracting certain blood borne diseases, like hepatitis, from the needles and piercing guns used in the procedure. This risk can be reduced by getting the piercing done by a reputed piercer and making sure that the piercer uses only sterile single-use needles. The next common risk associated with almost all types of piercing is the risk of infection and pain. These issues can be minimized greatly if piercing is done on the soft and flexible skin that lies between the cartilage and bottom of the nose. As far as infection risks are concerned, they can be managed with proper piercing aftercare.
This piercing can sometimes lead to 'septal hematoma ' -- an injury to the soft tissue within the septum that can disrupt the blood vessels to cause the accumulation of blood and fluid under the lining. Nasal septum hematoma can eventually cause nasal congestion and interfere with breathing along with causing pain and inflammation. If not treated immediately, the condition can ultimately cause formation of a hole in the septum, leading to nasal congestion. Sometimes, that part of the nose may collapse, resulting in a cosmetic deformity, known as 'saddle nose'.
Bridge piercing
Bridge piercings are inserted through the skin at the top of the nose, between the eyes. Curved barbells and straight barbells are the most commonly used in this piercing, while seamless and captive rings are not recommended.
Getting a bridge piercing done is somewhat riskier than other nose piercings. Like other surface piercings, the jewelry may migrate or cause scarring if not taken care of correctly. Bridge piercings require very specific anatomy, careful maintenance, and often many jewelry changes. A bridge piercing is pierced through the loose skin at the bridge of the nose. It is often pierced with a 14 gauge needle, depending on the preference of the piercer and the client's anatomy.
See also
Body piercing
Nose-jewel
Nose ring (animals)
Notes
References
Stirn, A. (2003). Body Piercing: Medical Consequences and Psychological Motivations. The Lancet 361: 1205–1215.
Facial piercings
Body piercing jewellery
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion | [
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239034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dweezil%20Zappa | Dweezil Zappa | Dweezil Zappa (born Ian Donald Calvin Euclid Zappa; September 5, 1969) is an American rock guitarist and occasional actor. He is the son of musical composer and performer Frank Zappa. Exposed to the music industry from an early age, Dweezil developed a strong affinity for playing the guitar and producing music. Able to learn directly from guitarists such as Steve Vai and Eddie Van Halen, Dweezil released his first single (produced by Eddie Van Halen) at the age of 12.
In addition to writing and recording his own music, Dweezil has carried on the legacy of his father's music by touring with the group Zappa Plays Zappa. The band features renditions of Zappa's original material and the lineup has often included Zappa alumni such as Napoleon Murphy Brock, Steve Vai, Terry Bozzio and others.
Early life
Dweezil Zappa was born in Los Angeles, California to Frank Zappa and Gail Zappa. He is the second of four siblings: his older sister, Moon, younger sister Diva and younger brother Ahmet, and is the cousin of actress Lala Sloatman. Zappa's father was of Sicilian, Greek, Arab, and French descent, and his mother was of German and Portuguese ancestry.
Dweezil's registered birth name was Ian Donald Calvin Euclid Zappa. The nurse at the hospital at which he was born refused to register him under the name Dweezil, to the point of arguing with Gail in the delivery room about it. Rattled at this turn of events, Frank rapidly listed the names of several musician friends, and the nurse added all of them to the birth certificate. "Dweezil" was a nickname coined by Frank for an oddly curled pinky toe of Gail's. At the age of five years, Dweezil learned that his legal name was different, and he insisted on having his nickname become his legal name. Gail and Frank hired an attorney and soon the name Dweezil was official.
Career
In the 1980s, Zappa worked as an MTV VJ and was promptly fired after badmouthing MTV on The Howard Stern Show. He also recorded some solo albums, as well as playing for other artists. Zappa can be heard playing lead guitar on the Fat Boys' "Wipe Out" (1987) and can be seen in the music video for Don Johnson's top 40 song, "Heartbeat". He also played co-lead guitar (along with Reb Beach) on Winger's cover of Jimi Hendrix's "Purple Haze". He also had a part in the futuristic Arnold Schwarzenegger film The Running Man as Stevie ("Don't touch that dial!"), and gave his most famous cameo role in John Hughes's Brat Pack film, Pretty in Pink (starring Molly Ringwald), as Andie's friend, Simon.
Since the early 1990s, Zappa has been working on a piece of music named "What the Hell Was I Thinking?", a 75-minute piece featuring guitar solos by dozens of famous guitar players. The project has suffered from numerous difficulties and has been reworked several times since the '90s. Dweezil said in September 2004: "I started recording it on analog tape almost 13 years ago... There are probably about 35 guest guitar players on it, everybody from Brian May to Eddie Van Halen, Eric Johnson, Angus and Malcolm Young—it's quite a crazy project. I'm still waiting and hoping to record Jeff Beck and Jimmy Page as some of my final guests on there."
In the mid-1990s, Zappa voiced the character Ajax Duckman on the animated series Duckman. He also briefly appeared in the television sitcom Normal Life with sister Moon Unit Zappa and former Laverne & Shirley star Cindy Williams. He composed and performed the theme music for The Ben Stiller Show (the solo from Spinal Tap's "Break Like the Wind"). In 1998, Zappa played music agent John Kaplan in the Warner Bros. family comedy Jack Frost. In 1999, Dweezil, alongside his brother, Ahmet Zappa, starred in a show featuring celebrities, bands and dance troupe called Happy Hour which debuted April 3, 1999 on the USA Network. The show lasted for one season despite its success due to a copyright dispute over the title of the show.
In "Weird Al" Yankovic's 2003 eleventh studio album Poodle Hat, Zappa performs the opening guitar solo and sings on the track, "Genius in France". In 2006, Zappa organized the "Zappa Plays Zappa" tour. He assembled a band of young musicians with a view to bring the music of Frank Zappa to a younger audience. The tour also featured guest appearances by Steve Vai, Napoleon Murphy Brock and Terry Bozzio. The tour began in Europe in May with dates in the U.S. from June. After a break it continued in the U.S. on October 18, 2006. The 2007 version of the tour ran from July, finishing in Australia in early December, and featured Ray White as special guest. The shows ended with the promise: "There are so many songs we want to learn to play ... see y'all next year...", and further tours have followed each year since 2007. In 2009, Ray White left Zappa Plays Zappa for an undisclosed reason.
Zappa lent his voice to one of the characters in one episode of Metalocalypse on Adult Swim.
In 2016, Zappa went on tour to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the release of Frank Zappa's album Freak Out!. The tour was titled "50 Years of Frank: Dweezil Zappa Plays Whatever the F@%k He Wants – The Cease and Desist Tour". The tour title was inspired by Zappa's feud with his brother Ahmet over the use of the "Zappa Plays Zappa" moniker, which resulted in Ahmet sending Zappa a cease-and-desist letter through the family trust.
Personal life
From 1998 to 2004, Zappa dated musician Lisa Loeb. Zappa and Loeb wrote and performed music together, and Zappa toured with Loeb's band. The couple co-hosted the cooking show Dweezil & Lisa on Food Network in 2004.
Zappa married fashion stylist Lauren Knudsen on September 3, 2005 in Los Angeles. They have two daughters: Zola Frank Zappa (born 2006) and Ceylon Indira Zappa (born 2008). In March 2010 Knudsen filed for divorce in L.A. County Superior Court. According to the documents, she applied to share legal custody of their two daughters. In March 2012, with the divorce case still unresolved, Zappa's former lawyer made a public issue of his unpaid legal bills.
Following the death of Zappa's mother, Gail, in October 2015, it was revealed that his siblings Ahmet and Diva were given control of the Zappa Family Trust with shares of 30% each, while Dweezil and his sister Moon were given smaller shares of 20% each. As beneficiaries only, Moon and Dweezil will not receive any distributions from the trust until it is profitable—in 2016, it was "millions of dollars in debt"—and must seek permission from Ahmet, the trustee, to make money off of their father's music or merchandise bearing his name. Dweezil received a cease-and-desist letter from the trust after he announced that he was being forced to perform his upcoming tour as "Dweezil Zappa Plays Frank Zappa" instead of using "Zappa Plays Zappa". In response to the trust's action, he renamed his performance series "50 Years of Frank: Dweezil Zappa Plays Whatever the F@%k He Wants—the Cease and Desist Tour".
In May 2018, the four siblings announced that they had reconciled.
Musical equipment
Guitars
Gibson SG – made of walnut, the main guitar on the F. O. H. album of Zappa Plays Zappa
Gibson Les Paul – 1958 reissue, wired like Jimmy Page's
Gibson Roxy SG - a replica of a guitar played by Frank Zappa on tour and in the studio during the '60s and '70s, the original Roxy SG can be seen depicted on the Roxy and Elsewhere album cover. Gibson produced a limited run of 400 Roxy SGs, featuring custom electronics and Maestro vibrola tail piece. Dweezil has used his own Roxy during Zappa Plays Zappa tours.
Fender Stratocaster
Amplifiers
Fractal Audio Axe-FX 2
Fractal Audio Axe-FX III
Discography
Solo
1982 – "My Mother Is a Space Cadet"/"Crunchy Water", 12" single
1986 – Havin' a Bad Day
1988 – My Guitar Wants to Kill Your Mama
1991 – Confessions
2000 – Automatic
2006 – Go with What You Know
2015 – Via Zammata'
With Ahmet Zappa
1994 – Shampoohorn
1996 – Music for Pets
With Zappa Plays Zappa
2008 – Zappa Plays Zappa
2010 – Return of the Son of...
2011 – In the Moment
2012 – F.O.H.
2012 – F.O.H. III: Out of Obscurity
2017 – Live In The Moment II
Guest appearances
1984 – Guitar solos "Sharleena" and "Stevie's Spanking" on Frank Zappa's Them or Us
1984 – Guitar on Frank Zappa's You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3 (album) on "Sharleena"
1985 – Vocals on Frank Zappa's Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention
1986 – Guitar solo on Don Johnson's song "The Last Sound Love Makes" and appearance in the video for "Heartbeat"
1986 – Guitar solo on "Whipping Post" on Frank Zappa's Does Humor Belong in Music?
