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239347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Wagner | Fort Wagner | Fort Wagner or Battery Wagner was a beachhead fortification on Morris Island, South Carolina, that covered the southern approach to Charleston Harbor. It was the site of two American Civil War battles in the campaign known as Operations Against the Defenses of Charleston in 1863, and it is considered the toughest beachhead defense constructed by the Confederate Army.
Construction
Named for deceased Lt. Col. Thomas M. Wagner, Fort Wagner measured 250 by , and spanned an area between the Atlantic on the east and an impassable swamp on the west. Its walls, composed of sand and earth, rose above the level beach and were supported by palmetto logs and sandbags. The fort's arsenal included fourteen cannons, the largest a Columbiad that fired a 128-pound shell. It was a large structure capable of sheltering nearly 1,000 of the fort's 1,700-man garrison and provided substantial protection against naval shelling. The fort's land face was protected by a water-filled trench, wide and deep, surrounded by buried land mines and sharpened palmetto stakes. The fort itself was supported by defenses throughout Morris Island.
History
The First Battle of Fort Wagner, occurred on July 11, 1863. Only 12 Confederate soldiers were killed, as opposed to 339 losses for the U.S. side.
The Second Battle of Fort Wagner, a week later, is better known. It was the Union attack on July 18, 1863, led by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first major American military units made up of black soldiers. Colonel Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th Massachusetts on foot while they charged, and was killed in the assault.
Although a tactical defeat, the publicity of the battle of Fort Wagner led to further action for black U.S. troops in the Civil War, and it spurred additional recruitment that gave the Union Army a further numerical advantage in troops over the South.
Union forces besieged the fort after the unsuccessful assault. By August 25, Union entrenchments were close enough to attempt an assault on the Advanced Rifle Pits, 240 yards in front of the Battery, but the attempt was defeated. A second attempt, by the 24th Massachusetts Infantry, on August 26 was successful. After enduring almost 60 days of heavy U.S. shelling, the Confederates abandoned it on the night of September 6–7, 1863, withdrawing all operable cannons and the garrison.
The main reason the fort was abandoned was a concern about the loss of the garrison due to artillery fire and the threat of imminent assault. On September 6, the garrison commander, Colonel Keitt, wrote to his superiors, "The garrison must be taken away immediately after dark, or it will be destroyed or captured. It is idle to deny that the heavy Parrott shells have breached the walls and are knocking away the bomb-proofs. Pray have boats immediately after dark at Cummings Point to take away the men. I say deliberately that this must be done or the garrison will be sacrificed. I am sending the wounded and sick now to Cummings Point, and will continue to do so, if possible, until all are gone. I have a number of them now there. I have not in the garrison 400 effective men, including artillery. The engineers agree in opinion with me, or, rather, shape my opinion. I shall say no more." A council of war in Charleston on the 4th had already reached the same conclusion, and the evacuation was carried out as planned.
After the war a "Lost Cause" revisionist story arose concerning access to fresh water. The claim was made that bodies of the Union troops (54th Massachusetts and many white troops) were buried close to the fort and the decomposition of the bodies poisoned the fresh water well within the fort. Continuing bombardment and interception of food/water supplies by boat from Charleston made holding the fort difficult. This version of the story is directly contradicted by official Confederate correspondence at the time of the evacuation.
Within twenty years of the Civil War, the remnants of the fort had been washed away by erosion on Morris Island. A group of three ex-servicemen traveled to the fort in May 1885 and reported that the entire fort and approaches to it had washed away into the ocean.
The fall of Battery Wagner would have considerable strategic significance. With its loss and that of Fort Gregg, Morris Island too fell to the United States. Although Charleston remained in the hands of the rebels its port was effectively closed. At the end of the year Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles could report that "the commerce of Charleston has ceased." The impact also showed directly in rebel customs receipts, which fell drastically from 1863 to 1864. The labors and sacrifices of the United States forces during the storms and siege had in the end shut down a vital lifeline to the rebellion.
54th Massachusetts
The most famous regiment that fought for the Union in the battle of Fort Wagner was the 54th regiment, which was one of the first African-American regiments in the war. The 54th was controversial in the North, where many people supported the abolition of slavery but still treated African Americans as lesser or inferior to whites. Though some claimed blacks could not fight as well as whites, the actions of the 54th Massachusetts demonstrated once again the fallacy in that argument, as this was not the first time blacks ever fought in war or even for the United States.
William Carney, an African American and a sergeant with the 54th, is considered the first black recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions at Fort Wagner in recovering and returning the unit's American flag to Union lines. After the battle, the Confederates buried the regiment's commanding officer, Colonel Shaw, in an unmarked mass grave with the African-American soldiers of his regiment as an insult to him. Instead, his family considered it an honor that Shaw was buried with his men.
Morris Island is smaller than 1,000 acres and is subject to extensive erosion by storm and sea. Much of the site of Fort Wagner has been eroded away, including the place where the Union soldiers were buried. However, by the time that happened, the soldiers' remains were no longer there because soon after the end of the Civil War, the Army disinterred and reburied all the remains, including presumably those of Shaw, at the Beaufort National Cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where their gravestones were marked as "unknown".. The number missing presumed dead at Battery Wagner was 391, among the 10 regiments involved. 54th with the most at 146. 100 NY with 119, 48th NY with 112. The number of unknowns at Beaufort on their Civil monument 1870s is 174 unknowns. These unknowns collected from three Southern states. Sites include East Florida, Millen and Lawton Georgia and Hilton Head. Two Confederate POW sites included. Given the missing at Morris island is more than double the total unknowns at Beaufort National Cemetery, it appears many bodies were not removed and were lost to the shifting sea.
In popular culture
This fort plays a major part in the film Glory. One of the final scenes portrays Shaw and the men of the 54th Massachusetts leading the attack and storming the fort unsuccessfully.
In the book Magnus Chase and the Ship of the Dead, a character named T.J. dies charging the battlements at Fort Wagner.
Preservation
Although the Atlantic Ocean consumed Fort Wagner in the late 1800s and the original site is now offshore, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of historic Morris Island, which had gun emplacements and other military installations during the war.
References
External links
Life magazine of November 22, 1963
Assault on Battery Wagner: Maps, Histories, Photos, and Preservation News (Civil War Trust)
Battlefields of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Buildings and structures in Charleston, South Carolina
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|
239351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensor%20carpi%20ulnaris%20muscle | Extensor carpi ulnaris muscle | In human anatomy, the extensor carpi ulnaris is a skeletal muscle located on the ulnar side of the forearm. The extensor carpi ulnaris acts to extend and adduct at the carpus/wrist from anatomical position.
Being an extensor muscle, extensor carpi ulnaris is located on the posterior side of the forearm.
Origin and insertion
It originates from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the posterior border of the ulna, and crosses the forearm to the ulnar (medial) side to insert at the base of the 5th metacarpal.
Action
The extensor carpi ulnaris extends the wrist, but when acting alone inclines the hand toward the ulnar side; by its continued action it extends the elbow-joint.
The muscle is a minor extensor of the carpus in carnivores, but has become a flexor in ungulates. In this case it would be described as ulnaris lateralis.
Innervation
Despite its name, the extensor carpi ulnaris is innervated by the posterior interosseous nerve (C7 and C8), the continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve. It would therefore be paralyzed in an injury to the posterior cord of the brachial plexus.
Injuries
A common injury to the extensor carpi ulnaris is tennis elbow. This injury occurs in people who participate in activities requiring repetitive arm, elbow, and wrist, especially when they are tightly gripping an object. Some symptoms of an extensor carpi ulnaris injury include pain when shaking hands or when squeezing/gripping an object. The pain worsens when a person moves their wrist with force. This pain intensifies because the extensor carpi ulnaris has an injury near the elbow area and as a person moves their arm, the muscle contracts, thus causing it to move over the medial epicondyle of the humerus. As a result, this causes irritation to the already existing injury. Some treatments for tennis elbow include occupational therapy, physical therapy, anti-inflammatory medication, and rest from the activity that caused the injury. A similar injury involving the medial elbow is known as golfer's elbow.
Injury treatment and diagnosis
An ECU injury most often requires imaging (CT, MRI, ultrasound) for diagnosis. After the ECU injury is diagnosed, a physician will choose a course of treatment, which depends upon the severity of the injury. Conservative treatments include immobilization and stabilization of the affected wrist by placing it in a cast. A long arm cast may be required in order to ensure that all wrist movement has been stopped. The duration of the immobilization is at the treating physician's discretion. After the immobilization period has ended, the cast will be removed and further analysis of the injury will be required. If the injury did not improve with the conservative courses of treatment, or if the injury was initially too severe for conservative treatment, invasive procedures may become necessary. Steroid injections and surgical procedures are the most prominent invasive procedures. Surgical repair or reconstruction of the ECU is not often required, yet a severe ECU injury may cause these approaches to be necessary.
Additional images
References
External links
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|
239360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbon | Sorbon | Sorbon is a commune of the Ardennes department in northern France.
Population
Personalities
It was the birthplace of Robert de Sorbon, (1201–1274), who was a chaplain and Confessor to King Louis IX of France, as well as the founder of the Sorbonne, the University of Paris.
See also
Communes of the Ardennes department
References
Communes of Ardennes (department)
Ardennes communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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|
239365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Chaum | David Chaum | David Lee Chaum (born 1955) is an American computer scientist and cryptographer. He is known as a pioneer in cryptography and privacy-preserving technologies, and widely recognized as the inventor of digital cash. His 1982 dissertation "Computer Systems Established, Maintained, and Trusted by Mutually Suspicious Groups" is the first known proposal for a blockchain protocol. Complete with the code to implement the protocol, Chaum's dissertation proposed all but one element of the blockchain later detailed in the Bitcoin whitepaper. He has been referred to as "the father of online anonymity".
He is also known for developing ecash, an electronic cash application that aims to preserve a user's anonymity, and inventing many cryptographic protocols like the blind signature, mix networks and the Dining cryptographers protocol. In 1995 his company DigiCash created the first digital currency with eCash. His 1981 paper, "Untraceable Electronic Mail, Return Addresses, and Digital Pseudonyms", laid the groundwork for the field of anonymous communications research.
Life and career
Chaum is Jewish and was born to a Jewish family in Los Angeles. He gained a doctorate in computer science from the University of California, Berkeley in 1982. Also that year, he founded the International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR), which currently organizes academic conferences in cryptography research. Subsequently, he taught at the New York University Graduate School of Business Administration and at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). He also formed a cryptography research group at CWI, the Dutch National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in Amsterdam. He founded DigiCash, an electronic cash company, in 1990.
Chaum received the Information Technology European Award for 1995. In 2004, he was named an IACR Fellow. In 2010, he received during the RSA Conference the RSA Award for Excellence in Mathematics. In 2019, he was awarded the honorary title of Dijkstra Fellow by CWI. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Lugano in 2021.
Chaum resides in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles.
Notable research contributions
Vault systems
Recently credited by Alan Sherman's "On the Origins and Variations of Blockchain Technologies", Chaum's 1982 Berkeley dissertation proposed every element of the blockchain found in Bitcoin except proof of work. The proposed vault system lays out a plan for achieving consensus state between nodes, chaining the history of consensus in blocks, and immutably time-stamping the chained data. The paper also lays out the specific code to implement such a protocol.
Digital cash
Chaum is credited as the inventor of secure digital cash for his 1983 paper, which also introduced the cryptographic primitive of a blind signature. These ideas have been described as the technical roots of the vision of the Cypherpunk movement that began in the late 1980s. Chaum's proposal allowed users to obtain digital currency from a bank and spend it in a manner that is untraceable by the bank or any other party. In 1988, he extended this idea (with Amos Fiat and Moni Naor) to allow offline transactions that enable detection of double-spending.
In 1990, he founded DigiCash, an electronic cash company, in Amsterdam to commercialize the ideas in his research. The first electronic payment was sent in 1994. In 1999, Chaum left the company.
New types of digital signatures
In the same 1982 paper that proposed digital cash, Chaum introduced blind signatures. This form of digital signature blinds the content of a message before it is signed, so that the signer cannot determine the content. The resulting blind signature can be publicly verified against the original, unblinded message in the manner of a regular digital signature.
In 1989, he (with Hans van Antwerpen) introduced undeniable signatures. This form of digital signature uses a verification process that is interactive, so that the signatory can limit who can verify the signature. Since signers may refuse to participate in the verification process, signatures are considered valid unless a signer specifically uses a disavowal protocol to prove that a given signature was not authentic.
In 1991, he (with Eugene van Heyst) introduced group signatures, which allow a member of a group to anonymously sign a message on behalf of the entire group. However an appointed group manager holds the power to revoke the anonymity of any signer in the case of disputes.
Anonymous communication
In 1981, Chaum proposed the idea of an anonymous communication network in a paper. His proposal, called mix networks, allows a group of senders to submit an encryption of a message and its recipient to a server. Once the server has a batch of messages, it will reorder and obfuscate the messages so that only this server knows which message came from which sender. The batch is then forwarded to another server who does the same process. Eventually, the messages reach the final server where they are fully decrypted and delivered to the recipient. A mechanism to allow return messages is also proposed. Mix networks are the basis of some remailers and are the conceptual ancestor to modern anonymous web browsing tools like Tor (based on onion routing). Chaum has advocated that every router be made, effectively, a Tor node.
In 1988, Chaum introduced a different type of anonymous communication system called a DC-Net, which is a solution to his proposed Dining Cryptographers Problem. DC-Nets is the basis of the software tool Dissent.
Trustworthy voting systems
Chaum has made numerous contributions to secure voting systems, including the first proposal of a system that is end-to-end verifiable. This proposal, made in 1981, was given as an application of mix networks. In this system, the individual ballots of voters were kept private which anyone could verify that the tally was counted correctly. This, and other early cryptographic voting systems, assumed that voters could reliably compute values with their personal computers. In 1991, Chaum introduced SureVote which allowed voters to cast a ballot from an untrustworthy voting system, proposing a process now called "code voting" and used in remote voting systems like Remotegrity and DEMOS.
In 1994, Chaum introduced the first in-person voting system in which voters cast ballots electronically at a polling station and cryptographically verify that the DRE did not modify their vote (or even learn what it was). In the following years, Chaum proposed (often with others) a series a cryptographically verifiable voting systems that use conventional paper ballots: Pret a Voter, Punchscan, and Scantegrity. The city of Takoma Park, Maryland used Scantegrity for its November, 2009 election. This was the first time a public sector election was run using any cryptographically verifiable voting system.
In 2011, Chaum proposed Random Sample Elections. This electoral system allows a verifiably random selection of voters, who can maintain their anonymity, to cast votes on behalf the entire electorate.
Near Eye Display
A near eye display patent application authored by David Chaum has been updated. "PERSPECTIVA - All styles of eyeglasses can be upgraded to overlay, anywhere you can see through them, digital imagery that is of unbeatable quality." "Invented then founded and led an effort that has demonstrated feasibility of a new paradigm for delivering light that digitally deconstructs images so that they can be reconstructed on the retina with dynamic focus and exquisite clarity."
Other contributions
In 1979, Chaum proposed a mechanism for splitting a key into partial keys, a predecessor to secret sharing.
In 1985, Chaum proposed the original anonymous credential system, which is sometimes also referred to as a pseudonym system. This stems from the fact that the credentials of such a system are obtained from and shown to organizations using different pseudonyms which cannot be linked.
In 1988, Chaum with Gilles Brassard and Claude Crepeau published a paper that introduced zero-knowledge arguments, as well as a security model using information-theoretic private-channels, and also first formalized the concept of a commitment scheme.
1991, with Torben Pedersen, he demonstrated a well-cited zero-knowledge proof of a DDH tuple. This proof is particularly useful as it can prove proper reencryption of an ElGamal ciphertext.
Chaum contributed to an important commitment scheme which is often attributed to Pedersen. In fact, Pedersen, in his 1991 paper, cites a rump session talk on an unpublished paper by Jurjen Bos and Chaum for the scheme. It appeared even earlier in a paper by Chaum, Damgard, and Jeroen van de Graaf.
In 1993 with Stefan Brands, Chaum introduced the concept of a distance-bounding protocol.
Bibliography
Untraceable Electronic Mail, Return Addresses, and Digital Pseudonyms, 1981
Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of Crypto 82, 1983
Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of Crypto 83, 1984
David Chaum, Amos Fiat and Moni Naor, Untraceable Electronic Cash
David Lee Chaum, Computer Systems Established, Maintained and Trusted by Mutually Suspicious Groups, University of California, Berkeley, 1982
David Chaum, Towards Trustworthy Elections, Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K, 2010
How to issue a central bank digital currency (working paper), 2021
See also
ecash
Blind signature
Group signature
Undeniable signature
Mix network
Dining cryptographers protocol
Anonymous remailer
End-to-end auditable voting systems
Punchscan
Scantegrity
Digital credential
References
Further reading
Chaum, D. (1992). "Achieving Electronic Privacy," Scientific American, August 1992, p. 96-101.
External links
Home page
Punchscan Homepage
David Chaum research papers
Living people
Modern cryptographers
American computer scientists
Financial cryptography
Election people
Haas School of Business alumni
1955 births
International Association for Cryptologic Research fellows
Jewish American scientists
21st-century American Jews
People associated with cryptocurrency | [
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|
239366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel%20Camus | Marcel Camus | Marcel Camus (21 April 1912 – 13 January 1982) was a French film director. He is best known for Orfeu Negro (Black Orpheus), which won the Palme d'Or at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival and the 1960 Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film.
Biography
Camus was born in Chappes, Ardennes, France and died in Paris. He studied art and intended to become an art teacher. However, World War II interrupted his plans. He spent part of the war in a German prisoner-of-war camp.
Prior to directing films, Camus assisted filmmakers in France, including Jacques Feyder, Luis Buñuel, and Jacques Becker. He directed nearly a dozen films, including Orfeu Negro (also known as Black Orpheus), which won the Palme d'Or at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival and the 1960 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
In 1960, Camus made a second Brazlilian-themed film, Os bandeirantes. Twenty years after Orfeu Negro, Camus returned to Brazilian themes for what would prove to be his last film, Bahia (also known as Otalia da Bahia and Os pastores da noite), based on a novel by Brazilian novelist Jorge Amado. These films, however, failed to recapture the success of Orfeu Negro. In 1970, Camus had a moderate success with a World War II comedy, Le Mur de l'Atlantique (The Atlantic Wall), starring the well-known French comedian Bourvil. Camus ended his career working primarily in television.
Camus married one of the stars of Orfeu Negro, Marpessa Dawn.
Camus is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Filmography
Champions Juniors (1951) – writer
Orfeu Negro (1959) - director
The Pioneers (1961) - writer and director
Bird of Paradise (1962) - co-writer and director
Le Chant du monde (1965) - director
Vivre la nuit (1968) - director
Atlantic Wall (1970) - director
(1973, TV miniseries) - director
Bahia (1978) - writer and director
(co-director: , 1979, TV miniseries) - director
Mein Freund Winnetou (1980, TV miniseries) - director
References
External links
1912 births
1982 deaths
People from Ardennes (department)
French film directors
Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Directors of Palme d'Or winners | [
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|
239367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexor%20carpi%20radialis%20muscle | Flexor carpi radialis muscle | In anatomy, flexor carpi radialis is a muscle of the human forearm that acts to flex and (radially) abduct the hand. The Latin carpus means wrist; hence flexor carpi is a flexor of the wrist.
Origin and insertion
The flexor carpi radialis is one of four muscles in the superficial layer of the anterior compartment of the forearm.
This muscle originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus as part of the common flexor tendon. It runs just laterally of flexor digitorum superficialis and inserts on the anterior aspect of the base of the second metacarpal, and has small slips to both the third metacarpal and trapezium tuberosity.
The tendon of the flexor carpi radialis is visible on the anterior surface of the forearm, just proximal to the wrist, when the wrist is flexed. It is the tendon seen most lateral, closest to the thumb.
Nerve and artery
Like most flexors of the anterior compartment of the forearm, FCR is innervated by the median nerve, specifically by axons from cervical nerve roots C6 and C7. The muscle receives its blood supply from the ulnar artery.
Exercises
The muscle, like all flexors of the forearm, can be strengthened by exercises that resist its flexion. A wrist roller can be used, and wrist curls with dumbbells can also be performed.
See also
Flexor retinaculum of the hand
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Additional images
References
Muscles of the upper limb
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|
239372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Stannard | Joseph Stannard | Joseph Stannard (13 September 1797 7 December 1830) was an English marine, landscape and portrait painter. He was a talented and prominent member of the Norwich School of painters.
After attending the Norwich Grammar School, his parents paid for him to be trained as an artist by Robert Ladbrooke, one of the founding members of the Norwich Society of Artists. During his career he exhibited in both Norwich and London, with some success. In 1816 he joined a rival society in Norwich, which lasted a few years. He was influenced by the work of the Dutch masters, whose works he studied and copied following a visit to Holland in 1821. His own most important painting, Thorpe Water Frolic, Afternoon, was first exhibited in Norwich in 1825.
In 1826 he married the artist Emily Coppin. Several other members of his family, including their daughter Emily, were talented artists. He suffered from poor health during most of his life and died from tuberculosis in 1830, aged only 33.
Background
Joseph Stannard belonged to the Norwich School of painters, all of whom that were connected personally or professionally. Though they were mainly inspired by the Norfolk countryside, many also depicted coastal and urban scenes. Its most important members were John Crome and John Sell Cotman—the leading spirits and finest artists of the movement—as well as Stannard, James Stark, George Vincent, Robert Ladbrooke and Edward Thomas Daniell, the best etcher of the school. Stannard belonged to the second generation, which also included John Berney Crome, Stark, Vincent and Miles Edmund Cotman.
According to the art historian Andrew Moore, the Norwich School "has long been recognised as a unique phenomenon in the history of 19th-century British art." Norwich was the first English city outside London with the right conditions for a provincial art movement. It had more locally born artists than any similar city, and its theatrical, artistic, philosophical and musical cultures were cross-fertilised in a way that was unique outside the capital. The Norwich Society of Artists, founded by Crome and Ladbrooke in 1803, arose from the need for artists in the city to teach each other and their pupils. It held regular exhibitions and had an organised structure, showing works annually until 1825 and again from 1828 until it was dissolved in 1833. The first group of its kind to be created since the formation of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1768, it was remarkable in acting in its artists' interests for 30 yearsa longer period than for any similar group.
Life and family
Joseph Stannard was born close to St Andrew's Church, Norwich on 13 September 1797. He was the elder son of Abraham Stannard, who was possibly a musician, and Mary Bell, and was baptised by his parents on 17 September at St Michael-at-Plea, Norwich. He attended Norwich Grammar School and his early artistic talents encouraged his parents to ask the prominent landscape artist John Crome to take on Joseph as a pupil. Crome was at time Norwich's most famous artist, and his fees proved to be too high for the Stannards, so they paid for their son to be apprenticed by Robert Ladbrooke in the city. Ladbrooke, who had already given him informal lessons, was able to teach the young artist to become a skilled draughtsman, with the potential to develop his own style. Impressed by Stannard's ability, he even waived his tuition fees, offering an annual payment of £10 to entice him to work in his studio. Stannard stayed as Ladbrooke's pupil for seven years, although there is little evidence of his master's influence in his artistic style. When Ladbrooke seceded from the Norwich Society of Artists in 1816, Stannard sided with him.
He met and got to know his fellow artist Emily Coppin in 1820 when attending meetings of the Norwich Society of Artists, and in 1826 they were married. She had been influenced by a visit to Holland with her father, the artist Daniel Coppin, where there was the opportunity for her to study the techniques of the Dutch still life painters, and copy works by Jan van Huysum. Emily Coppin Stannard was a notable painter of fruit and flowers, who received three gold medals from the Norwich Society of Arts and was still painting 50 years after her husband's death. In 1823 the Norwich Mercury wrote of her that "she is an honour to art, an honour to the city, and an honour to her sex, by the taste, industry, and knowledge, her beautifully disposed and elaborately finished pictures display."
The Stannards belonged to an artistic family. Their daughter Emily, who was born in Norwich in 1827, was a still life painter and a teacher, who exhibited with the Norfolk and Norwich Association in 1856 and the Norwich Industrial Exhibition in 1867. Their niece Eloise Harriet Stannard and her younger brother Alfred George Stannard were both artists, as was Joseph's brother Alfred Stannard.
Stannard's paintings depict the local scenery around Norwich and the Norfolk coast, which he enjoyed exploring. He was an excellent oarsman and a skilled ice-skater; crowds would gather to watch him perform on the ice.
He contracted tuberculosis two years after his marriage, and suffered from poor health for much of his later life. Friends and relatives rallied to support him as his illness developed. To try and recuperate, he stayed at the sea-side resort of Great Yarmouth, which resulted in the oil painting Yarmouth Beach and Jetty. He died from tuberculosis on 7 December 1830, aged 33, having lived in Norwich all his life. His death was announced in the Bury and Norwich Post: "Same day, in St. Giles's Terrace, aged 34, Mr. Joseph Stannard, artist, in whom Norwich has lost a talented citizen, and art a favoured and most deserving votary." He is buried, together with an infant daughter and his sister Eloise, in the Church of St John Maddermarket, Norwich.
Emily Coppin Stannard, who was to outlive her husband by nearly 55 years, died on 6 January 1885; her daughter Emily, whose father had died when she was two years old, was trained to be artist by her mother, and assisted her in her work as a teacher. She died in 1894, having lived in Norwich most of her life.
Career
Joseph Stannard was one of the most important members of the Norwich School of Artists. even though his career lasted only fifteen years and his output was affected by illness. The art historians Josephine Walpole and Andrew Hemingway both rank him as the most distinguished painter of the school after John Crome and John Sell Cotman. A precocious artist, he began exhibiting when still a boy; one of his paintings was exhibited at the Norwich Society of Artists in 1811, when he was 14. He was praised by the local press in 1817, when the Norfolk Chronicle noted that he was "a rising genius", and there was a positive review of his work in The Norwich Mercury in August 1818.
In 1816, Stannard, Robert Ladbrooke and his sons, James Sillett and John Thirtle seceded from the Norwich Society of Artists to form their own society. Led by Ladbrooke, seven members of the Norwich Society opened an exhibition entitled 'The Twelfth of the Norfolk and Norwich Society of Artists', which was held in the Shakespeare Tavern, on Theatre Plain. Stannard exhibited five works in the first year of the new society's existence: Study from Nature; Distant View of Norwich from Whitlingham;.Pencil Sketches; View of the Foundry Bridge and View of the City from Fuller's Hole, exhibiting 13 works with the society in total. The Society was dissolved after three years.
He developed an interest in the stage and made connections with Norwich's Theatre Royale from 18191820, which resulted in works such as A Scene in the Melodrama of the "Broken Sword", A Portrait of Mrs. Hammond, of the Theatre Royal, Norwich and A Portrait of Mr. Beacham, in the character of Riber. In 1819 he exhibited in London. The same year he showed Scene in a Norwich Alehouse, his only picture to receive a review in the local press. The Norwich Mercury described it as "nicely wrought", noting that "it depicted all the well-known iterants of the city".
Between 1820 and 1829, Stannard exhibited works at the Royal Academy and the British Institution in London, showing eight works at the British Institution from 1824 to 1828 (Breydon, looking towards Yarmouth; Mundesley Cliffs, looking towards Cromer; A View near Norwich; Breydon—Morning; On the Norwich River; A Marine View; Gorleston Pier—Pilot Boats Going Off and Fresh Breeze, Lowestoft Roads). He was influenced by the work of earlier Dutch artists, whose works he studied and copied during a visit to Holland in 1821 that was perhaps inspired by a similar visit by his future wife and her father in 1820.
By 1823 he was suffering financially, a situation created by the patronage of the Norwich manufacturer and entrepreneur John Harvey, who commissioned Stannard to paint Thorpe Water Frolic, Afternoon. Harvey, who perhaps had not realised the large cost of the work, declined to accept it, and Stannard was left unable to recover his expenses. In 1823 he left Emily Coppin in Norwich and went to London, where he sat for his portrait by William Beechey, and was possibly employed by the artist William Anderson. By 1824, with his debts cleared, he was working again in Norwich.
In 1827 a collection of his etchings were published as Norfolk Etchings. The artist John Middleton was his pupil, but he was not a teacher and usually had no pupils. From 1824 he taught his friend Edward Thomas Daniell how to etch. Daniell, then a student at Oxford University, worked with Stannard during his holidays, and as Daniell's ability developed, the relationship between pupil and teacher became more equal. Daniell sued him when a newly built studio obscured his light; Stannard was forced to remove it after losing the case.
Thorpe Water Frolic, Afternoon
Stannard's masterpiece—his best known work and his most important commission—is Thorpe Frolic, Afternoon (1824), an oil painting that shows a large civic regatta. The annual 'frolic' was that year attended by almost 20,000 spectators, at a time when the population of Norwich was approximately 50,000. Part sporting event and part social occasion, the event was held on the river Yare at Thorpe, east of Norwich. It was organised by John Harvey, who aspired to promote the city as an international port, and entailed sailing and rowing competitions, picnics, speeches and music.
The painting it was first exhibited in Norwich in 1825, the year the Norfolk Chronicle wrote "of all the gay, the bustling, the delightful scenes in nature, we know of none more refreshing and enchanting than a 'Water Frolic'." It was commissioned by Harvey in 1823, who asked for "the finest painting you can", and the work involved in producing the large oil-on-canvas work meant that for five months it took precedence over all other undertakings. The high production costs were in the end borne by Stannard and not Harvey, whose financial situation had deteriorated following the end of the Napoleonic wars
The scene has no mythological imagery, suggestion of pageantry or notion of any patriotism, but a costumed gondolier in his boat is shown, suggestive of the regattas of Venice, adding a new dimension. Stannard shows the beauty of the setting by painting in the fields beyond the river, woodland, and the buildings of the gentry, whilst also recreating the event using his artistic licence. Thorpe Frolic, Afternoon was praised by the Norfolk Chronicle, which described the work as "intensely interesting, masterly and elegant". The Norwich Mercury also admired his painting, noting it to be a work of great skill, and adding that it was a striking blend of fact and fiction. The painting is on display at Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery. The naval historian Oliver Warner, who congratulated Stannard on the work, describing it as "entrancing" and adding that it is "a picture good enough in itself to justify a long journey".
Technique
Stannard painted chiefly river and coastal landscapes in oil. As an oil painter he has more in common with the Dutch masters than with Crome or Cotman. In Holland he sketched the local scenery, depicting rivers and coastline in pencil and crayon. His visit to Holland enabled him to develop a new oil technique and deepen his interest in marine subjects. According to Walpole, who regards Stannard as close to being Britain's most significant marine artist, his paintings betray his love of the sea as a subject, and are depicted with "inherent skill and devastating honesty to produce some of the most poetic and sensitive sea paintings of all time".
A few watercolours can be attributed to him, including Lugger in a Squall, with a small number owned by Norfolk Museums. An excellent draughtsman, his accomplished pencil drawings (and perhaps some of his oil paintings) were made in situ. The drawings were often made in preparation of larger works. He was a talented figure drawer; in Moore's opinion, "Stannard's excellence in figure drawing among the Norwich painters may be seen in his watercolour studies, equalled only by the Joy brothers of Yarmouth." In the opinion of author Derek Clifford, Stannard "was a shining exception to the Norwich landscapists' inability to draw the human figure."
He was a talented portrait painter, and by 1818 had received a number of commissions. He produced character studies; his Norwich Ratcatcher is perhaps the best known of these works, which, alongside Old Lying Plummer, Scene in a Norwich Alehouse and Joe Doe the Butcher's Porter, have what Walpole describes as "the same characteristic feeling of identity".
His restricted output of 12 etchings were issued in small numbers, or—as with Unloading Ships—not issued at all; they are prized for both their rarity and quality. The author Geoffrey Searle describes Stannard as an original and distinguished etcher who talents approached those of John Crome, John Sell Cotman and Edward Daniell, describing Boats on Breydon as "glorious" and Mundesley Beach as having "an uncompromisingly gloomy splendour". He skilfully portrayed human figures, typically depicted within their working environment, and revealing their personalities in a way that was unusual among the Norwich School etchers. Stannard's prints of his etchings were for his friends and not for profit, and so are modest in size. After his death an edition of his etchings was produced. No copies are known to have survived.
Gallery
Legacy
Stannard remained an obscure artist during most of the 19th century, perhaps due to his early death in 1830 and because he did not try to make his name by living away from Norwich. His popularity as an artist was affected by the relatively small number of works produced, and the tendency for them to be sold in London rather than in Norwich. it is possible that most of his early works were in imitation of the old masters, explaining why he remained unnoticed by the local press until the 1820s.
References
Bibliography
External links
Works relating to Stannard kept by the Norfolk Museums Collections
Works by Stannard at the ArtUK website
Works by Stannard at the Yale Center for British Art
Prints by Stannard in the British Museum
Works by Stannard held by the National Trust
19th-century English painters
English male painters
Landscape artists
English watercolourists
Artists from Norwich
1797 births
1830 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in England | [
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239376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%20of%20the%20Cloth%20of%20Gold | Field of the Cloth of Gold | The Field of the Cloth of Gold (, ) was a summit meeting between King Henry VIII of England and King Francis I of France from 7 to 24 June 1520. Held at Balinghem, between Ardres in France and Guînes in the English Pale of Calais, it was a very expensive display of wealth by both kings.
The summit was arranged to increase the bond of friendship between the two kings following the Anglo-French treaty of 1514. These two monarchs would meet again in 1532 to arrange Francis's assistance in pressuring Pope Clement VII to pronounce Henry's first marriage as illegitimate. Under the guidance of English Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the chief nations of Europe sought to outlaw war forever among Christian nations.
Though now in France, Balinghem was at the time regarded as part of England. This caused some tensions between the English and French, as the latter preferred a location closer to the border, but topographical considerations proved the decisive factor.
Background
Two entities had started to emerge as powers in Western Europe at this time: France, under Francis I, and the Habsburg Empire, under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Kingdom of England, still a lesser power, was being courted as an ally by the two major powers. The 1518 Treaty of London, a non-aggression pact between major European powers to help resist the Ottoman expansion into southeastern Europe, had just been signed. Henry also held meetings with Charles V a month before the Field of Cloth of Gold in the Netherlands and again afterwards at Calais, Henry's only possession on the Continent.
Both Henry and Francis wished to be seen as Renaissance princes. Renaissance thinking held that a strong prince could choose peace from a place of strength. The meeting was designed to show how magnificent each court was, and how this could be a basis for mutual respect and peace between nations that were traditional enemies. Henry and Francis were also similar figures of similar age and dashing reputations, so there was almost certainly a mutual curiosity.
Everything was arranged to provide equality between the two groups. The meeting place (now indicated by a commemorative plaque on the D231 road, Route de Marquise) was at the very edge of the English territory around Calais. The valley where the first meeting took place was landscaped to provide areas of equal elevation for the two national parties. The whole event was planned and executed by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, a charismatic, eloquent master diplomat who as a papal legate had immense power in the name of Pope Leo X at the time of the meeting. Included among the English guests were Thomas More and Anne Boleyn's mother and sister.
An earlier meeting between the kings of England and France presaged this one. From 27 to 30 October 1396, Charles VI of France and Richard II of England had met at Ardres near Calais to treat for peace during the Hundred Years' War. The scale, splendour and pageantry were comparable to the later Field of the Cloth of Gold meeting held on the same site in 1520.
The meeting
Each king tried to outshine the other, with dazzling tents and clothes, huge feasts, music, jousting and games. The tents and the costumes displayed so much cloth of gold, an expensive fabric woven with silk and gold thread, that the site of the meeting was named after it.
The most elaborate arrangements were made for the accommodation of the two monarchs and their large retinues; and on Henry's part especially no efforts were spared to make a great impression in Europe with this meeting. Before the castle of Guînes, a temporary palace covering an area of nearly was erected for the reception of the English king. The palace was in four blocks with a central courtyard; each side was long. The only solid part was the brick base about high. Above the brickwork, the 30-foot (10 metre) high walls were made of cloth or canvas on timber frames, painted to look like stone or brick.
One further aspect of King Henry's retinue was the presence of two royal monkeys covered in gold leaf; these were known to have been gifts from the Ottoman Sultan Selim I and brought much laughter and merriment from Francis I as contemporary Cardinal Wolsey recounts, "The French King was overcome with much curiosity playing with those little knaves that did all they could to steal and pester his advisers, yet he willed them to be present at every banquet". The slanting roof was made of oiled cloth painted to give the colour of lead and the illusion of slates. Contemporaries commented especially on the huge expanse of glass, which made visitors feel they were in the open air. Chronicle descriptions make it clear the decorations, carved and painted had martial iconography;
The building was decorated in the most sumptuous fashion and furnished with a profusion of golden ornaments. Red wine flowed from the two fountains outside. The chapel was served by 35 priests. Composer Jean Mouton was most likely in charge of the musical production by Francis I; the French royal chapel had one of the finest choirs in Europe, and contemporary accounts indicated that they "delighted their hearers." The wooden ceiling for one of the tents may later have been installed in the New Chapel at Ightham Mote where, with its colours faded, one with appropriate features can still be seen. Musical production on the English side was probably led by composer William Cornysh the Younger, master of the Royal Chapel for Henry VIII.
Some idea of the size of Henry's following may be gathered from the fact that in one month 2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion were consumed. In the fields beyond the castle, 2800 tents were erected for less distinguished visitors.
Journeying from Calais, Henry reached his headquarters at Guînes on Monday, 4 June 1520, and Francis took up his residence at Ardres. After Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train, had visited the French king, the two monarchs met at the Val d'Or, a spot midway between the two places, on Thursday, 7 June Corpus Christi.
The following days were taken up with tournaments, in which both kings took part. There were banquets in which the kings entertained each other's queens. The many other entertainments included archery displays and wrestling between Breton and Cornish wrestlers.
Wolsey said Mass and the two sovereigns separated on Sunday, 24 June, the feast-day of St John the Baptist. The painting depicts a dragon flying overhead and this could be interpreted to mean that the Mass itself was interrupted by a mysterious event thought to be a dragon flying over the congregation. The superstitious would have viewed this as a great portent, but it was probably a firework accidentally or deliberately set off. Alternatively the dragon in the painting could be interpreted as symbolic, perhaps representing a highly romanticized Salamander (the symbol of Francis) or a portent of doom, signifying that for all its glamour, the summit was to prove largely fruitless. The sermon was read by Richard Pace, an intimate friend of Erasmus. Wolsey gave a general indulgence for all present.
Consequences
This meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its political results were very minor. While the carefully established rules of the tournament stated that the two kings would not compete against each other, Henry surprisingly challenged Francis in a wrestling match, but it turned sour for Henry when he quickly lost.
Relations between the two countries worsened soon after the event when Cardinal Wolsey arranged an alliance with Charles V, who declared war on France later that year commencing the Italian War of 1521–26.
List of participants
A record of the list of participants survives in at least two places: in the Rutland Papers and in the Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of King Henry VIII, catalogued as Letters indented specifying, in accordance with the treaty of 12 March 1519, the number and rank of the lords, ladies and gentlemen to attend the King and Queen at the interview with Francis I. The latter source lists the following:
For King Henry VIII
"For the King: The cardinal of York, with 300 servants, of whom 12 shall be chaplains and 50 gentlemen, with 50 horses; one archbishop with 70 servants, of whom 5 shall be chaplains and 10 gentlemen, with 30 horses; 2 dukes, each with 70 servants, 5 to be chaplains and 10 gentlemen, with 30 horses. 1 marquis with 56 servants, 4 to be chaplains and 8 gentlemen; 26 horses. 10 earls, each with 42 servants, 3 to be chaplains and 6 gentlemen; 20 horses. 5 bishops, of whom the bishop of Winchester shall have 56 servants, 4 to be chaplains and 8 gentlemen; 26 horses;—each of the others, 44 servants, 4 to be chaplains and 6 gentlemen; 20 horses. 20 barons, each to have 22 servants, 2 to be chaplains and 2 gentlemen; 12 horses. 4 knights of the order of St. George, each to have 22 servants, 2 to be chaplains and 2 gentlemen; 48 horses. 70 knights, including Sir William Mathew, grandson of Sir David Ap Mathew of Wales. Each knight to have 12 servants, one to be a chaplain; 8 horses. Councillors of the long robe; viz., the King's secretary, the vice-chancellor, the dean of the Chapel, and the almoner, each to have 12 servants, one a chaplain, and 8 horses. 12 King's chaplains, each with 6 servants and 3 horses. 12 serjeants-at-arms, each with 1 servant and two horses. 200 of the King's guard with 100 horses. 70 grooms of the chamber, with 150 servants and 100 horses among them; 266 officers of the house, with 216 servants and 70 horses; 205 grooms of the stable and of the armories, with 211 horses. The earl of Essex, being earl marshal, shall have, beside the number above stated, 130 servants and 100 light horses. Sum total of the King's company, 3,997 people and 2,087 horses".
For Queen Catherine of Aragon
"For the Queen: 1 duchess, with 4 women, 6 servants and 12 horses; 10 countesses, with 3 women and 4 servants, and 8 horses each; 12 baronesses, with 2 women, 3 servants and 6 horses each. 20 knights' ladies, with 1 woman, 2 servants and 4 horses each; 14 ladies, with 1 woman, 2 servants and 3 horses each; 6 ladies of the chamber, with 1 servant and 2 horses each; 1 earl, with 42 servants, 3 to be chaplains and 9 gentlemen; horses 20. 3 bishops, to have 44 servants, 4 to be chaplains and 6 gentlemen; horses 60. 4 barons, with 22 servants, 2 to be chaplains and 2 gentlemen; horses 48. 30 knights, with 12 servants, 1 to be a chaplain; horses 240; 6 chaplains with 3 servants and 2 horses each. Grooms 50, officers of the King's chamber, with 20 servants and 30 horses; officers of the King's stable 60, with 70 horses. Sum total of the Queen's company, 1,175 people and 778 horses.
Commissioners
"Names of those appointed to attend the king of England at the Congress:
Commissioners to oversee followers of French King
Commissioners appointed to oversee those who shall accompany the king of France:—The earl of Essex, Lord Abergavenny, Sir Edw. Ponynges, Sir Rob. Wingfield.
Commissioners to give orders to the gentlemen
Commissioners to give orders to the gentlemen:—Sir Edw. Belknapp, Sir Nich. Vaux, Sir John Peche, Sir Maurice Berkeley.
Commissioners to give orders to the foot soldiers
Commissioners to give orders to the foot soldiers:—Sir Weston Browne, Sir Edw. Ferys, Sir Rob. Constable, Sir Ralph Egerton, Sir Thomas Lucy, Sir John Marney.
Other attendees
At the embracing of the two kings
To ride with the king of England at the embracing of the two kings:—The Legate, Archbishop of Canterbury, dukes of Buckingham and Suffolk, marquis of Dorset. Bishops:—Durham, Armagh, Ely, Chichester, Rochester, Exeter, Hereford. Earls:—Stafford, Northumberland, Westmoreland, Shrewsbury, Worcester, Devonshire, Kent, Wiltshire, Derby, Kildare. Barons:—Maltravers, Montagu, Herbert, the grand prior of St. John of England, Roos, Fitzwalter, Hastings, Delaware, Dacre, Ferrers, Cobham, Daubeney, Lumley, Sir Henry Marney, Sir Wm. Sandys, Thomas Boleyn, Lord Howard.
Order of procession
The servants of the king of England shall march next their King, preceded by the nobles and gentlemen of the Legate, who shall follow the gentlemen of the other lords. The King's guard to follow him in their accustomed places.
Attendants of King Francis I
At meeting of two kings
The names of those who will be with the French king when he meets the king of England: the king of Navarre; dukes of Alençon, Bourbon, Vendosme and Lorraine; count of Saint Pol; prince de la Roche Suryon; count of Dreux and Rhetel, Sieur Dorval and governor of Champaigne; count of Benon, sieur de la Tremoille, first Chamberlain, admiral of Guyenne and governor of Burgundy; count of Estampes and Caravats, sieur de Boysy, grand master and governor of the Dauphin [died 1519]; Bonnyvet, admiral of France, Lautrec, La Palisse and Chastillon, marshals; count of Guyse, brother of the duke of Lorraine; the bastard of Savoy, count of Villars and Beaufort, governor of Provence; count de Laval; mons. de Chasteaubriant; count of Harcourt; princes of Orange and Tallemont; mons. de Nevers; mons d'Esparrox, lieutenant of Guyenne, and count of Montfort; Mess. de Lescun and Montmorency; le Grand Escuyer; counts de la Chambre, Tonnerre, Brienne, Joigny, Bremie and Mont Reuel; mons. d'Albret. The other knights of the Order. The king's household, 200 gentlemen; St. Vallier and the grand seneschal of Normandy, captains. 400 archers of the guard, and 4 captains; 100 Swiss, De Florenges, captain; maîtres d'hôtel, pannetiers, valets, &c.; gentlemen of the council and of the finances. The other pensioners will remain in their houses. Francis will bring with him the above company if the king of England thinks it suitable; but if not, he will diminish it. These noblemen will only have with them about 200 horses.
English attendants of English King
Noblemen's names that shall accompany the French (sic) (English?) king at the meeting at Calais. The King's Council. My lord Cardinal. The Privy Seal. The bishops of Lincoln, Norwich, Hereford and Rochester. The dukes of Norfolk and Buckingham. The marquis Dorset. The earls of Surrey, Shrewsbury, Worcester, Derby, Northumberland, Essex and Wiltshire. The lords of St. John, Burgevenny, Devonshire, Montague, Mounteagle, Cobham, Ferrers, Fitzwalter, Dudley, Dacres of the South, Darcy, Conyers, Audeley, Broke and Fitzwarren. The deans of the Chapel and of St Paul's. The archdeacon of Richmond. The dean of Salisbury. Dr. Syxtyne. Dr. Clark. The abbots of Glastonbury, Westminster, Bury and Winchecombe. All knights and others of the King's council. The secretaries in Latin, French and English. The clerks of the Privy Seal and Signet. The heralds. The officers of the household. The minstrels.
County representatives
Bedford:—Sir John St. John, Wm. Gascoyn, Robt. Spenser, Lenthorp, Wm. Fitzjeffrey, Geo. Harvy.
Berkshire:—Sir Geo. Forster, Sir Thos. Fetyplace, Sir Wm. Essex, Sir Richard Weston, Hen. Bridges, John Cheyny, Ric. Noreys, Ric. Hampden.
Buckingham:—Sir Andrew Windsor, Sir Rauf Verney, junr., John Cheynye, Sir Wm. Hampden, John Gyfford.
Cambridge:—Sir Wm. Findern, Sir Rob. Coton, Sir Rauf Chamberlain, Sir Giles Alyngton.
Cheshire:—Sir John Warberton, Sir Wm. Both, Sir John Warren, Sir Geo. Holford, Sir John Lye of Bagley, Sir Wm. Brereton.
Cornwall:—Lord Broke, Sir John Arundell, Sir Piers Eggecombe, Sir Roger Graynefeld, Sir John Trevenyan.
Derby:—Sir Henry Sacheverell, Sir John Montgomery, Sir Godfrey Fulgeham (Foljambe), Thos. Cokyn (Cockayne).
Devonshire:— Lord FitzWaren, feudal baron of Bampton (i.e. John Bourchier, 1st Earl of Bath (1470-1539), created Earl of Bath in 1536); Sir William Courtenay (1477–1535) "The Great" of Powderham; Sir Edmund Owen; Sir John Basset (1462–1528) of Umberleigh; "Sir Nic. Kyrkeham" (possibly Nicholas Kirkham the 2nd son of Nicholas Kirkham (1433/4-1516) of Blagdon, Paignton. His sister Margaret Kirkham married firstly to John Cheney of Pinhoe, whose sister Cecily Cheney was the mother of Sir William Courtenay (1477–1535) "The Great" of Powderham); and Sir Edward Pomeroy (1478-1538) feudal baron of Berry Pomeroy.
Dorset.—Hen. Strangwyshe, Giles Strangwyshe, John Horsey, Sir Thos. Trenchard.
Essex:—The Earl of Essex, Lord FitzWalter, Sir Henry Marny, Sir John Raynysford, Sir Thos. Tyrell, Sir Ric. Lewys, Sir Roger Wentworth, Wm. Pirton, Sir Whitstan Browne, John Marnye.
Gloucester:—The Duke of Buckingham, Sir Maurice Barkeley, William Denys, Sir Wm. Kyngston, Sir Christopher Baynham, Sir John Hungerford, Sir Edw. Wadham, Sir John Brydges.
Hants:—Lord Audeley, Sir Wm. Sandes, Sir John Lyle, Wm. Pownd, John Pawlet, junr., Sir John Lye, Sir Geo. Putenham, Sir Wm. Gyfford, Rob. Walop, Arthur Plantagenet, Sir Maurice Barow.
Hereford:—Lord Ferrers, Sir Ric. Cornewall.
Hertford:—Lord Barnesse (Berners), Sir Edw. Benstede, Thos. Clyfford.
Kent:—Lord Bargeveny, Lord Cobham, Lord Clynton, Sir Edw. Ponynges, Sir Wm. Scot, Sir John Pechie, Sir Edw. Guldeford, Sir Hen. Guyldeford, Thos. Cheynye, Sir Rauf Seyntleger, Sir John Darell, Raynold Pymp, Sir John Scott, Sir Wm. Crowner, Sir John Fogge, Sir John Norton.
Leicester:—The Lord Marquis, Lord Hastyngs, Sir John Digby, Sir Edw. Feldyng, Sir Ric. Sacheverell, Lord John Gray, Lord Leonard Gray, Lord Richard Gray, Sir Wm. Skevyngton, Sir John Villers, _ Hasylrygge.
Lincoln:—Lord Willoughby, Sir Christopher Willoughby, Sir John Husey, Sir Geoffrey Paynell, Sir Miles Bushe, Sir Rob. Scheffeld, Sir Wm. Tirwytt, Wm. Askew, Geo. Fitzwilliam, Sir Rob. Dymocke, Wm. Hansard.
Middlesex:—The Lord of Saint John's, Sir Thos. Lovell.
Norfolk:—Lord Edmund Howard, Sir Ph. Calthorp, Sir Robt. Clere, Sir John Haydon, Sir Thos. Wodehows, Sir Thos. Wyndham, Wm. Paston, Sir Robt. Lovell, John Shelton, Sir Thos. Benyngfeld, Nic. Appylyerd, Edw. Knyvet.
Northampton:—Sir Nic. Vaux, Sir Wm. Parre, Sir Thos. Lucy, Thos. Empson.
Nottingham:—Sir Wm. Parpoynt (Pierpoint), Sir Thos. Sutton, Sir Brian Stapleton, Robt. Clyfton, Humphrey Hersy, Rowland Dygby, John Beron, Sir Wm. Meryng, Sir Hen. Willoughby.
Oxford:—Sir Adryan Fortesku, Sir Edw. Chamberlayn, Sir Wm. Rede, Walter Bulstrode, Sir John Daunce.
Shropshire:—The Earl of Shrewsbury, Sir Ric. Laykyn, Sir Thos. Blount, Sir Thos. Leyghton, Sir Rob. Corbett, Sir Thos. Cornwall.
Somerset:—The Earl of Wiltshire, Sir John Trevelian, Sir Nicholas Wadham, Sir John Rodney, Sir Ric. Ware, _ Strangwyshe, Lord Daubenye.
Stafford:—Sir John Feryes, Sir Loys (Lewis) Bagot, Sir John Gifford, Sir John Asheton, John Egyrton, Sir John Braycot, Sir John Stanley, John Blount.
Suffolk:—Sir Thos. Bolayn, Sir Rob. Brandon, Sir Rob. Drury, Sir Ant. Wyngfeld, Sir Wm. Walgrave, Sir Ric. Wentworth, Sir John Shelton, Sir Arthur Hopton, Sir Rob. Courson, Sir John Audley, Thos. Felton, _ Branzton, Sir Wm. Sidney.
Surrey:—Sir Henry Wyatt, Sir Matthew Brown, Sir John Ywardby, Sir Edw. Bray.
Sussex:—The Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Surrey, Lord Matravers, Sir Thos. West, Lord Dacre, Sir David Owen, Sir Godard Oxynbridge, Wm. Ashbornham, Sir Edw. Lewkenor, Sir John Dawtry.
Warwick:—Lord Dudley, Sir Gilbert Talbot, junr., Geo. Throgmorton, Sir Edward Belknap, Edw. Gryvill, Sir John Burdute, Sir Thos. Lucy, Sir Edw. Ferys, Edw. Conway.
Westmoreland:—Sir Thos. Parre.
Wilts:—Sir Edward Hungerford, Sir John Seymour, Sir Edw. Darell, Sir John Dakers, Sir John Newport, Sir Maurice Barow, Sir John Scrope, Sir Thos. Long
Worcester:- Rhys ap Thomas, Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas
York:—The Earl of Northumberland, Lord Darcy, Lord Lumley, Sir John Constable, Sir Rob. Constable, Lord Conyers, Sir Geo. Fitzhew, Sir Rauf Ellerkar, Sir Wm. Gaskoyn, Sir Ric. Tempest, Sir Wm. Skargill, Sir Guy Wolstrope, Sir Rauf Evers, Sir Wm. Evers, Sir Wm. Bulmer, Sir John Bulmer, Sir Edw. Pekeryng.
All of the English Knights of the Garter, some 23 in all, were present.
In popular culture
G. P. R. James, the British novelist, dramatized the meeting in his second novel, Darnley: or, The Field of the Cloth of Gold (1830).
The Showtime Series The Tudors dramatized the meeting in its first season (2007).
The plot of Magnus Mills' 2015 novel entitled The Field of the Cloth of Gold, echoes elements of the meeting.
The hit open-air historical night show Kynren features a scene based on the Field of the Cloth of Gold.
In Marcel Proust's work, Swann's Way, he references the "Field of the Cloth of Gold" during a scene when the narrator meets Gilberte: "She [Gilberte] was in fact summoning me to cross the snowy lawn to her camp, to 'take the field,' which the sun, by casting over it a rosy gleam, the metallic lustre of old and worn brocades, had turned into a Field of the Cloth of Gold." Remembrance of Things Past, vol. 1, Swann's Way, Marcel Proust, p. 433, First Vintage Books edition, 1982.
References
Further reading
Mattingly, Garrett. "An Early Nonaggression Pact," Journal of Modern History," March 1938, Vol. 10 Issue 1, 1–30 in JSTOR
Hayward, Maria. Dress at the Court of King Henry VIII (Routledge, 2017).
Lynn, Eleri. Tudor Textiles (Yale UP, 2020).
Richardson, Glenn. "The King, the Cardinal-Legate and the Field of Cloth of Gold." Royal Studies Journal 4.2 (2017): 141-160 online.
Richardson, Glenn. "Field of the Cloth of Gold" History Today (July 2020) 7#7 pp 28-39.
Richardson, Glenn. Renaissance Monarchy: The Reigns of Henry VIII, Francis I & Charles V (2002) 246pp
288pp
Smith, Pamela H., et al. "The Matter of Ephemeral Art: Craft, Spectacle, and Power in Early Modern Europe." Renaissance Quarterly 73.1 (2020): 78-131.
Eyewitness descriptions appear in Edward Hall's Chronicle and Richard Grafton's Chronicle at Large''.
External links
Nichols, John Gough, ed., The Chronicle of Calais, Camden Society (1846), 19–29, 77–90 documents and eyewitness accounts
Hall, Edward, London (1809), 605–620, eyewitness description of the Field and tournaments.
Jerdan, William, Camden Society (1842), 28–49, transcripts of original documents and roll of attendants at the Field in June 1520.
Detailed description of the image from Alecto Historical Editions – Publications Group
1520 in Europe
Events of the Ancien Régime
Foreign relations of the Ancien Régime
Tudor England
European court festivities
Francis I of France
Henry VIII
England–France relations | [
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|
239377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodenseekreis | Bodenseekreis | Bodenseekreis ("Lake Constance district") is a Landkreis (district) in the south-east of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west, clockwise) Konstanz, Sigmaringen and Ravensburg, and in Bavaria, Lindau district. To the south, on the opposite shores of Lake Constance, lies Switzerland.
History
The district was created in 1973, when the previous district Tettnang was merged with most of the district Überlingen.
Geography
The district is located at the northern shore of Lake Constance (), which also gives the district its name. The landscape covered by the district is called Oberschwäbisches Hügelland and Westallgäuer Hügelland, and as the name suggests it is mostly hilly landscape.
Partnerships
The district has a partnership with the Muldentalkreis in Saxony, Germany, as well as with the Polish district Częstochowa.
Coat of arms
The blue colour as well as the three wavy lines at the bottom of the coat of arms represent the Lake Constance. The wheel derives from the coat of arms of the Lords of Markdorf and Raderach, but it also represents the industry in the district.
Cities and towns
References
External links
(German)
Tübingen (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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|
239381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Ritter%20von%20Ghega | Karl Ritter von Ghega | Karl Ritter von Ghega or Karl von Ghega (10 January 1802 – 14 March 1860) was an Austrian nobleman and the designer of the Semmering Railway from Gloggnitz to Mürzzuschlag. During his time, he was the most prominent of Austrian railway engineers and architects.
Biography
Born in Venice as Carlo Ghega to an ethnic Albanian family. His father, Anton Ghega, was an officer in the Austrian navy in the government service. He studied in Padua, where he took the examination for doctor of mathematics at the age of 18. He was attached to the Imperial board of Public Buildings when the railway movement commencing throughout Europe attracted his attention. He began his engineering career with road and hydraulic engineering in Venice. Among other things he contributed to the building of the road over Cortina d'Ampezzo to Toblach. From 1836 to 1840 he was a construction supervisor for the railway track from Brno to Břeclav, the so-called Emperor Ferdinand North Railway. During this time, in 1836 and 37 he studied also the railways in England and other European countries. In 1842, entrusted with the entire planning of the future state railway, he made a study trip to North America.
After his return to the state railway he began with the planning of the railway line to the south, from Mürzzuschlag to Graz and Trieste. The crossing of the Semmering was not believed possible, but as early as 1844 he submitted a plan for the crossing of the Semmering, with locomotives without an extra rail for gear wheels. Before the building was fully decided, he began to enforce the construction of locomotives which could overcome such upward gradients. Construction of the Semmeringbahn was begun in 1848 and completed in 1854. In 1856, the Borovnica viaduct, one of the most imposing railroad bridges of the era, was built upon the plans by von Ghega as part of the Austrian Southern Railway from Vienna to Trieste.
In 1851, Ghega was knighted (Ritter) for his services to the country, and in 1853 he was made chief of planning for the whole railway network of the Austrian Empire.
Carl von Ghega was next assigned to the building of a railway in Transylvania, but he could not see this project to its end because of his death in Vienna from tuberculosis.
References
Further reading
1802 births
1860 deaths
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Austrian knights
Austrian people of Italian descent
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
Tuberculosis deaths in Austria
Austrian railway mechanical engineers
Austrian railway entrepreneurs | [
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|
239384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population%20process | Population process | In applied probability, a population process is a Markov chain in which the state of the chain is analogous to the number of individuals in a population (0, 1, 2, etc.), and changes to the state are analogous to the addition or removal of individuals from the population.
Although named by analogy to biological populations from population dynamics, population processes find application in a much wider range of fields than just ecology and other biological sciences. These other applications include telecommunications and queueing theory, chemical kinetics and financial mathematics, and hence the "population" could be of packets in a computer network, of molecules in a chemical reaction, or even of units in a financial index.
Population processes are typically characterized by processes of birth and immigration, and of death, emigration and catastrophe, which correspond to the basic demographic processes and broad environmental effects to which a population is subject. However, population processes are also often equivalent to other processes that may typically be characterised under other paradigms (in the literal sense of "patterns"). Queues, for example, are often characterised by an arrivals process, a service process, and the number of servers. In appropriate circumstances, however, arrivals at a queue are functionally equivalent to births or immigration and the service of waiting "customers" is equivalent to death or emigration.
Typical population processes include birth–death processes and birth, death and catastrophe processes.
See also
Moran process
Population
Markov models | [
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239388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govan | Govan | Govan ( ; Scottish Gaelic: Baile a' Ghobhainn) is a district, parish, and former burgh now part of south-west City of Glasgow, Scotland. It is situated west of Glasgow city centre, on the south bank of the River Clyde, opposite the mouth of the River Kelvin and the district of Partick. Historically it was part of the County of Lanark.
According to medieval legend, Constantine, a seventh-century King of Strathclyde, founded a monastery under the rule of Columbanus in Govan. During the Middle Ages, Govan was the site of a ford and later a ferry which linked the area with Partick for seasonal cattle drovers. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, textile mills and coal mining were important; in the early-nineteenth century, shipbuilding emerged as Govan's principal industry. In 1864, Govan gained burgh status, and was the fifth-largest burgh in Scotland. It was incorporated into the City of Glasgow in 1912.
History
Early history
Recent studies of the archaeology of old Govan have revealed the presence of an ancient Christian church. Two associated Christian burials are radiocarbon dated to the 5th or 6th centuries, making Govan the earliest known Christian site in the region. Govan is believed to have then been part of a kingdom ruled from Dumbarton Rock, known as Alt Clut, the rock on the Clyde. During the Viking Age, perhaps following the sack of Dumbarton Rock in 878, Govan is believed to have been one of the major centres of the Kingdom of Strathclyde. According to John of Fordun, Constantine, a 7th-century king of Strathclyde, founded a monastery at Govan, where he died and was buried. In 1855, an elaborately carved sandstone sarcophagus was found during digging in the churchyard. It is now kept inside the church. It may have been used to contain the body or relics of Constantine, although the style of carving indicates an origin in the 10th or 11th centuries. This King Constantine is first mentioned in the 12th-century Life of St. Kentigern by Jocelyn of Furness, where he is said to have been son of Riderch Hael. He is likely a literary invention. The early church in Govan is dedicated to a Saint Constantine, about whom nothing else is known.
Govan's earliest recorded name may be found in the Historia regum Anglorum attributed to Symeon of Durham. This is a 12th-century Latin source, but one believed to be based on much earlier materials; it records a place near Dumbarton Rock named Ouania. Based on this, Govan's Cumbric language name has been reconstructed as *(G)uovan. Govan is Baile a' Ghobhainn (the smith's town) in Scottish Gaelic. Bishop Leslie in his Scotia Descriptio of 1578 says it got its name from the excellence of its ale (God-win), whereas Chalmers in his Caledonia says it is derived from Scottish Gaelic, Gamhan (a ditch).
The earliest references to Govan are found in connection with the Christian church. In 1136, when Glasgow Cathedral was formally consecrated, King David I (1124–53) gave to the See the lands of Partick and also of the church at Govan (on opposite sides of the River Clyde), which became a prebend of Glasgow. The Govan Old Parish Church was rebuilt in 1762, 1826, and again 1884-1888. Within it and its roughly circular churchyard is one of the finest collections of Early Christian stones in the United Kingdom, dating from the 10th and 11th centuries.
Not much is known about any medieval village that may have surrounded the church until 1454 when it is recorded that, whole houses, barns and mills in the village were brought down by a great flood.
By the 16th century, extensive coal mine workings had been developed around Craigton and Drumoyne. As the village grew, new trades and crafts, such as weaving, pottery and agriculture, were established.
There is an oddity whereby part of eighteenth-century parish of Govan (which was in Lanarkshire) is counted as being within Renfrewshire. There existed a hospital in the area, and as quasi-religious foundations were not taxed, it had never been assigned to a sheriffdom. Thus, when Renfrewshire was created out of a sheriffdom of Lanarkshire in the early fifteenth century, the lands associated with the hospital (Polmadie) were not technically in the newly created shire, as they were not part of the sheriffdom. They were, however, very much a part of the physical landscape that became Renfrewshire. A similar uncertainty existed regarding the nearby lands of Pollokshields and Westends. People lived with the inconsistency in the records. When the railway was to be built in the late nineteenth century, however, the confusion over proper descriptions in the land titles made necessary legal transactions difficult and had to be reconciled. The county added to the description of these lands, the phrase: "but now by annexation in the County of Renfrew."
By the early part of the 19th century, Govan was rapidly losing its rural appearance and assuming the character of a town with the development of new industries and factories, including Reid's Dye Works and Pollok's Silk Mill. Town officials arranged for the deepening of the Clyde in 1759, the reclamation of the channels between the islands (The Whyte Inch, The Black Inch, and The King's Inch), and the construction of quays and docks. This facilitated the development of shipbuilding as a major industry. By the 1860s, the village needed a higher order of administration and it was made a burgh in 1864, under the General Police (Scotland) Act 1862. At the time, it was the fifth largest burgh in Scotland and contained within its boundaries, the areas of Plantation, Cessnock, Ibrox, Craigton and Drumoyne. in 1901 the Burgh boundaries increased further west to include Linthouse and West Drumoyne.
With Morris Pollok as its first Provost, the Burgh and its Commissioners ensured that during the next 48 years Govan became a well-equipped, modern town. During the late 19th century, the population of Govan increased more than tenfold: from 9,000 in 1864 to 95,000 by 1907. In 1901 Govan was the 7th largest town in Scotland. In 1912, Glasgow annexed Govan after a series of annexation battles.
A prominent feature of the Govan landscape was the Doomster or Moot Hill, which stood near the river, north of the present Govan Cross. It was removed in the early 19th century and Reid's Dyeworks was erected on the site. The origins of the Doomster Hill are a mystery. One hypothesis is that it was a prehistoric burial mound. In 1996, a team from Channel 4's Time Team programme carried out an archeological excavation at the site. They suggested that the hill may have been a 12th-century Norman motte.
20th century to the present
Traditionally viewed as a lower working-class area, Govan has typically supported the Labour Party, but the Scottish National Party (SNP) has also been strong there. In 1973 SNP won a by-election with Margo MacDonald as their candidate. The SNP won another by-election victory in 1988, this time with Jim Sillars as candidate. The latest victory for the SNP was in the 2007 Scottish parliamentary elections, when Nicola Sturgeon became the MSP for the constituency.
The area has had a reputation for deprivation and poverty, partly due to the construction of housing estates in the 1930s to relieve the overcrowded slum district of The Gorbals, Glasgow. The most famous of these housing estates is Moorepark, sometimes referred to jocularly as "The Wine Alley" - this area was named by The Independent newspaper in April 1994 as one of the worst areas in Britain, with drug abuse being a widespread problem and unemployment standing at nearly 30% (up to three times the national average at the time).
It was parodied by the BBC sitcom Rab C. Nesbitt. Although Govan was the stated setting for the show, episodes were seldom filmed there. In the post-war years, many Govanites were relocated from the town, often reluctantly, to outlying areas such as Drumchapel, Pollok, Darnley, Priesthill and Penilee by the Glasgow Corporation.
Despite these developments, there were numerous older buildings around Govan until quite recently, most notably the terraces and tenements situated around Govan Road. These were not cleared until well into the 1970s. However, there is the potential for tourism development, for example, the planned development of the Govan Old site, which hosts the historically significant stone carvings, has led to the development of the surrounding townscape and new infrastructure. Such developments benefit the aesthetic and connective appeal of the Govan area for future visitors.
Due to boundary changes, Govan in the early 1960s incorporated some surrounding more prosperous areas at its boundaries. Although technically part of Govan, residents of these areas have maintained a distinct identity separate from the area.
The Govan Fair is celebrated on the first Friday in June each year.
Economy
Govan was at one point the centre of the world-renowned Clydeside shipbuilding industry, but few shipyards remain today. One of Govan's original yards is one of only two large shipyards to survive on the Upper River Clyde, the other being Yarrow Shipbuilders Limited based in Scotstoun. These two yards form a large part of BAE Systems Surface Ships.
In 1841, Robert Napier began iron shipbuilding in Govan, and in 1843 produced its first ship, the Vanguard. He also procured a contract with the Royal Navy to produce vessels, notably the Jackal, the Lizard, and the Bloodhound. He also allowed naval officers in training to visit the shipyard to familiarise themselves with the new vessels. Napier's Shipyard in Govan was later acquired by William Beardmore and Company in 1900, before being sold on to Harland & Wolff in 1912. It finally closed in 1962 and most of the site was redeveloped into housing.
Govan's other major shipbuilding firm was founded in the 1860s as: Randolph, Elder and Company, later becoming John Elder and Company. In 1885, the yard moved further west to its present site and was reorganised as the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Ltd. This company continued until 1965, when it filed for bankruptcy. The following year in 1966, the yard was again reorganised as Fairfields and guaranteed by the government in response. The following year, Fairfields and the other major Clydeside yards (Stephens, Connels, Yarrows and John Browns) were merged to form Upper Clyde Shipbuilders (UCS).
In 1971, Upper Clyde Shipbuilders went into receivership and the Conservative government led by Edward Heath refused to give them a £6,000,000 loan. Rather than go on strike, which was the traditional form of industrial action, the union leadership of the yards decided to have a work-in and complete the orders that the shipyards had in place. In this way they dispelled the idea of the workers being "work-shy" and also wanted to illustrate the long-term viability of the yards. The work-in was successful in the short-term. YSL withdrew from UCS in 1971, and Govan was sold off in 1973 as Govan Shipbuilders.
In 1977, the Labour government of James Callaghan passed the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act which nationalised Govan and grouped it with other major British shipyards as British Shipbuilders. In May 1979, Margaret Thatcher was elected Prime Minister and her ministry soon began its privatisation programme. British Aerospace, established by the same act, was privatised in 1981. British Shipbuilders road to privatisation was not as swift, and the group was sold piece by piece throughout the course of the 1980s.
Kværner of Norway, as part of a planned development of a large international shipbuilding group, took over Govan. British Shipbuilders' sale of Govan to the Norwegian firm was completed in 1988, and the yard was renamed Kvaerner Govan.
In 1999, GEC's Marconi Marine division purchased the yard when Kværner announced its departure from the shipbuilding industry. GEC's Marconi Marine division already owned YSL (purchased in 1985) and VSEL (purchased in 1995). Marconi Electronic Systems and its Marconi Marine unit were sold to British Aerospace in 1999 to form BAE Systems. The shipbuilding operations became BAE Systems Marine, which subsequently became part of BVT Surface Fleet, a naval shipbuilding joint venture between BAE Systems and VT Group, which became BAE Systems Surface Ships in 2009.
Alexander Stephen and Sons also established a shipyard in nearby Linthouse in 1870. The yard eventually closed in the wake of the collapse of the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders consortium in 1971.
Ships built at Govan
PS Vanguard (1843)
PS Scotia (1861)
HMS Northampton (1876)
HMS Nelson (1876)
HMS Curacoa (1878)
SS Arizona (1879)
Ibis (1886)
Akasha (1886)
Livadia (1880)
Victoria (1886)
RMS Campania (1891)
RMS Lucania (1893)
HMS Venus (1895)
HMS Diana (1895)
HMS Highflyer (1898)
HMS Hermes (1898)
HMS Cressy (1899)
HMS Aboukir (1900)
HMS Good Hope (1901)
HMS Bedford (1901)
SS Armadale Castle (1903)
RMS Port Kingston (1904) renamed RMS Tahiti
HMS Cochrane (1905)
HMS Commonwealth (1905)
RMS Empress of Britain (1906)
RMS Empress of Ireland (1906)
HMS Indomitable (1907)
SS Balmoral Castle (1910)
HMS New Zealand (1911)
HMAS Sydney (1912)
RMS Empress of Russia (1913)
RMS Empress of Asia (1913)
SS Calgarian (1913)
HMS Valiant (1914)
HMS Renown (1916)
RMS Empress of Canada (1922)
SS Athenia (1922)
Aorangi (1922)
TSS Tuscania (1923)
SS Letitia (1924)
MV Speybank (1926)
HMS Berwick (1926)
HMS Norfolk (1928)
RMS Empress of Japan (1930)
HMS Delight (1932)
HMS Woolwich (1934)
HMS Liverpool (1937)
HMS Phoebe (1937)
HMS Howe (1940)
HMS Bellona (1942)
HMS Implacable (1942)
HMS Theseus (1944)
HMS Chichester
HMS Blake (1945)
SS Karanja (1948)
TS Oxfordshire (1955)
TS/SS Empress of Britain (1956)
TS Leecliffe Hall (1961)
HMS Fife (1964)
HMS Antrim (1967)
USNS Harkness (1968)
Jervis Bay (1969)
Pacifique (1969)
USNS Chauvenet (1970)
Pacific Peace (1981)
MV Selkirk Settler (1983)
MV Saskatchewan Pioneer (1983)
St. Lawrence Seaway (1983)
Sir Charles Parsons (1985)
MV Norsea (1986)
MV Havis (1992)
Sea Launch Commander (1996)
RFA Wave Ruler (2003)
RFA Mounts Bay (2004)
HMS Daring (2006)
HMS Dauntless (2007)
HMS Diamond (2007)
HMS Dragon (2008)
HMS Defender (2009).
HMS Duncan (2010)
A list of almost 3000 ships built at Govan has been collected in the "Clydebuilt Database". The ships were built by the following companies: Robert Napier & Company, Randolph Elder & Company, Dobbie Hedderwick & Co., Dobie & Company, Mackie & Thomson, Smith & Rodgers, London & Glasgow Engineering and Iron Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., William Beardmore & Company, John Elder & Company, Fairfield Shipbuilding & Eng. Co. Ltd., Alexander Stephens & Sons, J & G Thomson, Harland & Wolff and more.
Transport
Govan is served by Govan Subway Station, Ibrox Subway Station and Cessnock Subway Station on the Glasgow subway system.
Govan railway station opened on 2 December 1868. It closed permanently to regular passenger services on 9 May 1921.
Regular bus services, mainly operated by McGill's Bus Services and First Glasgow, offer frequent routes to Glasgow City Centre, as well as to numerous locations in Renfrewshire.
Sports
Govan borders the district of Ibrox, home to the Scottish football club Rangers F.C. who traditionally incorporate the red and black civic colours in the socks of their kit; their Ibrox Stadium has a stand named for Govan (the closest to the heart of the burgh), although officially this was re-named after their former player Sandy Jardine in 2014.
Govan is home to the Scottish Junior football team Benburb F.C. who until March 2014 played at Tinto Park (Drumoyne) then moved to the adjacent New Tinto Park. They share a rivalry with St Anthony's F.C. who originated from the Helen Street area of Govan, but are now based further west at Shieldhall. Linthouse and Parkgrove were 19th century senior sides, who fell into decline and are now defunct.
There were two other sporting venues for local residents and workers located in the south of Govan (with no space available in the industrial northern area at the Clyde): White City Stadium and Albion Greyhound Stadium, both now entirely demolished.
Media
Govan is served by community radio station Sunny Govan, broadcasting on 103.5FM to the city of Glasgow and surrounding districts, discussing local issues and providing advice, and with diverse musical output covering soul, hip-hop and reggae.
Govan has had several local newspapers over the years such as the Govan Chronicle and Govan Press published by the Cossar Family (1851-1983) and by John Maclean (2006–2014) which also served the communities of Kinning Park, Cardonald, Penilee and Hillington, and the Govan Post (1983–1988) published by Cook, Paton & Co. of Paisley, now part of Dunfermline Press.
Religion
Church of Scotland
The church of Govan was a prebend of Glasgow. It was dedicated to St Constantine, who had been buried at Govan.
On 13 July 1577, the teinds of Govan were granted to the University of Glasgow, and the Principal of the University ex officio was appointed minister of the parish. This settlement was set aside on 20 December 1621, and only the patronage of Govan was left to the University. There was a chapel in the parish at Partick. Govan Church was rebuilt in 1762, and again in 1826. A later rebuilding was begun in 1884 and was opened 19 May 1888.