1988 – Winger on "Seventeen" and "Purple Haze"
1989 – With sister Moon Unit, contributed the track "(In Love) With You Gumby" to the novelty album Gumby
1990 – Opening and outro solos on Extreme's Pornograffitti on the song "He-Man Woman Hater"
1992 – Lead guitar on "Diva Fever" on Spinal Tap's Break Like the Wind
1993 – Lead guitar on "Dirty Love" and "Chunga's Revenge" on Zappa's Universe tribute
1994 – Barks on the track "Waffenspiel" on Frank Zappa's Civilization Phaze III
1994 – Co-Lead Guitar on "Chewing on Crayons"" on Blues Saraceno's Hairpick
1997 – Guitar solo on Pat Boone's cover of "Smoke on the Water" (the No More Mr. Nice Guy album)
1997 – Guitar on the song "Quando M'en Vo" from Giacomo Puccini, in the musical project "Angelica"
2000 – Guitar on Dixie Dregs's California Screamin CD performing "Peaches en Regalia"
2001 – 9.11, on "Top of the World"
2003 – "Weird Al" Yankovic's Poodle Hat album, on "Genius in France"
2004 – Lead guitar on "Time Heals" on Todd Rundgren's "Hello, It's Me And My Friends"
2005 – Guitar on "Surf Punks" on the soundtrack to the game "Conker: Live & Reloaded"
2006 – Lead guitar on "Chunga's Revenge" and "Bavarian Sunset" on Frank Zappa's Trance-Fusion
2006 – Guitar on Kip Winger's solo album Songs from the Ocean Floor
2011 – Solo guitar on "Release the Memes" from Centrifugal Satz Clock: Morning, by Steve Kusaba
2011 – Electric Guitar on "Gypsy Flee" from "A Kiss Before You Go" album By Norwegian band Katzenjammer
2013 – Solo guitar on "Mind Your Step" from Freak Guitar: The Smorgasbord, by Mattias IA Eklundh
References
External links
Dweezil Zappa's website
December 2010 interview with Tom Waring
March 2016 interview with Marc Maron
1969 births
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
American heavy metal guitarists
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of Italian descent
American people of Arab descent
American people of Portuguese descent
American people of Greek descent
Lead guitarists
American people of Danish descent
American people of French descent
Lisa Loeb
Chrysalis Records artists
Grammy Award winners
American male guitarists
Zappa Plays Zappa members
Favored Nations artists
Zappa family | [
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239035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Boston | Siege of Boston | The siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War. New England militiamen prevented the movement by land of the British Army, which was garrisoned in what was then the peninsular city of Boston, Massachusetts Bay. Both sides had to deal with resource, supply, and personnel issues over the course of the siege. British resupply and reinforcement was limited to sea access, which was impeded by American vessels. The British abandoned Boston after eleven months and transferred their troops and equipment to Nova Scotia.
The siege began on April 19 after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, when Massachusetts militias blocked land access to Boston. The Continental Congress formed the Continental Army from the militias involved in the fighting and appointed George Washington as Commander in Chief. In June 1775, the British seized Bunker and Breed's Hills, from which the Continentals were preparing to bombard the city, but their casualties were heavy and their gains insufficient to break the Continental Army's control over land access to Boston. After this the Americans laid siege to the city; no major battles were fought during this time and the conflict was limited to occasional raids, minor skirmishes, and sniper fire. British efforts to supply their troops were significantly impacted by the smaller but more agile American forces operating on both land and sea and the British consequently suffered from a continual lack of food, fuel, and supplies during the siege.
In November 1775, George Washington sent 25-year-old bookseller-turned-soldier Henry Knox on a mission to bring to Boston the heavy artillery that had recently been captured at Fort Ticonderoga. In a technically complex and demanding operation, Knox was able to bring the cannons to Boston in January 1776 and by March this artillery had fortified Dorchester Heights which overlooked Boston harbor. This development threatened to cut off the British supply lifeline from the sea. British commander William Howe saw his position as indefensible and on March 17 he withdrew his forces from Boston to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Background
Before 1775, the British imposed taxes and import duties on the American colonies, to which the inhabitants objected since they lacked British Parliamentary representation. In response to the Boston Tea Party and other acts of protest, 4,000 British troops under the command of General Thomas Gage were sent to occupy Boston and to pacify the restive Province of Massachusetts Bay. Parliament authorized Gage, among other actions, to disband the local provincial government (led by John Hancock and Samuel Adams). It was reformed into the Provincial Congress, and continued to meet. The Provincial Congress called for the organization of local militias and coordinated the accumulation of weapons and other military supplies. Under the terms of the Boston Port Act, Gage closed the Boston port, which caused much unemployment and discontent.
When British forces were sent to seize military supplies from the town of Concord on April 19, 1775, militia companies from surrounding towns opposed them at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. At Concord, some of the British forces were routed in a confrontation at the North Bridge. The British troops, on their march back to Boston, were then engaged in a running battle, suffering heavy casualties. All of the New England colonies (and later colonies farther south) raised militias in response to this alarm, and sent them to Boston.
Order of battle
British Army
The British army order of battle in July 1775 was:
Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in America, Major General Sir William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
Commander of Artillery & Engineers, Colonel Cleveland (commanding officer of the 4th Battalion)
No.1 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
No.2 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
No.4 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
No.5 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
No.8 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
x2 Companies of Invalids
1st Division, commanded by Major General Sir Henry Clinton
17th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons (4 Squadrons)
1st Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General His Grace Hugh Percy, 2nd Duke of Northumberland
4th (The King's Own) Regiment of Foot
23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers)
44th Regiment of Foot
59th Regiment of Foot
3rd Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Paget
10th Regiment of Foot
33rd Regiment of Foot
47th Regiment of Foot
1st Battalion, Royal Marines
5th Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General James Grant, Laird of Ballindalloch
22nd Regiment of Foot
43rd Regiment of Foot
52nd Regiment of Foot
2nd Division, commanded by Major General John Burgoyne
2nd Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Jones
5th Regiment of Foot
35th Regiment of Foot
45th Regiment of Foot
53rd Regiment of Foot
4th Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General James Robertson
18th Regiment of Foot/65th Regiment of Foot (combined)
40th Regiment of Foot
49th Regiment of Foot
2nd Battalion, Royal Marines
Royal Navy
British North American Squadron (only those ships based in/around Boston listed)
HMS Boyne (70 guns)
HMS Somerset (68 guns)
HMS Asia (64 Guns)
HMS Preston (50 guns)
HMS Mercury (20 guns)
HMS Glasgow (20 guns)
HMS Diana (6 guns)
In Marblehead, Massachusetts:
HMS Lively (20 guns)
United Colonies Army
Army of Massachusetts (Continental Army), commanded by the Commander-in-Chief, General George Washington
Commander of Artillery, Brigadier General Henry Knox
Continental Artillery Regiment
Rhode Island Artillery Company
Massachusetts Line
Frye's Massachusetts Regiment
Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment
Learned's Massachusetts Regiment
Nixon's Massachusetts Regiment
J. Brewer's Massachusetts Regiment
Fellow's Massachusetts Regiment
D. Brewer's Massachusetts Regiment
Prescott's Massachusetts Regiment
Cotton's Massachusetts Regiment
Little's Massachusetts Regiment
Danielson's Massachusetts Regiment
Mansfield's Massachusetts Regiment
Read's Massachusetts Regiment
Glover's Massachusetts Regiment
Walker's Massachusetts Regiment
Whitcomb's Massachusetts Regiment
Woodbridge's Massachusetts Regiment
Bridge's Massachusetts Regiment
Sargent's Massachusetts Regiment
Scammon's Massachusetts Regiment
Phinney's Massachusetts Regiment
Ward's Massachusetts Regiment
Thomas's Massachusetts Regiment
Heath's Massachusetts Regiment
Gardner's Massachusetts Regiment
Gerrish's Massachusetts Regiment
New Hampshire Line
1st New Hampshire Regiment
2nd New Hampshire Regiment
3rd New Hampshire Regiment
Rhode Island Line
Varnum's Regiment
Hitchcock's Regiment
Church's Regiment
Connecticut Line
2nd Connecticut Regiment
3rd Connecticut Regiment
6 cos, 2 from 4th Connecticut Regiment
6th Connecticut Regiment
8th Connecticut Regiment
Siege
Digging in
Immediately after the battles of April 19, the Massachusetts militia, under the loose leadership of William Heath, who was superseded by General Artemas Ward late on the 20th, formed a siege line extending from Chelsea, around the peninsulas of Boston and Charlestown, to Roxbury, effectively surrounding Boston on three sides. They particularly blocked the Charlestown Neck (the only land access to Charlestown), and the Boston Neck (the only land access to Boston, which was then a peninsula), leaving only the harbor and sea access under British control.
In the days immediately following the creation of the siege line, the size of the colonial forces grew, as militias from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut arrived on the scene. General Gage wrote of his surprise of the number of rebels surrounding the city: "The rebels are not the despicable rabble too many have supposed them to be....In all their wars against the French they never showed such conduct, attention, and perseverance as they do now."
General Gage turned his attention to fortifying easily defensible positions. In the south, at Roxbury, Gage ordered lines of defenses with 10 twenty-four pound guns. In Boston proper, four hills were quickly fortified. They were to be the main defense of the city. Over time, each of these hills was strengthened. Gage also decided to abandon Charlestown, removing the beleaguered forces (that had retreated from Concord) to Boston. The town of Charlestown itself was entirely vacant, and the high lands of Charlestown (Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill) were left undefended, as were the heights of Dorchester, which had a commanding view of the harbor and the city.
The British at first greatly restricted movement in and out of the city, fearing infiltration of weapons. Besieged and besiegers eventually reached an informal agreement allowing traffic on the Boston Neck, provided no firearms were carried. Residents of Boston turned in almost 2,000 muskets, and most of the Patriot residents left the city. Many Loyalists who lived outside the city of Boston left their homes and fled into the city. Most of them felt that it was not safe to live outside of the city, because the Patriots were now in control of the countryside. Some of the men, after arriving in Boston, joined Loyalist regiments attached to the British army.
Because the siege did not blockade the harbor, the city remained open for the Royal Navy, under Vice Admiral Samuel Graves, to bring in supplies from Nova Scotia and other places. Colonial forces could do little to stop these shipments due to the naval supremacy of the British fleet. Nevertheless, American privateers were able to harass supply ships, and food prices rose quickly. Soon the shortages meant the British forces were on short rations. Generally, the American forces were able to gather information about what was happening in the city from people escaping the privations of Boston, but General Gage had no effective intelligence of rebel activities.
Early skirmishes
On May 3, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized Benedict Arnold to raise forces for taking Fort Ticonderoga near the southern end of Lake Champlain in the Province of New York, which was known to have heavy weapons, but to be only lightly defended. Arnold arrived in Castleton (in what is now Vermont, but was then disputed territory between New York and New Hampshire) on the 9th, where he joined with Ethan Allen and a militia company from Connecticut, all of whom had independently arrived at the idea of taking Ticonderoga. This company, under the joint leadership of Arnold and Allen, captured Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point. They also captured the one large military vessel on Lake Champlain in a raid on Fort Saint-Jean. They recovered over 180 cannons, as well as other weaponry and supplies that the nascent Continental Army would find useful in tightening their grip on Boston.
Boston lacked a regular supply of fresh meat, and many horses needed hay. On May 21, Gage ordered a party to go to Grape Island, in the outer harbor, and bring hay to Boston. When the Continentals on the mainland noticed this, they took alarm, and the militia were called out. As the British party arrived, they came under fire from the militia. The militia set fire to a barn on the island, destroying 80 tons of hay, and prevented the British from taking more than 3 tons.
Continental forces, partly in response to the Grape Island incident, worked to clear the harbor islands of livestock and supplies useful to the British. On May 27, in the Battle of Chelsea Creek, the British Marines attempted to stop removal of livestock from some of the islands. The Americans resisted, and, in the course of the action, the British schooner Diana ran aground and was destroyed, but not before the Continentals recovered its weaponry. In an attempt to help quell the rebellion, Gage issued a proclamation on June 12 offering to pardon all of those who would lay down their arms, with the exception of John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Instead of quelling the rebellion, it ignited anger among the Patriots, and more people began to take up arms.
Breed's Hill
Throughout May, the British had been receiving reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three Generals arrived on : William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning to break out of the city.
The plan decided on by the British command was to fortify both Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights. They fixed the date for taking Dorchester Heights at June 18. On June 15, the colonists' Committee of Safety learned of the British plans. In response, they sent instructions to General Ward to fortify Bunker Hill and the heights of Charlestown; he ordered Colonel William Prescott to do so. On the night of June 16, Prescott led 1,200 men over the Charlestown Neck, and constructed fortifications on Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill.
On June 17, in the Battle of Bunker Hill, British forces under General Howe took the Charlestown peninsula. The British succeeded in their tactical objective of taking the high ground on the Charlestown peninsula, but they suffered significant losses. With some 1,000 men killed or wounded, including 92 officers killed, the British losses were so heavy that there were no further direct attacks on American forces. The Americans, while losing the battle, had again stood against the British regulars with some success, as they had successfully repelled two assaults on Breed's Hill during the engagement. From this point, the siege essentially became a stalemate.
Stalemate
General George Washington arrived at Cambridge on July 2. He set up his headquarters at the Benjamin Wadsworth House at Harvard College. He took command of the newly formed Continental Army the following day. By this time forces and supplies were arriving, including companies of riflemen from as far away as Maryland and Virginia. Washington began the work of molding the militias into something more closely resembling an army, appointing senior officers (where the militias had typically elected their leaders), and introducing more organization and disciplinary measures to the encamped militias.
Washington required officers of different ranks to wear differentiating apparel, so that they might be distinguished from their underlings and superiors. On July 16, he moved his headquarters to the John Vassall House, also in Cambridge, that would later become well known as the home of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Toward the end of July, about 2,000 riflemen arrived in units raised in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The accuracy of the rifle was previously unknown in New England, and these forces were used to harass the besieged forces.
Washington also ordered the defenses to be improved. Trenches were dug on the Boston Neck, and then extended toward Boston. However, these activities had little effect on the British occupation. The working parties were fired on from time to time, as were sentries guarding the works. On July 30, in retaliation for an American attack, the British pushed back an American advanced guard, and burned a few houses in Roxbury. Four days later, on August 2, an American rifleman was killed, and his body hung up by the neck. In retaliation, other American riflemen marched to the lines and began to attack the British troops. They continued their sharpshooting all day, killing or wounding many of the British, and losing only one man.
On August 30, the British made a surprise breakout from the Boston Neck, set fire to a tavern, and withdrew to their defenses. On the same night, 300 Americans attacked Lighthouse Island and burned the lighthouse, killing several British soldiers and capturing 23 at the loss of one life. On another August night, Washington sent 1,200 men to dig entrenchments on a hill near the Charlestown Neck. Despite a British bombardment, the Americans successfully dug the trenches.
In early September, Washington began drawing up plans for two moves: first, to dispatch 1,000 men from Boston and invade Quebec, and second, to launch an attack on Boston. Washington felt that he could afford to send some troops to Quebec, as he had received intelligence from British deserters and American spies that the British had no intention of launching an attack from Boston until they were reinforced. On September 11, about 1,100 troops under the command of Benedict Arnold left for Quebec. Washington summoned a council of war, and made a case for an all out amphibious assault on Boston, by sending troops across Back Bay in flat-bottomed boats which could hold 50 men each. Washington believed it would be extremely difficult to keep the men together when winter came. In a war council, the plan was unanimously rejected, and the decision was not to attack "for the present at least."
In early September Washington authorized the appropriation and outfitting of local fishing vessels for intelligence-gathering and interdiction of supplies to the British. This activity was a precursor to the Continental Navy, which was established in the aftermath of the British Burning of Falmouth (present-day Portland, Maine). The provincial assemblies of Connecticut and Rhode Island had by then also begun arming ships and authorized privateering.
In early November, 400 British soldiers went to Lechmere's Point on a raiding expedition to acquire some livestock. They made off with 10 head of cattle, but lost two lives in the skirmish with colonial troops sent to defend the point. On November 29, colonial Captain John Manley, commanding the schooner Lee, captured one of the most valuable prizes of the siege, the British brigantine Nancy, just outside Boston Harbor. She was carrying a large supply of ordnance and military stores intended for the British troops in Boston.
As winter approached, both sides faced their own problems. The Americans were so short of gunpowder that some of the soldiers were given spears instead of guns to fight with in the event of a British attack. Many of the American troops remained unpaid and many of their enlistments were set to expire at the end of the year. On the British side Howe, who had replaced Gage as commander in October, was faced with different problems. Wood was so scarce that British soldiers resorted to cutting down trees and tearing down wooden buildings, including the Old North Meeting House.
To add to this, supplying the city had become increasingly difficult because of winter storms and the rise in rebel privateers. An improvised American war fleet of about 12 converted merchant ships captured 55 British ships over the course of the winter. Many of the captured ships had been carrying food supplies to the British troops. The British troops were so hungry that many were ready to desert as soon as they could. Worse, scurvy and smallpox had broken out in the city. Washington's army faced similar problems with smallpox, as soldiers from rural communities were exposed to the disease. Washington moved infected troops to a separate hospital, the only option then available given the public stigma against inoculation.
Washington again proposed to assault Boston in October, but his officers thought it best to wait until the harbor had frozen over. In February, when the water had frozen between Roxbury and Boston Common, Washington thought that in spite of his shortage in powder he would try an assault by rushing across the ice; but his officers again advised against it. Washington's desire to launch an attack on Boston arose from his fear that his army would desert in the winter, and how easily he knew that Howe could break the lines of his army in its present condition. He had not yet learned how completely he could trust in Howe's inactivity; he abandoned an attack across the ice with great reluctance in exchange for a more cautious plan, to fortify Dorchester Heights using cannon arrived from Fort Ticonderoga.
In mid-January, on orders from London, British Major General Henry Clinton and a small fleet set sail for the Carolinas with 1,500 men. Their objective was to join forces with additional troops arriving from Europe, and to take a port in the southern colonies for further military operations. In early February a British raiding party crossed the ice and burned several farmhouses in Dorchester.
End of the siege
Between November 1775 and February 1776, Colonel Henry Knox and a team of engineers used sledges to retrieve 60 tons of heavy artillery that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga. Bringing them across the frozen Hudson and Connecticut rivers in a difficult, complex operation, they arrived back at Cambridge on January 24, 1776.
Fortification of Dorchester Heights
Some of the Ticonderoga cannons, which were of a size and range not previously available to the Americans, were emplaced in fortifications around the city, and on the night of March 2, 1776, the Americans began to bombard the city with those cannon, to which the British responded with cannonades of their own. The American guns, under the direction of Colonel Knox, continued to exchange fire with the British until March 4. The exchange of fire did little damage to either side, although it did damage houses and kill some British soldiers in Boston.
On March 5, Washington moved more of the Ticonderoga cannon and several thousand men overnight to occupy Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston. Since it was winter, the ground was frozen, which made the digging of trenches impractical. Rufus Putnam, who had been a millwright, developed a plan to fortify the heights using defenses made of heavy timbers and fascines. These were prefabricated out of sight of the British, and brought in overnight. General Howe is said to have exclaimed, "My God, these fellows have done more work in one night than I could make my army do in three months." The British fleet was within range of the American guns on Dorchester Heights, putting it and the troops in the city at risk.
The immediate response of the British was a two-hour cannon barrage at the heights, which had no effect because the British guns could not reach the American guns at such height. After the failure of the barrage, Howe and his officers agreed that the colonists must be removed from the heights if they were to hold Boston. They planned an assault on the heights; however, due to a storm the attack never took place, and the British elected instead to withdraw.
On March 8, some prominent Bostonians sent a letter to Washington, stating that the British would not destroy the town if they were allowed to depart unmolested. Washington was given the letter, but formally rejected it, as it was not addressed to him by either name or title. However, the letter had the intended effect: when the evacuation began, there was no American fire to hinder the British departure. On March 9, after seeing movement on Nook's Hill on Dorchester, the British opened a massive fire barrage that lasted all night. It killed four men with one cannonball, but that was all the damage that was done. The next day, the colonists went out and collected the 700 cannonballs that had been fired at them.
Evacuation
On March 10, 1776, General Howe issued a proclamation ordering the inhabitants to give up all linen and woolen goods that could be used by the colonists to continue the war. A Loyalist, Crean Brush, was authorized to receive these goods, in return for which he gave certificates that were effectively worthless. Over the next week, the British fleet sat in Boston harbor waiting for favorable winds, while Loyalists and British soldiers were loaded onto the ships. During this time, American naval activities outside the harbor successfully captured and diverted to ports under colonial control several British supply ships.
On March 15, the wind became favorable, but before they could leave, it turned against them. On March 17, the wind once again turned favorable. The troops, who were authorized to burn the town if there were any disturbances while they were marching to their ships, began to move out at 4:00 a.m. By 9:00 a.m., all ships were underway. The fleet departing from Boston included 120 ships, with more than 11,000 people aboard. Of those, 9,906 were British troops, 667 were women, and 553 were children.
Aftermath
Americans clean up
Once the British fleet sailed away, the Americans moved to reclaim Boston and Charlestown. At first, they thought that the British were still on Bunker Hill, but it turned out that the British had left dummies in place. Due to the risk of smallpox, at first only men picked for their prior exposure to the disease entered Boston under the command of Artemas Ward. More of the colonial army entered on March 20, 1776, once the risk of disease was judged low. While Washington had essentially acceded to the British threat to burn Boston, and had not hindered their departure from the city, he did not make their escape from the outer harbor entirely easy. He directed Captain Manley to harass the departing British fleet, in which he had some success, capturing among other prizes the ship carrying Crean Brush and his plunder.
General Howe, when his fleet finally left the outer harbor, left in his wake a small contingent of vessels whose primary purpose was to intercept any arriving British vessels. While they successfully redirected to Halifax numerous ships carrying British troops originally destined for Boston, some unsuspecting British troop ships landed in Boston, only to fall into American hands.
The British departure ended major military activities in the New England colonies. Washington, fearing that the British were going to attack New York City, departed on April 4 with his army for Manhattan, beginning the New York and New Jersey campaign.
There are six units of the Army National Guard (101st Eng Bn, 125th MP Co, 181st Inf, 182nd Inf, 197th FA, and 201st FA) derived from American units that participated in the siege of Boston. There are thirty currently existing units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.
Fate of the British generals
"Had Sir William Howe fortified the hills round Boston, he could not have been disgracefully driven from it," wrote his replacement Sir Henry Clinton. General Howe was severely criticized in the British press and Parliament for his failures in the Boston campaign. Nevertheless he remained in command for another two years: for the New York and New Jersey campaign and the Philadelphia campaign. General Gage never received another combat command. General Burgoyne would see action in the Saratoga campaign, a disaster that saw his capture, as well as that of 7,500 troops under his command. General Clinton would command the British forces in America for four years (1778–1782).
Fate of the Loyalists
Many Massachusetts Loyalists left with the British when they evacuated Boston. Some went to England to rebuild lives there, and some returned to America after the war. Many went to Canada, settling in places like Saint John, New Brunswick, and often became active in the development of New Brunswick.
Fate of Boston
Following the siege, Boston effectively ceased to be a military target, but continued to be a focal point for revolutionary activities, with its port acting as an important point for fitting ships of war and privateers. Its leading citizens would have important roles in the development of the future United States. Boston and other area communities mark the March 17 end of the siege as Evacuation Day.