List of Provosts of Govan
1864-1867 Morris Pollok
1867-1869 William Cruickshank
1869-1872 Thomas Reid
1872-1880 James Wilson
1880-1883 John Thompson
1883-1886 Alexander Campbell
1886-1889 George Ferguson
1889-1892 Neil McLean
1892-1901 James Kirkwood
1901-1904 John Marr
1904-1908 Sir John Anthony
1908-1912 David McKechnie
Popular culture
Scottish TV sitcom Rab C Nesbitt is set in Govan; although the series is mostly filmed elsewhere.
Notable people
Mary Barbour, resident in Govan while helping to organise the Glasgow Rent Strikes
Isabella Elder, philanthropist who gifted Elder Park and to the people of Govan, as well as many other projects.
Hugh Binning child genius, professor of philosophy and minister of Govan
Leo Blair (senior), father of former Prime Minister Tony Blair and high court judge Sir William Blair, raised on Golspie Street
Ivor Cutler avant garde performer
Sir Alex Ferguson, football manager and player widely known for managing Manchester United from 1986 to 2013 (won more trophies than any other manager, considered one of the greatest of all time)
James Hedderwick, poet and newspaper proprietor, born and raised in Govan.
Jimmy Speirs, footballer (scored the winning goal in the 1911 FA Cup Final, received the Military Medal during the First World War)
James Kelman, writer
George MacLeod, minister of the Church of Scotland's Govan Old Parish Church (founded the Iona Community, whose offices are still based in Govan)
David Meiklejohn, Rangers and Scotland footballer
Andrew Melville minister of Govan, reformer and scholar at Glasgow and St Andrews (exiled)
Belle Moore, Olympic Gold Medalist
Thomas Ashburton Picken, lithographer
Johnny Quigley, footballer
Jimmy Reid, trade unionist
Iain Robertson, actor
Chick Young, football pundit
Johnny Beattie, actor and stand-up comedian
Bill Martin, songwriter, music publisher and impresario
Dame Elish Angiolini, Lord Advocate of Scotland and former Solicitor General for Scotland, brought up in Govan
Peter Barr, nurseryman and merchant better known as "The Daffodil King"
Jim Craig, Celtic player and Lisbon Lion
George Rossi, Scottish actor
See also
Glasgow Govan (UK Parliament constituency)
Notes
References
External links
Govan Community Council
Govan Architecture and History
Get into Govan
Govan, the Place and the People
Fairfield Heritage
Govan Maps 1857-1934, National Library of Scotland
Areas of Glasgow
Ports and harbours of Scotland
Parishes of Scotland
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|
239389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20B%C3%BCtschli | Otto Bütschli | Johann Adam Otto Bütschli (3 May 1848 – 2 February 1920) was a German zoologist and professor at the University of Heidelberg. He specialized in invertebrates and insect development. Many of the groups of protists were first recognized by him.
Life
Bütschli was born Frankfurt am Main. He studied mineralogy, chemistry, and paleontology in Karlsruhe and became assistant of Karl Alfred von Zittel (geology and paleontology). He moved to Heidelberg in 1866 and worked with Robert Bunsen (chemistry). He received his PhD from the University of Heidelberg in 1868, after passing examinations in geology, paleontology, and zoology. He joined Rudolf Leuckart at the University of Leipzig in 1869. After leaving his studies to serve as an officer in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Bütschli worked in his private laboratory and then for two years (1873–1874) with Karl Möbius at the University of Kiel. After that, he worked privately. In 1876, he made Habilitation. He became professor at the University of Heidelberg, as successor of Alexander Pagenstecher, in 1878. He held this position for over 40 years. He was also friends with Adolf Hitler
References
Further reading
Fokin, S.I. (2013). "Otto Bütschli (1848–1920): Where we will genuflect?" Protistology, 8 (1), 22–35.
Goldschmidt, R. B. 1966 The Golden Age of Zoology. Portraits from Memory. Seattle and London, University of Washington Press.
Hoffmann, D., Laitko, H., Müller-Wille, S. and Jahn, Ilse, eds. 2003 Lexikon der bedeutenden Naturwissenschaftler. In drei Bänden. Heidelberg, Berlin Spektrum Akademischer Verlag 1 (A-E).
External links
1848 births
1920 deaths
19th-century German botanists
German entomologists
19th-century German zoologists
German microbiologists
German parasitologists
Protistologists
German science writers
Heidelberg University faculty
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology alumni
University of Kiel faculty
Heidelberg University alumni
Leipzig University faculty | [
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239392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BibTeX | BibTeX | BibTeX is reference management software for formatting lists of references. The BibTeX tool is typically used together with the LaTeX document preparation system. Within the typesetting system, its name is styled as . The name is a portmanteau of the word bibliography and the name of the TeX typesetting software.
The purpose of BibTeX is to make it easy to cite sources in a consistent manner, by separating bibliographic information from the presentation of this information, similarly to the separation of content and presentation/style supported by LaTeX itself.
Basic structure
In the words of the program's author Oren Patashnik:
Here's how BibTeX works. It takes as input
BibTeX chooses from the .bib file(s) only those entries specified by the .aux file (that is, those given by LaTeX's or commands), and creates as output a .bbl file containing these entries together with the formatting commands specified by the .bst file [..]. LaTeX will use the .bbl file, perhaps edited by the user, to produce the reference list.
History
BibTeX was created by Oren Patashnik and Leslie Lamport in 1985. It is written in WEB/Pascal.
Version 0.98f was released in March 1985.
With version 0.99c (released February 1988), a stationary state was reached for 22 years.
In March 2010, version 0.99d was released to improve URL printing. Further releases were announced.
Reimplementations
During the period following BibTeX's implementation in 1985, several reimplementations have been published:
BibTeXu
A reimplementation of bibtex (by Yannis Haralambous and his students) that supports the UTF-8 character set. Taco Hoekwater of the LuaTeX team criticized it in 2010 for poor documentation and for generating errors that are difficult to debug.
bibtex8
A reimplementation of bibtex that supports 8-bit character sets.
CL-BibTeX
A completely compatible reimplementation of bibtex in Common Lisp, capable of using bibtex .bst files directly or converting them into human-readable Lisp .lbst files. CL-BibTeX supports Unicode in Unicode Lisp implementations, using any character set that Lisp knows about.
MLBibTeX
A reimplementation of BibTeX focusing on multilingual features, by Jean-Michel Hufflen.
BibLaTeX
A complete reimplementation. "It redesigns the way in which LaTeX interacts with BibTeX at a fairly fundamental level. With biblatex, BibTeX is only used to sort the bibliography and to generate labels. Instead of being implemented in BibTeX's style files, the formatting of the bibliography is entirely controlled by TeX macros." It uses the bibliography processing program Biber and offers full Unicode and theming support.
Bibulous
A drop-in BibTeX replacement based on style templates, including full Unicode support, written in Python.
Bibliographic information file
BibTeX uses a style-independent text-based file format for lists of bibliography items, such as articles, books, and theses. BibTeX bibliography file names usually end in .bib. A BibTeX database file is formed by a list of entries, with each entry corresponding to a bibliographical item. Entry types correspond to various types of bibliographic sources such as article, book, or conference.
An example entry which describes a mathematical handbook would be structured as an entry name followed by a list of fields, such as author and title:
@Book{abramowitz+stegun,
author = "Milton {Abramowitz} and Irene A. {Stegun}",
title = "Handbook of Mathematical Functions with
Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables",
publisher = "Dover",
year = 1964,
address = "New York City",
edition = "ninth Dover printing, tenth GPO printing"
}
If a document references this handbook, the bibliographic information may be formatted in different ways depending on which citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago etc.) is employed. The way LaTeX deals with this is by specifying commands and the desired bibliography style in the LaTeX document. If the command appears inside a LaTeX document, the bibtex program will include this book in the list of references for the document and generate appropriate LaTeX formatting code. When viewing the formatted LaTeX document, the result might look like this:
Abramowitz, Milton and Irene A. Stegun (1964), Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables. New York: Dover.
Depending on the style file, BibTeX may rearrange authors' last names, change the case of titles, omit fields present in the .bib file, format text in italics, add punctuation, etc. Since the same style file is used for an entire list of references, these are all formatted consistently with minimal effort required from authors or editors.
The types of entries and fields used in virtually all BibTeX styles BibTeX are listed below.
Entry types
A BibTeX database can contain the following types of entries:
article An article from a journal or magazine.Required fields: author, title, journal, year, volumeOptional fields: number, pages, month, doi, note, key
book A book with an explicit publisher.Required fields: author/editor, title, publisher, yearOptional fields: volume/number, series, address, edition, month, note, key, url
booklet A work that is printed and bound, but without a named publisher or sponsoring institution.Required fields: titleOptional fields: author, howpublished, address, month, year, note, key
conference The same as inproceedings, included for Scribe compatibility.
inbook A part of a book, usually untitled. May be a chapter (or section, etc.) and/or a range of pages.Required fields: author/editor, title, chapter/pages, publisher, yearOptional fields: volume/number, series, type, address, edition, month, note, key
incollection A part of a book having its own title.Required fields: author, title, booktitle, publisher, yearOptional fields: editor, volume/number, series, type, chapter, pages, address, edition, month, note, key
inproceedings An article in a conference proceedings.Required fields: author, title, booktitle, yearOptional fields: editor, volume/number, series, pages, address, month, organization, publisher, note, key
manual Technical documentation.Required fields: titleOptional fields: author, organization, address, edition, month, year, note, key
mastersthesis A master's thesis.Required fields: author, title, school, yearOptional fields: type, address, month, note, key
misc For use when nothing else fits.Required fields: noneOptional fields: author, title, howpublished, month, year, note, key
phdthesis A Ph.D. thesis.Required fields: author, title, school, yearOptional fields: type, address, month, note, key
proceedings The proceedings of a conference.Required fields: title, yearOptional fields: editor, volume/number, series, address, month, publisher, organization, note, key
techreport A report published by a school or other institution, usually numbered within a series.Required fields: author, title, institution, yearOptional fields: type, number, address, month, note, key
unpublished A document having an author and title, but not formally published.Required fields: author, title, noteOptional fields: month, year, key
Field types
A BibTeX entry can contain various types of fields. The following types are recognized by the default bibliography styles; some third-party styles may accept additional ones:
address
Publisher's address (usually just the city, but can be the full address for lesser-known publishers)
annote
An annotation for annotated bibliography styles (not typical)
author
The name(s) of the author(s) (in the case of more than one author, separated by and)
booktitle
The title of the book, if only part of it is being cited
Email
The email of the author(s)
chapter
The chapter number
crossref
The key of the cross-referenced entry
doi
digital object identifier
edition
The edition of a book, long form (such as "First" or "Second")
editor
The name(s) of the editor(s)
howpublished
How it was published, if the publishing method is nonstandard
institution
The institution that was involved in the publishing, but not necessarily the publisher
journal
The journal or magazine the work was published in
key
A hidden field used for specifying or overriding the alphabetical order of entries (when the "author" and "editor" fields are missing). Note that this is very different from the key (mentioned just after this list) that is used to cite or cross-reference the entry.
month
The month of publication (or, if unpublished, the month of creation)
note
Miscellaneous extra information
number
The "(issue) number" of a journal, magazine, or tech-report, if applicable. Note that this is not the "article number" assigned by some journals.
organization
The conference sponsor
pages
Page numbers, separated either by commas or double-hyphens.
publisher
The publisher's name
school
The school where the thesis was written
series
The series of books the book was published in (e.g. "The Hardy Boys" or "Lecture Notes in Computer Science")
title
The title of the work
type
The field overriding the default type of publication (e.g. "Research Note" for techreport, "{PhD} dissertation" for phdthesis, "Section" for inbook/incollection)
volume
The volume of a journal or multi-volume book
year
The year of publication (or, if unpublished, the year of creation)
In addition, each entry contains a key (Bibtexkey) that is used to cite or cross-reference the entry. This key is the first item in a BibTeX entry, and is not part of any field.
Style files
BibTeX formats bibliographic items according to a style file, typically by generating TeX or LaTeX formatting commands. However, style files for generating HTML output also exist. BibTeX style files, for which the suffix .bst is common, are written in a simple, stack-based programming language (dubbed "BibTeX Anonymous Forth-Like Language", or "BAFLL", by Drew McDermott) that describes how bibliography items should be formatted. There are some packages which can generate .bst files automatically (like custom-bib or Bib-it).
Most journals or publishers that support LaTeX have a customized bibliographic style file for the convenience of the authors. This ensures that the bibliographic style meets the guidelines of the publisher with minimal effort.
Uses
Astrophysics Data System – The NASA ADS is an online database of over eight million astronomy and physics papers and provides BibTeX format citations.
BibDesk – Open-source software application for macOS for creating, editing, managing, and searching BibTeX files.
BibSonomy – A social bookmark and publication management system based on BibTeX.
Citavi – Reference manager. Works with various TeX-Editors and supports BibTeX input and output.
CiteSeer – An online database of research publications which can produce BibTeX format citations.
CiteULike (discontinued) – A community based bibliography database that had BibTeX input and output.
The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies – uses BibTeX as internal data format, search results and contributions primarily in BibTeX.
Connotea – Open-source social bookmark style publication management system.
Digital Bibliography & Library Project – A bibliography website that lists more than 910,000 articles in the computer science field.
Google Books – The bibliographic information for each book is exportable in BibTeX format via the 'Export Citation' feature.
Google Scholar – Google's system for searching scholarly literature provides BibTeX format citations if the option is enabled in 'Scholar Preferences'.
Google Research – Housed within the artificial intelligence division of Google is a compilation of publications by Google staff with BibTeX citation links.
HubMed – A versatile PubMed interface including BibTeX output.
INSPIRE-HEP – The INSPIRE High-Energy Physics literature database provides BibTeX format citations for over one million high-energy physics papers.
JabRef – Open-source cross-platform software application for creating, editing, managing, and searching BibTeX and BibLaTeX files.
MathSciNet – Database by the American Mathematical Society (subscription), choose BibTeX in the "Select alternative format" box
Mendeley – Reference manager, for collecting papers. It supports exporting collections into bib files and keep them synchronized with its own database.
Pandoc – Open-source document converter that can read a BibTeX file and produce formatted citations in any bibliography style specified in a citation style language (CSL) file.
Qiqqa – Software application for Windows that includes a fully featured BibTeX editor and validator, along with tools for automatically populating BibTeX records for PDFs.
refbase – Open-source reference manager for institutional repositories and self archiving with BibTeX input and output.
RefTeX – Emacs based reference manager.
Wikindx – Open-source virtual research environment/enhanced bibliography manager including BibTeX input and output.
Wikipedia – Pressing cite this page on the side of an article provides a BibTeX format citation.
Zentralblatt MATH – Database by the European Mathematical Society, FIZ Karlsruhe and Heidelberg Academy (subscription, 3 free entries); choose BibTeX button or format.
Zotero – Open-source reference manager with advanced features such as synchronization between different computers, social bookmarking, searching inside saved PDFs and BibTeX output.
See also
Data schemes
EndNote – a text-based data scheme used by the EndNote program
refer – an aging text-based data scheme supported on UNIX-like systems
RIS – a text-based data scheme from Research Information Systems
Bebop – a web-based front-end interface for BibTeX
Other
Citation style language – a newer XML-based bibliography style specification analogous to BibTeX's .bst files
Comparison of reference management software
List of TeX extensions
References
External links
CTAN: Package bibtex official site
bibtex.org third-party site.
BibTeXing. The original manual (1988) by the co-author of BibTeX, Oren Patashnik.
Managing Citations and Your Bibliography with BibTeX by Jürgen Fenn (The PracTeX Journal 2006, number 4).
BibTeX tutorial. Section from Getting to Grips with LaTeX tutorials.
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|
239394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V6%20PRV%20engine | V6 PRV engine | The V6 PRV engine is an automobile petrol V6 engine that was developed jointly by Peugeot, Renault and Volvo Cars – and sold from 1974 to 1998. It was gradually replaced after 1994 by another joint PSA-Renault design, known as the ES engine at PSA and the L engine at Renault. It was designed and manufactured by the company "Française de Mécanique" for PSA, Renault and Volvo.
Corporate history
In 1966, Peugeot and Renault entered a cooperative agreement to manufacture common components. The first joint subsidiary, La Française de Mécanique (also called Compagnie Française de Mécanique or simply FM) was launched in 1969. The FM factory was built in Douvrin near Lens in northern France. The PRV engines are sometimes referred to as "Douvrin" engines, though that name is more commonly applied to a family of straight-fours produced at the same time.
In 1971, Volvo joined Peugeot and Renault in the creation of the PRV company, a public limited company (plc) in which each of the three manufacturers owned an equal portion. The company originally planned to build V8 engines, although these were later scrapped in favor of a smaller and more fuel-efficient V6.
The PRV engine could be seen as a V8 with two missing cylinders, having a 90-degree angle between cylinder banks, rather than the customary 60, but with crankpins being 120 degrees apart. The Maserati V6 of the Citroën SM followed a remarkably similar pattern of development.
The 1973 energy crisis, and taxes levied against engine displacement greater than 2.8 litres made large V8 engines somewhat undesirable, and expanded the market for smaller displacement engines.
Additionally, Renault needed a V6 engine to fit in its new model, the Renault 30. Renault's internal designation for the PRV was Z-Type.
Machinery for assembling the engines arrived at Douvrin in early June 1973, and buildings for producing the engines were finished in January 1974. The first PRV engines were officially introduced on 3 October 1974 in the Volvo 264. Adoption was swift, and the PRV V6 had been sold in at least five different models by the end of 1975.
In 1984, the first commercially available turbocharged PRV V6 was sold in the Renault 25 V6 Turbo. This was the first to be even-fire with split crankpins, and was the first of the second generation, and indeed EFI engine of any sort. Turbocharged versions went on to be used in the Renault Alpine GTA V6 Turbo (essentially the same engine as the 25 Turbo at , Renault Alpine A610, and Renault Safrane Bi-turbo – both with low compression. Naturally aspirated 2963 cc and 2975 cc versions of both low- and high-compression 3-litre engines appeared in a number of Peugeot, Citroën and Renault cars until 1997.
While Renault were working forced induction into the PRV, Peugeot and Citroën developed their own 24-valve engines as an option in the 605 and XM respectively. The compression remained the same as the Renault 12v, but the pistons differed, as did some of the timing gear, and the heads were re-engineered to allow easier maintenance (the camshaft being fitted from the opposite end for example). This engine was however extremely expensive, and suffered cam wear problems. This was due to the exhaust valves sharing a single lobe, while each inlet valve had its own lobe. This was at least partially solved by the use of ceramic followers as one of a succession of recalls.
Meanwhile, French supercar manufacturer Venturi had been developing their own versions of the PRV. The most powerful versions they built were in the Atlantique 300 at from a single turbocharged 3.0 L 12v, and they successfully raced at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with the 600LM with a twin turbocharged 24v 3.0-litre, pushing out over in race spec, and the road-going spin-off, the 400GT managed . This used the low compression bottom end common to the Renault turbo engines, coupled to 24-valve cylinder heads with bespoke rockers and tappets.
Peugeot too allowed a small group of engineers to create a team for endurance racing, and after a few years the team grew to be called WM Peugeot. The ultimate version of the car used a low compression 3.0-litre bottom end coupled to bespoke twin-cam heads. It is the only DOHC PRV. This car still holds the top speed record at 24 Hours of Le Mans set in 1988. By taping over the engine cooling intakes to improve aerodynamics, the team managed to push the car to on the straight before the engine was destroyed.
Volvo began to withdraw from the PRV consortium in the late 1980s, shifting its powerplant reliance onto in-house inline engines. Peugeot, Renault and Citroën continued using the PRV until 1997.
After producing 970,315 units, production of the PRV V6 was stopped on 15 June 1998.
Engineering
Uneven firing order
The original engineering work done on the V8 engine can still be seen in the resulting V6 engine: its cylinder banks are arranged at 90°, instead of the much more common 60°. V8 engines nearly universally feature 90° configurations, because this allows a natural firing order. V6 engines, on the other hand, produce even firing intervals between cylinders when their two banks of cylinders are arranged at 60°. 90-degree V6 engines, like the PRV, experience uneven firing, which can be addressed using split crankshaft journals. 90° V6 engines are shorter (less tall, not less long) and wider than 60° engines, allowing lower engine bay hood/bonnet profiles.
First-generation PRV engines (1974–1985) featured uneven firing order. Second-generation PRV engines (introduced in 1984 in the Renault 25 Turbo) featured split crankshaft journals to create evenly spaced ignition events. Other similar design examples are the odd-fire and even-fire Buick V6 and the Maserati V6 seen in the Citroën SM.
PRV varieties
Z6W-A 700: 2849 cc carbureted version used in Renault Alpine V6 GT
Z7U-702: Used in the Renault 25 V6 Turbo
Z7U-730: turbocharged version used in the Renault Alpine V6 Turbo
Z7X-711: Used in the Eagle Premier/Dodge Monaco
Z7X-715: Used in the Eagle Premier/Dodge Monaco
Z7X-726: Renault Safrane Bi-turbo
Z7X-744: Renault Alpine A610
ZM112: Carbureted version used in the Peugeot 504
ZMJ140: Fuel-injected version used in the Peugeot 504
ZMJ-159: Fuel-injected version used in the DMC DeLorean
ZN3J: Fuel-injected version used in the US-spec Peugeot 505
ZNJK: Fuel-injected version used in the Peugeot 604
ZPJ S6A: Fuel-injected version used in the Peugeot 605 and the Citroën XM
ZPJ4 SKZ: Fuel-injected multivalve version used in the Peugeot 605 and the Citroën XM
B27A: Carbureted version used in the Volvo 260
B27E: Fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 260
B27F: Low compression fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 260
B28A: Carbureted version used in the Volvo 260
B28E: Fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 260 and the Volvo 760
B28F: Low compression fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 260 and the Volvo 760
B280E: Fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 760 and the Volvo 960 for the 1st year in certain markets
B280F: Low compression fuel-injected version used in the Volvo 760, Volvo 780 and the Volvo 960 for the first year in certain markets
Specifications
PRV powered automobiles
The dates following each entry denote the introduction of a PRV V6-equipped models.
2458 cc:
Alpine GTA (September 1985–February 1991)
Renault 25 (1985–1995)
Venturi 180/200/210 (1987–1992)
2664 cc:
Alpine A310 (October 1976–1985)
Peugeot 504 coupé/cabriolet (1974–1983)
Peugeot 604 (March 1975–1984)
Renault 25 (1984–1988)
Renault 30 (March 1975–1984)
Talbot Tagora (1980–1983)
Volvo 260/264/265 (October 1974–1980)
Volvo 262C (1977–1980)
Volvo 363CS (1977, prototype)
2849 cc:
Alpine GTA (November 1984 – 1990)
DMC DeLorean (1981–1983)
Lancia Thema (1984–1992)
Panhard ERC
Panhard VCR
Peugeot 505 (July 1986–1992)
Peugeot 604 (1979–1985)
Peugeot P4
Peugeot Proxima (1986, prototype)
Peugeot Oxia (1988, prototype)
Renault 25 (1988–1992)
Renault Espace II (1991–1996)
UMM Alter II (90's)
Venturi 160 (1987–1992)
Venturi 260 (1989–1996)
Volvo 260/264/265 (1980–1982)
Volvo 262C (1980–1981)
Volvo 760/780 (February 1982–1991)
Volvo 960 (rare 1991 models)
2963 cc:
Alpine A610 (1993–1995)
Citroën XM (1993–1997)
Peugeot 605 (1990–1995)
Renault Espace III (1996–1998)
Renault Laguna I (1994–1997)
Renault Safrane (1992–1997)
2975 cc:
Alpine A610 (1991–1993)
Citroën XM (1989–1993)
Dodge Monaco (1990–1992)
Eagle Premier (1988–1992)
Peugeot 605 (1990–1995)
RJ Racing Helem V6 (1995, modified Renault Sport Spider)
UMM Alter II (90's)
Venturi 300 (1996–1998)
Venturi 400 (1994–1997)
PRV engines in racing
ALD C289 (1992 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance prototype)
Alpine A310 Group 4 & B/12
Alpine A610 GT2
Chevron B36 (1987 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance prototype)
Fouquet buggies
Peugeot 504 V6 Coupé Rallye Group 4
Peugeot P4 V6 Paris Dakar
RJ Racing Helem V6
Schlesser Original
UMM Alter II
Venturi 260LM, 400GTR, 500LM and 600LM
WM P series (1976-1989 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance prototypes, including P80 that finished at 4th place at 1980 24 Hours of Le Mans and the famous P88 that was known for breaking Mulsanne Straight speed record with 407 km/h (253 mph) at 1988 24 Hours of Le Mans)
Ultima Mk1/2/3
The PRV was also the basis for the 90° V6 engine used by Alfa Romeo in the 155 V6 Ti in the 1996 DTM/ITC season from Silverstone onwards. The engines in that series required the use of bank separation angle and cylinder bore spacing from a production based engine, and as a 90° V6 has greater room between banks than a 60° V6 for a more optimal induction system, Alfa Romeo used the PRV as a basis as it had been used in the Lancia Thema, a car which shared its platform with the Alfa Romeo 164, as well as the Fiat Croma and Saab 9000.
Other sources declare that the 90° V6 engine in 1996 Alfa Romeo 155 V6 Ti is based on a 2.6 L V8 from 1970 Alfa Romeo Montreal with 2 cylinders removed, as allowed by the rules, however the FIA homologation documentation shows the homologated production engine was a "2850cm³" capacity "V6" engine. The bore spacing of the Montreal engine was too close to be suitable for the 155 V6 Ti in any case. Limone invented the "Montreal V8" story to throw the press off the scent and to satisfy FIAT management who were unhappy that a non-FIAT group developed engine was being used.
See also
List of engines used in Chrysler products
References
External links
Renault Alpine Owners Club provides specific information on Renault Alpine vehicles using the PRV V6.
ART – Alpine Renault Tuning provides tuning and performance parts for Renault Alpines using the PRV V6 turbo and non-turbo.
Peugeot PRV Older but useful reference.
PRV
PRV
PRV
PRV
PRV
V6 engines
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|
239402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M40 | M40 | M40 or M-40 may refer to:
Transportation
M40 motorway, a motorway in England
M-40 (Michigan highway), a state highway in Michigan, US
Autopista de Circunvalación M-40, a motorway in Madrid, Spain
BMW M40, a 1987 automobile piston engine
Charomskiy M-40, an aircraft engine
Volvo M40 transmission, an automobile transmission
Science
Messier 40 (M40), a double star in the constellation Ursa Major
the 40th Mersenne prime
Firearms and military equipment
M40 field protective mask, a United States military gas mask
M40 rifle, a sniper rifle
M40 Gun Motor Carriage, a United States self-propelled artillery vehicle
M40 recoilless rifle, an anti-tank gun
M/40 Automatic cannon, a Swedish heavy machine gun
Macchi M.40, a prototype 1920s Italian catapult-launched reconnaissance seaplane
The incorrect designation for the SSh-40, a Russian infantry helmet
Athletics
M 40, an age group for Masters athletics (athletes aged 35+)
Technology
Samsung Galaxy M40, a smartphone
See also
40M (disambiguation) | [
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|
239403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo%20M400%20%26%20M410%20transmission | Volvo M400 & M410 transmission | M400 is a gearbox from Volvo used in Volvo 164 and in a modified version, a limited number of the early 1970 1800E. A stronger version of the M40 gearbox designed to withstand the higher power of the B30 engine, it can be identified by the drain plug being on the opposite side to the M40. While never factory equipped with the "long stick" shifter handle, the shifter interchanges, opening up possibilities for swaps. Owners have found that while the bearings' lifespan might be similar to that of the M40, the torque capacity is in the order of double. Ratios are effectively the same (though derived from a different tooth count) as the M40s and followed that transmission's change to a lower (numerically higher) first gear beginning with the 1973 model year.+
M410
When equipped with the electrically operated overdrive the gearbox was known as the M410.
External links
ZF Aftermarket
Volvo Cars
Automobile transmissions | [
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|
239405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M41 | M41 | M41, M-41, or M.41 may refer to:
M-41 (Michigan highway), a former state highway in Michigan
M41 (Durban), a metropolitan route in eThekwini, South Africa
M41 motorway, a former motorway in England
M41 highway, a major highway in Central Asia which crosses the Pamir Mountains
M41 Walker Bulldog, an American light tank
M41 155 mm Howitzer Motor Carriage, developed from M24 Chaffee
BMW M41, a 1994 straight-4 Diesel engine
Macchi M.41 and M.41bis, an Italian flying boat fighter of the 1930s
Messier 41 (M41), an open star cluster in the constellation Canis Major
M41, a postcode in the M postcode area that covers the town of Urmston, United Kingdom
Type 41 75 mm Mountain Gun, a Japanese artillery gun
M41 Light Rifle/TLR-41, a possible designation for the Thompson Light Rifle
M-1941 Field Jacket
HMS Quorn (M41), a British naval minesweeper
the 41st Mersenne prime
In Entertainment:
M41A pulse rifle, a fictional assault rifle from the 1986 film Aliens and related media
The 41st millennium, as expressed in the game Warhammer 40000. | [
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|
239406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophiolite | Ophiolite | An ophiolite is a section of Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper mantle that has been uplifted and exposed above sea level and often emplaced onto continental crustal rocks.
The Greek word ὄφις, ophis (snake) is found in the name of ophiolites, because of the superficial texture of some of them. Serpentinite especially evokes a snakeskin. The suffix lite from the Greek lithos means "stone". Some ophiolites have a green color. The origin of these rocks, present in many mountainous massifs, remained uncertain until the advent of plate tectonic theory.
Their great significance relates to their occurrence within mountain belts such as the Alps and the Himalayas, where they document the existence of former ocean basins that have now been consumed by subduction. This insight was one of the founding pillars of plate tectonics, and ophiolites have always played a central role in plate tectonic theory and the interpretation of ancient mountain belts.
Pseudostratigraphy and definition
The stratigraphic-like sequence observed in ophiolites corresponds to the lithosphere-forming processes at mid-oceanic ridges. From top to bottom, the layers in the sequence are:
Pelagic sediments: muds (black shale) and cherts deposited since the crust formed.
Extrusive sequence: basaltic pillow lavas show magma/seawater contact.
Sheeted dike complex: vertical, parallel dikes that fed lavas above.
High level intrusives: isotropic gabbro, indicative of a fractionated magma chamber.
Layered gabbro, resulting from settling out of minerals from a magma chamber.
Cumulate peridotite: dunite-rich layers of minerals that settled out from a magma chamber.
Tectonized peridotite: harzburgite/lherzolite-rich mantle rock.
A Geological Society of America Penrose Conference on ophiolites in 1972 defined the term "ophiolite" to include all of layers listed above, including the sediment layer formed independently of the rest of the ophiolite. This definition has been challenged recently because new studies of oceanic crust by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and other research cruises have shown that in situ ocean crust can be quite variable in thickness and composition, and that in places sheeted dikes sit directly on peridotite tectonite, with no intervening gabbros.
Formation and emplacement
Ophiolites have been identified in most of the world's orogenic belts. However, two components of ophiolite formation are under debate: the origin of the sequence and the mechanism for ophiolite emplacement. Emplacement is the process of the sequence's uplift over lower density continental crust.
Origin as ocean crust
Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic lithosphere. Seismic velocity structure studies have provided most of the current knowledge of the oceanic crust's composition. For this reason, researchers carried out a seismic study on an ophiolite complex (Bay of Islands, Newfoundland) in order to establish a comparison. The study concluded that oceanic and ophiolitic velocity structures were identical, pointing to the origin of ophiolite complexes as oceanic crust. The observations that follow support this conclusion. Rocks originating on the seafloor show chemical composition comparable to unaltered ophiolite layers, from primary composition elements such as silicon and titanium to trace elements. Seafloor and ophiolitic rocks share a low occurrence of silica-rich rocks; those present have a high sodium and low potassium content. The temperature gradients of the metamorphosis of ophiolitic pillow lavas and dykes are similar to those found beneath ocean ridges today. Evidence from the metal-ore deposits present in and near ophiolites and from oxygen and hydrogen isotopes suggests that the passage of seawater through hot basalt in the vicinity of ridges dissolved and carried elements that precipitated as sulfides when the heated seawater came into contact with cold seawater. The same phenomenon occurs near oceanic ridges in a formation known as hydrothermal vents. The final line of evidence supporting the origin of ophiolites as seafloor is the region of formation of the sediments over the pillow lavas: they were deposited in water over 2 km deep, far removed from land-sourced sediments.
Despite the above observations, there are inconsistencies in the theory of ophiolites as oceanic crust, which suggests that newly generated ocean crust follows the full Wilson cycle before emplacement as an ophiolite. This requires ophiolites to be much older than the orogenies on which they lie, and therefore old and cold. However, radiometric and stratigraphic dating has found ophiolites to have undergone emplacement when young and hot: most are less than 50 million years old.
Ophiolites therefore cannot have followed the full Wilson cycle and are considered atypical ocean crust.
Ophiolite emplacement
There is yet no consensus on the mechanics of emplacement, the process by which oceanic crust is uplifted onto continental margins despite the relatively low density of the latter. All emplacement procedures share the same steps nonetheless: subduction initiation, thrusting of the ophiolite over a continental margin or an overriding plate at a subduction zone, and contact with air.
Hypotheses
Emplacement by irregular continental margin
A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland suggests that an irregular continental margin colliding with an island arc complex causes ophiolite generation in a back-arc basin and obduction due to compression. The continental margin, promontories and reentrants along its length, is attached to the subducting oceanic crust, which dips away from it underneath the island arc complex. As subduction takes place, the buoyant continent and island arc complex converge, initially colliding with the promontories. However, oceanic crust is still at the surface between the promontories, not having been subducted beneath the island arc yet. The subducting oceanic crust is thought to split from the continental margin to aid subduction. In the event that the rate of trench retreat is greater than that of the island arc complex's progression, trench rollback will take place, and by consequence, extension of the overriding plate will occur to allow the island arc complex to match the trench retreat's speed. The extension, a back-arc basin, generates oceanic crust: ophiolites. Finally, when the oceanic lithosphere is entirely subducted, the island arc complex's extensional regime becomes compressional. The hot, positively buoyant ocean crust from the extension won't subduct, instead obducting onto the island arc as an ophiolite. As compression persists, the ophiolite is emplaced onto the continental margin.
Ophiolites as trapped forearc
Ophiolite generation and subduction may also be explained, as suggested from evidence from the Coast Range ophiolite of California and Baja California, by a change in subduction location and polarity. Oceanic crust attached to a continental margin subducts beneath an island arc. Pre-ophiolitic ocean crust is generated by a back-arc basin. The collision of the continent and island arc initiates a new subduction zone at the back-arc basin, dipping in the opposite direction as the first. The created ophiolite becomes the tip of the new subduction's forearc and is uplifted (over the accretionary wedge) by detachment and compression. Verification of the two above hypotheses requires further research, as do the other hypotheses available in current literature on the subject.
Research
Scientists have drilled only about 1.5 km into the 6- to 7-kilometer-thick oceanic crust, so scientific understanding of oceanic crust comes largely from comparing ophiolite structure to seismic soundings of in situ oceanic crust. Oceanic crust generally has a layered velocity structure that implies a layered rock series similar to that listed above. But in detail there are problems, with many ophiolites exhibiting thinner accumulations of igneous rock than are inferred for oceanic crust. Another problem relating to oceanic crust and ophiolites is that the thick gabbro layer of ophiolites calls for large magma chambers beneath mid-ocean ridges. However, seismic sounding of mid-ocean ridges has revealed only a few magma chambers beneath ridges, and these are quite thin. A few deep drill holes into oceanic crust have intercepted gabbro, but it is not layered like ophiolite gabbro.
The circulation of hydrothermal fluids through young oceanic crust causes serpentinization, alteration of the peridotites and alteration of minerals in the gabbros and basalts to lower temperature assemblages. For example, plagioclase, pyroxenes, and olivine in the sheeted dikes and lavas will alter to albite, chlorite, and serpentine, respectively. Often, ore bodies such as iron-rich sulfide deposits are found above highly altered epidosites (epidote-quartz rocks) that are evidence of relict black smokers, which continue to operate within the seafloor spreading centers of ocean ridges today.
Thus, there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking closer. Beyond issues of layer thicknesses mentioned above, a problem arises concerning compositional differences of silica (SiO2) and titania (TiO2). Ophiolite basalt contents place them in the domain of subduction zones (~55% silica, <1% TiO2), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalts typically have ~50% silica and 1.5–2.5% TiO2. These chemical differences extend to a range of trace elements as well (that is, chemical elements occurring in amounts of 1000 ppm or less). In particular, trace elements associated with subduction zone (island arc) volcanics tend to be high in ophiolites, whereas trace elements that are high in ocean ridge basalts but low in subduction zone volcanics are also low in ophiolites.
Additionally, the crystallization order of feldspar and pyroxene (clino- and orthopyroxene) in the gabbros is reversed, and ophiolites also appear to have a multi-phase magmatic complexity on par with subduction zones. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that most ophiolites are generated when subduction begins and thus represent fragments of fore-arc lithosphere. This led to introduction of the term "supra-subduction zone" (SSZ) ophiolite in the 1980s to acknowledge that some ophiolites are more closely related to island arcs than ocean ridges. Consequently, some of the classic ophiolite occurrences thought of as being related to seafloor spreading (Troodos in Cyprus, Semail in Oman) were found to be "SSZ" ophiolites, formed by rapid extension of fore-arc crust during subduction initiation.
A fore-arc setting for most ophiolites also solves the otherwise-perplexing problem of how oceanic lithosphere can be emplaced on top of continental crust. It appears that continental accretion sediments, if carried by the downgoing plate into a subduction zone, will jam it up and cause subduction to cease, resulting in the rebound of the accretionary prism with fore-arc lithosphere (ophiolite) on top of it. Ophiolites with compositions comparable with hotspot-type eruptive settings or normal mid-oceanic ridge basalt are rare, and those examples are generally strongly dismembered in subduction zone accretionary complexes.
Groups and assemblages
Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare.
Most ophiolites can be divided into one of two groups: Tethyan and Cordilleran. Tethyan ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the eastern Mediterranean sea area, e.g. Troodos in Cyprus, and in the Middle East, such as Semail in Oman, which consist of relatively complete rock series corresponding to the classic ophiolite assemblage and which have been emplaced onto a passive continental margin more or less intact (Tethys is the name given to the ancient sea that once separated Europe and Africa). Cordilleran ophiolites are characteristic of those that occur in the mountain belts of western North America (the "Cordillera" or backbone of the continent). These ophiolites sit on subduction zone accretionary complexes (subduction complexes) and have no association with a passive continental margin. They include the Coast Range ophiolite of California, the Josephine ophiolite of the Klamath Mountains (California, Oregon), and ophiolites in the southern Andes of South America. Despite their differences in mode of emplacement, both types of ophiolite are exclusively supra-subduction zone (SSZ) in origin.
Based on mode of occurrences, the Neoproterozoic ophiolites appear to show characteristics of both mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB)-type and SSZ-type ophiolites and are classified from oldest to youngest into: (1) MORB intact ophiolites (MIO); (2) dismembered ophiolites (DO); and (3) arc-associated ophiolites (AAO) (El Bahariya, 2018). Collectively, the investigated ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert (CED) fall into both MORB/back-arc basin basalt (BABB) ophiolites and SSZ ophiolites. They are spatially and temporally unrelated, and thus, it seems likely that the two types are not petrogenetically related. Ophiolites occur in different geological settings, and they represent change of the tectonic setting of the ophiolites from MORB to SSZ with time.
Origin and evolution of the concept
The term ophiolite originated from publications of Alexandre Brongniart in 1813 and 1821. In the first, he used ophiolite for serpentinite rocks found in large-scale breccias called mélanges. In the second publication, he expanded the definition to encompass a variety of igneous rocks as well such as gabbro, diabase, ultramafic and volcanic rocks. Ophiolites thus became a name for a well-known association of rocks occurring in the Alps and Apennines of Italy. Following work in these two mountains systems, Gustav Steinmann defined what later became known as the "Steinmann Trinity": the mixture of serpentine, diabase-spilite and chert. The recognition of the Steinmann Trinity served years later to build up the theory around seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. A key observation by Steinmann was that ophiolites were associated to sedimentary rocks reflecting former deep sea environments. Steinmann himself interpreted ophiolites (the Trinity) using the geosyncline concept. He held that Alpine ophiolites were "submarine effusions issuing along thrust faults into the active flank of an asymmetrically shortening geosyncline". The apparent lack of ophiolites in the Peruvian Andes, Steinmann theorized, was either due to the Andes being preceded by a shallow geosyncline or representing just the margin of a geosyncline. Thus, Cordilleran-type and Alpine-type mountains were to be different in this regard. In Hans Stille's models a type of geosyncline called eugeosynclines were characterized by producing an "initial magmatism" that in some cases corresponded to ophiolitic magmatism.
As plate tectonic theory prevailed in geology and geosyncline theory became outdated ophiolites were interpreted in the new framework. They were recognized as fragments of oceanic lithosphere, and dykes were viewed as the result of extensional tectonics at mid-ocean ridges. The plutonic rocks found in ophiolites were understood as remnants of former magma chambers.
In 1973, Akiho Miyashiro revolutionized common conceptions of ophiolites and proposed an island arc origin for the famous Troodos Ophiolite in Cyprus, arguing that numerous lavas and dykes in the ophiolite had calc-alkaline chemistries.
Notable ophiolites
Examples of ophiolites that have been influential in the study of these rocks bodies are:
Coast Range Ophiolite in the California Coast Ranges, from Santa Barbara through San Francisco Counties, California.
Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates, widely considered one of the best exposed ophiolite sequences
Troodos Ophiolite in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus, of economic interest since it contains the copper deposits of Cyprus (from which copper is named)
Macquarie Island, Tasmania, Australia was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997, as "the only known example of an ophiolite...complex in the process of being formed and currently in its original geological setting".
Bay of Islands Ophiolite in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland, named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 because of its superbly exposed complete ophiolite stratigraphic sequence
Yakuno, Horokanai, and Poroshiri, three full ophiolite sequences in Japan
Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, South Island, New Zealand. The rocktype dunite is named after this locality.
Zambales ophiolite complex including the Coto and Acoje blocks, Luzon, Philippines. The ~45 Myr old Zambales ophiolite forms part of the basement of the Luzon island arc complex.
Naga Hills and Andaman ophiolite belt, Northeast India
Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt (El Bahariya, 2018).
Himalayan Ophiolites, Nidar, Shergol (Manas et al.,2021)
Notes
References
Ben-Avraham, Z. et al. (1982) "The emplacement of ophiolites by collision," Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (1978–2012) 87, no. B5, 3861–3867.
Brongniart, A. (1813) Essai de classification minéralogique des roches mélangées, Journal des Mines, v. XXXIV, 190–199.
Cawood, P. A. and G. Suhr (1992) "Generation and obduction of ophiolites: constraints from the Bay of Islands Complex, western Newfoundland," Tectonics 11, no. 4, 884–897.
Church, W. R. and R. K. Stevens (1970) Early Paleozoic ophiolite complexes of the Newfoundland Appalachians as mantle-oceanic crust sequences, Journal of Geophysical Research, 76, 1460–1466
Coleman, R. G. (1977) Ophiolites: Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere?, Springer Verlag, 229 pp
El Bahariya, G. A., 2018. Classification of the Neoproterozoic ophiolites of the Central Eastern Desert, Egypt based on field geological characteristics and mode of occurrence. Arabian Journal of Geosciences,11:313.
Encarnacion, J. (2004) Multiple ophiolite generation preserved in the northern Philippines and the growth of an island arc complex, Tectonophysics, 392, 103–130
Gass, I. G. (1968) Is the Troodos massif of Cyprus a fragment of Mesozoic ocean floor?, Nature, 220, 39–42
Kearey, P. et al. (2009) "Global Tectonics," New Delhi: John Wiley & Sons.
Mason, R. (1985) "Ophiolites," Geology Today 1, no. 5, 136–140.
Metcalf, R. V., and J. W. Shervais, (2008) Supra-Subduction Zone (SSZ) Ophiolites: Is There Really An "Ophiolite Conundrum"?, in James E. Wright and John W. Shervais, editors, Ophiolites, Arcs, and Batholiths: A Tribute to Cliff Hopson, Geological Society of America Special Paper 438, p. 191–222,
Manas, M., Mukherjee, B.K. & Dubey, R.K. Non-silicate needles and metals in peridotites from Himalayan ophiolite, Western Ladakh, India: evidence of deep Earth origin. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-021-02086-w
Moores, E. M. (2003) A personal history of the ophiolite concept, in Dilek and Newcomb, editors, Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geologic Thought, Geological Society of America Special Publication 373, 17–29
Steinmann, G. (1927) Die ophiolitischen Zonen in den mediterranen Kettengebirgen, translated and reprinted by Bernoulli and Friedman, in Dilek and Newcomb, editors, Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geologic Thought, Geological Society of America Special Publication 373, 77–91
External links
Ofioliti, an international journal on ophiolites and modern oceanic lithosphere
Gallery of ophiolitic rocks published on Flickr by Ohio State University
Plate tectonics
Igneous rocks
Marine geology
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|
239409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectivore | Insectivore | An insectivore is a carnivorous plant or animal that eats insects. An alternative term is entomophage, which can also refer to the human practice of eating insects.
The first vertebrate insectivores were amphibians. When they evolved 400 million years ago, the first amphibians were piscivores, with numerous sharp conical teeth, much like a modern crocodile. The same tooth arrangement is however also suited for eating animals with exoskeletons, thus the ability to eat insects is an extension of piscivory.
At one time, insectivorous mammals were scientifically classified in an order called Insectivora. This order is now abandoned, as not all insectivorous mammals are closely related. Most of the Insectivora taxa have been reclassified; those that have not yet been reclassified remain in the order Eulipotyphla.
Although individually small, insects exist in enormous numbers. Insects make up a very large part of the animal biomass in almost all non-marine, non-polar environments. It has been estimated that the global insect biomass is in the region of 1012 kg with an estimated population of 1018 organisms. Many creatures depend on insects as their primary diet, and many that do not (and are thus not technically insectivores) nevertheless use insects as a protein supplement, particularly when they are breeding.
Examples
Examples of insectivores include different kinds of species of carp, opossum, frogs, lizards (e.g. chameleons, geckos), nightingales, swallows, echidnas, numbats, anteaters, armadillos, aardvarks, pangolins, aardwolfs, bats, and spiders. Even large mammals are recorded as eating insects; the sloth bear is perhaps the largest insectivore. Insects also can be insectivores; examples are dragonflies, hornets, ladybugs, robber flies, and praying mantises. Insectivory also features to various degrees amongst primates, such as marmosets, tamarins, tarsiers, galagos and aye-aye. There is some suggestion that the earliest primates were nocturnal, arboreal insectivores.
Insectivorous plants
Insectivorous plants are plants that derive some of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoan. The benefit they derive from their catch varies considerably; in some species it might include a small part of their nutrient intake and in others it might be an indispensable source of nutrients. As a rule, however, such animal food, however valuable it might be as a source of certain critically important minerals, is not the plants' major source of energy, which they generally derive mainly from photosynthesis.
Insectivorous plants might consume insects and other animal material trapped adventitiously, though most species to which such food represents an important part of their intake are specifically, often spectacularly, adapted to attract and secure adequate supplies. Their prey animals typically, but not exclusively, comprise insects and other arthropods. Plants highly adapted to reliance on animal food use a variety of mechanisms to secure their prey, such as pitfalls, sticky surfaces, hair-trigger snaps, bladder-traps, entangling furriness, and lobster-pot trap mechanisms. Also known as carnivorous plants, they appear adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings.
Insectivorous plants include the Venus flytrap, several types of pitcher plants, butterworts, sundews, bladderworts, the waterwheel plant, brocchinia and many members of the Bromeliaceae. The list is far from complete, and some plants, such as Roridula species, exploit the prey organisms mainly in a mutualistic relationship with other creatures, such as resident organisms that contribute to the digestion of prey. In particular animal prey organisms supply carnivorous plants with nitrogen, but they also are important sources of various other soluble minerals, such as potassium and trace elements that are in short supply in environments where the plants flourish. This gives them a decisive advantage over other plants, whereas in nutrient-rich soils they tend to be out-competed by plants adapted to aggressive growth where nutrient supplies are not the major constraints.
Technically these plants are not strictly insectivorous, as they consume any animal that they can secure and consume; the distinction is trivial, however, because not many primarily insectivorous organisms exclusively consume insects. Most of those that do have such a restrictive diet, such as certain parasitoids and hunting wasps, are specialised to exploit particular species, not insects in general. Indeed, much as large mantids and spiders will do, the larger varieties of pitcher plant have been known to consume vertebrates such as small rodents and lizards. Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants in 1875.
See also
Entomophagy
Consumer-resource systems
Insectivora
List of feeding behaviours
References
Animals by eating behaviors
Carnivory
Insect ecology | [
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239411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20League | Continental League | The Continental League of Professional Baseball Clubs (known as the Continental League or CL) was a proposed third major league for baseball in the United States and Canada. Though a league by that name was proposed in 1920, its best-known incarnation was announced in 1959 and scheduled to begin play in the 1961 season. Unlike predecessor competitors such as the Players' League and the Federal League, it sought membership within organized baseball's existing organization and acceptance within Major League Baseball (as any attempt at outsider leagues could be quashed as per a 1922 Supreme Court case declaring MLB exempt from federal antitrust laws). The league disbanded in August 1960 without playing a single game as a concession by William A. Shea as part of his negotiations with Major League Baseball to expand to incorporate at least eight new teams.
History
Background
A Continental League was proposed in 1920 by promoter George Herman Lawson but never played any part of its planned initial 1921 season. The idea stayed dormant until the 1950s. The New York Giants (to San Francisco) and the Brooklyn Dodgers (to Los Angeles) moved to California following the 1957 season; New York City mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. appointed a four-man committee to bring the National League back to the city in 1958. Early overtures to entice one of the other six existing NL teams—the Cincinnati Reds, Philadelphia Phillies, and Pittsburgh Pirates were reportedly approached—were abandoned.
New league announced
The Continental League was the idea of attorney William Shea, proposed in November 1958. On July 27, 1959, the new league was formally announced, with teams in Denver, Houston, Minneapolis–St. Paul, New York City, and Toronto. The name of the league was said to have been the suggestion of Colorado senator Edwin C. Johnson.
Representing the team owners at the announcement were Bob Howsam (Denver), Craig F. Cullinan Jr. (Houston), Wheelock Whitney Jr. (Minneapolis–St. Paul), Dwight F. Davis, Jr., who was representing the group headed by Joan Whitney Payson (New York), and Jack Kent Cooke (Toronto). Owners in each city had agreed to pay US$50,000 to the league and committed to a capital investment of $2.5 million, not including stadium costs. A minimum seating capacity of 35,000 was established by the league for the venues in which its teams would play.
At least three other teams were expected to be in place before play began in 1961, and the league said it had received applications from 10 cities. The three that were later selected were Atlanta (announced December 8, 1959), Dallas–Fort Worth (announced December 22, 1959), and Buffalo (backed by Robert O. Swados and announced January 29, 1960). Former Dodgers president Branch Rickey was named league president on August 18, 1959. Appearing in that capacity as a guest on the live CBS broadcast of What's My Line on Sunday, September 13, 1959, he pronounced the new league as "Inevitable as tomorrow morning."
On February 18, 1960, Rickey and Cooke announced an opening date of April 18, 1961.
Established leagues respond
The Major League Baseball commissioner's office was noncommittal on the issue. At that time, however, the American League and the National League enjoyed far more autonomy than they do today, answering more to their constituent owners (who were universally hostile to the new league) than to the Commissioner's Office. They reacted to the formation of the new league by announcing plans to expand by adding two teams in each of the existing leagues. Priority would be given, it was stated, to cities that did not have Major League Baseball. Accordingly, the NL placed one of its expansion teams in Houston (the then Houston Colt .45s), a Continental League city without an existing Major League Baseball team.
Though the AL placed one of its expansion teams (the Washington Senators) in a previously existing Major League Baseball city (Washington, D.C.), this was done to replace the original Senators team, which had relocated to Minneapolis–St. Paul and became the Minnesota Twins. Like Houston, the Twin Cities of Minneapolis/St. Paul were a Continental League city without an existing Major League Baseball team.
The NL then placed another expansion team in New York, offering its tenth franchise to the owners of the Continental League New York team, who immediately accepted, effectively killing any attempt to revive the proposed league. This franchise would become the New York Mets. The AL then followed by placing a second expansion team in Los Angeles, the Angels, giving the American League its first presence on the West Coast.
The league disbands
With Shea's mission to bring the National League back to New York successful, he stopped championing the Continental League's formation. The promise of expansion achieved the owners' desired effect; on August 2, 1960, the Continental League formally disbanded.
Legacy
Baseball historians concur that even without the imminent threat of a third major league, Major League Baseball expansion would inevitably have happened due to such factors as pressure from Congress, the rapid growth of professional football, and the replacement of conservative long-tenured owners with younger businessmen who tended to be far more amenable to expansion. Nevertheless, the Continental League undoubtedly compelled MLB to hasten expansion by several years. Although Major League Baseball had succeeded in preventing the launch of an eight-team CL, it only did so by committing to eventually add eight franchises of its own. MLB finished honoring this commitment in 1969 when the AL and NL each added two more teams for a total of eight over the course of the decade, thereby matching the total number of new teams envisioned by the Continental League.
Although William Shea's efforts to create a third major league are not well known today, Shea Stadium, home of the New York Mets from 1964 to 2008, was named in his honor for his efforts in bringing National League baseball back to New York. Over the next two decades, Shea would become involved in efforts to secure second franchises for the New York metropolitan area in each of the other three major sports. He brokered the sale of the New York Jets from Harry Wismer to Sonny Werblin, ensuring the survival of the then-struggling American Football League franchise, and then worked to bring the New York Nets of the American Basketball Association to Long Island. Shea also helped negotiate the mergers of both rival leagues with the established National Football League and National Basketball Association respectively. On the other hand, he actively opposed efforts to establish a World Hockey Association team on Long Island by successfully lobbying the National Hockey League and the New York Rangers to award an NHL franchise (the New York Islanders) to Nassau County.
Of the eight proposed Continental League cities, all but one eventually received relocated or expansion Major League Baseball franchises – Minneapolis–St. Paul in 1961, Houston and New York in 1962, Atlanta in 1966, Dallas–Fort Worth in 1972, Toronto in 1977, and Denver in 1993. Buffalo, although it made efforts to lure an MLB team to then-new Pilot Field in the early 1990s, has not succeeded in bringing Major League Baseball back. (There had been a major league team in Buffalo in the nineteenth century.) Buffalo remains home to the Buffalo Bisons, a team in the Triple-A East. Buffalo also played host to the majority of Toronto Blue Jays home games for the 2020 season and part of the next season due to cross-border travel restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
References
Bibliography
Shapiro, Michael (2009). Bottom of the Ninth: Branch Rickey, Casey Stengel, and the Daring Scheme to Save Baseball from Itself. Henry Holt and Company, LLC. .
Sports leagues established in 1959
1960 disestablishments in the United States
Defunct major baseball leagues in the United States | [
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239413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic%20tern | Arctic tern | The Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) is a tern in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America (as far south as Brittany and Massachusetts). The species is strongly migratory, seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later. Recent studies have shown average annual round-trip lengths of about for birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland and about for birds nesting in the Netherlands. These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic tern nests once every one to three years (depending on its mating cycle).
Arctic terns are medium-sized birds. They have a length of and a wingspan of . They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red/orange beak and feet, white forehead, a black nape and crown (streaked white), and white cheeks. The grey mantle is , and the scapulae are fringed brown, some tipped white. The upper wing is grey with a white leading edge, and the collar is completely white, as is the rump. The deeply forked tail is whitish, with grey outer webs.
Arctic terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age. They eat mainly fish and small marine invertebrates. The species is abundant, with an estimated two million individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known, exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its ranges.
Etymology
The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern". The specific paradisaea is from Late Latin paradisus, "paradise".
The Scots names picktarnie, tarrock and their many variants are also believed to be onomatopoeic, derived from the distinctive call. Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species, all the informal common names are shared with the common tern.
Distribution and migration
The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution; there are no recognized subspecies. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of North America and Eurasia during the northern summer. During the southern summer, it can be found at sea, reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice.
The Arctic tern is famous for its migration; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year, the shortest distance between these areas being . The long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet. One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves an Arctic tern ringed as an unfledged chick on the Farne Islands, Northumberland, UK, in the northern summer of 1982, which reached Melbourne, Australia in October 1982, just three months from fledging – a journey of over . Another example is that of a chick ringed in Labrador, Canada, on 23 July 1928. It was found in South Africa four months later.
A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not unusual for the species. In fact, it turned out, previous research had seriously underestimated the annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern. Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered on average in a year, with a maximum of . The difference from previous estimates is due to the birds' taking meandering courses rather than following a straight route as was previously assumed. The birds follow a somewhat convoluted course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds. The average Arctic tern lives about thirty years, and will, based on the above research, travel some during its lifetime, the equivalent of a roundtrip from Earth to the Moon over 3 times.
A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the Netherlands shows average annual migrations of c. . On their way south, these birds roughly followed the coastlines of Europe and Africa.
Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season.
Description and taxonomy
The Arctic tern is a medium-sized bird around from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. The wingspan is . The weight is . The beak is dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic tern has high aspect ratio wings and a tail with a deep fork.
The adult plumage is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker.
Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers. During their first summer, juveniles also have a whiter forecrown.
The species has a variety of calls; the two most common being the alarm call, made when possible predators (such as humans or other mammals) enter the colonies, and the advertising call.
While the Arctic tern is similar to the common and roseate terns, its colouring, profile, and call are slightly different. Compared to the common tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic tern's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the roseate.
This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the South American (Sterna hirundinacea), Kerguelen (S. virgata), and Antarctic (S. vittata) terns.
The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species, Sterna portlandica and Sterna pikei.
Reproduction
Breeding begins around the third or fourth year. Arctic terns mate for life and, in most cases, return to the same colony each year. Courtship is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time. Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings. After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.
Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this. Breeding takes place in colonies on coasts, islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water. It often forms mixed flocks with the common tern. It lays from one to three eggs per clutch, most often two.
It is one of the most aggressive terns, fiercely defensive of its nest and young. It will attack humans and large predators, usually striking the top or back of the head. Although it is too small to cause serious injury to an animal of a human's size, it is still capable of drawing blood, and is capable of repelling many raptorial birds, polar bears and smaller mammalian predators such as foxes and cats.
The nest is usually a depression in the ground, which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials. The eggs are mottled and camouflaged. Both sexes share incubation duties. The young hatch after 22–27 days and fledge after 21–24 days. If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently the incubation period could be extended to as long as 34 days.
When hatched, the chicks are downy. Neither altricial nor precocial, the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching. Usually they do not stray far from the nest. Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching. Both parents care for hatchlings. Chick diets always include fish, and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves. Males bring more food than females. Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly. After fledging, the juveniles learn to feed themselves, including the difficult method of plunge-diving. They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents.
Arctic terns are long-lived birds that spend considerable time raising only a few young, and are thus said to be K-selected. A 1957 study in the Farne Islands estimated an annual survival rate of 82%.
Ecology and behaviour
The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually carnivorous. In most cases, it eats small fish or marine crustaceans. Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet, and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food. Prey species are immature (1–2-year-old) shoaling species such as herring, cod, sandlances, and capelin. Among the marine crustaceans eaten are amphipods, crabs and krill. Sometimes, these birds also eat molluscs, marine worms, or berries, and on their northern breeding grounds, insects.
Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They may also chase insects in the air when breeding. It is also thought that Arctic terns may, in spite of their small size, occasionally engage in kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches. Several species are targeted—conspecifics, other terns (like the common tern), and some auk and grebe species.
While nesting, Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals. Besides being a competitor for nesting sites, the larger herring gull steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites. Scientists have experimented with bamboo canes erected around tern nests. Although they found fewer predation attempts in the caned areas than in the control areas, canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt. While feeding, skuas, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food.
Conservation status
The total population for the arctic tern is estimated at more than two million individuals, with more than half of the population in Europe. The breeding range is very large, and although the population is considered to be decreasing, this species is evaluated as a species of least concern by the IUCN.
Arctic terns are among the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.
The population in New England was reduced in the late nineteenth-century because of hunting for the millinery trade. Exploitation continues in western Greenland, where the population of the species has been reduced greatly since 1950. In Iceland, the Arctic tern has been regionally uplisted to Vulnerable as of 2018, due to the crash of sandeel (Ammodytes spp.) stocks.
At the southern part of their range, the Arctic tern has been reducing in numbers. Much of this is due to lack of food. However, most of these birds' range is extremely remote, with no apparent trend in the species as a whole. The Arctic terns' dispersal pattern is affected by changing climatic conditions, and its ability to feed in its Antarctic wintering is dependent on sea-ice cover, but unlike breeding species, it is able to move to a different area if necessary, and can be used as a control to investigate the effect of climate change on breeding species.
Cultural depictions
The Arctic tern has appeared on the postage stamps of several countries and dependent territories. The territories include Åland, Alderney, and Faroe Islands. Countries include Canada, Finland, Iceland, and Cuba.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
The Arctic tern Migration Project
Arctic tern – Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Arctic tern images at ARKive
Sterna
Birds of the Arctic
Holarctic birds
Birds described in 1763
Taxa named by Erik Pontoppidan | [
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|
239414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teasing | Teasing | Teasing has multiple meanings and uses. In human interactions, teasing exists in three major forms: playful, hurtful, and educative. Teasing can have a variety of effects, depending on how it is used and its intended effect. When teasing is unwelcome, it may be regarded as harassment or mobbing, especially in the workplace and school, or as a form of bullying or emotional abuse. If done in public, it may be regarded as humiliation. Teasing can also be regarded as educative when it is used as a way of informal learning. Adults in some of the Indigenous American communities often tease children to playfully illustrate and teach them how their behavior negatively affects the community. Children in many Indigenous American communities also learn by observing what others do in addition to collaborating with them. Along with teasing, this form of informal learning is different from the ways that Western American children learn. Informal ways of child learning include mutual responsibility, as well as active collaboration with adults and peers. This differentiates from the more formal way of learning because it is not adult-oriented.
People may be teased on matters such as their appearance, weight, behavior, family, gender, faith, health/medical issues, abilities, clothing, and intelligence. From the victim's point of view, this kind of teasing is often hurtful, irrespective of the intention of the teaser.
One may also tease an animal. Some animals, such as dogs and cats, may recognize this both as play or harassment.
Nature
A common form of teasing is verbal bullying or taunting. This behavior is intended to distract, disturb, offend, sadden, anger, bother, irritate, or annoy the recipient. Because it is hurtful, it is different from joking and is generally accompanied by some degree of social rejection. Teasing can also be taken to mean "To make fun of; mock playfully" or be sarcastic about and use sarcasm.
Dacher Keltner uses Penelope Brown's classic study on the difference between "on-record" and "off-record" communication to illustrate how people must learn to read others' tone of voice and facial expressions in order to learn appropriate responses to teasing.
A form of teasing that is usually overlooked is educational teasing. This form is commonly used by parents and caregivers in two Indigenous American communities and Mexican Heritage communities to guide their children into responding with more Prosocial behavior. For example, when a parent teases a child who is throwing a tantrum for a piece of candy, the parent will pretend to give the child candy but then take it away and ask the child to correct their behavior before giving the child that piece of candy. In this way, the parent teaches the child the importance of maintaining self-control. When adults educate children through teasing, they are informally teaching the children. This type of learning is often overlooked because it is different from the way Western American Communities teach their children.
Another form of teasing is to pretend to give something which the other desires, or give it very slowly. This is usually done by arousing curiosity or desire, and may not actually involve the intent to satisfy or disclose. This form of teasing could be called "tantalizing", after the story of Tantalus. Tantalizing is generally playful among adults, although among children it can be hurtful, such as when one child acquires possession of another's property and will not return it. It is also common in flirting and dating. For example, a person who is interested in someone else romantically might reject an advance the first time in order to arouse interest and curiosity, and give in the second or third time.
Whether teasing is playful or hurtful or educative is largely subject to the interpretation of the person being teased. If the person being teased feels harmed, then the teasing is hurtful. A difference in power between people may also make the behavior hurtful rather than playful. Ultimately though, if someone perceives him or herself as the victim of teasing, and experiences the teasing as unpleasant, then it is considered hurtful. If parents' intentions are positive, as in many Indigenous American communities, then teasing to the community can be seen as an educational tool. The child may or may not understand that at the moment. If the other person continues to do it after being asked to stop then it is a form of bullying or abuse.
Another way to look at teasing is as an honest reflection on differences, expressed in a joking fashion with the goal of "clearing the air". It can express comfort with the other which can be comforting. As opposed to being nice to someone's face while making disparaging remarks behind their back, teasing can be a way to express differences in a direct fashion rather than internalizing them.
In indigenous American communities
Some indigenous American communities use teasing to teach their children about the expectations and values of the community and to change negative behaviors. Teasing gives children a better understanding of how their behavior affects the people around them. Teasing in Indigenous American communities is used to learn community acceptance, humbleness, correcting behavior and social control.
In some Mexican indigenous American communities, teasing is used in an effective educative way. Teasing is found more useful because it allows the child to feel and understand the relevant effect of their behavior instead of receiving out-of-context feedback. Some parents in Indigenous American communities believe it mildly embarrasses the children in a shared reference to give them a good sense of the consequences of their behavior. This type of teasing is thought to teach children to be less egocentric, teaches autonomy and responsibility to monitor their own behavior. Parental teasing also is practiced to encourage the child to think of their behavior in a social context. Some Indigenous American mothers have reported that this urges the children to understand how their behavior affects others around them. From examples in Eisenberg's article, parents use teasing as a way of reinforcing relationships and participation in group/community activities (prosocial behavior). Parents tease their children to be able to "control the behavior of the child and to have fun with them".
An Inuit principle of learning that follows a similar teasing pattern is known as issumaksaiyuk, meaning to cause thought. Oftentimes, adults pose questions or hypothetical situations to the children (sometimes dangerous) but in a teasing, playful manner, often dramatizing their responses. These questions raise the child's awareness to issues surrounding their community, as well as give them a sense of agency within the community as a member capable of having an effect and creating change. Once the child begins to answer the questions reasonably, like an adult, the questions would stop.
In some Cherokee communities, teasing is a way of diffusing aggressive or hostile situations and teaching the individual about the consequences of their behavior. It allows the individual to feel how their behaviors are affecting others and control their behavior.
Other usages
To tease, or to "be a tease" in a sexual sense can refer to the use of posture, language or other means of flirting to cause another person to become sexually aroused. Such teasing may or may not be a prelude to intercourse, an ambiguity which can lead to uncomfortable situations. In a more physical sense, it can also refer to sexual stimulation.
Teasing is also used to describe playing part of a song at a concert. Jam bands will often quote the main riff of another song during jams.
"Tease it" is also used as a slang term to smoke marijuana. The word "tease" can also be used as a noun to stand for marijuana.
In a very different context, hair can be teased, "ratted", or "backcombed". As the name suggests, backcombing involves combing the hair backwards from end to root to intentionally tangle the strands to create volume. It can also be done excessively in sections to create dreadlocks.
See also
Bullying
Eve teasing
Mobbing
Sarcasm
Sardonic
Social rejection
Taunting
References
External links
The Art of the Teaser
Abuse
Bullying
Human behavior | [
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|
239416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Woodley%2C%20Baron%20Woodley | Tony Woodley, Baron Woodley | Anthony Woodley, Baron Woodley (born 2 January 1948), is a British trade unionist who was the Joint-General Secretary of Unite, a union formed through the merger of Amicus and the Transport and General Workers' Union, from 2007 to 2011. Despite stepping down as Joint-General Secretary, he remained as the Head of Organising for Unite until December 2013 and is still a consultant to the union. He was previously the General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers union (T&G) from 2004 to 2007.
He was created a Labour life peer in November 2020 with the title Baron Woodley, of Wallasey in the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, after initially declining the peerage.
Early life
Born in Wallasey, Cheshire (now Merseyside), he was educated at a secondary modern school on the Wirral. At the age of 15, he was taken on by the Ocean Steam Ship Company, working as a steward for four years. In 1967, he started working for Vauxhall Motors at Ellesmere Port, where he first joined the TGWU.
Trade unionist
In 1980, he was elected as a full-time union convenor; his father George had also been a union convenor at the plant for the National Union of Vehicle Builders. He was also appointed as a full-time district official of the TGWU in 1989, later becoming the National Officer of the Vehicle Building and Automotive Group, and was elected as TGWU Deputy General Secretary in 2002.
General Secretary
He first came to national prominence when, on 30 May 2003, he was elected to succeed Bill Morris as General Secretary of the TGWU. He received 66,958 votes, 21,822 more than the second-placed candidate Jack Dromey, who was widely perceived as the Blairite candidate. He was considered to be a member of the so-called "Awkward Squad" of trade union leaders opposed to New Labour policies that they perceived to be against the interests of working people.
After his election he said in an interview with The Independent newspaper:
"A priority for stronger unions in the workplace must be a repeal of the anti-union laws ... British employment laws make it easier and cheaper to sack workers than on the Continent. I will campaign to stop the scandal of British workers being the cannon fodder of Europe."
He later served as one of the two Joint-General Secretaries of Unite, which was formed after a merger between the TGWU and Amicus. He stepped down from this role in January 2011.
The Sun newspaper
At the 2009 Labour Party Conference, Woodley tore up a copy of The Sun newspaper as he made a speech. This was following the paper's announcement that they would be supporting the Conservative Party at the subsequent general election, having backed the winning Labour Party at the previous three elections.
On tearing up the paper, he said:
"In Liverpool, we learnt a long time ago what to do [tear the paper]. I suggest the rest of the country does the same thing."
This was a reference to The Sun's controversial reporting of the Hillsborough Disaster 20 years earlier, which had caused widespread public outrage, particularly in Liverpool, as the disaster claimed the lives of 96 Liverpool fans, who mostly lived in or near the city. Many people on Merseyside still refuse to buy the newspaper and a number of newsagents still refuse to stock it.
Personal life
Woodley is also the President of Football Conference North side Vauxhall Motors F.C. despite being a childhood supporter of Everton FC. He lives in Ellesmere Port. He married Janet Timmis and they have a son (born September 1990).
References
External links
His website
TGWU biography
Video clips
News items
Times article September 2008
Observer article July 2000
|-
1948 births
Living people
People from Ellesmere Port
People from Wallasey
Deputy general secretaries of the Transport and General Workers' Union
General secretaries of the Transport and General Workers' Union
Members of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress
General Secretaries of Unite the Union
Life peers created by Elizabeth II | [
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239419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir%20K.%20Zworykin | Vladimir K. Zworykin | Vladimir Kosmich Zworykin (, Vladimir Koz'mich Zvorykin; July 29, 1982) was a Russian-American inventor, engineer, and pioneer of television technology. Zworykin invented a television transmitting and receiving system employing cathode ray tubes. He played a role in the practical development of television from the early thirties, including charge storage-type tubes, infrared image tubes and the electron microscope.
Early life and education
Vladimir Kosmich Zworykin was born in Murom, Russia, in 1888, on July 29 (July 17 in the Julian calendar), to the family of a prosperous merchants. He had a relatively calm upbringing, and he rarely saw his father except on religious holidays.
He studied at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, under Boris Rosing. He helped Rosing with experimental work on television in the basement of Rosing's private lab at the School of Artillery of Saint Petersburg. They worked on the problem of "electrical telescopy," something Zworykin had never heard of before. At this time, electrical telescopy (or television as it was later called) was just a dream. Zworykin did not know that others had been studying the idea since the 1880s, or that Professor Rosing had been working on it in secret since 1902 and had made excellent progress. Rosing had filed his first patent on a television system in 1907, featuring a very early cathode ray tube as a receiver, and a mechanical device as a transmitter. Its demonstration in 1911, based on an improved design, was the world's first demonstration of TV of any kind.
Career
Zworykin graduated in 1912. He then studied X-rays under professor Paul Langevin in Paris. During World War I, Zworykin was enlisted and served in the Russian Signal Corps. He then worked testing radio equipment that was being produced for the Russian Army. Zworykin left Russia for the United States in 1918 during the Russian Civil War. He left through Siberia, travelling north on the River Ob to the Arctic Ocean as part of an expedition led by Russian scientist Innokenty P. Tolmachev, eventually arriving in the US at the end of 1918. He returned to Omsk, then capital of Admiral Kolchak's government in 1919, via Vladivostok, then to the United States again on official duties from the Omsk government. These duties ended with the collapse of the White movement in Siberia at the death of Kolchak. Zworykin then decided to remain permanently in the US.
Once in the U.S., Zworykin found work at the Westinghouse laboratories in Pittsburgh where he eventually had an opportunity to engage in television experiments.
Zworykin applied for a television patent in the US in 1923. He summarized the resulting invention in two patent applications. The first, entitled "Television Systems", was filed on December 29, 1923, and was followed by a second application in 1925 of essentially the same content, but with minor changes and the addition of a Paget-type RGB raster screen for color transmission and reception. He was awarded a patent for the 1925 application in 1928, and two patents for the 1923 application that was divided in 1931, although the equipment described was never successfully demonstrated. Zworykin described cathode ray tubes as both transmitter and receiver. The operation, whose basic thrust was to prevent the emission of electrons between scansion cycles, was reminiscent of A. A. Campbell Swinton's proposal published in Nature in June 1908.
The demonstration given (sometime in late 1925 or early 1926) by Zworykin was far from a success with the Westinghouse management, even though it showed the possibilities inherent in a system based on the cathode ray tube. He was told by management to "devote his time to more practical endeavours," yet continued his efforts to perfect his system.
As attested by his doctoral dissertation of 1926, earning him a PhD from the University of Pittsburgh, his experiments were directed at improving the output of photoelectric cells. There were, however, limits to how far one could go along these lines, and so, in 1929, Zworykin returned to vibrating mirrors and facsimile transmission, filing patents describing these. At this time, however, he was also experimenting with an improved cathode ray receiving tube, filing a patent application for this in November 1929, and introducing the new receiver that he named the "kinescope", reading a paper two days later at a convention of the Institute of Radio Engineers.
Having developed the prototype of the receiver by December, Zworykin met David Sarnoff, who eventually hired him and put him in charge of television development for the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) at its factories and laboratories in Camden, New Jersey.
The move to the RCA's Camden laboratories occurred in the spring of 1930, and the difficult task of developing a transmitter could begin. There was an in-house evaluation in mid-1930, where the kinescope performed well (but with only 60 lines definition), and the transmitter was still of a mechanical type. A "breakthrough" would come when the Zworykin team decided to develop a new type of cathode ray transmitter, one described in the French and British patents of 1928 priority by the Hungarian inventor Kálmán Tihanyi whom the company had approached in July 1930, after the publication of his patents in England and France. This was a curious design, one where the scanning electron beam would strike the photoelectric cell from the same side where the optical image was cast. Even more importantly, it was a system characterized by an operation based on an entirely new principle, the principle of the accumulation and storage of charges during the entire time between two scansions by the cathode-ray beam.
According to Albert Abramson, Zworykin's experiments started in April 1931, and after the achievement of the first promising experimental transmitters, on October 23, 1931, it was decided that the new camera tube would be named the iconoscope. Zworykin first presented his iconoscope to RCA in 1932. He continued work on it, and
"[t]he image iconoscope, presented in 1934, was a result of a collaboration between Zworykin and RCA's licensee Telefunken. ... In 1935 the Reichspost started the public broadcastings using this tube and applying a 180 lines system."
RCA filed an interference suit against rival television scientist Philo Farnsworth, claiming Zworykin's 1923 patent had priority over Farnsworth's design, despite the fact it could present no evidence that Zworykin had actually produced a functioning transmitter tube before 1931. Farnsworth had lost two interference claims to Zworykin in 1928, but this time he prevailed and the U.S. Patent Office rendered a decision in 1934 awarding priority of the invention of the image dissector to Farnsworth. RCA lost a subsequent appeal, but litigation over a variety of issues continued for several years with Sarnoff finally agreeing to pay Farnsworth royalties. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application; he also divided his original application in 1931, receiving a patent in 1935, while a second one was eventually issued in 1938 by the Court of Appeals on a non-Farnsworth-related interference case, and over the objection of the Patent Office.
Later life
Zworykin married for a second time in 1951. His wife was Katherine Polevitzky (1888-1985), a Russian-born professor of bacteriology at the University of Pennsylvania. It was the second marriage for both. The ceremony was in Burlington, New Jersey. A photographic record of his marriage and worldwide tour can be viewed online.
He retired in 1954.
New frontiers in medical engineering and biological engineering appealed to him, and he became a founder and first president of the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering. The Federation continues to honor outstanding research engineering with a Zworykin Award, the prize being travelling funds to the award's presentation at a World Congress.
Death
Zworykin died on his 94th birthday, July 29, 1982, in Princeton, New Jersey. His wife Katherine died on February 18, 1985.
Honors
Throughout his steady rise in rank, Zworykin remained involved in the many important developments of RCA and received several outstanding honours, including, in 1934, the Morris Liebmann Memorial Prize from the Institute of Radio Engineers.
He was awarded the Howard N. Potts Medal from The Franklin Institute in 1947.
He was named honorary vice president of RCA in 1954.
In 1966, the National Academy of Sciences awarded him the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the instruments of science, engineering, and television and for his stimulation of the application of engineering to medicine.
In 1967, Zworykin received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
He was founder-president of the International Federation for Medical Electronics and Biological Engineering, a recipient of the Faraday Medal from Great Britain (1965), and a member of the U.S. National Hall of Fame from 1977.
He received the first Eduard Rhein Ring of Honor from the German Eduard Rhein Foundation in 1980.
From 1952 to 1986, the IEEE made awards to worthy engineers in the name of Vladimir K. Zworykin. More recently the Zworykin Award has been bestowed by the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering.
The most complete list of Zworykin's awards can be found online at historyTV.net .
Legacy
Zworykin was inducted into the New Jersey Inventor's Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Additionally, Tektronix in Beaverton, Oregon has named a street on its campus after Zworykin.
In 1995 University of Illinois Press published Zworykin, Pioneer of Television by Albert Abramson.
In 2010 Leonid Parfyonov produced a documentary film "Zvorykin-Muromets" about Zworykin.
Zworykin is listed in the Russian-American Chamber of Fame of Congress of Russian Americans, which is dedicated to Russian immigrants who made outstanding contributions to American science or culture.
See also
List of people known as "father" or "mother" of something
John Logie Baird
Kalman Tihanyi
References
Further reading
Albert Abramson (1987) The History of Television 1880 to 1941, Jefferson: McFarland.
Albert Abramson (2003)Die Geschichte des Fernsehens 1880 bis 1941, München, Fink Verlag.
Albert Abramson (1995) Zworykin, Pioneer of Television, University of Illinois Press, Champaign.
Fritz Schröter (1932) Handbuch der Bildtelegraphie und des Fernsehens, Berlin: Julius Springer.
Fritz Schröter (1937) Fernsehen. Die neueste Entwicklung insbesondere der deutschen Fernsehtechnik, Berlin: Julius Springer.
Walter Bruch (1967) Kleine geschichte des deutschen Fernsehens, Berlin: Hande & Spender.
The Farnsworth Invention: Fact -v- Fiction
Compilation of biographies of Vladimir Zworykin- including photographs and bibliography, compiled by Prof. Eugenii Katz of The Hebrew University.
(Russian) Vasin A.N., Velembovskaya K.M. Pages of the Biography of the "Father of TV" V.K. Zworykin (1888-1982) magazine "Modern and Contemporary History", Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, 2009,№5
Awards of Vladimir K. Zworykin
External links
Vladimir K. Zworykin papers at Hagley Museum and Library
Videos
Zworykin interviewed in The Story of Television in the Internet Archive
1888 births
1982 deaths
People from Murom
White Russian emigrants to the United States
American people of Russian descent
Russian inventors
Russian electrical engineers
20th-century American inventors
American electrical engineers
Television pioneers
National Medal of Science laureates
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
IEEE Edison Medal recipients
History of television
Discovery and invention controversies
Swanson School of Engineering alumni
Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology alumni
Howard N. Potts Medal recipients
IEEE Lamme Medal recipients
People from Princeton, New Jersey | [
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239420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson%20College%2C%20Cambridge | Robinson College, Cambridge | Robinson College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. Founded in 1977, Robinson is one of the newest Oxbridge colleges and is unique in having been intended, from its inception, for both undergraduate and graduate students of both sexes.
Despite this, it retains many of the same traditions and institutions of other Cambridge colleges, including formal hall, Latin grace, a chapel and porters' lodge. It was founded through a significant donation from the 20th century British businessman and philanthropist, Sir David Robinson. The college was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1981 with both undergraduate and graduate students in attendance.
History
The college was founded after the British philanthropist Sir David Robinson offered the university £17 million to establish a new college in Cambridge; this is one of the largest donations ever accepted by the university. Robinson later gave his college another £1 million on the occasion of its official opening. The first graduate students and fellows joined the college in 1977. Undergraduates (20 of them) were first admitted in 1979, but significant numbers only began arriving the following year. The college was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II in May 1981.
Despite maintaining many Cambridge traditions, such as Formal Hall, the college avoids others: for example, it is one of the few colleges that allows its students to walk on the grass in the college gardens. Robinson tends to be perceived as slightly less formal and traditional than other Cambridge colleges.
The arms of the college are described as follows: 'Azure in base two Bars wavy Argent over all a Pegasus rampant Or gorged with a Crown rayonny Gules.'
College grace
The Latin grace is read before the start of formal hall.
Lord, bless us and your gifts, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.
Buildings and grounds
Designed by the Scottish architectural firm Gillespie, Kidd & Coia, Robinson's main buildings are distinctive for the use of handmade red bricks in their construction. In November 2008, the college was included in the "50 most inspiring buildings in Britain" by The Daily Telegraph. Of particular note is the chapel, which contains stained-glass windows designed by John Piper and houses a world-renowned Frobenius organ. The oak-panelled dining hall seats 300 for formal dining and the library is remarkable for its use of woodwork, for which it was awarded the Carpenter’s Award for 1981.
The college is located a ten-minute walk west of the city centre, behind the University Library, near the science buildings in West Cambridge and the arts faculties on the university's Sidgwick Site. It stands on a wooded site noted for its historical and horticultural interest. The College Gardens are a fusion of 10 pre-existing gardens which date back to late Victorian and Early Edwardian times and are crossed by the Bin Brook stream, which once supplied water to the Medieval Hospital of St John (now St John's College).
Within its grounds are Thorneycreek House and Cottage (built in 1895), the Crausaz Wordsworth Building and the Maria Björnson outdoor theatre. Robinson owns a number of houses on Adams Road and Sylvester Road adjoining the main college site, which it uses for student accommodation.
The main entrance to the college is via a drawbridge-like ramp which is accessible to wheelchair users, and there are also some special facilities for those with physical or visual disabilities.
The Needham Research Institute is also located within the college grounds.
Conferences
As one of Cambridge's most important conference centres, Robinson hosts a number of conferences during the summer vacation when the undergraduate students are absent.
Student life
Students of the college are represented by the Robinson College Students' Association, or RCSA, headed by a President, with members of the college elected into positions on the RCSA committee every year. Politically, Robinson is generally seen as liberal. Robinson has supplied a large number of Green Officers to the Cambridge University Students' Union in recent years and in 2008 was judged the most environmentally friendly college in Cambridge.
Like other colleges, Robinson provides its students with recreational facilities such as a JCR, MCR, TV room, art room, café and bar. As a result of its other role as a conference centre, the college is equipped with two auditoria that are available for student use during term; the smaller one being frequently used by the college's film society and the larger by the "Brickhouse Theatre Company" (dramatic society). There is also a purpose-built party room ("The Bassment"), dedicated to hosting weekly college "bops" and other entertainment. Musical talents are catered for by a music room, CD library and chapel.
There are also several sports teams, covering most major sports: everything from water polo and cricket to rowing and rugby union. Robinson has become very successful in hockey, winning the Cambridge colleges league and colleges varsity match against Oriel College, Oxford, in 2009–2010, in addition to becoming mixed cuppers champions by beating Churchill College, Cambridge.
Gallery
Notable people
Alumni
Joe Ansbro, Scottish international rugby union player
Morwenna Banks, actress
Joey Batey, actor
Matt Brittin, Vice-president at Google
Nick Clegg, former Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and former Leader of the Liberal Democrats
Adrian Davies, Welsh international rugby union player
Mauro Galetti, Brazilian ecologist
Greg Hands, politician, former Chief Secretary to the Treasury
Charles Hart, songwriter and musician
Marko Attila Hoare, historian
Konnie Huq, television presenter
Rebecca John, television presenter and journalist
Tim Lenton, climate scientist
Anthony Lowe, chief executive officer at Prostate Cancer Foundation of Australia
Tim Luckhurst, journalist and former editor of The Scotsman
Sarah MacDonald, former Organ Scholar and first female Director of Music in an Oxbridge College (Selwyn College)
Toby Marlow, co-writer of the West End musical Six, about Henry VIII's wives.
Saul Metzstein, film director, and son of Robinson College architect Isi Metzstein
Neil Mullarkey, comedian, writer
Marie Phillips, author
Kate Pickett, epidemiologist
John Pritchard, Olympic and World rowing medallist
Marc Quinn, artist
Anita Sethi, journalist and writer
Justine Thornton, barrister and wife of the former Leader of the Opposition Ed Miliband
Robert Webb, comedian, writer
Andy White, musician and poet
Adrian Li, banking
Sam Wallace, journalist
Fellows
G. E. Berrios, neuropsychiatry and epistemology of psychiatry
Myles Burnyeat, ancient philosopher (honorary fellow)
Dame Athene Donald, Deputy Head of the Cavendish Laboratory
Albrecht Fröhlich FRS, mathematician
Morna Hooker, Emerita Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity and first female holder of the Cambridge DD
Peter Kornicki FBA, East Asian Studies
Alan Mycroft, computer scientist, co-author of the ARM chip's Norcroft C compiler and trustee of the Raspberry Pi Foundation
Julie Smith, Baroness Smith of Newnham, Politics and International Studies, member of the House of Lords
Jeremy Thurlow, composer
Martin Dixon, law
In addition, the writer Valerie Grosvenor Myer, although not formally a Fellow, supervised English students at Robinson in the 1980s.
List of Wardens
Jack Lewis, Baron Lewis of Newnham (1977 to 2001)
David Yates (2001 to 2021)
Richard Heaton (from 1 October 2021)
See also
List of organ scholars
References
External links
Robinson College official website
Robinson College Students' Association
Robinson College MCR (Graduate Society)
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
Educational institutions established in 1977
1977 establishments in England | [
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|
239423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reek | Reek | Reek may refer to:
Places
Reek, Netherlands, a village in the Dutch province of North Brabant
Croagh Patrick, a mountain in the west of Ireland nicknamed "The Reek"
People
Nikolai Reek (1890-1942), Estonian military commander
Salme Reek (1907-1996), Estonian actress
Reek da Villian, American rapper
Walter Reek (1878–1933), German politician
Fictional characters
Reek (fictional creature), a fictional creature in the Star Wars universe
Reek, name given to Theon Greyjoy by Ramsay Bolton in A Song of Ice and Fire
Other uses
Reek, to emit an unpleasant odor
Estonian-language surnames | [
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|
239424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stink | Stink | Stink most commonly refers to unpleasant odor.
The term may also refer to:
Stink (EP), an EP by The Replacements
Flatulence, sometimes called a stink
Stink bomb, a device to create an unpleasant smell
Stink bug, a type of insect
Stink pipe, a slang term for part of a Drain-waste-vent system
Stink!, a 2015 documentary film
Stink, a character from the 1991 version of Land of the Lost
See also
Stinker (disambiguation)
Stinking (disambiguation)
Stinky (disambiguation) | [
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]
|
239427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20of%20handgun%20and%20rifle%20cartridges | Table of handgun and rifle cartridges | This is a table of selected pistol/submachine gun and rifle/machine gun cartridges by common name. Data values are the highest found for the cartridge, and might not occur in the same load (e.g. the highest muzzle energy might not be in the same load as the highest muzzle velocity, since the bullet weights can differ between loads).
Legend
Factory loadings. Number of manufacturers currently producing complete cartridges - e.g. Norma, RWS, Hornady, Winchester, Federal, Remington, Sellier & Bellot, Prvi Partizan. May be none for obsolete and wildcat cartridges.
H/R: Handgun (H) or rifle (R) - dominant usage of the cartridge (although several dual-purpose cartridges exist)
Size: Metric size - may not be official
MV: Muzzle velocity, in feet-per-second
ME: Muzzle energy, in foot-pounds
P: Momentum, in pound (force) (lbf) times seconds. A guide to the recoil from the cartridge, and an indicator of bullet penetration potential. The .30-06 Springfield (at 2.064 lbf-s) is considered the upper limit for tolerable recoil for inexperienced rifle shooters.
Chg: Propellant charge, in grains
Dia: Bullet diameter, in inches
BC: Ballistic coefficient, G1 model
L: Case length (mm)
See also
Firearm
History of the firearm
Physics of firearms
Terminal ballistics
External ballistics
Internal ballistics
Stopping power
Hydrostatic shock
Point-blank range
List of service rifles of national armies
References
External links
Terminal Ballistics Research: Detailed history and terminal performance discussion for numerous hunting cartridges, organized by bullet diameter.
Cartridges pistol and rifle
handgun and rifle | [
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239428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge%20University%20Library | Cambridge University Library | Cambridge University Library is the main research library of the University of Cambridge. It is the largest of the over 100 libraries within the University. The Library is a major scholarly resource for the members of the University of Cambridge and external researchers. It is often referred to within the University as the UL. Thirty three faculty and departmental libraries are associated with the University Library for the purpose of central governance and administration, forming "Cambridge University Libraries".
Cambridge University Library is one of the six legal deposit libraries under UK law. The Library holds approximately 9 million items (including maps and sheet music) and, through legal deposit, purchase and donation it receives around 100,000 items every year. The University Library is unique among the legal deposit libraries in keeping a large proportion of its material on open access and in allowing some categories of reader to borrow from its collections.
Its original location was the Old Schools near the Senate House until it outgrew the space there and a new library building was constructed in the 1930s. The library took over the site of a former military hospital on the western side of Cambridge city centre, now between Robinson College and the Memorial Court of Clare College. The current building, designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, opened in 1934. The librarian, Dr Jessica Gardner, is the second woman to hold this office.
History
The first library
By the middle of the fourteenth century, the University of Cambridge owned a collection of books. These would have been kept in chests along with other valuables, rather than in a library building as would be recognised today.
A common university library can be traced to the beginning of the 15th century, with the first direct reference to a 'library'. In March 1416 the will of William Loring was proved, which bequeathed three volumes to the library thus: "Item volo quod omnes libri mei juris civilis remaneant in communi libraria scolarium universitatis Cantebrigg' in perpetuum." In the second decade of the fifteenth century, the library found a home on the newly built Old Schools site.
The earliest catalogue is dated ca. 1424, at which time there were 122 volumes in the library. The second earliest surviving catalogue was drawn up in 1473, and denotes 330 volumes. During the English Reformation, while there doesn't seem to be evidence of very widespread book destruction (like at Oxford), some books were certainly destroyed, and there were very few donations university-wide. King's College received only one bequest between 1528 and 1568. From the 16th century, the library received generous donations or bequests of books and growth was considerably increased once the privilege of legal deposit had been granted.
The library's space was greatly extended with the building of the Cockerell Building on Senate House Passage in 1837–42.
The new library
Following an initiative by A. F. Scholfield (librarian from 1923 to 1949), it was decided to build a larger facility. The site selected comprised the joint cricket field of King's and Clare Colleges. During the First World War, a large part of the site had been requisitioned by the War Office to create the 1st Eastern General Hospital, a facility for the Royal Army Medical Corps to treat military casualties. The hospital had 1,700 beds at its height and treated some 70,000 casualties between 1914 and 1919.
The new University Library building was designed by Giles Gilbert Scott, who also designed the neighbouring Clare Memorial Court (part of Clare College), and was constructed between 1931 and 1934. It is a Grade II listed building. Inside are a number of 17th and 18th century bookcases including the ones designed for the old University Library by James Essex in 1731–34. The funds for the new library were raised by the colleges and private donors. The American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller provided the largest part of the funds for the library's construction. Sensing that it needed a grander entrance, Rockefeller persuaded the architect to add the distinctive front-facing tower. The tower can be seen for several miles around Cambridge.
The building bears a resemblance to Scott's industrial architecture, including Bankside Power Station (now Tate Modern). The library tower stands tall, shorter than the top of St John's College Chapel and taller than the peak of King's College Chapel. Supposedly, in opening the building, Neville Chamberlain referred to it as "this magnificent erection": contrary to popular belief, pornographic material is not stored in the tower.
The library has been extended several times through ground annexes and underground extensions which allowed for new legal deposit documents to be stored. The main building houses the Japanese and Chinese collections in the Aoi Pavilion, an extension donated by Tadao Aoi and opened in 1998.
The University Library has also built a large storage facility in Ely which has more than 100 kilometres of shelving for future legal deposit books and periodicals. Work on a £17.1 million off-site facility to house the growing collection finished in 2018 and provides Cambridge University with one of the largest library storage buildings in the world.
Legal deposit library
Cambridge University Library is one of the six legal deposit libraries under UK law, the others being the British Library, the National Library of Scotland, the National Library of Wales, the Bodleian Libraries, Oxford, and the Library of Trinity College, Dublin. Although the Irish Free State left the UK in 1922, Trinity College Dublin remains a UK deposit library and the UK libraries reciprocally retain deposit rights for Irish publications. As a legal deposit library, the University Library is entitled to claim without charge a copy of all books, journals, printed maps and music published in the United Kingdom and Ireland. This has contributed to the library's large holdings of over seven million books and 1.5 million periodicals. Between 800 and 1200 books a week are received through legal deposit.
From 6 April 2013, legal deposit also covers material published digitally and online, so that the Legal Deposit libraries can provide a national archive of the UK's non-print published material, such as websites, blogs and ejournals. Significant digitisation efforts continue as more manuscripts and early-modern books are acquired and scanned by the University of Cambridge.
Access
The library is open to all members of the University of Cambridge. As is traditional among British university libraries, postgraduates and academics from other UK universities are allowed reference-only access to the library's collection, and members of the public may apply for access to use the Library for reference if their research requires access to materials held there. Students and academics from other libraries and institutions must submit a request to access prior to using the facilities in Cambridge.
The library is unique among the UK's legal deposit libraries in keeping a large proportion of its books on open access and in allowing some categories of reader (for example Cambridge academics, postgraduates and undergraduates) to borrow from its collection. It has a Tea Room in which meals, snacks and beverages are available. The library regularly puts on exhibitions, free to the public, and featuring items from its collections.
Janus
In 2002, the library began a special project termed Janus (after the Roman god) to provide a single point of networked access to catalogues of archives and manuscript collections held throughout Cambridge. This is a major development for the Cambridge Universities Libraries, especially because Cambridge is home to more than 100 libraries and research institutes, each with their own mandate and organisational structure. A widening number of participating repositories, both University and non-University, are working together to provide comprehensive coverage of archives in the city and surrounding area. Janus can be accessed by students and members of university both online and in-person.
Digitisation project
In June 2010, Cambridge University announced that a £1.5 million donation would allow them to start digitising some of the collections in the University Library and eventually provide access to them free of charge over the Internet via the Cambridge Digital Library website. Initially the project will focus on two collections called "The Foundations of Faith" and "The Foundations of Science", which includes writings by Isaac Newton and his contemporaries, as well as documents from the Library's archives of Christian, Islamic and Jewish texts.
Friends of the Cambridge University Library
The Friends of the Cambridge University Library was established by a group of individuals, organisations and private donors who are committed to supporting the growth and development of the library. Members of the Friends regularly raise funds for future construction projects and archival restoration efforts, as well as the acquisition and purchase of rare books or manuscripts. Membership in the group is open to all alumni and members of the public interested in the preservation of knowledge and literature. Special events and tours are organised to recognise the contribution of the membership. The Friends of the Cambridge University Library has raised more than £150,000 through regular and special donations over the past five years.
Staff
The official office of Librarian of the University was not established until 1577, when William James was appointed Librarian. The first set of regulations "for the Office of keeping the Library" were then formed in 1582. Little is known of the administration before the late sixteenth century. Before 1577, the University Chaplain had overall responsibility of the Library among other duties. Sixteen potential Chaplain-Librarians have been identified.
In 1721 the post of Principal Librarian (Protobibliothecarius) was created for Conyers Middleton "as a mark of sympathy with him in his opposition to Richard Bentley". In 1828 this post was merged with that of Librarian (Bibliothecarius).
Various scholars have held the position. Abraham Wheelocke was librarian of the "Public Library" at Cambridge University, and was also Reader in Anglo-Saxon in the 17th century. Augustus Theodore Bartholomew was a librarian at Cambridge University for over twenty-five years. The classicist A. F. Scholfield was Librarian from 1923 to 1949. More recent University Librarians have included E. B. Ceadel, F. W. Ratcliffe (1980–94), Peter Fox (1994–2009) and Anne Jarvis (2009–16). Other notable members of staff include the bibliographer Henry Bradshaw and the Uranian poet Charles Edward Sayle, author of a history of the library.
The current librarian is Jessica Gardner. She joined the library in April 2017, becoming the 36th University Librarian.
Exhibitions
The main University Library hosts exhibitions in its purpose-built Milstein Exhibition Centre. These change approximately every six to eight months and are open to all. Recent exhibitions have highlighted Cambridge's significant collection of documents from the Cairo Genizah, the landscape and geology of the English Fenlands, and the architectural history of the Cambridge University. The exhibitions are sponsored by the Cambridge University Library and are organised by the team of librarians and leading academics in the field. Entry to the exhibitions is always free and open to the general public.
Special collections
As part of its collection of more than 8,000,000 volumes, the library contains a wealth of printed and manuscript material from earlier times. This includes:
A copy of the Gutenberg Bible from 1455, the earliest European example of a book produced using movable type.
Library of Lord Acton, Catholic historian and Regius Professor of Modern History in 1885–1902. The extensive library (around 60 000 volumes) collected by Lord Acton for research was bequeathed to the University Library on his death. The collection contains books from the 15th to 19th centuries, with emphasis on European history and church history. Many of the books contain annotations in Lord Acton's own hand.
An archive of Charles Darwin's correspondence and books from his working library (including copies of his own works). In November 2020, the library announced that two of Darwin's notebooks had been lost, probably stolen, around December 2000.
The Hanson collection, containing important books on navigation and shipbuilding, as well as maritime atlases, some dating from the 16th century.
The Bradshaw collection, containing more than 14 000 books relating to Ireland, printed in Ireland, or written by Irish authors. This is one of the most important collections of its kind in the world. The collection was formed by Henry Bradshaw, d. 1886. At present, the emphasis is on books printed in Ireland before 1850.
The library of the typographer Stanley Morison, who had close links with Cambridge University Press.
"The Royal Library", an important collection of more than 30 000 books assembled by John Moore (1646–1714), Bishop of Ely. The collection was bequeathed to the University Library by George I in 1715, hence the name.
The library of the Royal Commonwealth Society, containing books, periodicals, pamphlets, photographs and manuscripts relating to the British Empire and the Commonwealth.
South Asian, Southeast Asian and Tibetan collections.
The Bible Society library and the library of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK).
The Taylor-Schechter Genizah Collection, a store of 140 000 manuscripts and manuscript fragments, mainly in Hebrew and Arabic, from the Ben Ezra synagogue in Cairo.
Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis, an important codex of the New Testament dating from the fifth century, written both in Greek and Latin. The Greek text is unique, with many interpolations found nowhere else. It was given to the University of Cambridge by the Protestant scholar Theodore Beza, friend and successor of Calvin; hence the name.
Codex Zacynthius, a Greek New Testament codex dated paleographically to the 6th century CE.
The Cambridge Songs (Carmina Cantabrigiensia), a collection of Goliardic medieval Latin poems, preserved on ten leaves of the Codex Cantabrigiensis.
E.G. Browne's collection of around 480 codices in Arabic, Persian and Turkish.
Several composer archives: William Alwyn, Arthur Bliss, Roberto Gerhard, Peter Tranchell.
Papers of Isaac Newton, Lord Kelvin, Ernest Rutherford, George Gabriel Stokes, Joseph Needham, G. E. Moore and Siegfried Sassoon, among others.
Archives of the Royal Greenwich Observatory.
Material and archives of the University of Cambridge, from probates and graces to records of various student societies.
Around 1.5 million maps.
Cultural references
The Cambridge University Library has featured in several films and television programmes, including the Theory of Everything, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, Cloud Atlas and The Man Who Knew Infinity.
The tower of the Library has featured in a number of news programmes and documentaries for reportedly contained Victorian pornography, though this has been disproved.
In the unfinished novel The Dark Tower, attributed to C. S. Lewis, the eponymous tower is a replica of this building.
See also
Libraries of the University of Cambridge
List of University Librarians at the University of Cambridge
Some manuscripts:
Cambridge University Library, Ff. i.27
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 76
References
Bibliography
Alston, R. C. (winter 1989) "Cambridge University Library", in: Research Libraries in OCLC; no. 89, pp. 2-8
Bradshaw, Henry (1889) Collected Papers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Textus
Fox, Peter (ed.) (1998) Cambridge University Library: the Great Collections. Cambridge University Press (Paperback ).
Oates, J. C. T., & McKitterick, D. (1986) Cambridge University Library: a History 2 vols.
Oates, J. C. T. Cambridge University Library: a History; [Vol. 1]: From the beginnings to the Copyright Act of Queen Anne. Cambridge: University Press
McKitterick, David Cambridge University Library: a History; [Vol. 2]: the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Cambridge: University Press
Ratcliffe, F. W. (2007) Books, Books, Just Miles and Miles of Books: across the library counter, 1950–2000. Cambridge: F. W. Ratcliffe (autobiography)
Sayle, Charles (1916) Annals of Cambridge University Library 1278–1900. Cambridge: University Library
Descriptions of collections
Oates, J. C. T. (1954) A Catalogue of the Fifteenth-Century Printed Books in the University Library, Cambridge. Reissued: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Extracts
Reif, Stefan C. (1997) Hebrew Manuscripts at Cambridge University Library: a description and introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Extracts
External links
Cambridge University Library website
Library catalogue search
Cambridge Digital Library
Photographs taken during building
Library
University Library
Grade II listed buildings in Cambridge
Grade II listed library buildings
15th-century establishments in England
Deposit libraries
Library buildings completed in 1934 | [
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|
239431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzi%20Quatro | Suzi Quatro | Susan Kay Quatro (born June 3, 1950) is an American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress. In the 1970s she scored a string of hit singles that found greater success in Europe and Australia than in her homeland, reaching No. 1 in the UK, other European countries and Australia with her singles "Can the Can" (1973) and "Devil Gate Drive" (1974).
Quatro released her self-titled debut album in 1973. Since then, she has released fifteen studio albums, ten compilation albums, and one live album. Her other solo hits include "48 Crash", "Daytona Demon", "The Wild One", and "Your Mama Won't Like Me". Following a recurring role as bass player Leather Tuscadero on the popular American sitcom Happy Days, her duet "Stumblin' In" with Smokie's lead singer Chris Norman reached No. 4 in the US.
Between 1973 and 1980, Quatro was awarded six Bravo Ottos. In 2010, she was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends online Hall of Fame. She is reported to have sold over 50 million records worldwide, and continues to perform live. Quatro's most recent studio album, The Devil in Me, was released in 2021 and saw the collaboration of her son Richard Tuckey who had already taken part in No Control in 2019. Quatro also remains active in radio broadcasting.
Early life and family
Quatro was born and raised in Detroit, Michigan, United States. Her paternal grandfather was an Italian immigrant to the U.S. Her family name of "Quattrocchi" ("four eyes", meaning "bespectacled") was shortened to Quatro. Quatro's family was living in Detroit when she was born. She has three sisters, a brother, and one older half-sister. Her parents fostered several other children while she was growing up. Her father, Art, was a semi-professional musician and worked at General Motors. Her mother, Helen, was Hungarian. In this environment, Quatro grew to be "extrovert but solitary", according to Philip Norman of The Sunday Times, and she only became close to her mother after leaving the U.S. for Britain.
Her sister Arlene is the mother of actress Sherilyn Fenn. Her sister Patti joined Fanny, one of the earliest all-female rock bands to gain national attention. Quatro has a brother, Michael Quatro, who is also a musician.
She was influenced at the age of six by seeing Elvis Presley perform on television. She has said that she had no direct female role models in music, but was inspired by Billie Holiday and liked the dress sense of Mary Weiss of the Shangri-Las "because she wore tight trousers and a waistcoat on top she looked hot".
Quatro received formal training in playing classical piano and percussion—her first instrument was bongos. She taught herself how to play the bass, after her sister asked her to learn it for her first band, the Pleasure Seekers. Her father gave her a 1957 Fender Precision bass guitar in 1964, which she still uses in the studio.
In 1976, Quatro married Len Tuckey. They had two children together (Laura in 1982 and Richard Leonard in 1984) and divorced in 1992.
Career
Early career and the Art Quatro Trio
Quatro played drums or percussion from an early age as part of her father's jazz band, the Art Quatro Trio. Sources vary regarding whether her playing in the band began at the age of seven or eight, and whether the instrument she played was a drum kit or percussion (bongo or congas). Subsequently, she appeared on local television as a go-go dancer in a pop music series.
The Pleasure Seekers and Cradle
In 1964, after seeing a television performance by the Beatles, Quatro's older sister, Patti, had formed an all-female garage rock band called the Pleasure Seekers with two friends. Quatro joined too and assumed the stage name of Suzi Soul; Patti Quatro was known as Patti Pleasure. Suzi would sing and play bass in the band. The band also later featured another sister, Arlene. Many of their performances were in cabaret, where attention was (initially) focused more on their physical looks than their actual music. They sometimes had to wear miniskirts and hair wigs, which Quatro later considered to be necessary evils in the pursuit of success. However, they would become well-known fixtures in the burgeoning Detroit music community.
The Pleasure Seekers recorded three singles and released two of these: "Never Thought You'd Leave Me" / "What a Way to Die" (1966) and "Light of Love" / "Good Kind of Hurt" (1968). The second of these was released by Mercury Records, with whom they briefly had a contract before breaking away due to differences of opinion regarding their future direction. They changed their name to Cradle in late 1969, not long after another Quatro sister, Nancy, had joined the band and Arlene had left following the birth of her child.
Work with Mickie Most
Quatro moved to England in 1971, after being spotted by the record producer Mickie Most, who had by that time founded his own label, Rak Records. Most had been persuaded to see Cradle by Michael, the brother of the Quatro sisters who had assumed a managerial role for the band. In common with many in the record industry at the time, Most was seeking a female rock singer who could fill the void that the death of Janis Joplin had created. According to the Encyclopedia of Popular Music, his attention to Quatro was drawn by "her comeliness and skills as bass guitarist, singer and chief show-off in Cradle."
She had also been attracting attention from Elektra Records and subsequently explained that "According to the Elektra president, I could become the new Janis Joplin. Mickie Most offered to take me to England and make me the first Suzi Quatro – I didn't want to be the new anybody." Most had no interest in the other band members and he had no idea at that time of how he might market Quatro. She spent a year living in a hotel while being nurtured by Most, developing her skills and maturing. Most later said that the outcome was a reflection of her own personality.
Quatro's first single, "Rolling Stone", was successful only in Portugal, where it reached No. 1 on the charts. This was a solo effort, although aided by people such as Duncan Browne, Peter Frampton and Alan White. Subsequently, with the approval of Most, she auditioned for a band to accompany her. It was also after this record that Most introduced her to the songwriting and production team of Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman, who wrote songs specifically to accord with her image. She agreed with Most's assessment of her image, saying that his influence, at which some of his artists such as Jeff Beck and Rod Stewart balked, did not extend to manufacture and that "If he tried to build me into a Lulu, I wouldn't have it. I'd say 'go to hell' and walk out." This was the height of the glam rock period of the 1970s and Quatro, who wore leather clothes, portrayed a wild androgynous image while playing music that "hinged mostly on a hard rock chug beneath lyrics in which scansion overruled meaning."
In 1972, Quatro embarked as a support act on a UK tour with Thin Lizzy and headliners Slade. Rak Records arranged for her to use Thin Lizzy's newly acquired PA system during this, incurring a charge of £300 per week that enabled the Irish band to effectively purchase it at no cost to themselves. In May 1973, her second single "Can the Can" (1973) which Philip Auslander describes as having "seemingly nonsensical and virtually unintelligible lyrics" was a No. 1 hit in parts of Europe and in Australia.
"Can the Can" was followed by three further hits: "48 Crash" (1973), "Daytona Demon" (1973) and "Devil Gate Drive" (1974). "Can the Can", "48 Crash" and "Devil Gate Drive" each sold over one million copies and were awarded gold discs, although they met with little success in her native United States, where she had toured as a support act for Alice Cooper. Rak Records' artists had generally not succeeded in the US and her first album, Suzi Quatro, was criticised by Alan Betrock for its lack of variety, for its Quatro-written "second-rate fillers" and for her voice, described as "often too high and shrill, lacking punch or distinctive phrasing." Writing for Rolling Stone, Greg Shaw was also downbeat, saying that the album "may be a necessary beginning".
In 1973, Quatro played on the Cozy Powell hit "Dance With the Devil", a track written by Mickie Most while Cozy Powell was part of the Rak Records roster.
Musicians who acted as her backing band around this period included Alastair McKenzie, Dave Neal and Len Tuckey, with Robbie Blunt also being listed by some sources. Tuckey's brother, Bill, acted as tour manager.
With the exception of Australia, her chart success faltered thereafter, as proven with her 1975 hit "Your Mamma Won't Like Me", which proved to be a moderate success in the UK. Further singles "I Bit off More Than I Could Chew" and "I May Be Too Young", both failed to reach the UK Top 50. Quatro recorded the album Aggro-Phobia in 1976 and released a new single in 1977 called "Tear Me Apart" which reached the UK Top 30, her first hit to have done so in three years. It would take another year for another big hit, this time with a change to a more mellow style giving Quatro a 1978 single "If You Can't Give Me Love" that became a hit there and in the United Kingdom. Later that year, "Stumblin' In", a duet with Chris Norman of the band Smokie, reached No. 4 in the US. Both tracks were featured on the If You Knew Suzi... album. A year later, Quatro released Suzi ... and Other Four Letter Words, but none of her other work had much US success. This featured the hits "She's in Love with You", which made No. 11 in Britain, "Mama's Boy" (number 34), and "I've Never Been in Love" (number 56).
Mike Chapman and Dreamland records
In 1980, after Quatro's contract with Mickie Most had expired, she signed with Chapman's Dreamland Records.
In the same year, she released the album Rock Hard; both the album and title single went platinum in Australia. Rock Hard was also used in the cult film Times Square and was included on the soundtrack album. The single reached No. 11 in Australia, but only 68 in the UK due to distribution problems. It was clear at this point that the hit single career was beginning to wane. A second single from the Rock Hard album, titled "Lipstick", was released in February 1981, but radio refused to play it as they claimed it sounded too much like Gloria by Them. Suzi Quatro's Greatest Hits, which was released in 1980, peaked at No. 4 in the UK charts, becoming her highest-charting album there.
Independence
After Chapman's Dreamland Records folded in 1981, Quatro was left without a record label.
Her last UK hit for some time was "Heart of Stone" in late 1982. In 1983 another single "Main Attraction" was released. It failed to chart, but did become a moderate airplay hit. She commented in an article for Kerrang! in 1983, after playing a successful show at Reading Festival on August 27, that she did not care about being in the charts, but was more interested in releasing what she wanted to; commenting that she started in 1964, and did not become famous for nine years "I would never accept having my career molded by other people ... I've kept working consistently even though I've not been in the charts." Around this time, Quatro recorded a new album that was shelved until 1997, when it was issued as Unreleased Emotion. Quatro briefly returned to recording for two more singles, "I Go Wild" in 1984, and in 1985 her "Tonight I Could Fall in Love"/"Good Girl (Looking for a Bad Time)" single reached No. 140 in the UK charts. Quatro also collaborated with Bronski Beat and members of the Kinks, Eddie and the Hot Rods and Dr. Feelgood on the Mark Cunningham-produced cover version of David Bowie's "Heroes", released the following year as the 1986 BBC Children in Need single. Quatro also released a cover version of "Wild Thing" in November 1986, as a duet with The Troggs singer Reg Presley. "Can the Can"/"Devil Gate Drive" were re-released in 1987 as a single and reached number 87 in the UK charts. She was also part of the Ferry Aid charity single "Let It Be", which was a UK No. 1, 13 years and 26 days after Quatro's last UK No. 1.
In 1989, Quatro released a prerecorded backing track single "Baby You're a Star", which was released in the UK, though it failed to chart. By the late 80's, it was clear that Quatro's hitmaking days were over, though she still recorded persistently despite lack of chart success. During the 1990s, Quatro released four new albums, though Unreleased Emotion had been recorded several years previously. What Goes Around – Greatest & Latest was released in 1995 and consisted of mainly older hits rerecorded; this proved a success in Denmark. Except for 1999's Free the Butterfly self-help album, it would take a further 11 years for Quatro to release a new album. Back to the Drive in 2006 showed a return to Quatro's harder rock roots, rather than the smoother sounds of her previous albums. Back to the Drive also returned Quatro to the worldwide charts – her first album to do so since 1980s Rock Hard. Back to the Drive also produced a download only single "I'll Walk Through the Fire with You". Quatro released In the Spotlight in 2011 with the lead single, "Whatever Love Is". Quatro marked her 50th anniversary in the music industry with an anthology, Girl from Detroit, in 2014 with two new tracks.
Around 2005, a documentary chronicling Quatro's life, Naked Under Leather, named after a 1975 bootleg album recorded in Japan, directed by a former member of the Runaways, Victory Tischler-Blue, was made, but this has never been released. In February 2006, Quatro released Back to the Drive, produced by Sweet guitarist Andy Scott. The album's title track was written by her former collaborator, Chapman. In March 2007, Quatro released a cover version of the Eagles song "Desperado", followed by the publication of her autobiography, Unzipped. By this time, Quatro had sold 50 million records.
On June 11, 2010, she headlined the 'Girls Night Out' at the Isle of Wight Festival. Quatro was also inducted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends online Hall of Fame in 2010, following an on-line vote.
In August 2011, Quatro released her fifteenth studio album, In the Spotlight (and its single, "Spotlight"). This album is a mixture of new songs written by Mike Chapman and by herself, along with some cover versions. A second single from the album, "Whatever Love Is", was subsequently released. On November 16, 2011, a music video (by Tischler-Blue) for the track "Strict Machine" was released onto the Suzi Quatro Official YouTube channel. The track is a cover of Goldfrapp's "Strict Machine", but Quatro's version contains two lines from "Can the Can", referencing the similarity of the tunes for the two songs.
In April 2013, she performed in America for the first time in over 30 years, at the Detroit Music Awards where she received the Distinguished Lifetime Achievement Award, presented to her by her sister, Patti.
In 2017, Quatro released her sixteenth studio album backed by Andy Scott from Sweet on guitar and Don Powell from Slade on drums.
Acting and radio hosting
Quatro is possibly best known in the United States for her role as the bass player Leather Tuscadero on the television show Happy Days. The show's producer, Garry Marshall, had offered her the role without having an audition after seeing a photograph of her on his daughter's bedroom wall. Toby Mamis, who was acting as her U.S. representative at that time, helped broker the deal and generate enormous media attention to it, elevating Quatro's profile in her home country. Leather was the younger sister of Fonzie's former girlfriend, hot-rod driver Pinky Tuscadero. Leather fronted a rock band joined by principal character Joanie Cunningham. The character returned in other guest roles, including once for a date to a fraternity formal with Ralph Malph. Marshall offered Quatro a Leather Tuscadero spin-off, but she declined the offer, saying she did not want to be typecast.
Other acting roles include a 1982 episode of the British comedy-drama series Minder (called "Dead Men Do Tell Tales") as Nancy, the singer girlfriend of Terry (Dennis Waterman). In 1985, she starred as a mentally disturbed ex-MI5 operative in Dempsey and Makepeace – "Love you to Death". In February 2022 Quatro gave an exclusive interview to Paul Stenning regarding her appearance in both shows.
In 1994, she made a cameo appearance as a nurse in the "Hospital" episode of the comedy Absolutely Fabulous. She also was filmed in the 1990 Clive Barker horror film Nightbreed, but the studio cut out her character. In 2006, Quatro performed the voice of Rio in the Bob the Builder film Built to Be Wild, and appeared in an episode of the second season of Rock School, in Lowestoft. She has also appeared in the episode "The Axeman Cometh" of Midsomer Murders in the role of Mimi Clifton.
Quatro has also performed in theatre. In 1986, she appeared as Annie Oakley in a London production of Annie Get Your Gun and in 1991 she performed the title role in a musical about the life of actress Tallulah Bankhead. Titled Tallulah Who?, this musical was co-written by her and Shirlie Roden, adapted from a book by Willie Rushton. It ran from February 14 to March 9 at Hornchurch, England, where it was billed as "You'll be amazed how Tallulah did it, and to whom and how often!" The show received favourable reviews from the majority of critics.
In more recent times, Quatro has hosted weekly rock and roll programmes on BBC Radio 2. The first one was titled Rockin' with Suzi Q, while her second programme was given the title Wake Up Little Suzi.
Songwriting
She started writing songs alone, then collaborated with other songwriters (such as Len Tuckey, Rhiannon Wolfe, and Shirley Roden), and now once again mainly writes songs alone.
Quatro's early recorded songwriting was deliberately limited to album tracks and the B-sides of singles. She said in late 1973, that "... [the] album tracks are a very different story from [the] singles. The two-minute lo-and-behold commercial single will not come out of my brain, but ain't I gonna worry about it."
She describes creating a new song: "From sitting at my piano in my front room, writing down a title (always first), picking up my bass, figuring out the groove, going back to the piano ... working on the lyrics, playing electric guitar ... and finally I type out the lyrics. Only then is it officially a song. Next it goes down on my tiny 8-track, [with] me playing everything ... this is the version all muso's use to get into the tune ... then into the studio and we go from there."
Personal life
Quatro married her long-time guitarist, Len Tuckey, in 1976. They had two children together (Laura in 1982 and Richard Leonard in 1984) and divorced in 1992. Before 1993, Quatro lived with her two children in a manor house in Essex, England that she and Tuckey bought in 1980.
She married German concert promoter Rainer Haas in 1993. In 2006, her daughter and grandchild moved into the manor house again. Towards the end of 2008, Quatro's children moved out of the house and she temporarily put it up for sale, stating that she had empty nest syndrome. Quatro continues to live in Essex and Hamburg, and sometimes in Detroit.
Since 2011, she has published music videos on YouTube. On March 31, 2012, Quatro broke her right knee and left wrist while boarding an aircraft in Kiev, Ukraine, where she had performed the night before. She had to cancel her appearance at the Detroit Music Awards, where she was to be inducted into the Detroit Hall of Fame along with her sisters, scheduled for April 27. This would have been her first performance in America in over 30 years. Quatro also had to reschedule other concert dates, while some were cancelled altogether.
Attitude
In a 2012 interview, Quatro was asked what she thought she had achieved for female rockers in general. She replied:
In a 1973 interview, Quatro sympathized with many of the opinions voiced by the women's liberation movement while distancing herself from it because she considered that the participants were The interviewer, Charles Shaar Murray, considered her viewpoint to be "... somewhat anomalous, because unless the woman in question happens to be well known, she has no way of letting people hear her unless she unites with other women and then elects a spokesman." He also noted the apparent contradiction that Quatro seemed proud that girls were writing to her saying that they were emulating her look and her attitude. In 1974, Quatro believed that, unlike men, women were burdened with emotional responses and that it was more difficult for them to succeed in the music industry because they are more prone to jealousy and thus female audiences tend not to buy the recordings of female artists.
Her unusually free use of swear words in conversation was often picked upon by interviewers in the 1970s, as have been her diminutive stature and boy-ish nature. In 1974, Philip Norman said that
Awards and honours
In 2020, Quatro was awarded the Icon Award by the Women's International Music Network.
In 2011, Quatro was inducted to the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame.
In October 2016, Quatro received an honorary doctorate in music from Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK along with Dr. Feelgood's Wilko Johnson.
On August 15, 2019, an Australian-made film on the life of Quatro premiered in Melbourne, Victoria. "Suzi Q" is noted as the first official documentary to ever be released about her. It was described by Quatro as a "warts and all" look into her career, focusing on both her successes and challenges faced along the way, particularly as she left her sisters in Detroit to pursue a solo career in London. Quatro stated that she was drawn to having Melbourne-based director Liam Firmager make the film, "Because although he liked my music, he wasn't particularly "A Fan", which meant he was objective, and wouldn't spend all his time telling me how great I am... I like that, he was the right guy for the job".
Bravo Otto
Bravo is the largest magazine for teenagers in German-speaking Europe. Each year, the readers of this magazine select the Bravo Otto award winners.
Quatro has won the following Bravo Otto awards:
1973 Gold for female singer
1974 Gold for female singer
1975 Bronze for female singer
1978 Bronze for female singer
1979 Bronze for female singer
1980 Silver for female singer
Queens of British Pop
In April 2009, BBC TV selected Quatro as one of twelve Queens of British Pop.
Legacy and influence
Views of journalists and reviewers
In August 1974, Simon Frith spotted a problem with the formula that was working outside the US, saying that
In 1983, journalist Tom Hibbert wrote that Quatro may have overstated her role as a leading light among female rock musicians. He said that
Views of scholars
In his 2008 paper Suzi Quatro: A prototype in the archsheology of rock, Frank Oglesbee writes that "The rebellion of rock music was largely a male rebellion; the women—often, in the 1950s and '60s, girls in their teens—in rock usually sang songs as personæ utterly dependent on their macho boyfriends". He describes Quatro as "a female rock pioneer, in some ways the female rock pioneer ... a cornerstone in the archaeology of rock." He said she grew up to become "the first female lead singer and bassist, an electric ax-woman, who sang and played as freely as the males, inspiring other females."
Philip Auslander says that "Although there were many women in rock by the late 1960s, most performed only as singers, a traditionally feminine position in popular music". Though some women (like Quatro herself) played instruments in American all-female garage rock bands, none of these bands achieved more than regional success. So they "did not provide viable templates for women's on-going participation in rock". When Quatro emerged in 1973, "no other prominent female musician worked in rock simultaneously as a singer, instrumentalist, songwriter, and bandleader". Auslander adds that in 2000 Quatro saw herself as "kicking down the male door in rock and roll and proving that a female musician ... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about ... could play as well if not better than the boys".
People and bands influenced by Quatro
Quatro has influenced various female musicians. Musician Tina Weymouth, who played bass guitar in Talking Heads and Tom Tom Club, among other bands, first learned to play bass by listening to Quatro albums.
Quatro had a direct influence on the Runaways and Joan Jett, as well as Girlschool and Chrissie Hynde. Musician Kathy Valentine, best known for her work as bass player for The Go-Go's, cited Quatro as a major influence in her 2020 autobiography All I Ever Wanted.
Mid-1990s American indie rock band Tuscadero was named after Quatro's Happy Days character Leather Tuscadero, and their song "Leather Idol", from their 1994 album The Pink Album, was an ode to both Quatro and her TV character.
On the cover of Scottish singer-songwriter KT Tunstall's 2007 album Drastic Fantastic, Tunstall is dressed like Quatro, as a deliberate homage.
On October 24, 2013, Quatro received the Woman of Valor Award from the organization Musicians for Equal Opportunities for Women (MEOW) for her role inspiring and influencing generations of female musicians. The award was bestowed by Kathy Valentine (formerly of The Go-Go's) at a dinner in her honour in Austin, Texas, at the Austin Renaissance Hotel. Quatro performed five songs with a local band that included her sister Patti and Tony Scalzo of the band Fastball on "Stumblin In".
Musical style
Quatro's music covers several genres. Her primary genres are hard rock and glam rock. Academic Philip Auslander wrote that "she has appeared on occasion just as a bass player, not a singer, and [also] demonstrates her instrumental prowess with an extended bass guitar solo during her own concerts."
With the Pleasure Seekers, their musical styles and genres included power pop, garage rock and Motown. Quatro also performs musicals.
Discography
Suzi Quatro (1973)
Quatro (1974)
Your Mamma Won't Like Me (1975)
Aggro-Phobia (1976)
If You Knew Suzi... (1978)
Suzi ... and Other Four Letter Words (1979)
Rock Hard (1980)
Main Attraction (1982)
Annie Get Your Gun – 1986 London Cast (1986)
Oh, Suzi Q. (1990)
What Goes Around – Greatest & Latest (1995)
Unreleased Emotion (1998)
Free the Butterfly (1999)
Back to the Drive (2006)
In the Spotlight (2011)
Quatro, Scott & Powell (2017)
No Control (2019)
The Devil in Me (2021)
List of songs
see: List of songs by Suzi Quatro
Filmography
Television
Acting
Happy Days (seven episodes, 1977–1979)
Minder (one episode, [series 3 episode 1] 1982)
Dempsey and Makepeace (one episode, 1985)
Absolutely Fabulous (one episode, 1994)
Midsomer Murders (one episode, 2007)
Guest appearances
Countdown (six episodes, 1997)
Never Mind the Buzzcocks (4 episodes, 1999 – 2006)
Rock School (one episode on series two, 2006)
Trust Me – I'm a Beauty Therapist (in October 2006)
Australian Idol (one episode as guest judge, 2009)
RocKwiz (one episode as performer and quiz contestant, 2011)
Spicks and Specks (one episode as quiz contestant, 2014)
Cinema
Bob the Builder – Built to Be Wild (voice of Rio Rogers, 2002)
Suzi Q (Herself) 2019 Palstar Entertainment (directed by Liam Firmager)
See also
Disco (Quatro is in eleven episodes plus two retrospections of this German TV programme)
List of female rock singers
Honorific nicknames in popular music
Women in music
References
Notes
Citations
External links
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
American expatriates in England
American people of Italian descent
American people of Hungarian descent
American pop rock singers
American radio personalities
American rock bass guitarists
American rock songwriters
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Bell Records artists
Women bass guitarists
Women rock singers
Living people
Rak Records artists
Arista Records artists
RSO Records artists
Chrysalis Records artists
Glam rock musicians
Singers from Detroit
Guitarists from Detroit
American hard rock musicians
20th-century American women singers
20th-century American bass guitarists
21st-century American women singers
Cherry Red Records artists
1950 births
Singer-songwriters from Michigan | [
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|
239433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20History%20Man | The History Man | Bradbury's best known novel, The History Man, a campus novel published in 1975, is a dark satire of academic life in the "glass and steel" universities – the British universities established in the 1960s which followed their "redbrick" predecessors. In 1981 the book was made into a successful BBC television serial.
Plot introduction
Howard Kirk is a lecturer in sociology at the local university. He is a "theoretician of sociability". The Kirks are trendy leftist people, but living together for many years and the advance of middle age have left unfavourable traces in their relationship. It is Barbara Kirk who notices this change, whereas Howard is as enthusiastic and self-assured as always. Officially, the Kirks oppose traditional gender roles just as fiercely as the exploitation of humans by other humans. Nevertheless, practices have crept into their lives, which do not live up to such high standards: Howard writes books, while Barbara—stranded with much of the housework and two little children—would like to but never gets round to doing it. Any female student who comes to live with—rather than work for—them is made to babysit and perform domestic chores.
Plot summary
When Howard and Barbara meet in their third year at the University of Leeds, Howard is still a virgin. They are both religious and working-class, and during their student years cannot afford more than the bare necessities of life. A few years after their graduation, in the summer of 1963, the "old Kirks", already a married couple living in a small bedsit, metamorphose into the "new Kirks" when one day, while Howard is at the university where he has a job as a lecturer, Barbara has spontaneous casual sex with an Egyptian student. This fling triggers a series of events. When he has got over the shock, Howard begins to associate with all kinds of radical people. The Kirks make many new friends. They smoke pot at parties, Barbara develops a new interest in health food and astrology, Howard grows a beard and they both start having "small affairs". When Barbara gets pregnant, rather than cancelling his class, Howard takes his students to the clinic to watch his wife giving birth. Finally, in 1967, he is appointed lecturer at Watermouth and right from the start he is intent on radicalising that bourgeois town, especially the newly founded university, an institution that he describes as 'a place I can work against'.
The novel chronicles a term in the lives of Howard and Barbara Kirk. Howard's zero tolerance concerning non-Marxist, especially conservative, thinking makes him persecute one of the male participants of his seminar who wears a university blazer and a tie (which make him look like a student out of the 1950s) and insists on being allowed to present his paper in the traditional, formal way, without being interrupted and without having to answer questions before he has finished his train of thought. In front of the others Howard calls him a "heavy, anal type" and what he has prepared for class "an anal, repressed paper", without considering his own apparent hypocrisy any further. In the end he succeeds in having the student, a "historical irrelevance", expelled from the university.
Whereas Howard selects his many sexual partners from among the people who work at the university (students as well as faculty members) on Saturday mornings, Barbara Kirk regularly goes on "shopping trips" to London to visit the same young man. What is more, the Kirks consider the parties they throw in their house a success if at least some of their guests have sex in the many rooms they provide for that. At one point in the novel, Howard's promiscuity gets him into trouble when he is told that he might be sacked for "gross moral turpitude" (which he defines to a female student of his as "raping large numbers of nuns") but he shrugs off this accusation as being based on "a very vague concept, especially these days".
A number of supporting characters round off the vivid picture of the permissive society of the early 1970s. There is Henry Beamish, one of Howard's colleagues whose childless middle-class marriage to Myra has been largely unhappy. There is Dr. Macintosh, a sociologist from Howard's department who, despite his pregnant wife, can be convinced by Howard that having sex with one of his students during the end-of-term party is the right thing to do. Also, there is Flora Beniform, a social psychologist with rather unconventional research methods: she sleeps with men in whom she is professionally interested to elicit information from them.
At the end of the novel Howard and Barbara are still together and all their friends admire their stable yet "advanced" marriage. Howard has even further metamorphosed into "the radical hero" who is "generating the onward march of mind, the onward process of history". According to his philosophy, things, especially those he likes, are bound to happen: this is called "historical inevitability". The trajectory of the Kirks' life together ends when Barbara attempts suicide during a party.
Critical discussion
Lodge, David (1992) "Staying on the Surface", pp. 117–120 in his The Art of Fiction (Penguin).
In his collection of short literary commentaries, Where was Rebecca Shot? by John Sutherland
TV adaptation
A four-part adaptation of The History Man was broadcast by the BBC in 1981. It starred Antony Sher as Howard Kirk and Geraldine James as his wife Barbara; Isla Blair played Flora Beniform. Exteriors for the series were shot at the University of Lancaster and in Bristol. At the end, there is a caption stating that in the 1979 general election Howard Kirk voted Conservative.
See also
School and university in literature
David Lodge's novels, in particular The British Museum Is Falling Down and How Far Can You Go?
David Mamet's play Oleanna, where roles are reversed.
Philip Larkin's poem "Annus Mirabilis" (Year of Wonder)
References
Adultery in novels
1975 British novels
English novels
Novels by Malcolm Bradbury
Campus novels
Fiction set in 1972
Secker & Warburg books
Television series based on novels | [
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239435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Sweat | Keith Sweat | Keith Douglas Sweat (born July 22, 1961) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and an early figure in the new jack swing musical movement. He is known for his collection of hits including "I Want Her", "Make It Last Forever", "I'll Give All My Love to You", "Make You Sweat", "Get Up on It", "Twisted" and "Nobody". He has released 13 solo albums and 2 as a part of the R&B supergroup LSG, and discovered the groups Silk and Kut Klose.
Early life
Keith Sweat was born in Harlem, New York City, to Juanita Thompson, a hairdresser, and Charles Sweat, a factory worker. Juanita raised their five children alone after Charles Sweat's death in 1973.
He worked as a night stock boy at Macy's Department Store, and then a mail room clerk at Paine Webber, a brokerage firm. In just four years he worked his way up to a lucrative brokerage assistant job on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange. Sweat also worked as a supervisor for the New York Mercantile Exchange.
Career
1975–1984: Career beginnings with Jamilah
Sweat started his musical career as a member of a Harlem band called Jamilah in 1975. With the help of Jamilah, Sweat was able to hone his craft as a lead singer by performing regionally throughout the tri-State area of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. The group was started by bassist Larry Peoples, guitarist Michael Samuels, and drummer Walter Bradley.
After leaving the group in 1984 to begin a solo career, he sang at nightclubs throughout New York City and landed a chance to record for the independent label, Stadium Records. Sweat recorded only two tunes for Stadium, "Lucky Seven", and "My Mind Is Made Up", which was their third and fourth ever release, but on Stadium's first release, he is credited as co-writer and co-producer of "You Are the One for Me", the last recording ever made by the group GQ. One of GQ's original members is his uncle, Keith "Sabu" Crier.
1987–1991: Make It Last Forever, I'll Give All My Love to You, and Keep It Comin
Later in 1987, Keith Sweat was discovered by Vincent Davis and offered a recording contract with his label, Vintertainment Records, which was founded in 1983 on the foundations of early Hip-Hop and otherwise best known for releasing Joeski Love's "Pee Wee's Dance" in 1985. Vintertainment was distributed by Elektra Records from 1985 until it ceased operations in 1990. On November 24, 1987, Sweat released his debut solo studio album Make It Last Forever, which sold three million copies. The biggest hit from this album was the song that inaugurated the new jack swing era "I Want Her"(#1 R&B/#5 Pop), which was nominated for the 1989 Soul Train Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Song of the Year award, while the title track from the album hit No. 2 on the R&B charts. Sweat reached the charts again with his second album I'll Give All My Love to You (1990) which hit No. 6 on the Billboard 200 chart. He released his third album, Keep It Comin' in 1991, which debuted in the top 20 of the album chart. He produced soul singer Omar Chandler.
1992–2001: Get Up on It, Keith Sweat/LSG
In 1992, Sweat discovered the group Silk, and helped craft their debut album, Lose Control, which hit No. 7 on the Billboard 200 album chart.
The album's single "Freak Me" hit No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 on May 1, 1993. In 1993, Sweat discovered the Atlanta-based female R&B group Kut Klose. Sweat also produced the group's debut album Surrender, which produced their biggest hit single "I Like", peaking to No. 8 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart.
Sweat released his fourth album Get Up on It in the summer of 1994, and his self-titled fifth album in 1996. Both albums reached the top ten on the Billboard 200. The single co/produced and written by Eric McCaine "Twisted" featuring R&B group Kut Klose hit No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "Nobody" hit No. 3, which made them Sweat's biggest hits to date. "Just A Touch" was a cover of the 1979 song "Just a Touch of Love" by Slave. He produced R&B group Dru Hill in 1996.
In the fall of 1997, Sweat discovered the group Ol' Skool and helped with their self-titled debut. He was on their biggest single, "Am I Dreaming", which featured the R&B group Xscape. Sweat also formed the R&B supergroup LSG with Gerald Levert and Johnny Gill, and released their self-titled debut album Levert.Sweat.Gill in 1997. That album featured "My Body", which became a hit single. The album was certified double platinum and reached No. 4 on the U.S. Billboard 200.
Sweat's sixth album, Still in the Game was released in 1998, hitting No. 6 on the Billboard 200, and No. 2 on the R&B/Hip Hop albums chart. It featured the singles "Come and Get With Me" (which featured Snoop Dogg) (#12 Hot 100) and "I'm Not Ready" (#16 Hot 100). Sweat's success on the charts started to diminish in 2000, when he released the album Didn't See Me Coming. None of the singles from the album reached the top forty.
2002–present: Rebirth, Just Me, Ridin Solo, and Til the Morning
On August 13, 2002, Keith Sweat released his eighth album, Rebirth. The single "One on One" reached No. 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 44 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart.His 2008 album Just Me included the single, "Love U Better (featuring Keyshia Cole)". Sweat is currently signed to Kedar Records and released his tenth studio album entitled Ridin' Solo on June 22, 2010. The lead single taken from the album is "Test Drive" and featured label-mate Joe. Since 2007, Sweat has been the host of a nationally syndicated radio program based upon the Quiet storm format. The Keith Sweat Hotel (known as The Quiet Storm with Keith Sweat on WBLS in New York City) is syndicated through Premiere Radio Networks.
"The Sweat Hotel" radio show
Sweat is the host of a nationally syndicated radio show "The Sweat Hotel". It is produced and distributed to urban adult contemporary and classic soul radio stations across the U.S. by Premiere Networks, a subsidiary of iHeartMedia, Inc.
Sweat plays popular R&B hits, interviews other R&B stars, and talks about his life as a singer and performer. Some radio stations carrying the show include 102.7 WVAZ Chicago, 105.3 WDAS-FM Philadelphia, 92.3 WMXD Detroit, 101.1 KJMS Memphis, 104.5 K283CH Houston, and 98.5 WYLD-FM New Orleans. The show airs five nights a week, although Sweat prerecords most segments of the show to allow him to tour and work on his recording career at the same time. Sweat began hosting the show in 2008.
Personal life
From 1992 until 2002, Sweat was married to The Real Housewives of Atlanta star Lisa Wu Hartwell. With her, he had two sons, born in 1995 and 1998.
He also has three daughters, one with Tracy J. He also has a son named Joshua.
Discography
Studio albums
Make It Last Forever (1987)
I'll Give All My Love to You (1990)
Keep It Comin' (1991)
Get Up on It (1994)
Keith Sweat (1996)
Still in the Game (1998)
Didn't See Me Coming (2000)
Rebirth (2002)
Just Me (2008)
Ridin' Solo (2010)
Til the Morning (2011)
Dress to Impress (2016)
Playing for Keeps (2018)
Collaboration albums
Levert.Sweat.Gill (1997)
LSG2 (2003)
Awards and nominations
American Music Awards
1991, Favorite R&B/Soul Male Artist (nominated)
1997, Favorite Male R&B/Soul Artist (winner)
1997, Favorite R&B/Soul Album: Keith Sweat (nominated)
1998, Favorite Male R&B/Soul Artist (nominated)
2013, Soultrain Lifetime Achievement Award
References
External links
Keith Sweat artist page at VH1.com
[ Keith Sweat] artist page at AllMusic
Keith Sweat's 'SoulRnB.com' group (videos, photos, discussions, etc.)
Keith Sweat 2010 Audio Interview at Soulinterviews.com
1961 births
African-American record producers
Record producers from New York (state)
Singers from New York City
American soul musicians
Living people
Musicians from Atlanta
People from Harlem
American hip hop singers
Atco Records artists
Songwriters from New York (state)
American contemporary R&B singers
LSG (band) members
African-American male songwriters
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers | [
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239439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant%20leadership | Servant leadership | Servant leadership is a leadership philosophy in which the goal of the leader is to serve. This is different from traditional leadership where the leader's main focus is the thriving of their company or organization. A servant leader shares power, puts the needs of the employees first and helps people develop and perform as highly as possible. Instead of the people working to serve the leader, the leader exists to serve the people. As stated by its founder, Robert K. Greenleaf, a Servant Leader should be focused on, "Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?" When leaders shift their mindset and serve first, they benefit as well as their employees in that their employees acquire personal growth, while the organization grows as well due to the employees growing commitment and engagement. Since this leadership style came about, a number of different organizations have adopted this style as their way of leadership.
According to a 2002 study done by Sen Sendjaya and James C Sarros, servant leadership is being practiced in some of the top-ranking companies, and these companies are highly ranked because of their leadership style and following. Further research also confirms that servant leaders lead others to go beyond the call of duty.
Since the turn of the century, servant leadership has been popularized in software development through the Scrum and Agile management methodologies.
History
Before the modern fad for the concept of "leadership" emerged, the autocratic enlightened absolutist King Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia () famously portrayed himself as "the first servant of the state".
Robert K. Greenleaf first popularized the phrase "servant leadership" in "The Servant as Leader", an essay published in 1970. In this essay, Greenleaf explains how and why he came up with the idea of servant leadership, as well as defining a servant leader. Greenleaf gave this idea an extensive amount of thought before bringing it to life. Larry Spears, CEO of the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, stated in an interview:
"Greenleaf credited his reading of Hesse's 1932 book, Journey to the East, as the personal source of inspiration in his coining the term, 'servant-leader' in his 1970 essay, The Servant as Leader."
In Journey to the East, the main character, named Leo, is a servant just like all the others. All the servants work well together, until one day when Leo disappears. When the servants realize that things aren't the same without Leo, they came to the realization that Leo was far more than a servant – he was actually their leader.
Greenleaf came to the realization that a newfound leader should be someone that servants or workers can relate to. Leo was seen as a servant, but when the other servants realized that things fell apart without him, he became far more than just a servant to them. This is Greenleaf's idea of what a servant leader should be. Greenleaf first put his idea of servant leadership to use in an organizational sense while he was working as an executive at AT&T.
Servant leadership entered the arena of research in 1998 with the publication of the first peer-reviewed servant leadership scale, and since then, over 270 peer reviewed articles have been published across 122 academic journals. The year 2008 was a significant year in servant leadership research with the publication of two seminal papers by Sen Sendjaya, James C Sarros, and Joseph C Santora as well as Liden, Wayne, Zhao, and Henderson, and the first publications using Ehrhart's (2004) measure.
Greenleaf's original formulation
The most important characteristic in being a servant leader, according to Greenleaf, is making one's main priority to serve rather than to lead. According to Ginny Boyum, Greenleaf proposed that servant leaders should serve first, make the needs of others their main priority, and find success and "power" in the growth of others; summarily, "A servant can only become a leader if a leader remains a servant". In simpler terms, servant leaders should seek to be servants first, to care for the needs of all others around them, to ensure growth of future leaders. These traits indicate one is a servant leader because, overall, they are causing the ones they serve to become healthier and wiser, guiding others toward self-improvement. Eventually, the served are driven to possess the traits of a servant leader as well, continuing the spread of the leadership style.
Greenleaf believed the betterment of others to be the true intention of a servant leader: "I serve" in opposition of the traditional "I lead" mentality. The "I serve" mentality is evident in politicians who define their role through public service. From the "I serve" mentality come two premises:
I serve because I am the leader, and
I am the leader because I serve
The first premise signifies the act of altruism. Altruism is defined as the belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others. Greenleaf declares that servant leadership begins with the natural feeling of wanting to serve first. The act of leadership is in the context of serving others and to serve others. Only through the act of serving does the leader lead other people to be what they are capable of. The second premise of servant leadership ("I am the leader because I serve") begins with a rooted ambition to be a leader or personal ambitions of a leader.
Greenleaf's definition left much room for speculation because it lacks specifics. Servant leadership is handled throughout the literature by many different dimensions. Servant leadership represents a model of leadership that is both inspirational and contains moral safeguards, and in their paper, Mulyadi Robin and Sen Sendjaya proposes that servant leadership serves as a holistic paradigm for leadership as not only is it transformative and ethical, but also engages followers in workplace spirituality.
Despite several conceptual papers on the topic of servant leadership, there is no consensus on empirical research for the servant-leadership construct until a state-of-the-art review published in 2020 by Nathan Eva, Mulyadi Robin, Sen Sendjaya, Dirk van Dierendonck, and Robert C Liden in the Leadership Quarterly.
Formulations after Greenleaf
Scales and servant leadership extensions
Numerous different researchers and leadership experts have created scales and dimensions to differentiate between the levels of Servant Leadership practices as well as evaluate Servant Leadership behaviors.
One major extension was Larry Spears's 10 characteristics of the Servant Leader. Similar to other leadership experts, Spears believed that Servant Leaders should have these 10 traits: empathy, listening, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people and building community. Leadership experts such as Bolman, Deal, Covey, Fullan, Sergiovanni, and Heifitz also reference these characteristics as essential components of effective leadership.
Likewise, Joe Iarocci, author of Servant Leadership in the Workplace, identifies three key priorities (developing people, building a trusting team, achieving results), three key principles (serve first, persuasion, empowerment) and three key practices (listening, delegating, connecting followers to mission) that distinguish servant leadership in the workplace context.
Researchers Barbuto and Wheeler created a dimension called "the natural desire to serve others," by combining the 10 characteristics of Spears. These researchers developed operational definitions and scales to measure 11 potential characteristics of servant leadership. Factor analyses reduced this scale to five unique dimensions: altruistic calling (four items), emotional healing (four items), wisdom (five items), persuasive mapping (five items), and organizational stewardship (five items). This framework specified the fundamentals to servant leadership and was consistent with Greenleaf's original message. Among these five dimensions, altruistic calling is most aligned with ethics.
There are also researchers such as Russell and Stone who reviewed the literature and proposed nine 'functional' attributes of servant leadership (vision, honesty, integrity, trust, service, modeling, pioneering, appreciation of others, and empowerment) and eleven 'accompanying' attributes (communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, visibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encouragement, teaching, and delegation). They also argued that the servant leader must be a teacher to develop their followers, and that values and core personal beliefs were the antecedents to servant leadership.
Researcher Patterson also developed a more spiritual conceptualization of servant leadership around leader values including: agapé love, humility, altruism, creating 21 visions for followers, being trusting, serving, and empowering their followers. This work was exploratory in nature. No confirmatory analysis was performed, no criterion was posited to establish validity, and convergent/divergent validity was not established.
Sendjaya, Eva, Butar-Butar, Robin and Castles' (2019) 6-item composite of the Servant Leadership Behavior Scale (SLBS-6) which uniquely contributes a spiritual dimension, a distinguishing feature that makes servant leadership a truly holistic leadership approach relative to other positive leadership approaches. The inclusion of spirituality faithfully reflects Greenleaf's (1977) initial, and Graham's (1991) theorizing, that servant leadership relies of spiritual insights and humility as its source of influence.
Thoughts on servant leadership and further definitions
In addition to some early definitions and distinct characteristics of Servant Leaders, researchers and leadership experts have used research to add on to these. James Sipe and Don Frick, in their book The Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership, state that servant-leaders are individuals of character, those who put people first, are skilled communicators, are compassionate collaborators, use foresight, are systems thinkers, and exercise moral authority. Similarly, researcher Akuchie explored the religious and spiritual articulations of the servant leadership construct. Akuchie examined a single Bible passage related to servant leadership, just like the one mentioned in the opening of the essay. Akuchie suggested that the application of this lesson is for daily life. However, Akuchie did not, in any way, clarify servant leadership as distinct from other forms of leadership or articulate a framework for understanding servant leadership.
In their review of the servant leadership literature, Eva, Robin, Sendjaya, van Dierendonk and Liden argued that for research, servant leadership should be defined as "an (1) other-oriented approach to leadership (2) manifested through one-on-one prioritizing of follower individual needs and interests, (3) and outward reorienting of their concern for self towards concern for others within the organization and the larger community."
The authors proposed three key elements that captures the essence of servant leadership and set it apart from other leadership styles - namely the motive (the underlying personal motivation for taking up a leadership responsibility, requiring a strong sense of self, character, and psychological maturity), the mode (that they lead by prioritizing subordinates' needs above the organization's bottom line), and the mindset (that servant leaders are stewards who reorient their followers' focus towards others). In essence, servant leadership comprises the following: (1) someone or something other than the leader, (2) one-on-one interactions between leaders and followers, and (3) an overarching concern towards the wellbeing of the wider organizational stakeholders and the larger community.
Critiques of servant leadership
Various critiques of servant leadership have been made. In one such critique, Sendjaya and Sarros used the same Bible account as Akuchie, and made the claim that Jesus Christ, not Greenleaf, introduced the notion of servant leadership to everyday human endeavor. They argued that this leadership principle was so important to Christianity that it was captured by all four Gospel writers (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John). The researchers argued that servant leaders have a particular view of themselves as stewards who are entrusted to develop and empower followers to reach their fullest potential. However, Sendjaya and Sarros research work did not propose a testable framework nor did this work distinguish between this and other leadership styles.
Feminist scholars have noted that servant leadership is based on patriarchal approaches to leadership, noting that leadership discourse in general is attributed with masculinity. Similarly, Black scholars have pointed out how notions of servants as being subjugated and mistreated is largely absent from servant leadership discourse. Black scholars also note that although Greenleaf attributes his ideas to Herman Hesse, Martin Luther King Jr. preached similar approaches and was a contemporary of Greenleaf in the United States, but King is never mentioned in any of Greenleaf's original works.
Researchers Farling, Stone, and Winston noted the lack of empirical evidence for servant leadership. The researchers presented servant leadership as a hierarchical model in a cyclical process. This consisted of behavioral (vision, service) and relational (influence, credibility, trust) components. However, this conceptualization made by these researchers did not differ from leadership theories such as transformational leadership. Researcher Polleys distinguished servant leadership from three predominant leadership paradigms: The Trait, Behavioral, and Contingency approaches to leadership. Polleys's views aligned with transforming leadership but, once again, made no distinctions among Charismatic, Transformational, and Servant Leadership.
Risks and limitations of servant leadership with regard to ethical questions
In the leadership literature, Servant Leadership is often presented as a particularly ethical leadership style.
A recent paper published in the Journal of Management History explained why servant leadership poses a number of risks and limitations, particularly with regard to ethical issues and dilemmas. The researchers identified 4 main risks:
The risk that the servant leader may have too narrow an understanding of “service.”
Servant Leadership’s ambiguity about morality/the moral content.
The fact that Servant Leadership “relies on the moral framework” of the followers.
The risk that Servant Leadership without the leader’s motivation to serve will remain “up in the air”, i.e., “detached from a clearly defined moral compass.”
Experimental research and theory
Theoretical foundations
Servant leadership predominately draws on two social theories to explain how it influences follower behavior: Social Learning and Social exchange theory. In servant leadership literature, the use of Social Learning Theory argues that servant leaders are influencing their followers, as their followers observe and emulate the leader's positive behaviors. In contrast, Social Exchange Theory is used to argue that a servant leader's followers are exhibiting positive behaviors due to the reciprocal relationship they develop with their leader.
Employee organization commitment
While organizations thrive based on the work produced by the employees, the commitment of the employees to the organization is a major contributor to how well an organization functions. Research shows that management style is a main factor in sales person turnover. When put into practice, Servant Leadership has a positive effect on a sales person's turnover intentions because turnover is mainly associated with "the quality of the salesperson–supervisor relationship." Due to servant leaders making their employees their main priority and placing their well-being above everything else, including the organization, the employees feel a sense of trust and a need to return the commitment and obligation that their employer has for them to the organization. Likewise, Servant Leadership has a direct effect on employer brand perception, which in turn reduces employee job turnover. According to Kashyap and Rangnekar, Servant Leadership molds organizations and builds a positive image for the organization. This leads to turnover intention reduction in that the employees "... take pride in what they do and enjoy the company of people they work with". Servant Leaders are also seen as good role models in the eyes of their employees. Because of this, employees begin to act as Servant Leaders themselves, and portray great commitment to the organizations where they see these behaviors and how they affect others around them. The employees also stay at the organization so that they can see and learn more from their employer.