See also
American Revolutionary War §Early Engagements. The siege of Boston placed in sequence and strategic context.
Battle of Gloucester, capture of British seamen attempting to enforce blockade in Gloucester Harbor
Battle of Machias, Boston-based ship captured in Machias Bay
Fort Washington, Massachusetts, surviving colonial position used during the siege
List of conflicts in the United States#18th century
List of Washington's Headquarters during the Revolutionary War
Footnotes
Bibliography
Allison, Robert J. "George Washington and the Siege of Boston." in A Companion to George Washington (2012): 137-152.
Barbier, Brooke. Boston in the American Revolution: A Town Versus an Empire (Arcadia Publishing, 2017).
Hazelgrove, William. Henry Knox's Noble Train: The Story of a Boston Bookseller's Heroic Expedition that Saved the American Revolution (Rowman & Littlefield, 2020).
Philbrick, Nathaniel. Bunker Hill: A City, a Siege, a Revolution (Random House, 2013).
Primary sources
1775 in Massachusetts
1775 in the Thirteen Colonies
1776 in Massachusetts
18th century in Boston
Boston
Boston
Boston
Military history of New England
Boston
Battles of the American Revolutionary War in Massachusetts | [
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239036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confessions%20%28Usher%20album%29 | Confessions (Usher album) | Confessions is the fourth studio album by American singer Usher. It was released on March 23, 2004, by Arista Records. Recording sessions for the album took place during 2003 to 2004, with its production handled by his longtime collaborator Jermaine Dupri, along with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and Lil Jon, among others. Primarily an R&B album, Confessions showcases Usher as a crooner through a mixture of ballads and up-tempos, incorporating musical genres of dance-pop, hip hop and crunk. The album's themes generated controversy about Usher's personal relationships; however, the album's primary producer Jermaine Dupri claimed the album reflects Dupri's own personal story.
In the United States, the album sold 1.1 million copies in its first week. To boost sales amid threats of bootlegging, the special edition for the album was issued, which includes the single, "My Boo"; a duet with Alicia Keys. Confessions earned Usher several awards, including the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album.
According to Billboard, it is the second-best selling album of the 2000s decade in the United States, behind Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP. With over eight million copies sold in 2004, the album was viewed as a sign of recovering album sales in the US, following three years of decline. It was also exemplary of urban music's commercial peak and dominance of the Billboard charts in 2004. Confessions has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2016, has sold over 10.3 million copies in the US and over 15 million copies worldwide.
Background and recording
When he began recording Confessions in 2003, Usher claimed he did not want to work with any new producers. Production began between Usher and Jermaine Dupri, who produced his last two albums, My Way (1997) and 8701 (2001). In spite of his vision, Usher stated, "With this album I chose some new producers who I figured would definitely allow me to really articulate myself in a different way ... Every album you gotta grow. You gotta look for something different." Dupri also invited his frequent collaborator Bryan-Michael Cox. The album features productions by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Just Blaze, R. Kelly, and Usher's brother James Lackey.
When Usher felt that the album was completed, with forty recorded songs, he submitted the album to his record label, Arista. However, he and the company's then-president, L. A. Reid, who listened to the record, thought something was missing in it. "You know what, there's like one or two more records that we just gotta get." Usher was displeased with the decision; he felt returning to the studio was the hardest part and needed to re-motivate himself. He went on recording a few more tracks with help from fellow Atlantian's Lil Jon and Ludacris. Eventually, the team was able to produce songs like "Red Light" and "Yeah!". He also recorded songs with P. Diddy and The Neptunes during one of those sessions, but those songs were not released.
Composition
One of Usher's first steps in recording Confessions was deciding to reveal "his own little secrets". Friend and former A&R rep named Kawan "KP" Prather thought the album would let the public know Usher personally. Prather said, "The music has never been the question, but people tend to buy into the artist. The more they know about you, the more they feel like they're there with you." Primarily because of the album's personal content, Usher said that this is his chance to be real. He named the album Confessions because he felt it is his most personal record to date: "All of us have our Pandora's boxes or skeletons in our closets. I let a few of them out, you know. I've got a lot to say. I've got a lot of things and stuff built in me that I just want to let go of." He wrote more songs than he contributed to his previous album.
Several of the songs in this album were conceptually based on a situation. For instance, "Burn" was built around the winding down of Usher's two-year relationship with Rozonda "Chilli" Thomas from American R&B-Hip hop Girl group TLC. Dupri and Cox were talking and felt that there was a song in it, and started writing. Similarly, with the title track "Confessions Part II", they were conversing about an impregnated mistress, and its concept was written down. Usher recorded "Confessions Part II" during July 2003 recording sessions in New York City. When Usher sang the song's lyrics, the theme of cheating inspired him and Dupri to create two parts; "Confessions Part I" and "Confessions Part II". "Confessions Part I" can be heard at the beginning of the video for "Confessions Part II".
Music and style
Confessions falls mainly in the R&B genre. Usher commented that he chose to work with collaborators who know "... how to interpret R&B from a jazz standpoint, an old school throwback standpoint, a new school point, a traditional classic standpoint ..." With producers and Usher set to produce such an album, however, other musical genres including hip hop were incorporated. While he wanted to do R&B, Usher also wanted his fans to experience hip hop at the same time: "I try to think outside the box." When Lil Jon came on the scene, crunk was introduced to the R&B-centered album, specifically on the Sean Garrett-penned song "Yeah!". Usher said, "'Yeah!' could be called the first consciously styled "crunk R&B" record." The album also includes various slow jams.
This record also introduces a new style for Usher, focusing on his voice and technique. Andre "Dre" Harris and Vidal Davis listened to 8701 and felt that "Usher really needs to sing hard and let people know his vocal ability". With efforts focused on the record to demonstrate his vocal ability to listeners, songs such as "Superstar" and "Follow Me" exhibited Usher in a type of "crooner mode". The ballad-oriented "Burn" also showcases his vocal aptitude.
Release
Confessions was slated to be released on November 6, 2003. However, due to marketing issues, the scheduled date was moved to March 23 of the following year. With several songs recorded, Usher faced the challenge of determining the final track listing. Usher, Dupri, Reid, and then-A&R rep Mark Pitts each had their favorites among the forty, but decided to choose those which "came up consistently more". The collective was able to settle on fifteen of them, with two interludes completing the seventeen track list. Many songs were set aside for future use, including "Red Light" and a remix of "Yeah!". Usher and Arista held advance listenings for the album, a few months before its actual release; he also appeared on TV guestings to promote Confessions.
With strategies to boost the album's sales albeit threats of stealing music in the internet, Usher and his management readied a follow-up release of Confessions with an additional marketing blitz. The idea was considered "musically driven" after Zomba, who absorbed Arista, management was excited about "My Boo", a song that was recorded for the original version of the album but failed to meet deadline. However, it actually began when American R&B and soul singer Alicia Keys, who is featured on the track, "brought in that the talk of repackaging started". With the inclusion of "My Boo", they thought of the album as complete. While they knew of other artists releasing special editions of their albums, the label felt that Confessions had the edge because of its previous success and its physical changes, including new cover art, an expanded CD booklet, a pullout poster and a letter to fans from Usher. The new version includes "My Boo" and "Red Light", which were leaked alongside other songs that did not appear in the album, and a remix of "Confessions Part II", and "Seduction"; original tracks were also improved like the extended version of "Confessions Part I" and a rap added by American rapper Jadakiss in "Throwback". The label itself treated the version a new album, with full media advertisements. The album was re-issued in October 2004, seven months after its initial release.
Marketing
In selecting which single to release first, Usher and the label considered various marketing strategies. With many potential lead singles that could fare well in music markets, they were choosing between "Yeah!" and "Burn". Even though "Burn" was just what the label was looking for, they believed that "Yeah!" would be a blockbuster. Meanwhile, they felt "Burn" also failed to meet their expectations: "'Burn' being a great song is one thing, but it's one of them things where people said, 'It's strong, but can we make history with that?' At the end of the day, you want an event."
Usher was skeptical about whether "Yeah!"—which is largely composed around crunk—would be a good choice, given his mindset envisioning "Confessions" as an R&B record. KP recalled, "Everybody was scared to make that first step."
With much debate between two songs, "Burn" was originally chosen as the lead single, with plans of filming its music video in late 2003. Meanwhile, Lil Jon leaked "Yeah!" to DJs across the United States in November 2003. Originally, the label did not intend "Yeah!" as a proper single. Released to street DJs and mixtapes, it was meant to cultivate fans who waited for three years since the release of 8701. While record labels stayed idle during the Christmas season, "Yeah!" was getting favorable and quick response from radio stations though nobody was promoting; it was finally released as the lead single.
To keep the album atop the chart, "My Boo" was targeted for release after "Confessions Part II" was diminishing on the Hot 100. The B-side of the UK release includes "Red Light" and "Sweet Lies". The single again topped the Hot 100, giving the album its fourth consecutive number-one. "Caught Up" was released as the album's fifth and final single, and reached number eight in the United States.
Tour
Usher supported the album with a two-month concert tour called "The Truth Tour". The tour set featured a small stage up on top of the main stage, where the band played with Usher and his supporting dancers left with enough room to perform. The smaller stage had a mini platform attached to it—which lowered to the main stage—and had two big staircases on both sides of it. To the left, a group of circular staircases climbed to the top, and to the right, there was a fire escape replete with steps and an elevator. Kanye West, who had finished his own headlining tour for his 2004 album The College Dropout, was the opening act for "The Truth Tour".
Preceding Usher's entrance was a short movie showing him getting dressed, following on with him performing the opening song "Caught Up", with Usher dressed in all white. The second song performed was "You Make Me Wanna...", where two dancers stayed on the top stage with Usher while two male dancers came out to the lower level with two chairs each in their hands. Each dancer threw one chair up to the top, with Usher already in hand with his own chair, with everyone following a set dance routine. Following this, Usher performed "U Remind Me", where he danced by himself during a breakdown of the track. He then sang "That's What It's Made For", following on with the song "Bad Girl", where Usher was dressed up in a lavender suit and came out in a chrome chair. During the song, Usher picked out a female from the crowd, transitioning to "Superstar", singing to the fan. Usher continued singing to the fan, performing "Can U Handle It?", closing the song by kissing the fan who then left the stage. Usher closed his performance with Confessions lead single "Yeah!".
The American leg of the tour commenced on August 5, 2004 in Hampton, Virginia and concluded on October 7, 2004 in New York. It was ranked as one of the highest-grossing tours of 2004, grossing $29.1 million.
Public reaction
After Usher and his label held a few listening parties for the album, controversies spread about the mistress-impregnating concept of "Confessions Part II". Although Usher did not foresee such a reaction to the album, Dupri already guessed, while making the album, what the public's reaction would be: "People are gonna question [Usher] on a couple of little lyrics ..." Coincidentally, Usher ended his relationship with Chilli early in 2004. People speculated about their breakup given the content of the album and Usher's early interviews about its themes. With lyrics Usher admitted to have written because of his guilty conscience, people assumed that he and Chilli broke up because he was unfaithful. In a February 2004 radio interview, Chilli claimed that Usher "cheated" on her, and that caused their relationship to split.
Amidst widespread rumors, Usher stated, "People assume things, because as I said, I pull from my personal experiences to make my music." He added that he loved Chilli, however, "... it just didn't work out. But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash ..." Although "Burn" is a reference to his dying relationship with Chilli—hence the title—Usher answered the press that the impregnating issue was not taken from a specific situation in his life. He also revealed that his friends who went through similar situations inspired him to write those songs: "... it's just something that I collectively got energy from everybody around me that had been through it." In early 2006, Dupri revealed that the story behind the album is his: "... me cheating on my steady girlfriend, having a baby with that other woman and having to confess to everything that happened to my main girl."
Critical reception
Confessions was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 71, based on 13 reviews.
Matt Cibula of PopMatters wrote that it "might be the best English-language pop album of the year". Entertainment Weeklys Jem Aswad said that Usher "reveals his new-found maturity by opening with the grittiest song he's ever done." Laura Checkoway of Vibe said that, "Though Confessions doesn't bring Usher all the way to the artistic maturity one might hope for, tracking this star's progression definitely has its satisfactions." Q magazine observed "addictive R&B hooks and all-dancin', all-lovin' subject matter boosted with hot production tweaks." Amy Linden of The Village Voice commented that "Usher's (alleged) character flaws are easily forgiven, though, because he can sing his cheating ass off," and concluded, "Like 2002's big-selling but underrated 8701, Confessions is a top-of-the-line pop-soul showcase that ... manages to be commercially savvy without coming off as too desperate. Sorta like Usher himself." Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said that near the end, the songwriting "fails" Usher on a "heavily front-loaded" R&B album, but felt that his performance is solid throughout:
In a mixed review, Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian criticized its "production gloss" and said that, although Usher's "fluid delivery" redeems weak tracks, there are only two "great songs"—"Yeah!" and the title track—and "17 less so." Rolling Stone writer Laura Sinagra said that he "is coming of age, again", but "still doesn't quite cut it as a horny roughneck". Jon Caramanica of Blender viewed that Usher's songwriting "isn't a strength, and his ballads often drown in their own inanity". The Washington Posts Elizabeth Mendez Berry called Confessions "Usher's strongest recording to date" but found the more sexual songs mundane. Robert Christgau from The Village Voice cited "Confessions Part II" and "Bad Girl" as "choice cuts", indicating "a good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money".
Accolades
The album earned Usher numerous accolades. At the 47th Grammy Awards, he was nominated for eight categories and won three: Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal (for "My Boo") and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration (for "Yeah!"). Usher won awards at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards: R&B/Soul Album, Male (for Confessions); R&B/Soul Single, Male for ("Confessions Part II"); R&B/Soul Single, Group, Band or Duo (for "My Boo"); and R&B/Soul or Rap Dance Cut (for "Yeah!"). At the 2004 American Music Awards, he won four, including Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Male Soul/R&B Artist. At the 2004 Billboard Music Awards, Usher racked up eleven awards, more than any other artist in one night at the time. These include Artist of the Year, Male Artist of the Year, and Hot 100 Song of the Year for "Yeah!". In December 2009 it was ranked as the best solo album and second best overall album of the 2000–2009 decade. Its singles Yeah!, Burn, and My Boo were all ranked as some of the best songs of the 2000–2009 decade, respectively placing in order at number two, number 21, and number 36.
Commercial performance
Confessions was commercially successful, selling 1.096 million copies in the United States in its first week of release. It became the highest-ever first week sales by an R&B artist, the second-highest first week sales for a male artist, and the seventh-highest first week sales of the recorded album charts history by SoundScan at the time of its release. It also equates the combined first-week sales of his four previous album releases, including his live album called Live. The feat also carved history in Arista records having the first in any of their released albums to reach such sales. The success of the thirty-year-old record label, however, was attributed to its merging with Zomba Records. As of March 2013 it has the tenth highest first week album sales in history.
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, becoming Usher's first number-one album. Confessions also hit number-one on the Canadian Albums Chart and the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums. Its early, and successive, progress on the chart was said to be partly sustained by its strong single releases and plenty of press appearances and promotions. With "Yeah!" propelling the album's debut atop the chart, "Burn", the second single off the album, facilitated Confessions continuing dominance as well. The first two released singles were competing on the Billboard Hot 100; the latter ended the twelve-week number-one chart run of the former. As the album's third single, "Confessions Part II", was about to top the chart and Usher to join with English pop and rock group The Beatles as the only acts to achieve three consecutive number-one singles, American R&B singer Fantasia Barrino's debut single "I Believe" prevented it from happening. Despite this, Usher became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay with three consecutive number-one singles. "Burn" achieved only eight non-consecutive weeks on the Hot 100 after "Confessions Part II" topped the chart; it became Usher's second time to replace his own single at the top. "Yeah!" and "Burn" were 2004's top best-selling singles in the United States, placing at number one and two respectively on the Billboard Chart Year-Ender. Again, it honored Usher being the first act to achieve the feat since 1964 with the Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand" and "She Loves You".
The album continued its dominance on the chart. D12 World by D12 ended its five consecutive weeks run at the top spot; however, Confessions reclaimed the position the following week. The album spent a total 9 non-consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200, becoming the longest-running number one album of the millennium until 2009, when country singer Taylor Swift spent 11 weeks atop the charts with Fearless. Over one month after its release, Confessions was certified triple-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for three million US shipments. Confessions topped the list of the most-shipped albums of 2004 in the United States and was the best selling album of the year with 7,978,594 copies sold. Confessions was the second best-selling album of the 2000s decade in the US, behind Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP. In November 2008, it reached 10 million shipments in the US, according to the Recording Industry Association of America. In 2009, Billboard reported Confessions had sold over 15 million copies worldwide, making it the best selling album by a black artist in the 21st century.
Impact and legacy
With sales of nearly eight million in 2004, Confessions was the most-shipped album of the year in the US. Along with the success of the American singer Norah Jones's second album, Feels like Home (2004), as well as breakthroughs albums by many new and old artists, it was seen as a sign that US record sales were slowly recovering after three straight years of decline due to competing DVDs and video games and the prevalent music piracy. By the end of 2004, the industry had sold 667 million albums, an increase of about 1.6 percent, as recorded by Nielsen SoundScan. Compared with sales records in 2003, the figures showed eight percent increase. The album's success also exemplified urban music's commercial dominance during the early 2000s, which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R&B and hip hop artists. In 2004, all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were by African-American recording artists and accounted for 80% of the number-one R&B hits that year. Along with Usher's streak of singles, Top 40 radio and both pop and R&B charts were topped by OutKast's "Hey Ya!", Snoop Dogg's "Drop It Like It's Hot", Terror Squad's "Lean Back", and Ciara's "Goodies". Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that "by the early 2000s, urban music was pop music."
In a year-end article for The New York Times, writer Ben Sisario dubbed 2004 "the year of Usher". The success of the album put Usher in the mainstream, becoming the biggest artist of 2004. Others also said that Usher might be the successor of Michael Jackson. Uproxx says Confessions "has gone on to establish itself as one of the landmark albums in pop culture", describing it as "an irreplaceable pillar in R&B lore". According to Vibe magazine, the album is credited for having "birthed" many contemporary albums such as Adele's 21, Miguel's Kaleidoscope Dream, Drake's So Far Gone, Omarion's O, Jason Derulo's self-titled debut and others.
Bryan-Michael Cox, who co-wrote and co-produced "Burn", earned credibility in the music industry for his role in the album. Cox had been producing records for several notable American artists, including Alicia Keys, B2K, Mariah Carey and Destiny's Child, among others, but he considered "Burn" as his crowning moment, which earned him two Grammy Award nominations. With 2004 deemed to be his introduction to a larger, more mainstream audience, Cox stated in an interview for MTV that many people were starting to recount what he had done.
In 2020, music industry magazine Billboard ranked Usher the "Greatest Pop Star of 2004". Referring to a 2008 article from MTV, writer Shaheem Reid declared that "with Confessions, Usher has made the Big Connection…. That connection our parents felt when Marvin Gaye sang on the Here, My Dear album." Billboard pointed out how most of the secrets revealed and storytelling in the album was inspired by Jermaine Dupri's situation, but they also noted Usher's marketing and "dalliances outside of his public relationship with TLC's Chilli that provided the material for Confessions". The writer praised Usher's commercial power during the Confessions era, as he would influence future pop stars: "Even if you didn't listen to R&B, you knew this album. And if you did listen to R&B, this was the blueprint for all your favorite stars to come: Drake, Justin Bieber, Miguel, Chris Brown and Omarion have all cited Usher's influence. And though Beyoncé spoke about Thriller as the touchstone for her career-defining self-titled release in 2013, the way the lyrics tease revelations about her personal life with her husband, both good and bad, feels more indebted to Confessions than anything Michael Jackson wrote."
According to an editor of web publication Bustle in an article on March 22, 2019 to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of Confessions, the album was a "catalyst that propelled him to superstardom" and "forever changed the landscape of music". The editor noted the album's impact on R&B and pop music with the success of "Yeah!" leading "countless R&B stars, from Ciara to T-Pain, to launch careers on the foundation of Crunk&B". The writer also noted the album's influence on trap music and future generations of R&B and hip-hop artists. Think of trap soul as Crunk&B's mellowed, more subdued successor. Like crunk, it's punchy and heavily steeped in hip-hop influences. But like Usher's take on songs like "Yeah!" and "Follow Me," trap soul has contoured edges and smoother textures. From 6LACK's acerbic laments on love to H.E.R.’s dark, smoky vocals, current trends in R&B can be traced back to Usher's techniques. In this regard, Usher's mark on R&B is indelible; he not only inspired countless artists in the early 2000s, but also charted a course for today's stars.The editor also pointed out the album's influence on the music industry and pop culture as a whole, as Confessions changed how albums are marketed and "proved that gossip can sell records". Later albums such as Beyoncé's Lemonade, which was fueled by infidelity and divorce rumors with her rapper husband Jay-Z, relationship rumors around Janelle Monáe's Dirty Computer, and Ariana Grande's thank u, next coming off the heels of her public break up with comedian Pete Davidson were used as examples of how Usher's Confessions brought "the relationship between the gossip pages and the album charts... stronger than before".
Confessions ranked 2nd best album of the 2000s on the Billboard Top 200 Albums of the Decade 2000s list, higher than any other solo album. The album is also ranked as the 16th best album on the Billboard Top 200 Albums of All Time. In 2020, the album was ranked number 432 on the Top 500 Albums of All-Time by Rolling Stone. With global sales exceeding 15 million, Confessions is the best-selling album by a black artist in the 21st century. Confessions makes Usher the only male solo R&B artist to sell 10 million copies of a single album in the United States during the Soundscan era and the first of only two black artists to reach this mark since the year 2000. (The other black artist being American rapper Nelly with his debut album Country Grammar.) After Confessions was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 10 million copies in the US, no new album was certified diamond until Adele's 2011 album 21 reached diamond-status, the longest between any two new diamond albums since the inception of the association.
A songwriter was awarded $44 million in a lawsuit involving a song from Usher's diamond-certified album Confessions after a jury sided with Daniel Marino in a claim that his "Club Girl" became Usher's hit "Bad Girl"
Track listing
Notes
signifies a vocal producer.
signifies a co-producer.
Sample credits
"Throwback" contains a sample of Dionne Warwick's song "You're Gonna Need Me" (1973)
"Superstar" contains a sample of Willie Hutch's song "Mack's Stroll/The Getaway (Chase Scene)" (1973).