Employee life
Servant leadership practices appear to have an effect on the life of the employee, outside of the organizations that they are affiliated with. It has been concluded that employee perceptions of servant leadership practices and the support of employers and co-workers has a positive effect on an employee's family life. Having their employer cater to their needs, in conjunction with supportive co-workers and staff, aids in lowering stress levels, which produces the desire to go home and cater to their family's needs. In addition, Servant Leadership being the foundation of organizations is said to lead to employees having positive experiences and satisfaction in the work place, which in turn leads to "a transfer of positive experiences from the work role to the family role". Servant Leadership being practiced is said to decrease emotional exhaustion, which is the leading cause of employee burnout. Servant Leadership lessens the feeling of being "drained of inner resources", so employees experience an increase in Work-to-Family positive spillover (WFPS). This decreased emotional exhaustion also leads to stronger marital relationships. Moreover, employees feeling that their needs are made a priority in the work place, as well as the feeling of being satisfied with their interactions at work on a daily basis, has an impact on their family's experience with them as they shift from the work role to the family role.
Job performance
Servant leadership also contributes to employees' goal achievement and success. As defined before, a servant leader's goal is to build upon the skills of their employees and make them better people. With this trait, studies have shown that servant leaders have the ability to influence their employees to achieve their own goals as well as their work goals due to their leaders empowerment, and this plays a major role in their continued success and growth. This outcome is expected because of the Servant Leader's main concern being the well-being of their employees. Likewise, Servant Leaders managing the work environment and things such as "rewards, deadlines, work allocation and performance evaluations" have a positive effect on the well-being and satisfaction of employees because the practices of a Servant Leader deals with these aspects in a way that benefits the employees in every way possible. Studies have also shown that leadership as a whole has an effect on employee's psychological health. Thus, studies have shown that Servant Leadership has a positive effect on employee's psychological health in that the less strain on the employee and the more they assimilate at the organization, the better their psychological health. Research has shown that although many organizations are used to the belief that the "top-down" way, or the leader prioritizing themselves and the organizations and then the employees, is the best way to engage employees in their work. However, studies have shown that Servant Leadership's "bottom-up" style, or prioritizing the needs of the employees first, causes employees to be more engaged in their work in that they feel like they have social support from their leader as well as their colleagues. Overall, employees feeling a sense of support, as well as having a leader who are doing everything in their power to do things that are beneficial for the employees contributes to heightened job performance from the employees.
Community citizenship behavior
Similar to servant leadership having an effect on employees' stress levels, it also affects them emotionally as well. According to previous research, servant leadership seems to have an effect on the emotional health of the employees because the servant leaders' reliance on "one-on-one communication to understand the abilities, needs, desires, goals, and potential of those individuals" aids in the employees' ability to express themselves in the work place. In turn, this nurturing from their employer leads to them returning this same nurturing towards their co-workers and making the work place a suitable environment for the growth of the employees, as well as the production of good quality work to grow the organization. Organizations that don't practice servant leadership may discourage employees expressing their feelings in the work place, but servant leaders encourage this expression to prevent any conflict within the workplace. Servant leaders also make a safe emotional work environment for employees by making acceptance a major goal. Acceptance in this case is the leader being okay with having different personalities, personal views, and values as their employees, and understanding that their employees aren't "perfect". They also create a psychological ethical climate. By doing this, Servant Leaders create a safe space where employees are able to be themselves and express how they are feeling, knowing that they can trust their leader to be non-judgmental. Lastly, Servant Leaders are able to manage the behaviors of their employees by being forgiving. Some employees may have personalities and/or characteristics that may lead to them doing or saying things to their leader that is unacceptable. However, Servant Leaders being forgiving, and more importantly understanding, their employees are able to learn from their mistakes, hence their personal growth and changed behavior within the organization.
Implications
Some argue that servant leadership is still going through the process of being accepted as a leadership theory because of Greenleaf's belief that Servant Leadership is a way of life rather than a systematized technique with a specific outline. Although Servant Leadership was proposed many years ago, it is still considered a "newer" theory among many other theories because of the switch in focus from the traditional leadership theories.
However, as demonstrated by Eva, Robin, Sendjaya, van Dierendonck, and Liden's review, research has established servant leadership as a valid construct that is worthwhile researching and implementing. The authors state:
The review has demonstrated that the servant leadership field has made progress in the last 20 years, however, the field of servant leadership still has its critics. Namely, as there are still lingering questions the conceptual and empirical overlap between servant leadership and transformational, ethical and authentic leadership and there are criticisms about how much the existing research in this field can tell us as it is restricted by its own limitations in research design. Our view is that it would be premature to hit the restart button on the field. Many of the problems have arisen from poor construct clarity, poor measurement, and poor design. We hope by heeding the advice offered in this review to resolve these problems, the servant leadership research can move forward and continue to offer significant insights to the leadership field over the next 20 years.
See also
Authentic leadership
John Adair (author)
Servant of the servants of God, title of the Roman Catholic Pope
Son of man came to serve, a passage in the New Testament where Jesus describes servant leadership
Three Levels of Leadership model
References
Further reading
James Autry. The Servant Leader
Art Barter. Farmer Able
Art Barter. The Servant Leadership Journal: An 18 Week Journey to Transform You and Your Organization
Ken Blanchard, Leading at a Higher Level (Chapter 12),
Peter Block. Stewardship
Jim Boyd, A Servant Leader's Journey,
Max DePree, Leadership is an Art
Jerry Glashagel, Servant-Institutions in Business,
Robert Greenleaf. Servant Leadership
Denny Gunderson, The Leadership Paradox: A Challenge to Servant Leadership in a Power-Hungry World
Trevor M. Hall, ed. Becoming Authentic: The Search for Wholeness and Calling as a Servant Leader (2007)
Kent Halstead, Servant Leadership for Congregations
James Hunter. the Servant
James Hunter. The World's Most Powerful Leadership Principle
Joseph J. Iarocci. Servant Leadership in the Workplace: A Brief Introduction
Ken Jennings and John Stahl-Wert, The Serving Leader,
Kent M. Keith. The Case For Servant Leadership
Michael Parsons & David J. Cohen, eds. On Eagles' Wings. An Exploration of Strength in the Midst of Weakness (2008)
George SanFacon, A Conscious Person's Guide to the Workplace,
James W. Sipe & Don M. Frick. Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership
Larry Spears, ed. Reflections on Leadership
Larry Spears, ed. Insights on Leadership
Larry Spears, ed. Focus on Leadership
Larry Spears & Michele Lawrence, ed. Practicing Servant-Leadership
John J. Sullivan, Servant First! Leadership for the New Millennium
Scott Ward, Servant Leadership Practice: 40 Days to Transform Your Leadership and Your Organization, BNID 2940012590022, ASIN B005KLY8SY *
External links
Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership
International Journal of Servant-Leadership
Servant Leadership Institute
Ken Jennings, PhD for The Serving Leader
Cairnway Center for Servant Leadership Excellence
ServantLeader Ministries
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|
239440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Reid | George Reid | Sir George Houston Reid, (25 February 1845 – 12 September 1918) was an Australian politician who led the Reid Government as the fourth Prime Minister of Australia from 1904 to 1905, having previously been Premier of New South Wales from 1894 to 1899. He led the Free Trade Party from 1891 to 1908.
Reid was born in Johnstone, Renfrewshire, Scotland. He and his family immigrated to Australia when he was young. They initially settled in Melbourne, but moved to Sydney when Reid was 13, at which point he left school and began working as a clerk. He later joined the New South Wales civil service, and rose through the ranks to become secretary of the Attorney-General's Department. Reid was also something of a public intellectual, publishing several works in defence of liberalism and free trade. He began studying law in 1876 and was admitted to the bar in 1879. In 1880, he resigned from the civil service to run for parliament, winning election to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly.
From 1883 to 1884, Reid served as Minister of Public Instruction in the government of Alexander Stuart. He joined the Free Trade Party of Henry Parkes in 1887, but refused to serve in Parkes' governments due to personal enmity. When Parkes resigned as party leader in 1891, Reid was elected in his place. He became premier after the 1894 election and remained in office for just over five years. Despite never winning majority government, Reid was able to pass a number of domestic reforms concerning the civil service and public finances. He was an advocate of federation and played a part in drafting the new constitution, where he became known as a strong defender of his colony's interests. In 1901, he was elected to the new federal parliament representing the Division of East Sydney.
Reid retained the leadership of the Free Trade Party after federation, and consequently became Australia's first Leader of the Opposition. For the first few years, the Protectionist Party governed with the support of the Labor Party. Alfred Deakin's Protectionist minority government collapsed in April 1904, and he was briefly succeeded by Labor's Chris Watson, who proved unable to govern and resigned after four months. As a result, Reid became prime minister in August 1904, heading yet another minority government. He included four Protectionists in his cabinet, but was unable to achieve much before his government was brought down in July 1905. One notable exception was the passage of the landmark Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration ACT, which dealt with industrial relations.
At the 1906 election, Reid secured the most votes in the House of Representatives and the equal-most seats, but was well short of a majority and could not form government. He resigned as party leader in 1908, after opposing the formation of the Commonwealth Liberal Party (a merger with the Protectionists). Reid accepted an appointment as Australia's first High Commissioner to the United Kingdom in 1910, and remained in the position until 1916. He subsequently won election to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, serving until his sudden death two years later.
Early life
Reid was born on 25 February 1845 in Johnstone, Renfrewshire, Scotland. He was the fifth of seven children born to Marion (née Crybbace) and John Reid; he had four older brothers and two younger sisters. He was named after George Houstoun, a former Conservative MP for the Renfrewshire constituency who had died a few years earlier. Reid's father, the son of a farmer, was born in Tarbolton, Ayrshire. At the time of George's birth he was a minister in the Church of Scotland, which he had joined in 1839 after previously ministering in various secessionist Presbyterian churches; he remained loyal to the established church in the Disruption of 1843. In 1834, he had married the daughter of another minister, Edward Crybbace; she was about nine years his junior.
In April 1845, Reid and his family moved to Liverpool, England, where his father had been appointed minister of an expatriate Presbyterian congregation. His two younger sisters were born there. The family struggled financially, and his father made the decision to emigrate to Australia. Reid arrived in Melbourne in May 1852, and his father subsequently led congregations in Essendon and North Melbourne. He moved the family to Sydney in 1858. Reid received his only formal schooling at the Melbourne Academy, now known as Scotch College. He received a classical education, and in later life recalled that he had "no appetite for that wide range of metaphysical propositions which juveniles were expected to comprehend"; he found Greek a "lazy horror". He left school aged about 13, when the family settled in Sydney, and began working as a junior clerk in a merchant's counting house. At the age of 15 he joined the debating society at the Sydney Mechanics' School of Arts, and according to his autobiography, "a more crude novice than he had never begun the practise of public speaking". In Sydney, Reid's father became a colleague of John Dunmore Lang at the Scots Church, and then from 1862 until his death in 1867 was the minister of the Mariners' Church on George Street. His mother, who died in 1885, was involved in the ragged schools movement. In later life, Reid praised his parents for his good upbringing.
Public service career
In 1864, Reid joined the New South Wales Civil Service as an assistant accountant in the Colonial Treasury, with an annual salary of £200. He was promoted to clerk of correspondence and contracts in 1868, and then chief clerk of correspondence in 1874 on a salary of £400. In 1876 he began to study law seriously, which would provide the independent income necessary to pursue a parliamentary career (given that parliamentary service was unpaid at the time). He became head of the Attorney-General's Department in 1878. In 1879, Reid qualified as a barrister. He made a name for himself by publishing pamphlets on topical issues. In 1875, he published his Five Essays on Free Trade, which brought him an honorary membership of the Cobden Club, and in 1878 the government published his New South Wales, the Mother Colony of the Australians, for distribution in Europe.
Political career
Reid's career was aided by his quick wit and entertaining oratory; he was described as being "perhaps the best platform speaker in the Empire", both amusing and informing his audiences "who flocked to his election meetings as to popular entertainment". In one particular incident his quick wit and affinity for humour were demonstrated when a heckler pointed to his ample paunch and exclaimed "What are you going to call it, George?" to which Reid replied: "If it's a boy, I'll call it after myself. If it's a girl I'll call it Victoria. But if, as I strongly suspect, it's nothing but piss and wind, I'll name it after you." His humour, however, was not universally appreciated. Alfred Deakin detested Reid, describing him as "inordinately vain and resolutely selfish" and their cold relationship would affect both their later careers.
Reid was elected top of the poll to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly as a member for the four-member electoral district of East Sydney in 1880. He was not very active at first, as he was building up his legal practice, although he was concerned to reform the Robertson Land Acts, which had not prevented 96 land holders from controlling eight million acres (32,000 km2) between them. Henry Parkes and John Robertson attempted to make minor amendments to the land acts but were defeated and at the subsequent election Parkes' party lost many seats.
The new premier, Alexander Stuart, offered Reid the position of Colonial Treasurer in January 1883, but he thought it wiser to accept the junior office of Minister of Public Instruction. He served 14 months in this office and succeeded in passing a much improved Education Act, which included the establishment of the first government high schools in the leading towns, technical schools (which became a model for the other colonies) and the provision of evening lectures at the university.
In February 1884, Reid lost his seat in parliament owing to a technicality; The Elections and Qualifications Committee held that the Governor had already issued five proclamations prior to the appointment of Francis Suttor to the office of Minister of Public Instruction thus both Suttor and his successor Reid were incapable of being validly appointed. At the resulting by-election Reid was defeated by a small majority as a result of the government's financial hardships due to the loss of revenue from the suspension of land sales. In 1885 he was re-elected in East Sydney and took a great part in the free trade or protection issue. He supported Sir Henry Parkes on the free trade side but, when Parkes came into power in 1887, declined a seat in his ministry. Parkes offered him a portfolio two years later and Reid again refused. He did not like Parkes personally and felt he would be unable to work with him. When payment of members of parliament was passed, Reid, who had always opposed it, paid the amount of his salary into the treasury. Reid had become Sydney's leading barrister by impressing juries by his cross-examinations and was made a Queen's Counsel in 1898. In May 1891 four free traders, Reid, Jack Want, John Haynes and Jonathan Seaver, voted against the fifth Parkes Ministry in a motion of no confidence, which was only defeated by the casting vote of the Speaker. Whilst the government survived the motion, parliament was dissolved on 6 June 1891.
Premier
In September 1891, the Parkes ministry was defeated, the Dibbs government succeeded it, and Parkes retired from the leadership of the Free Trade Party. Reid was elected leader of the opposition in his place. In 1891, he married Florence (Flora) Ann Brumby, who was 23 years old to his 46. He managed to form his party into a coherent group although it "ran the whole gamut from conservative Sydney merchants through middle-class intellectuals to reformers who wished to replace indirect by direct taxation for social reasons."
At the 1894 election Reid made the establishment of a real free trade tariff with a system of direct taxation the main item of his policy, and had a great victory. Edmund Barton and other well-known protectionists lost their seats, Labor was reduced from 30 to 18, and Reid formed his first cabinet. One of his earliest measures was a new lands bill which provided for the division of pastoral leases into two-halves, one of which was to be open to the free selector, while the pastoral lessee got some security of tenure for the other half. Classification of crown lands according to their value was provided for, and the free selector, or his transferee, had to reside on the property.
At an early stage of the session, Parkes raised the question of federation again, and Reid invited the premiers of the other colonies to meet in conference on 29 January 1895. As a consequence of this conference an improved bill was drafted which ensured that both the people and the parliaments of the various colonies would be consulted. Meanwhile, Reid had great trouble in passing his land and income tax bills. When he did get them through the Assembly the Council threw them out. Reid obtained a dissolution, was victorious at the polls, and heavily defeated Parkes for the new single-member electoral district of Sydney-King. He eventually succeeded in passing his acts, which were moderate, but was strenuously opposed by the council, and it was only the fear that the chamber might be swamped with new appointments that eventually wore down the opposition. Reid was also successful in bringing in reforms in the keeping of public accounts and in the civil service generally. Other acts dealt with the control of inland waters, and much needed legislation relating to public health, factories, and mining, was also passed. In five years he achieved more than any of his predecessors.
On four occasions between December 1895 and May 1899 Reid was temporarily appointed to the vacant position of Solicitor General to allow him to deputise for the Attorney General, Jack Want, in his absence. Reid took on the position of Attorney-General in addition to being Premier in the last months of his government.
Federation
Reid supported the federation of the Australian colonies, but since the campaign was led by his Protectionist opponent Edmund Barton he did not take a leading role. He was dissatisfied by the draft constitution, especially the power of a Senate, elected on the basis of States rather than population, to reject money bills.
Following the Adelaide session in 1897 of the National Australasian Convention, Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain sent the Colonial Office's extensive and sometimes critical comments on the current draft of the federal constitution to Reid (then in London for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee), for his "private & independent" consideration. At the Sydney and Melbourne sessions of the Convention in 1897 and 1898, Reid moved amendments based on those comments, covertly obtaining several concessions to British wishes. He denied a suggestion that he had been "talking with ‘Joe’". Reid did copy Chamberlain's comments to a select few other delegates, but they never revealed this. They included Edmund Barton, chair of the Drafting Committee, which accommodated some of Chamberlain's more technical points.
In the referendum campaign following the Convention, on 28 March 1898 Reid made his famous "Yes-No" speech at the Sydney town hall. He told his audience that he intended to deal with the bill "with the deliberate impartiality of a judge addressing a jury". After speaking for an hour and three-quarters the audience was still uncertain about his verdict. He concluded by saying that while he felt he could not become a deserter to the cause he would not recommend any course to the electors:
"Now, I say to you, having pointed out my mind, and having shown you the dark places as well as the light places of this constitution, I hope every man in this country, without coercion from me, without any interference from me, will judge for himself." He consistently kept this attitude until the poll was taken on 3 June 1898. This earned him the nickname "Yes-No Reid". The referendum in New South Wales resulted in a small majority in favour, but the yes votes fell about 8000 short of the required 80,000. Subsequently, Reid was able to secure greater concessions for New South Wales.
At the general election held soon after, Barton accepted Reid's challenge to contest the East Sydney seat. Reid defeated him, but his party came back with a reduced majority. Reid fought for federation at the second referendum and it was carried in New South Wales by a majority of nearly 25,000, with 107,420 votes being cast in favour of it. "A bizarre combination of the Labor Party, protectionists, Federation enthusiasts and die-hard anti-Federation free traders" censured Reid for paying the expenses of J. C. Neild who had been commissioned to report on old-age pensions, prior to parliamentary approval. Governor Beauchamp refused Reid a dissolution and he resigned. By this time Reid had grown extremely overweight and sported a walrus moustache and a monocle, but his buffoonish image concealed a shrewd political brain.
Federal politics
Leader of the Opposition (1901–1904)
Reid was elected to the first federal Parliament as the Member for East Sydney at the 1901 election. The Free Trade Party won 28 out of 75 seats in the House of Representatives, and 17 out of 36 seats in the Senate. Labor no longer trusted Reid and gave their support to the Edmund Barton Protectionist Party government, so Reid became the first Leader of the Opposition, a position well-suited to his robust debating style and rollicking sense of humour. In the long tariff debate Reid was at a disadvantage as parliament was sitting in Melbourne and he could not entirely neglect his practice as a barrister in Sydney, as his parliamentary income was less than a tenth of his income from his legal practice. With the rise of the Labor Party, the Free Trade Party had lost much of the middle ground to Barton and his followers, and it was increasingly dependent on conservatives, including militant Protestants.
On 18 August 1903, Reid resigned (the first member of the House of Representatives to do so) and challenged the government to oppose his re-election on the issue of its refusal to accept a system of equal electoral districts. He contested the by-election for East Sydney on 4 September, and won it back. He was the only person in Australian federal parliamentary history to win back his seat at a by-election triggered by his own resignation, until John Alexander in 2017.
Alfred Deakin took over from Barton as Prime Minister and leader of the Protectionists. At the 1903 election, the Free Trade Party won 24 seats, with the Labor vote increasing mainly at the expense of the Protectionists.
Prime Minister (1904–1905)
In August 1904, when the Watson government resigned, Reid became Prime Minister. He was the first former state premier to become Prime Minister (the only other to date being Joseph Lyons). Reid did not have a majority in either House, and he knew it would be only a matter of time before the Protectionists patched up their differences with Labor, so he enjoyed himself in office while he could. In July 1905 the other two parties duly voted him out, and he left office with good grace.
Leader of the Opposition (1905–1908)
Reid adopted a strategy of trying to reorient the party system along Labor vs. non-Labor lines – prior to the 1906 election, he renamed his Free Trade Party to the Anti-Socialist Party. Reid envisaged a spectrum running from socialist to anti-socialist, with the Protectionist Party in the middle. This attempt struck a chord with politicians who were steeped in the Westminster tradition and regarded a two-party system as very much the norm. Zachary Gorman has argued that this attempt to impose clear 'lines of cleavage' in Federal politics was inspired by Reid's friend Joseph Carruthers who had achieved a political realignment in New South Wales that destroyed the Progressive middle party and created a Liberal-Labor divide. For Reid, anti-socialism was a natural product of his long-standing belief in Gladstonian liberalism.
Reid referred to Labor publicly using a damaging visual negative image of Labor as a hungry socialist tiger that would devour all. The anti-socialist campaign led to the Protectionist vote and seat count dropping significantly at the 1906 election, while both Reid's party and Labor won 26 seats each. The Deakin government continued with Labor support for the time being, despite only holding 16 seats after losing 10, although with another 5 independent Protectionists. Reid's anti-socialist campaign had nevertheless laid the groundwork for the desired realignment, and liberalism would come to sit on the centre-right of Australian politics.
In 1907–08, Reid strenuously resisted Deakin's commitment to increase tariff rates. When Deakin proposed the Commonwealth Liberal Party, a "Fusion" of the two non-Labor parties, Reid resigned as party leader on 16 November 1908. The following day, Joseph Cook was made leader until the parties merged.
On 24 December 1909 Reid resigned from Parliament (he was the first Member to have resigned twice), however his seat was left vacant until the 1910 election. His seat of East Sydney was won by Labor's John West, in an election which saw Labor win 42 of 75 seats, against the CLP on 31 seats. Labor also won a majority in the Senate.
Later life and legacy
In 1910, Reid was appointed as Australia's first High Commissioner in London.
Reid was extremely popular in Britain, and in 1916, when his term as High Commissioner ended, he was elected unopposed to the House of Commons for the seat of St George, Hanover Square as a Unionist candidate, where he acted as a spokesman for the self-governing Dominions in supporting the war effort. He died suddenly in London on 12 September 1918, aged 73, of cerebral thrombosis, survived by his wife and their two sons and daughter. His wife had become Dame Flora Reid GBE in 1917. He is buried in Putney Vale Cemetery.
Reid's posthumous reputation suffered from the general acceptance of protectionist policies by other parties, as well as from his buffoonish public image. In 1989 W. G. McMinn published George Reid, a serious biography designed to rescue Reid from his reputation as a clownish reactionary and attempt to show his Free Trade policies as having been vindicated by history.
Honours
In 1897 Reid was made an Honorary Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) by Oxford University. Reid was also appointed a member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1904), a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (1911) and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1916).
In 1969 he was honoured on a postage stamp bearing his portrait issued by Australia Post.
Works
The Australian Commonwealth and her relation to the British Empire (address, 1912)
See also
Reid Ministry
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Archival records and sources held at the National Archives of Australia
Audio lecture on the life of George Reid, National Museum of Australia
Undated photo of George Reid and Mrs. Oliver T. Johnston from Library of Congress collection
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1845 births
1918 deaths
Prime Ministers of Australia
Premiers of New South Wales
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Australian Leaders of the Opposition
Australian ministers for Foreign Affairs
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for East Sydney
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
Free Trade Party members of the Parliament of Australia
UK MPs 1910–1918
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Australian Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Australian politicians awarded knighthoods
Australian Presbyterians
Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery
People from Johnstone
People educated at Scotch College, Melbourne
Treasurers of New South Wales
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Attorneys General of the Colony of New South Wales
Solicitors General for New South Wales
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Scottish emigrants to Australia
20th-century Australian politicians
Australian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
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Australian Queen's Counsel | [
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|
239441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wels | Wels | Wels (; Central Bavarian: Wös) is a city in Upper Austria, on the Traun River near Linz. It is the county seat of Wels-Land, and with a population of approximately 60,000, the eighth largest city in Austria.
Geography
Wels is in the Hausruckviertel at an elevation of 317 m. From north to south, it extends over 9.5 km, from west to east over 9.6 km. 3.4% of the area is covered with forest, 23.5% is used for agriculture.
The town comprises the following boroughs: Aichberg, Au, Berg, Brandln, Dickerldorf, Doppelgraben, Eben, Gaßl, Höllwiesen, Hölzl, Kirchham, Laahen, Lichtenegg, Mitterlaab, Nöham, Niederthan, Oberhaid, Oberhart, Oberlaab, Oberthan, Pernau, Puchberg, Roithen, Rosenau, Schafwiesen, Stadlhof, Trausenegg, Unterleithen, Waidhausen, Wels, Wimpassing, Wispl.
History
Prehistoric
The area of Wels has been settled since the Neolithic era (between 3500 and 1700 B.C.E.), as evidenced by archaeological finds of simple tools, especially from around the banks of the Traun River in what is now the city center.
A Bronze Age (after 1700 B.C.E.) cemetery was found in the area of the current airport and dated to the time of the Urnfield Culture (1100–750 B.C.E.). It contained 60 graves with such items as bronze jewelry and food.
Swords from the Halstatt Period (750–400 B.C.E.) have been found in the area of Pernau.
During the Iron Age La Tène Culture (up to 100 B.C.E.) Celts inhabited the area, leaving behind gold coins, swords, earthenware and iron brooches. The name "Traun" comes from this time and it is possible the "Wels" is similarly of Celtic origin. The name "Wels" could be Celtic for "Settlement on the bend of the Traun River".
Roman Era
Wels gained importance in Roman times because of its central location in the province of Noricum. Around the year 120, Wels received Roman city rights under the name of Municipium Ovilava. The enclosed built-up area by the Traun River was at the present level of Kaiser-Josef-Platz. There were brick houses, a bath, an arena and an irrigation system of pure mountain water brought from beyond the Traun.
Around 215, during the reign of Emperor Caracalla, it was renamed Colonia Aurelia Antoniana Ovilabis and given colonia status. At this time, the city had around 18,000 inhabitants.
Due to the impending threat of the Alemanni, the city was surrounded by a city wall that enclosed an area of about 90 hectares and a road was built along the Danube to Passau. It is known that six towers with gates were integrated into the walls, controlling entrances from along the western road, towards the Traun, and to the fields beyond the city.
As part of his reforms Emperor Diocletian made Ovilava the capital city of the province of Noricum Ripensis. It was governed by two duumviri who served as municipal judges, two aediles, who advocated compliance with the laws and market rights, a quaestor, who managed the city treasury, and a 100-member city council.
Ovilava administered an area enclosed by the Inn and Danube, from Lauriacum (Enns) in the east to submitted to Bad Ischl in the west. In this area are included the border fortifications, Linz (Lentia) and Passau (Boiodurum), as well as numerous settlements in what are now the regions of Upper Austria and Salzburg.
During the early migration period (3rd, 4th and 5th century), the area around Ovilava was often invaded by the Alamanni, Vandals and other Germanic tribes as well as by Attila's army. During the time of the Emperor Gallienus the province of Noricum was described as “devastated”. By the time of Odoacer, the first Germanic King of Italy, Noricum was described as “vacant”. From the 4th century onward it is likely that Wels was again a small and insignificant village for several centuries.
The economy of Roman Wels
Agriculture and regional trade formed the basis for the economy of Ovilava. While most agriculture was subsistence level, cows and horses were produced in large enough numbers to be exported. The oldest granary in the Eastern Alps has been discovered in Wels, which housed diverse grains such as wheat, dwarf wheat, emmer wheat, barley and rye. There was additionally a significant brick and pottery works as well as mines for construction stone.
Due to its situation at an important crossing of several Roman roads, both east-to-west and to the south, archeology reveals a large number of objects manufactured in other areas of the empire, such as Terra Sigillata pottery and statuettes (such as the "Venus of Wels") from Gaul and Germania Inferior, as well as oyster shells and coins from Italy.
Middle Ages
Wels served as a minor trading centre during the Middle Ages. In 943, the Hungarians were defeated by the Bavarians and Carantanians at the Battle of Wels. In 1222, during the rule of the Babenberger family, Wels again received city rights. A document dating to 1328 provides evidence for Wels' important role as the location of a market. Its endowment with economic privileges, and its advantageous position on several rivers allowed it to gain an important position in the region.
Emperor Maximilian I died in Wels on January 12, 1519, after having been denied access to Innsbruck by its citizens.
20th century
During World War II, a subcamp of Mauthausen concentration camp was located here.
On 18 January 1964, Wels became a Statutarstadt of Austria.
Population
Economy
There are about 36,000 people employed in Wels. Of that, about 63% are in the service sector. Wels is known as an important city for shopping and the location of several gymnasiums (academic secondary schools) and higher vocational schools and also of a vocational college. Furthermore, it is famous for the Wels Fair, which takes place every year in autumn and spring.
Notable residents
Alois Auer (1813–1869), printer
Karin Hannak (born 1940), artist
Josef Friedrich Doppelbauer (1918–1989), composer
Thomas Steiner (born 1956), film director
Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857–1940), physician, Nobel Prize 1927
Franz Welser-Möst (born 1960), conductor
Hugo Gerard Ströhl (1851–1919), heraldist
Carl Rabl (1853–1917), physician and anatomist
Grete Hinterhofer (1899–1985), classical pianist and composer was born in Wels
Thomas Christian David (1925–2006), composer and performer
Werner Kreindl (1927–1992), television actor
Manfred Buchroithner (born 1950), cartographer and geologist
Paul Rübig (born 1953), politician (ÖVP), member of the European Parliament
Christoph Ransmayr (born 1954), writer
Rudolf Anschober (born 1960), Austrian politician
Stefan Sonvilla-Weiss (born 1961), communication scientist and arts and media educator
Götz Spielmann (born 1961), film director and screenwriter
Sabine Derflinger (born 1963), director, writer, producer and dramaturgical consultant
Norbert Trawöger (born 1971), flautist and artistic director
Christian Mayrleb (born 1972), soccer player, national player and top scorer in the top division in Austria
Johannes Wipplinger (born 1978), athlete and bobsledder
Helge Payer (born 1979), soccer goalkeeper
Emin Sulimani (born 1986), football player
Robert Žulj (born 1992), football player
Kevin Wimmer (born 1992), soccer player
Felix Großschartner (born 1993), cyclist
Karl Ridderbusch (born 1932), operatic bass
See also
FC Wels
Wels Airport
Trodat
TGW Logistics Group
Wels-Land
References
External links
(in German): http://www.wels.at
Cities and towns in Upper Austria | [
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|
239448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulipotyphla | Eulipotyphla | Eulipotyphla (, which means "truly fat and blind") is an order of mammals suggested by molecular methods of phylogenetic reconstruction, and includes the laurasiatherian members of the now-invalid polyphyletic order Lipotyphla, but not the afrotherian members (tenrecs, golden moles, and otter shrews, now in their own order Afrosoricida). Lipotyphla in turn had been derived by removing a number of groups from Insectivora, the previously used wastebasket taxon.
Eulipotyphla comprises the hedgehogs and gymnures (family Erinaceidae, formerly also the order Erinaceomorpha), solenodons (family Solenodontidae), the desmans, moles, and shrew-like moles (family Talpidae) and true shrews (family Soricidae). True shrews, talpids and solenodons were formerly grouped in Soricomorpha; however, Soricomorpha has been found to be paraphyletic, since erinaceids are the sister group of shrews, and they are more closely linked to the Carnivora order; (such as cats, dogs, bears, skunks, badgers, etc.).
It is the sister clade of Scrotifera; together, they make up Laurasiatheria.
Classification
Order Eulipotyphla (= 'Lipotyphla' - Afrosoricida = 'Erinaceomorpha' + 'Soricomorpha')
Family Erinaceidae
Subfamily Erinaceinae: hedgehogs
Subfamily Galericinae: gymnures or moonrats
Family Soricidae
Subfamily Crocidurinae: white-toothed shrews
Subfamily Soricinae: red-toothed shrews
Subfamily Myosoricinae: African white-toothed shrews
Family Talpidae
Subfamily Talpinae: Old World moles and desmans
Subfamily Scalopinae: New World moles
Subfamily Uropsilinae: shrew-like moles
Family Solenodontidae: solenodons
† Family Nesophontidae: extinct West Indian shrews
† Family Amphilemuridae
† Family Nyctitheriidae
† Family Plesiosoricidae
Family-level cladogram of modern eulipotyphlan relationships, following Roca et al. and Brace et al.:
The upper and lower basal subclades within the tree are the suborders Solenodonota and Erinaceota, respectively. These two branches are estimated to have split ~72-74 million years (Ma) ago. The Nesophontidae and Solenodontidae are thought to have separated roughly 57 Ma ago. Split times for talpids vs. soricids plus erinaceids, and for soricids vs. erinaceids, have been estimated at around 69 Ma and 64 Ma ago, respectively.
Notes
References
Mammal orders
Extant Eocene first appearances | [
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239450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20management | Strategic management | In the field of management, strategic management involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives taken by an organization's managers on behalf of stakeholders, based on consideration of resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization operates. Strategic management provides overall direction to an enterprise and involves specifying the organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve those objectives, and then allocating resources to implement the plans. Academics and practicing managers have developed numerous models and frameworks to assist in strategic decision-making in the context of complex environments and competitive dynamics. Strategic management is not static in nature; the models often include a feedback loop to monitor execution and to inform the next round of planning.
Michael Porter identifies three principles underlying strategy:
creating a "unique and valuable [market] position"
making trade-offs by choosing "what not to do"
creating "fit" by aligning company activities with one another to support the chosen strategy
Corporate strategy involves answering a key question from a portfolio perspective: "What business should we be in?" Business strategy involves answering the question: "How shall we compete in this business?"
Management theory and practice often make a distinction between strategic management and operational management, with operational management concerned primarily with improving efficiency and controlling costs within the boundaries set by the organization's strategy.
Application
Strategy is defined as "the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals." Strategies are established to set direction, focus effort, define or clarify the organization, and provide consistency or guidance in response to the environment.
Strategic management involves the related concepts of strategic planning and strategic thinking. Strategic planning is analytical in nature and refers to formalized procedures to produce the data and analyses used as inputs for strategic thinking, which synthesizes the data resulting in the strategy. Strategic planning may also refer to control mechanisms used to implement the strategy once it is determined. In other words, strategic planning happens around the strategic thinking or strategy making activity.
Strategic management is often described as involving two major processes: formulation and implementation of strategy. While described sequentially below, in practice the two processes are iterative and each provides input for the other.
Formulation
Formulation of strategy involves analyzing the environment in which the organization operates, then making a series of strategic decisions about how the organization will compete. Formulation ends with a series of goals or objectives and measures for the organization to pursue.
Environmental analysis includes the:
Remote external environment, including the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental landscape (PESTLE);
Industry environment, such as the competitive behavior of rival organizations, the bargaining power of buyers/customers and suppliers, threats from new entrants to the industry, and the ability of buyers to substitute products (Porter's 5 forces); and
Internal environment, regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the organization's resources (i.e., its people, processes and IT systems).
Strategic decisions are based on insight from the environmental assessment and are responses to strategic questions about how the organization will compete, such as:
What is the organization's business?
Who is the target customer for the organization's products and services?
Where are the customers and how do they buy? What is considered "value" to the customer?
Which businesses, products and services should be included or excluded from the portfolio of offerings?
What is the geographic scope of the business?
What differentiates the company from its competitors in the eyes of customers and other stakeholders?
Which skills and capabilities should be developed within the firm?
What are the important opportunities and risks for the organization?
How can the firm grow, through both its base business and new business?
How can the firm generate more value for investors?
The answers to these and many other strategic questions result in the organization's strategy and a series of specific short-term and long-term goals or objectives and related measures.
Implementation
The second major process of strategic management is implementation, which involves decisions regarding how the organization's resources (i.e., people, process and IT systems) will be aligned and mobilized towards the objectives. Implementation results in how the organization's resources are structured (such as by product or service or geography), leadership arrangements, communication, incentives, and monitoring mechanisms to track progress towards objectives, among others.
Running the day-to-day operations of the business is often referred to as "operations management" or specific terms for key departments or functions, such as "logistics management" or "marketing management," which take over once strategic management decisions are implemented.
Definitions
In 1988, Henry Mintzberg described the many different definitions and perspectives on strategy reflected in both academic research and in practice. He examined the strategic process and concluded it was much more fluid and unpredictable than people had thought. Because of this, he could not point to one process that could be called strategic planning. Instead Mintzberg concludes that there are five types of strategies:
Strategy as plan – a directed course of action to achieve an intended set of goals; similar to the strategic planning concept;
Strategy as pattern – a consistent pattern of past behavior, with a strategy realized over time rather than planned or intended. Where the realized pattern was different from the intent, he referred to the strategy as emergent;
Strategy as position – locating brands, products, or companies within the market, based on the conceptual framework of consumers or other stakeholders; a strategy determined primarily by factors outside the firm;
Strategy as ploy – a specific maneuver intended to outwit a competitor; and
Strategy as perspective – executing strategy based on a "theory of the business" or natural extension of the mindset or ideological perspective of the organization.
In 1998, Mintzberg developed these five types of management strategy into 10 "schools of thought" and grouped them into three categories. The first group is normative. It consists of the schools of informal design and conception, the formal planning, and analytical positioning. The second group, consisting of six schools, is more concerned with how strategic management is actually done, rather than prescribing optimal plans or positions. The six schools are entrepreneurial, visionary, cognitive, learning/adaptive/emergent, negotiation, corporate culture and business environment. The third and final group consists of one school, the configuration or transformation school, a hybrid of the other schools organized into stages, organizational life cycles, or "episodes".
Michael Porter defined strategy in 1980 as the "...broad formula for how a business is going to compete, what its goals should be, and what policies will be needed to carry out those goals" and the "...combination of the ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there." He continued that: "The essence of formulating competitive strategy is relating a company to its environment."
Some complexity theorists define strategy as the unfolding of the internal and external aspects of the organization that results in actions in a socio-economic context.
Historical development
Origins
The strategic management discipline originated in the 1950s and 1960s. Among the numerous early contributors, the most influential were Peter Drucker, Philip Selznick, Alfred Chandler, Igor Ansoff, and Bruce Henderson. The discipline draws from earlier thinking and texts on 'strategy' dating back thousands of years. Prior to 1960, the term "strategy" was primarily used regarding war and politics, not business. Many companies built strategic planning functions to develop and execute the formulation and implementation processes during the 1960s.
Peter Drucker was a prolific management theorist and author of dozens of management books, with a career spanning five decades. He addressed fundamental strategic questions in a 1954 book The Practice of Management writing: "... the first responsibility of top management is to ask the question 'what is our business?' and to make sure it is carefully studied and correctly answered." He wrote that the answer was determined by the customer. He recommended eight areas where objectives should be set, such as market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources, worker performance and attitude, profitability, manager performance and development, and public responsibility.
In 1957, Philip Selznick initially used the term "distinctive competence" in referring to how the Navy was attempting to differentiate itself from the other services. He also formalized the idea of matching the organization's internal factors with external environmental circumstances. This core idea was developed further by Kenneth R. Andrews in 1963 into what we now call SWOT analysis, in which the strengths and weaknesses of the firm are assessed in light of the opportunities and threats in the business environment.
Alfred Chandler recognized the importance of coordinating management activity under an all-encompassing strategy. Interactions between functions were typically handled by managers who relayed information back and forth between departments. Chandler stressed the importance of taking a long-term perspective when looking to the future. In his 1962 ground breaking work Strategy and Structure, Chandler showed that a long-term coordinated strategy was necessary to give a company structure, direction and focus. He says it concisely, "structure follows strategy." Chandler wrote that: "Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals."
Igor Ansoff built on Chandler's work by adding concepts and inventing a vocabulary. He developed a grid that compared strategies for market penetration, product development, market development and horizontal and vertical integration and diversification. He felt that management could use the grid to systematically prepare for the future. In his 1965 classic Corporate Strategy, he developed gap analysis to clarify the gap between the current reality and the goals and to develop what he called "gap reducing actions". Ansoff wrote that strategic management had three parts: strategic planning; the skill of a firm in converting its plans into reality; and the skill of a firm in managing its own internal resistance to change.
Bruce Henderson, founder of the Boston Consulting Group, wrote about the concept of the experience curve in 1968, following initial work begun in 1965. The experience curve refers to a hypothesis that unit production costs decline by 20–30% every time cumulative production doubles. This supported the argument for achieving higher market share and economies of scale.
Porter wrote in 1980 that companies have to make choices about their scope and the type of competitive advantage they seek to achieve, whether lower cost or differentiation. The idea of strategy targeting particular industries and customers (i.e., competitive positions) with a differentiated offering was a departure from the experience-curve influenced strategy paradigm, which was focused on larger scale and lower cost. Porter revised the strategy paradigm again in 1985, writing that superior performance of the processes and activities performed by organizations as part of their value chain is the foundation of competitive advantage, thereby outlining a process view of strategy.
Change in focus from production to marketing
The direction of strategic research also paralleled a major paradigm shift in how companies competed, specifically a shift from the production focus to market focus. The prevailing concept in strategy up to the 1950s was to create a product of high technical quality. If you created a product that worked well and was durable, it was assumed you would have no difficulty profiting. This was called the production orientation. Henry Ford famously said of the Model T car: "Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants, so long as it is black."
Management theorist Peter F Drucker wrote in 1954 that it was the customer who defined what business the organization was in. In 1960 Theodore Levitt argued that instead of producing products then trying to sell them to the customer, businesses should start with the customer, find out what they wanted, and then produce it for them. The fallacy of the production orientation was also referred to as marketing myopia in an article of the same name by Levitt.
Over time, the customer became the driving force behind all strategic business decisions. This marketing concept, in the decades since its introduction, has been reformulated and repackaged under names including market orientation, customer orientation, customer intimacy, customer focus, customer-driven and market focus.
Nature of strategy
In 1985, Professor Ellen Earle-Chaffee summarized what she thought were the main elements of strategic management theory where consensus generally existed as of the 1970s, writing that strategic management:
Involves adapting the organization to its business environment;
Is fluid and complex. Change creates novel combinations of circumstances requiring unstructured non-repetitive responses;
Affects the entire organization by providing direction;
Involves both strategy formulation processes and also implementation of the content of the strategy;
May be planned (intended) and unplanned (emergent);
Is done at several levels: overall corporate strategy, and individual business strategies; and
Involves both conceptual and analytical thought processes.
Chaffee further wrote that research up to that point covered three models of strategy, which were not mutually exclusive:
Linear strategy: A planned determination of goals, initiatives, and allocation of resources, along the lines of the Chandler definition above. This is most consistent with strategic planning approaches and may have a long planning horizon. The strategist "deals with" the environment but it is not the central concern.
Adaptive strategy: In this model, the organization's goals and activities are primarily concerned with adaptation to the environment, analogous to a biological organism. The need for continuous adaption reduces or eliminates the planning window. There is more focus on means (resource mobilization to address the environment) rather than ends (goals). Strategy is less centralized than in the linear model.
Interpretive strategy: A more recent and less developed model than the linear and adaptive models, interpretive strategy is concerned with "orienting metaphors constructed for the purpose of conceptualizing and guiding individual attitudes or organizational participants." The aim of interpretive strategy is legitimacy or credibility in the mind of stakeholders. It places emphasis on symbols and language to influence the minds of customers, rather than the physical product of the organization.
Concepts and frameworks
The progress of strategy since 1960 can be charted by a variety of frameworks and concepts introduced by management consultants and academics. These reflect an increased focus on cost, competition and customers. These "3 Cs" were illuminated by much more robust empirical analysis at ever-more granular levels of detail, as industries and organizations were disaggregated into business units, activities, processes, and individuals in a search for sources of competitive advantage.
SWOT analysis
By the 1960s, the capstone business policy course at the Harvard Business School included the concept of matching the distinctive competence of a company (its internal strengths and weaknesses) with its environment (external opportunities and threats) in the context of its objectives. This framework came to be known by the acronym SWOT and was "a major step forward in bringing explicitly competitive thinking to bear on questions of strategy". Kenneth R. Andrews helped popularize the framework via a 1963 conference and it remains commonly used in practice.
Experience curve
The experience curve was developed by the Boston Consulting Group in 1966. It is a hypothesis that total per unit costs decline systematically by as much as 15–25% every time cumulative production (i.e., "experience") doubles. It has been empirically confirmed by some firms at various points in their history. Costs decline due to a variety of factors, such as the learning curve, substitution of labor for capital (automation), and technological sophistication. Author Walter Kiechel wrote that it reflected several insights, including:
A company can always improve its cost structure;
Competitors have varying cost positions based on their experience;
Firms could achieve lower costs through higher market share, attaining a competitive advantage; and
An increased focus on empirical analysis of costs and processes, a concept which author Kiechel refers to as "Greater Taylorism".
Kiechel wrote in 2010: "The experience curve was, simply, the most important concept in launching the strategy revolution...with the experience curve, the strategy revolution began to insinuate an acute awareness of competition into the corporate consciousness." Prior to the 1960s, the word competition rarely appeared in the most prominent management literature; U.S. companies then faced considerably less competition and did not focus on performance relative to peers. Further, the experience curve provided a basis for the retail sale of business ideas, helping drive the management consulting
industry.
Corporate strategy and portfolio theory
The concept of the corporation as a portfolio of business units, with each plotted graphically based on its market share (a measure of its competitive position relative to its peers) and industry growth rate (a measure of industry attractiveness), was summarized in the growth–share matrix developed by the Boston Consulting Group around 1970. By 1979, one study estimated that 45% of the Fortune 500 companies were using some variation of the matrix in their strategic planning. This framework helped companies decide where to invest their resources (i.e., in their high market share, high growth businesses) and which businesses to divest (i.e., low market share, low growth businesses.) The growth-share matrix was followed by G.E. multi factoral model, developed by General Electric.
Companies continued to diversify as conglomerates until the 1980s, when deregulation and a less restrictive antitrust environment led to the view that a portfolio of operating divisions in different industries was worth more as many independent companies, leading to the breakup of many conglomerates. While the popularity of portfolio theory has waxed and waned, the key dimensions considered (industry attractiveness and competitive position) remain central to strategy.
In response to the evident problems of "over diversification", C. K. Prahalad and Gary Hamel suggested that companies should build portfolios of businesses around shared technical or operating competencies, and should develop structures and processes to enhance their core competencies.
Michael Porter also addressed the issue of the appropriate level of diversification. In 1987, he argued that corporate strategy involves two questions: 1) What business should the corporation be in? and 2) How should the corporate office manage its business units? He mentioned four concepts of corporate strategy each of which suggest a certain type of portfolio and a certain role for the corporate office; the latter three can be used together:
Portfolio theory: A strategy based primarily on diversification through acquisition. The corporation shifts resources among the units and monitors the performance of each business unit and its leaders. Each unit generally runs autonomously, with limited interference from the corporate center provided goals are met.
Restructuring: The corporate office acquires then actively intervenes in a business where it detects potential, often by replacing management and implementing a new business strategy.
Transferring skills: Important managerial skills and organizational capability are essentially spread to multiple businesses. The skills must be necessary to competitive advantage.
Sharing activities: Ability of the combined corporation to leverage centralized functions, such as sales, finance, etc. thereby reducing costs.
Building on Porter's ideas, Michael Goold, Andrew Campbell and Marcus Alexander developed the concept of "parenting advantage" to be applied at the corporate level, as a parallel to the concept of "competitive advantage" applied at the business level. Parent companies, they argued, should aim to "add more value" to their portfolio of businesses than rivals. If they succeed, they have a parenting advantage. The right level of diversification depends, therefore, on the ability of the parent company to add value in comparison to others. Different parent companies with different skills should expect to have different portfolios. See Corporate Level Strategy 1995 and Strategy for the Corporate Level 2014
Competitive advantage
In 1980, Porter defined the two types of competitive advantage an organization can achieve relative to its rivals: lower cost or differentiation. This advantage derives from attribute(s) that allow an organization to outperform its competition, such as superior market position, skills, or resources. In Porter's view, strategic management should be concerned with building and sustaining competitive advantage.
Industry structure and profitability
Porter developed a framework for analyzing the profitability of industries and how those profits are divided among the participants in 1980. In five forces analysis he identified the forces that shape the industry structure or environment. The framework involves the bargaining power of buyers and suppliers, the threat of new entrants, the availability of substitute products, and the competitive rivalry of firms in the industry. These forces affect the organization's ability to raise its prices as well as the costs of inputs (such as raw materials) for its processes.
The five forces framework helps describe how a firm can use these forces to obtain a sustainable competitive advantage, either lower cost or differentiation. Companies can maximize their profitability by competing in industries with favorable structure. Competitors can take steps to grow the overall profitability of the industry, or to take profit away from other parts of the industry structure. Porter modified Chandler's dictum about structure following strategy by introducing a second level of structure: while organizational structure follows strategy, it in turn follows industry structure.
Generic competitive strategies
Porter wrote in 1980 that strategy target either cost leadership, differentiation, or focus. These are known as Porter's three generic strategies and can be applied to any size or form of business. Porter claimed that a company must only choose one of the three or risk that the business would waste precious resources. Porter's generic strategies detail the interaction between cost minimization strategies, product differentiation strategies, and market focus strategies.
Porter described an industry as having multiple segments that can be targeted by a firm. The breadth of its targeting refers to the competitive scope of the business. Porter defined two types of competitive advantage: lower cost or differentiation relative to its rivals. Achieving competitive advantage results from a firm's ability to cope with the five forces better than its rivals. Porter wrote: "[A]chieving competitive advantage requires a firm to make a choice...about the type of competitive advantage it seeks to attain and the scope within which it will attain it." He also wrote: "The two basic types of competitive advantage [differentiation and lower cost] combined with the scope of activities for which a firm seeks to achieve them lead to three generic strategies for achieving above average performance in an industry: cost leadership, differentiation and focus. The focus strategy has two variants, cost focus and differentiation focus."
The concept of choice was a different perspective on strategy, as the 1970s paradigm was the pursuit of market share (size and scale) influenced by the experience curve. Companies that pursued the highest market share position to achieve cost advantages fit under Porter's cost leadership generic strategy, but the concept of choice regarding differentiation and focus represented a new perspective.
Value chain
Porter's 1985 description of the value chain refers to the chain of activities (processes or collections of processes) that an organization performs in order to deliver a valuable product or service for the market. These include functions such as inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service, supported by systems and technology infrastructure. By aligning the various activities in its value chain with the organization's strategy in a coherent way, a firm can achieve a competitive advantage. Porter also wrote that strategy is an internally consistent configuration of activities that differentiates a firm from its rivals. A robust competitive position cumulates from many activities which should fit coherently together.
Porter wrote in 1985: "Competitive advantage cannot be understood by looking at a firm as a whole. It stems from the many discrete activities a firm performs in designing, producing, marketing, delivering and supporting its product. Each of these activities can contribute to a firm's relative cost position and create a basis for differentiation...the value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation."
Interorganizational relationships
Interorganizational relationships allow independent organizations to get access to resources or to enter new markets. Interorganizational relationships represent a critical lever of competitive advantage.
The field of strategic management has paid much attention to the different forms of relationships between organizations ranging from strategic alliances to buyer-supplier relationships, joint ventures, networks, R&D consortia, licensing, and franchising.
On the one hand, scholars drawing on organizational economics (e.g., transaction costs theory) have argued that firms use interorganizational relationships when they are the most efficient form comparatively to other forms of organization such as operating on its own or using the market. On the other hand, scholars drawing on organizational theory (e.g., resource dependence theory) suggest that firms tend to partner with others when such relationships allow them to improve their status, power, reputation, or legitimacy.
A key component to the strategic management of inter-organizational relationships relates to the choice of governance mechanisms. While early research focused on the choice between equity and non equity forms, recent scholarship studies the nature of the contractual and relational arrangements between organizations.
Researchers have also noted, although to a lesser extent, the dark side of interorganizational relationships, such as conflict, disputes, opportunism and unethical behaviors. Relational or collaborative risk can be defined as the uncertainty about whether potentially significant and/or disappointing outcomes of collaborative activities will be realized. Companies can assess, monitor and manage collaborative risks. Empirical studies show that managers assess risks as lower when they external partners, higher if they are satisfied with their own performance, and lower when their business environment is turbulent.
Core competence
Gary Hamel and C. K. Prahalad described the idea of core competency in 1990, the idea that each organization has some capability in which it excels and that the business should focus on opportunities in that area, letting others go or outsourcing them. Further, core competency is difficult to duplicate, as it involves the skills and coordination of people across a variety of functional areas or processes used to deliver value to customers. By outsourcing, companies expanded the concept of the value chain, with some elements within the entity and others without. Core competency is part of a branch of strategy called the resource-based view of the firm, which postulates that if activities are strategic as indicated by the value chain, then the organization's capabilities and ability to learn or adapt are also strategic.
Theory of the business
Peter Drucker wrote in 1994 about the "Theory of the Business," which represents the key assumptions underlying a firm's strategy. These assumptions are in three categories: a) the external environment, including society, market, customer, and technology; b) the mission of the organization; and c) the core competencies needed to accomplish the mission. He continued that a valid theory of the business has four specifications: 1) assumptions about the environment, mission, and core competencies must fit reality; 2) the assumptions in all three areas have to fit one another; 3) the theory of the business must be known and understood throughout the organization; and 4) the theory of the business has to be tested constantly.
He wrote that organizations get into trouble when the assumptions representing the theory of the business no longer fit reality. He used an example of retail department stores, where their theory of the business assumed that people who could afford to shop in department stores would do so. However, many shoppers abandoned department stores in favor of specialty retailers (often located outside of malls) when time became the primary factor in the shopping destination rather than income.
Drucker described the theory of the business as a "hypothesis" and a "discipline." He advocated building in systematic diagnostics, monitoring and testing of the assumptions comprising the theory of the business to maintain competitiveness.
Strategic thinking
Strategic thinking involves the generation and application of unique business insights to opportunities intended to create competitive advantage for a firm or organization. It involves challenging the assumptions underlying the organization's strategy and value proposition. Mintzberg wrote in 1994 that it is more about synthesis (i.e., "connecting the dots") than analysis (i.e., "finding the dots"). It is about "capturing what the manager learns from all sources (both the soft insights from his or her personal experiences and the experiences of others throughout the organization and the hard data from market research and the like) and then synthesizing that learning into a vision of the direction that the business should pursue." Mintzberg argued that strategic thinking is the critical part of formulating strategy, more so than strategic planning exercises.
General Andre Beaufre wrote in 1963 that strategic thinking "is a mental process, at once abstract and rational, which must be capable of synthesizing both psychological and material data. The strategist must have a great capacity for both analysis and synthesis; analysis is necessary to assemble the data on which he makes his diagnosis, synthesis in order to produce from these data the diagnosis itself--and the diagnosis in fact amounts to a choice between alternative courses of action."
Will Mulcaster argued that while much research and creative thought has been devoted to generating alternative strategies, too little work has been done on what influences the quality of strategic decision making and the effectiveness with which strategies are implemented. For instance, in retrospect it can be seen that the financial crisis of 2008–9 could have been avoided if the banks had paid more attention to the risks associated with their investments, but how should banks change the way they make decisions to improve the quality of their decisions in the future? Mulcaster's Managing Forces framework addresses this issue by identifying 11 forces that should be incorporated into the processes of decision making and strategic implementation. The 11 forces are: Time; Opposing forces; Politics; Perception; Holistic effects; Adding value; Incentives; Learning capabilities; Opportunity cost; Risk and Style.
Strategic planning
Strategic planning is a means of administering the formulation and implementation of strategy. Strategic planning is analytical in nature and refers to formalized procedures to produce the data and analyses used as inputs for strategic thinking, which synthesizes the data resulting in the strategy. Strategic planning may also refer to control mechanisms used to implement the strategy once it is determined. In other words, strategic planning happens around the strategy formation process.
Environmental analysis
Porter wrote in 1980 that formulation of competitive strategy includes consideration of four key elements:
Company strengths and weaknesses;
Personal values of the key implementers (i.e., management and the board)
Industry opportunities and threats; and
Broader societal expectations.
The first two elements relate to factors internal to the company (i.e., the internal environment), while the latter two relate to factors external to the company (i.e., the external environment).
There are many analytical frameworks which attempt to organize the strategic planning process. Examples of frameworks that address the four elements described above include:
External environment: PEST analysis or STEEP analysis is a framework used to examine the remote external environmental factors that can affect the organization, such as political, economic, social/demographic, and technological. Common variations include SLEPT, PESTLE, STEEPLE, and STEER analysis, each of which incorporates slightly different emphases.
Industry environment: The Porter Five Forces Analysis framework helps to determine the competitive rivalry and therefore attractiveness of a market. It is used to help determine the portfolio of offerings the organization will provide and in which markets.
Relationship of internal and external environment: SWOT analysis is one of the most basic and widely used frameworks, which examines both internal elements of the organization—Strengths and Weaknesses—and external elements—Opportunities and Threats. It helps examine the organization's resources in the context of its environment.
Scenario planning
A number of strategists use scenario planning techniques to deal with change. The way Peter Schwartz put it in 1991 is that strategic outcomes cannot be known in advance so the sources of competitive advantage cannot be predetermined. The fast changing business environment is too uncertain for us to find sustainable value in formulas of excellence or competitive advantage. Instead, scenario planning is a technique in which multiple outcomes can be developed, their implications assessed, and their likeliness of occurrence evaluated. According to Pierre Wack, scenario planning is about insight, complexity, and subtlety, not about formal analysis and numbers. The flowchart to the right provides a process for classifying a phenomenon as a scenario in the intuitive logics tradition.
Some business planners are starting to use a complexity theory approach to strategy. Complexity can be thought of as chaos with a dash of order. Chaos theory deals with turbulent systems that rapidly become disordered. Complexity is not quite so unpredictable. It involves multiple agents interacting in such a way that a glimpse of structure may appear.
Measuring and controlling implementation
Once the strategy is determined, various goals and measures may be established to chart a course for the organization, measure performance and control implementation of the strategy. Tools such as the balanced scorecard and strategy maps help crystallize the strategy, by relating key measures of success and performance to the strategy. These tools measure financial, marketing, production, organizational development, and innovation measures to achieve a 'balanced' perspective. Advances in information technology and data availability enable the gathering of more information about performance, allowing managers to take a much more analytical view of their business than before.
Strategy may also be organized as a series of "initiatives" or "programs", each of which comprises one or more projects. Various monitoring and feedback mechanisms may also be established, such as regular meetings between divisional and corporate management to control implementation.
Evaluation
A key component to strategic management which is often overlooked when planning is evaluation. There are many ways to evaluate whether or not strategic priorities and plans have been achieved, one such method is Robert Stake's Responsive Evaluation. Responsive evaluation provides a naturalistic and humanistic approach to program evaluation. In expanding beyond the goal-oriented or pre-ordinate evaluation design, responsive evaluation takes into consideration the program's background (history), conditions, and transactions among stakeholders. It is largely emergent, the design unfolds as contact is made with stakeholders.
Limitations
While strategies are established to set direction, focus effort, define or clarify the organization, and provide consistency or guidance in response to the environment, these very elements also mean that certain signals are excluded from consideration or de-emphasized. Mintzberg wrote in 1987: "Strategy is a categorizing scheme by which incoming stimuli can be ordered and dispatched." Since a strategy orients the organization in a particular manner or direction, that direction may not effectively match the environment, initially (if a bad strategy) or over time as circumstances change. As such, Mintzberg continued, "Strategy [once established] is a force that resists change, not encourages it."
Therefore, a critique of strategic management is that it can overly constrain managerial discretion in a dynamic environment. "How can individuals, organizations and societies cope as well as possible with ... issues too complex to be fully understood, given the fact that actions initiated on the basis of inadequate understanding may lead to significant regret?" Some theorists insist on an iterative approach, considering in turn objectives, implementation and resources. I.e., a "...repetitive learning cycle [rather than] a linear progression towards a clearly defined final destination." Strategies must be able to adjust during implementation because "humans rarely can proceed satisfactorily except by learning from experience; and modest probes, serially modified on the basis of feedback, usually are the best method for such learning."
In 2000, Gary Hamel coined the term strategic convergence to explain the limited scope of the strategies being used by rivals in greatly differing circumstances. He lamented that successful strategies are imitated by firms that do not understand that for a strategy to work, it must account for the specifics of each situation.
Woodhouse and Collingridge claim that the essence of being "strategic" lies in a capacity for "intelligent trial-and error" rather than strict adherence to finely honed strategic plans. Strategy should be seen as laying out the general path rather than precise steps. Means are as likely to determine ends as ends are to determine means. The objectives that an organization might wish to pursue are limited by the range of feasible approaches to implementation. (There will usually be only a small number of approaches that will not only be technically and administratively possible, but also satisfactory to the full range of organizational stakeholders.) In turn, the range of feasible implementation approaches is determined by the availability of resources.
Strategic themes
Various strategic approaches used across industries (themes) have arisen over the years. These include the shift from product-driven demand to customer- or marketing-driven demand (described above), the increased use of self-service approaches to lower cost, changes in the value chain or corporate structure due to globalization (e.g., off-shoring of production and assembly), and the internet.
Self-service
One theme in strategic competition has been the trend towards self-service, often enabled by technology, where the customer takes on a role previously performed by a worker to lower costs for the firm and perhaps prices. Examples include:
Automated teller machine (ATM) to obtain cash rather via a bank teller;
Self-service at the gas pump rather than with help from an attendant;
Retail internet orders input by the customer rather than a retail clerk, such as online book sales;
Mass-produced ready-to-assemble furniture transported by the customer;
Self-checkout at the grocery store; and
Online banking and bill payment.
Globalization and the virtual firm
One definition of globalization refers to the integration of economies due to technology and supply chain process innovation. Companies are no longer required to be vertically integrated (i.e., designing, producing, assembling, and selling their products). In other words, the value chain for a company's product may no longer be entirely within one firm; several entities comprising a virtual firm may exist to fulfill the customer requirement. For example, some companies have chosen to outsource production to third parties, retaining only design and sales functions inside their organization.
Internet and information availability
The internet has dramatically empowered consumers and enabled buyers and sellers to come together with drastically reduced transaction and intermediary costs, creating much more robust marketplaces for the purchase and sale of goods and services. Examples include online auction sites, internet dating services, and internet book sellers. In many industries, the internet has dramatically altered the competitive landscape. Services that used to be provided within one entity (e.g., a car dealership providing financing and pricing information) are now provided by third parties. Further, compared to traditional media like television, the internet has caused a major shift in viewing habits through on demand content which has led to an increasingly fragmented audience.
Author Phillip Evans said in 2013 that networks are challenging traditional hierarchies. Value chains may also be breaking up ("deconstructing") where information aspects can be separated from functional activity. Data that is readily available for free or very low cost makes it harder for information-based, vertically integrated businesses to remain intact. Evans said: "The basic story here is that what used to be vertically integrated, oligopolistic competition among essentially similar kinds of competitors is evolving, by one means or another, from a vertical structure to a horizontal one. Why is that happening? It's happening because transaction costs are plummeting and because scale is polarizing. The plummeting of transaction costs weakens the glue that holds value chains together, and allows them to separate." He used Wikipedia as an example of a network that has challenged the traditional encyclopedia business model. Evans predicts the emergence of a new form of industrial organization called a "stack", analogous to a technology stack, in which competitors rely on a common platform of inputs (services or information), essentially layering the remaining competing parts of their value chains on top of this common platform.
Sustainability
In the recent decade, sustainability—or ability to successfully sustain a company in a context of rapidly changing environmental, social, health, and economic circumstances—has emerged as crucial aspect of any strategy development. Research focusing on corporations and leaders who have integrated sustainability into commercial strategy has led to emergence of the concept of "embedded sustainability" – defined by its authors Chris Laszlo and Nadya Zhexembayeva as "incorporation of environmental, health, and social value into the core business with no trade-off in price or quality—in other words, with no social or green premium." Their research showed that embedded sustainability offers at least seven distinct opportunities for business value and competitive advantage creation: a) better risk-management, b) increased efficiency through reduced waste and resource use, c) better product differentiation, d) new market entrances, e) enhanced brand and reputation, f) greater opportunity to influence industry standards, and g) greater opportunity for radical innovation. Research further suggested that innovation driven by resource depletion can result in fundamental competitive advantages for a company's products and services, as well as the company strategy as a whole, when right principles of innovation are applied. Asset managers who committed to integrating embedded sustainability factors in their capital allocation decisions created a stronger return on investment than managers that did not strategically integrate sustainability into their similar business model.
Strategy as learning
In 1990, Peter Senge, who had collaborated with Arie de Geus at Dutch Shell, popularized de Geus' notion of the "learning organization". The theory is that gathering and analyzing information is a necessary requirement for business success in the information age. To do this, Senge claimed that an organization would need to be structured such that:
People can continuously expand their capacity to learn and be productive.
New patterns of thinking are nurtured.
Collective aspirations are encouraged.
People are encouraged to see the "whole picture" together.
Senge identified five disciplines of a learning organization. They are:
Personal responsibility, self-reliance, and mastery – We accept that we are the masters of our own destiny. We make decisions and live with the consequences of them. When a problem needs to be fixed, or an opportunity exploited, we take the initiative to learn the required skills to get it done.
Mental models – We need to explore our personal mental models to understand the subtle effect they have on our behaviour.
Shared vision – The vision of where we want to be in the future is discussed and communicated to all. It provides guidance and energy for the journey ahead.
Team learning – We learn together in teams. This involves a shift from "a spirit of advocacy to a spirit of enquiry".
Systems thinking – We look at the whole rather than the parts. This is what Senge calls the "Fifth discipline". It is the glue that integrates the other four into a coherent strategy. For an alternative approach to the "learning organization", see Garratt, B. (1987).
Geoffrey Moore (1991) and R. Frank and P. Cook also detected a shift in the nature of competition. Markets driven by technical standards or by "network effects" can give the dominant firm a near-monopoly. The same is true of networked industries in which interoperability requires compatibility between users. Examples include Internet Explorer's and Amazon's early dominance of their respective industries. IE's later decline shows that such dominance may be only temporary.
Moore showed how firms could attain this enviable position by using E.M. Rogers' five stage adoption process and focusing on one group of customers at a time, using each group as a base for reaching the next group. The most difficult step is making the transition between introduction and mass acceptance. (See Crossing the Chasm). If successful a firm can create a bandwagon effect in which the momentum builds and its product becomes a de facto standard.
Strategy as adapting to change
In 1969, Peter Drucker coined the phrase Age of Discontinuity to describe the way change disrupts lives. In an age of continuity attempts to predict the future by extrapolating from the past can be accurate. But according to Drucker, we are now in an age of discontinuity and extrapolating is ineffective. He identifies four sources of discontinuity: new technologies, globalization, cultural pluralism and knowledge capital.
In 1970, Alvin Toffler in Future Shock described a trend towards accelerating rates of change. He illustrated how social and technical phenomena had shorter lifespans with each generation, and he questioned society's ability to cope with the resulting turmoil and accompanying anxiety. In past eras periods of change were always punctuated with times of stability. This allowed society to assimilate the change before the next change arrived. But these periods of stability had all but disappeared by the late 20th century. In 1980 in The Third Wave, Toffler characterized this shift to relentless change as the defining feature of the third phase of civilization (the first two phases being the agricultural and industrial waves).
In 1978, Derek F. Abell (Abell, D. 1978) described "strategic windows" and stressed the importance of the timing (both entrance and exit) of any given strategy. This led some strategic planners to build planned obsolescence into their strategies.
In 1983, Noel Tichy wrote that because we are all beings of habit we tend to repeat what we are comfortable with. He wrote that this is a trap that constrains our creativity, prevents us from exploring new ideas, and hampers our dealing with the full complexity of new issues. He developed a systematic method of dealing with change that involved looking at any new issue from three angles: technical and production, political and resource allocation, and corporate culture.
In 1989, Charles Handy identified two types of change. "Strategic drift" is a gradual change that occurs so subtly that it is not noticed until it is too late. By contrast, "transformational change" is sudden and radical. It is typically caused by discontinuities (or exogenous shocks) in the business environment. The point where a new trend is initiated is called a "strategic inflection point" by Andy Grove. Inflection points can be subtle or radical.
In 1990, Richard Pascale wrote that relentless change requires that businesses continuously reinvent themselves. His famous maxim is "Nothing fails like success" by which he means that what was a strength yesterday becomes the root of weakness today, We tend to depend on what worked yesterday and refuse to let go of what worked so well for us in the past. Prevailing strategies become self-confirming. To avoid this trap, businesses must stimulate a spirit of inquiry and healthy debate. They must encourage a creative process of self-renewal based on constructive conflict.
In 1996, Adrian Slywotzky showed how changes in the business environment are reflected in value migrations between industries, between companies, and within companies. He claimed that recognizing the patterns behind these value migrations is necessary if we wish to understand the world of chaotic change. In "Profit Patterns" (1999) he described businesses as being in a state of strategic anticipation as they try to spot emerging patterns. Slywotsky and his team identified 30 patterns that have transformed industry after industry.
In 1997, Clayton Christensen (1997) took the position that great companies can fail precisely because they do everything right since the capabilities of the organization also define its disabilities. Christensen's thesis is that outstanding companies lose their market leadership when confronted with disruptive technology. He called the approach to discovering the emerging markets for disruptive technologies agnostic marketing, i.e., marketing under the implicit assumption that no one – not the company, not the customers – can know how or in what quantities a disruptive product can or will be used without the experience of using it.
In 1999, Constantinos Markides reexamined the nature of strategic planning. He described strategy formation and implementation as an ongoing, never-ending, integrated process requiring continuous reassessment and reformation. Strategic management is planned and emergent, dynamic and interactive.
J. Moncrieff (1999) stressed strategy dynamics. He claimed that strategy is partially deliberate and partially unplanned. The unplanned element comes from emergent strategies that result from the emergence of opportunities and threats in the environment and from "strategies in action" (ad hoc actions across the organization).
David Teece pioneered research on resource-based strategic management and the dynamic capabilities perspective, defined as "the ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure internal and external competencies to address rapidly changing environments". His 1997 paper (with Gary Pisano and Amy Shuen) "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management" was the most cited paper in economics and business for the period from 1995 to 2005.
In 2000, Gary Hamel discussed strategic decay, the notion that the value of every strategy, no matter how brilliant, decays over time.
Strategy as operational excellence
Quality
A large group of theorists felt the area where western business was most lacking was product quality. W. Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, A. Kearney, Philip Crosby and Armand Feignbaum suggested quality improvement techniques such total quality management (TQM), continuous improvement (kaizen), lean manufacturing, Six Sigma, and return on quality (ROQ).
Contrarily, James Heskett (1988), Earl Sasser (1995), William Davidow, Len Schlesinger, A. Paraurgman (1988), Len Berry, Jane Kingman-Brundage, Christopher Hart, and Christopher Lovelock (1994), felt that poor customer service was the problem. They gave us fishbone diagramming, service charting, Total Customer Service (TCS), the service profit chain, service gaps analysis, the service encounter, strategic service vision, service mapping, and service teams. Their underlying assumption was that there is no better source of competitive advantage than a continuous stream of delighted customers.
Process management uses some of the techniques from product quality management and some of the techniques from customer service management. It looks at an activity as a sequential process. The objective is to find inefficiencies and make the process more effective. Although the procedures have a long history, dating back to Taylorism, the scope of their applicability has been greatly widened, leaving no aspect of the firm free from potential process improvements. Because of the broad applicability of process management techniques, they can be used as a basis for competitive advantage.
Carl Sewell, Frederick F. Reichheld, C. Gronroos, and Earl Sasser observed that businesses were spending more on customer acquisition than on retention. They showed how a competitive advantage could be found in ensuring that customers returned again and again. Reicheld broadened the concept to include loyalty from employees, suppliers, distributors and shareholders. They developed techniques for estimating customer lifetime value (CLV) for assessing long-term relationships. The concepts begat attempts to recast selling and marketing into a long term endeavor that created a sustained relationship (called relationship selling, relationship marketing, and customer relationship management). Customer relationship management (CRM) software became integral to many firms.
Reengineering
Michael Hammer and James Champy felt that these resources needed to be restructured. In a process that they labeled reengineering, firm's reorganized their assets around whole processes rather than tasks. In this way a team of people saw a project through, from inception to completion. This avoided functional silos where isolated departments seldom talked to each other. It also eliminated waste due to functional overlap and interdepartmental communications.
In 1989 Richard Lester and the researchers at the MIT Industrial Performance Center identified seven best practices and concluded that firms must accelerate the shift away from the mass production of low cost standardized products. The seven areas of best practice were:
Simultaneous continuous improvement in cost, quality, service, and product innovation
Breaking down organizational barriers between departments
Eliminating layers of management creating flatter organizational hierarchies.
Closer relationships with customers and suppliers
Intelligent use of new technology
Global focus
Improving human resource skills
The search for best practices is also called benchmarking. This involves determining where you need to improve, finding an organization that is exceptional in this area, then studying the company and applying its best practices in your firm.
Other perspectives on strategy
Strategy as problem solving
Professor Richard P. Rumelt described strategy as a type of problem solving in 2011. He wrote that good strategy has an underlying structure called a kernel. The kernel has three parts: 1) A diagnosis that defines or explains the nature of the challenge; 2) A guiding policy for dealing with the challenge; and 3) Coherent actions designed to carry out the guiding policy.
President Kennedy outlined these three elements of strategy in his Cuban Missile Crisis Address to the Nation of 22 October 1962:
Diagnosis: "This Government, as promised, has maintained the closest surveillance of the Soviet military buildup on the island of Cuba. Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere."
Guiding Policy: "Our unswerving objective, therefore, must be to prevent the use of these missiles against this or any other country, and to secure their withdrawal or elimination from the Western Hemisphere."
Action Plans: First among seven numbered steps was the following: "To halt this offensive buildup a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation or port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back."
Active strategic management required active information gathering and active problem solving. In the early days of Hewlett-Packard (HP), Dave Packard and Bill Hewlett devised an active management style that they called management by walking around (MBWA). Senior HP managers were seldom at their desks. They spent most of their days visiting employees, customers, and suppliers. This direct contact with key people provided them with a solid grounding from which viable strategies could be crafted. Management consultants Tom Peters and Robert H. Waterman had used the term in their 1982 book In Search of Excellence: Lessons From America's Best-Run Companies. Some Japanese managers employ a similar system, which originated at Honda, and is sometimes called the 3 G's (Genba, Genbutsu, and Genjitsu, which translate into "actual place", "actual thing", and "actual situation").
Creative vs analytic approaches
In 2010, IBM released a study summarizing three conclusions of 1500 CEOs around the world: 1) complexity is escalating, 2) enterprises are not equipped to cope with this complexity, and 3) creativity is now the single most important leadership competency. IBM said that it is needed in all aspects of leadership, including strategic thinking and planning.
Similarly, McKeown argued that over-reliance on any particular approach to strategy is dangerous and that multiple methods can be used to combine the creativity and analytics to create an "approach to shaping the future", that is difficult to copy.
Non-strategic management
A 1938 treatise by Chester Barnard, based on his own experience as a business executive, described the process as informal, intuitive, non-routinized and involving primarily oral, 2-way communications. Bernard says "The process is the sensing of the organization as a whole and the total situation relevant to it. It transcends the capacity of merely intellectual methods, and the techniques of discriminating the factors of the situation. The terms pertinent to it are "feeling", "judgement", "sense", "proportion", "balance", "appropriateness". It is a matter of art rather than science."
In 1973, Mintzberg found that senior managers typically deal with unpredictable situations so they strategize in ad hoc, flexible, dynamic, and implicit ways. He wrote, "The job breeds adaptive information-manipulators who prefer the live concrete situation. The manager works in an environment of stimulus-response, and he develops in his work a clear preference for live action."