"Take Your Hand" contains a sample of Harold Melvin & The Blue Notes's song "Is There a Place for Me?" (1973).
"Whatever I Want" contains excerpts from Preston Love's "Chili Mac".
Personnel
Credits for Confessions adapted from AllMusic and album's liner notes.
Darcy Aldridge – backing vocals (track 11)
Bobby Ross Avila – co-producer (tracks 10–13, 20); guitar (tracks 10–12); keyboards (tracks 11–13); piano (tracks 11, 20); backing vocals (track 11); additional drum programming (track 12); Moog Taurus (track 13); flute (track 20); Wurlitzer, scratches, and strings (track 10)
Dante "Destro" Barton – producer and additional engineering (track 12)
Jason Boyd – vocal producer (tracks 7, 9, 17)
Valdez Brantley – producer (track 8)
Bryan-Michael Cox – co-producer (tracks 4–6, 15, 21)
Larry Cox – additional keyboards (track 14)
Vincent Creusot – additional recording assistant (track 18)
Ian Cross – engineer (track 10), additional engineering (track 21)
Kevin "KD" Davis – engineer (track 16)
Vidal Davis – producer (tracks 7, 9, 17), mixing (tracks 7, 9)
Vince DiLorenzo – engineer (track 7, 9, 17)
Jermaine Dupri – producer (tracks 4–6, 15, 18, 21), mixing (tracks 4–6, 18, 21)
E Bass – guitar (track 3)
Blake Eisman – engineer (track 3, 19)
Faith Evans – additional backing vocals (track 9)
Brian Frye – engineer (tracks 4–6, 15, 18, 21)
John Frye – mixing (tracks 2, 19)
Richard Furch – mixing
Sean Garrett – vocal producer (tracks 2, 10), backing vocals (track 2)
Serban Ghenea– mixing (tracks 10–13, 17, 20)
John Hanes – additional Pro Tools engineer (tracks 10–13, 17, 20)
Andre Harris – producer (tracks 7, 9, 17), mixing (tracks 7, 9)
Rich Harrison – producer and instrumentation (track 16)
Delicia Hassan – production coordination (track 2)
John Horesco IV – engineer (tracks 4, 5, 21), mixing assistant (tracks 4–6, 15, 18, 21)
Jun Ishizeki – additional engineering (track 21)
IZ – co-producer and percussion (tracks 10–13, 20), drums (tracks 10, 11, 13, 20), bass (tracks 10, 13), guitar (tracks 10, 20), scratches (tracks 10, 12), Moog Taurus (track 10), keyboards (track 13)
Jadakiss – rap (track 3)
Jimmy Jam – producer (tracks 10–13, 20), Fender Rhodes (track 11)
LaMarquis Jefferson – bass (tracks 2, 9)
Just Blaze – producer (track 3)
Alicia Keys – vocals (track 18)
L-Roc – additional keyboards (track 2)
James Lackey – producer (track 1)
Ken Lewis – engineer, mixing, and guitar (track 3)
Terry Lewis – producer (tracks 10–13, 20)
Kelly "Dread" Liebelt – additional engineering (track 9)
Craig Love – guitar (track 19)
Ludacris – rap (track 2)
Kevin Mahoney – additional engineering (track 21)
Anthony Mandler – photography
Daniel Marino – guitar (track 12)
Matt Marrin – engineer (tracks 10–13, 20)
Manny Marroquin – mixing (track 14)
Tony Maserati – mixing (track 16)
Ann Mincieli – additional engineering (track 18)
Tadd Mingo – assistant engineer (tracks 4–6, 15, 18, 21)
Johnny "Natural" Najera – producer (track 8)
Paula Patton – backing vocals (track 14)
Herb Powers – mastering
Pro J – producer and instrumentation (track 14)
Edward Quesada – assistant engineer (track 4)
Mickael Rangeard – additional engineering (track 18)
Usher Raymond – executive producer, producer (tracks 1, 4, 8), lead vocals (all tracks), backing vocals (tracks 2, 10–14, 19, 20)
Tim Roberts – mixing assistant (tracks 10–13, 17, 20)
Donnie Scantz – engineer (track 2)
Manuel Seal – co-producer (track 18)
Shyne – rap (track 21)
Jon Smeltz – mixing (tracks 7, 9)
Jan Smith – vocal producer, vocal coach
Jonathan "Lil Jon" Smith – producer and mixing (track 2, 19), additional backing vocals (track 2)
Aaron Spears – producer (track 8)
Chris Steinmetz – additional engineering (track 21)
Patrice "ButtaPhly" Stewart – backing vocals (track 13)
Arthur "Buddy" Strong – producer (track 8)
Sean Tallman – assistant engineer (track 2)
Phil Tan – mixing (tracks 4–6, 15, 18, 21)
Robin Thicke – producer and instrumentation (track 14)
Ryan Toby – vocal producer (tracks 7, 9, 17)
Tony "Proof" Tolbert – backing vocals (tracks 10, 12, 20)
Twista – rap (track 21)
Mark Vinten – engineer (tracks 2, 19)
D.L. Warfield – layout design
Kanye West – rap (track 21)
Ryan West – engineer (track 3)
Doug Wilson – (track 21)
Stevie Wonder – harmonica (track 4)
Ghian Wright – assistant engineer (track 10)
James "Big Jim" Wright – co-producer (tracks 13, 20), bass (tracks 11, 20), Wurlitzer (track 13), keyboards (track 20)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of best-selling albums
List of best-selling albums in the United States
Truth Tour
References
External links
2004 albums
LaFace Records albums
Arista Records albums
Albums produced by Bryan-Michael Cox
Albums produced by Dre & Vidal
Albums produced by Jermaine Dupri
Albums produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Albums produced by Just Blaze
Albums produced by Lil Jon
Albums produced by Rich Harrison
Albums produced by Robin Thicke
Usher (musician) albums
Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album | [
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239038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction | Construction | Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations, and comes from Latin constructio (from com- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old French construction. To construct is the verb: the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built, the nature of its structure.
In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildings, infrastructure, industrial facilities and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning, financing, and design, and continues until the asset is built and ready for use; construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition, dismantling or decommissioning.
The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries’ gross domestic products (GDP). Global expenditure on construction activities was about $4 trillion in 2012. Today, expenditure on the construction industry exceeds $11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global GDP. This spending was forecast to rise to around $14.8 trillion in 2030.
Although the construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% (1,061) of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction.
History
The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, the artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and, later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.
Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction.
Construction industry sectors
Broadly, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial:
Building construction is usually further divided into residential and non-residential.
Infrastructure, also called heavy civil or heavy engineering, includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution.
Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations), mining and quarrying, refineries, chemical processing, power generation, mills and manufacturing plants.
The industry can also be classified into sectors or markets. For example, Engineering News-Record (ENR), a US-based construction trade magazine, has compiled and reported data about the size of design and construction contractors. In 2014, it split the data into nine market segments: transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste, and a tenth category for other projects. ENR used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors.
The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for professional services firms (e.g., engineering, architecture, surveying, project management).
Building construction
Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as real property sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property (who may be an individual or an organisation); occasionally, land may be compulsorily purchased from the owner for public use.
Residential construction
Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners (self-build), by specialist house-builders, by property developers, by general contractors, or by providers of public or social housing (e.g.: local authorities, housing associations). Where local zoning or planning policies allow, mixed-use developments may comprise both residential and non-residential construction (e.g.: retail, leisure, offices, public buildings, etc.).
Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g.: brick versus stone versus timber). Costs of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, local regulations, economies of scale (custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.
Non-residential construction
Depending upon the type of building, non-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial institutions and other private companies. Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general contractors.
Infrastructure construction
Civil engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways. Some general contractors have expertise in civil engineering; civil engineering contractors are firms dedicated to work in this sector, and may specialise in particular types of infrastructure.
Industrial construction
Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations: oil and gas platforms, wind power), mining and quarrying, refineries, breweries, distilleries and other processing plants, power stations, steel mills, warehouses and factories.
Construction processes
Some construction projects are small renovations or repair jobs, where the owner may act as designer, paymaster and laborer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the project (this may be a designer, a contractor, a construction manager, or other advisors); such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in project delivery, and will help the owner define the project brief, agree on a budget and schedule, liaise with relevant public authorities, and procure the services of other specialists (the supply chain, comprising subcontractors). Contracts are agreed for the delivery of services by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works.
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must be adequate to build the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities, and enforce financial and other construction processes.
These processes also affect procurement strategies. Clients may, for example, appoint a business to design the project after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset (design–bid–build); they may appoint a business to lead both design and construction (design-build); or they may directly appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors (construction management). Some forms of procurement emphasize collaborative relationships (partnering, alliancing) between the client, the contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project, seeking to ameliorate often highly competitive and adversarial industry practices.
Planning
When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local land-use planning policies including zoning and building code requirements. A project will normally be assessed (by the 'authority having jurisdiction, AHJ, typically the municipality where the project will be located) for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure (transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.). Data may be gathered through site analysis, site surveys and geotechnical investigations. Construction normally cannot start until planning permission has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence. Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations.
Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).
During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to a building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection, usually require municipality approval.
Finance
Depending on the type of project, mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers may participate in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Professionals including cost engineers, estimators and quantity surveyors apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation.
Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when the overall budget is adequate, presenting a temporary issue. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid. Fraud is also an occasional construction issue.
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual cost estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carry forward. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) or private finance initiatives (PFIs) may also be used to help deliver major projects. According to McKinsey in 2019, the "vast majority of large construction projects go over budget and take 20% longer than expected".
Legal
A construction project is a complex net of construction contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays. Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes.
At the start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.
Procurement
Traditional or Design-bid-build
Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement, the architect, engineer or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables (models, drawings, etc.), administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors. The arrangement continues until the project is ready for handover.
Design-build
Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting a single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. Typically, the client invites several D&B contractors to submit proposals to meet the project brief and then selects a preferred supplier. Often this will be a consortium involving a design firm and a contractor (sometimes more than one of each). In the United States, departments of transportation usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects.
Construction management
In a construction management arrangement, the client enters into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), a construction manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together. This approach is often used to speed up procurement processes, to allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.
Design
In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly (ie: in a design-bid-build project), the design team is employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to the overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines (often undertaken by separate firms) into multi-disciplinary firms with experts from all related fields, or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes.
The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. For buildings, building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.
Traditionally, design has involved the production of sketches, architectural and engineering drawings, and specifications. Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand-drafted; adoption of computer-aided design (CAD) technologies then improved design productivity, while the 21st-century introduction of building information modeling (BIM) processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other visualisations as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems.
On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with the early stages of on-site activity (for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces). Some projects may include elements that are designed for off-site construction (see also prefabrication and modular building) and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, installation or assembly.
On-site construction
Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on the project site. Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment. According to the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's definition, construction may be said to have started when the first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings.
Commissioning and handover
Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building (or other assets) work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers.
Maintenance, repair and improvement
Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations.
Demolition
Demolition is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down buildings and other artificial structures. Demolition contrasts with deconstruction, which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes (recycling - see also circular economy).