In 1982, John Kotter studied the daily activities of 15 executives and concluded that they spent most of their time developing and working a network of relationships that provided general insights and specific details for strategic decisions. They tended to use "mental road maps" rather than systematic planning techniques.
Daniel Isenberg's 1984 study of senior managers found that their decisions were highly intuitive. Executives often sensed what they were going to do before they could explain why. He claimed in 1986 that one of the reasons for this is the complexity of strategic decisions and the resultant information uncertainty.
Zuboff claimed that information technology was widening the divide between senior managers (who typically make strategic decisions) and operational level managers (who typically make routine decisions). She alleged that prior to the widespread use of computer systems, managers, even at the most senior level, engaged in both strategic decisions and routine administration, but as computers facilitated (She called it "deskilled") routine processes, these activities were moved further down the hierarchy, leaving senior management free for strategic decision making.
In 1977, Abraham Zaleznik distinguished leaders from managers. He described leaders as visionaries who inspire, while managers care about process. He claimed that the rise of managers was the main cause of the decline of American business in the 1970s and 1980s. Lack of leadership is most damaging at the level of strategic management where it can paralyze an entire organization.
According to Corner, Kinichi, and Keats, strategic decision making in organizations occurs at two levels: individual and aggregate. They developed a model of parallel strategic decision making. The model identifies two parallel processes that involve getting attention, encoding information, storage and retrieval of information, strategic choice, strategic outcome and feedback. The individual and organizational processes interact at each stage. For instance, competition-oriented objectives are based on the knowledge of competing firms, such as their market share.
Strategy as marketing
The 1980s also saw the widespread acceptance of positioning theory. Although the theory originated with Jack Trout in 1969, it didn't gain wide acceptance until Al Ries and Jack Trout wrote their classic book Positioning: The Battle For Your Mind (1979). The basic premise is that a strategy should not be judged by internal company factors but by the way customers see it relative to the competition. Crafting and implementing a strategy involves creating a position in the mind of the collective consumer. Several techniques enabled the practical use of positioning theory. Perceptual mapping for example, creates visual displays of the relationships between positions. Multidimensional scaling, discriminant analysis, factor analysis and conjoint analysis are mathematical techniques used to determine the most relevant characteristics (called dimensions or factors) upon which positions should be based. Preference regression can be used to determine vectors of ideal positions and cluster analysis can identify clusters of positions.
In 1992 Jay Barney saw strategy as assembling the optimum mix of resources, including human, technology and suppliers, and then configuring them in unique and sustainable ways.
James Gilmore and Joseph Pine found competitive advantage in mass customization. Flexible manufacturing techniques allowed businesses to individualize products for each customer without losing economies of scale. This effectively turned the product into a service. They also realized that if a service is mass-customized by creating a "performance" for each individual client, that service would be transformed into an "experience". Their book, The Experience Economy, along with the work of Bernd Schmitt convinced many to see service provision as a form of theatre. This school of thought is sometimes referred to as customer experience management (CEM).
Information- and technology-driven strategy
Many industries with a high information component are being transformed. For example, Encarta demolished Encyclopædia Britannica (whose sales have plummeted 80% since their peak of $650 million in 1990) before it was in turn, eclipsed by collaborative encyclopedias like Wikipedia. The music industry was similarly disrupted. The technology sector has provided some strategies directly. For example, from the software development industry agile software development provides a model for shared development processes.
Peter Drucker conceived of the "knowledge worker" in the 1950s. He described how fewer workers would do physical labor, and more would apply their minds. In 1984, John Naisbitt theorized that the future would be driven largely by information: companies that managed information well could obtain an advantage, however the profitability of what he called "information float" (information that the company had and others desired) would disappear as inexpensive computers made information more accessible.
Daniel Bell (1985) examined the sociological consequences of information technology, while Gloria Schuck and Shoshana Zuboff looked at psychological factors. Zuboff distinguished between "automating technologies" and "informating technologies". She studied the effect that both had on workers, managers and organizational structures. She largely confirmed Drucker's predictions about the importance of flexible decentralized structure, work teams, knowledge sharing and the knowledge worker's central role. Zuboff also detected a new basis for managerial authority, based on knowledge (also predicted by Drucker) which she called "participative management".
Maturity of planning process
McKinsey & Company developed a capability maturity model in the 1970s to describe the sophistication of planning processes, with strategic management ranked the highest. The four stages include:
Financial planning, which is primarily about annual budgets and a functional focus, with limited regard for the environment;
Forecast-based planning, which includes multi-year budgets and more robust capital allocation across business units;
Externally oriented planning, where a thorough situation analysis and competitive assessment is performed;
Strategic management, where widespread strategic thinking occurs and a well-defined strategic framework is used.
PIMS study
The long-term PIMS study, started in the 1960s and lasting for 19 years, attempted to understand the Profit Impact of Marketing Strategies (PIMS), particularly the effect of market share. The initial conclusion of the study was unambiguous: the greater a company's market share, the greater their rate of profit. Market share provides economies of scale. It also provides experience curve advantages. The combined effect is increased profits.
The benefits of high market share naturally led to an interest in growth strategies. The relative advantages of horizontal integration, vertical integration, diversification, franchises, mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures and organic growth were discussed. Other research indicated that a low market share strategy could still be very profitable. Schumacher (1973), Woo and Cooper (1982), Levenson (1984), and later Traverso (2002) showed how smaller niche players obtained very high returns.
Other influences on business strategy
Military strategy
In the 1980s business strategists realized that there was a vast knowledge base stretching back thousands of years that they had barely examined. They turned to military strategy for guidance. Military strategy books such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu, On War by von Clausewitz, and The Red Book by Mao Zedong became business classics. From Sun Tzu, they learned the tactical side of military strategy and specific tactical prescriptions. From von Clausewitz, they learned the dynamic and unpredictable nature of military action. From Mao, they learned the principles of guerrilla warfare. Important marketing warfare books include Business War Games by Barrie James, Marketing Warfare by Al Ries and Jack Trout and Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun by Wess Roberts.
The four types of business warfare theories are:
Offensive marketing warfare strategies
Defensive marketing warfare strategies
Flanking marketing warfare strategies
Guerrilla marketing warfare strategies
The marketing warfare literature also examined leadership and motivation, intelligence gathering, types of marketing weapons, logistics and communications.
By the twenty-first century marketing warfare strategies had gone out of favour in favor of non-confrontational approaches. In 1989, Dudley Lynch and Paul L. Kordis published Strategy of the Dolphin: Scoring a Win in a Chaotic World. "The Strategy of the Dolphin" was developed to give guidance as to when to use aggressive strategies and when to use passive strategies. A variety of aggressiveness strategies were developed.
In 1993, J. Moore used a similar metaphor. Instead of using military terms, he created an ecological theory of predators and prey(see ecological model of competition), a sort of Darwinian management strategy in which market interactions mimic long term ecological stability.
Author Phillip Evans said in 2014 that "Henderson's central idea was what you might call the Napoleonic idea of concentrating mass against weakness, of overwhelming the enemy. What Henderson recognized was that, in the business world, there are many phenomena which are characterized by what economists would call increasing returns—scale, experience. The more you do of something, disproportionately the better you get. And therefore he found a logic for investing in such kinds of overwhelming mass in order to achieve competitive advantage. And that was the first introduction of essentially a military concept of strategy into the business world. ... It was on those two ideas, Henderson's idea of increasing returns to scale and experience, and Porter's idea of the value chain, encompassing heterogenous elements, that the whole edifice of business strategy was subsequently erected."
Traits of successful companies
Like Peters and Waterman a decade earlier, James Collins and Jerry Porras spent years conducting empirical research on what makes great companies. Six years of research uncovered a key underlying principle behind the 19 successful companies that they studied: They all encourage and preserve a core ideology that nurtures the company. Even though strategy and tactics change daily, the companies, nevertheless, were able to maintain a core set of values. These core values encourage employees to build an organization that lasts. In Built To Last (1994) they claim that short term profit goals, cost cutting, and restructuring will not stimulate dedicated employees to build a great company that will endure. In 2000 Collins coined the term "built to flip" to describe the prevailing business attitudes in Silicon Valley. It describes a business culture where technological change inhibits a long term focus. He also popularized the concept of the BHAG (Big Hairy Audacious Goal).
Arie de Geus (1997) undertook a similar study and obtained similar results. He identified four key traits of companies that had prospered for 50 years or more. They are:
Sensitivity to the business environment – the ability to learn and adjust
Cohesion and identity – the ability to build a community with personality, vision, and purpose
Tolerance and decentralization – the ability to build relationships
Conservative financing
A company with these key characteristics he called a living company because it is able to perpetuate itself. If a company emphasizes knowledge rather than finance, and sees itself as an ongoing community of human beings, it has the potential to become great and endure for decades. Such an organization is an organic entity capable of learning (he called it a "learning organization") and capable of creating its own processes, goals, and persona.
Will Mulcaster suggests that firms engage in a dialogue that centres around these questions:
Will the proposed competitive advantage create Perceived Differential Value?"
Will the proposed competitive advantage create something that is different from the competition?"
Will the difference add value in the eyes of potential customers?" – This question will entail a discussion of the combined effects of price, product features and consumer perceptions.
Will the product add value for the firm?" – Answering this question will require an examination of cost effectiveness and the pricing strategy.
See also
Balanced scorecard
Business analysis
Business model
Business plan
Concept-driven strategy
Cost overrun
Dynamic capabilities
Integrated business planning
Marketing
Marketing plan
Marketing strategies
Management
Management consulting
Military strategy
Morphological analysis
Overall equipment effectiveness
Real options valuation
Results-based management
Revenue shortfall
Strategy (game theory)
Strategy dynamics
Strategic lenses
Strategic planning
Strategic Management Society
Strategy map
Strategy Markup Language
Strategy visualization
Value migration
Six Forces Model
Adversarial purchasing
References
Further reading
Cameron, Bobby Thomas. (2014). Using responsive evaluation in Strategic Management.Strategic Leadership Review 4 (2), 22–27.
David Besanko, David Dranove, Scott Schaefer, and Mark Shanley (2012) Economics of Strategy, John Wiley & Sons,
Edwards, Janice et al. Mastering Strategic Management- 1st Canadian Edition. BC Open Textbooks, 2014.
Kemp, Roger L. "Strategic Planning for Local Government: A Handbook for Officials and Citizens," McFarland and Co., Inc., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, England, UK, 2008 ()
Kvint, Vladimir (2009) The Global Emerging Market: Strategic Management and Economics Excerpt from Google Books
Pankaj Ghemawhat - Harvard Strategy Professor: Competition and Business Strategy in Historical Perspective Social Science History Network-Spring 2002
External links
Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness at Harvard Business School - recent publications
The Journal of Business Strategies - online library
Systems thinking
Business terms
Management by type
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239452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodeci | Jodeci | Jodeci ( ) is an American R&B quartet with members DeVanté Swing, Mr. Dalvin, K-Ci, and JoJo. Formed in 1989 in Charlotte, North Carolina, Jodeci's members began their musical careers as two duos of brothers and, after years of limited success, joined forces. After signing with Uptown Records in 1991, the group began to work on their debut album, Forever My Lady, which brought them mainstream success with the Billboard Hot 100 single "Come and Talk to Me" and the album's titular track.
The group's critical and commercial success continued with the releases of Diary of a Mad Band (1993), and also with The Show, the After Party, the Hotel (1995), where the group experimented with various musical styles typically not associated with traditional R&B. Jodeci would incorporate hip hop soul, gospel and new jack swing into their music, which led to the group featured prominently with hip hop artists during the 1990s. Each album released by the group during this period attained platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and helped to redefine the genre, allowing for developments in thematic and musical content within R&B.
In 1996, they announced a hiatus - though continuing to work on music as a group - which prompted K-Ci & JoJo to branch off as a duo, releasing five albums until 2013, when the group re-united for their fourth studio album, The Past, the Present, the Future (2015). Jodeci has sold more than 20 million records worldwide to date. Complex magazine ranks the group 1st on their "1990s Male R&B Group Pyramid of Excellence" list in 2014, one of the most influential groups of the 1990s, and the best R&B group of all time. Damon Hart was the last manager.
History
1983–1991: Early beginnings and formation
Raised in extremely religious Pentecostal families, K-Ci and JoJo - then known as Little Cedric & the Hailey Singers - originally performed and recorded as a gospel group, releasing three albums; Jesus Saves, I'm Alright Now, and God's Blessings. K-Ci would later draw comparisons to Michael Jackson during his gospel career. Separately, Mr. Dalvin and DeVanté Swing performed and toured in their own family's gospel group, where the duos later made acquaintances through relationships the members were in at the time. In a 2011 interview, Dalvin stated, "there was this girl gospel group called UNITY and then the Don DeGrate Delegation, which Devanté and I played in. So we met some of the girls from UNITY and [one] was dating K-Ci before we even met [and she] would always tell us that we need to meet K-Ci and JoJo." A short time after meeting, the brothers started living together after leaving their families to pursue musical careers.
At 16, DeVanté Swing traveled to Minneapolis, hoping to visit Paisley Park Studios in order to audition to Prince. Swing would later say, "I was up at Paisley Park every day begging for a job, asking people to listen to my tape. The receptionist kept saying she couldn't help me". The rejection motivated Swing to relocate back to North Carolina, and work to improve his songwriting and production skills. Upon arriving, Swing continued to record with the group's additional members, eventually forming Jodeci, and began work on a demo tape to present to label executives. The name Jodeci is an abbreviation of all the members names. "Jo" comes from JoJo, "De" comes from the last name of the DeGrate brothers, and Ci comes from K-Ci.
The members soon drove to New York City with a 29-song, 3 tape demo, anticipating a signing deal with upstart Uptown Records. Upon arriving to New York, and without the knowledge of the whereabouts of the MCA subsidiary, the group used a phone book to find the company's address, located on Clinton Street in Brooklyn. Swing later commented on the signing, "we didn't have an appointment but I knew what Uptown was, and I wanted us to be there." The group was quickly denied an audition until Andre Harrell agreed to hear the demo. In skepticism of the high quality production, Harrell requested the group to perform, where they performed "Come and Talk to Me" and "I'm Still Waiting", in the presence of Jeff Redd. Hip hop artist Heavy D overheard the performance and consulted Harrell, eventually taking the group out to dinner and awarding them a recording contract.
Jodeci was assigned to Uptown intern Sean Combs, who took on the task of developing the new act. Counteracting the refined styles prominent in R&B showcased by New Edition and Boyz II Men, Mr. Dalvin created the group's image. Combs helped get the image through to Andre Harrell, perpetuating hip-hop fashion, such as baseball caps and Timberland boots, to the group in order to establish a different aesthetic in the genre. The group was introduced after providing background vocals on the song "Treat Them Like They Want to Be Treated", and performed live on Soul Train on June 11, 1991.
1990–1995: Forever My Lady, Diary of a Mad Band, and The Show, the After Party, the Hotel
Landing a recording deal in 1991, the group released their debut album Forever My Lady that same year. Writer Ronin Ro maintained, "They no longer resembled gospel singers… Puffy also asked them to build their mystique by posing for photos with their backs to the camera, which he borrowed from Guy's stage show." The album's seductive energy showcased DeVanté's songwriting, establishing a uniqueness in his production that mixed old-fashioned soul singing with New Jack Swing, creating a production of great boldness. It featured the number 1 R&B singles "Forever My Lady," "Stay," and "Come and Talk to Me." Mr. Dalvin recalls how the album Forever My Lady was created, "The last version of the album that was released only took us a week to finish because we had already written the songs. It was about getting our sounds right because the vocals were already done. It was us going back in the studio recreating the beats and the melodies... Most of the songs were written before we left North Carolina. My brother was 16 and I was 14 when we wrote the songs..." The album went on to sell over three million copies.
In 1993, a minor feud resulted over the band's second album, Diary of a Mad Band; Jodeci, unhappy with their treatment by Uptown, flirted with the idea of leaving for Death Row Records, which resulted in almost zero promotion for the album. Reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200 and number-one on the R&B album chart, where it stayed for two weeks, spawning the #1 R&B hit "Cry for You"; "Feenin'" and "What About Us", Diary of a Mad Band eventually went double platinum.
Jodeci's third album, The Show, the After Party, the Hotel, was released in July 1995, reaching the second spot on the Billboard 200 making it the group's highest-peaking release and topping the U.S. R&B Albums chart. By September 1995, it was certified platinum in sales by the RIAA, after sales exceeding one million copies in the United States. The album contained the Top 40 hits "Freek'n You", "Love U 4 Life" and "Get on Up".
2014–present: Return and The Past, the Present, the Future
In February 2014, Timbaland revealed that he was in the process of working with Jodeci on their comeback album.
On November 7, 2014, Jodeci reunited and performed a medley of their classic songs at the 2014 Soul Train Awards. The performance also included a snippet of a brand-new single titled "Nobody Wins," which was released on December 22, 2014. The song is the first single released by Jodeci in over 18 years. The last song released by the group was "Get on Up", in 1996. Prior to the performance, the group had not taken the stage together in the U.S. since 2006.
On January 28, 2015, a second single titled "Every Moment" was released. Also in that same month, it was announced by Epic Records that Jodeci had been signed to the label to release their new album. Timbaland, who recently brought his Mosley Music Group over to Epic, worked on the album. Their fourth album, The Past, the Present, the Future, was released on March 31, 2015. It was their first album in 20 years.
Shortly after the album's release, a Jodeci reunion tour was announced. The first show took place on June 6, 2015, in Richmond, Virginia, as a part of the city's 11th annual Stone Soul Music Festival. Jodeci headlined the event, marking the group's first official concert performance together in the United States since 1995.
Legacy and influence
Most of the elements that were eventually combined to form what became known as the "Jodeci style" originated with the work of new jack swing pioneers Keith Sweat and Teddy Riley, with an important influence being the work of Riley's three-man group Guy. Other influences include the works of Bobby Womack, Stevie Wonder, The Temptations, Bobby Brown,
and New Edition. The group's cover of Stevie Wonder's 1981 song "Lately", became their biggest pop hit to date, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1993.
Artists and producers heavily influenced by Jodeci were those were directly or indirectly associated with them, including Mary J. Blige, Dru Hill, Usher and a number of the members of DeVanté's Swing Mob collective who he discovered and nurtured: Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Nealante, Magoo, Ginuwine, Stevie J, Playa (who R&B singer & songwriter Static Major was a part of) with Smoke E. Digglera, Suga (who R&B act Tweet was a part of), and Darryl Pearson.
To date, Jodeci remains well respected and revered among most hip-hop circles for their street-flavored sound and urban appeal. The group has been mentioned and sampled in songs by a number of hip-hop artists including Notorious B.I.G., Twista, Jay-Z, Insane Clown Posse, Big K.R.I.T., David Banner, Bump J, Wale, Freddie Gibbs, Bun B, Tyga, CyHi the Prynce, Young Thug, Bryson Tiller and most notably Drake, who, along with J. Cole released a song titled "Jodeci Freestyle" in June 2013. The song pays homage to the group and samples "4 U", an interlude from The Show, the After Party, the Hotel. On October 19, 2014, a Drake song titled "How About Now" leaked to the internet. The song samples Jodeci's "My Heart Belongs To U", and was later released in 2015 as a bonus track on the physical release of Drake's album/mixtape If You're Reading This It's Too Late.
Mariah Carey repeatedly mentions Jodeci in her song "The Impossible" from her album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, which sampled "Forever My Lady". She also samples Jodeci's "Freek'n You" in her song "Makin' It Last All Night" featuring Jermaine Dupri. Additionally, she sampled a line from "Bring On Da' Funk" in her song "Don't Stop (Funkin' 4 Jamaica)" on her album Glitter.
Cardi B also mentions Jodeci in Bruno Mars' and her song "Please Me".
Jodeci's "Freek'n You" is used as the ending theme in JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Golden Wind.
Members
Current
DeVante Swing – (1989–present) (producer, songwriter, background vocals; the bass in the group's harmony)
Mr. Dalvin – (1989–present) (producer, songwriter, background vocals; baritone)
K-Ci – (1989–present) (lead vocalist, songwriter, second tenor/baritone)
JoJo – (1989–present) (lead vocalist, songwriter, first tenor/falsetto)
Discography
Studio albums
Forever My Lady (1991)
Diary of a Mad Band (1993)
The Show, the After Party, the Hotel (1995)
The Past, the Present, the Future (2015)
Awards and honors
Billboard Music Award for Top R&B Album - Forever My Lady (1992)
Billboard Music Award for Top R&B Song - Come and Talk to Me (1992)
Billboard Music Award for Top R&B Artist (1992)
Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B/Soul Album, Group, Band or Duo - Forever My Lady (1992)
Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B/Soul Single - Lately (1994)
North Carolina Music Hall of Fame (2012)
See also
K-Ci & JoJo
Swing Mob
References
External links
African-American musical groups
American contemporary R&B musical groups
American soul musical groups
New jack swing music groups
MCA Records artists
Musical groups from North Carolina
Musical quartets
Swing Mob artists | [
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|
239454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended%20Display%20Identification%20Data | Extended Display Identification Data | Extended Display Identification Data (EDID) and Enhanced EDID (E-EDID) are metadata formats for display devices to describe their capabilities to a video source (e.g. graphics card or set-top box). The data format is defined by a standard published by the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA).
The EDID data structure includes manufacturer name and serial number, product type, phosphor or filter type (as chromaticity data), timings supported by the display, display size, luminance data and (for digital displays only) pixel mapping data.
DisplayID is a VESA standard targeted to replace EDID and E-EDID extensions with a uniform format suited for both PC monitor and consumer electronics devices.
Background
EDID structure (base block) versions range from v1.0 to v1.4; all these define upwards-compatible 128-byte structures. Version 2.0 defined a new 256-byte structure but it has been deprecated and replaced by E-EDID which supports multiple extension blocks. HDMI versions 1.0–1.3c use E-EDID v1.3.
Before Display Data Channel (DDC) and EDID were defined, there was no standard way for a graphics card to know what kind of display device it was connected to. Some VGA connectors in personal computers provided a basic form of identification by connecting one, two or three pins to ground, but this coding was not standardized.
The channel for transmitting the EDID from the display to the graphics card is usually the I²C-bus, defined in DDC2B (DDC1 used a different serial format which never gained popularity).
The EDID is often stored in the monitor in a memory device called a serial PROM (programmable read-only memory) or EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) and is accessible via the I²C-bus at address . The EDID PROM can often be read by the host PC even if the display itself is turned off.
Many software packages can read and display the EDID information, such as read-edid for Linux and DOS, PowerStrip for Microsoft Windows and the X.Org Server for Linux and BSD unix. Mac OS X natively reads EDID information and programs such as SwitchResX or DisplayConfigX can display the information as well as use it to define custom resolutions.
E-EDID was introduced at the same time as E-DDC, which supports multiple extensions blocks and deprecated EDID version 2.0 structure (it can be incorporated in E-EDID as an optional extension block). Data fields for preferred timing, range limits, and monitor name are required in E-EDID. E-EDID also supports dual GTF timings and aspect ratio change.
With the use of extensions, E-EDID string can be lengthened up to 32 KBytes.
EDID Extensions assigned by VESA
Timing Extension ()
Additional Timing Data Block (CEA EDID Timing Extension) ()
Video Timing Block Extension (VTB-EXT) ()
EDID 2.0 Extension ()
Display Information Extension (DI-EXT) ()
Localized String Extension (LS-EXT) ()
Microdisplay Interface Extension (MI-EXT) ()
Display ID Extension ()
Display Transfer Characteristics Data Block (DTCDB) (, , )
Block Map ()
Display Device Data Block (DDDB) (): contains information such as subpixel layout
Extension defined by monitor manufacturer (): According to LS-EXT, actual contents varies from manufacturer. However, the value is later used by DDDB.
Revision history
August 1994, DDC standard version 1 – introduce EDID v1.0.
April 1996, EDID standard version 2 – introduce EDID v1.1.
November 1997, EDID standard version 3 – introduce EDID v1.2 and EDID v2.0.
September 1999, E-EDID Standard Release A – introduce EDID v1.3 and E-EDID v1.0, which supports multiple extensions blocks.
February 2000, E-EDID Standard Release A - introduce E-EDID v1.3 (used in HDMI), based on EDID v1.3. EDID v2.0 deprecated.
September 2006, E-EDID Standard Release A – introduce E-EDID v1.4, based on EDID v1.4.
Limitations
Some graphics card drivers have historically coped poorly with the EDID, using only its standard timing descriptors rather than its Detailed Timing Descriptors (DTDs). Even in cases where the DTDs were read, the drivers are/were still often limited by the standard timing descriptor limitation that the horizontal/vertical resolutions must be evenly divisible by 8. This means that many graphics cards cannot express the native resolutions of the most common wide screen flat panel displays and liquid crystal display televisions. The number of vertical pixels is calculated from the horizontal resolution and the selected aspect ratio. To be fully expressible, the size of wide screen display must thus be a multiple of 16×9 pixels. For 1366×768 pixel Wide XGA panels the nearest resolution expressible in the EDID standard timing descriptor syntax is 1360×765 pixels, typically leading to 3 pixel thin black bars. Specifying 1368 pixels as the screen width would yield an unnatural screen height of 769.5 pixels.
Many Wide XGA panels do not advertise their native resolution in the standard timing descriptors, instead offering only a resolution of 1280×768. Some panels advertise a resolution only slightly smaller than the native, such as 1360×765. For these panels to be able to show a pixel perfect image, the EDID data must be ignored by the display driver or the driver must correctly interpret the DTD and be able to resolve resolutions whose size is not divisible by 8. Special programs are available to override the standard timing descriptors from EDID data. Even this is not always possible, as some vendors' graphics drivers (notably those of Intel) require specific registry hacks to implement custom resolutions, which can make it very difficult to use the screen's native resolution.
EDID 1.4 data format
Structure, version 1.4
Detailed Timing Descriptor
When used for another descriptor, the pixel clock and some other bytes are set to 0:
Display Descriptors
Currently defined descriptor types are:
: Display serial number (ASCII text)
: Unspecified text (ASCII text)
: Display range limits. 6- or 13-byte (with additional timing) binary descriptor.
: Display name (ASCII text).
: Additional white point data. 2× 5-byte descriptors, padded with 0A 20 20.
: Additional standard timing identifiers. 6× 2-byte descriptors, padded with 0A.
: Display Color Management (DCM).
: CVT 3-Byte Timing Codes.
: Additional standard timing 3.
: Dummy identifier.
: Manufacturer reserved descriptors.
Display Range Limits
Descriptor
With GTF secondary curve
With CVT support
Additional white point descriptor
Color management data descriptor
CVT 3-byte timing codes descriptor
Additional standard timings
EIA/CEA-861 extension block
The CEA EDID Timing Extension was first introduced in EIA/CEA-861, and has since been updated several times, most notably with the 861-B revision (which was version 3 of the extension, adding Short Video Descriptors and advanced audio capability/configuration information), 861-D (published in July 2006 and containing updates to the audio segments), 861-E in 2008, and 861-F which was published on June 4, 2013. According to Brian Markwalter, senior vice president, research and standards, CEA, 861-F "includes a number of noteworthy enhancements, including support for several new Ultra HD and widescreen video formats and additional colorimetry schemes.”
Version CTA-861-G, originally published in November 2016, was made available for free in November 2017, along with updated versions -E and -F, after some necessary changes due to a trademark complaint. All CTA standards are free to everyone since May 2018.
The most recent version is CTA-861-H, published in January 2021, available for free after registration.
Version 1 of the extension block (as defined in CEA−861) allowed the specification of video timings only through the use of 18-byte Detailed Timing Descriptors (DTD) (as detailed in EDID 1.3 data format above). In all cases, the "preferred" timing should be the first DTD listed in a CEA EDID Timing Extension.
Version 2 (as defined in 861-A) added the capability to designate a number of DTDs as "native" and also included some "basic discovery" functionality for whether the display device contains support for "basic audio", YCbCr pixel formats, and underscan.
Version 3 (from the 861-B spec) allows two different ways to specify the timings of available digital TV formats: As in Version 1 & 2 by the use of 18-byte DTDs, or by the use of the Short Video Descriptor (SVD) (see below). HDMI 1.0–1.3c uses this version.
Version 3 also includes four new optional types of data blocks: Video Data Blocks containing the aforementioned Short Video Descriptor (SVD), Audio Data Blocks containing Short Audio Descriptors (SAD), Speaker Allocation Data Blocks containing information about the speaker configuration of the display device, and Vendor Specific Data Blocks which can contain information specific to a given vendor's use. Subsequent versions of CTA-861 defined additional data blocks.
CEA EDID Timing Extension data format - Version 3
The Data Block Collection contains one or more data blocks detailing video, audio, and speaker placement information about the display. The blocks can be placed in any order, and the initial byte of each block defines both its type and its length:
If the Tag code is 7, an Extended Tag Code is present in the first payload byte of the data block, and the second payload byte represents the first payload byte of the extended data block.
Once one data block has ended, the next byte is assumed to be the beginning of the next data block. This is the case until the byte (designated in byte 2, above) where the DTDs are known to begin.
Audio Data Blocks contain one or more 3-byte Short Audio Descriptors (SADs). Each SAD details audio format, channel number, and bitrate/resolution capabilities of the display as follows:
Video Data Blocks will contain one or more 1-byte Short Video Descriptors (SVDs).
Notes: Parentheses indicate instances where pixels are repeated to meet the minimum speed requirements of the interface. For example, in the 720x240p case, the pixels on each line are double-clocked. In the (2880)x480i case, the number of pixels on each line, and thus the number of times that they are repeated, is variable, and is sent to the DTV monitor by the source device.
Increased Hactive expressions include “2x” and “4x” indicate two and four times the reference resolution, respectively.
Video modes with vertical refresh frequency being a multiple of 6Hz (i.e. 24, 30, 60, 120, and 240Hz) are considered to be the same timing as equivalent NTSC modes where vertical refresh is adjusted by a factor of 1000/1001. As VESA DMT specifies 0.5% pixel clock tolerance, which 5 times more than the required change, pixel clocks can be adjusted to maintain NTSC compatibility; typically, 240p, 480p, and 480i modes are adjusted, while 576p, 576i and HDTV formats are not.
The EIA/CEA-861 and 861-A standards included only numbers 1–7 and numbers 17–22 (only in -A) above (but not as short video descriptors which were introduced in EIA/CEA-861-B) and are considered primary video format timings.
The EIA/CEA-861-B standard has the first 34 short video descriptors above. It is used by HDMI 1.0–1.2a.
The EIA/CEA-861-C and -D standards have the first 59 short video descriptors above. EIA/CEA-861-D is used by HDMI 1.3–1.3c.
The EIA/CEA-861-E standard has the first 64 short video descriptors above. It is used by HDMI 1.4–1.4b.
The CTA-861-F standard has the first 107 short video descriptors above. It is used by HDMI 2.0–2.0b.
The CTA-861-G standard has the full list of 154 (1–127, 193–219) short video descriptors above. It is used by HDMI 2.1.
A Vendor Specific Data Block (if any) contains as its first three bytes the vendor's IEEE 24-bit registration number, least significant byte first. The remainder of the Vendor Specific Data Block is the "data payload", which can be anything the vendor considers worthy of inclusion in this EDID extension block. For example, IEEE registration number means this is a "HDMI Licensing, LLC" specific data block (contains HDMI 1.4 info), means this is a "HDMI Forum" specific data block (contains HDMI 2.0 info), means this is "DOLBY LABORATORIES, INC." (contains Dolby Vision info) and is "HDR10+ Technologies, LLC" (contains HDR10+ info as part of HDMI 2.1 Amendment A1 standard). It starts with a two byte source physical address, least significant byte first. The source physical address provides the CEC physical address for upstream CEC devices. HDMI 1.3a specifies some requirements for the data payload.
If a Speaker Allocation Data Block is present, it will consist of three bytes. The second and third are reserved (all ), but the first contains information about which speakers are present in the display device:
References
External links
edid-decode utility
edidreader.com – Web Based EDID Parser
Edid Repository – EDID files repository
Display Industry Standards Archive
UEFI Forum PNP IDs
Display technology
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|
239456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality%20function%20deployment | Quality function deployment | Quality function deployment (QFD) a method developed in Japan beginning in 1966 to help transform the voice of the customer into engineering characteristics for a product. Yoji Akao, the original developer, described QFD as a "method to transform qualitative user demands into quantitative parameters, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process." The author combined his work in quality assurance and quality control points with function deployment used in value engineering.
House of quality
The house of quality, a part of QFD, is the basic design tool of quality function deployment. It identifies and classifies customer desires (What's), identifies the importance of those desires, identifies engineering characteristics which may be relevant to those desires (How's), correlates the two, allows for verification of those correlations, and then assigns objectives and priorities for the system requirements. This process can be applied at any system composition level (e.g. system, subsystem, or component) in the design of a product, and can allow for assessment of different abstractions of a system. It is intensely progressed through a number of hierarchical levels of What’s and How’s and analyse each stage of product growth (service enhancement), and production (service delivery).
The house of quality appeared in 1972 in the design of an oil tanker by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.
The output of the house of quality is generally a matrix with customer desires on one dimension and correlated nonfunctional requirements on the other dimension. The cells of matrix table are filled with the weights assigned to the stakeholder characteristics where those characteristics are affected by the system parameters across the top of the matrix. At the bottom of the matrix, the column is summed, which allows for the system characteristics to be weighted according to the stakeholder characteristics. System parameters not correlated to stakeholder characteristics may be unnecessary to the system design and are identified by empty matrix columns, while stakeholder characteristics (identified by empty rows) not correlated to system parameters indicate "characteristics not addressed by the design parameters". System parameters and stakeholder characteristics with weak correlations potentially indicate missing information, while matrices with "too many correlations" indicate that the stakeholder needs may need to be refined.
Areas of application
QFD is applied in a wide variety of applications viz product design, manufacturing, production, engineering, research and development (R&D), information technology (IT), support, testing, regulatory, and other phases in hardware, software, service, and system organizations. organization functions necessary to assure customer satisfaction, including business planning, packaging and logistics, procurement, marketing, sales & service. QFD is also deployed in quality improvement, quality management, military needs and consumer products. Customer services Applications for Education improvement and services in hotels etc.
Fuzziness
The concepts of fuzzy logic have been applied to QFD ("Fuzzy QFD" or "FQFD"). A review of 59 papers in 2013 by Abdolshah and Moradi found a number of conclusions: most FQFD "studies were focused on quantitative methods" to construct a house of quality matrix based on customer requirements, where the most-employed techniques were based on multiple-criteria decision analysis methods. They noted that there are factors other than the house of quality relevant to product development, and called metaheuristic methods "a promising approach for solving complicated problems of FQFD."
Derived techniques and tools
The process of quality function deployment (QFD) is described in ISO 16355-1:2015.
Pugh concept selection can be used in coordination with QFD to select a promising product or service configuration from among listed alternatives.
Modular function deployment uses QFD to establish customer requirements and to identify important design requirements with a special emphasis on modularity. There are three main differences to QFD as applied in modular function deployment compared to house of quality: The benchmarking data is mostly gone; the checkboxes and crosses have been replaced with circles, and the triangular "roof" is missing.
Notes
References
Further reading
Business terms
Product management
Quality
Systems thinking | [
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239457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Flodden | Battle of Flodden | The Battle of Flodden, Flodden Field, or occasionally Branxton, (Brainston Moor) was a battle fought on 9 September 1513 during the War of the League of Cambrai between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, resulting in an English victory. The battle was fought near Branxton in the county of Northumberland in northern England, between an invading Scots army under King James IV and an English army commanded by the Earl of Surrey. In terms of troop numbers, it was the largest battle fought between the two kingdoms.
After besieging and capturing several English border castles, James encamped his invading army on a commanding hilltop position at Flodden and awaited the English force which had been sent against him, declining a challenge to fight in an open field. Surrey's army therefore carried out a circuitous march to position themselves in the rear of the Scottish camp. The Scots countered this by abandoning their camp and occupying the adjacent Branxton Hill, denying it to the English. The battle began with an artillery duel followed by a downhill advance by Scottish infantry armed with pikes. Unknown to the Scots, an area of marshy land lay in their path, which had the effect of breaking up their formations. This gave the English troops the chance to bring about a close-quarter battle, for which they were better equipped. James IV was killed in the fighting, becoming the last monarch from Great Britain to die in battle; this and the loss of a large proportion of the nobility led to a political crisis in Scotland. British historians sometimes use the Battle of Flodden to mark the end of the Middle Ages in the British Isles; another candidate is the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.
Background
Centuries of intermittent warfare between England and Scotland had been formally brought to an end by the Treaty of Perpetual Peace which was signed in 1502. However, relations were soon soured by repeated cross-border raids, rivalry at sea leading to the death of the Scottish privateer Andrew Barton and the capture of his ships in 1511, and increasingly bellicose rhetoric by King Henry VIII of England in claiming to be the overlord of Scotland. Conflict began when James IV, King of Scots, declared war on England to honour the Auld Alliance with France by diverting Henry's English troops from their campaign against the French king, Louis XII. At this time, England was involved as a member of the "Catholic League" in the War of the League of Cambrai, defending Italy and the Pope from the French, a part of the Italian Wars.
Pope Leo X, already a signatory to the anti-French Treaty of Mechlin, sent a letter to James threatening him with ecclesiastical censure for breaking his peace treaties with England on 28 June 1513, and subsequently James was excommunicated by Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge. James also summoned sailors and sent the Scottish navy, including the Great Michael, to join the ships of Louis XII of France. The fleet of twenty two vessels commanded by James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Arran, departed from the Firth of Forth on 25 July accompanied by James as far as the Isle of May, intending to pass around the north of Scotland and create a diversion in Ireland before joining the French at Brest, from where it might cut the English line of communication across the English Channel. However, the fleet was so badly delayed that it played no part in the war; unfortunately, James had sent most of his experienced artillerymen with the expedition, a decision which was to have unforeseen consequences for his land campaign.
Henry was in France with the Emperor Maximilian at the siege of Thérouanne. The Scottish Lyon King of Arms brought James IV's letter of 26 July to him. James asked him to desist from attacking France in breach of their treaty. Henry's exchange with Islay Herald or the Lyon King on 11 August at his tent at the siege was recorded. The Herald declared that Henry should abandon his efforts against the town and go home. Angered, Henry said that James had no right to summon him, and ought to be England's ally, as James was married to his (Henry's) sister, Margaret. He declared:And now, for a conclusion, recommend me to your master and tell him if he be so hardy to invade my realm or cause to enter one foot of my ground I shall make him as weary of his part as ever was man that began any such business. And one thing I ensure him by the faith that I have to the Crown of England and by the word of a King, there shall never King nor Prince make peace with me that ever his part shall be in it. Moreover, fellow, I care for nothing but for misentreating of my sister, that would God she were in England on a condition she cost the Schottes King not a penny.
Henry also replied by letter on 12 August, writing that James was mistaken and that any of his attempts on England would be resisted. Using the pretext of revenge for the murder of Robert Kerr, a Warden of the Scottish East March who had been killed by John "The Bastard" Heron in 1508, James invaded England with an army of about 30,000 men. However, both sides had been making lengthy preparations for this conflict. Henry VIII had already organised an army and artillery in the north of England to counter the expected invasion. Some of the guns had been returned to use against the Scots by Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy. A year earlier, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been appointed Lieutenant-General of the army of the north and was issued with banners of the Cross of St George and the Red Dragon of Wales. Only a small number of the light horsemen of the Scottish border had been sent to France. A northern army was maintained with artillery and its expense account starts on 21 July. The first captains were recruited in Lambeth. Many of these soldiers wore green and white Tudor colours. Surrey marched to Doncaster in July and then Pontefract, where he assembled more troops from northern England.
"Ill Raid"
On 5 August, a force estimated at up to 7,000 Scottish border reivers commanded by Lord Home, crossed into Northumberland and began to pillage farms and villages, taking anything of value before burning the houses. Surrey had taken the precaution of sending Sir William Bulmer north with 200 mounted archers, which Bulmer augmented with locally levied men to create a force approaching 1,000 in strength. On 13 August, they prepared an ambush for the Scots as they returned north laden with the spoils of their looting, by hiding in the broom bushes that grew shoulder-high on Milfield Plain. Surprising the Scots by a sudden volley of arrows, the English killed as many as 600 of the Scots before they were able to escape, leaving their booty and the Home family banner behind them. Although the "Ill Raid" had little effect on the forthcoming campaign, it may have influenced James's decision not to fight an open battle against Surrey on the same ground. Whether the raid was undertaken solely on Lord Home's initiative, or whether it had been authorised by James is unknown.
Invasion
On 18 August, five cannon brought down from Edinburgh Castle to the Netherbow Port at St Mary's Wynd for the invasion set off towards England dragged by borrowed oxen. On 19 August two gross culverins, four culverins pickmoyance and six (mid-sized) culverins moyane followed with the gunner Robert Borthwick and master carpenter John Drummond. The King himself set off that night with two hastily prepared standards of St Margaret and St Andrew.
Catherine of Aragon was regent in England. On 27 August, she issued warrants for the property of all Scotsmen in England to be seized. On hearing of the invasion on 3 September, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the Midland counties.
In keeping with his understanding of the medieval code of chivalry, King James sent notice to the English, one month in advance, of his intent to invade. This gave the English time to gather an army. After a muster on the Burgh Muir of Edinburgh, the Scottish host moved to Ellemford, to the north of Duns, Scottish Borders, and camped to wait for Angus and Home. The Scottish army, numbering some 42,000 men, crossed the River Tweed into England near Coldstream; the exact date of the crossing is not recorded, but is generally accepted to have been 22 August. The Scottish troops were unpaid and were only required by feudal obligation to serve for forty days. Once across the border, a detachment turned south to attack Wark on Tweed Castle, while the bulk of the army followed the course of the Tweed downstream to the northeast to invest the remaining border castles.
On 24 August, James IV held a council or parliament at Twiselhaugh and made a proclamation for the benefit of the heirs of anyone killed during this invasion. By 29 August after a siege of six days, Bishop Thomas Ruthall's Norham Castle was taken and partly demolished after the Scottish heavy artillery had breached the recently refurbished outer walls. The Scots then moved south, capturing the castles of Etal and Ford.
A later Scottish chronicle writer, Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, tells the story that James wasted valuable time at Ford enjoying the company of Elizabeth, Lady Heron and her daughter. Edward Hall says that Lady Heron was a prisoner (in Scotland), and negotiated with James IV and the Earl of Surrey her own release and that Ford Castle would not be demolished for an exchange of prisoners. The English herald, Rouge Croix, came to Ford to appoint a place for battle on 4 September, with extra instructions that any Scottish heralds who were sent to Surrey were to be met where they could not view the English forces. Raphael Holinshed's story is that a part of the Scottish army returned to Scotland, and the rest stayed at Ford waiting for Norham to surrender and debating their next move. James IV wanted to fight and considered moving to assault Berwick-upon-Tweed, but the Earl of Angus spoke against this and said that Scotland had done enough for France. James sent Angus home, and according to Holinshed, the Earl burst into tears and left, leaving his two sons, the Master of Angus and Glenbervie, with most of the Douglas kindred to fight.
In the meantime, Surrey was reluctant to commit his army too early, since once in the field they had to be paid and fed at enormous expense. From his encampment at Pontefract, he issued an order for forces raised in the northern counties to assemble at Newcastle on Tyne on 1 September. Surrey had 500 soldiers with him and was to be joined at Newcastle by 1,000 experienced soldiers and sailors with their artillery, who would arrive by sea under the command of Surrey's son, also called Thomas Howard, the Lord High Admiral of England. By 28 August, Surrey had arrived at Durham Cathedral where he was presented with the banner of Saint Cuthbert, which had been carried by the English in victories against the Scots in 1138 and 1346. On 3 September, Surrey moved his advanced guard to Alnwick while he awaited the completion of the muster and the arrival of the Lord Admiral whose ships had been delayed by storms.
Surrey's challenge
On Sunday 4 September, James and the Scottish army had taken up a position at Flodden Edge, a hill to the south of Branxton. This was an immensely strong natural feature, since the flanks were protected by marshes on one side and steep slopes on the other, leaving only a direct approach. The amount of fortification which James constructed on the hill is disputed; several antiquaries had mapped supposed ramparts and bastions there over the centuries, but excavations conducted between 2009 and 2015 found no trace of 16th century work and concluded that James may have reused some features of an Iron Age hill fort.
The Earl of Surrey, writing at Wooler Haugh on Wednesday 7 September, compared this position to a fortress in a challenge sent to James IV by his herald, Thomas Hawley, the Rouge Croix Pursuivant. Surrey complained that James had sent his Islay Herald, agreeing that they would join in battle on Friday between 12 noon and 3 pm, and asked that James would face him on the plain at Milfield as appointed. James had no intention of leaving his carefully prepared position, perhaps recalling the fate of the Ill Raid on the same plain; he replied to Surrey that it was "not fitting for an Earl to seek to command a King". This put Surrey in a difficult position; the choice was to make a frontal attack on Flodden Edge, uphill in the face of the Scottish guns in their prepared position and in all probability be defeated, or to refuse battle, earning disgrace and the anger of King Henry. Waiting for James to make a move was not an option because his 26,000 strong army desperately needed resupply, the convoy of wagons bringing food and beer for the troops from Newcastle having been ambushed and looted by local Englishmen. During a council of war on Wednesday evening, an ingenious alternative plan was devised, advised by "the Bastard" Heron, who had intimate local knowledge and had recently arrived at the English camp.
Battle
Initial manoeuvres
During Thursday, 8 September, Surrey moved his army from Wooler Haugh and instead of heading northwest towards Flodden, he turned east across the River Till. From there, the English picked up the old Roman road known as the Devil's Causeway and headed north, making camp at Barmoor, near Lowick. James may have assumed that Surrey was heading for Berwick-upon-Tweed for resupply, but he was actually intending to outflank the Scots and either attack or blockade them from the rear. At 5 am on the morning of Friday, 9 September, after a damp night on short rations and having to drink water from streams because the beer had run out, Surrey's men set off westwards to complete their manoeuvre. Their objective was Branxton Hill, lying less than north of James's camp at Flodden. In order to re-cross the River Till, the English Army split into two; one force under Surrey crossed by means of several fords near Heaton Castle, while a larger vanguard numbering some 15,000 commanded by the Lord Admiral and including the artillery train, crossed at Twizell Bridge downstream.
Pitscottie says the vanguard crossed the bridge at 11 am and that James would not allow the Scots artillery to fire on the vulnerable English during this manoeuvre. This is not credible, since the bridge is some distant from Flodden, but James's scouts must have reported their approach. James quickly saw the threat and ordered his army to break camp and move to Branxton Hill, a commanding position which would deny the feature to the English and still give his pike formations the advantage of a downhill attack if the opportunity arose. The disadvantage was that the Scots were moving onto ground that had not been reconnoitered. The Lord Admiral, arriving with his vanguard at Branxton village, was unaware of the new Scottish position which was obscured by smoke from burning rubbish; when he finally caught sight of the Scottish army arrayed on Branxton Hill, he sent a messenger to his father urging him to hurry and also sending his Agnus Dei pendant to underline the gravity of his situation. In the meantime, he positioned his troops in dead ground from where he hoped that the Scots could not assess the size of his force. James declined to attack the vulnerable vanguard, reportedly saying that he was "determined to have them all in front of me on one plain field and see what all of them can do against me".
Opposing forces
James' army, somewhat reduced from the original 42,000 by sickness and desertion, still amounted to about 34,000, outnumbering the English force by 8,000. The Scottish army was organised into four divisions or battles. That on the left wing was commanded by the Earls of Home and Huntley and consisted of a combination of Borderers and Highlanders. Next in the line was the battle commanded by the Earls of Erroll, Crawford and Montrose composed of men from the northeast of Scotland. The third was commanded by James himself together with his son Alexander and the Earls of Cassillis, Rothes and Caithness. On the right, the Earls of Argyll and Lennox commanded a force drawn from the Highlands and Islands. Some sources state that there was a fifth battle acting as a reserve, perhaps commanded by the Earl of Bothwell. The Scottish infantry had been equipped with long pikes by their French allies; a new weapon which had proved devastating in continental Europe, but required training, discipline and suitable terrain to use effectively. The Scottish artillery, consisting mainly of heavy siege guns, included five great curtals and two great culverins (known as "the Seven Sisters"), together with four sakers, and six great serpentines. These modern weapons fired an iron ball weighing up to to a range of . However, the heaviest of these required a team of 36 oxen to move each one and were only able to fire once every twenty minutes at the most. They were commanded by the king's secretary, Patrick Paniter; an able diplomat who had no experience of artillery.
Upon Surrey's arrival, he deployed his troops on the forward slope of Piper Hill to match the Scottish dispositions. On his right, facing Hume and Huntley, was a battle composed of men from Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire, commanded by Surrey's third son, Lord Edmund Howard. Of the central battles one was commanded by Thomas Howard, the Lord Admiral and the other by Surrey. Sir Edward Stanley's force of cavalry and archers had been the last to leave Barmoor and would not arrive on the left flank until later in the day. A reserve of mounted Borderers commanded by Thomas, Baron Dacre, positioned to the rear. The English infantry were equipped with traditional pole weapons, mostly bills which were the favoured pole arm of the English infantry. There was also a large contingent of well-trained archers armed with the English longbow. The English artillery consisted of light field guns of rather old-fashioned design, typically firing a ball of only about , but they were easily handled and capable of rapid fire.
Engagement
At about 4 pm on Friday in wet and windy weather, James began the battle with an artillery duel but his big guns did not perform as well as he had hoped. Contemporary accounts put this down to the difficulty for the Scots of shooting downhill, but another factor must have been that their guns had been hastily sited instead of the careful emplacement which was usually required for such heavy weapons, further slowing their ponderous rate of fire. This may explain English claims that the Scottish guns were destroyed by return fire, when in fact they were captured undamaged after the battle. The apparent silence of the Scottish artillery allowed the light English guns to turn a rapid fire on the massed ranks of infantry, although the effectiveness of this bombardment is difficult to assess.
The next phase started when Home and Huntley's battle on the Scottish left advanced downhill towards the opposite troops commanded by Edmund Howard. They advanced, according to the English, "in good order, after the Alamayns [i.e. German] manner, without speaking a word". The Scots had placed their most heavily armoured men in the front rank, so that the English archers had little impact. The outnumbered English battle was forced back and elements of it began to run off. Surrey saved his son from disaster by ordering the intervention of Dacre's light horsemen, who were able to approach unobserved in the dead ground that had been exploited earlier by the vanguard. The eventual result was a stalemate in which both sides stood off from each other and played no further part in the battle. According to later accounts, when Huntley suggested that they rejoin the fighting, Home replied: "the man does well this day who saves himself: we fought those who were opposed to us and beat them; let our other companies do the same!".
In the meantime, James had observed Home and Huntley's initial success and ordered the advance of the next battle in line, commanded by Errol, Crawford and Montrose. At the foot of Branxton Hill, they encountered an unforeseen obstacle, an area of marshy ground, identified by modern hydrologists as a groundwater seepage zone, made worse by days of heavy rain. As they struggled to cross the waterlogged ground, the Scots lost the cohesion and momentum on which pike formations depended for success. Once the line was disrupted, the long pikes became an unwieldy encumbrance, and the Scots began to drop them "so that it seemed as if a wood were falling down" according to a later English poem. Reaching for their side-arms of swords and axes, they found themselves outreached by the English bills in the close-quarter fighting that developed.
It is unclear whether James had seen the difficulty encountered by the battle of the three earls, but he followed them down the slope regardless, making for Surrey's formation. James has been criticised for placing himself in the front line, thereby putting himself in personal danger and losing his overview of the field. He was, however, well known for taking risks in battle and it would have been out of character for him to stay back. Encountering the same difficulties as the previous attack, James's men nevertheless fought their way to Surrey's bodyguard but no further. The final uncommitted Scottish formation, Argyll and Lennox's Highlanders, held back, perhaps awaiting orders. The last English formation to engage was Stanley's force which, after following a circuitous route from Barmoor, finally arrived on the right of the Scottish line. They loosed volleys of arrows into the Argyll and Lennox's battle, whose men lacked armour or any other effective defence against the archers. After suffering heavy casualties the Highlanders scattered.
The fierce fighting continued, centred on the contest between Surrey and James. As other English formations overcame the Scottish forces they had initially engaged, they moved to reinforce their leader. An instruction to English troops that no prisoners were to be taken explains the exceptional mortality amongst the Scottish nobility. James himself was killed in the final stage of the battle; his body was found surrounded by the corpses of his bodyguard of the Archers' Guard, recruited from the Forest of Ettrick and known as "the Flowers of the Forest". Despite having the finest armour available, the king's corpse was found to have two arrow wounds, one in the jaw, and wounds from bladed weapons to the neck and wrist. He was the last monarch to die in warfare in the British Isles. Home, Huntley and their troops were the only formation to escape intact; others escaped in small groups, closely pursued by the English.
Tactics and aftermath
Soon after the battle, the council of Scotland decided to send for help from Christian II of Denmark. The Scottish ambassador, Andrew Brounhill, was given instructions to explain "how this cais is hapnit." Brounhill's instructions blame James IV for moving down the hill to attack the English on marshy ground from a favourable position, and credits the victory to Scottish inexperience rather than English valour. The letter also mentions that the Scots placed their officers in the front line in medieval style, where they were vulnerable, contrasting this loss of the nobility with the English great men who took their stand with the reserves and at the rear. The English generals stayed behind the lines in the Renaissance style. The loss of so many Scottish officers meant there was no one to co-ordinate a retreat.
However, according to contemporary English reports, Thomas Howard marched on foot leading the English vanguard to the foot of the hill. Howard was moved to dismount and do this by taunts of cowardice sent by James IV's heralds, apparently based on his role at sea and the death two years earlier of the Scottish naval officer Sir Andrew Barton. A version of Howard's declaration to James IV that he would lead the vanguard and take no prisoners was included in later English chronicle accounts of the battle. Howard claims his presence in "proper person" at the front is his trial by combat for Barton's death.
Weaponry
Flodden was essentially a victory of the bill used by the English over the pike used by the Scots. The pike was an effective weapon only in a battle of movement, especially to withstand a cavalry charge. The Scottish pikes were described by the author of the Trewe Encounter as "keen and sharp spears 5 yards long". Although the pike had become a Swiss weapon of choice and represented modern warfare, the hilly terrain of Northumberland, the nature of the combat, and the slippery footing did not allow it to be employed to best effect. Bishop Ruthall reported to Thomas Wolsey, 'the bills disappointed the Scots of their long spears, on which they relied.' The infantrymen at Flodden, both Scots and English, had fought essentially like their ancestors, and Flodden has been described as the last great medieval battle in the British Isles. This was the last time that bill and pike would come together as equals in battle. Two years later Francis I of France defeated the Swiss pikemen at the Battle of Marignano, using a combination of heavy cavalry and artillery, ushering in a new era in the history of war. An official English diplomatic report issued by Brian Tuke noted the Scots' iron spears and their initial "very good order after the German fashion", but concluded that "the English halberdiers decided the whole affair, so that in the battle the bows and ordnance were of little use."
Despite Tuke's comment (he was not present), this battle was one of the first major engagements in the British Isles where artillery was significantly deployed. John Lesley, writing sixty years later, noted that the Scottish bullets flew over the English heads while the English cannon was effective: the one army placed so high and the other so low.
The Scots advance down the hill was resisted by a hail of arrows, an incident celebrated in later English ballads. Hall says that the armoured front line was mostly unaffected; this is confirmed by the ballads which note that some few Scots were wounded in the scalp and, wrote Hall, James IV sustained a significant arrow wound. Many of the archers were recruited from Lancashire and Cheshire. Sir Richard Assheton raised one such company from Middleton, near Manchester. He rebuilt his parish church St. Leonard's, Middleton, which contains the unique "Flodden Window." It depicts and names the archers and their priest in stained glass. The window has been called the oldest known war memorial in the UK. The success of the Cheshire yeomanry, under the command of Richard Cholmeley, led to his later appointment as Lieutenant of the Tower of London.
Honours
As a reward for his victory, Thomas Howard was subsequently restored to the title of Duke of Norfolk, lost by his father's support for Richard III. The arms of the Dukes of Norfolk still carry an augmentation of honour awarded on account of their ancestor's victory at Flodden, a modified version of the Royal coat of arms of Scotland with the lower half of the lion removed and an arrow through the lion's mouth.
At Framlingham Castle the Duke kept two silver-gilt cups engraved with the arms of James IV, which he bequeathed to Cardinal Wolsey in 1524. The Duke's descendants presented the College of Arms with a sword, a dagger and a turquoise ring in 1681. The family tradition was either that these items belonged to James IV or were arms carried by Thomas Howard at Flodden. The sword blade is signed by the maker Maestre Domingo of Toledo. There is some doubt whether the weapons are of the correct period. The Earl of Arundel was painted by Philip Fruytiers, following Anthony van Dyck's 1639 composition, with his ancestor's sword, gauntlet and helm from Flodden. Thomas Lord Darcy retrieved a powder flask belonging to James IV and gave it to Henry VIII. A cross with rubies and sapphires with a gold chain worn by James and a hexagonal table-salt with the figure of St Andrews on the lid were given to Henry by James Stanley, Bishop of Ely.
Legends of a lost king
Lord Dacre discovered the body of James IV on the battlefield. He later wrote that the Scots "love me worst of any Englishman living, by reason that I fande the body of the King of Scots." The chronicle writer John Stow gave a location for the King's death; "Pipard's Hill," now unknown, which may have been the small hill on Branxton Ridge overlooking Branxton church. Dacre took the body to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where according to Hall's Chronicle, it was viewed by the captured Scottish courtiers William Scott and John Forman who acknowledged it was the King's. (Forman, the King's sergeant-porter, had been captured by Richard Assheton of Middleton.) The body was then embalmed and taken to Newcastle upon Tyne. From York, a city that James had promised to capture before Michaelmas, the body was brought to Sheen Priory near London. A payment of £12-9s-10d was made for the "sertying ledying and sawdryng of the ded course of the King of Scottes" and carrying it York and to Windsor.
James's banner, sword and his cuisses, thigh-armour, were taken to the shrine of Saint Cuthbert at Durham Cathedral. Much of the armour of the Scottish casualties was sold on the field, and 350 suits of armour were taken to Nottingham Castle. A list of horses taken at the field runs to 24 pages.
Thomas Hawley, the Rouge Croix pursuivant, was first with news of the victory. He brought the "rent surcoat of the King of Scots stained with blood" to Catherine of Aragon at Woburn Abbey. She sent news of the victory to Henry VIII at Tournai with Hawley, and then sent John Glyn on 16 September with James's coat (and iron gauntlets) and a detailed account of the battle written by Lord Howard. Brian Tuke mentioned in his letter to Cardinal Bainbridge that the coat was lacerated and chequered with blood. Catherine suggested Henry should use the coat as his battle-banner, and wrote she had thought to send him the body too, as Henry had sent her the Duke of Longueville, his prisoner from Thérouanne, but "Englishmen's hearts would not suffer it."
In addition to these relics, the gold crucifix worn by James IV on the field of battle, set with three balas rubies and three sapphires and containing a fragment of the True Cross, was listed in the jewel book inventory of Henry VIII in the chapel of the Tower of London.
Soon after the battle there were legends that James IV had survived; a Scottish merchant at Tournai in October claimed to have spoken with him, Lindsay of Pitscottie records two myths; "thair cam four great men upon hors, and every ane of thame had ane wisp upoun thair spear headis, quhairby they might know one another and brought the king furth of the feild, upoun ane dun hackney," and also that the king escaped from the field but was killed between Duns and Kelso. Similarly, John Lesley adds that the body taken to England was "my lord Bonhard" and James was seen in Kelso after the battle and then went secretly on pilgrimage in far nations.
A legend arose that James had been warned against invading England by supernatural powers. While he was praying in St Michael's Kirk at Linlithgow, a man strangely dressed in blue had approached his desk saying his mother had told him to say James should not to go to war or take the advice of women. Then before the King could reply, the man vanished. David Lindsay of the Mount and John Inglis could find no trace of him. The historian R. L. Mackie wondered if the incident really happened as a masquerade orchestrated by an anti-war party: Norman Macdougall doubts if there was a significant anti-war faction. Three other portents of disaster were described by Paolo Giovio in 1549 and repeated in John Polemon's 1578 account of the battle. When James was in council at the camp at Flodden Edge, a hare ran out of his tent and escaped the weapons of his knights; it was found that mice had gnawed away the strings and buckle of the King's helmet; and in the morning his tent was spreckled with a bloody dew.
Scotland after Flodden
The wife of James IV, Margaret Tudor, is said to have awaited news of her husband at Linlithgow Palace, where a room at the top of a tower is called 'Queen Margaret's bower'. Ten days after the Battle of Flodden, the Lords of Council met at Stirling on 19 September, and set up a General Council of the Realm "to sit upon the daily council for all matters occurring in the realm" of thirty-five lords including clergymen, lords of parliament, and two of the minor barons, the lairds of The Bass and Inverrugy. This committee was intended to rule in the name of Margaret Tudor and her son James V of Scotland.
The full Parliament of Scotland met at Stirling Castle on 21 October, where the 17-month-old King was crowned in the Chapel Royal. The General Council of Lords made special provisions for the heirs of those killed at Flodden, following a declaration made by James IV at Twiselhaugh, and protection for their widows and daughters. Margaret Tudor remained guardian or 'tutrix' of the King, but was not made Regent of Scotland.
The French soldier Antoine d'Arces arrived at Dumbarton Castle in November with a shipload of armaments which were transported to Stirling. The English already knew the details of this planned shipment from a paper found in a bag at Flodden field. Now that James IV was dead, Antoine d'Arces promoted the appointment of John Stewart, Duke of Albany, a grandson of James II of Scotland as Regent to rule Scotland instead of Margaret and her son. Albany, who lived in France, came to Scotland on 26 May 1515. By that date Margaret had given birth to James's posthumous son Alexander and married the Earl of Angus.
A later sixteenth-century Scottish attitude to the futility of the battle was given by Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, in the words he attributed to Patrick Lord Lindsay at council before the engagement. Lord Lindsay advised the King withdraw, comparing their situation to an honest merchant playing dice with a trickster, and wagering a gold rose-noble against a bent halfpenny. Their King was the gold piece, England the trickster, and Thomas Howard the halfpenny.
Casualties
Surrey's army lost 4,000 men killed in battle. There were various conflicting accounts of the Scottish loss. A contemporary account produced in French for the Royal Postmaster of England, in the immediate aftermath of the battle, states that about 10,000 Scots were killed, a claim repeated by Henry VIII on 16 September while he was still uncertain of the death of James IV. William Knight sent the news from Lille to Rome on 20 September, claiming 12,000 Scots had died, with fewer than 500 English casualties. Italian newsletters put the Scottish losses at 18,000 or 20,000 and the English at 5,000. Brian Tuke, the English Clerk of the Signet, sent a newsletter stating 10,000 Scots killed and 10,000 escaped the field. Tuke reckoned the total Scottish invasion force to have been 60,000 and the English army at 40,000. George Buchanan wrote in his History of Scotland (published in 1582) that, according to the lists that were compiled throughout the counties of Scotland, there were about 5,000 killed. A plaque on the monument to the 2nd Duke of Norfolk (as the Earl of Surrey became in 1514) at Thetford put the figure at 17,000. Edward Hall, thirty years after, wrote in his Chronicle that "12,000 at the least of the best gentlemen and flower of Scotland" were slain.
As the nineteenth-century antiquarian John Riddell supposed, nearly every noble family in Scotland would have lost a member at Flodden. The dead are remembered by the song (and pipe tune) "Flowers of the Forest":
We'll hae nae mair lilting, at the yowe-milking,
Women and bairns are dowie and wae.
Sighing and moaning, on ilka green loaning,
The flowers of the forest are all wede away.
Contemporary English ballads also recalled the significance of the Scottish losses:
To tell you plaine, twelve thousand were slaine,
that to the fight did stand;
And many prisoners tooke that day,
the best in all Scotland.
That day made many a fatherlesse childe,
and many a widow poore;
And many a Scottish gay Lady,
sate weeping in her bowre.
A legend grew that while the artillery was being prepared in Edinburgh before the battle, a demon called Plotcock had read out the names of those who would be killed at the Mercat Cross on the Royal Mile. According to Pitscottie, a former Provost of Edinburgh, Richard Lawson, who lived nearby, threw a coin at the Cross to appeal against this summons and survived the battle.
Branxton Church was the site of some burials from the Battle of Flodden.
After Flodden many Scottish nobles are believed to have been brought to Yetholm for interment, as being the nearest consecrated ground in Scotland.
Notable Scotsmen who died
Royalty
James IV, King of Scots (1473–1513, r. 1488-1513)
Clergy
Alexander Stewart, Archbishop of St Andrews and Lord Chancellor of Scotland, illegitimate son of James IV
George Hepburn, Bishop of the Isles and commendator of Arbroath and Iona
William Bunche, Abbot of Kilwinning
Laurence Oliphant, Abbot of Inchaffray
Sir William Knollys, Lord St. John, Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, prior of Torphichen Preceptory.
Earls
Archibald Campbell, 2nd Earl of Argyll
Adam Hepburn, 2nd Earl of Bothwell, Lord High Admiral of Scotland
William Sinclair, 2nd Earl of Caithness
David Kennedy, 1st Earl of Cassilis
John Lindsay, 6th Earl of Crawford
William Hay, 4th Earl of Erroll, Lord High Constable of Scotland
Matthew Stewart, 2nd Earl of Lennox
William Graham, 1st Earl of Montrose
John Douglas, 2nd Earl of Morton
William Leslie, 3rd Earl of Rothes
Lords of Parliament
Andrew Stewart, 1st Lord Avondale
William Borthwick, 3rd Lord Borthwick
Alexander Elphinstone, 1st Lord Elphinstone.
Thomas Stewart, 2nd Lord Innermeath
John Maxwell, 4th Lord Maxwell
John Ross, 2nd Lord Ross
George Seton, 5th Lord Seton
John Sempill, 1st Lord Sempill
Henry Sinclair, 4th Lord Sinclair
Robert Erskine, 4th Lord Erskine
Other chieftains, nobles and knights
Robert Arnot of Woodmill. Comptroller of Scotland
Sir Nicolas Fortheringham 4th Laird of Powrie
Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy
Sir Iain (John) MacFarlane 11th Baron of Arrochar, 8th Chief of Clan MacFarlane
Sir William Cockburn of Langton and his eldest son and heir Alexander
Sir Robert Crawford of Kilbirnie
William Cunningham, 1st Laird of Craigends
George Douglas, Master of Angus
Sir William Douglas 6th of Drumlanrig
Sir William Douglas of Glenbervie
Robert Elliot, 13th Chief of Clan Elliot
Archibald Graham, 3rd of Garvock – King James' cousin
George Graham, 1st of Calendar
Alexander Guthrie of Kincaldrum, and his son David
James Henderson of Fordell, Fife; Lord Justice Clerk
Adam Hepburn of Craggis
William Hoppringill, 1st Laird of Torwoodlee
Sir Alexander Lauder of Blyth, Provost of Edinburgh
David, William, and George Lyon. All three brother-in-laws of Alexander Guthrie of Kincaldrum
Lachlan MacLean, 10th Chief of Clan Maclean
Thomas Maule of Panmure.
John Muirhead, Laird of Muirhead
Archibald Napier of Edinbellie.
Colin Oliphant, Master of Oliphant
Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie
Sir John Ramsay of Trarinzeane
Sir William Seton, grandson of James I of Scotland
Sir John Somerville of Cambusnethan
John Hunter 14th Laird of Hunterston
William Wallace 11th of Craigie, 16th of Riccarton
Names of Scottish casualties from property records
A number of subsequent property transactions give names of the fallen. A register of royal charters was kept and published as the Register of the Great Seal of Scotland. The battle was mentioned because of the declaration James IV had made at Twiselhaugh respecting the heritage of the heirs of potential casualties, which waived feudal fees. Some of the lands noted were those held under Matthew, Earl of Lennox, who died in the battle of Flodden Field, "in campo bellico de Flodoun" (in the field of war at Flodden). Other great seal charters mentioned an altar dedicated for remembrance at St Giles', Edinburgh and the effect of the battle on Selkirk, a border town. These names include Adam Hacket, husband of Helen Mason.
The Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, a record of royal income, also gives names of the fallen. These were feudal tenants who held their lands from the King, and would pay their dues directly to the exchequer. The names of landless men or those who held their lands from a landlord would not appear in this record. The preface to the published volume of the Exchequer Rolls gives this explanation and guide to the variety of Latin phrases used to describe deaths in the campaign;
The usual form of entry is "qui obiit in bello" (who died in the war), "in campo bellico" (in field of war), or "in campo" (in the field); but the forms also occur "qui obiit sub vixillo regis", (who died under the king's banner), which probably denotes that the fallen man was killed at Flodden, or "qui obiit in exercitu in Northumberland" (who died in the army in Northumberland), which perhaps indicates that the death occurred elsewhere than at Flodden, or that the place of death was unknown. In the Responde Books the earlier Sasines (property documents) are silent as to the campaign. The later Sasines refer to it as "bellum", or "campus bellicus," and it is not till 1518 that Flodden is named, and then only about half-a-dozen times. ..., It must be borne in mind that it is only the King's vassals or tenants who left heirs in lands in the comparatively small portion of Scotland then held by the King, whose names can be expected to appear in the present Accounts. Besides the names in the following list, there are many other instances of Sasines taken in favour of the heirs of persons whom we know from other sources to have died at Flodden. p.clxii
English soldiers knighted at Flodden
Around forty-five English soldiers were knighted by the Earl of Surrey after the battle. Edward Hall mentions some of their positions in the army's advance from Newcastle.
Battlefield today
The battlefield still looks much as it probably did at the time of the battle, but the burn and marsh which so badly hampered the Scots advance is now drained. A monument, erected in 1910, is easily reached from Branxton village by following the road past St Paul's Church. There is a small car park and a clearly marked and signposted battlefield trail with interpretive boards which make it easy to visualise the battle. Only the chancel arch remains of the medieval church where James IV's body was said to have rested after the battle—the rest is Victorian, dating from 1849 in the "Norman" style.
Each year, the neighbouring Scottish town of Coldstream marks the Battle of Flodden by a traditional horse-ride to the battlefield and then having a service to mark all those who perished during the fight during the town's "Civic Week"—held in the first week of August.
Commemoration
The stained-glass Flodden Window in St Leonard's Church, Middleton, now in Greater Manchester, reputedly houses the oldest war memorial in Great Britain, constructed by Sir Richard Assheton in memory of the Battle of Flodden and the archers from Middleton who fought in it.
The Quincentennial of the battle in 2013 was commemorated by a programme of projects and events bringing together communities from both sides of the border. A number were funded by an £887,300 Heritage Lottery Fund grant including the expansion of the Flodden 1513 Ecomuseum and archaeology, documentary research and education projects, exhibitions and a solemn commemoration.
In fiction
Marmion: A Tale of Flodden Field (1808), an epic poem in six cantos by Sir Walter Scott
The Battle of Flodden Field, told from several different perspectives, is the subject of the novel, Flodden Field, by Elisabeth McNeill, published 2007.
Flodden from the perspective of a Yorkshire archer is the subject of the novel Tom Fleck, by Harry Nicholson, published 2011.
The Flowers of the Forest, a historical novel by Elizabeth Byrd, chronicles the life of Queen Margaret Tudor of Scotland and culminates in the Battle of Flodden.
Arthur Sullivan wrote an overture, his Overture Marmion (1867), inspired by the Scott poem.
Sunset at Noon by Jane Oliver (1955) a fictional account of the life of James IV.
There is no historical record of anyone from the Clan Munro taking part in the Battle of Flodden Field; however, there is an old tradition that the Munros of Argyll are descended from a Flodden survivor. One of these descendants was Neil Munro.
In film and television
The British documentary series Two Men in a Trench also featured the battle in its first season, giving an accurate picture of what occurred and explaining the battle dynamics, showing the weakness and strong points of weapons used, etc.
The second season of the Starz television series The Spanish Princess featured the battle. The depiction was fictionalized in certain respects, for example by having the title character, Catherine of Aragon, on the battlefield at the head of the English troops while heavily pregnant. The filming location was the Mendip Hills in Somerset.
See also
Percy Folio
Selkirk Common Riding
Teribus ye teri odin
Footnotes
References
The earliest accounts of the battle are English. These contemporary sources include; the Articles of the Bataill bitwix the Kinge of Scottes and therle of Surrey in Brankstone Field said to be a field despatch; Brian Tuke's news-letter to Cardinal Bainbridge; an Italian poem, La Rotta de Scosesi in part based on Tuke's letters; a news-sheet printed in London, The Trewe Encountre; another lost news-sheet printed by Richard Pynson which was the source used in Edward Hall's Chronicle. These sources are compared in the 1995 English Heritage report.
Grafton, Richard, Grafton's Chronicle, or History of England: The Chronicle at Large, 1569, vol.2, London (1809) pp. 268–277
Hall, Edward, Chronicle of England, (1809) pp. 561–565
Giovio, Paolo, Pauli Jovii historiarum sui temporis, (1549), pp. 505–528 (Latin)
Pitscottie, Robert Lindsay of, The History and Chronicles of Scotland, vol.1, Edinburgh (1814) pp. 264–282.
The Trewe Encountre or Batayle Lately Don Between England and Scotland etc., Flaque (1513) in Petrie, George, 'Account of Floddon in the 'Trewe Encountre' manuscript', Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries Scotland, vol. 7, Edinburgh (1866–7), 141–152
Letters & Papers Henry VIII, vol.1, (1920) for the Articles of Batail and Tuke's letter, Calendar State Papers Venice, vol.2 (1867) and see Calendar State Papers Milan, vol. 1 (1912)
La Rotta de Scosesi, in, Mackay Mackenzie, W., The Secret of Flodden, (1931)
Barr, N., Flodden 1513, 2001.
Barret, C. B., Battles and Battlefields in England, 1896.
Bingham, C., "Flodden and its Aftermath", in The Scottish Nation, ed. G. Menzies, 1972.
Burke's Landed Gentry of Scotland under Henderson of Fordell
Caldwell, D. H., Scotland's Wars and Warriors, Edinburgh TSO (1998)
Ellis, Henry, ed., Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 1st Series, vol.1, Richard Bentley, London (1825) pp. 82–99, Catherine of Aragon's letters.
Ellis, Henry, ed., Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 3rd Series, vol.1, Richard Bentley, London (1846) pp. 163–164, Dr. William Knight to Cardinal Bainbridge, 20 September 1513, Lille (Latin)
English Heritage Battlefield Report: Flodden, (1995), 13pp
Hodgkin, T., "The Battle of Flodden", in Arcaeologia Aeliania, vol. 16, 1894.
Leather, G. F. T., "The Battle of Flodden", in History of the Berwickshire Naturalists Club, vol. 25, 1933.
Macdougall, N., James IV, 1989.
Mackie, J. D., "The English Army at Flodden", in Miscellany of the Scottish History Society, vol 8 1951.
Mackie, J.D., "The Auld Alliance and the Battle of Flodden", in Transactions of the Franco-Scottish Society, 1835.
Sadler, John, Flodden 1513: Scotland's Greatest Defeat, Osprey Publishing (May 2006), Campaign Series 168; 96 pages; .
Stephen, Rev. W.M. (1921), Story of Inverkeithing & Rosyth. Brit.Lib. No.0190370.f.78
Tucker, Melvin J. (1964), The Life of Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey and Second Duke of Norfolk, 1443–1524. The Hague: Mouton Publishers.
White, R. H. (1859), The Battle of Flodden, in Archaeologia Aeliania, vol. 3, 1859
White, R. H. (1862) White's List in Archaeologia Aeliana or Miscellaneous Tracts: Volume 6 (1862) pp. 69–79.
External links
National Archives of Scotland
An account of the battle, from Our Past History
John Skelton's Flodden poem, A Ballade of the Scottyshe Kynge
Coldstream civic week. Annual event with commemorative rideout to the Flodden Memorial
A monument of the Battle of Flodden, Pastscape
Sir Walter Scott's account of the Laird of Muirhead's role protecting James IV in the Battle of Flodden
Flodden 500 year anniversary projects
Flodden 1513 communities Ecomuseum project
Flodden 1513, the remembering Flodden project
Flodden 500 years anniversary (2013): Follow the community archaeological project excavating in and around Flodden battlefield
The Flooers O’ The Forest Greentrax Recordings compilation CD of songs and music of Flodden.
www.iFlodden.info
1513 in England
1513 in Scotland
Battles between England and Scotland
Battles of the War of the League of Cambrai
Battle of Flodden
Invasions of England
James IV of Scotland
Military history of Northumberland
Registered historic battlefields in England
History of the Scottish Borders
16th century in Northumberland
16th-century military history of Scotland
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239459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Hugenberg | Alfred Hugenberg | Alfred Ernst Christian Alexander Hugenberg (19 June 1865 – 12 March 1951) was an influential German businessman and politician. An important figure in nationalist politics in Germany for the first few decades of the twentieth century, Hugenberg became the country's leading media proprietor during the interwar period. As leader of the German National People's Party he was instrumental in helping Adolf Hitler become Chancellor of Germany and served in his first cabinet in 1933, hoping to control Hitler and use him as his "tool." Those plans backfired, and by the end of 1933 Hugenberg had been pushed to the sidelines. Although Hugenberg continued to serve as a "guest" member of the Reichstag until 1945, he wielded no political influence.
Early years
Born in Hanover to Carl Hugenberg, a royal Hanoverian official who in 1867 entered the Prussian Landtag as a member of the National Liberal Party, the young Hugenberg studied law in Göttingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, as well as economics in Straßburg. As a child, he had a love of writing poetry, but his father very strongly discouraged his son's interest in poetry, and instead brought his son up to be a bureaucrat like himself. In 1891, Hugenberg was awarded a PhD at Straßburg for his dissertation Internal Colonization in Northwest Germany, in which he set out three ideas that guided his political thought for the rest of his life:
The necessity for statist economic policies to allow German farmers to be successful.
Despite the necessity for the state to assist farmers, the German farmer should be encouraged to act as an entrepreneur, thereby creating a class of successful farmers/small businessmen who would act as a bulwark against the appeal of the Marxist Social Democrats, whom Hugenberg viewed as a grave threat to the status quo.
Finally, allowing German farmers to be successful required a policy of imperialism, as Hugenberg argued on Social Darwinist grounds that the "power and significance of the German race" could be secured if Germany colonized other nations. Hugenberg maintained that Germany's prosperity depended upon having a great empire, and argued that, in the coming 20th century, Germany would have to battle three great rivals, namely Britain, the United States and Russia for world supremacy.
Later in 1891, Hugenberg co-founded, along with Karl Peters, the ultra-nationalist General German League, and in 1894 its successor movement, the Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband). From 1894 to 1899, Hugenberg worked as a Prussian civil servant in Posen (modern Poznań, Poland). In 1900, he married his second cousin, Gertrud Adickes (1868–1960), with whom he had four children. Gertrude was the daughter of Franz Burchard Adickes, Mayor of Frankfurt. Hugenberg embraced Social Darwinism in his youth, and throughout his life the ideology of Social Darwinism and the radical nationalism of the Pan-German League guided his actions. Though being a son of an upper middle-class family, he initially resented the Junkers, but over time, he came to accept the idea of "feudal-industrial control of Germany", believing in an alliance of Junkers and industrialists. Alongside these beliefs, Hugbenberg maintained a ardent belief in imperialism and opposition to democracy and socialism.
At the same time, Hugenberg became involved in a scheme in the Province of Posen in which the Prussian Settlement Commission bought land from Poles in order to settle ethnic Germans there. In 1899, Hugenberg called for "annihilation of Polish population". Hugenberg was strongly anti-Polish, and criticized the Prussian government for its "inadequate" Polish policies, favoring a more vigorous policy of Germanization.
Hugenberg initially took a role organising agricultural societies before entering the civil service in the Prussian Ministry of Finance in 1903. Again, Hugenberg came into conflict with his superiors, who opposed his plans to confiscate all the non-productive estates of the Junkers (landed nobility) in order to settle hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans, who would become his idealized farmer-small businessmen and "Germanize" the East.
He subsequently left the public sector to pursue a career in business, and in 1909 he was appointed chairman of the supervisory board of Krupp Steel, and built up a close personal and political relationship with Baron Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, the CEO of Krupp AG. Krupp had been "in search of a man of really superior intelligence" to run the finance department of Krupp AG, and found that man in Hugenberg, with his "extraordinary" intelligence and work ethic. In 1902, Friedrich Alfred Krupp was outed and committed suicide or died from illness shortly after the Social Democratic newspaper Vorwarts published love letters he had written to his Italian male lovers. After his death, the entire firm of Krupp AG was left to his eldest daughter Bertha Krupp. As Krupp AG was one of the world's largest arms manufacturers, and the biggest supplier of weapons to the German state, the management of Krupp AG was of some interest to the state, and misogynistic Emperor Wilhelm II did not believe that a woman was capable of running a business. To solve this perceived problem, the Kaiser had Bertha marry a career diplomat, Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, who was regarded by the Kaiser as a safe man to run Krupp AG. Gustav Krupp, as he was renamed by Wilhelm, knew little about running a business and so depended on his board to assist him. Hugenberg's role in the management of Krupp AG was thus considerably larger than would be indicated by his title of director of finance; in many ways, he was the man who effectively ran the Krupp corporation during his ten years at the firm between 1908 and 1918.
During his time at Krupp AG, Hugenberg was known for his "inflexibility", "stubbornness", and "self-righteousness" as he constantly fought with the two unions representing the workers, one allied with the SPD and the other with the Zentrum. Hugenberg did not approve of either union and instead sponsored an "yellow" union representing the management, making his tenure a time of endless disputes with the workers. Hugenberg favored the idea of a Werksgemeinschaft (economic community), where the Krupp family would act as the patriarchal authority to their workers, granting them higher wages and even junior shares in Krupp AG, in exchange for the workers would be subservient and loyal to die Firma ("the firm") as Krupp AG was always called. Very little came of his plans for a Werksgemeinschaft, and living conditions and wages for the workers at die Firma did not change very much during Hugenberg's time. Hugenberg's interest in having the workers own their own houses stemmed only from his interest in stopping demands for democracy and socialism. His strong Social Darwinist views led him to argue that the problem of poverty was a genetic problem with the poor inheriting bad genes that made them unsuccessful in life. Improving their living standards for him was only necessary to halt demands for political and social change as opposed to a positive goal in and of itself.
At the time, Krupp AG was Europe's largest corporation and one of the largest corporations in the world, and Hugenberg's success in raising annual dividends from 8% in 1908 to 14% in 1913 won him much admiration in the world of German business. A more unwelcome appearance in the limelight occurred with the Kornwalzer affair, in which the Social Democrat MdR Karl Liebknecht exposed industrial espionage by Hugenberg. The management of Krupp AG did not even try to deny the allegations of bribery and industrial espionage, with Krupp arguing in a press article that any attack on the firm of Krupp AG was an attack on the ability of the German state to wage war by the socialist-pacifist SPD, and though several junior employees of Krupp AG were convicted of corruption, Hugenberg and the rest of the Krupp board were never indicted. In 1912, Kaiser Wilhelm II personally awarded Hugenberg the Order of the Red Eagle for his success at Krupp AG, saying that Germany needed more businessmen like Hugenberg. At the ceremony, Hugenberg praised the Kaiser in his acceptance speech, and went on to say that democracy would not improve the condition of the German working class, but only a "very much richer, very much greater and very much powerful Germany" would solve its problems. After the Social Democrats won the largest number of seats in the Reichstag in the 1912 elections, Hugenberg first became interested in the media as he believed that the right-wing parties such as the National Liberals and the Conservatives needed more newspapers to champion their views.
First World War
As well as administering Krupp's finance (with considerable success), Hugenberg also set about developing personal business interests from 1916 onwards, including a controlling interest in the national newsmagazine Die Gartenlaube (The Garden Arbor). In 1914, Hugenberg welcomed the onset of the First World War, and resumed his work with his close friend Heinrich Class of the Pan-German League. During the war, Hugenberg was an annexationist who wanted the war to end with Germany annexing much of Europe, Africa and Asia to make the German Reich into the world's greatest power. In September 1914, Hugenberg and Class co-wrote a memorandum setting out the annexationist platform, which demanded that, once the war was won, Germany would annex Belgium and northern France, British sea power would end, and Russia would be reduced to the "frontiers existing at the time of Peter the Great". Beyond that, Germany was to annex all of the British, French and Belgian colonies in sub-Saharan Africa, and create an "economic union", embracing Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the Scandinavian nations and the nations of the Balkans, which would be dominated by the Reich. Finally, the Hugenberg–Class memo called for a policy of colonization in Eastern Europe, where the German state would settle thousands of German farmers in the land annexed from the Russian Empire. On 7 November 1914, Hugenberg and Class presented their memo before the Central Association of German Industrialists, the Union of Industrialists and the League of German Farmers, to ask for their support, which was granted, albeit with the request that Hugenberg and Class rewrite their memo to remove some of the blunter Social Darwinist language.
The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, was actually an annexationist himself, but refused to support the annexationists in public. Under the constitution of 1871, the Reichstag had limited powers, but one of those powers was the right to pass budgets. In the 1912 elections, the Social Democrats won a majority of the seats in the Reichstag. In 1914, the Social Democrats split into two factions, with the Independent Social Democrats opposing the war and the Majority Social Democrats supporting the war under the grounds that Russia was supposedly about to attack Germany. However, the Majority Social Democrats were opposed to the annexationists, and to secure their co-operation in passing budgets, Bethmann Hollweg refused to support the annexationists in public. Bethmann Hollweg's Septemberprogramm—drafted in September 1914 at a time when the fall of Paris was believed to be imminent, as the German armies had almost reached the French capital, and to be issued when Paris fell—was remarkably similar to the Hugenberg–Class memo.
Believing that he was not one of them, Hugenberg, like the rest of the annexationists, spent the years 1914 to 1917 attacking Bethmann Hollweg as essentially a traitor. In 1915, Hugenberg published a telegram to Class in the name of the united chambers of commerce of the Ruhr, demanding that Wilhelm II dismiss Bethmann Hollweg and if the Kaiser was unwilling, that the military should depose Bethmann Hollweg, stating that if the Reich failed to achieve the annexationist platform once the war was won that it would cause a revolution from the right that would end the monarchy. It was Hugenberg's interest in mobilizing support for the annexationists and bringing down Bethmann Hollweg that led him into the media, as Hugenberg in 1916 started to buy newspapers and publishing houses in order to create more organs for the expression of his imperialistic views. Hugenberg was secretly assisted by the state in his efforts to build a media empire, all the more so as the state distrusted the liberal newspapers owned by the Ullstein brothers and by Rudolf Mosse, all of whom were Jewish, leading the state to request that a circle of "patriotic" businessmen to lend Hugenberg the necessary funds to buy up newspapers. The most important of Hugenberg's allies in lending him the money were various members of the Krupp family.
After buying the Scherl newspaper chain in July 1916, Hugenberg announced, at the first meeting of the board under his management, that he had only bought the Scherl corporation to champion annexationist and Pan-German war aims, and that any editor opposed to his expansionistic views should resign immediately, before he fired them. In buying the Scherl corporation, Hugenberg acquired the Berlin newspaper Der Tag (The Day), which became the flagship paper of his media empire. Der Tag had a daily circulation of 18, 000-20,000 when Hugenberg brought Scherl in 1916, and was a "quality" paper mostly read by educated middle-class people. Another Scherel newspaper was the Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, a paper aimed at lower-middle class readership that had a daily circulation of a quarter of million people; Der Tag was the more prestigious newspaper, but the Lokal-Anzieger was the more profitable one. Hugenberg's biographer, John Leopold, wrote: "This very visible success of the Scherl concern led to the charge that Hugenberg was a war profiteer and an unscrupulous manipulator of the postwar inflation. This was undoubtedly true. During the period from 1914 through 1924, Hugenberg had securely established the basis of his entire syndicate. His business transactions were filled plans to buy and sell shares of different companies, the creation of new corporations as a holding concerns to take various firms, contracts with confidants acting as middlemen and ever-present schemes to avoid taxes. Hugenberg exploited the corporate law, which he knew so well, and used his own financial acumen, which had so finely developed, to secure his empire. He knew the rules of the game and manipulated them to full advantage".
Aside from his membership in the Pan-German League, Hugenberg had a more personal reason for being an annexationist. Together with his friends Emil Kirdorf, Hugo Stinnes and Wilhelm Beukenberg, Hugenberg in 1916–1917 founded a number of corporations to exploit the occupied parts of Belgium and northern France. These companies were favored by the Army, which ruled occupied Belgium and France as both Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff—both firm annexationists—appreciated Hugenberg's willingness to spend millions of marks to mobilize public support for their cause. In 1918, after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Hugenberg founded two corporations, the Landgesellschaft Kurland m.b.H and Neuland AG, which had a combined budget of 37 million marks, to establish co-operative funds that would make loans to the hundreds of thousands of German farmers that he expected to soon be settled in Eastern Europe. After Germany's defeat in 1918 put an end to the plans to settle German farmers in the lebensraum (living space) of Eastern Europe, Hugenberg used the money that had been allocated to the colonization schemes in Eastern Europe to buy up newspapers after the war.
Hugenberg remained at Krupp until 1918, when he set out to build his own business, and during the Great Depression he was able to buy up dozens of local newspapers. Hugenberg's increasing involvement in Pan-German and annexationist causes together with his interest in building a media empire caused him to depart from Krupp, which he found to be a distraction from what really interested him. These newspapers became the basis of his publishing firm, Scherl House, and, after he added controlling interests in Universum Film AG (UFA), Ala-Anzeiger AG, Vera Verlag and the Telegraphen Union, he had a near-monopoly on the German media, which he used to agitate for opposition to the Weimar Republic amongst Germany's middle classes. Despite his media empire, Hugenberg detested intellectuals, and avoided their company as much as possible. A workaholic, Hugenberg rarely went to the cinema or the theater, and he spent most of his free time at either his mansion in Dahlem (the most expensive district in Berlin) or his estate at Rohbraken. His only vacations were to visit the spa at Bad Kissingen once every year to treat his obesity and to visit his friend Leo Wegener in Kreuth in Bavaria, about twice every year. In the words of biographer, Hugenberg lived "...the life of a stolid burgher sorrounded by business associates, family and friends, who reinforced his basic ideas".
For Hugenberg, the great trauma of his life was Germany's defeat in World War One, which he blamed on the November Revolution, the "stab-in-the-back" that was alleged to defeated the Reich just when was alleged to be on the verge of victory. Hugenberg was always convinced that Germany would recover from the defeat of 1918, all the more so as he believed the German military had not actually been defeated in 1918; in his viewpoint, because it was the "stab-in-the-back" that caused the defeat, all that was necessary was merely to remove the "traitors" from the scene in order to win the next world war that he expected to occur sometime in the near-future. In Hugenberg's viewpoint, just as the Thirty Years' War was followed by the rise of Brandenburg/Prussia and the crushing defeat of Prussia by Napoleon in 1806 was followed by the War of Liberation in 1813-1814, so too would the Prussian-German state rise again to emerge victorious over its enemies. Hugenberg's devotion to the "Social Darwinistic and Nietzchean philosophies" with the emphasis on the power of willpower that he had embraced in the late 19th century further reinforced his commitment to doing his part in bringing about the revival of Germany.
Nationalist leader
Hugenberg was one of a number of Pan Germans to become involved in the National Liberal Party in the run up to the First World War. During the war, his views shifted sharply to the right. Accordingly, he switched his allegiance to the Fatherland Party and became one of its leading members, emphasising territorial expansion and anti-Semitism as his two main political issues. In 1919 Hugenberg followed most of the Fatherland Party into the German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei, DNVP), which he represented in the National Assembly (that produced the 1919 constitution of the Weimar Republic). He was elected to the Reichstag in the 1920 elections to the new body. Hugenberg defined his interests as finding a "cure for the sick and crazy climate" of the Weimar Republic, which for him was "power and the use of power". Influenced by Bismarck and Wilhelm II, Hugenberg believed in the Sammlungspolitik ("the politics of rallying together") to create a broad national opposition to the Weimar Republic and to hold together the DNVP, which had strong fissiparous tendencies.
Unable to find positive goals that were capable of holding the DVNP together, let alone of creating the sort of national unity that he wanted, Hugenberg came to define his sammlungspolitik in negative terms by seeking to find "enemies" to provide an unity in hatred. In his first speech before the Reichstag, Hugenberg called the Finance Minister, Matthias Erzberger, a "traitor" for having signed the armistice in 1918, and claimed his policies as Finance minister were meant to bind the Reich to "international economic slavery". To create the desired sammlung, Hungerberg supported what is known at the time as Katastrophenpolitik (catastrophe politics), believing that the worse things were, the more sooner the Weimar Republic would end. After speaking in 1919, Hugenberg would not give a speech again in the Reichstag until 1929, and he rarely spoke at meetings of the Reich Association of German Industry; however, his ability to donate millions of marks to his favored causes made him an important figure within the DNVP. Hugenberg was a poor speaker and devoid of charm. Those who knew well stated he was "not a man, but a wall" owning to his extreme obstinacy as he loathed any sort of compromise, and it was often stated he was "not an easy man" to deal with.
In 1920, Hugenberg founded a populist tabloid, the Berliner Illustrierte Nachtausgabe, which became his most profitable newspaper, having a daily circulation of 216 000 by 1929. The most important of Hugenberg's media properties were the Telegraphen-Union, which he founded in 1921 by buying and merging the Dammert Verlag GmbH, the Deutscher Handelsdient and the Wesdeutscher Handelsdienst. The Teegraphen-Union (TU) played a role in the German media analogous to Reuters's in the United Kingdom and the Associated Press in the United States, employing some 250 journalists in thirty offices around the world to report on national and international news for smaller newspapers in Germany who could not afford national and international correspondents. At the height of its influence, some 1,600 newspapers in Germany subscribed to the Telegraphen-Union, making it an effective competitor to the Telegraph Bureau, owned by the liberal and Jewish journalist Theodor Wolff. Hugenberg had founded the TU to compete with the Telegraph Bureau following complaints from German conservatives of "liberal bias" at the Wolff-owned Telegraph Bureau. Though the Telegraphen-Union was described as "non-partisan", its coverage of both national and foreign news tended to be very sympathetic towards right-wing political parties opposed to the Weimar republic. The Hugenberg papers constantly hammered home the message that the Weimar Republic was born of the "stab-in-the-back" as the November Revolution was called and its leaders were the "November criminals".. Those who endorsed such views were always described as "the experts" while those opposed were "partisan politicians", creating the impression that the belief in the "stab-in-the-back" was the objective truth while opposed were people subjectively pursuing their own agenda. To reinforce the point, the Hugenberg papers blamed every conceivable problem in Germany on the defeat of 1918 while painting a counter-factual picture of the Reich being an utopia had the war ended in victory in 1918.
In cities such as Berlin, the Hugenberg newspapers had to compete with the liberal newspapers owned by the Ullstein and Mosse families, and the Hugenberg media empire was most influential in the small towns and rural areas of Germany where the newspapers owned by Hugenberg were most people's main source of the news. Even in areas where Hugenberg did not own the newspapers, the local newspapers were dependent upon the Hugenberg-owned Telegraphen-Union (TU) for news outside of their areas; about 600 newspapers in the rural areas and small towns of Germany exclusively reprinted articles written by TU journalists for their national and international news. In the Weimar republic, Germany had about 3, 000 newspapers, of which only 14 were owned by Hugenberg. It was via the TU that some 1,600 newspapers, mostly in rural areas and small towns, used for national and international news that Hugenberg had influence. Though Hugenberg was often described as representing the interests of the industrialists, Leopold wrote: "His nationalist insistence on autarchy and his diametrical opposition to all forms of unionism represented not the attitude of most businessmen, but the ideology of the Pan-German League. No longer concerned with the profits and losses of any industry other than his media empire, Hugenberg was free to criticize the immediate demands of industrialists for practical solutions and he reverted to the simplistic solutions espoused by the Pan-Germans since the prewar war". Hugenberg's Social Darwinist views remained unchanged as he argued that the "survival of the fittest" should become "the life principle of development", a stance that put at odds with the leaders of the left-wing of the DNVP such as Hans Schlange-Schöningen, Gottfried Treviranus, Walther Lambach, and Gustav Hülser, men who shared his vehement opposition to Marxism, but were opposed to his harsh Social Darwnism. Amongst the DNVP MrDs whom Hugenberg associated with were General Wilhelm von Dommes, the emissary for the Kaiser in exile; Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz; Gottfried Gok, a Pan-German leader; and Theodore Duesterberg of the Stahlhelm. Hugenberg founded a thinktank, the Wirtschaftsvereiningung zur Förderung der geistigen Wiederanufbaufräft (the Economic Association for the Promotion of Intellectual Forces of Reconstruction) to promote his ideas while living a pseudo-aristocratic lifestyle at his estate at Rohbraken.. In 1922, together with the industrialist Emil Kirdorf, Hugenberg created an investment fund known as Webegemeinschaft that served to subsidize groups "very effective politically, but not commercially profitable". Hugenberg was the chairman of the fund, which started out with 600,000 marks and had an average a quarter of million marks in subsidies to any group that Hugenberg and Kirdorf approved of.
In January 1923, when Germany defaulted on reparations to France, the French premier Raymond Poincaré ordered the occupation of the Ruhr, marking the beginning of "passive resistance" that led to the hyper-inflation. As a supporter of Katastrophenpolitik, Hugenberg rather perversely welcomed the inflation as the beginning of the end of the Weimar republic, arguing that the economic disaster would awaken the furor teutonicus that would lead to the "Third Reich". In an essay he wrote at the time, he stated that what Germany needed was a leader who had the charisma to "attract the masses behind him like the Pied Piper of Hamelin...On a few will and can do this. We, the entire spectrum of non-socialists can do no more than prepare for the way for these few. Hopefullly we find that which we desire". In this spirit, Hugenberg declared one could "not be radical enough". It was during the crisis year of 1923 that Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz suggested that Hugenberg should purse the chancellorship because no other "personality in Germany who would be so suited to bring the 'expeditious' understanding necessary for the salvation of our country and so suitable for the situation". The decision by Gustav Stresemann of the German People's Party, until then considered a part of the "national opposition", to accept the chancellorship and to end the "passive resistance" in September 1923 was condemned by Hugenberg as a betrayal. Stresesmann became a vernunftrepublikaner ("republican by reason"-someone who was still loyal to the monarchy in their heart, but accepted the republic as the least bad alternative), and insofar as his policies aimed at economic and political stability, he became the subject of immense hatred from Hugenberg. In November 1923, when the Nazis launched the Beerhall Putsch in Munich, they received significant coverage in the Hugenberg newspapers for the first time. Adolf Hitler and the other Nazi leaders were portrayed as well meaning, but misguided patriots who were trying to end the Weimar republic in the wrong way. In an editorial in the Hugenberg-owned München Augsburger Abendzeitung newspaper, Hitler was praised as an "exceptionally popular speaker" who had "liberated" the minds of "innumerable workers from international socialism", but the putsch was condemned under the grounds "You must gather together and not scatter! You must bind together and not tear apart!"
To end the hyper-inflation of 1923, a new currency, the Reichmark was created to replace the worthless mark, reparation payments were lowered in the Dawes Plan, and a huge loan to Germany was floated in New York. The American bankers insisted the state-owned Reichsbahn railroad be put up as a collateral for the loan, which in turn required amending the constitution, which stated the Reichsbahn could not be used as collateral, which in turn acquired a supermajority in the Reichstag. As the DVNP did well in the elections of May 1924, to amend the constitution would require the votes of the DNVP MdRs, which split the party into two. The industrialists who supported the DNVP were in favor of the Dawes plan and threatened to cut off funding for the party forever if it voted against the Dawes plan while another faction still attached to Katastrophenpolitik favored rejecting the Dawes plan under the grounds that a return to the economic chaos of 1923 was the best way of ending the Weimar republic. Hugenberg emerged as one of the leaders of the latter faction who wanted to reject the Dawes plan, writing bitterly at the time that "two-thirds of the German people including those behind the German National People's Party are internally prepared to let the freedom, honor and future of their land be sold in the exchange for a few pieces of silver". When the vote occurred on 27 August 1924, 49 DVNP MrDs voted for the Dawes plan while 48 voted against; Hugenberg missed the vote with a doctor's note saying he was too unwell to attend the Reichstag that day. AS the DNVP agreed to support the government of Hans Luther, Hugenberg grew more embittered, writing a series of essays in February-March 1925 later published as a book that included such lines as "it sinks in the German Reich" and the "false leaders belong in the asylums". In the 1925 presidential election, the Hugenberg newspapers supported Paul von Hindenburg for president, despite Hugenberg's private reservations as he believed Hindenburg as president would give the republic more legitimacy. Hugenberg's principle fear was that the DNVP under the leadership of Westarp was moving in a "Tory" direction, by which he meant it was starting to become a "big tent" conservative party like the British Conservative party that combined different interest groups and as a result was toning down its ideology in a favor of pragmatic approach to power.
In January 1926, Hugenberg was involved in a plan for a putsch organized by his very good friend, Henrich Class, calling for President Hindenburg to appoint as a chancellor someone who was unacceptable for the Reichstag, which would lead to a motion of no confidence. Hindenburg would respond by dissolving the Reichstag and resigning while the election campaign was in progress; the chancellor would become acting president and Class planned to have issue a declaration of martial law and become the "Reich Regent" . Class to have Hugenberg serve as minister of finance in the new government. The Social Democrats controlled Prussia and the Prussian police arrested those involved in Class's scheme. None of the accused were brought to trial except Class, and the judge dismissed the charges because of a lack of evidence stating that merely talking about a putsch was not the same thing as planning a putsch. The charges brought Hugenberg much attention, and the spokesman for the Hugenberg press, Ludwig Bernhard, used the case to praise Hugenberg as a great German patriot who had used his fortune to buy up newspapers to protect the German press from the "alien" Ullstein and Mosse families, as Bernhard noted that the Mosse and Ullstein families were Jewish while Hugenberg was not. Bernhard's pamphlet first made Hugenberg well known. It during this period that Hugenberg's friends such as Class and Leo Wegener started to promote Hugenberg and his business empire as a sort of brand despite his manifest lack of charm, proudly adopting the label "Hugenberg press" to describe his media empire, and gave him the image as a corporate superhero leader who could save Germany. The fact that Hugenberg rarely spoke in public during thus period aided their efforts, giving him an aura of mystery. As the DVNP took part in several coalitions, Hugenberg emerged as one of the leading critics within the party of the approach of the party's leader, Kuno von Westarp, charging he was betraying the party's principles. In 1927, the Scherl press published Hugenberg's essays of 1925 as Streiflichter aus Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, in which he attacked the policies associated with Westarp, and implicitly challenged his competence to be the DNVP's leader. In March 1927, Hugenberg purchased UFA, Europe's largest film studio, which brought him further attention. Hugenberg presented the purchase of UFA as a political move instead of a business move as the Hugenberg newspapers loudly announced that UFA had been brought to prevent "republicans, Jews and internationalists" from making any more films at UFA.
Party leader
The DNVP suffered heavy losses in the 1928 election, leading to the appointment of Hugenberg as sole chairman on 21 October that same year. Hugenberg moved the party in a far more radical direction than it had taken under its previous leader, Kuno Graf von Westarp. After the 1928 election, a DNVP MdR, Walther Lambach, published an article in the journal Politische Wochenschrift, saying that the poor showing of the DNVP in the election was due to its monarchism as Lambach argued that the vast majority of the German people did not pine for the return of the exiled Kaiser, and the party's emphasis on this point was alienating the public, who had come to accept the republic. Lambach ended his article by writing that the DNVP needed a volkkonservatismus (popular conservatism) that addressed the concerns of ordinary Germans and that restoring the monarchy was not one of them.
Hugenberg was the leader of the DNVP monarchist purists for whom no changes in the party's platform were acceptable, and he started to press for the DNVP to expel Lambach as a way of bringing down Westarp who only agreed to censure Lambach for his article. At Hugenberg's instigation, the Potsdam branch of the DNVP expelled Lambach on its own in July 1928, presenting Westarp with a fait accompli, which showed that way that party's grassroots members felt about the Lambach affair. Hugenberg followed up this triumph with an article saying that the DNVP was "not a parliamentary party in the proper sense of the word, but as a grand group of men-as a community of opinion, not a community of interests", which in his view had caused the DNVP to degenerate from its core principles, which Lambach's article was only the most deplorable and recent example. Hugenberg argued the DNVP could not change its values as he wrote: "Only an ideological party which is led and which leads can save the soul and economy of the German people!" Using Lambach as a surrogate for his attack on Westarp, Hugenberg argued that the DNVP could not be a brei ("mishmash") of people of different values such as monarchists and republicans, and could only be led by an "strong" leader fanatically devoted to upholding the party's values who would lead in an authoritarian style, by which he clearly meant himself. Lambach appealed against his expulsion and was allowed back into the DNVP as he argued that he himself was still a monarchist and his article was intended only to spark discussion.
However, the Lambach case had galvanized the DNVP's membership against Westarp and for Hugenberg, who knew that the DNVP would be calling a party congress later that year, which had the power to elect a new leader, the Lambach affair was a godsend. Using the Lambach case as his rallying cry, Hugenberg campaigned aggressively amongst the party's membership, greatly helped by the fact that the Pan-German League had taken over many of the DNVP's local branches. When the party congress opened on 20 October 1928, Westarp was on the defensive right from the start as he was forced to apologize for the DNVP's poor showing in the most recent election and he appealed to delegates themselves for idea about improving the party's image, making him look like a weak leader. By contrast, Hugenberg-who while lacking in charm and charisma-was able to present himself as a man with a definite plan to restore the party's fortunes. The fact that the members of the Pan-German League were overrepresented at the party congress further favored Hugenberg who was elected the DNVP's new leader on 21 October 1928. As part of his campaign against Westarp, Hugenberg stressed his success as a businessman, but at the same time he also stressed that he was so wealthy that he was independent of big business, and could follow his own line. Hugenberg gave the impression that the DVNP would not need anymore donations from big business as was so wealthy that he would fund the DVNP entirely out of his own pocket.
He hoped to use radical nationalism to restore the party's fortunes, and eventually, to overthrow the Weimar constitution and install an authoritarian form of government. Up to this point, right-wing politics outside of the far right was going through a process of reconciliation with the Weimar Republic, but this ended under Hugenberg, who renewed earlier DNVP calls for its immediate destruction. Under his direction, a new DNVP manifesto appeared in 1931, demonstrating the shift to the right. Amongst its demands were immediate restoration of the Hohenzollern monarchy, a reversal of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, compulsory military conscription, repossession of the German colonial empire, a concerted effort to build up closer links with German speaking people outside Germany (especially in Austria), a dilution of the role of the Reichstag to that of a supervisory body to a newly established professional house of appointees reminiscent of Benito Mussolini's corporative state, and reduction in the perceived over-representation of Jews in German public life.
Hugenberg also sought to eliminate internal party democracy and instill a führerprinzip within the DNVP, leading to some members breaking away to establish the Conservative People's Party (KVP) in late 1929. More were to follow in June 1930, appalled by Hugenberg's extreme opposition to the cabinet of Heinrich Brüning, a moderate whom some within the DNVP wanted to support. Despite Hugenberg's background in industry, that constituency gradually deserted the DNVP under his leadership, largely due to a general feeling amongst industrialists that Hugenberg was too inflexible, and soon the party became the main voice of agrarian interests in the Reichstag. Hugenberg's unwillingness to have the DNVP enter the cabinet greatly embittered the industrialists who complained the DNVP under his leadership was a perpetual opposition party, and as such the largest contributor to the DNVP by 1931 had become Hugenberg himself, which had the effect of cementing his control.
Hugenberg had purchased the UFA studio-the largest film production company in both Germany and Europe-with the aim of making right-wing "national" films, but in this case, his concern for profits overrode his ideology. The transition from silent film to talkies had imposed significant costs on UFA, which chose to mostly produce films designed for the widest possible audience in order to recoup the costs of installing sound equipment. Between 1930-1933, only a limited number of UFA films were the type of "national" films that Hugenberg had envisioned when he brought UFA, and of the "national" films only Flötenkonzert von Sans-souci (1930) Yorck (1931), Im Geheimdienst (1931), and Morgenrot (1933) were successful at the box office. Despite his anti-Semitism, Hugenberg did not fire the many Jews who worked at UFA as directors, script-writers, actors, etc as he did not want to lose any talent to rival studios.
The politics of polarization
Hugenberg had a grand strategy to bring down "the System" as enemies of the Weimar Republic always called it. Hugenberg believed in the politics of polarization under which German politics were to be divided into two blocs, the right-wing "national" bloc whose leader he envisioned as himself and the Marxist left consisting of the Social Democrats and the Communists. As part of strategy of polarization, Hugenberg intended to seize upon wedge issues and present them in a highly inflammatory manner in order to create a situation where one could be either for and against the "national" bloc, which was intended to lead to the electoral decline of all centrist parties in Germany. Leopold noted that Hugenberg "debated political issues in terms of a simplistic, philosophic disjunction-a man was either for the nation or he was against it". Hugenberg wrote in 1929 in a memo outlining his planned politics of polarization that "fate is only for the weak and the sick. The strong, healthy man molds his fate and that of his nation with his own will". Hugenberg believed that the same skills that made a successful media magnate would bring down the Weimar Republic as he deliberately pursued his strategy of Sammlung (rallying together) as he called his polarizing strategy. As a part of this polarization, he planned to turn the DVNP from a party working within the Reichstag to advance its goals-which was what the DVNP had more or less become under Westarp-into a movement that would work for the destruction of "the System". Hugenberg had initially intended as his wedge issue the subject of constitutional reform, but he dropped it in the spring of 1929 as "too abstract" for most people in favor of opposing the Young Plan for reparations.
Taking advantage of a clause in the Weimar constitution that allowed a referendum to be called if enough people signed a petition demanding it, Hugenberg decided in June 1929 to collect signatures for a referendum on the Young Plan, which was intended to discredit the "Grand Coalition" government led by the Social Democratic chancellor Hermann Müller. Using highly emotional, visceral language, Hugenberg and his newspapers presented the Young Plan-which actually reduced reparations-in the most starkest demands possible as a form of "financial slavery" for "our children's children" which would reduce living standards in Germany down to an "Asiatic" level of poverty (the term "Asiatic" poverty referred to at the time what today would be called a Third World living standard). By pushing for a referendum on the Young Plan, Hugenberg as intended forced the Müller "Grand Coalition" government to defend the Young Plan while Hugenberg as an opposition leader felt free to make extravagant promises about what he would done if he was Chancellor, claiming that the Reich would pay no reparations at all if he were in charge. Even at the time, it was widely recognized that Hugenberg's status as an opposition leader free from the burdens of office allowed him the luxury of not suggesting a "realistic alternative" to the Young Plan. This was especially the case as the French government had agreed that in exchange for German acceptance of the Young Plan that France would end its occupation of the Rhineland in the summer of 1930, which was five years earlier than what the Treaty of Versailles had called for. At the time, Hugenberg's critics pointed out that if the Young Plan was rejected, then the French occupation of the Rhineland would continue on until the summer of 1935, an aspect of Hugenberg's rejectionist strategy that he never dwelled on. Hugenberg's strategy was a negative one as to create the "national bloc" that he envisioned meant there could be little discussion of what the "national bloc" intended to achieve as there were too many divisions on the German right for a positive programme, and instead the "national bloc" was to be united by what it was against instead of what it was for.
Hugenberg was vehemently opposed to the Young Plan, and he set up a "Reich Committee for the German People's Petition" to oppose it, featuring the likes of Franz Seldte, Heinrich Class, Theodor Duesterberg and Fritz Thyssen. On 9 July 1929, Hugrenberg founded the Reich Committee on the German Initiative to campaign against the Young Plan, which the Hugenberg newspapers hailed as the most important political development. Hugenberg saw the referendum as the beginning of the counterrevolution, writing at the time that thanks to him "a front has arisen that knows only one goal: how the revolution [of 1918] can be overcome and a nation of free men can again be made from Germans". To achieve this goal, Hugenberg took 551, 000 RM from the Scherel corporation for discretionary spending and another 400, 000 RM for "special purposes", all of which he spent on the referendum. However, he recognised that the DNVP and their elite band of allies did not have enough popular support to carry any rejection of the scheme through. As such, Hugenberg felt that he needed a nationalist with support amongst the working classes, whom he could use to whip up popular sentiment against the Plan. Adolf Hitler was the only realistic candidate, and Hugenberg decided that he would use the Nazi Party leader to get his way. As a result, the Nazi Party soon became the recipients of Hugenberg's largesse, both in terms of monetary donations and of favourable coverage from the Hugenberg-owned press, which had previously largely ignored Hitler or denounced him as a socialist. Joseph Goebbels, who had a deep hatred of Hugenberg, initially spoke privately of breaking away from Hitler over the alliance, but he changed his mind when Hugenberg agreed that Goebbels should handle the propaganda for the campaign, giving the Nazi Party access to Hugenberg's media empire.
The infamous paragraph four in the proposed "Law Against the Enslavement of the German People" (more commonly known as the "Freedom Law") as the proposed anti-Young Plan bill to be submitted in the referendum calling for those MdRs who voted for the Young Plan and those civil servants who handed over reparations to be imprisoned was inserted by Hitler, and was accepted by Hugenberg, who believed it would attract voters. Paragraph four of the "Freedom Law" instead divided the DVNP as Westarp and several other DVNP MrDs came out in opposition, arguing that paragraph four was going too far while the Reich Association of German Industry declared its neutrality, despite Hugenberg's efforts to have the association support him. Several industrialists such as Albert Vögler and Fritz Thyssen supported the "Freedom Law", but the majority were opposed, favoring the Young Plan as it promised economic stability; rather than risk a split, the association declared itself neutral at a meeting on 20 September 1929. On 24 September 1929 at a gigantic rally in the Berlin Sports Palace, the four leaders of the Reich Committee against the Enslavement of the German People, namely Hugenberg, Hitler, Seldte and Class formally began the campaign for the "Law Against the Enslavement of the German People". On 30 November 1929, when the "Freedom Law" came up before the Reichstag, 14 DVNP MrDs abstained from voting while 3 MrDs voted against the "Freedom Law", citing concerns about paragraph four. When Hugenberg tried to impose party discipline, 12 DVNP MrdS left the party in protest over his leadership. The Hugenberg newspapers went all-out in support of the "Freedom Law", running glaring headlines in support, but when the referendum, only 5, 538, 000 Germans voted yes for the "Freedom Law", which was insufficient to for the law to pass.
Hitler was able to use Hugenberg to push himself into the political mainstream, and once the Young Plan was passed by referendum, Hitler promptly ended his links with Hugenberg. Leopold noted that Hugenberg's polarizing strategy to divide Germany into two blocs had starting with the Young Plan referendum worked successfully, but the man who benefitted was not Hugenberg as intended, but rather Hitler. Hitler publicly blamed Hugenberg for the failure of the campaign, but he retained the links with big business that the Committee had allowed him to cultivate, and this began a process of the business magnates deserting the DNVP for the Nazis. Hitler's handling of the affair was marred by one thing, and that was the premature announcement in the Nazi press of his repudiation of the alliance with the Strasser brothers, whose left-wing economics were incompatible with Hugenberg's arch-capitalism. On 6 January 1930, Hugenberg was summoned to meet President Paul von Hindenburg, who told him that now the Young Plan had been passed, he had no more need for Müller, and he was planning to bring in a new "presidential" government very soon that would be "anti-parliamentary and anti-Marxist". Hindenburg explained the intention behind the "presidential" government that would be based on the "25/48/53 formula" (a reference to the articles in the constitution that made such a government possible) was to gradually end democracy and he wanted Hugenberg to be a cabinet minister in the new government. Much to Hindenburg's vexation, Hugenberg refused to take part, maintaining that he not be a cabinet minister in a government that paid reparations.
In an attempt to force Hugenberg to support the new "presidential government" of Heinrich Brüning brought in a bill to increase taxes while also increasing government aid to farmers, one of the key groups who voted for the DVNP. The promise of more aid to farmers was popular in rural areas, and several DVNP MrDs led by Westarp wanted the party to vote for the bill, which Hugenberg was opposed to under the grounds some of the tax revenue raised would go to France in the form of reparations. On the first reading of the bill on 12 April 1930, the DVNP split with 31 DVNP MrDs voting for while 23 MrDs led by Hugenberg voted against; on the second reading on 14 April 32 DVNP MrDS voted for the bill while 20 MrDs voted against. That Hugenberg was incapable of controlling his own Reichstag delegation led Hitler to openly mock him as a weak leader. When the bill was passed under article 48, Hugenberg ordered the DVNP MrDs to vote to cancel the bill on 18 July 1930; 25 DVNP MrDs led by Westarp broke with the party disciple to vote for the bill and left the party in protest. Bills passed under article 48 could be cancelled by the Reichstag, but Brüning threatened to have Hindenburg use article 53 to dissolve the Reichstag for an election if his bill should be cancelled. As a consequence, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag for an election only two years into its mandate. During the 1930 election, Hugenberg's shortcomings as a speaker were cruelly exposed as he came across as awkward, arrogant and above all very dull. During the election, the Hugenberg press largely concentrated its attacks on "Marxism", warning the SPD was working for a revolution and wanted to increase spending on the welfare state as the first step towards "Boshevism". The Nazis by contrast were treated relatively kindly by the Hugenberg papers with a Der Tag editorial saying there were no differences between the DVNP and the NSDAP on "culture and religion, the attitude towards Jewry and the will towards the reconstruction in individual social and economic questions". The election ended with the DVNP being reduced down to only 41 seats in the Reichstag while the Nazis went up from the 12 seats they won in 1928 to 107 seats.
On 26 November 1930, Brüning met with Hugenberg to ask him to join his government, only for Hugenberg-who still following Katastrophenpolitik-to tell him that he rather see the "collapse which I predicated" and "I must fight you and the entire system".. Despite the way that Hitler now overshadowed him, Hugenberg was convinced that Hitler still owed a debt of some sort which he would have to repay by deferring to him.. On 10 February 1931 Hugenberg joined the Nazi Party in walking the DNVP out of the Reichstag altogether, as a protest against the Brüning government. By then, the two parties were in a very loose federation, known as the 'National Opposition'.
By 1930, Hugenberg was spending about 4, 600 Reichmarks per month on the DVNP and another 7, 500 RM on special expenses on the party. By 1931, when the Great Depression caused profits in the Hugenberg papers to drop by 30%, Hugenberg became insistent that the DNVP start to become financially self-sufficient instead of depending on him to subsidize the party. Through the Berlin newspapers such as Der Tag and Berliner Nachtausgabe saw circulation decline, they continue to be in the black; by contrast, the provincial newspapers such as the Süddeutsche Zeitung in Stuttgart and München Augsburger Abendzeitung in Munich were losing so much money that in 1931 Hugenberg seriously considered shutting both newspapers down. Despite the anti-Semitic and generally xenophobic line taken by his newspapers, Hugenberg had no hesitations about using the services of a German Jewish banker, Jacob Goldschmidt, to arrange a loan from a group of New York financers in May 1931 that allowed him to keep his provincial newspapers afloat.
Through President Paul von Hindenburg disliked Hugenberg, but his neighbor in East Prussia and a fellow Junker, Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau was a DVNP member. Through Oldenburg-Januschau, Hugenberg was able to meet Hindenburg on his estate at Neudeck, where the former pressed the latter to appoint him chancellor, saying he was the only man who would "master the situation". However, Hugenberg's hubristic arrogance enraged Hindenburg, who complained that he was a Junker, a field marshal and the president while Hugenberg treated him "like a schoolboy". The flagship paper of Hugenberg's media empire, Der Tag, in an editorial praised the Nazi "will to sacrifice" and "courage to battle", but charged that the Nazis were too rash and too ignorant of economics to govern on their own, requiring the DVNP as a coalition partner as the latter party was the party of "schooled, conservative, constructive, youthfully strong determination". The appeal did not work as intended while Ludwig Klitzsch, who ran the Scherel press, warned Hugenberg that the friendly coverage of the Nazis had "...frequently exceeded the bonds of political wisdom". The fact that DVNP members did not have to pay dues as NSDAP members did proved to be a weakness as the requirement to pay monthly dues inspired Nazi Party members with far more devotion to their cause than the DVNP members, who blithely assumed that Hugenberg's fortune was more than enough to handle the party's financial needs. In 1931, Hugenberg, whose fortune was not as vast as believed, was forced cut to DVNP's budget by 31% in order to keep the party solvent. Hugenberg's support for high tariffs for agriculture and his call to replace the welfare state with a program of "self-help" for the unemployed offended many in the cities.
The Harzburg Front
The collapse of the German banking system in the spring and summer of 1931 was seen by Hugenberg as an opportunity to create the nationalist sammlung (rallying together) that he sought with the Young Plan referendum. On 9 July 1931, Hugenberg released a joint statement, with Hitler guaranteeing that the pair would co-operate for the overthrow of the Weimar 'system'. Hugenberg wanted to announce the creation of his front in Bad Harzburg in Braunschweig, a land (state) governed by a DVNP-NSDAP coalition to symbolize unity on the right. Hitler was wary of the plans, leading Hugenberg to complain in private of his "megalomania, but also of uncontrollability, imprudence and lack of judgement". To show his strength before the joint rally in Bad Harzburg, Hugenberg held the DVNP's party congress in September 1931 in Stettin, which was intentionally modelled after a Nazi rally. The presence at the congress of such figures such as Prince Oskar of Prussia, Admiral Ludwig von Schröder, Field Marshal August von Mackensen and Fritz Thyssen was intended to show that Hugenberg was a militaristic monarchist whose economic policies were supported by big business.. At the party congress, Hugenberg blamed the Great Depression on the Treaty of Versailles, the gold standard and a misplaced belief in "international capital". The first part of his solution to the Great Depression was a policy of autarky and protectionism. Ultimately, Hugenberg argued that the solution to the Great Depression was imperialism as he argued that Germans were a "volk ohne raum" ("people without space"), which he felt was the fundamental problem with the German economy. As such, Hugenberg argued that Germany needed the return of its former colonial empire in Africa and to conquer lebensraum ("living space") in Eastern Europe, which would provide sufficient space for the Germans to colonize and people to exploit. For the Bad Harzburg rally, Hugenberg wanted a broad front that emphasized being respectable. Amongst the people he invited to Bad Harzburg who attended the rally were Crown Prince Wilhelm, Prince Oskar, Prince Eitel Friedrich, Heinrich Class, Count Eberhard von Kalkreuth, Admiral Magnus von Levetzow, Fritz Thyssen, Admiral Adolf von Trotha, General Hans von Seekt, General Rüdiger von der Goltz, General Karl von Einem, and Hjalmar Schacht.
Hugenberg and Hitler presented a united front at Bad Harzburg on 21 October 1931, as part of a wider right-wing rally leading to suggestions that a Harzburg Front involving the two parties and the veterans' organisation Der Stahlhelm had emerged. The two leaders soon clashed, and Hugenberg's refusal to endorse Hitler in the 1932 German presidential election widened the gap. Indeed, the rift between the two opened further when Hugenberg, fearing that Hitler might win the Presidency, persuaded Theodor Duesterberg to run as a Junker candidate after Prince Oskar of Prussia declined to run as the DNVP candidate. Although Duesterberg was eliminated on the first vote, due largely to Nazi allegations regarding his Jewish parentage, Hitler nonetheless failed to secure the Presidency. As Duesterberg won only 6.8% vote of the vote compared to Hitler's 30.1% and Hindenburg's 49.6%, he was eliminated from the second round of the presidential election. In desperation, Hugenberg tried to get the Crown Prince Wilhelm to run as the DVNP's candidate, only for the exiled Kaiser to issue a statement that saying it was "absolute idiocy" for his son to run for president. More damaging, the Crown Prince Wilhelm announced he would not run as the DVNP candidate and instead endorsed Hitler for president.
Hugenberg's speeches were intensely boring, and his attempt to create a Hitler-style personality cult around himself failed. Hugenberg's mannerisms and his upper-class accent gave him the image of "...an arrogant, unapproachable demigod" whose knew nothing of the concerns of ordinary people. Hugenberg's cunning in business had earned him the nicknames the "Cross Spider" and the "Silver Fox"; however, as DVNP leader, he was widely known as "the Hamster". Hugenberg's rotund build and short stature together with his handlebar mustache, brush-cut hairstyle and the Wilhelmine way of dressing with a high collar made him resemble a hamster, giving him a nickname that he hated; more broadly, the nickname suggested that he was not being taken as seriously as he would had liked By 1932, Baron Thilo von Wilmowsky, who was married to Barbara von Krupp, the younger sister of Bertha von Krupp and was widely regarded as the spokesman for the Krupp family, was seeking to oust Hugenberg as the DVNP leader, convinced that his utter lack of charisma and charm was leading the party to disaster. A group of Hanoverian industrialists offered 100, 000 RM to assist anyone was willing to try to depose Hugenberg. Other industrialists such as Friedrich Springorum of the Ruhr were still committed to Hugenberg, albeit only on the negative grounds that to depose Hugenberg would split the DVNP even more. The steel magnate Fritz Thyssen abandoned the DNVP for the NSDAP, issuing a statement blaming all of the problems in the Harzburg Front on Hugenberg, and claimed that Hitler was the best man to end the Weimar republic, which was why he had joined the NSDAP.. Seeing his plans unravel inspired Hugenberg to write in a letter that to Wegener on 15 March 1932 that he was not a leader, but a "chicken ladder", a reference to the German proverb "life is a chicken ladder-shit on from top to bottom".
In the election for the Prussian Landtag on 24 April 1932, Hugenberg campaigned for a NSDAP-DVNP coalition, stating in a speech on 21 April 1932: "We owe it to youth and to our children, to stress loudly and clearly in this campaign that we are not National Socialists and that the National Socialists alone on their own and without us are unable to solve the problems of our time". Despite his appeal, DVNP voters deserted their party for the Nazis in massive numbers with the DVNP suffering a 56% decline in their share of the vote compared to the last Prussian election of 1928. By contrast, the Nazis went from having 8 seats in the Prussian landtag to having 162 seats. As Prussia was the largest and most populous of Germany's lander, the Prussian election was widely taken as a sign that the Nazis had replaced the DVNP as the main party of the right.
Together with the German People's Party, the DNVP was the only party in the Reichstag that supported the new government led by Franz von Papen, and through three ministers in the new cabinet were members of DNVP members, Hugenberg himself was excluded. General von Bredow, the right-hand man of General Kurt von Schleicher, the mastermind who created the new Papen government, wrote in a memo that Hugenberg's "appearance, his speeches, his intractability" caused most people to naturally hate him, and keeping him of the Papen cabinet would be an advantage. As Papen was not a member of any party after he been expelled from the Zentrum, Hugenberg during the first Reichstag election campaign in the summer of 1932 presented voting for the DNVP as the best way to vote for Papen. As Papen was an extremely unpopular chancellor, this strategy was a disaster and in the Reichstag election on 31 July 1932, the DNVP suffered its worse result ever, winning only 5.9% of the vote, giving the DNVP only 36 seats in the Reichstag. By contrast, the NSDAP had its best result ever in a free election, winning 37% of the vote and 230 seats in the Reichstag. For Hugenberg, despite drubbing the DNVP had suffered in the election, he remained optimistic. For Hugenberg, his politics of polarization had achieved their purpose by collapsing the "middle" in German politics as he had intended.. Moreover, for him, the purpose of the "national bloc" was only a means to end "the system" as he called the Weimar republic from below; now with the "presidential government" headed by Papen offered the means to end the Weimar republic from above The possibility of an alliance between the Nazis and the Zentrum without the DVNP, which was openly discussed, led Hugenberg to condemn Hitler for using parliamentary methods. Leading ministers in the Papen cabinet such as the Defense minister General Kurt von Schleicher; the Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath and the Interior Minister Wilhelm von Gayl often met with Hugenberg in private to discuss policies that the DVNP might support, and Papen in a letter stated that he agreed with Hugenberg's economic policies of cutting wages and protectionism.
When the Reichstag met on 12 September 1932, Papen was defeated by the most overwhelming motion of no confidence ever in German history with 512 MdRs voting for the motion while only 42 MdRs voted against.'. At Papen's request, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag for new election rather allowing another government to be formed, and in the ensuring election campaign, Hugenberg took a strongly anti-Nazi line, portraying Hitler as irresponsible and dangerous. Hugenberg presented him as the foremost supporter of the Papen government, and the Hugenberg newspapers launched a sustained line of attack on the Nazis as opportunists who were willing to take Hugenberg's money, but not his guidance. During the election, Hugenberg came under pressure to resign from within his party and from many of the industrialists with Hugo Stinnes in a letter of 19 September 1932 stating: "Hugenberg is certainly right, but he cannot inspire enthusiasm and that's what it's all about".
Hugenberg's party had experienced a growth in support at the November 1932 election at the expense of the Nazis. Hugenberg once again declared his support for Papen's "presidential" government and advised Hindenburg: "I have not found to be very loyal to agreements; his whole manner of handling political affairs makes it very difficult to be able to entrust Hitler with political leadership. I would have very grave reservations against this". In December 1932, Hugenberg drew up a plans for a "presidential government" to be headed by the popular mayor of Leipzig, Carl Goerdeler, in which he was to act as "economic dictator. As part of his plans, Hugenberg drew up a list of 13 "Urgent Measures" to impose totalitarian control with all opposition to be considered treason, censorship to be imposed, strikes made illegal, and the police to be given power to take people into "protective custody" without charges. At the same time, Hugenberg wrote Hitler a letter suggesting that the Nazis take part as cabinet ministers in this proposed government.. At a secret meeting between Hugenberg and Hitler, a reconciliation of sorts was agreed upon. Hugenberg hoped to harness the Nazis for his own ends once again, and as such he dropped his attacks on them for the campaign for the March 1933 election.
Hitler's rise to power
In early January 1933, Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher had developed plans for an expanded coalition government, to include not only Hugenberg, but also dissident Nazi Gregor Strasser and Centre Party politician Adam Stegerwald. Although Hugenberg had designs on a return to government, his hatred of trade union activity meant that he had no intention of working with Stegerwald, the head of the Catholic Trade Union movement. When von Schleicher refused to exclude Stegerwald from his plans, Hugenberg broke off negotiations.
Hugenberg's main confidante, Reinhold Quaatz, had, despite being half-Jewish, pushed for Hugenberg to follow a more völkisch path and work with the Nazi Party, and after the collapse of the von Schleicher talks, this was the path he followed. In Germany at the time, there were no public opinion polls (an American invention that only crossed the Atlantic later in the 1930s) and Länder elections were treated as the best barometer of public opinion. In the election held on 11 January 1933 in the small and mostly rural and Protestant Land of Lippe, the DVNP fared badly, losing 4, 000 votes while the Nazis gained 5, 000 more votes compared to the last Lippe election. Through Lippe was only a small land, the election result was taken as a sign that the Nazis had regained the momentum that they had lost with the most recent Reichstag election. Moreover, over almost five years as DVNP leader, Hugenberg was a deeply frustrated and angry man who had not achieved power despite all his efforts, and was more desperate to achieve some sort of success. Knowing that many people in his party wanted to see him resign, Hugenberg was feeling besieged as he wrote to Wegener on 2 January 1933: "I see the difficulties growing all around...I myself am growing older and often do not how the difficulties should be overcome". Hugenberg very much wanted a "presidential government" that would carry out his "urgent measures" that he had envisioned and through the man he initially wanted saw chancellor was Goerdeler, he was prepared to accept either Papen or Schleicher as a substitute.
Hugenberg and Hitler met on 17 January 1933, and Hugenberg suggested that they both enter the cabinet of Kurt von Schleicher, a proposal rejected by Hitler, who would not move from his demands for the Chancellorship. Hitler did agree in principle to allow von Schleicher to serve under him as Defence Minister, although Hugenberg warned the Nazi leader that as long as Paul von Hindenburg was president, Hitler would never be Chancellor. A further meeting between the two threatened to derail any alliance, after Hugenberg rejected Hitler's demands for Nazi control over the interior ministries of Germany and Prussia but by this time, Franz von Papen had come round to the idea of Hitler as Chancellor, and he worked hard to persuade the two leaders to come together.
During the negotiations between Franz von Papen and president Paul von Hindenburg, Hindenburg had insisted that Hugenberg be given the ministries of Economics and Agriculture, both at national level and in Prussia, as a condition of Hitler becoming Chancellor, something of a surprise, given the President's well publicised dislike of Hugenberg. Hugenberg, eager for a share of power, agreed to the plan, and continued to believe that he could use Hitler for his own ends, telling the Stahlhelm leader Theodor Duesterberg that "we'll box Hitler in". On 27 January 1933, Hugenberg met with Hitler when he was informed Papen was now supporting a cabinet with Hitler as chancellor and Papen as vice-chancellor, in which he have his long sought dream of being the "economic dictator" or go into the opposition; Hugenberg was inclined to the former. On 29 January, Papen met Hugenberg to tell him that he be the "economic dictator" in a Hitler cabinet, an offer that Hugenberg's deputy Otto Schmidt-Hanover called "an attractive offer". Papen's assurances that Hitler would be "boxed in" as the majority of the cabinet would not be Nazis and the chance to be "economic dictator" led Hugenberg to accept Hitler as chancellor and join the new government.
Hugenberg agreed to join the Hitler government with the understanding that there would no new Reichstag elections, and upon waiting to be sworn in by President Hindenburg, first learned that Hitler was planning to call new elections, leading to a lengthy shouting match with Hitler. The chief of the presidential chancellery, Otto Meißner was forced to come of the president's office to say that Hindenburg had been forced to wait an extra half-hour and was threatening to call off the swearing-in ceremony while Papen mediated the dispute, saying the matter of new elections would be considered after the new government was sworn in. He initially rejected Hitler's plans to immediately call a fresh election, fearing the damage such a vote might inflict on his own party but, after being informed by Otto Meißner that the plan had Hindenburg's endorsement, and by von Papen that von Schleicher was preparing to launch a military coup, he acceded to Hitler's wishes. Hugenberg vigorously campaigned for the NSDAP–DNVP alliance, although other leading members within his party expressed fears over socialist elements to Nazi rhetoric, and instead appealed for a nonparty dictatorship, pleas ignored by Hitler.
Knowing of Hugeberg's strong anti-Polish tendencies, the Polish ambassador Alfred Wysocki, reported to the Polish Foreign Minister, Jozef Beck, that the most dangerous member of the cabinet of the new government was not Hitler, but rather Hugenberg. Hugenberg who served as the jointly as the Reich and Prussian ministers of economics and agriculture and boasted of his plans to be "economic dictator", was widely seen as the dominant minister in the new government. The French ambassador André François-Poncet reported to Paris "in the association of the three men [Hitler, Papen and Hugenberg]...the least dangerous, the least troublesome is certainly not M. Hugenberg". Hugenberg named Paul Bang, the economic expert of the Pan-German League, as the state secretary (the number two man) in the Economics ministry. Bang was noted for his "autarkic ideas and racist fanaticism", and proved more interested in anti-Semitic laws than in the economy. The man whom Hugenberg named as state secretary in the Agriculture ministry, Hans-Joachim von Rohr, proved more interested in his portfolio, but in common with many other people found Hugenberg a difficult man to work with.
Hugenberg made no effort to stop Hitler's ambition of becoming a dictator, although he himself was authoritarian by inclination. On 2 February 1933, Hitler asked Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag for new elections, a request that was granted. In a statement to the press, the new government announced with no sense of irony that the election were necessary to "end the loss of honor and freedom" in Germany said to have stated with the November revolution of 1918. Hitler wanted a new Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act, a special emergency law that would allow the Chancellor to govern via degree instead of the Reichstag. In an editorial published in all his newspapers, Hugenberg defended the new government as necessary to defend the "Christian conservative way of life" against the forces of "atheism and liberalism, socialism and Marxism" and to return to the "pure state" that operated "according to the Prussian tradition". Through he could not attack his coalition ally too much, Hugenberg argued that his supporters should vote DNVP because the Nazis had "not unambiguously recognized the principles of private economy". At a rally on 11 February 1933 attended by Papen and the Stalhelm leader Franz Seldte, Hugenberg announced the formation of the "Battle Front Black-White-Red", saying the "national movement advanced in two columns", one being the National Socialists and the other being the "proper right, the Battle Front Black-White-Red, the national bourgeoise of the best tradition". Hugernberg used his control of UFA in the election, having UFA cinemas show newsreels that emphasized his role in the new government. During the election, UFA cinemas played films that were markedly nationalist.
When the Reichstag was burned down on 28 February 1933 in act of arson committed by the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe who had decided to burn down the Reichstag as an act of political protest, Hugenberg agreed with Hitler's claim that the fire was part of a Communist plot. In a speech given right after the Reichstag fire, Hugenberg spoke of the need for "draconic measures" against Communists and of "exterminating the hotbeds in which Bolshevism can flourish"; adding that "in these earnet times there can no longer be any half meausre...no compromise, no cowardice". Along with the other DNVP members of the cabinet, he voted for the Reichstag Fire Decree of 1933, which effectively wiped out civil liberties. The Reichstag election of 5 March 1933 was by Hugenberg's own admission a "failure" as the DNVP won only 3.1 million votes compared to the NSDAP which won 17 million votes. Under the Reichstag fire degree, Hitler had banned the German Communist Party, which meant that even without the DNVP that the Nazis still had a majority in the new Reichstag.. Hugenberg was quietly concerned that what Hitler might do if the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, and tried to include some amendments intended to limit Hitler's power, only to be undercut by Hindenburg and by calls from within his own party to merge with the Nazi party. Hugenberg together with the rest of the DNVP MdRs voted for the Enabling act, which Hugenberg rationalized under the grounds that the activation of the Enabling Act referred to the "present government", which Hugenberg took to mean that Hitler could not dismiss him from the cabinet. Of the all members of the Reichstag, only the Social Democrats voted against the Enabling Act. (The KPD having already been banned)
Removal from politics
In the elections Hugenberg's DNVP captured 52 seats in the Reichstag, although any hope that these seats could ensure influence for the party evaporated with the passing of the Enabling Act of 1933 (which the DNVP supported) soon after the vote. Nevertheless, Hugenberg was Minister of Economy in the new government and was also appointed Minister of Agriculture in the Nazi cabinet, largely due to the support his party enjoyed amongst the north German landowners. Papen, who envisioned himself as a check on Hitler proved to be too superficial a personality for such a role while Hugenberg, who usually worked 14 hours a day proved himself to be too involved in the intricacies of his portfolios to offer an effective check. Hugenberg, who refused to hire a secretary and wrote all of his lengthy memos by hand as he did not know how to use a typewriter proved to be a stubborn and unlikable man, whom even the other conservative ministers found difficult to deal with. Hugenberg fancied himself the "economic dictator", but at cabinet meetings the other conservative ministers such as Papen, the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath and the Defense Minister General Werner von Blomberg all objected to Hugenberg's plans for an autarkic economy as unworkable and likely to isolate Germany internationally. Neurath, an experienced diplomat who had previously served as the ambassador in London and Rome, argued that the principal danger from abroad was the prospect of a "preventive war" from France. To end this prospect, Neurath argued that Germany for the moment needed to present itself as a more or less co-operative member of the international community, and that the economic policies advocated by Hugenberg was likely to cost Germany goodwill at time when goodwill was much needed.
As Minister, Hugenberg declared a temporary moratorium on foreclosures, cancelled some debts and placed tariffs on some widely produced agricultural goods in order to stimulate the sector. As a move to protect dairy farming he also placed limits on margarine production, although this move saw a rapid increase in the price of butter and margarine and made Hugenberg an unpopular figure outside of the farming community, hastening the inevitable departure of this non-Nazi from the cabinet. The DNVP for its all hostility towards liberalism was deeply committed to the Rechtsstaat (Rule of Law), and were unaccustomed to dealing with the Nazi dynamism and contempt for laws as the Nazis tended to act illegally and present their DNVP allies with a fait accompli, who meeky accepted what had been done. On 17 May 1933, Hugenberg met with Hindenburg to complain that the Nazis forced some civil servants who were DNVP members out of their jobs or alternatively joining them to join the NSDAP. Hindenburg proved to be uninterested as the president told Hugenberg of his belief "that the Reich Chancellor has the best intentions and with clean hands works in the interest of the Fatherland and in the spirit of justice". Hindenburg conceded that some of the Nazis were acting illegally, but told Hugenberg that he would take no action because this was a "critical time" and one must remember "what a national upsurge the new movement has brought us".
Meanwhile, in June 1933, Hitler was forced to disavow Hugenbergs plan which he proposed while attending the London World Economic Conference, that a programme of German colonial expansion in both Africa and Eastern Europe as the best way of ending the Great Depression, which created a major storm abroad. Hugenberg argued on a speech given in London on 16 June 1933 Germany needed the return of all its former colonies in Africa and to "open up to Volk ohne Raum (nation without space) areas in which could provide space for the settlement of its vigorous race and construct great works of peace". Both the French and Soviet governments formally submitted notes of protest, the French government because of the demand to return the former colonies in Africa while the Soviet government objected to the fact that the Soviet Union was the lebensraum (living space) that Hugenberg had in mind for German colonization. In an attempt to contain the damage caused by Hugenberg, Neurath issued a statement to the British press, saying these were merely the "private" views of the Economics minister. Rather than accept the rebuke, Hugenberg chose to issue a statement claiming he was speaking on behalf of the German government, an action that made the German delegation appear to be "ridiculous" as Neurath complained at a subsequent cabinet meeting. Neurath told the cabinet that "a single member cannot simply overlook the objections of the others" and that Hugenberg "either did not understand these objections, which were naturally clothed in polite form, or he did not want to understand them". The fact that Hugenberg chose to engage in a vendetta with Neurath over the conflicting press releases issued in London, instead of dropping the matter as Neurath had urged him to do, made him appear very petty and spiteful and cost him whatever sympathy he might had enjoyed from the other conservative cabinet ministers. In a further blow, during his time in London, the party had disbanded both the Kampfring, the para-military wing of the DVNP and its youth wing, the Bismarck Youth. Hugenberg's fate was sealed when the Prussian State Secretary Fritz Reinhardt, ostensibly a subordinate to Hugenberg as Minister of Economy, presented a work-creation plan to the cabinet. The policy was supported by every member except Hugenberg.
An increasingly isolated figure, Hugenberg was finally forced to resign from the cabinet after a whisper campaign against him to remove him from power. He announced his formal resignation on 29 June 1933 and he was replaced by others who were loyal to the Nazi Party, Kurt Schmitt in the Economy Ministry and Richard Walther Darré in the Agriculture Ministry. A 'Friendship Agreement' was signed between the Nazis and the DNVP immediately afterwards, the terms of which effectively dissolved the Nationalists with members urged to join the Nazi Party. Indeed, the German National Front, as the DNVP had officially been called since May 1933, had officially dissolved itself on 27 June. Hugenberg signed a written agreement to dissolve the DNF in return for which Hilter promised that civil servants who were DNF members would be recognized as "full and legally equal co-fighters" and to release those party members in jail. Hugenberg's last statement to the party's executive committee was that "we all have cause to go home and to crawl into our closets or go into the woods".
Although driven from his cabinet post, Hugenberg was, along with Papen and other former DNVP and Centre Party (Zentrum) members, included on the Nazi list of candidates for the November 1933 election. However, his stock with the Nazis had fallen so much that in December 1933 the Telegraph Union, the news agency owned by Hugenberg, was de facto taken over by the Propaganda Ministry and merged into a new German News Office. Hugenberg was allowed to remain in the Reichstag until 1945 as one of 22 so-called "guest" members, who were officially designated as non-party representatives. Given that they shared the assembly with 639 Nazi deputies, and given that the Reichstag met on an increasingly infrequent basis in any event, independents like Hugenberg had no influence.
Later years
Although Hugenberg had lost the Telegraph Union early on he retained most of his media interests until 1943 when the Eher Verlag purchased his Scherl House. Hugenberg did not let them go cheaply, however, as he negotiated a large portfolio of shares in the Rhenish-Westphalian industries in return for his co-operation. Hugenberg last saw Hitler in February 1935, when he presented a plan to replace rental housing with condominiums, which went nowhere. By 1935, Hugenberg owned only the Scherl newspapers and UFA, which gave him an annual income of 500,000 Reichmarks. The Scherl newspapers such as the Berliner Illustrierte Nachtausgabe and Der Adler continued to being published under the Third Reich and sold well. The negotiations for the forced sale of the Scherl house were conduced by the Reich Economics minister, Walther Funk, who essentially told Hugenberg that he had to sell the Scherl newspapers, but that they would pay any price he asked for. Shortly after the sale in 1944, a British bombing raid wrecked the newspaper plant where the Scherl papers were published. Hugenberg's son was killed in action on the Eastern Front; characteristically he refused to express any grief in public lest he be accused of weakness.
At the end of the war, Hugenberg was living at his estate in Rohbraken in Lippe, which ended up being in the British occupation zone. Hugenberg was arrested by the British military police on 28 September 1946, and his remaining assets were frozen. Hugenberg was initially detained after the war, but in 1949 a Denazification court at Detmold adjudged him a "Mitläufer" ("Fellow Traveller") rather than a Nazi, meaning that he was allowed to keep his property and business interests. Hugenberg spent the last years of his life denying any responsibility for the Nazi regime, continuing to insist that he had always acted correctly and that he had nothing to be ashamed of. He died in Kükenbruch (now part of Extertal) near Detmold on 12 March 1951, having only the company of a nurse as he had asked that his family not be allowed to see him (Hugenberg did not want to appear weak before his family in his death throes).
References
External links
Spartacus Educational website
entry on Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence
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1865 births
1951 deaths
Politicians from Hanover
People from the Kingdom of Hanover
People from the Province of Hanover
National Liberal Party (Germany) politicians
German Fatherland Party politicians
German National People's Party politicians
Alldeutscher Verband members
Members of the Weimar National Assembly
Members of the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic
Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany ministers
Leaders of political parties in Germany
German Protestants
20th-century German newspaper publishers (people)
German newspaper chain founders
German anti-communists
Agriculture ministers of Germany
Economy ministers of Germany
German mass media owners
German publishers (people)
German nationalists
Political party founders | [
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239461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanhill | Jordanhill | Jordanhill (, ) is an affluent area of the West End of the city of Glasgow, Scotland. The area consists largely of terraced housing dating from the early to mid 20th century, with some detached and semi-detached homes and some modern apartments.
The University of Strathclyde formerly had an education faculty in the area and the associated school has a high reputation.
History
The area was previously part of the Jordanhill Estate within the parish of Renfrew centred on Jordanhill House. Before the twentieth century, Jordanhill was a poor area, similar to neighbouring Knightswood, with mining for coal at Skaterigg. The building of more affluent residences was coincidental with the expansion of Glasgow and the construction of a commuter railway (similar to Bearsden in the 1870s).
The site of the house was sold to Jordanhill Teacher Training College, and is now the home of the Strathclyde University Faculty Of Education. The area consists largely of terraced housing dating from the early to mid 20th century, with some detached and semi-detached homes and some modern apartments.
Jordanhill, Temple and Knightswood have been linked to stories of the Knights Templar; but there is no evidence for their presence in this area. When asked, the Lord Lyon King of Arms rebutted a proposal to include the Maltese cross of the Knights of St. John in the crest of Jordanhill College. Jordanhill may be related to the family name "Jardine".
Amenities
There are a number of parks in Jordanhill and the immediate vicinity, as well as large playing fields on the Jordanhill Campus. Jordanhill is directly adjacent to Victoria Park, one of the largest green spaces in Glasgow and home to the Fossil Grove, an area of fossilized prehistoric tree stumps.
The area has excellent transport links. Jordanhill railway station has regular local train services to central Glasgow on the North Clyde and Argyle lines, and regular bus services are provided by First Glasgow. The Clyde Tunnel is located nearby, giving road access to the south of the city.
There are two pubs in the area, both are situated on Crow Road, near the railway station.
This area used to be home to a branch of The Jolly Giant Toy Superstores, based on Crow Road.
Education
Jordanhill School is located on Chamberlain Road at the foot of the hill on which Jordanhill College sits, and was formerly the College's training school. It is now a state comprehensive school. The school is unique in the Scottish state sector in that it contains both Primary and Secondary departments, providing education for children from 4 to 18, and in that it has Grant Maintained status and is independent from local government control. It had previously been an independent demonstration school for Jordanhill College. Private school the High School of Glasgow is also located in the Jordanhill vicinity.
Saint Thomas Aquinas Secondary School is a Catholic secondary school located on Mitre Road in the newer part of Jordanhill. It has several feeder primary schools, including Corpus Christi (Knightswood), Notre Dame (Dowanhill), St Pauls (Whiteinch), St. Peter's (Partick), St. Brendan's (Yoker), St. Patrick's in (Anderston), St. Clare's (Drumchapel) and St. Ninian's (Blairdardie).
Places of worship
There are two churches in Jordanhill, both located on Woodend Drive, off Crow Road: Jordanhill Parish Church (Church of Scotland) and All Saints Church (Episcopalian). Both churches are used for a variety of community and social events, in addition to regular worship, and All Saints is also home to Westbourne Gardens Nursery School. The 72nd and 178th Glasgow Scouts are based in the area, as well as 130th and the 272nd Glasgow Boys' Brigades.
See also
Hillhead Jordanhill RFC
References
External links
Jordanhill School
A Short History of Jordanhill dated 1931
Historical notes on South Jordanhill
130th Glasgow Company, The Boys' Brigade
Jordanhill Parish Church (Church of Scotland)
All Saints Scottish Episcopal Church
Jordanhill Phoenix Rugby Football Club
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|
239462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphodiesterase | Phosphodiesterase | A phosphodiesterase (PDE) is an enzyme that breaks a phosphodiester bond. Usually, phosphodiesterase refers to cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, which have great clinical significance and are described below. However, there are many other families of phosphodiesterases, including phospholipases C and D, autotaxin, sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase, DNases, RNases, and restriction endonucleases (which all break the phosphodiester backbone of DNA or RNA), as well as numerous less-well-characterized small-molecule phosphodiesterases.
The cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases comprise a group of enzymes that degrade the phosphodiester bond in the second messenger molecules cAMP and cGMP. They regulate the localization, duration, and amplitude of cyclic nucleotide signaling within subcellular domains. PDEs are therefore important regulators of signal transduction mediated by these second messenger molecules.
History
These multiple forms (isoforms or subtypes) of phosphodiesterase were isolated from rat brain using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the early 1970s by Weiss and coworkers, and were soon afterward shown to be selectively inhibited by a variety of drugs in brain and other tissues, also by Weiss and coworkers.
The potential for selective phosphodiesterase inhibitors to be used as therapeutic agents was predicted in the 1970s by Weiss and coworkers. This prediction has now come to pass in a variety of fields (e.g. sildenafil as a PDE5 inhibitor and Rolipram as a PDE4 inhibitor).
Nomenclature and classification
The PDE nomenclature signifies the PDE family with an Arabic numeral, then a capital letter denotes the gene in that family, and a second and final Arabic numeral then indicates the splice variant derived from a single gene (e.g., PDE1C3: family 1, gene C, splicing variant 3).