Industry scale and characteristics
Economic activity
The output of the global construction industry was worth an estimated $10.8 trillion in 2017, and in 2018 was forecast to rise to $12.9 trillion by 2022, and to around $14.8 trillion in 2030. As a sector, construction accounts for more than 10% of global GDP (in developed countries, construction comprises 6-9% of GDP), and employs around 7% of the total employed workforce around the globe (accounting for over 273 million full- and part-time jobs in 2014). Since 2010, China has been the world's largest single construction market. The United States is the second largest construction market with a 2018 output of $1.581 trillion.
In the United States in February 2020, around $1.4 trillion worth of construction work was in progress, according to the Census Bureau, of which just over $1.0 trillion was for the private sector (split roughly 55:45% between residential and nonresidential); the remainder was public sector, predominantly for state and local government.
Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, and under-representation of women are common traits. For example:
In the US, construction employed around 11.4m people in 2020, with a further 1.8m employed in architectural, engineering, and related professional services - equivalent to just over 8% of the total US workforce. The construction workers were employed in over 843,000 organisations, of which 838,000 were privately held businesses. In March 2016, 60.4% of construction workers were employed by businesses with fewer than 50 staff. Women are substantially underrepresented (relative to their share of total employment), comprising 10.3% of the US construction workforce, and 25.9% of professional services workers, in 2019.
In the United Kingdom, construction contributed £117 billion (6%) to UK GDP in 2018, and in 2019 employed 2.4m workers (6.6% of all jobs). These worked either for 343,000 'registered' construction businesses, or for 'unregistered' businesses, typically self-employed contractors; just over one million small/medium-sized businesses, mainly self-employed individuals, worked in the sector in 2019, comprising about 18% of all UK businesses. Women comprised 12.5% of the UK construction workforce.
In Armenia, the construction sector experienced growth during the latter part of 2000s. Based on National Statistical Service, Armenia's construction sector generated approximately 20% of Armenia's GDP during the first and second quarters of 2007. In 2009, according to the World Bank, 30% of Armenia's economy was from construction sector.
According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different countries including in the United States and in European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half since the 1960s.
Construction GVA by country
Careers
Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. A project manager normally manages the budget on the job, and a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or architect supervises it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements and legal issues, environmental impact of the project, scheduling, budgeting and bidding, construction site safety, availability and transportation of building materials, logistics, and inconvenience to the public, including those caused by construction delays.
There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry. There are three main tiers based on educational background and training, which vary by country:
Unskilled and semi-skilled workers
Unskilled and semi-skilled workers provide general site labor, often have few or no construction qualifications, and may receive basic site training.
Skilled tradespeople
Skilled tradespeople have typically served apprenticeships (sometimes in labor unions) or received technical training; this group also includes on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession. Skilled manual occupations include carpenters, electricians, plumbers, ironworkers, heavy equipment operators and masons, as well as those involved in project management. In the UK these require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas, undertaken either directly after completing compulsory education or through "on the job" apprenticeships.
Professional, technical or managerial personnel
Professional, technical and managerial personnel often have higher education qualifications, usually graduate degrees, and are trained to design and manage construction processes. These roles require more training as they demand greater technical knowledge, and involve more legal responsibility. Example roles (and qualification routes) include:
Architect – Will usually have studied architecture to degree level, and then undertaken further study and gained professional experience. In many countries, the title of "architect" is protected by law, strictly limiting its use to qualified people.
Civil engineer – Typically holds a degree in a related subject and may only be eligible for membership of a professional institution (such as the UK's ICE) following completion of additional training and experience. In some jurisdictions, a new university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered, and persons with bachelor's degrees may become Incorporated Engineers.
Building services engineer – May also be referred to as an "M&E" or "MEP engineer" and typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering.
Project manager – Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as architecture, civil engineering or quantity surveying.
Structural engineer – Typically holds a bachelor's or master's degree in structural engineering.
Quantity surveyor – Typically holds a bachelor's degree in quantity surveying. UK chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.
Safety
Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union. In the US in 2019, 1,061, or about 20%, of worker fatalities in private industry occurred in construction. In 2017, more than a third of US construction fatalities (366 out of 971 total fatalities) were the result of falls. Proper safety equipment such as harnesses, hard hats and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry. Other major causes of fatalities in the construction industry include electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-ins.
Other safety risks for workers in construction include hearing loss due to high noise exposure, musculoskeletal injury, chemical exposure, and high levels of stress. Besides that, the high turnover of workers in construction industry imposes a huge challenge of accomplishing the restructuring of work practices in individual workplaces or with individual workers. Construction has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.
Sustainability
Sustainability is an aspect of “green building", defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction."
See also
Agile construction
Building material
Index of construction articles
Outline of construction
Real estate development
Structural robustness
Umarell
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239039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FUBU | FUBU | FUBU (pronounced "foo-boo") is an American hip hop apparel company. FUBU stands for "For Us, By Us" and was created when the founders were brainstorming for a catchy four-letter word following other big brands such as Nike and Coke. It includes casual wear, sports wear, a suit collection, eyewear, belts, and shoes.
History
The company was founded in 1992 by Daymond John, J. Alexander Martin, Keith Perrin, and Carlton Brown. Their initial products were a collection consisting of 80 hats made in 1989 in John's house and sold on the street in Hollis, Queens, New York. According to the company website, John mortgaged his home for $100,000, and with that seed money, the company's co-founders rebuilt half of his home as a factory while the other half remained living space. Clothing store Montego Bay, on Queens' Jamaica Avenue was the first to carry the FUBU line. Legendary retailer Macy's soon followed, at one point featuring the four FUBU founders in a live, interactive window display in its flagship store on 34th Street.
FUBU founders attended the MAGIC men’s apparel show in Las Vegas with samples and got $300,000 worth of orders, but, had no idea how to fulfill them. John’s mother suggested they advertise in the New York Times for an investor. In 1995, South Korean company Samsung answered a classified ad and invested in FUBU.
At its peak in 1998, FUBU grossed over $350 million in annual worldwide sales. FUBU has received several honors for their entrepreneurial achievements. These include two Congressional Awards, two NAACP Awards, the Pratt Institute Award, the Christopher Wallace Award, the Online Hip-Hop Award and a Citation of Honor from the Queens Borough President.
In 1997, LL Cool J starred in a commercial for Gap Inc. in which he wore a FUBU hat and incorporated the phrase “For Us, By Us” into his rap lyrics. The commercial's production team was unaware of the meaning behind LL's FUBU references until the advertisement aired. The subsequent controversy proved to be a tremendous publicity boost for both companies by simultaneously establishing FUBU in the mainstream, while giving Gap street credibility.
In 2003, FUBU mostly withdrew from the U.S. market, concentrating its efforts in Saudi Arabia, China, Korea, Japan and South Africa, while acquiring other apparel brands. In 2009, annual revenue of the company was around $200 million.
In 2010, FUBU relaunched its collection in the U.S., re-branding itself as FB Legacy.
In 2018, Puma, a footwear brand, began a collaboration with FUBU to create a number of shoes.
According to Complex FUBU's decline occurred due to their over saturating the market, as John has publicly stated, "The biggest mistake we made with the brand was buying more inventory than we needed. This was around 2001." Since then, FUBU has continued to collaborate with various brands including Pyer Moss and Urban Outfitters. In March 2019, FUBU announced a new partnership with Century 21.
In September 2020, Eye Candy Creations USA and FUBU announced their collaboration to design, create, produce and sell FUBU FRAMES, a sunglasses and optical collection worldwide.
Collection
The FUBU collection consists of T-shirts, rugby shirts, hockey and football jerseys, baseball caps, shoes, and denim jeans. All are embroidered with the FUBU logo. Most of the products, such as the jeans, are imported from around the world. FUBU has now expanded to include various lines such as Platinum FUBU, FUBU footwear for men and women, intimate apparel, active wear, swimwear, watches, FUBU suits, and FUBU tuxedos. The Platinum FUBU collection also includes the Fat Albert line where the FUBU founders first got approval from Bill Cosby.
FUBU Records
From 2001 to 2003, FUBU established a record label, first releasing a compilation album entitled The Good Life in 2001 and then an album by the 54th Platoon entitled All or Nothin' in 2003. Both albums made it on the Billboard charts.
References
External links
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
1990s fashion
Sportswear brands
Clothing brands of the United States
Companies based in New York City
Clothing companies established in 1992
Hip hop fashion
Products introduced in 1992
Underwear brands | [
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239040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havin%27%20a%20Bad%20Day | Havin' a Bad Day | Havin' a Bad Day is the first album by Dweezil Zappa, released in 1986.
Track listing
All songs written by Dweezil Zappa, except where noted.
"Havin' a Bad Day" (Zappa, Scott Thunes) 4:09
"Blonde Hair, Brown Nose" (Zappa, Thunes) 3:45
"You Can't Ruin Me" 5:25
"The Pirate Song" 3:51
"You Can't Imagine" 3:14
"Let's Talk About It" 4:05
"Electric Hoedown" 3:24
"I Want a Yacht" (Zappa, Thunes, Gail Zappa) 3:40
"I Feel Like I Wanna Cry" 4:28
References
Dweezil Zappa albums
Barking Pumpkin Records albums
1986 debut albums | [
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239041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet%20Intelligence%20Scales | Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales | The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales (or more commonly the Stanford–Binet) is an individually administered intelligence test that was revised from the original Binet–Simon Scale by Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale is now in its fifth edition (SB5) and was released in 2003. It is a cognitive ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests. The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning.
The development of the Stanford–Binet initiated the modern field of intelligence testing and was one of the first examples of an adaptive test. The test originated in France, then was revised in the United States. It was initially created by the French psychologist Alfred Binet, who, following the introduction of a law mandating universal education by the French government, began developing a method of identifying "slow" children, so that they could be placed in special education programs, instead of labelled sick and sent to the asylum. As Binet indicated, case studies might be more detailed and helpful, but the time required to test many people would be excessive. In 1916, at Stanford University, the psychologist Lewis Terman released a revised examination that became known as the Stanford–Binet test.
Development
As discussed by Fancher & Rutherford in 2012, the Stanford–Binet is a modified version of the Binet-Simon Intelligence scale. The Binet-Simon scale was created by the French psychologist Alfred Binet and his student Theodore Simon. Due to changing education laws of the time, Binet had been requested by a government commission to come up with a way to detect children who were falling behind developmentally and in need of help. Binet believed that intelligence is malleable and that intelligence tests would help target children in need of extra attention to advance their intelligence.
To create their test, Binet and Simon first created a baseline of intelligence. A wide range of children were tested on a broad spectrum of measures in an effort to discover a clear indicator of intelligence. Failing to find a single identifier of intelligence, Binet and Simon instead compared children in each category by age. The children's highest levels of achievement were sorted by age and common levels of achievement considered the normal level for that age. Because this testing method merely compares a person's ability to the common ability level of others their age, the general practices of the test can easily be transferred to test different populations, even if the measures used are changed.
One of the first intelligence tests, the Binet-Simon test quickly gained support in the psychological community, many of whom further spread it to the public. Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University, was one of the first to create a version of the test for people in the United States, naming the localized version the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman used the test not only to help identify children with learning difficulties but also to find children and adults who had above average levels of intelligence. In creating his version, Terman also tested additional methods for his Stanford revision, publishing his first official version as The Measurement of Intelligence: An Explanation of and a Complete Guide for the Use of the Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (Fancher & Rutherford, 2012) (Becker, 2003).
The original tests in the 1905 form include:
"Le Regard"
Prehension Provoked by a Tactile Stimulus
Prehension Provoked by a Visual Perception
Recognition of Food
Quest of Food Complicated by a Slight Mechanical Difficulty
Execution of Simple Commands and Imitation of Simple Gestures
Verbal Knowledge of Objects
Verbal Knowledge of Pictures
Naming of Designated Objects
Immediate Comparison of Two Lines of Unequal Lengths
Repetition of Three Figures
Comparison of Two Weights
Suggestibility
Verbal Definition of Known Objects
Repetition of Sentences of Fifteen Words
Comparison of Known Objects from Memory
Exercise of Memory on Pictures
Drawing a Design from Memory
Immediate Repetition of Figures
Resemblances of Several Known Objects Given from Memory
Comparison of Lengths
Five Weights to be Placed in Order
Gap in Weights
Exercise upon Rhymes
Verbal Gaps to be Filled
Synthesis of Three Words in One Sentence
Reply to an Abstract Question
Reversal of the Hands of a Clock
Paper Cutting
Definitions of Abstract Terms
Historical use
One hindrance to widespread understanding of the test is its use of a variety of different measures. In an effort to simplify the information gained from the Binet-Simon test into a more comprehensible and easier to understand form, German psychologist William Stern created the now well known Intelligence Quotient (IQ). By comparing the mental age a child scored at to their biological age, a ratio is created to show the rate of their mental progress as IQ. Terman quickly grasped the idea for his Stanford revision with the adjustment of multiplying the ratios by 100 to make them easier to read.
As also discussed by Leslie, in 2000, Terman was another of the main forces in spreading intelligence testing in the United States (Becker, 2003). Terman quickly promoted the use of the Stanford–Binet for schools across the United States where it saw a high rate of acceptance. Terman's work also had the attention of the U.S. government, who recruited him to apply the ideas from his Stanford–Binet test for military recruitment near the start of World War I. With over 1.7 million military recruits taking a version of the test and the acceptance of the test by the government, the Stanford–Binet saw an increase in awareness and acceptance (Fancher & Rutherford, 2012).
Given the perceived importance of intelligence and with new ways to measure intelligence, many influential individuals, including Terman, began promoting controversial ideas to increase the nation's overall intelligence. These ideas included things such as discouraging individuals with low IQ from having children and granting important positions based on high IQ scores. While there was significant opposition, many institutions proceeded to adjust students' education based on their IQ scores, often with a heavy influence on future career possibilities (Leslie, 2000).
Revisions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
Since the first publication in 1916, there have been four additional revised editions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, the first of which was developed by Lewis Terman. Over twenty years later, Maud Merrill was accepted into Stanford's education program shortly before Terman became the head of the psychology department. She completed both her Masters Degree and Ph.D. under Terman and quickly became a colleague of his as they started the revisions of the second edition together. There were 3,200 examinees, aged one and a half to eighteen years, ranging in different geographic regions as well as socioeconomic levels in attempts to comprise a broader normative sample (Roid & Barram, 2004). This edition incorporated more objectified scoring methods, while placing less emphasis on recall memory and including a greater range of nonverbal abilities (Roid & Barram, 2004) compared to the 1916 edition.
When Terman died in 1956, the revisions for the third edition were well underway, and Merrill was able to publish the final revision in 1960 (Roid & Barram, 2004). The use of deviation IQ made its first appearance in third edition, however the use of the mental age scale and ratio IQ were not eliminated. Terman and Merrill attempted to calculate IQs with a uniform standard deviation while still maintaining the use of the mental age scale by including a formula in the manual to convert the ratio IQs with means varying between age ranges and nonuniform standard deviations to IQs with a mean of 100 and a uniform standard deviation of 16. However, it was later demonstrated that very high scores occurred with much greater frequency than what would be predicted by the normal curve with a standard deviation of 16, and scores in the gifted range were much higher than those yielded by essentially every other major test, so it was deemed that the ratio IQs modified to have a uniform mean and standard deviation, referred to as "deviation IQs" in the manual of the third edition of the Stanford–Binet (Terman & Merrill, 1960), could not be directly compared to scores on "true" deviation IQ tests, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and the later versions of the Stanford–Binet, as those tests compare the performance of examinees to their own age group on a normal distribution (Ruf, 2003). While new features were added, there were no newly created items included in this revision. Instead, any items from the 1937 form that showed no substantial change in difficulty from the 1930s to the 1950s were either eliminated or adjusted (Roid & Barram, 2004).
Robert Thorndike was asked to take over after Merrill's retirement. With the help of Elizabeth Hagen and Jerome Sattler, Thorndike produced the fourth edition of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale in 1986. This edition covers the ages two through twenty-three and has some considerable changes compared to its predecessors (Graham & Naglieri, 2003). This edition was the first to use the fifteen subtests with point scales in place of using the previous age scale format. In an attempt to broaden cognitive ability, the subtests were grouped and resulted in four area scores, which improved flexibility for administration and interpretation (Youngstrom, Glutting, & Watkins, 2003). The fourth edition is known for assessing children that may be referred for gifted programs. This edition includes a broad range of abilities, which provides more challenging items for those in their early adolescent years, whereas other intelligence tests of the time did not provide difficult enough items for the older children (Laurent, Swerdlik, & Ryburn, 1992).
Gale Roid published the most recent edition of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale. Roid attended Harvard University where he was a research assistant to David McClelland. McClelland is well known for his studies on the need for achievement. While the fifth edition incorporates some of the classical traditions of these scales, there were several significant changes made.
Timeline
April 1905: Development of Binet-Simon Test announced at a conference in Rome
June 1905: Binet-Simon Intelligence Test introduced
1908 and 1911: New Versions of Binet-Simon Intelligence Test
1916: Stanford–Binet First Edition by Terman
1937: Second Edition by Terman and Merrill
1960: L-M modified second edition by Merrill
1973: Third Edition by Merrill (1937 re-normed)
1986: Fourth Edition by Thorndike, Hagen, and Sattler
2003: Fifth Edition by Roid
Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition
Just as it was used when Binet first developed the IQ test, the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition (SB5) is based in the schooling process to assess intelligence. It continuously and efficiently assesses all levels of ability in individuals with a broader range in age. It is also capable of measuring multiple dimensions of abilities (Ruf, 2003).
The SB5 can be administered to individuals as early as two years of age. There are ten subsets included in this revision including both verbal and nonverbal domains. Five factors are also incorporated in this scale, which are directly related to Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) hierarchical model of cognitive abilities. These factors include fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory (Bain & Allin, 2005). Many of the familiar picture absurdities, vocabulary, memory for sentences, and verbal absurdities still remain from the previous editions (Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003), however with more modern artwork and item content for the revised fifth edition.
For every verbal subtest that is used, there is a nonverbal counterpart across all factors. These nonverbal tasks consist of making movement responses such as pointing or assembling manipulatives (Bain & Allin, 2005). These counterparts have been included to address language-reduced assessments in multicultural societies. Depending on age and ability, administration can range from fifteen minutes to an hour and fifteen minutes.
The fifth edition incorporated a new scoring system, which can provide a wide range of information such as four intelligence score composites, five factor indices, and ten subtest scores. Additional scoring information includes percentile ranks, age equivalents, and a change-sensitive score (Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003). Extended IQ scores and gifted composite scores are available with the SB5 in order to optimize the assessment for gifted programs (Ruf, 2003). To reduce errors and increase diagnostic precision, scores are obtained electronically through the use of computers now.
The standardization sample for the SB5 included 4,800 participants varying in age, sex, race/ethnicity, geographic region, and socioeconomic level (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Reliability
Several reliability tests have been performed on the SB5 including split-half reliability, standard error of measurement, plotting of test information curves, test-retest stability, and inter-scorer agreement. On average, IQ scores for this scale have been found quite stable across time (Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003). Internal consistency was tested by split-half reliability and was reported to be substantial and comparable to other cognitive batteries (Bain & Allin, 2005). The median interscorer correlation was .90 on average (Janzen, Obrzut, & Marusiak, 2003). The SB5 has also been found to have great precision at advanced levels of performance meaning that the test is especially useful in testing children for giftedness (Bain & Allin, 2005). There have only been a small amount of practice effects and familiarity of testing procedures with retest reliability; however, these have proven to be insignificant. Readministration of the SB5 can occur in a six-month interval rather than one year due to the small mean differences in reliability (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Validity
Content validity has been found based on the professional judgments Roid received concerning fairness of items and item content as well as items concerning the assessment of giftedness (Bain & Allin, 2005). With an examination of age trends, construct validity was supported along with empirical justification of a more substantial g loading for the SB5 compared to previous editions. The potential for a variety of comparisons, especially for within or across factors and verbal/nonverbal domains, has been appreciated with the scores received from the SB5 (Bain & Allin, 2005).
Score classification
The test publisher includes suggested score classifications in the test manual.
The classifications of scores used in the Fifth Edition differ from those used in earlier versions of the test.
Subtests and factors
Source:
Present use
Since its inception, the Stanford–Binet has been revised several times. Currently, the test is in its fifth edition, which is called the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition, or SB5. According to the publisher's website, "The SB5 was normed on a stratified random sample of 4,800 individuals that matches the 2000 U.S. Census". By administering the Stanford–Binet test to large numbers of individuals selected at random from different parts of the United States, it has been found that the scores approximate a normal distribution. The revised edition of the Stanford–Binet over time has devised substantial changes in the way the tests are presented. The test has improved when looking at the introduction of a more parallel form and more demonstrative standards. For one, a non-verbal IQ component is included in the present day tests whereas in the past, there was only a verbal component. In fact, it now has equal balance of verbal and non-verbal content in the tests. It is also more animated than the other tests, providing the test-takers with more colourful artwork, toys and manipulatives. This allows the test to have a higher range in the age of the test takers. This test is purportedly useful in assessing the intellectual capabilities of people ranging from young children all the way to young adults. However, the test has come under criticism for not being able to compare people of different age categories, since each category gets a different set of tests. Furthermore, very young children tend to do poorly on the test due to the fact that they lack the ability to concentrate long enough to finish it.
Current uses for the test include clinical and neuropsychological assessment, educational placement, compensation evaluations, career assessment, adult neuropsychological treatment, forensics, and research on aptitude. Various high-IQ societies also accept this test for admission into their ranks; for example, the Triple Nine Society accepts a minimum qualifying score of 151 for Form L or M, 149 for Form L-M if taken in 1986 or earlier, 149 for SB-IV, and 146 for SB-V; in all cases the applicant must have been at least 16 years old at the date of the test. Intertel accepts a score of 135 on SB5 and 137 on Form L-M.
See also
Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale
The Flynn effect
Military psychology
Intelligence quotient
IQ classification
References
Bain, S. K., & Allin, J. D. (2005). Book review: Stanford–Binet intelligence scales, fifth edition. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 23, 87–95.
Becker, K. A. (2003). History of the Stanford–Binet intelligence scales: Content and psychometrics.
Fancher, Raymond E., & Rutherford, Alexandra. (2012). Pioneers of psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Further reading
Intelligence tests
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