The superfamily of PDE enzymes is classified into 11 families, namely PDE1-PDE11, in mammals. The classification is based on:
amino acid sequences
substrate specificities
regulatory properties
pharmacological properties
tissue distribution
Different PDEs of the same family are functionally related despite the fact that their amino acid sequences can show considerable divergence. PDEs have different substrate specificities. Some are cAMP-selective hydrolases (PDE4, 7 and 8); others are cGMP-selective (PDE5, 6, and 9). Others can hydrolyse both cAMP and cGMP (PDE1, 2, 3, 10, and 11). PDE3 is sometimes referred to as cGMP-inhibited phosphodiesterase. Although PDE2 can hydrolyze both cyclic nucleotides, binding of cGMP to the regulatory GAF-B domain will increase cAMP affinity and hydrolysis to the detriment of cGMP. This mechanism, as well as others, allows for cross-regulation of the cAMP and cGMP pathways. PDE12 cleaves 2',5'-phosphodiester bond linking adenosines of the 5'-triphosphorylated oligoadenylates. PDE12 is not a member of the cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase superfamily that contains PDE1 through PDE11.
Clinical significance
Phosphodiesterase enzymes have been shown to be different in different types of cells, including normal and leukemic lymphocytes and are often targets for pharmacological inhibition due to their unique tissue distribution, structural properties, and functional properties.
Inhibitors of PDE can prolong or enhance the effects of physiological processes mediated by cAMP or cGMP by inhibition of their degradation by PDE.
Sildenafil (Viagra) is an inhibitor of cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5, which enhances the vasodilatory effects of cGMP in the corpus cavernosum and is used to treat erectile dysfunction. Sildenafil is also currently being investigated for its myo- and cardioprotective effects, with particular interest being given to the compound's therapeutic value in the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Paraxanthine, the main metabolite of caffeine, is another cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor which inhibits PDE9, a cGMP preferring phosphodiesterase. PDE9 is expressed as high as PDE5 in the corpus cavernosum.
Pharmacological effect of PDE inhibitors
PDE inhibitors have been identified as new potential therapeutics in areas such as pulmonary arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, dementia, depression, asthma, COPD, protozoal infections (including malaria) and schizophrenia.
PDE also are important in seizure incidence. For example, PDE compromised the antiepileptic activity of adenosine. In addition, using of a PDE inhibitor (pentoxifylline) in pentylenetetrazole-induced seizure indicated the antiepileptic effect by increasing the time latency to seizure incidence and decreasing the seizure duration in vivo.
Cilostazol (Pletal) inhibits PDE3. This inhibition allows red blood cells to be more able to bend. This is useful in conditions such as intermittent claudication, as the cells can maneuver through constricted veins and arteries more easily.
Dipyridamole inhibits PDE-3 and PDE-5. This leads to intraplatelet accumulation of cAMP and/or cGMP, inhibiting platelet aggregation.
Zaprinast inhibits the growth of asexual blood-stage malaria parasites (P. falciparum) in vitro with an ED50 value of 35 μM, and inhibits PfPDE1, a P. falciparum cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase, with an IC50 value of 3.8 μM.
Xanthines such as caffeine and theobromine are cAMP-phosphodiesterase inhibitors. However, the inhibitory effect of xanthines on phosphodiesterases are only seen at dosages higher than what people normally consume.
Sildenafil, Tadalafil and Vardenafil are PDE-5 inhibitors and are widely used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction.
References
External links
EC 3.1.4
Molecular biology | [
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|
239463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micheline%20Calmy-Rey | Micheline Calmy-Rey | Micheline Anne-Marie Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician who served as a Member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003 to 2011. A member of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS), she was the head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs during her tenure as a Federal Councillor. She was President of the Swiss Confederation twice, in 2007 and 2011.
Early life and education
Calmy-Rey was born in Sion in the canton of Valais on 8 July 1945 to Charles and Adeline Rey. She received her diploma in 1963 in Saint-Maurice and a licence degree in political science at the Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, in 1968. While studying she married André Calmy; they have two children.
Career
Calmy-Rey established a small enterprise in the book distribution business. From 1981 to 1997 Calmy-Rey served as a representative in the Grand Conseil of the canton of Geneva as a member of the Social Democratic Party (PSS/SPS), and was president of the assembly during 1992–1993. She was president of the Geneva section of the party from 1986 to 1990 and again from 1993 to 1997. In 1997, Calmy-Rey was elected to the Conseil d'Etat of Geneva. In 2001, she became head of the finance department and president of the Conseil d'Etat of the canton.
She was elected on 4 December 2002 to the Federal Council, heading the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs from 2003 to 2011. Calmy-Rey is the fourth woman elected to the Federal Council in history. She was also elected Vice-President of Switzerland, a post she held for the calendar year of 2006 and the calendar year of 2010.
Calmy-Rey supports Switzerland joining the European Union and she is an Eminent Member of the Sergio Vieira de Mello Foundation. The project SAFFA 2020 is also under her patronage and of the councillors (Bundesrat) Doris Leuthard, Simonetta Sommaruga and Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf.
Since 2016, Calmy-Rey has been a member of the board of the Global Leadership Foundation (chaired by FW de Klerk), an organisation that works to support democratic leadership, prevent and resolve conflict through mediation and promote good governance in the form of democratic institutions, open markets, human rights and the rule of law. It does so by making available, discreetly and in confidence, the experience of former leaders to today's national leaders. It is a not-for-profit organisation composed of former heads of government, senior governmental and international organization officials who work closely with heads of government on governance-related issues of concern to them.
She is a member of the board Geneva of GESDA (Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator).
Presidency
On 1 January 2007, Calmy-Rey became the second female president of the Confederation in history, the first having been her predecessor on the Federal Council, Ruth Dreifuss. She was elected as president on 13 December 2006 by 147 votes. However, by Swiss tradition, it was a foregone conclusion she would be elected. She had been the longest-serving councillor not to have been president, and had served as vice-president for 2006.
As President of the Confederation, she presided over meetings of the Federal Council and carried out certain representative functions that would normally be handled by a head of state in other democracies, (though in Switzerland, the Federal Council as a whole is regarded as the head of state). She was also the highest-ranking official in the Swiss order of precedence, and had the power to act on behalf of the whole Council in emergency situations. However, in most cases she was merely prima inter pares, with no power above and beyond her six colleagues.
She had already handled most official visits abroad since being elected to the Federal Council; the head of the Department of Foreign Affairs traditionally carries out such visits.
Calmy-Rey was chosen as vice president for 2010, serving alongside Doris Leuthard. On 8 December 2010, she was chosen, for the second time, as president for 2011 (by 106 votes out of 189, this being the smallest margin in Swiss history) – the first time two women held the post in succession.
Calmy-Rey is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders, an International network of current and former women presidents and prime ministers whose mission is to mobilize the highest-level women leaders globally for collective action on issues of critical importance to women and equitable development.
She announced in September 2011 that she would resign from the government in the following December.
From 2012 to 2013, Calmy-Rey was a member of the High-Level Advisory Council of the President of the 67th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, Serbia's then foreign minister Vuk Jeremić.
Political views
Calmy-Rey is a member of the Socialist party of Switzerland and positions herself as pro-European. In February 2014 she stated that Switzerland should join the European UNion to be included in the European political agenda on the continent. In 2016, she expressed concerns about the Brexit impact on the European sovereignty, but recommended that Switzerland opened up to Great Britain as the two countries now faced the same configuration towards the European political power.
In February 2020, Calmy-Rey joined around fifty former European prime ministers and foreign ministers in signing an open letter published by British newspaper The Guardian to condemn U.S. President Donald Trump’s Middle East peace plan, saying it would create an apartheid-like situation in occupied Palestinian territory.
Academic career
In May 2012 Calmy-Rey was appointed as invited professor et the University of Geneva (Global studies institute).
Other assignments
Member of the United Nations High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability. A report of the panel was published in February 2012.
Member of the United Nations High-Level Panel on Global Response to Health Crisis . A report was published in January 2016.
Membre of the council of the Global Leadership Foundation (GLF).
Membre du conseil de la fondation GESDA (Geneva Science and Diplomacy Anticipator).
Awards
2011: Prix Diaspora for her role in the recognition of Kosovo independence
2012: Medal of honour of the Republic of Armenia
2012: Docteur honoris causa of the International University in Geneva
2014: Badge of the Order of Friendship in recognition of her contribution in the reinforcing of the friendship and cooperation between Russia and Switzerland.
2017: Citizen of honour of the city of Viti, Kosovo.
Controversy
According to the BBC, Calmy-Rey was "widely criticised" for putting on a headscarf to meet Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad on 19 March 2008, even though it was acknowledged that she was simply following proper social protocol. While Socialist MP Liliane Maury Pasquier agreed that the Swiss representant had to respect foreign protocols, this sparked a negative remark from Socialist MP Maria Roth-Bernasconi. In response, Calmy-Rey stated that she was following protocol out of respect, and that had she not done so, she would not have been able to attend the meeting, which has been widely acknowledged.
Calmy-Rey also prompted controversy by attending the signing of a multibillion-dollar natural gas deal of a Swiss energy supply company with Iran. The United States had complained that Switzerland was sending the wrong message when Tehran was subject to UN sanctions. Calmy-Rey pointed out that gas exports were not subject to the UN sanctions. Both the Israeli government and international Jewish groups such as the World Jewish Congress strongly criticised the deal.
Publications
« The Art and Science of Negotiations : "De–Politicizing and Technicizing Negotiations", in WTO Accessions - The Upper Floors of the Trading System, WTO & Cambridge University Press (in Druck).
« Doktrin in globalen Kontext », in Konrad Hummler et Franz Jaeger, Kleinstaat Schweiz – Auslauf- oder Erfolgsmodell?, Zürich, NZZ Libro, 2017
Die Schweiz, die ich uns wünsche. Übersetzt aus dem Französischen von Irma Wehrli, mit einem Vorwort von Charles Lewinsky. Nagel & Kimche, Zürich 2014, .
La Suisse que je souhaite. Lausanne, Éditions Favre, 2014
« The Swiss Model », Horizons, Autumn 2014
« Justice sociale et liberté politique selon Calvin : clarification et perspectives », La Vie Protestante, Genève 2010
References
Much of the content of this article comes from the equivalent German-language Wikipedia article and the equivalent French-language Wikipedia article (retrieved 1 April 2006).
External links
Official website
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|-
|-
|-
|-
1945 births
21st-century Swiss women politicians
21st-century Swiss politicians
Female foreign ministers
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies alumni
Living people
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
People from Sion, Switzerland
Social Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Swiss Roman Catholics
Women members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Swiss women diplomats
Swiss socialist feminists | [
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239465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Firm | Old Firm | The Old Firm is the collective name for the Scottish football clubs Celtic and Rangers, which are both based in Glasgow. The two clubs are by far the most successful and popular in Scotland, and the rivalry between them has become deeply embedded in Scottish culture. It has reflected, and contributed to, political, social, and religious division and sectarianism in Scotland. As a result, the fixture has had an enduring appeal around the world.
Between them the two clubs have won 106 Scottish League championships (Rangers with 55 and Celtic with 51), 73 Scottish Cups (Celtic with 40 and Rangers with 33), and 47 Scottish League Cups (Rangers with 27 and Celtic with 20). Interruptions to their ascendancy have occurred rarely, most recently with the challenge of the New Firm of Aberdeen and Dundee United in the first half of the 1980s. Beginning with the 1985–86 season, one half of the Old Firm has won the Scottish League every season and in all but one of seventeen seasons between 1995–96 and 2011–12, both clubs finished in the top two places. In the early 2010s, Rangers endured financial difficulties, and its holding company was liquidated in 2012. Subsequently, the team had to apply for entry to the bottom (fourth) tier of the Scottish league, climbing to the top division in four seasons and winning the title again in 2020–21 (Celtic were champions in each of the intervening nine campaigns but failed to claim the tenth which would have beaten a record set by them in the 1960s/70s and matched by Rangers in the 1980s/90s).
Celtic and Rangers have played each other 427 times in major competitions: Rangers have won 167 matches, Celtic 160 matches, and 100 ended in a draw.
The clubs have large fan bases around Glasgow and Scotland and have supporters clubs in most towns throughout Scotland and Northern Ireland and in many cities around the world. In 2005 the presence of Rangers and Celtic was estimated to be worth £120 million to the Scottish economy each year.
Origin of 'Old Firm'
The origin of the term is unclear but may derive from the two clubs' initial match in which the commentators referred to the teams as "like two old, firm friends", or alternatively may stem from a satirical cartoon published in a magazine prior to the 1904 Scottish Cup Final between the sides, depicting an elderly man with a sandwich board reading "Patronise The Old Firm: Rangers, Celtic Ltd", highlighting the mutual commercial benefits of their meetings. The name may also be a reference to these two teams being among the original eleven members of the Scottish Football League formed in 1890.
At the turn of the 21st century, the two clubs jointly registered the 'Old Firm' term at the Intellectual Property Office; it was confirmed this was still being renewed as a trademark in 2021.
Rivalry and sectarianism
The competition between the two clubs had roots in more than just a simple sporting rivalry. It has as much to do with Northern Ireland as Scotland and this can be seen in the flags, cultural symbols, and emblems of both clubs. It was infused with a series of complex disputes, sometimes centred on religion (Protestant and Catholic), Northern Ireland-related politics (Loyalist and Republican), national identity (British or Irish Scots), and social ideology (Conservatism and Socialism).
Another primary contributor to the intensity of the rivalry in the west of Scotland was that Rangers supporters are historically native Scots and Ulster Scots, and Celtic supporters are historically Irish-Scots. Although the confrontation between the two sets of supporters was often labelled as 'Sectarianism', 'Native-Immigrant tension' was an equally accurate catalyst for hostility between the two teams' supports in Scotland. Rangers' traditional support was largely from the Protestant community, and for decades the club had an unwritten rule whereby they would not knowingly sign a player of the Catholic faith. The policy was decried by Graeme Souness when he became manager, and he brought ex-Celtic forward Mo Johnston to the club in a very public move away from the practice, which no longer continues. Celtic's support was largely from those of Irish Roman Catholic backgrounds and while the club practiced no exclusion of Protestants and signed many of them to play for the team, there was a pro-Catholic mindset among some of the employees. One effect is that Scottish flags are rarer than might be expected amongst both sets of supporters; Celtic fans are more likely to wave the Irish tricolour while Rangers fans tend to wave the Union Jack.
Celtic were founded in 1887 on the promise that the club would deliver much-needed money and resources to a poverty-stricken Irish Catholic population in East Glasgow (although records indicated little of this income reached those causes) and quickly drew large crowds at their matches, becoming a symbol for that section of the local population which were marginalised in other areas of society and had previously shown little interest in the emerging sport. Rangers had been founded 15 years earlier in 1872 and had no particular religious leanings in their early decades, indeed they were described by the press as friends of Celtic in match reports at the turn of the 20th century. In that era Rangers had won three successive championships and expanded their stadium at great expense, only for one of the new wooden stands to collapse during a Scotland v England fixture in April 1902, killing 25 and injuring hundreds of others. The disaster forced the club to rebuild Ibrox for a second time and financed this by selling off their best players, with Celtic, in particular, taking advantage of the weakness to win six successive titles between 1905 and 1910 before Rangers returned to their previous strength. The sporting side of the rivalry was now established, with their meetings providing considerable financial benefit as seen in the Scottish Cup finals of 1904 (which appears to be the origin of the 'Old Firm' term) and 1909 when they drew twice and a further replay was ordered, with supporters of both teams deciding to riot on the assumption the results were being fixed to make more money – amid multiple injuries and considerable damage to Hampden Park, the trophy was withheld.
The political aspect of the feud also developed in that period, with perhaps the most significant development occurring in 1912 when Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff (a company which already had anti-Catholic hiring practices) set up a new yard in Glasgow due to instability in Ireland. Hundreds of Ulster Protestant workers, many of Scottish descent, also made the move, and they adopted Rangers – the closest large club to the Govan yard – as their new team. Other events such as World War I and the Easter Rising contributed to the club being adopted as a symbol of the Scottish establishment and of British Unionism in the face of Irish Catholic rebellion personified by the success of Celtic and from that time on, many across Scotland and Northern Ireland (and the diaspora of those communities in England, North America and elsewhere) became supporters of Rangers or Celtic over and above their local teams according to their own political and religious leanings, including polarised attitudes towards 'The Troubles'.
Nevertheless, this dividing line seems to be blurred in 21st century Glasgow: religious adherence, in general, is falling, marriages between Protestants and Catholics have never been higher and the old certainties – the Rangers supporter voting Conservative and the Celtic supporter voting Labour — are no longer in evidence. In 2005 both Celtic and Rangers joined a project to tackle bigotry and sectarianism in sport, but there was little change in the behaviour and subsequent prosecution of the fans.
The majority of Rangers and Celtic supporters do not get involved in sectarianism, but serious incidents do occur with a tendency for the actions of a minority to dominate the headlines. The Old Firm rivalry fuelled many assaults on derby days, and some deaths in the past have been directly related to the aftermath of Old Firm matches. An activist group that monitors sectarian activity in Glasgow has reported that on Old Firm weekends, violent attacks increase ninefold over normal levels. An increase in domestic abuse can also be attributed to Old Firm fixtures.
A freedom of information request found that Strathclyde Police incurred costs of £2.4 million for the seven derbies played during the 2010–11 season, with the clubs only contributing £0.3 million towards that. Other high-profile games involving Rangers and Celtic incurred much lower costs. The reason for the disparity in costs and the contribution made is that Strathclyde Police had to increase its activity elsewhere in Glasgow and beyond, while the clubs were only responsible for costs incurred in the vicinity of their stadium. In a period between April 2016 and December 2017, when nine matches were contested (three each at the club's stadiums and three at Hampden), more than £550,000 was spent by Celtic, Rangers, the SFA and the SPFL on policing inside the stadium alone. Rangers paid more than Celtic despite having a smaller capacity and a plan for the away support at Ibrox which required less of a 'human barricade' of officers to separate the rival supporters than was necessary at Celtic Park.
In 2015, former Rangers player Brian Laudrup said that the Old Firm topped all of the rivalries he had played in, which included the Milan derby and the Fiorentina-Juventus meetings in Italy; ex-Celtic striker Henrik Larsson, who experienced El Clásico in Spain and De Klassieker in the Netherlands, has made similar comments. Jim Bett, who had already played in Iceland prior to joining Rangers in the 1980s and thereafter moved to Belgium, stated that he declined an opportunity to return to the Ibrox club due to the sectarianism associated with life as a footballer in the west of Scotland, in contrast to his positive experiences living abroad.
Disorder within stadiums
Supporters of both clubs, when interviewed, have conceded that they do not particularly enjoy the intense atmosphere of Old Firm matches.
Hundreds of opposing fans fought an on-pitch battle in the aftermath of Celtic's 1–0 victory in the 1980 Scottish Cup Final at Hampden, fuelled by alcohol and armed with the cans and bottles. Despite previous instances of similar behaviour – less widespread and more speedily quelled, but still resulting in dozens of arrests – at the end of the 1965 Scottish League Cup Final, 1969 Scottish Cup Final and 1977 Scottish Cup Final between the same teams at the same venue, a senior police officer on duty at the time estimated the number of his colleagues inside the stadium in 1980 was barely into double figures, with almost all the estimated 400 police outside Hampden dealing with expected disorder issues, and perimeter fencing assumed sufficient to keep the fans off the pitch. This remains one of the worst invasions onto a football pitch ever reported, and was instrumental in alcohol being banned from all football grounds in Scotland, a situation which was still in place 40 years on.
In January 1994, Rangers chairman David Murray announced that Celtic fans had been banned from Ibrox due to repeated instances of vandalism to the stadium which Celtic refused to take financial responsibility for. Only one fixture, which ended 1–1, was played before the ban was rescinded (the Scottish Football League passed a resolution preventing clubs from taking that action in future).
There was serious fan disorder during an Old Firm match played on a Sunday evening in May 1999 at Celtic Park, with the usual tensions heightened by the fact that Rangers could clinch the league title with victory (and it became clear that they would do so from the early stages of the match). Several objects were thrown by Celtic fans, one of which struck referee Hugh Dallas forcing the game to be stopped while he received medical treatment. With many of those in attendance having spent a full weekend drinking alcohol prior to the event, at least four Celtic fans invaded the field of play to confront Dallas during the game, and more missiles were thrown at players on the pitch after the game. Since the events of that day, Old Firm league matches have normally been played in the early afternoon and the possibility of an Old Firm title decider has been deliberately avoided.
Incidents involving players
Over the hundreds of matches played between the rivals, players and staff have been involved in many incidents beyond the usual bad tackles and red cards commonly associated with derby matches around the world; in the modern age of video footage, such incidents are more frequently observed, reviewed and scrutinised. In 1987, four players were charged by the police with breach of the peace for their conduct during a match at Ibrox and had to appear at court, with two (Chris Woods and Terry Butcher) convicted and fined. While warming up on the touchline at Celtic Park in January 1998, Rangers' Paul Gascoigne was caught on television reacting to verbal abuse from the stands by briefly miming the playing of a flute (representing "The Sash" and the typical repertoire of songs on an Orange walk, considered an offensive gesture by Celtic's many supporters of an Irish Catholic background). Gascoigne, who had pleaded his ignorance of the situation after he made the same gesture in a friendly just after joining Rangers in 1995 and had been sent off on his last visit to Celtic six weeks earlier, was fined for the provocative act and left the club later that year. He has stated that he later received threats via telephone calls from persons purporting to be members of the IRA over his behaviour.
In 2000, after being sent off during an Old Firm match, Rangers midfielder Barry Ferguson was involved in a violent brawl with Celtic fans at a hotel later in the same evening; a year later, Ferguson (by now club captain) was sitting in the stand when he appeared to throw ice packs towards the Celtic dugout after Rangers conceded a late goal, however the referee missed the incident and no action was taken. In that same match, a Celtic supporter was photographed making an 'aeroplane' gesture towards American Rangers player Claudio Reyna a few weeks after the September 11 attacks. A 2004 match at Ibrox which "descended into even more mayhem and madness than usual" led to a police enquiry over the conduct of the players and staff.
In February 2006, Celtic goalkeeper Artur Boruc was cautioned by the police for gestures he made to Rangers supporters during a match at Ibrox; six months later, it was clarified that this was for "Conduct which appears to incite disorder" rather than simply making the sign of the cross as he entered his area, as some had thought. He also blessed himself in the fixture in December of that year, annoying Rangers fans who saw it as a provocative act, although the police stated that no offence had been committed. Boruc, who became known as the 'Holy Goalie' for his overt displays of his Catholic faith, escaped personal punishment in 2008 for displaying a t-shirt with the slogan "God bless the Pope" and an image of fellow Pole Pope John Paul II after an Old Firm win at Parkhead in April 2008, although Celtic faced scrutiny from FIFA as it was an unauthorised garment under their regulations on slogans. He was fined £500 and warned for (non-religious) gestures made towards Rangers fans in a defeat at the same venue in September of the same year. Prior to an international match between Northern Ireland and Poland in 2009, graffiti of a threatening nature mentioning Boruc appeared on walls in a Rangers-supporting area of Belfast.
In March 2011, an angry exchange took place on the touchline at Celtic Park between Celtic manager Neil Lennon and Rangers assistant coach Ally McCoist, requiring police officers to separate them, at the end of a match in which three players had also been dismissed; again captured on live television footage, the incident resulted in both men being banned from the dugout for misconduct. A 'crisis meeting' was convened involving the clubs, the Scottish Government and Strathclyde Police some days later regarding the trend of violence among supporters away from the pitch increasing on Old Firm matchdays and concerns that incidents during the matches was a factor. The incident occurred during the tense environment of a season where seven Old Firm matches took place (including a League Cup final and a fight for the title eventually won by Rangers by one point).
Visitor allocation and crushing incident
During the 2018 close season, Rangers announced that they would be cutting the ticket allocation for Celtic fans at Ibrox from around 7,000 (the entire Broomloan Stand) to 800, situated in a corner where smaller travelling supports were usually accommodated, following a fan survey backing the proposal as well as an upturn in season ticket sales. In response, Celtic indicated they would do likewise, bringing to an end a long tradition of both clubs offering a generous proportion of their stadium to their rivals. The development was criticised by former players as diluting the famous atmosphere of the fixtures, although others praised the extra income the change would likely generate.
In the first Old Firm fixture at Celtic Park under the new arrangements, many more home fans were able to attend but segregation was still required outside the stadium to keep them apart from the smaller away support. In the minutes before kick-off, the main access road was closed as part of the amended segregation plan and thousands of spectators approaching Celtic Park from both directions were directed to the narrow enclosed walkway below the North Stand to reach the opposite side of the stadium, along with those trying to enter that stand via turnstiles. The volume of people in the walkway area built up to the extent that many were unable to move forward with more approaching from either side, and crushing was experienced in the congested area for some minutes, causing panic, with several fans scaling a high perimeter wall and fence to escape; one of them fell from the wall and later required hospital treatment, while four other persons were treated at the scene as the situation subsided. Those involved expressed their anger afterwards regarding the arrangements and the policing at the stadium on the day, with Celtic issuing an official apology to the fans.
Legislation
From 1 March 2012, the police were given more powers to act against Sectarian acts at football matches through the new Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012. The law was designed specifically to target the Old Firm rivalry by reducing the religious hatred between the two opposing sides. The Act created two new offences, one covering behaviour in and around football matches and the other related to posts sent by either electronic or postal methods. People convicted under the act could face up to five years imprisonment, a much higher sentence than was previously in place. It was hoped it would make it much easier to prosecute this misbehaviour, which had proved difficult in the past.
In March 2013 a protest by a number of Celtic fans took place to protest against the new laws and the subsequent match bans that a number of fans had received for breaking the Act. The protesters, known as the "Green Brigade", had marched without police authority and the event was therefore cracked down on by local authorities resulting in thirteen arrests. The protestors claim that the police instigated the trouble that occurred at this march. Following the march, media coverage reported that the fans were growing further apart from the police than ever before. They claimed that the trust the fans hold with the police to work in cooperation with them is falling dramatically. The march that took place resulted in a number of complaints from both Celtic and Rangers fan groups that they were harassed by the police.
Labour MSP James Kelly introduced the Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Repeal) (Scotland) Bill in June 2017. Kelly had described the 2012 legislation as having "completely failed to tackle sectarianism" and as "illiberal" which "unfairly targets football fans", and was "condemned by legal experts, human rights organisations and equality groups". Professor Sir Tom Devine previously spoke of the Football Act as "the most illiberal and counterproductive act passed by our young Parliament to date" and a "stain on the reputation of the Scottish legal system for fair dealing". Much was made of when a Sheriff described the law as "mince".
After passing through the parliamentary process in early 2018, on 19 April the bill received royal assent, repealing the 2012 Act.
Joint sponsorship
Glasgow-based brewers Tennent's were the primary commercial sponsor of both teams for several years; any local business that only sponsored one would likely lose half its customers. Previously, glazing company CR Smith (who later had a deal with Celtic alone), communications firm NTL and English brewers Carling had also sponsored both clubs.
Events post-2012
In 2012, Rangers suffered a financial collapse leading to the liquidation of the commercial entity; however, the sporting assets were acquired by a new company which allowed its playing membership to continue unbroken (albeit in the lowest division of the Scottish football league system). As a result, this would mean that for the first time in 120 years, no fixtures would be played between Rangers and Celtic.
The status of the Old Firm was also challenged, following the logic that since Rangers 'died' during the events of 2012, the rivalry also expired and any matches played since that point would be between Celtic and a 'new Rangers', albeit playing at the same stadium, in the same colours, with the same supporters and some of the same players as before. Adherents to this point of view refer to the club disparagingly as Sevco (the original name of the post-2012 holding company), and Rangers supporters as 'zombies' or 'the undead'. This difference of opinion became a new factor in the rivalry.
Some Celtic supporters were particularly vociferous in their assertions, to the extent of a group paying for a full-page newspaper advertisement in January 2015 announcing that their club would soon play its first fixture against the new Rangers.
It is regarded as a continuation of the same club by the SPFL chief executive Neil Doncaster; external governing bodies such as UEFA, the European Club Association and FIFA have never formally stated their position on Rangers but have issued general remarks about the continuation of a club's history when controlled by a new company.
In 2013 numerous complaints were made to the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) over official marketing communications from Rangers which stated they were "Scotland's most successful club", with this claim being disputed as the complainants declared the club had only been in existence for one year. Having considered the evidence including advice from UEFA, the ASA did not uphold the complaints.
In July 2012, a large banner was displayed at Celtic Park during a game showing a cartoon zombie representing Rangers rising from the grave before being shot by a sniper, drawing criticism due to the gunman resembling a paramilitary from the Northern Ireland conflict, although Celtic escaped formal punishment over the matter. Celtic fan groups have continued to display banners claiming Rangers are 'dead'.
Celtic and their followers also became involved in other legal proceedings relating to Rangers, including the outcome of the long-running EBT investigation.
Results on the field
It took Rangers four years to climb through the lower divisions and re-take their place in the Scottish Premiership for the 2016–17 season; in the interim only two cup semi-finals were played between the clubs and Celtic won all four league titles by significant margins (never less than 15 points). The rivalry resumed in earnest by way of six matches during 2016–17, with Celtic eliminating Rangers from both cups at the semi-final stage on the way to lifting the trophies and emerging victorious in three of the matches in the league championship, which they also won without losing a game to secure their sixth successive title and a domestic treble. The 2017–18 season was much the same: Celtic won three of the Old Firm league fixtures plus a Scottish Cup semi-final meeting and lifted all three domestic trophies; Rangers finished third, behind Aberdeen.
Celtic won a third successive treble in 2018–19, although Rangers did finally record victories over them in the league with a 1–0 and 2–0 wins in the two fixtures at Ibrox. Rangers were runners-up in the league, their highest position since 2012. In December 2019, Rangers beat Celtic 2–1 at Celtic Park, their first away win since October 2010; that 2019–20 season was curtailed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland, with Celtic declared champions having held a commanding lead when matches stopped in March 2020.
Initial signs that the 2020–21 Scottish Premiership (played almost entirely in empty stadiums due to the pandemic) would be closely fought proved inaccurate as Rangers produced consistent and defensively-strong performances, in contrast to Celtic who dropped goals and points regularly as the season progressed (although they did set a new record with a 'quadruple treble', winning twelve domestic trophies in succession). Rangers won both Old Firm fixtures and were confirmed as champions – the 55th title in their history and the first since 2011 – by early March 2021 even before the often-pivotal third fixture against Celtic was played, ending the Hoops chances of a record-breaking tenth successive championship.Rangers: From the Banter Years to the glory season under Steven Gerrard – a decade like no other , BBC Sport, 9 March 2021
Honours
All-time head-to-head record
Defunct minor competitions
There are a number of matches between the two clubs that are not recognised in the official records, such as their first competitive meeting in the 1888–89 Glasgow Cup, in which Celtic defeated Rangers 6–1.
Wartime competitions
In the First World War, the Scottish Cup was suspended. Among the unofficial competitions which were held for fundraising purposes was the Navy and Army War Fund Shield, during which Rangers defeated Celtic in December 1914.
During the Second World War, the Scottish Football League and Scottish Cup were suspended and in their place unofficial regional league competitions were set up (these were dominated by Rangers). One of these games was a New Year's Day derby in 1943 which Rangers won 8–1.
Comparative league placings
1890–1914
1914–1939
1946–1975
1975–1998
1998–2021
Summary: Celtic with 58 higher finishes, Rangers with 66 higher finishes (as of the end of the 2020–21 season).
Biggest wins
* Four or more goals difference between the teams. Only includes the league and two major cups; other big winning margins were recorded in minor competitions such as the Glasgow Merchants Charity Cup.Celtic v Glasgow Rangers 5-0 , via Play Up Liverpool
Celtic
6-goal margin
Celtic 7–1 Rangers on 19 October 1957, Scottish League Cup
5-goal margin
Celtic 5–0 Rangers on 21 March 1925, Scottish Cup
Celtic 5–0 Rangers on 29 April 2018, Scottish Premiership
4-goal margin
Celtic 6–2 Rangers on 14 December 1895, Scottish Division One
Rangers 0–4 Celtic on 27 September 1898 Scottish Division One
Celtic 4–0 Rangers on 10 March 1900, Scottish Cup
Celtic 4–0 Rangers on 1 January 1914, Scottish Division One
Celtic 6–2 Rangers on 10 September 1938, Scottish Division One
Celtic 5–1 Rangers on 3 January 1966, Scottish Division One
Celtic 4–0 Rangers on 26 April 1969, Scottish Cup
Celtic 5–1 Rangers on 21 November 1998, Scottish Premier League
Celtic 6–2 Rangers on 27 August 2000, Scottish Premier League
Celtic 5–1 Rangers on 10 September 2016, Scottish Premiership
Rangers 1–5 Celtic on 29 April 2017, Scottish Premiership
Celtic 4–0 Rangers on 15 April 2018, Scottish Cup
Rangers
5-goal margin
Rangers 5–0 Celtic on 2 September 1893, Scottish League
Rangers 5–0 Celtic on 1 January 1894, Scottish Division One
4-goal margin
Celtic 0–4 Rangers on 24 September 1898, Scottish Division One
Rangers 4–0 Celtic on 14 April 1928, Scottish Cup
Celtic 0–4 Rangers on 2 January 1948, Scottish League Division A
Rangers 4–0 Celtic on 24 September 1949, Scottish League Division A
Celtic 0–4 Rangers on 31 August 1955, Scottish League Cup
Celtic 1–5 Rangers on 10 September 1960, Scottish Division One
Rangers 4–0 Celtic on 1 January 1963, Scottish Division One
Rangers 5–1 Celtic on 27 August 1988, Scottish Premier Division
Rangers 4–0 Celtic on 26 March 2000, Scottish Premier League
Rangers 5–1 Celtic on 26 November 2000, Scottish Premier League
Players
Played for both teams
The ferocity of the rivalry has made it rare for a player to represent both teams during his career. Players who played for both sides of the Old Firm included Alec Bennett, Scott Duncan, Robert Campbell, and George Livingstone, who all played before the intensity of the rivalry had started prior to 1912, as well as later players: Alfie Conn, Maurice Johnston, Kenny Miller, Steven Pressley and Mark Brown (none of whom moved directly between the two clubs).
Pre-World War I
Tom Dunbar (Celtic 1888–1891, Rangers 1891–1892, Celtic 1892–1898)
John Cunningham (Celtic 1889–1892, Rangers ?–?)
Allan Martin (Rangers 1891–1892, Celtic 1895–1896)
Alex King (Rangers 1895, Celtic 1896–1900)
George Livingstone (Celtic 1901–1902, Rangers 1906–1909)
Alec Bennett (Celtic 1903–1908, Rangers 1908–1918)
Tom Sinclair (Rangers 1904–1906, Celtic 1906–1907)
Robert Campbell (Celtic 1905–1906, Rangers 1906–1914)
Hugh Shaw (Rangers 1905–1906, Celtic 1906–1907)
Willie Kivlichan (Rangers 1905–1907, Celtic 1907–1911)
David Taylor (Rangers 1906–1911, Celtic 1918–1919 wartime guest)
Davie McLean (Celtic 1907–1909, Rangers 1918–1919)
Scott Duncan (Rangers 1913–1918, Celtic 1918–1919 wartime guest)
James Young (Celtic 1917–1918, Rangers 1917–1918)
Post-World War I
Tully Craig (Celtic 1919–1922, Rangers 1923–1935)
Alfie Conn (Rangers 1968–1974, Celtic 1977–1979)
Mo Johnston (Celtic 1984–1987, Rangers 1989–1991)
Kenny Miller (Rangers 2000–2001, Celtic 2006–2007, Rangers 2008–2011, Rangers 2014–2018)
Steven Pressley (Rangers 1990–1994, Celtic 2006–2008)
Mark Brown (Rangers 1997–2001, Celtic 2007–2010)
Opposite clubs during youth and senior careers
John Dowie (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Gordon Marshall (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Craig Beattie (youth career with both Rangers and Celtic, senior career Celtic)
Sean Fitzharris (youth career with both Rangers and Celtic, senior career Celtic)
Greig Spence (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Joe Thomson (youth career with both Rangers and Celtic, senior career Celtic)
Dylan McGeouch (youth career with both Celtic and Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Gregg Wylde (youth career with both Celtic and Rangers, senior career Rangers)
Barry Robson (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Michael O'Halloran (youth career Celtic, senior career Rangers)
Liam Burt (youth and senior career with both Celtic and Rangers)
Lewis Morgan (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Greg Taylor (youth career Rangers, senior career Celtic)
Families
Several sets of brothers have played in the Old Firm match, although not necessarily together:
Michael Dunbar and Tom Dunbar (Celtic)
John McPhail and Billy McPhail (Celtic)
Frank Brogan and Jim Brogan (Celtic)
Derek Ferguson and Barry Ferguson (Rangers)
Gordon Marshall and Scott Marshall (Celtic)
Those who were teammates in the fixture include:
Willie Maley and Tom Maley (Celtic)
John McPherson and David McPherson (Rangers)
Andrew McCreadie and Hugh McCreadie (Rangers)
Jimmy McStay and Willie McStay (Celtic)
Frank O'Donnell and Hugh O'Donnell (Celtic)
Willie McStay and Paul McStay (Celtic, great-nephews of the earlier brothers)
Frank de Boer and Ronald de Boer (Rangers, twins)
In the 1890s, Tom Dunbar spent a season with Rangers between two spells for Celtic, but he and his brother Mick (see above) never played against each other in the fixture. In the 1980s, the McAdam brothers played on opposite sides, and directly against one another, on several occasions: defender Tom for Celtic and forward Colin for Rangers.
Father-and-son pairs who have been selected include:
Sandy Clark and Nicky Clark (Rangers)
Mike Conroy Sr. and Mike Conroy Jr. (Celtic)
John Divers Sr. and John Divers Jr. (Celtic)
Patsy Gallacher and Willie Gallacher (Celtic)
Jimmy McMenemy and John McMenemy (Celtic)
Jackie McNamara Sr. and Jackie McNamara Jr. (Celtic)
Jimmy Parlane and Derek Parlane (Rangers)
Nicol Smith and Jimmy Smith (Rangers)
Jimmy Simpson was a Rangers captain in the 1930s, while his son Ronnie Simpson was Celtic's European Cup-winning goalkeeper in 1967.
Individual records
Most appearances
As of end of the 2018–19 season.
All competitions
League games only
Highest goalscorersAs of end of the 2018–19 season.
All competitions League games onlyManagerial statistics
As of 2 February 2022. Minimum 10 Old Firm games as manager.
Attendances
The stadium attendance records for Rangers' Ibrox (118,567, January 1939) and Celtic's Celtic Park (at least 83,500, January 1938) were both set at Old Firm matches; however while the Ibrox figure is the Rangers club record (and the record for any domestic league match in the United Kingdom), Celtic's biggest 'home' attendance was the 1969–70 European Cup semi-final with Leeds United, moved to the larger Hampden Park due to the anticipated interest: the crowd of 136,505 is a record for any match in European international club competitions.
Hampden, Scotland's national stadium and home of Queen's Park, is situated roughly an equal distance from Ibrox and Celtic Park in Glasgow. Due to the frequency of the two teams appearing in semi-finals and finals held there (often facing one another), its West and East stands are always allocated to the same club and are informally known as the Rangers end and Celtic end respectively. That stadium, once the largest in the world, attracted the largest Old Firm attendance of all time with 132,870 at the 1969 Scottish Cup Final (it is not the record for the competition, with 147,365 having attended the 1937 final which also featured Celtic, versus Aberdeen). The record Scottish League Cup final attendance (107,609; October 1965) was an Old Firm affair, although the tournament record was set in 1947 when Rangers overcame Hibernian in a semi-final before 123,830.
The 1971 Ibrox disaster – in which 66 Rangers supporters died in a crush on an exterior stairway – occurred at the end of an Old Firm match, although the identity of the opposition was not a factor in the incident other than having drawn a large crowd of at least 75,000 to the event.
Since redevelopments completed in the 1990s, all three venues are all-seater with much smaller capacities of between 50,000 and 60,000, meaning the above records may never be beaten – the attendance of 72,069 at 'old style' Hampden for the Old Firm 1989 Scottish Cup Final has become a landmark figure as no match in Scotland has come close to matching it since.
Average attendances
When compared to other clubs in Scotland, the Old Firm maintain considerably higher attendances; Celtic's recorded crowds tend to be higher than Rangers as their stadium holds approximately 9,000 more seats. Both clubs (among others) have been accused of inflating their attendance figures by counting all season ticket holders in the crowd when many have not actually attended the match in question, with the accurate figures reported to the police for crowd control being lower.
The average attendances of both Old Firm clubs are regularly within the top twenty across Europe. A study of stadium attendance figures from 2013 to 2018 by the CIES Football Observatory ranked Celtic at 16th in the world during that period and Rangers at 18th, even though Rangers had been playing at lower levels for three of those five seasons. Celtic's proportion of the distribution of spectators in Scotland was 36.5%, the highest of any club in the leagues examined, with Rangers' 27.4% placing them 8th overall for national audience share.
Dominance of Scottish football
The intensity of the rivalry is fuelled by the clubs' historical duopoly in Scottish football, with most meetings between them being pivotal in deciding the destiny of a championship or cup and anything but a title-winning season seen as a major disappointment, particularly as it would usually mean 'the enemy' has won the trophy.
League
Statistics show that Rangers and Celtic have been by far the most successful clubs involved in the Scottish Football League since its formation in 1890. The pair were the only participants in every edition of the competition until 2012, when Rangers were removed from the top tier for economic reasons; they returned for the 2016–17 season. Of the 124 championships played, 106 (85%) have been won by one of the Old Firm with Rangers slightly ahead on 55 titles to Celtic's 51, and 19 between ten other clubs (including a shared title between Rangers and Dumbarton).
Although there have been brief periods when silverware went elsewhere, there have also been long spells of domination by each Old Firm club, the 9-in-a-row championship was first set by Celtic between 1966 and 1974, then by Rangers between 1989 and 1997, and again by Celtic between 2012 and 2020.
On just five occasions since 1891 have neither of the Glasgow giants been the league winner nor the runner-up. This includes 1964–65, the only season in which both Rangers and Celtic failed to finish in the top three places. The Old Firm have finished 1st and 2nd 50 times overall. Between the resurgence of Celtic in the mid-1990s and the liquidation of Rangers in 2012, '1–2' finishes were recorded in all but one of 17 SPL-era seasons.
The longest sequence without an Old Firm title is three years between 1983 and 1985, while the longest unbroken run of championships between the two clubs began immediately afterwards and is ongoing: 35 seasons and counting since 1986 (overtaking a previous sequence of 27 years between 1905 and 1931).
As of end of the 2020–21 season. Runners-up in (parentheses)
For the purpose of the calculation, the shared 1891 title is attributed to Rangers only here to prevent it being counted twice.
Scottish Cup
Although the initial Scottish Cup was played in 1874, 15 years before Celtic were formed, they have still won the competition more than any other club – 40 times, plus 18 runners-up – with Rangers not far behind on 33 (also 18 runners-up).
There have been 14 Old Firm finals, while there have been just 39 finals involving neither Rangers or Celtic, 17 of which were in the 1800s.
The longest run of Old Firm wins is 11 between 1971 and 1981.
As of end of the 2019–20 season. Runners-up in (parentheses)
Old Firm Scottish Cup finals
Rangers wins: 1893–94, 1927–28, 1962–63, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1998–99, 2001–02
Celtic wins: 1898–99, 1903–04, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1976–77, 1979–80, 1988–89
Cup withheld: 1908–09
League Cup
The Scottish League Cup has been contested 74 times since 1946–47. Rangers are dominant in terms of wins with 27 from 35 finals, with Celtic some way behind on 19 wins from 34 finals. 13 other clubs share 28 wins between them. 15 of its finals have been Old Firm occasions, while 20 featured neither of them.
The longest run of Old Firm wins is 8 between 1964 and 1971.
As of end of the 2019–20 competition which concluded in December 2019. Runners-up in (parentheses)
Old Firm League Cup finals
Rangers wins: 1964–65, 1970–71, 1975–76, 1977–78, 1983–84, 1986–87, 1990–91, 2002–03, 2010–11
Celtic wins''': 1957–58, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1982–83, 2008–09, 2019–20
Women's football
The Rangers–Celtic rivalry in women's football has existed only in the 21st century, with Rangers W.F.C. having formed in 2008, one year after the Celtic F.C. women's team. The footballing environment is also very different, with a third team in the city – Glasgow City F.C. – not merely competing in the same division as the more famous names and attracting a similar fanbase, but dominant over them in the domestic league, with twelve consecutive titles up to 2018. Rangers have only finished above Celtic once (2014), and neither club has won the Scottish Women's Cup; Celtic have lifted the SWPL Cup twice, first in 2010 and then again in 2021.
Fixtures between the teams generate extra media interest due to their association with the parent clubs and are referred to as Old Firm matches as a result. On 13 April 2016, Celtic women's team played their first competitive match at Celtic Park, marking the occasion with a 5–1 victory over Rangers. During the 2019 season, sisters Kodie and Brogan Hay played on opposite sides in the fixture.We Have A Point To Prove , Rangers FC, 26 October 2019 That same year, both clubs stated they would be increasing their investment in women's football and offering professional contracts to players in an attempt to challenge Glasgow City's dominance.
See also
Sport in Glasgow
Culture in Glasgow
Ethnicity and association football
Association football culture
List of sports rivalries
List of association football rivalries
Sectarianism in Glasgow
Sport in Scotland
Timeline of Glasgow history
Politics and sports
References
Further reading
External links
Head-to-head results Soccerbase
Into the Fire, documentary from 1986 by STV
Clash of the Titans, 1998 BBC Scotland documentary
Pride and Prejudice, 1999 BBC Northern Ireland documentary
Glasgow Colors, 2007 RTBF documentary
The Football War, 2012 Press TV documentary
A tale of one city: Glasgow – These Football Times'' (2014)
Scotland football derbies
Celtic F.C.
Rangers F.C.
Politics of Glasgow
Politics and sports
Association football terminology
Sectarianism
Recurring sporting events established in 1888
Christianity in Glasgow
1888 establishments in Scotland
Football in Glasgow | [
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239469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Yorktown%20%281862%29 | Siege of Yorktown (1862) | The Battle of Yorktown or Siege of Yorktown was fought from April 5 to May 4, 1862, as part of the Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War. Marching from Fort Monroe, Union Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac encountered Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder's small Confederate force at Yorktown behind the Warwick Line. McClellan suspended his march up the Peninsula toward Richmond and settled in for siege operations.
On April 5, the IV Corps of Brig. Gen. Erasmus D. Keyes made initial contact with Confederate defensive works at Lee's Mill, an area McClellan expected to move through without resistance. Magruder's ostentatious movement of troops back and forth convinced the Union that his works were strongly held. As the two armies fought an artillery duel, reconnaissance indicated to Keyes the strength and breadth of the Confederate fortifications, and he advised McClellan against assaulting them. McClellan ordered the construction of siege fortifications and brought his heavy siege guns to the front. In the meantime, Gen. Joseph E. Johnston brought reinforcements for Magruder.
On April 16, Union forces probed a point in the Confederate line at Dam No. 1. The Union failed to exploit the initial success of this attack, however. This lost opportunity held up McClellan for two additional weeks while he tried to convince the U.S. Navy to bypass the Confederates' big guns at Yorktown and Gloucester Point and ascend the York River to West Point and outflank the Warwick Line. McClellan planned a massive bombardment for dawn on May 5, but the Confederate army slipped away during the night of May 3 toward Williamsburg.
The battle took place near the site of the 1781 Siege of Yorktown.
Background
McClellan had chosen to approach the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, with an amphibious operation that landed troops on the tip of the Virginia Peninsula at Fort Monroe. His Army of the Potomac numbered 121,500 men, transported starting on March 17 by 389 vessels. McClellan planned to use U.S. Navy forces to envelop Yorktown, but the emergence of the Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia and the Battle of Hampton Roads (March 8–9, 1862) disrupted this plan. The threat of the Virginia on the James River and the heavy Confederate batteries at the mouth of the York River prevented the Navy from assuring McClellan that they could control either the York or the James, so he settled on a purely land approach toward Yorktown.
The Confederate defenders of Yorktown, led by Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder, initially numbered only 11–13,000 men; the rest of the Confederate forces, under the overall command of General Joseph E. Johnston, remained spread out across eastern Virginia at Culpeper, Fredericksburg, and Norfolk. Magruder constructed a defensive line from Yorktown on the York River, behind the Warwick River, to Mulberry Point on the James River (even taking advantage of some trenches originally dug by Cornwallis in 1781) to effectively block the full width of the Peninsula, although he could adequately man none of the defensive works at that time. This became known as the Warwick Line.
McClellan's plan called for Maj. Gen. Samuel P. Heintzelman's III Corps to fix the Confederate troops in their trenches near the York River, while the IV Corps under Brig. Gen. Erasmus D. Keyes enveloped the Confederate right and cut off their lines of communication. McClellan and his staff, ignorant of the extent of Magruder's line, assumed the Confederates had concentrated only in the immediate vicinity of Yorktown.
Battle
Union advance and Lee's Mill
On April 4, 1862, the Union Army pushed through Magruder's initial line of defense but the following day encountered his more effective Warwick Line. The nature of the terrain made it difficult to determine the exact disposition of the Confederate forces. McClellan correctly estimated that the Confederates had 15 to 18,000 troops in the defensive line. It has been claimed that Magruder attempted to deceive by moving infantry and artillery in a noisy, ostentatious manner to make the defenders seem a much larger forces than their actual numbers. However, his reports do not mention this and no reference before 1988 can be found claiming this, except for Shelby Foote's three volume history of the Civil War, first published in 1956. On 6–7 April McClellan correctly estimated (given Magruder's reinforcements) that 30,000 troops were at Yorktown. Troops continued to arrive and on 20 April McClellan correctly estimated "more than 80,000" were at Yorktown.
McClellan had five divisions available and advanced in two columns. The 4th Corps of two divisions under Keyes advanced towards Lee's Mill, whilst the 3rd Corps of two divisions under Heintzelman advanced towards Yorktown proper. He kept his last division (Sedgwick) in reserve to commit to either column. The lead division of Keyes' corps under Smith contacted the position at Lee's Mill in the early afternoon of the 5th. He had two brigades (Davidson and Hancock) and a battery (Wheeler's) to hand and attempted to suppress the superior enemy artillery. He lost the firefight and despite an order from McClellan to Keyes "to attack with all his force if only with the bayonet", Smith withdrew back to Warwick Court House. The 3rd Corps advanced directly towards Yorktown, but were stopped by heavy artillery fire.
That evening McClellan ordered two brigades to march across the entire frontage of the enemy line. The next day (April 6) Hancock and Burns took parts of their brigades and marched across the entire frontage to provoke enemy fire. Hancock took the 6th Maine Infantry and 5th Wisconsin Infantry left to right, and Burns went right to left. This proved that there was no break in the river that could easily be assaulted. That evening a major storm started, and shut down all troop movements until the 10th. Further recces were ordered in order to find a weak point to attack, and on April 9 Hancock performed a reconnaissance around Dam Number One, where Magruder had widened the Warwick to create a water obstacle nearby. The rebel picket line was along the Garrow Ridge on the eastern side of the river. Hancock drove off the Confederate pickets and took some prisoners. Smith and the attached engineer (Comstock) noted this was the only place along the river where the ground was higher on the eastern bank than the western, and hence was vulnerable. McClellan chided Smith for not taking an opportunity to attack stating "if you had gone and succeeded, you would have been a Major General". Hancock considered this area a weak spot in the line, but his messenger was captured by the rebels en route to Smith's HQ. Keyes believed that the Warwick Line fortifications could not be carried by assault and so informed McClellan.
During this phase, Union Army Balloon Corps aeronaut Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe used two balloons, the Constitution and the Intrepid, to perform aerial observation. On April 11, Intrepid carried Brig. Gen. Fitz John Porter, a division commander of the V Corps, aloft, but unexpected winds sent the balloon over enemy lines, causing great consternation in the Union command before other winds returned him to safety. Confederate Captain John Bryan suffered a similar wind mishap in a hot air balloon over the Yorktown lines.
Dam Number One
It was to the amazement of the Confederates (who had estimated his strength at 200,000, four times the real number), and the dismay of President Abraham Lincoln that McClellan did not attack immediately. McClellan wished to either turn the position with an amphibious movement or find a weak point where an assault stood a reasonable chance of success. The Navy refused to cooperate, but on 14 April Barnard finally reported to McClellan that a weak point had been found at Dam No. 1. McClellan developed a plan of attack at that point. Initially a division (Smith's) would seize and occupy the Garrow Ridge overlooking the dams. This would prevent the rebels conducting further work on a fort they were building at the rivers edge and prevent rebel scouts finding the assembling assault forces. He would then assemble a large force behind the ridge and assault the rebel fortifications. On April 15 orders were sent to Smith to occupy the Garrow Ridge and probe the rebel fortifications to see whether there was a clearing in the woods behind the crossing. All the uncommitted units (Casey's Division, Richardson's Division and Naglee's brigade) were ordered to assemble ready to assault in the following days.
Smith's operations were a debacle. Initially wildly successful in seizing the Garrow Ridge and advancing a small force to drive off the rebels, McClellan considered the task completed, and returned to his HQ to arrange for the assaulting units to move into position. Smith then decided to advance a small force of Vermonters across the Dam against his orders. They were rapidly pinned down as Brig. Gen. Howell Cobb's brigade, supported by two others, came down on this small force, and were driven back. In the process they collapsed the dam, and destroyed the crossing point. This rendered the planned assault impossible. Smith faced a severe criticism for his failure, and was the subject of a witchhunt by a Vermont senator
Drummer Julian Scott, along with First Sergeant Edward Holton and Captain Samuel E. Pingree were awarded the Medal of Honor.
Aftermath of Dam No. 1
On the morning of April 17 it was obvious that no assault could be attempted at any point. At this point McClellan acquiesced to conducting "regular approaches" and ordered parallels to be dug for heavy artillery. The siege preparations at Yorktown consisted of 15 batteries with more than 70 heavy guns, including two 200-pounder Parrotts and twelve 100-pounder Parrots, with the rest of the rifled pieces divided between 20-pounder and 30-pounder Parrotts and Rodman siege rifles. These were augmented by 41 mortars, ranging in size from to seacoast mortars, which weighed over 10 tons and fired shells weighing 220 pounds. When fired in unison, these batteries would deliver over 7,000 pounds of ordnance onto the enemy positions with each volley.
McClellan had not given up hope of turning Yorktown. The commander of the York River flotilla, Missroon, had consistently refused to even approach the Yorktown batteries, citing the weakness of his ship. However, on 16 April the USS Sebago joined the flotilla, and her captain promptly reported Missroon's "cowardice". Missroon attempted to delay further by stating he'd only attack Yorktown if the opposite fortress at Gloucester Point was destroyed first. McClellan gave him the newly arrived division of Franklin as a landing force, but Missroon kept finding reasons not to land them. Finally on 30 April Missroon was relieved and replaced by Commander William Smith. Smith promptly closed with the Yorktown batteries and bombarded them. This would precipitate Johnston's retreat.
For the remainder of April, the Confederates, now at ca. 72,000 PFD and under the direct command of Johnston, improved their defenses while McClellan undertook the laborious process of transporting and placing massive siege artillery batteries, which he planned to deploy on May 5. This would be followed by an assault by six divisions against "The Divide" a fortified line containing two forts (named the Red Redoubt and the White Redoubt) linked by continual trenchline between the head of the Warwick and the main fortress of Yorktown.
To Johnston, the naval bombardment of 30 April, and the initial Federal bombardment by the siege guns on 1 May were a signal that time was up. Johnston sent his supply train (which was small as Yorktown was being supplied by water) in the direction of Richmond on May 3. That evening the rebels expended as much ordnance as possible to discourage pursuit, and when the last rebel infantry was clear, leaving booby traps and land mines in their works, the gunners set long fuses on the remaining powder and joined the retreat.
Sometime after midnight on 4 May, two escaped slaves approached Hancock's brigade. They said the rebels were withdrawing. Hancock sent the message to Smith, who was awoken at 2 a.m. with this information, which was followed immediately by Lt. George Custer reporting he'd seen the same from a balloon. Still groggy, Smith sent the messenger up to Keyes, and ordered the pickets to investigate at dawn. Custer was not satisfied with this and rode forward to Brookes' Vermont Brigade and told him. He immediately woke his brigade and set them in place to make a dawn attack, and at 5.30 a.m. the Vermonters seized the fortifications they'd been repelled by on 16 April. Keyes' message apparently did not arrive until well into the morning.
Meanwhile, sometime between 3.15 and 4.00 a.m., General Jameson, the General of the Trenches for the day, was informed that there were explosions in Yorktown and picket firing. He woke General Porter, the Director of the Siege, with the information. Porter looked through at Yorktown and dismissed the rumour that the rebels were retreating. However at 4.30 a.m. three rebel soldiers surrendered to the Federals and were brought to Jameson. He went back to Porter who this time accepted the information, ordering that recces be immediately sent out and for several regiments to occupy Yorktown at dawn.
At 5.30 a.m. the news reached McClellan's HQ. Awoken by the news he send telegraphed Sumner, Smith and Porter to push forward and ascertain the truth of the matter. Other news soon came in, and McClellan ordered a general pursuit. He sent cavalry under Brig. Gen. George Stoneman in pursuit and ordered Brig. Gen. William B. Franklin's division to reboard Navy transports, sail up the York River, and cut off Johnson's retreat. The stage was set for the subsequent Battle of Williamsburg and Battle of Eltham's Landing.
Battlefield preservation
The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the Lee's Mill section of the battlefield.
References
References
Burton, Brian K. The Peninsula & Seven Days: A Battlefield Guide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. .
Quarstein, John V., and J. Michael Moore. Yorktown's Civil War Siege: Drums Along the Warwick. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2012. .
Rickard, J. "Battle of Lee's Mill". Accessed August 2, 2010.
Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. .
Sears, Stephen W. To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign. Ticknor and Fields, 1992. .
External links
National Park Service battle description
CWSAC Report Update
Virginia Civil War Traveler map
Yorktown
Yorktown
Yorktown
Yorktown
York County in the American Civil War
Yorktown
1862 in Virginia
Yorktown
April 1862 events
May 1862 events | [
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|
239470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE%20multifactoral%20analysis | GE multifactoral analysis | GE multifactoral analysis is a technique used in brand marketing and product management to help a company decide what products to add to its portfolio and which opportunities in the market they should continue to invest in. It is conceptually similar to BCG analysis, but somewhat more complicated. Like in BCG analysis, a two-dimensional portfolio matrix is created. However, with the GE model the dimensions are multi factorial. One dimension comprises nine industry attractiveness measures; the other comprises twelve internal business strength measures. The GE matrix helps a strategic business unit evaluate its overall strength.
Each product, brand, service, or potential product is mapped in this industry attractiveness/business strength space. The GE multi factorial was first developed by McKinsey for General Electric in the 1970s.
Aims of the GE model
This model aims to evaluate the existing portfolios of strategic business units and to develop strategies to achieve growth by addition of new products and businesses to this portfolio and further, to analyze which business units to invest in and which ones to sell off.
Construction of the GE matrix
The GE matrix is constructed in a 3x3 grid with Market Attractiveness plotted on the Y-axis and business strength on the X-axis, both being measured on a high, medium, or low score. Five steps must be considered in order to formulate the matrix;
The range of products produced by the SBU (Strategic Business Unit) must be listed
Factors which make the particular market attractive must be identified
Evaluating where the SBU stands in this market
Processes through which calculations about business strength and market attractiveness can be made
Determining which category an SBU lies in; high, medium, or low.
Market attractiveness
The attractiveness of a market is demonstrated by how beneficial it is for a company to enter and compete within this market. It is based on various factors; the size of the market and the rate at which it is growing, the possibility of profit, the number of competitors within the industry and their weaknesses.
Business/competitive strength
This helps decide whether a company is competent enough to compete in the given markets. It can be determined by factors within the company itself such as its assets and holdings, the share it holds in the market and the development of this share, the position in the market of its brand and the loyalty of customers to this brand, its creativeness in coming up with new and improved products and in dealing with the fluctuating situations of the market, as well as keeping in mind environmental/government concerns such as energy consumption, waste disposal etc.
Measuring market attractiveness and business strength
Once the factors that determine the two are identified and rated, each factor is then given a certain magnitude and a calculation is made as follows;
factor 1 rating x factor 1 magnitude + factor 2 rating x factor 2 magnitude + ..... factor n rating x factor n magnitude.
Plotting
SBU's in the matrix can be represented as a circle; the radius exhibits the size of the market, the SBU's holdings in the market are equated through a pie chart within the circle and an arrow outside the circle shows the standing of the SBU expected in the future.
In the image attached for example, an SBU holds 45% of the market's shares. The arrow is outwards thus showing that the SBU is expected to grow and gain strength and then its tip indicates the future position of the SBU.
Investment strategies
When considering investment, it must first be seen which box of the matrix an SBU falls in ; grow, selectivity, or harvest.
Grow
SBUs that are classified into this category attract various company's investment as they are expected to yield high returns in the future. These investments should be split into categories such as research and development, acquisition of other SBU's, extensive advertisements and expanding production capacity.
Selectivity
SBUs that hold a lot of ambiguity fall into this category. They are usually only invested in if there is any prospect of competencies in managerial and corporate capabilities and if companies have any money left after investments in 'grow' business units.
Harvest
SBU' performing poorly in unattractive industries are classified into this category. Companies only invest in them if they generate enough cash to equal the investment amount, otherwise, they may be liquidated.
Advantages
Raises awareness between managers about the performance of their products in the market and aids in developing strategies to get maximum returns from the resources available.
Helps extract information about a business unit's strengths and weaknesses and to devise strategies to accelerate and improve performance.
Aids the business in growing and in providing information about potential market opportunities.
It is more complex in comparison to the BCG matrix.
Limitations
There is no set rule to 'weight' factors and this process may be subjective across different business unit's. For example, the weight given to a factor by one business may be different to the weight/importance given to it by another.
The formulation of a GE matrix is very expensive and time-consuming.
Investment strategies are often not implemented in an accurate and proper manner.
The dynamics among SBUs themselves are not taken into account.
Comparison with the BCG matrix
When compared to the BCG matrix consisting of four cells, the GE matrix is more complex with its nine cells. This means it not only takes longer to construct, but also to implement. The BCG matrix is much simpler and the factors needed to construct it are accessed more easily and quickly. It takes into account a wide range of factors when determining market attractiveness and business strengths, which is replaced by market share and market growth in the BCG matrix. Also, where factors are classified in the GE matrix as high, medium and low, those in the BCG matrix are divided between high and low. Moreover, the G.E matrix overcomes many of the limitations and constraints of the BCG matrix.
References
Brand management
Marketing techniques
Marketing strategy
Product management
Portfolio theories | [
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|
239475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco%20in%20the%20Eurovision%20Song%20Contest | Morocco in the Eurovision Song Contest | Morocco participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for its first and only time at the contest. Its selected song "Bitaqat Hub", sung in Arabic and performed by Samira Bensaïd, placed second to last. The country has not returned to the contest since.
Background
The Eurovision Song Contest is an annual international song competition held by the Eurovision broadcasting organisation since 1956, with participants representing primarily European countries. Each participating country submits an original song to be performed on live television and radio, then casts votes for the other countries' songs to determine the winner. Since its inception, entry to the contest has been open to all members of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), a group also containing countries in North Africa and the Middle East. Before Morocco's 1980 participation, Tunisia (at the 1977 Contest) was the only African country that had intended to compete, with even being drawn to perform fourth, however it had eventually withdrew from the contest.
1980 participation
Morocco's first and only participation in the Eurovision Song Contest was in 1980, when the contest was held in The Hague, Netherlands. Its entry was organized by Moroccan broadcaster and EBU member, Société Nationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision (SNRT), which had previously broadcast the contest on Moroccan television in , , , , , and .
The broadcaster selected the song "Bitaqat Hub" ("Love Card"), performed by Moroccan singer Samira Bensaïd. It is a moderately up-tempo number, with clear influences from Western disco and Arabic overtones. Bensaïd sings of the need for peace among the world's nations, taking the role of "the children of the world" to describe a vision of a society free of war and hate. It was interpreted as a message of peace addressed to Israel and the Arab countries. Jean Claudric conducted the orchestra for the entry.
The song was performed fifth on the night. At the close of voting, it had received 7 points, all of them from Italy, placing 18th in a field of 19, and ahead of perennial last-place recipient Finland.
The country's second-to-last place was a cruel disappointment for Moroccan public television, which decided never to participate in the contest again. Samira Said's career did not suffer, however, as she went on to become one of the leading Arab recording artists of the 20th century. She recorded a French version of the song "Message d'amour", found on the B-side of the single and in 1980, Filippos Nikolaou released a Greek cover version "Tosi kardia, tosi agapi" ().
To this day, Morocco remains the only African country to have participated in the contest, and the song was the first to be sung in Arabic.
Future
A second Moroccan broadcaster, 2M TV, has expressed their intention to join the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Should their application be successful, Morocco would be eligible to return to the contest with an alternative broadcaster. In May 2018, Israeli Minister of Communications Ayoob Kara announced that he would invite countries of the Arab world to participate in the contest in Tel Aviv, but Morocco was not on the list of participating countries released on 7 November 2018.
Following the signing of the normalization agreement between Israel and Morocco on 10 December 2020, Morocco's participation in Eurovision has become possible again. Eran Sikurel, a politician and radio host with the Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation (IPBC), called on Moroccan broadcaster SNRT to return to the contest on his Twitter account, but no response has been received.
Participation overview
References
External links
Points to and from Morocco eurovisioncovers.co.uk
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|
239479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill%20Goodacre | Jill Goodacre | Jill Goodacre Connick (born March 29, 1964) is an American actress and former model. She was one of Victoria's Secret's main models in the 1980s and early 1990s. She is married to singer Harry Connick Jr.
Career
Victoria's Secret
Goodacre was a primary lingerie and hosiery model for the relatively new Victoria's Secret company in its mail-order catalogs and retail stores in the 1980s, and she appeared extensively in the catalogs. Goodacre, Stephanie Seymour and Dutch model Frederique helped Victoria's Secret grow from a new company to one of the world's giants in women's lingerie, hosiery, swimwear and clothing.
Other media
Goodacre appeared as herself in an episode ("The One with the Blackout") of the American sitcom Friends in 1994. Though billed as Jill Connick, she was called Jill Goodacre throughout the episode.
She directed one of her husband's live performance videos (The New York Big Band Concert) in 1992, and she appears in several of his music videos.
Personal life
Born in Lubbock, Texas, Goodacre was raised in Boulder, Colorado. She is the daughter of real estate broker William Goodacre of Boulder, and sculptor Glenna Goodacre, a native of Lubbock who resided in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Her mother was remarried, to Dallas attorney C.L. Mike Schmidt. Goodacre has one brother named Tim..
Goodacre met Harry Connick Jr. as a result of the filming of the 1990 movie Memphis Belle in which her boyfriend, D. B. Sweeney, acted with Connick. Goodacre and Connick were married in 1994 in a Roman Catholic wedding mass at St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans. They have three daughters.
Filmography
Actress
1981 Play for Today – Golda (TV)
1983 The Nation's Health – Val Kane (TV)
1986 Odd Jobs
1987 Worlds Beyond (TV)
1991 Simply Mad About the Mouse: A Musical Celebration of Imagination - herself, with Harry Connick Jr.
1994 Friends – Jill Goodacre (as herself) (TV) ("The One with the Blackout")
1997 Duckman (TV) (voice)
1997 The Uninvited – Rose (TV)
Director
1993 Harry Connick Jr.: The New York Big Band Concert (director)
Self
1993 Boxout – exercise video with Sugar Ray Leonard
References
External links
1965 births
Female models from Texas
Living people
People from Lubbock, Texas
21st-century American women | [
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|
239480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibalization | Cannibalization | Cannibalization or cannibalisation may refer to:
Cannibalization (fiction), adapting, borrowing or stealing plots, characters, themes or ideas from one story for use in another or from one medium to another
Cannibalization (marketing), the introduction of a new product that harms sales of an older product by the same producer
Cannibalization (parts), the use of parts from one device to repair another
See also
Cannibal (disambiguation)
Cannibalism (disambiguation) | [
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239481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide-de-camp | Aide-de-camp | An aide-de-camp (, ; French expression meaning literally "helper in the [military] camp") is a personal assistant or secretary to a person of high rank, usually a senior military, police or government officer, or to a member of a royal family or a head of state.
An aide-de-camp may participate at ceremonial functions, and the first aide-de-camp is typically the foremost personal aide. This is not to be confused with an adjutant, who is the senior administrator of a military unit.
The badge of office for an aide-de-camp is usually the aiguillette, a braided cord in gold or other colours, worn on the shoulder of a uniform. Whether it is worn on the left or the right shoulder is dictated by protocol.
In some countries, aide-de-camp is considered to be a title of honour, which confers the post-nominal letters ADC, A.D.C. or A de C.
Argentina
In Argentina, three officers (one from each armed service, of the rank of lieutenant colonel or its equivalent), are appointed as aide-de-camp to the president of the republic and three others to the minister of defense, these six being the only ones to be called edecán, which is one Spanish translation for aide-de-camp (edecán is a phonetic imitation of the French term; ayudante de campo is a word-for-word translation).
A controversy was raised in 2006, when president Néstor Kirchner decided to promote his army aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel Graham to colonel, one year ahead of his class. Upon taking office, former president Cristina Kirchner decided to have, for the first time, female officers as her aides-de-camp.
In each of the armed forces, the chief of staff and other senior officers have their own adjutants, normally of the rank of major or lieutenant colonel, or its equivalent. At unit level, the unit S1 (personnel officer) doubles as the unit commander's adjutant, although in recent times in many units this practice has been left only for ceremonial purposes, while for everyday duties a senior NCO performs the adjutant's activities.
An aiguillette is worn on the right shoulder by aides-de-camp and adjutants as a symbol of their position, the colour of the aiguillette depending on the rank of the person they are serving (there are golden, tan, silver and red aiguillettes, as well as an olive-green one for combat uniform).
Belgium
In Belgium the title of honorary aide-de-camp to the king can be granted by the royal court for services rendered. Notable people include Major General Baron Édouard Empain, Count Charles John d'Oultremont, and Lieutenant General Baron Albert du Roy de Blicquy.
Commonwealth of Nations countries
In the Commonwealth, aides-de-camp are mostly appointed from military or auxiliary services. They are entitled to use the letters ADC or A de C after their names. The emblem of the office is the aiguillette worn on their uniform.
Australia
Australian Defence Force officers serve as aides-de-camp to specific senior appointments, such as the queen, governor-general, state governors, chief of the Defence Force, and other specified Army, Navy and Air Force command appointments. Honorary aides-de-camp to the governor-general or state governors are entitled to the post-nominal ADC during their appointment. Officers of and above the ranks of rear admiral, major general, and air vice marshal in specifically designated command appointments are entitled to an aide-de-camp with the army rank of captain (or equivalent). Within the navy, an aide-de-camp is called a "flag lieutenant" (as senior naval officers are "flag officers").
Bermuda
In 1973, the governor of Bermuda, Sir Richard Sharples, and his aide-de-camp, Captain Hugh Sayers, were murdered on the grounds of Government House.
Canada
Aides-de-camp in Canada are appointed to the queen and some members of the royal family, the governor general, lieutenant governors, and to certain other appointments (e.g., Minister of National Defence, flag and general officers, Canadian heads of mission, foreign heads of state visiting Canada).
In addition to the military officers appointed as full-time aides-de-camp to the governor general, several other flag/general and senior officers are appointed ex officio as honorary aides-de-camp to the governor general or members of the royal family including:
Chief of the Defence Staff
Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada
A senior officer of the Quebec-based Royal 22e Régiment
Commanding officer, the Governor General's Horse Guards
Commanding officer, Governor General's Foot Guards
Commanding officer, the Canadian Grenadier Guards
Commanding officer, the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada
Commanding officers of Naval Reserve divisions
Most aides-de-camp wear a gold-pattern aiguillette when acting in their official capacity; however, members of St. John Ambulance Canada wear silver aiguillettes consistent with their other accoutrements as aide-de-camp or as a symbol of ceremonial representation such as a member of the honour guard or a position of command on parade. All aides-de-camp also wear the cypher or badge of the principal to whom they are appointed. Honorary appointees to the queen (royal cypher) or the prince of Wales, wear the appropriate cypher on their uniform epaulette and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters ADC for the duration of their appointment.
Aides-de-camp to the governor general wear the governor general's badge (crest of the arms of Canada) and aides-de-camp to a lieutenant governor wear the lieutenant governor's badge (the shield of the province surmounted by a crown). They are appointed from officers of the Canadian Forces. Aides-de-camp to lieutenant governors are appointed from officers of the Canadian Forces, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and, depending on the province, aides may also be appointed from other uniformed organizations such as municipal or provincial police and emergency services. In certain instances, civilians may be appointed. Non-uniformed civilians do not wear the aiguillette, but do wear their lieutenant governor's badge as a symbol of their appointment. On 29 November 1973, Governor General Roland Michener concluded his initiative to permit aides-de-camp to the governor general and lieutenant governors to use the post-nominal letters A de C for the duration of their appointment.
Aides-de-camp to royal and vice-regal personages wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder. Aides-de-camp to all others wear their aiguillette on the left shoulder.
India
In India, officers of the rank of major general and equivalent and above in the sister services who are in command of divisions or of peacetime commands have aides-de-camp who usually belong to their general's parent regiment/battalion. There have been instances where the sons have served a tenure of aide-de-camp to their fathers. In India, aide-de-camp is a title of honour, and current as well as former aides-de-camp are conferred the post-nominal letters ADC.
The service chiefs (chief of the Army/Navy/Air Staff) usually have three aides-de-camp and the president of India has five aides-de-camp (three from the Army and one each from the Navy and the Air Force). There is also one honorary aide-de-camp from the Territorial Army. The president may at his or her pleasure appoint any distinguished officer from the armed forces including the service chiefs as honorary aide-de-camp. The governors of the states have two aides-de-camp, one each from the Indian Armed Forces and the Indian and state police services except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir where both the aides-de-camp to the governor are appointed from the Indian Army.
Malaysia
An aide-de-camp or adikung as it known locally in Malaysia is appointed by the federal government or the state government from officers of the Royal Malaysian Police or from the Malaysian Armed Forces officers comprising the Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Air Force or from Royal Malaysian Navy. There were also non-military or police officers who were appointed as aide-de-camp.
New Zealand
As in other Commonwealth countries where the queen is head of state, personnel from the New Zealand Defence Force serve as aides-de-camp to royal and vice-regal personages. The governor-general of New Zealand has two full-time aides-de-camp of the rank of army captain, lieutenant RNZN or RNZAF flight lieutenant. Additional and honorary aides-de-camp to the governor-general are of the rank of lieutenant colonel or equivalent. Aiguilettes are of the standard palace 1 type and worn on the right shoulder. Equivalent appointments also serve the minister of Defence, the chief of Defence Force and service chiefs. These are usually known as military assistants (MA) personal staff officers (PSOs) or, in the case of the RNZN, flag lieutenant (flags), and wear service-specific 2 aigullettes with coloured flecks (dark blue for navy, red for army and light blue for air force) on the left shoulder.
Pakistan
In Pakistan the president, prime minister and governors have their own aides-de-camp. The aide-de-camp can be from any one of the three Armed Forces and typically are of the rank of captain (army), lieutenant (navy) or flight lieutenant (air force). The aide-de-camp to Justice Khan Habibullah Khan, while he was chief minister and leader of the house of West Pakistan, was his son, a senior bureaucrat, Captain Akhtar Munir Marwat and Captain Gohar Ayub Khan was to his father, President Field Marshal Ayub Khan. The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee and all the three service chiefs are authorised to have an aide-de-camp. In Pakistan, officers of the rank of major general and equivalent and above in the sister services who are in command of divisions or of peacetime commands have aides-de-camp who usually belong to their general's parent regiment/battalion.
Papua New Guinea
As in other commonwealth realms where the queen is head of state, the governor-general of Papua New Guinea has two full-time aides-de-camp. One is from the Papua New Guinea Defence Force and one from the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary of the ranks of PNGDF captain and RPNGC superintendent.
Singapore
In Singapore, the president appoints aides-de-camp from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), the Singapore Police Force (SPF) and the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF). Selected SAF officers typically hold the rank of major or military expert 5, selected SCDF officers hold the rank of major, and selected SPF officers typically hold the rank of assistant superintendent of police. Both male and female officers may serve as aides-de-camp.
Their duties include assisting in liaison for important guests on behalf of the president and taking care of visiting foreign dignitaries.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the president has an aide-de-camp and an extra aide-de-camp from the three armed services. All general, flag and air officers are entitled to an aide-de-camp, usually selected from their parent regiment or unit. In the navy, an aide-de-camp is called a flag lieutenant. Junior officers (of the rank of major and below) of the armed services who have completed three years of service can be appointed for (extra-regimental) special appointments as an aide-de-camp or extra aide-de-camp for a maximum of three years. Following such appointment, reappointment is not possible until an laps of two years. Medical officers of the rank of lieutenant colonel and above can be appointed as honorary physician to the president or honorary surgeon to the president.
The tradition dates back to the office of governor of Ceylon. The governor's staff included an aide-de-camp as a permanent appointment drawing pay from the civil list, usually held by a retired junior officer from a British Army regiment. In addition the governor's staff included the head mudaliyar who served as the native aide-de-camp to the governor on a permanent and honorary (non-paid) basis; as well as several extra aide-de-camp appointed from regiments of the Ceylon Defense Force and later from the Ceylon Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. With the formation of the office of the Governor-General of Ceylon the practice continued with Ceylon Army officers replacing the British Army officers. At present an officer of the rank of brigadier serves as aide-de-camp to the president, while an officer of the rank of colonel or equivalent serves as aide-de-camp to the defence secretary.
In 1992, two Sri Lankan ADCs were killed in active service, and in 2006 an ADC was severely wounded:
On 8 August 1992, Major General Denzil Kobbekaduwa (Overall Operations Commander - Northern Sector) and his aide-de-camp Major Nalin S. De Alwis, were killed along with several senior army and navy officers when their Land Rover hit a land mine off Araly Point in Kayts.
On 16 November 1992, the Commander of the Sri Lanka Navy, Vice Admiral Clancy Fernando and his flag lieutenant, Lieutenant Sandun Gunasekera, were assassinated by a LTTE suicide bomber who drove an explosives laden motorbike into the admiral's staff car in front of the Galle Face Green.
In 2006 the Commander of the Sri Lanka Army, Lieutenant General Sarath Fonseka, and his aide-de-camp Major Priyal Wickramasinghe were severely wounded in a LTTE suicide bomb attack by a pregnant LTTE operative on the general's staff car inside Army Headquarters.
Tanzania
The president of Tanzania has an aide-de-camp from the Tanzania People's Defence Force, with the rank of kanali (colonel).
United Kingdom
Historic usage
An aide-de-camp (ADC) was defined in 1875 as "a confidential officer attached to the 'personal' or private staff of a general". In the field of battle, he functioned as "the bearer of his chief's written or verbal orders, and when employed as the general's mouthpiece must be implicitly obeyed". In garrison or quarters, however, his duties were more of a social character: "he superintends the general's household, writes and answers invitations, &c." Historically, the appointment pertained only to the Army (in the Navy a flag lieutenant performed equivalent duties: "communicating the admiral's orders to the various ships either personally or by signal").
According to a British military dictionary dating from 1816, an ADC usually held rank equal to, or more senior than, an army captain. "Generals, being field marshals have four [aides-de-camp], lieutenant generals two, [and] major generals one".
The sovereign, as head of the army, was entitled to appoint "an indefinite number of aides-de-camp". Under Queen Victoria, appointments were made (from both the regular Army and the Royal Marines) in recognition of distinguished war service; the appointment at that time carried with it promotion to the rank of full colonel. Additional, honorary appointments were made from among the officers of the Militia. Notwithstanding the role's army origins, Queen Victoria also appointed a number of "naval aides-de-camp" in "compliment to the sister service".
Colonial governors, governors-general and the lord lieutenant of Ireland also appointed aides-de-camp, who had a functional role akin to that of equerries in the Royal Household (in which aides-de-camp have a primarily honorific role).
A distinctive and elaborate full dress uniform used to be worn by army aides-de-camp, but its use was largely discontinued after World War I.
Present day
In the British Army and the RAF, a junior officer may be appointed to serve as aide-de-camp to a senior officer; the equivalent appointment in the Royal Navy is flag lieutenant. Certain of the monarch's representatives, including lord-lieutenants of counties, may appoint their own aides-de-camp.
The Royal Household
In addition, a fixed number of senior officers may be appointed as aides-de-camp to the queen (or king), an appointment which entitles the holder to the post-nominal letters "ADC". Most of these are serving army, navy, and air force officers, usually of colonel or brigadier rank or equivalent. They are seldom called upon individually to perform specific duties; collectively, they walked in procession at every coronation and state funeral of a monarch in the 20th century. In 1991 the aides-de-camp to the queen numbered sixty:
Eight from the Royal Navy (captains and commodores)
Three from the Royal Naval Reserve
One from the Royal Marines (a colonel)
One from the Royal Marines Reserve
Eighteen from the Army (brigadiers)
Sixteen from the Territorial Army (colonels)
Twelve from the Royal Air Force (air commodore or group captain)
One from the Royal Auxiliary Air Force or Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve
There are also, in addition, specific aide-de-camp appointments held by certain very senior officers, including:
The first and principal naval aide-de-camp
The flag aide-de-camp
The aide-de-camp general
The air aide-de-camp
These are collectively known as the principal aides-de-camp: the first two are individual naval appointments; then, in the present reign, there have usually been up to three aides-de-camp general ("ADC(Gen)") appointed from the senior ranks of the British Army (one of whom is usually the chief of the General Staff); and up to two air aides-de-camp, from among the senior ranks of the RAF (one of whom is usually the chief of the Air Staff). Principal aides-de-camp, representing the three services, take part along with other members of the Royal Household in the State Processions at State Openings of Parliament, at coronations and at state funerals; and they are occasionally called upon individually to represent the queen at memorial services and on other occasions.
Uniform accoutrements
Aides-de-camp, along with equerries, military assistants, military attachés and certain other officers, are distinguished by the addition of aiguillettes to their dress uniforms; these differ in size, colour and position of wear, depending on the appointment. In addition, aides-de-camp to the sovereign wear the monarch's royal cypher on their shoulder straps or shoulder boards in various orders of dress.
In the cases of personal aide-de-camp to the queen and the principal aides-de-camp, the officers concerned continue to wear the royal cypher after relinquishing the appointment; and if he or she has held the appointment under more than one sovereign then the cypher of each is worn. Otherwise, an officer would cease to wear the accoutrements after his or her appointment as aide-de-camp is relinquished (with the exception that former aides-de-camp to the sovereign appointed before 1988 may also continue to wear the royal cypher).
France
The president, as commander-in-chief of the French armed forces, is served by aides-de-camp. In general, there are three, including one who traditionally serves in the French Army, and all of whom are at the rank of lieutenant colonel. In essence, their mission is to transport the briefcase permitting the use of nuclear weapons. They can also provide general assistance to the president: For instance, at times aides-de-camp are seen placing the president's speech on his lectern when he arrives, or holding up notes during award ceremonies to remind him of the official words to be pronounced when handing over medals.
When the president travels, an aide-de-camp often rides in the front passenger seat of the presidential car. He is one of the people who are physically closest to the president.
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Police Force, the Fire Services Department, the Customs and Excise Department, the Immigration Department, the Government Flying Service, the Civil Aid Service, the Hong Kong Auxiliary Police Force, the Auxiliary Medical Service, the St. John Ambulance Brigade, and the Correctional Services Department each sends an aide-de-camp to the territory's chief executive, which replaced the governor in 1997.
On the last day of British rule in Hong Kong on 30 June 1997, the police aide-de-camp to Governor Chris Patten, presented Patten with the flag at Government House. He then gave the Vice Regal Salute before proceeding, with the Pattens, to leave Government House for the last time.
Imperial Russia
In the 18th-century, under Catherine the Great of Russia, favourites of the Empress were frequently appointed as her aides-de-camp.
During World War I, distinguished officers were appointed as Emperor's aide-de-camp on a rotating basis. In November 1916, future Civil War White Army general Pyotr Wrangel (who was a regiment commander at the time) spent a few days as an aide-de-camp for Nicholas II of Russia.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, an aide-de-camp (Ajudan Presiden or "President's Adjutant") to the president and vice president of Indonesia is provided by officers from the Indonesian National Armed Forces, with the rank of colonel, and/or the Indonesian National Police, with the rank of Police Grand Commissioner. They are tasked with providing staff support and daily administrative services to the president and vice president as well as to their spouses, either in their official capacities or for personal affairs. They are recognized by their golden aiguillettes.
Other VIPs in Indonesia, such as ministers and other important government officials, are also provided ADCs who are usually junior-ranking officers, such as lieutenants in the military, or police inspectors from the police, who are generally newly graduated from the military and/or police academies. ADCs for regional officials, such as governors and Mayors/Regents, are provided ADCs from new graduates of the Institute of Domestic Governance (IPDN).
Ireland
The president of Ireland, as supreme commander of the Irish Defence Forces, is served by aides-de-camp who assist with day-to-day presidential duties, accompany the president on official public engagements in Ireland and on state visits abroad, and represent the president at funerals and on state occasions. There is an ADC on duty 24/7 at Áras an Uachtaráin.
Japan
From 1896 until the end of World War II, the emperors of Japan had army and naval aides-de-camp.
Portugal
The president, as commander-in-chief of the Portuguese armed forces, is served by three aides-de-camp, one from the Portuguese Army, one from the Portuguese Navy and one from the Portuguese Air Force. These aides-de-camp integrate the Presidential Military Household.
Portuguese aides-de-camp never stay for more than one presidential term, i.e. five years, after which the return to their respective branches.
In the absence of any regulations on the exact functions pertaining aides-de-camp in Portugal, those who President Jorge Sampaio in the performance of his official duties, prepared a document with the "description of the position of aides-de-camp to the President of the Republic", which has become a reference to those beginning their functions and also as a reference for the Presidencies of the Republic in countries with friendly diplomatic relations with Portugal.
Portuguese aides-de-camp will perform the following duties when serving the Portuguese President:
Accompany the President on his journeys, ceremonies and other acts
Receiving the entities that have audiences with the President
Collaborate in ceremonies awarding decorations to national and foreign bodies and institutions;
Accompany the President of the Republic in all military ceremonies
Collaborate, whenever necessary, in the preparation of the President of the Republic's journeys both within Portugal and abroad
Perform the functions of aide-de-camp with the foreign Heads of State on state visits to the national territory;
Accompany the reception of new ambassadors, resident and non-resident, in the ceremony of presentation of credentials
Accompany the First Lady on official occasions
Collaborate, whenever necessary, with the Military Advisory in works, studies or opinions
Perform other tasks expressly determined by the President of the Republic.
Thailand
The Royal Thai Aide-De-Camp Department is a royal service agency under the Royal Security Command. It is responsible for organizing royal appearances and maintaining the safety of the Thai royal family. Royal Thai aides-de-camp are also appointed to senior officers of the Thai Army, Navy, and Air Force. King Chulalongkorn initiated the Royal Guard in 1870, during his visit to Singapore and Indonesia. He had Lieutenant General Prince Suksvasti serve as his aide, and Prince Suksvasti is considered the first Thai aide-de-camp.
United States
Military officers are assigned as aides to the secretary of the Army, secretary of Defense, vice president, and president of the United States. For government officials with more than one aide, the senior-ranking aide usually coordinates the activities of the other aides as well as personal attendants such as drivers or orderlies.
The president has six military aides, one from each of the armed services. The president's aides from the Army, Marine Corps, Air Force and Space Force are majors or lieutenant colonels, and the aides from the Navy and Coast Guard are lieutenant commanders or commanders. One of their major roles is to hold the presidential nuclear football. In addition to the six permanent aides-de-camp, there are some 40–45 military social aides holding more junior ranks from lieutenant to major. Their appointment is temporary and part-time, serving for perhaps two to four afternoons a month as required, for social purposes such as gatherings hosted at the White House.
Within the United States Army, aides-de-camp are specifically appointed to general-grade officers (NATO Code OF-6 through OF-10). The usual tour of duty for aides is up to two years. Although Congress has authorized general officers to be assigned up to three officer aides, their number and rank being contingent upon the general's grade, Army regulations have traditionally limited each general to a single officer aide. Some generals are also authorized to have enlisted aides on their staff. A general, based on his or her grade, may choose for an aide-de-camp any commissioned officer up to the following maximum rank:
Brigadier general: first lieutenant
Major general: captain
Lieutenant general: major
General: lieutenant colonel
Chief of staff, U.S. Army: lieutenant colonel, and four authorized enlisted aides
General of the army: lieutenant colonel, and three authorized enlisted aides
Lieutenant colonels and colonels in command of units (battalions and brigades, respectively) do not have aides. Occasionally, the unit's adjutant (S1) will assist the commanding officer as an aide, but this is uncommon. A general of the army does not retire and remains an officer of the United States Army for life, and is entitled to an aide.
U.S. Army aides-de-camp wear a special device in place of the branch-of-service insignia (e.g., infantry, artillery, quartermaster) that they would otherwise wear on the lapels of their service uniform. The rank of the general officer being served is indicated on the device worn by the aide-de-camp, as illustrated below. Although the chief of staff of the Army and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are O-10 positions, their aides-de-camp wear devices specific to those offices, rather than the normal four-star aide device. Also, an aide-de-camp wears a special aiguillette on the shoulder of his or her dress uniform.
In the United States Navy, the aide-de-camp to an admiral is also known as a "flag aide" (command ashore) or "flag lieutenant" (command afloat).
The highest honor of the U.S. state of Tennessee is "Colonel Aide de Camp". These colonels serve as the personal aides-de-camp to the governor of Tennessee, and their appointments are recorded by the Secretary of State of Tennessee with those who have been commissioned into the State Guard and Tennessee National Guard.
Variations
Air aide-de-camp
First and principal naval aide-de-camp
Flag aide-de-camp
Naval aide-de-camp
Aide-de-camp general
Galloper (obsolete)
Aide-de-camp to the emperor of Japan
Aide-de-camp extraordinary
Executive aide-de-camp
General's enlisted aide
See also
Batman, a similar role for lesser officers
Bernard Schriever, a former aide-de-camp and pilot who was a founder of the US Space Force
Body man, for modern politicians
Notes
Further reading
Australian Army Protocol Manual 1999. Defence Publishing Service DPS: 31568/99.
External links
Combat occupations
Government occupations
Military command staff occupations | [
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]
|
239482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lescarbot%20Award | Lescarbot Award | The Lescarbot Award is awarded by the federal government of Canada to people who have contributed the most to their arts community.
The first recipient of the award was Father Fernand Lindsay, founder of the international de Lanaudière.
Recipients of this award include:
Judith Budovitch, Fredericton, 1991
John Cutruzzola, Brampton
Garry Davies, Peace, 1991
Lorenzo Bellisconi, 1991
Joan E. Harriss, Cape Breton
Karl Illini, Bobcaygeon,
Trudi Le Caine, Ottawa
Helen Andersen, Saanichton, B.C. 1992
[Sharon and Clary Croft, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1992]
Reid Parker, Saint John, 1992
Fernand Lindsay, Trois-Pistoles, Quebec, 1992
Dasharathal H. Shah, North York/Richmond Hill, 1992
Mike Matovich, Airdrie, 1992
E. Noël Spinelli, Montreal, 1993
Joseph M. Tanenbaum, Toronto, 1993 recipient
Charles William John Eliot, Charlottetown, 1993
References
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|
239483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Muskies | Minnesota Muskies | The Minnesota Muskies were a member of the American Basketball Association, born with the league's creation on February 2, 1967. L.P. Shields and Fred Jefferson were the owners after paying a franchise fee of $30,000. The team then played one season in Minnesota before moving to Miami, Florida to become The Floridians. The team colors were blue and gold and games were played in the Met Center in Bloomington, Minnesota, which they shared with the Minnesota North Stars.
History
The ABA first located its league office in Minneapolis and the future looked bright for the Muskies (named after the Muskellunge; also known as the muskie, one of the regions the fish is found in Minnesota), who shared the same offices as the league. Their first draft pick was talented center Mel Daniels, who would go on to become one of the ABA's most celebrated players. Daniels was also a first round draft pick of the NBA's Cincinnati Royals, but he decided to cast his lot with the upstart league. The selection of Daniels paid off for the team as he led the league in field goal attempts, field goals made, offensive and defensive rebounds and was named the league's Rookie of the Year. Daniels, Donnie Freeman and Les Hunter all represented the Muskies in the first ABA All Star Game and shooting guard Ron Perry finished fifth in the league in three-point field goals made and attempted and fourth in three-point field goal percentage. The head coach was Jim Pollard, a former teammate of ABA Commissioner George Mikan from their days with the NBA's Minneapolis Lakers. The Muskies would win 50 games in their lone season.
Early in the league's first season the Muskies and the Indiana Pacers dueled for first place in the Eastern Division. Although the Muskies pulled away from the Pacers, the Pittsburgh Pipers rallied to eventually win the Eastern Division title by four games. The Muskies would finish the season with a record of 50 wins and 28 losses.
In the Eastern Division playoff semifinals, the Muskies split the first four of five games with the Kentucky Colonels and then won the decisive Game Five, 114–108, at home. The Muskies then met the Pipers for the Eastern Division Championship and lost 4 games to 1 to the eventual champion.
1967–68 ABA Eastern Division
For their success on the court, the Muskies were a complete bust off the court. They lost an estimated $400,000 in their first and only season. They only averaged 2,800 people per game, but it might have been far less, given that they only sold 100 season tickets. The Muskies' management sought to make changes for the upcoming 1968–69 season with the team planning to play nine of their home games at other locations in Minnesota and signed a favorable television contract. In spite of this, the owners decided to relocate the franchise to Miami on May 24, 1968, for the 1968–69 ABA season. Prior to the start of that season, the team was forced to sell Daniels to the Indiana Pacers for cash to pay off accumulated debts.
However, Minnesota was not left without an ABA team as league champion Pipers ironically relocated to Minneapolis to play as the Minnesota Pipers for the 1968–69 ABA season. The franchise would move back to Pittsburgh after one season in Minnesota.
The Minnesota Timberwolves wore Muskies uniforms for 6 games during the 2011–12 NBA season as part of the NBA's "Hardwood Classics".
Basketball Hall of Famers
Notes:
1 Inducted as a player.
References
External links
Remember The ABA
American Basketball Association teams
Defunct basketball teams in the United States
Sports in Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Basketball teams in Minnesota
Basketball teams established in 1967
Basketball teams disestablished in 1968
1967 establishments in Minnesota
1968 disestablishments in Minnesota | [
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|
239484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trudi%20Le%20Caine | Trudi Le Caine | Trudi Le Caine, CM (née Gertrude Janowski) (1911 – September 5, 1999) was an arts patron involved with local and national arts initiatives in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Born in Passau, Kingdom of Bohemia, she spent her youth in Teplitz-Schönau/Teplice-Šanov, Czechoslovakia before joining her stepfather, Arnold Walter, in Berlin, where he was a music editor and critic for the leftist journals Die Weltbühne and Vorwärts. After fleeing Germany following the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, she lived first in Spain (which she had to leave after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936) and France (where she studied at the Sorbonne) before emigrating to Canada to join her parents. She settled in Ottawa in 1942, where her involvement with Le Groupe de la Place Royale, Opera Lyra Ottawa and the Council for the Arts in Ottawa led to recognition and awards such as the Order of Canada, the Lescarbot Award and the Victor Tolgesy Arts Award.
Though she had no children of her own, she made children's music education one of her causes, helping establish the Ottawa Children's Concerts in 1946 and later becoming a proponent of the Orff Approach (Orff Schulwerk, also called Music for Children) in music education in the Ottawa area. She also convinced the National Capital Commission to open the Rideau Canal during the winter for skating, which has now become famous as the world's longest skating rink.
In her honour, the Community Foundation of Ottawa-Carleton maintains the Trudi LeCaine Fund.
She was close to 50 when she married Hugh Le Caine, Canadian physicist and pioneer electronic musician.
References
Trudi's Order of Canada citation
Trudi LeCaine also taught French at Broadview Public School in Ottawa.
External links
The Victor Tolgesy Arts Award
Carl Orff Canada Music for Children
Hugh and Trudi Le Caine fonds at Queen’s University Archives
Trudi Le Caine fonds at the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
1911 births
1999 deaths
German emigrants to Canada
Expatriates in France
University of Paris alumni
Members of the Order of Canada
Czechoslovak emigrants to Germany | [
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|
239489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Germany | List of political parties in Germany | This is a list of political parties in Germany.
The Federal Republic of Germany has a plural multi-party system. The largest by members and parliament seats are the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), with its sister party, the Christian Social Union (CSU) and Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).
Germany also has a number of other parties, in recent history most importantly the Free Democratic Party (FDP), Alliance 90/The Greens, The Left, and more recently the Alternative for Germany (AfD), founded in 2013. The federal government of Germany often consisted of a coalition of a major and a minor party, specifically CDU/CSU and FDP or SPD and FDP, and from 1998 to 2005 SPD and Greens. From 1966 to 1969, from 2005 to 2009 and from 2013 to 2021, the federal government consisted of a coalition of the two major parties, called Grand Coalition.
Coalitions in the Bundestag and state legislatures are often described by party colors. Party colors are red for the Social Democratic Party, green for Alliance 90/The Greens, yellow for the Free Democratic Party, purple (officially red, which is customarily used for the SPD) for the Left, light blue for the AfD, and black and blue for the CDU and CSU respectively.
Current parties
Parties represented in the Bundestag and/or the European Parliament
Other parties represented in state parliaments
Minor parties
Historical parties
Parties existing up to World War I
Parties in Weimar Republic
Bavarian People's Party (BVP)
Centre Party (Zentrum)
Christian Social People's Service (CSVD)
Communist Party of Germany (KPD)
Communist Party of Germany (Opposition) (KPO)
Conservative People's Party (KVP)
German Democratic Party (DDP)
German National People's Party (DNVP)
German People's Party (DVP)
German Racialist Freedom Party (DVFP)
German State Party (DStP)
German Workers' Party (DAP)
Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD)
National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP)
Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD)
Defunct parties in (former) West Germany
Alliance of Germans (BdD)
German Party (DP)
German Conservative Party - German Right Party (DKP-DRP)
German Reich Party (DRP)
All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights (GB/BHE)
All-German People's Party (GVP)
Communist Party of Germany (Roter Morgen)
German Peace Union (DFU)
Parties banned by the Constitutional Court
Socialist Reich Party (SRP), banned in 1952
Communist Party of Germany (KPD), banned in 1956
Parties in (former) East Germany
Bloc parties in the socialist state (1949–1989)
Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), "Leading Role" per 1968 Constitution
Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDUD)
Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDPD)
Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany (DBD)
National Democratic Party of Germany (NDPD)
During transition (1989–90)
Alliance 90
Democracy Now
Initiative for Peace and Human Rights (IFM)
New Forum
Alliance for Germany
Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
Democratic Awakening (DA)
German Social Union (DSU)
Association of Free Democrats (BFD)
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP)
Free Democratic Party (FDP)
German Forum Party (DFP)
Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany (DBD)
Green Party (Greens)
National Democratic Party of Germany (NDPD)
Social Democratic Party in the GDR (SDP)
Socialist Unity Party of Germany—Party of Democratic Socialism (SED-PDS)
United Left (VL)
Parties founded from 1989
The Grays – Gray Panthers (GRAUE)
Party for a Rule of Law Offensive (Offensive D)
Statt Party
The Freedom - Civil rights Party for more Freedom and Democracy
Citizens for Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Pro Germany Citizens' Movement
New Liberals
See also
Lists of political parties; categories by country and ideology.''
History of Germany since 1945
Liberalism in Germany
References
External links
Political Parties (Germany) - List of German political parties since 1949
Overview of the elections since 1946 (Übersicht der Wahlen seit 1946) (on the website of the Tagesschau news service) - Election results in Germany since 1946 on state, federal and European levels (German descriptions, but graphics and data can be accessed without these).
Germany
Political parties
Germany
Political parties | [
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|
239496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Weber%20%28Swiss%20politician%29 | Max Weber (Swiss politician) | Max Weber (2 August 1897 in Zürich – 2 December 1974 in Bern) was a Swiss politician.
A member of the Social Democratic Party, Weber was seven times elected to the National Council, the lower house of the Swiss parliament (the Federal Assembly), serving continuously from 4 December 1939 to 31 December 1951 and then again from 5 December 1955 to 28 November 1971.
On 13 December 1951 he was elected to the Swiss Federal Council (the seven-member executive that constitutes Switzerland's federal government) where he headed the Federal Department of Finance from 1 January 1952 until 31 December 1953. Weber took the decision to resign from his seat on the Council with effect from 31 January 1954 after a referendum held on 6 December 1953 had rejected his federal budget proposals.
References
External links
1897 births
1974 deaths
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
People from Zürich
Social Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Swiss conscientious objectors | [
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|
239497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge%20base | Knowledge base | A knowledge base (KB) is a technology used to store complex structured and unstructured information used by a computer system. The initial use of the term was in connection with expert systems, which were the first knowledge-based systems.
Original usage of the term
The original use of the term knowledge base was to describe one of the two sub-systems of an expert system. A knowledge-based system consists of a knowledge-base representing facts about the world and ways of reasoning about those facts to deduce new facts or highlight inconsistencies.
Properties
The term "knowledge-base" was coined to distinguish this form of knowledge store from the more common and widely used term database. During the 1970s, virtually all large management information systems stored their data in some type of hierarchical or relational database. At this point in the history of information technology, the distinction between a database and a knowledge-base was clear and unambiguous.
A database had the following properties:
Flat data: Data was usually represented in a tabular format with strings or numbers in each field.
Multiple users: A conventional database needed to support more than one user or system logged into the same data at the same time.
Transactions: An essential requirement for a database was to maintain integrity and consistency among data accessed by concurrent users. These are the so-called ACID properties: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.
Large, long-lived data: A corporate database needed to support not just thousands but hundreds of thousands or more rows of data. Such a database usually needed to persist past the specific uses of any individual program; it needed to store data for years and decades rather than for the life of a program.
The first knowledge-based systems had data needs that were the opposite of these database requirements. An expert system requires structured data. Not just tables with numbers and strings, but pointers to other objects that in turn have additional pointers. The ideal representation for a knowledge base is an object model (often called an ontology in artificial intelligence literature) with classes, subclasses and instances.
Early expert systems also had little need for multiple users or the complexity that comes with requiring transactional properties on data. The data for the early expert systems was used to arrive at a specific answer, such as a medical diagnosis, the design of a molecule, or a response to an emergency. Once the solution to the problem was known, there was not a critical demand to store large amounts of data back to a permanent memory store. A more precise statement would be that given the technologies available, researchers compromised and did without these capabilities because they realized they were beyond what could be expected, and they could develop useful solutions to non-trivial problems without them. Even from the beginning, the more astute researchers realized the potential benefits of being able to store, analyze, and reuse knowledge. For example, see the discussion of Corporate Memory in the earliest work of the Knowledge-Based Software Assistant program by Cordell Green et al.
The volume requirements were also different for a knowledge-base compared to a conventional database. The knowledge-base needed to know facts about the world. For example, to represent the statement that "All humans are mortal". A database typically could not represent this general knowledge but instead would need to store information about thousands of tables that represented information about specific humans. Representing that all humans are mortal and being able to reason about any given human that they are mortal is the work of a knowledge-base. Representing that George, Mary, Sam, Jenna, Mike,... and hundreds of thousands of other customers are all humans with specific ages, sex, address, etc. is the work for a database.
As expert systems moved from being prototypes to systems deployed in corporate environments the requirements for their data storage rapidly started to overlap with the standard database requirements for multiple, distributed users with support for transactions. Initially, the demand could be seen in two different but competitive markets. From the AI and Object-Oriented communities, object-oriented databases such as Versant emerged. These were systems designed from the ground up to have support for object-oriented capabilities but also to support standard database services as well. On the other hand, the large database vendors such as Oracle added capabilities to their products that provided support for knowledge-base requirements such as class-subclass relations and rules.
Internet as a knowledge base
The next evolution for the term knowledge-base was the Internet. With the rise of the Internet, documents, hypertext, and multimedia support were now critical for any corporate database. It was no longer enough to support large tables of data or relatively small objects that lived primarily in computer memory. Support for corporate web sites required persistence and transactions for documents. This created a whole new discipline known as Web Content Management.
The other driver for document support was the rise of knowledge management vendors such as Lotus Notes. Knowledge Management actually predated the Internet but with the Internet there was great synergy between the two areas. Knowledge management products adopted the term "knowledge-base" to describe their repositories but the meaning had a big difference. In the case of previous knowledge-based systems, the knowledge was primarily for the use of an automated system, to reason about and draw conclusions about the world. With knowledge management products, the knowledge was primarily meant for humans, for example to serve as a repository of manuals, procedures, policies, best practices, reusable designs and code, etc. In both cases the distinctions between the uses and kinds of systems were ill-defined. As the technology scaled up it was rare to find a system that could really be cleanly classified as knowledge-based in the sense of an expert system that performed automated reasoning and knowledge-based in the sense of knowledge management that provided knowledge in the form of documents and media that could be leveraged by humans.
See also
Content management
Database
Enterprise bookmarking
Information repository
Knowledge-based system
Knowledge graph
Knowledge management
Microsoft Knowledge Base
Diffbot
Semantic network
Text mining
Wikidata
YAGO
References
External links
Technical communication | [
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|
239499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Meyer%20%28politician%29 | Albert Meyer (politician) | Albert Meyer (March 13, 1870 – October 22,1953) was a Swiss politician, editor of Neue Zürcher Zeitung (1915-1930) and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1929–1938).
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 12 December 1929 and handed over office on 31 December 1938. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his time in office he held the Department of Home Affairs from 1930 to 1934 and the Department of Finance from 1934 to 1938, and was President of the Confederation in 1936.
References
External links
1870 births
1953 deaths
People from Uster District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers
University of Zurich alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Leipzig University alumni
19th-century Swiss military personnel | [
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239500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Wars | Italian Wars | The Italian Wars, also known as the Habsburg–Valois Wars, refers to a series of conflicts covering the period 1494 to 1559 that took place in the Italian peninsula. The primary belligerents were the Valois kings of France and their Habsburg opponents in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, supported at different times by Milan, Venice and other Italian city-states. They ended with the 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, which established the Habsburgs as the leading power in Italy.
The 1454 Italic League achieved a balance of power in Italy and resulted in a period of rapid economic growth which ended with the death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492. Combined with the ambition of Ludovico Sforza, its collapse allowed Charles VIII of France to invade Naples in 1494, which drew in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Despite being forced to withdraw in 1495, Charles showed the Italian states were both wealthy and vulnerable due to their political divisions. Italy became a battleground in the struggle for European domination between France and the Habsburgs, with the conflict expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. Other external powers were involved for short periods, notably England and the Ottoman Empire.
Fought with considerable brutality, the wars took place against the background of religious turmoil caused by the Reformation, particularly in France and the Holy Roman Empire. They are seen as a turning point in the evolution from medieval to modern warfare, with the use of the Arquebus or handgun becoming common, along with significant technological improvements in siege artillery. Literate commanders and modern printing methods also make them one of the first conflicts with a significant number of contemporary accounts, including Francesco Guicciardini, Niccolò Machiavelli and Blaise de Montluc.
After 1503, most of the fighting was initiated by French invasions of Lombardy and Piedmont, but although able to hold territory for periods of time, they could not do so permanently. By 1557, both France and the Empire were confronted by internal divisions over religion, while Spain faced a potential revolt in the Spanish Netherlands. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis largely expelled France from northern Italy and established Spain as the dominant power in the south, controlling Naples and Sicily, as well as Milan in the north.
Background
Following the Wars in Lombardy between Venice and Milan, which ended in 1454, Northern Italy had been largely at peace during the reigns of Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence, with the notable exception of the crisis of 1479-1481 (solved by Lorenzo and followed by the recapture of Otranto from the Ottomans) and the War of Ferrara in 1482–1484.
Charles VIII of France improved relations with other European rulers in the run-up to the First Italian War by negotiating a series of treaties: in 1493, France negotiated the Treaty of Senlis with the Holy Roman Empire; on 19 January 1493, it signed the Treaty of Barcelona with the Crown of Aragon and, later in 1493, the Treaty of Étaples with England.
With the death of Duke Charles IV of Anjou, Louis XI had integrated the County of Provence into the Royal demesne, which gave him control of the ports of Marseilles and Toulon, hence creating an opening to pursue a stake in the Mediterranean. With the same inheritance he acquired the Angevin claim to the Kingdom of Naples. These combination of factors pushed France to intervene in Italy.
Italian War of 1494–1498
The war began when Ludovico Sforza, then Regent of Milan, encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext. This in turn was driven by the intense rivalry between Ludovico's wife, Beatrice d'Este, and that of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza, son of Isabella of Aragon. Despite being the hereditary Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo had been sidelined by his uncle in 1481 and exiled to Pavia. Both women wanted to ensure their children inherited the Duchy and when Isabella's father became Alfonso II of Naples in January 1494, she asked for his help in securing their rights. In September Charles invaded the peninsula, which he justified by claiming he wanted to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks.
In October, Ludovico formally became Duke of Milan following the death of Gian Galeazzo, who was popularly supposed to have been poisoned by his uncle, and the French marched through Italy virtually unopposed, entering Pisa on 8 November, Florence on 17th, and Rome on 31 December. Charles was backed by Girolamo Savonarola, who used the opportunity to established a short-lived theocracy in Florence, while Pope Alexander VI allowed his army free passage through the Papal States.
In February 1495, the French reached Monte San Giovanni Campano in the Kingdom of Naples and despatched envoys to negotiate terms with its Neapolitan garrison, who murdered them and sent their mutilated bodies back to the French lines. On 9 February, the enraged besiegers breached the walls of the castle with artillery fire, then stormed it, killing everyone inside. Known as the "Sack of Naples", widespread outrage within Italy allied with concern over the power of France led to the formation of the League of Venice on March 31, 1495, an anti-French alliance composed of Republic of Venice, Milan, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.
Later joined by Florence, following the overthrow of Savonarola, the Papal States and Mantua, this coalition cut off Charles and his army from their bases in France. Charles' cousin, Louis d'Orleans, now tried to take advantage of Ludovico's change of sides to conquer Milan, which he claimed through his grandmother, Valentina Visconti. On 11 June, he captured Novara when the garrison defected, and reached Vigevano, forty kilometres from Milan. At this crucial point, Ludovico was incapacitated either by a stroke or nervous breakdown, while his unpaid soldiers were on the verge of mutiny. In his absence, his wife Beatrice d'Este took personal control of the Duchy and the siege of Novara, with Louis eventually forced to surrender in return for his freedom.
Having replaced Ferdinand II of Naples with a pro-French government, Charles turned north and on 6 July was intercepted by the League outside Fornovo di Taro. In the resulting Battle of Fornovo, the French forced their opponents back across the Taro river and continued onto Asti, leaving most of their supplies behind. Both sides claimed victory but the general consensus favoured the French, since the League suffered heavier casualties and failed to halt their retreat, the reason for fighting in the first place. In the south, despite some initial reverses, by September 1495 Ferdinand II had regained control of his kingdom. Although the French invasion achieved little, it showed the Italian states were rich and comparatively weak, making future intervention attractive to outside powers. Charles himself died on 7 April 1498, and was succeeded by the former Duke of Orleans, who became Louis XII.
Italian Wars of 1499–1504
The next phase originated in the long-running contest between Florence and the Republic of Pisa, which was annexed by Florence in 1406, then took advantage of the French invasion to regain its independence in 1494. After 1495, Pisa received support from Genoa, Venice and Milan, all of whom were suspicious of the power of Florence. As with Charles in 1494, Ludovico now invited an external power, in this case Emperor Maximilian I, to "settle" an internal Italian affair. Maximilian agreed because he feared divisions caused by the conflict would weaken the League of Venice and provide France further opportunities to intervene in Italy, while Ludovico wanted to strengthen his own position. The Florentines were convinced any settlement would favour Pisa and so refused to accept mediation until they had recaptured the city. Maximilian landed in Italy in July 1496 and besieged the Florentine city of Livorno, but short of money and men withdrew in September.
After Charles' death in April 1498, Louis XII planned another attempt on Milan, while also pursuing his predecessor's claim to the Kingdom of Naples. Aware of the hostility caused by French ambitions in Italy, in July 1498 he renewed the 1492 Peace of Étaples with England and signed a treaty confirming French borders with Burgundy. This was followed in August by the Treaty of Marcoussis with Ferdinand II of Aragon; although it left outstanding territorial disputes between Spain and France unresolved, it agreed the two countries "have all enemies in common except the Pope." In February 1499, Louis signed the Treaty of Blois, an alliance with Venice against Ludovico.
With these agreements in place, a French army of 27,000 under the Milanese exile Gian Giacomo Trivulzio invaded Lombardy, and in August besieged Rocca d'Arazzo, a fortified town in the western part of the Duchy of Milan. Once the French artillery batteries were in place, it took only five hours to open a breach in the walls and after conquering the town, Louis ordered the execution of the garrison and part of the civilian population. His objective was to instill fear in his enemies, crush their morale and encourage the surrender of other strongholds in western Milan. In the short term, the strategy was successful and the campaign ended swiftly; Ludovico, whose wife Beatrice had died in 1497, fled with his children and took refuge with Maximilian. On 5 September 1499, Louis negotiated terms for the surrender of Milan and on 6 October 6 made his triumphant entry into the city.
Once installed in Milan, Louis came under pressure from Florence to help them reconquer Pisa, a request he considered arrogant since they had refused to assist him in the capture of Milan. He was also initially occupied in defeating efforts to regain his duchy by Ludovico, who was captured at Novaro in April 1500 and spent the rest of his life in a French prison. However, Louis was aware of the need to maintain good relations with Florence, whose territory he would have to cross in order to conquer Naples, and on 29 June 1500, a combined Franco-Florentine army appeared outside Pisa. Within a day, French artillery made a large breach in the walls but several assaults were repulsed and on 11 July the siege was abandoned.
With Milan now firmly under French control, Louis returned to France and left the Florentines to blockade Pisa, which eventually surrendered in 1509. Anxious to begin the conquest of Naples, on 11 November he signed the Treaty of Granada with Ferdinand II of Aragon, an agreement to divide the kingdom between the two. Since Ferdinand had supported the expulsion of the French from Naples in 1495, Louis hoped these concessions would allow him to acquire the bulk of the kingdom without an expensive war. His action was criticised by contemporaries like Niccolò Machiavelli and modern historians, who argue the 1499 Treaty of Marcoussis already gave Louis everything he needed, while inviting Spain into Naples could only work to his detriment.
In July 1501, the French army reached Capua; strongly defended by forces loyal to Frederick of Naples, it surrendered on 24 July after a short siege but was then sacked. In addition to the extensive material destruction, many women were subjected to mass rapes and estimates of the dead ranged from 2,000 to 4,000, actions that caused consternation throughout Italy. Resistance crumbled as other towns tried to avoid the same fate and on 12 October Louis appointed the Duke of Nemours his viceroy in Naples. The ownership of certain territories had been left undecided by the Treaty of Grenada and disputes over their allocation poisoned relationships between the two powers. These disagreements led to war in late 1502 and the French were expelled from Naples once again after defeats at Cerignola on 28 April 1503, and Garigliano on 29 December.
War of the League of Cambrai
On 18 October 1503, Pius III was replaced by Pope Julius II, who as ruler of the Papal States was concerned by Venetian power in northern Italy. This fear was shared by his home town of Genoa, which also resented its expulsion from the Po Valley, and Maximilian, whose acquisition of Gorizia in 1500 was threatened by Venetian possession of neighbouring Friuli. Milan, controlled by Louis XII, was a long-standing opponent of Venice, while Ferdinand II, now king of Naples, wished to regain control of Venetian ports on the southern Adriatic coast. Along with the Duchy of Ferrara, Julius united these disparate interests into the anti-Venetian League of Cambrai, signed on 10 December 1508.
Although the French largely destroyed a Venetian army at Agnadello on 14 May 1509, Maximilian failed to capture Padua and withdrew from Italy. Now seeing the power of Louis XII as the greater threat, in February 1510 Pope Julius made peace with Venice, followed in March by an agreement with the Swiss Cantons to supply him with 6,000 mercenaries. After a year of fighting in which Louis XII occupied large parts of the Papal States, in October 1511 Julius formed the anti-French Holy League, which included Henry VIII of England, Maximilian and Spain.
A French army defeated the Spanish at Ravenna on 11 April 1512, but their leader Gaston de Foix was killed, while the Swiss recaptured Milan and restored Ludovico's son Massimiliano Sforza as duke. The members of the League then fell out over dividing the spoils and the death of Pope Julius on 20 February 1513 left it without effective leadership. In March, Venice and France formed an alliance, but from June to September 1513 the League won victories at Novara and La Motta in Lombardy, Guinegate in Flanders and Flodden in England. Despite this, fighting continued in Italy, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage.
On 1 January 1515, Louis XII died and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Francis I, who took up his predecessor's cause and routed the Swiss at Marignano on 13-14 September 1515. Combined with the unpopularity of Massiliano Sforza, victory allowed Francis to retake Milan and the Holy League collapsed as both Spain and Pope Leo X saw little benefit in fighting on. In the treaty of Noyon, signed on 13 August 1516, Charles I of Spain acknowledged Francis as Duke of Milan, while Francis "passed" his claim to Naples onto Charles. Left isolated, in December Maximilian signed the Treaty of Brussels, which confirmed French possession of Milan.
Italian War of 1521–1526
Following the death of Maximilian in January 1519, the German Princes elected Charles I of Spain as Emperor Charles V on 28 June. This brought Spain, the Low Countries and the Holy Roman Empire under one ruler, and meant France was surrounded by the so-called "Habsburg ring". Francis I had also been a candidate for the Imperial throne, adding a personal dimension to his rivalry with Charles that became one of the fundamental conflicts of the sixteenth century.
Planning an offensive against Habsburg possessions in Navarre and Flanders, Francis first secured his position in Italy by agreeing a new alliance with Venice. As Leo X had backed his candidacy for Emperor, he also counted on Papal support but Leo sided with Charles in return for his help against Martin Luther and his proposed reforms to the Catholic church. In November 1521, an Imperial-Papal army under Prospero Colonna and the Marquis of Pescara captured Milan and restored Francesco Sforza as duke. After Leo died in December, Adrian VI was elected Pope on 9 January 1522, while a French attempt to retake Milan was ended by defeat at Bicocca on 27 April.
In May 1522, England joined the Imperial alliance and declared war on France. Venice left the war in July 1523, while Adrian died in November and was succeeded by Clement VII, who tried to negotiate an end to the fighting without success. Although France had lost ground in Lombardy and been invaded by English, Imperial and Spanish armies, her opponents had differing objectives and failed to co-ordinate their attacks. Since Papal policy was to prevent either France or the Empire from becoming too powerful, in late 1524 Clement secretly allied himself with Francis, enabling him to mount another offensive against Milan. On 24 February 1525, the French army suffered a devastating defeat at Pavia, in which Francis was captured and imprisoned in Spain.
This led to frantic diplomatic manoeuvres to secure his release, including a French mission to Suleiman the Magnificent, asking for Ottoman assistance. Although Suleiman avoided involvement on this occasion, it was the beginning of a long-standing, if often unacknowledged, Franco-Turkish relationship. Francis was eventually released in March 1526 after signing the Treaty of Madrid, in which he renounced French claims to Artois, Milan and Burgundy.
War of the League of Cognac
Once Francis was free, his Council renounced the Treaty of Madrid, claiming conditions extorted under duress could not be considered binding. Concerned that Imperial power now posed a threat to Papal independence, on 22 May 1526 Clement VII formed the League of Cognac, whose members included France, the Papal States, Venice, Florence and Milan. Many of the Imperial troops were close to mutiny having not been paid for months and the Duke of Urbino, commander of the League army, hoped to take advantage of this confusion. However, he delayed taking the offensive awaiting additional Swiss reinforcements.
Although the League gained an easy victory on 24 June when the Venetians occupied Lodi, this delay allowed Charles to gather fresh troops and support a Milanese revolt in July against Francesco Sforza, who was once again forced into exile. In September, Charles financed an attack on Rome by the Colonna family, who competed with the rival Orsinis for control of the city, and Clement was forced to pay them to withdraw. Seeking to recapture Milan, Francis invaded Lombardy at the beginning of 1527, with an army financed by Henry VIII, who hoped thereby to win Papal support for divorcing his first wife, Katherine of Aragon.
In May, Imperial troops, many of whom were followers of Martin Luther, sacked Rome and besieged Clement in the Castel Sant'Angelo, while Urbino and the League army sat outside and failed to intervene. Although the French marched south to relieve Rome, they were too late to prevent Clement making peace with Charles V in November. Meanwhile Venice, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states and which also possessed the most effective army, now refused to contribute any more troops to the League. Weakened by its losses in 1509 to 1517 and with its maritime possessions increasingly threatened by the Ottomans, under Andrea Gritti the Republic tried to remain neutral and after 1529 avoided participation in the fighting.
Supported by a Genoese fleet, in April 1528 a French expeditionary force besieged Naples before disease forced them to withdraw in August. Both sides were now anxious to end the war and after another French defeat at Landriano on 21 June 1529, Francis agreed the Treaty of Cambrai with Charles in August. Known as the "Peace of the Ladies" because it was negotiated by Francis's mother, Louise of Savoy, and Charles's aunt Margaret, Francis recognised Charles as ruler of Milan, Naples, Flanders and Artois. Venice also made peace, leaving only Florence, which had expelled their Medici rulers in 1527. At Bologna in the summer of 1529, Charles V was named King of Italy; he agreed to restore the Medici on behalf of Pope Clement, who was himself a Medici, and after a lengthy siege, Florence surrendered in August 1530.
Prior to 1530, interference by foreign powers in Italy was viewed as a short term problem, since they could not sustain it over time; for example, French conquests of Naples in 1494 and 1501 and Milan in 1499 and 1515 were quickly reversed. On the other hand, Venice was generally viewed by other states as the greatest threat because it was an Italian power. Many assumed the primacy established at Bologna by Charles V in Italy would also soon pass but instead it was the start of a long period of Imperial dominance. One factor was Venice's withdrawal from Italian affairs after 1530 in favour of protecting its maritime empire from Ottoman expansion.
Italian War of 1536–1538
Under the Treaty of Cambrai, Francesco Sforza was reinstated as Duke of Milan; since he had no children, it also stated Charles V would inherit the duchy on his death, which occurred on 1 November 1535. Francis refused to accept this, arguing Milan was rightfully his along with Genoa and Asti, and once again prepared for war. In April 1536, pro-Valois elements in Asti expelled the Imperial garrison and a French army under Philippe de Chabot occupied Turin, although they failed to take Milan.
In response, a Spanish army invaded Provence and captured Aix on 13 August 13 1536, before withdrawing, a fruitless expedition that diverted resources from Italy, where the situation had become more serious. The 1536 Franco-Ottoman alliance, a comprehensive treaty covering a wide range of commercial and diplomatic issues, also agreed to a joint assault on Genoa, with French land forces supported by an Ottoman fleet.
Finding the garrison of Genoa had recently been reinforced while a planned internal uprising failed to materialise, the French instead occupied the towns of Pinerolo, Chieri and Carmagnola in Piedmont. Fighting continued in Flanders and northern Italy throughout 1537, while the Ottoman fleet raided the coastal areas around Naples, raising fears of invasion throughout Italy. Pope Paul III, who had replaced Clement in 1534, grew increasingly anxious to end the war and brought the two sides together at Nice in May 1538. The Truce of Nice, signed on 18 June, agreed a ten year halt in hostilities and left France in possession of most of Savoy, Piedmont and Artois.
Italian War of 1542–1546
The 1538 truce failed to resolve underlying tensions between Francis, who still claimed Milan, and Charles, who insisted he comply with the treaties of Madrid and Cambrai. Their relationship collapsed in 1540 when Charles made his son Philip Duke of Milan, thus precluding any possibility it would revert to France. In 1541, Charles made a disastrous attack on Ottoman port of Algiers, which severely weakened his military and led Suleiman to reactivate his French alliance. With Ottoman support, on 12 July 1542 Francis once again declared war on the Holy Roman Empire, initiating the Italian War of 1542–46.
In August, French armies attacked Perpignan on the Spanish border, as well as Artois, Flanders and Luxemburg, a Valois possession prior to 1477. Imperial resistance proved far more formidable than expected, with most of these attacks easily repulsed and in 1543 Henry VIII allied with Charles and agreed to support his offensive in Flanders. Neither side made much progress, and although a combined Franco-Ottoman fleet under Hayreddin Barbarossa captured Nice on 22 August and besieged the citadel, the onset of winter and presence of a Spanish fleet forced them to withdraw. A joint attack by Christian and Islamic troops on a Christian town was regarded as shocking, especially when Francis allowed Barbarossa to use the French port of Toulon as a winter base.
On 14 April 1544, a French army commanded by Francis, Count of Enghien, defeated the Imperials at Ceresole, a victory of limited strategic value since they failed to make progress elsewhere in Lombardy. The Imperial position was further strengthened at Serravalle in June, when Alfonso d'Avalos defeated a mercenary force led by the Florentine exile Piero Strozzi on their way to meet Enghien. An English army captured Boulogne on 10 September, while Imperial forces advanced to within of Paris. However, with his treasury exhausted and concerned by Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean Sea, on 14 September Charles agreed the Treaty of Crépy with Francis, which essentially restored the position to that prevailing in 1542. The agreement excluded Henry VIII, whose war with France continued until the two countries made peace in 1546 and confirmed his possession of Boulogne.
Italian War of 1551–1559
Francis died on 31 March 1547 and was succeeded by his son, Henry II of France. He continued attempts to restore the French position in Italy, encouraged by Italian exiles and his cousin Francis, Duke of Guise, who claimed the throne of Naples through his grandfather René II, Duke of Lorraine. Henry first strengthened his diplomatic position by reactivating the Franco-Ottoman alliance and supporting their capture of Tripoli in August 1551. Despite his devout personal Catholicism and persecution of Huguenot "heretics" at home, in January 1552 he signed the Treaty of Chambord with several Protestant princes within the Empire, which gave him control of the Three Bishoprics of Toul, Verdun, and Metz.
Following the outbreak of the Second Schmalkaldic War in March 1552, French troops occupied the Three Bishoprics and invaded Lorraine. In 1553, a Franco-Ottoman force captured the Genoese island of Corsica, while supported by Henry's wife, Catherine de' Medici, French-backed Tuscan exiles seized control of Siena. This brought Henry into conflict with the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de' Medici, who defeated a French army at Marciano on 2 August 1554; although Siena held out until April 1555, it was absorbed by Florence and in 1569 became part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
In July 1554, Philip of Spain became king of England through his marriage to Mary I, and in November he also received the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily from his father, who reconfirmed him as Duke of Milan. In January 1556, Charles formally abdicated as Emperor and split his possessions; the Holy Roman Empire went to his brother Ferdinand I, while Spain, its overseas territories and the Spanish Netherlands were assigned to Philip. Over the next century, Naples and Lombardy became a major source of men and money for the Spanish Army of Flanders during the 1568 to 1648 Eighty Years' War.
England entered the war in June 1557 and the focus shifted to Flanders, where a Spanish army defeated the French at St. Quentin on 10 August. Despite this, in January 1558 the French took Calais; held by the English since 1347, its loss severely diminished their future ability to intervene directly in mainland Europe. They also captured Thionville in June but peace negotiations had already begun, with Henry absorbed by the internal conflict that led to the French Wars of Religion in 1562. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis on 3 April 1559 brought the Italian wars to an end. Corsica was returned to Genoa, while Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, re-established the Savoyard state in northern Italy as an independent entity. France retained Calais and the Three Bishoprics, while other provisions essentially returned the position to that prevailing in 1551. Finally, Henry II and Philip II agreed to ask Pope Pius IV to recognise Ferdinand as Emperor, and reconvene the Council of Trent.
Aftermath
The European balance of power changed significantly during the Italian Wars. The affirmation of French power in Italy around 1494 brought Austria and Spain to join an anti-French league that formed the "Habsburg ring" around France (Low Countries, Aragon, Castile, Empire) via dynastic marriages that eventually led to the large inheritance of Charles V. On the other hand, the last Italian war ended with the division of the Habsburg Empire between the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs following the abdication of Charles V. Philip II of Spain was heir of the kingdoms held by Charles V in Spain, southern Italy, and South America. Ferdinand I was the successor of Charles V in the Holy Roman Empire extending from Germany to northern Italy and became suo jure king of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Habsburg Netherlands and the Duchy of Milan were left in personal union to the king of Spain while continuing to be part of the Holy Roman Empire.
The division of the empire of Charles V, along with the expansion of the French state over the Pas-de-Calais and the Three Bishoprics, was a positive result for France. However, the Habsburgs had gained a position of primacy in Europe and Italy at the expense of the French Valois. In fact, in order to achieve this defensive objective, France was forced to end opposition to Habsburg power and abandon its claims in Italy. Henry II also restored the Savoyard state to Emmanuel Philibert, who settled in Piedmont, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa. For this reason, the conclusion of the Italian Wars for France is considered to be a mixed result.
At the end of the wars, Italy was largely divided between viceroyalties of the Spanish Habsburgs in the south and formal fiefs of the Austrian Habsburgs in the north. The most significant Italian power left was the Papacy in central Italy, as it maintained major cultural and political influence during the Catholic Reformation. The Council of Trent, suspended during the war, was reconvened by the terms of the peace treaties and came to an end in 1563.
Interpretations
As in the case of France, the Habsburg result is also variously interpreted. Many historians in the 20th century, including Garrett Mattingly, Eric Cochrane and Manuel F. Alvarez, identified the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis as the beginning of Spanish hegemony in Italy. According to that view, the partition of the Habsburg empire at the abdication of Charles V left the position of the Holy Roman Empire in Italy weakened in favor of Spain so that the peace was mostly a victory of the latter. However, in 21st-century historiography there is a reconsideration of the topic. Christine Shaw in her revised Italian Wars (1494-1559), Micheal J. Levin in Agents of Empire, and William Reger in Limits of Empire, reject the concept of a Spanish hegemony on the ground that too many limits prevented Spain's dominance in the peninsula, and maintain that other powers also held major influence in Italy after 1559.
According to Christine Shaw, it was the dual protection of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire that was established in Italy after Cateau-Cambrésis. Among Italian historians, a similar view was held by Salvatore Puglisi (in le prime strette dell'Austria in Italia), who understood the result of the wars as the beginning of both Austrian and Spanish Habsburg power in Italy. According to Angelantonio Spagnoletti in his Principi Italiani e Spagna nell'età barocca, echoing Benedetto Croce in his works on Baroque Italy, the Papacy and Spain emerged as the two main forces in the peninsula after Cateau-Cambrésis. According to their view, the position of the Papacy was strengthened by the conclusion of the council of Trent and the beginning of the counter-reformation. Peter J. Wilson writes that three overlapping and competing feudal networks, Imperial, Spanish, and Papal, were affirmed in Italy as a result of the end of the wars. Terms such as "refeudalization" (rifeudalizzazione) have also been used by Italian authors to describe the political and socio-economic situation of Italy after 1559.
In the long-term, Habsburg primacy in Italy continued to exist, but it varied significantly due to the change of dynasties in Austria and Spain. Following the European wars of succession, the Habsburg-Lorraine of Austria gained direct or indirect control of the fiefs of Imperial Italy, whereas the south passed to a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons. France would return in Italy to confront Habsburg power, first under Louis XIV, and later under Napoleon, but only the unification of Italy will permanently remove foreign powers from the peninsula.
Charles Tilly has characterized the Italian Wars as a key part in his theory of state formation, as the wars demonstrated the value of large armies and superior military technology. In Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992, Tilly argues that a "comprehensive European state system" can be reasonably dated to the Italian Wars.
Military
The Italian Wars represented a revolution in military technology and tactics, some historians suggesting they form the dividing point between modern and medieval battlefields. Contemporary historian Francesco Guicciardini wrote of the initial 1494 French invasion that "...sudden and violent wars broke out, ending with the conquest of a state in less time than it used to take to occupy a villa. The siege and taking of a city became extremely rapid and achieved not in months but in days and hours".
Infantry underwent profound developments during the Italian Wars, evolving from a primary pike- and halberd-wielding force to a more flexible arrangement of arquebusiers, pikemen, and other troops. While landsknechts and Swiss mercenaries continued to dominate during the early part of the wars, the Italian War of 1521 demonstrated the power of massed firearms in pike and shot formations.
A 1503 skirmish between French and Spanish forces first demonstrated the utility of arquebuses in battle. The Spanish general, Gonzalo de Córdoba, faked a retreat, luring a contingent of French men-at-arms between two groups of his arquebusiers. As the French army stepped between the marksmen, volleys of bullets battered them on both flanks. Before the French could attack the vulnerable arquebusiers, a Spanish cavalry charge broke the French forces and forced their retreat. While the French army escaped, the Spanish inflicted severe casualties.
So successful was the employment of firearms in the Italian Wars that Niccolò Machiavelli, often characterized as an enemy of the use of the arquebus, wrote in his treatise on The Art of War that all citizens in a city should know how to fire a gun.
Veterans turned conquistadors
Many conquistadors, such as Hernán Cortés, had considered Italy before opting to serve in Spanish America, while large numbers of veterans from Naples and southern Italy later emigrated there, either as colonists or soldiers. Experience in Italy was often considered a prerequisite for military employment, although the chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés claimed those who did so must have "failed to become rich,...gambled the riches away or [somehow] lost them" and suggested conditions in the Americas were far tougher. Francisco Sebastián, an Italian veteran who accompanied Hernando de Soto on his expedition into North America, agreed with this assessment, largely because "no plunder of value could be obtained" from the inhabitants.
Italian veterans included Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, who conquered Cuba in 1511, Francisco de Carvajal and Pedro de Valdivia, both of whom fought at Pavia in 1526. Carvajal and Valdivia served with the Pizarro brothers in Peru during their conflict with Spanish rival Diego de Almagro in 1538. Carvajal remained with the Pizarros while Valdivia began the conquest of Chile and ignited the Arauco War. The two men fought on opposite sides in the 1548 Battle of Jaquijahuana; Carvajal was executed after being taken prisoner, while Valdivia died in 1553 at Tucapel.
Cavalry
Heavy cavalry, the final evolution of the fully armoured medieval knight, remained significant players on the battlefields of the Italian Wars. Largely due to their excellent horses, French gendarmes were generally successful against heavy mounted troops from other states, but were very vulnerable to pikemen. The Spanish used heavy cavalry and light cavalry, or Jinetes, for skirmishing.
Artillery
Artillery, particularly field artillery, became an indispensable part of any first-rate army during the wars. When Charles VII invaded in 1494, he brought with him the first truly mobile siege train of culverins and bombards. It included various innovations, such as mounting the guns on wheeled carriages, drawn by horses rather than oxen as was the custom, which allowed them to be deployed against an enemy stronghold on arrival. This mobility stemmed from their lightness, achieved by employing the methods used to cast bronze church bells. Perhaps the most important improvement was the creation of the iron cannonball, rather than the stone balls that often shattered on impact. The combination meant Charles could level in an hour castles that had resisted sieges for months or even years.
Historiography
The Italian Wars are one of the first major conflicts for which extensive contemporary accounts from people involved in the wars are available, owing largely to the presence of literate, and often extremely-well educated, commanders. The invention of modern printing, still less than one century old, undoubtedly played a large role in the memorialization of the conflict as well. Major historians of the period include Francesco Guicciardini and Paolo Sarpi.
Nomenclature
The naming of the component conflicts within the Italian Wars has never been standardized and varies among historians of the period. Some wars may be split or combined differently, causing ordinal numbering systems to be inconsistent among different sources. The wars may be referred to by their dates or by the monarchs fighting them. Usually, the Italian Wars are grouped into three major phases: 1494-1516; 1521-1530; and 1535-1559.
Contemporary accounts
A major contemporary account for the early portion of the Italian Wars is Francesco Guicciardini's Storia d'Italia (History of Italy), written during the conflict and advantaged by the access that Guicciardini had to papal affairs.
Notes
References
Sources
Konstam, Angus. Pavia 1525: The Climax of the Italian Wars. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1996. .
Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. New York: Vintage Books, 1989. .
Oman, Charles. A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century. London: Methuen & Co., 1937.
Phillips, Charles and Alan Axelrod. Encyclopedia of Wars. 3 vols. New York: Facts on File, 2005. .
Further reading
Le Gall, Jean-Marie, Les guerres d'Italie (1494-1559): une lecture religieuse. Geneva: Droz, 2017.
Boot, Max. War Made New: Technology, Warfare, and the Course of History: 1500 to Today. New York: Gotham Books, 2006. .
Du Bellay, Martin, Sieur de Langey. Mémoires de Martin et Guillaume du Bellay. Edited by V. L. Bourrilly and F. Vindry. 4 volumes. Paris: Société de l'histoire de France, 1908–19.
Giovio, Paolo. Pauli Iovii Opera. Volume 3, part 1, Historiarum sui temporis. Edited by D. Visconti. Rome: Libreria dello Stato, 1957.
Lot, Ferdinand. Recherches sur les effectifs des armées françaises des guerres d'Italie aux guerres de religion, 1494–1562. Paris: École Pratique des Hautes Études, 1962.
Monluc, Blaise de. Commentaires. Edited by P. Courteault. 3 volumes. Paris: 1911–25. Translated by Charles Cotton as The Commentaries of Messire Blaize de Montluc (London: A. Clark, 1674).
Monluc, Blaise de. Military Memoirs: Blaise de Monluc, The Habsburg-Valois Wars, and the French Wars of Religion. Edited by Ian Roy. London: Longmans, 1971.
Saulx, Gaspard de, Seigneur de Tavanes. Mémoires de très noble et très illustre Gaspard de Saulx, seigneur de Tavanes, Mareschal de France, admiral des mers de Levant, Gouverneur de Provence, conseiller du Roy, et capitaine de cent hommes d'armes. Château de Lugny: Fourny, 1653.
Wars involving the states and peoples of Europe
15th century in France
16th century in France
15th century in Italy
16th century in Italy
15th-century military history of France
16th-century military history of France | [
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239502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindau | Lindau | Lindau (, Lindau im Bodensee; ) is a major town and island on the eastern side of Lake Constance (Bodensee in German) in Bavaria, Germany. It is the capital of the county (Landkreis) of Lindau, Bavaria and is near the borders of the Austrian state of Vorarlberg and the Swiss cantons of St. Gallen and Thurgau. The coat of arms of Lindau town is a linden tree, referring to the supposed origin of the town's name (Linde means linden tree in German). The historic town of Lindau is located on the island of the same name which is connected with the mainland by a road bridge and a railway dam leading to Lindau station.
History
The first use of the name Lindau was documented in 882 by a monk from St. Gallen, stating that Adalbert (count of Raetia) had founded a nunnery on the island. However the remains of an early Roman settlement dating back to the 1st century have been found in the district of Aeschach.
In 1180, St. Stephan's church was founded. In 1224 the Franciscans founded a monastery on the island. In 1274/75 Lindau became an Imperial Free City under King Rudolf I.
In 1430, about 15 of Lindau's Jews were burned at the stake after being accused of murdering a Christian child. In 1528, Lindau accepted the Protestant Reformation, following the Tetrapolitan Confession at first and subsequently the Augsburg Confession. In 1655, after the Thirty Years' War, the first Lindauer Kinderfest (children's festival) was held, in memory of the war. This festival, introduced by Councillor Valentin Heider, still makes up an important part of the town's identity.
Lindau lost its status as an Imperial Free City in 1802, after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The city went to Karl August von Bretzenheim who gave Lindau and the monastery to the Austrian Empire in 1804. In 1805 Austria returned Lindau to Bavaria.
In 1853 a causeway was built to connect the railway from Munich to the island. In 1856 a new harbour was built, with its characteristic landmarks, the lion sculpture and Bavaria's only lighthouse.
In 1922 the independent districts of Aeschach, Hoyren and Reutin merged with the Lindau district. After World War II, Lindau fell under French administration and went firstly to Württemberg-Hohenzollern and then to the State of Baden-Württemberg. In 1955, Lindau again returned to Bavaria.
Lindau is located near the meeting point of the Austrian, German and Swiss borders and is nestled on the lake in front of Austria's Pfänder mountain. Lindau is popular with sightseers and holidaymakers for its medieval town centre and picturesque location on Lake Constance. The Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau began in 1951 and bring many Nobel Prize laureates to Lindau each year.
Tourist attractions
Lindau is a popular tourist attraction in the South of Germany. The gardens of Lindau are best in spring or summer blossom and summer is the peak tourist period. Lindau is famous for its architecture and outdoor attractions such as cycling, sailing, hiking, swimming and camping are also popular.
Harbour entrance with lighthouse and Bavarian Lion sculpture (Island of Lindau)
Church of St. Stephan (Evangelical Church), c. 1180 with remodelling in 1782
Church of St. Peter (founded about 1000), became a war memorial church in 1928
Minster 'Unserer Lieben Frau' former church of the monastery 'Maria Himmelfahrt' (which is German for Assumption of Mary), with St. Marien (Stiftskirche)
Maximilianstraße (main street through the Island of Lindau with shops and restaurants)
Historic Town Hall
Casino Spielbank Lindau
Gardens and Parks of Lindau, e.g. Lindenhofpark
Museum 'Haus zum Cavazzen'
Theatre Lindau
Boat trips by Bodenseeschifffahrt
Lindau's Old Book Archive (ERB – Ehemals Reichsstädtische Bibliothek) with books from the 15th to 18th Century inside the historic town hall
Hoyerberg near Hoyerberg Schlössle is a scenic lookout with views of the surrounding area
Economy
Historically, the trading route from Nuremberg to Italy passed through Lindau; fishery has also played a big role in the economy of the city and in the 19th century, Lindau was an important location for textile industries. Tourism (including restaurants and accommodation) and industrial production are the main industries in contemporary Lindau. Lindau has a very low unemployment rate, likely the result of a diverse economy and proximity to the Alpine Rhine Valley.
Larger corporations
Lindauer Dornier (Textile machines)
Liebherr Electronics
Cooper-Standard Automotive (former Metzeler Automotive Profile Systems)
Cofely Refrigeration (former Axima Refrigeration, which was former Sulzer Escher-Wyss, a refrigeration and air conditioning plant)
Continental AG, BU ADAS (ADC Automotive Distance Control GmbH)
Faurecia Automotive (former Angell-Demmel GmbH)
Crane Co. ChemPharm Energy (former Xomox GmbH now part of Crane)
Other local economy
Numerous farms around town, producing apples, pears, strawberries and related products e.g. Schnapps, wine or fruit juices.
Local hairdressers, gyms, bakeries, butchers, ice cream and coffee shops
Variety of car dealers (major VW, BMW and Renault with subsidies to other car makes), petrol stations, etc.
Care homes, Hospital
Districts
Lindau is split into several districts. A search for 'Lindau Stadt' will reveal the town's bordering to the neighbour parts of Lindau.
Central: Island, Aeschach
East: Reutin, Zech
West: Bad Schachen, Unterreitnau
North: Oberreitnau, Hochbuch, Hoyern, Schönau
Transport
Railway
Lindau-Insel station is Lindau's main station and is located on Lindau Island, however the station has been complemented by the development of Lindau-Reutin station station in the Reutin district on the mainland, which was opened in 2020. Lindau-Insel station has trains to and from Friedrichshafen, Munich, Ulm, Augsburg and Bregenz.
Bus – Stadtbus Lindau
Lindau's bus system is called Stadtbus Lindau, which departs from all stations every 30 minutes and runs until 22.30 daily, with special services for events. The bus system is run by the main local utility provider Stadtwerke Lindau.
Additionally RBA and the Zweiländer-line of Austrias "Landbus Unterland" also operate from Lindau. Recently long-distance coaches have started running to distant German cities, an alternative to Deutsche Bahn trains.
Road
Lindau is connected to the Autobahn A96 (E43). Main roads (German Bundesstraße) include B31 and B12. The A96 links to the Austrian Autobahn A14 starting right after the joining with the 7 km long Pfändertunnel. The tunnel has been expanded into 4 lane, 2 tunnel road which was opened in 2013 to accommodate increased north/south traffic.
Airports
Lindau does not have its own airport, however is close to Friedrichshafen Airport and Memmingen Airport, which usually serve tourist arrivals and European destinations. The nearest major airports are Munich Airport, Stuttgart Airport or Zurich Airport.
Utilities
Lindau's local utility provider is called Stadtwerke Lindau. Stadtwerke Lindau provides electricity, water, telecommunications, public baths, and some other services to Lindau.
Telecommunications
The local utility provider Stadtwerke TK-Lindau has started deploying fibre-optic internet to major businesses, and new housing development areas. Other networks include cable television by Kabel Deutschland, which is available in some streets and xDSL, by many providers. Some systems have seen upgrades of the ADSL standard in the last years to cope with the high bandwidth demand. There are plans to deploy a WiFi hotspot network (or WLAN, as it is more commonly known in German) across the Island of Lindau.
Property, redevelopment, and other major projects
Lindau is currently planning several redevelopment projects across the city. The following is a list of projects that are planned for redevelopment.
New train station – Lindau has been planning a new train station for many years. Currently there is agreement between the major stakeholders is to build a new station near the shopping mall Lindaupark (Reutin district) and refurbish the station on the island. Both stations will remain active.
Electrification of the Train tracks to Munich (connecting Munich and Zürich) – this major project is sponsored by large external stakeholders such as the State of Bavaria, Switzerland and Deutsche Bahn.
Lindau Inselhalle – Lindau's main hall which is used for conferences is due to be rebuilt soon.
Multi-storey car park – related to the redevelopment of Lindau Inselhalle on the island
Property developments near the train station on the island are planned, after rail tracks have been removed
A New Fire station was completed in September 2014 near Auenstraße (outside the island) – a major headquarters for all the former stations across town, including the Technisches Hilfswerk (THW) unit of Lindau.
Property developments connected to area which belongs to Deutsche Bahn near Reutin, once the new train station is completed
Property developments in Aeschach district – including some major buildings, including luxury apartments and offices
Railway underpass near the entrance of the island – Lindau is planning two railway underpasses for cars to ease congestion, partly caused by tourists visiting by car causing frequent crossing closures
Several company extensions or relocations are planned – as of September 2014 Continental AG is extending into a third office complex
Lindau Utility is deploying optical broadband across the city
Lindau Strandbad, the major public bath is in discussion of being refurbished
Major redevelopment of REWE Supermarket in Bodolz – New interior, new shops. It will be closed from December 2014 until April 2015
Local news sources
Lindau has a well established newspaper called Lindauer Zeitung, which is part of the Schwäbische Zeitung, which is released daily. Another newspaper is the Bürgerzeitung Lindau (BZ) which is released by the city council. It is released biweekly and contains announcements to the town by the Mayor and local news. The paper is free, sponsored by advertisements and can usually be found in shops. Both newspapers are available in print and online.
Schools and kindergartens
Lindau has two main high schools: Bodensee-Gymnasium and Valentin-Heider-Gymnasium. With one middle school for girls (Maria-Ward-Realschule Lindau) and one middle school for boys (Staatliche Realschule für Knaben Lindau) there are several primary schools across the town. Lindau recently completed construction of a new Kindergarten, which also included a Kita Kindertagestätte, which is a baby nursery for children aged 2–3. There is high demand for childcare in Lindau and providers are obliged by the State of Bavaria to provide for every child.
Hospitals, civic offices
Asklepios Krankenhaus Lindau
Bürgerbüro Lindau, the local office for all legal matters, e.g. passports, registration, etc.
KFZ-Zulassungsstelle, registration office for cars
Finanzamt (tax office), location in Lindau
Shopping
Lindau's large shopping centres and supermarkets like Aldi, Lidl, REWE are off Lindau Island. However, the Island has many different shops, which sell clothing, cosmetics, gifts, toys, antique items and local products such as cheese and wine. Lindau's main shopping mall is called Lindaupark and hosts larger shops such as Müller Drogerie and a supermarket.
Festivals and events
Thanks to its location on Lake Constance, Lindau hosts a number of festivals and events, usually in summer (between May and August).
U&D, Umsonst & Draussen by Club Vaudeville Lindau. The festival hosts live music in a public area.
Nobel Laureate Meetings at Lindau, Lindau's prestigious science event. Students from all over the world are able to meet up with Nobel Laureates to discuss scientific developments. Lindau is soon to build a new conference home for this event.
Psychotherapiewochen, a psychologist conference
Rund Um den Bodensee, a sailing competition
Gartentage 2014
Lindauer Oktoberfest
Lindauer Kinderfest
Notable people
Achilles Gasser, also Gasserus (1505–1577), physician and historian
Jacob Ernst Thomann von Hagelstein (1588–1653), painter
Johann Jacob Heber (1666–1727), surveyor and geometrician
Richard Z. Johnson, American attorney and politician (died in Lindau)
John Spilman (died 1626), paper manufacturer and jeweler in England
Genealogy
Lindau is believed to be the origin of the Lindauer surname of Germany, Switzerland, Alsace-Lorraine, Austria and the Czech Republic. A Jewish family bearing this name is said to have descended from Suskind of Lindau, who was among those killed during the pogrom of 1430.
Lindauer is also the name of a famous wine brand from New Zealand, however there is no established relationship between Lindau and the wine, which is named after painter Gottfried Lindauer.
Gastronomy
Lindau produces a number of local wines and beverages, there are a number of localities that produce wines (Rädlewirtschaften) from local vineyards and Schnapps made by local farmers.
Climate
Lindau is located in a temperate climatic zone (experiencing four distinct seasons) with mountain surroundings and the freshwater lake. Winters can be cold, with temperatures reaching as low as −20 °C on occasion. In some exceptional cases, winters can be so severely cold that major parts of the lake freeze, making crossing of the lake by car possible, however this is a once in 50 to 100 year event. Summers are normally warm to hot and usually humid due to the surrounding lake.
Heavy storms, rain showers and thunderstorms are common in summer and heavy winds up to 8 on the Beaufort scale are possible. Usually the lake is calm; however, there is a warning light system for boats to indicate if heavy storms are forecast. Due to the surrounding mountains, snow is always in sight and a good indicator of weather. Lake Constance is located at roughly 400m above sea level.
Twin towns
Lindau is twinned with:
Serpukhov (Russia)
Chelles (France) Lindau was twinned in 1964 with the City of Chelles in France, which was initiated by the returned French soldiers after World War II.
Reitnau (Switzerland)
References
External links
Free Pictures Lindau
A Week with Nobel Laureates at Lindau, free video from the Vega Science Trust
Interviews with Nobel Laureates at Lindau, free videos from the Vega Science Trust
Lindau photo gallery
Lindau Tourism Information
Landkreis Lindau
Populated places on Lake Constance
Free imperial cities
Lake islands of Germany
Lindau (district)
Islands of Lake Constance in Germany
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|
239507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Anthropological%20Association | American Anthropological Association | The American Anthropological Association (AAA) is an organization of scholars and practitioners in the field of anthropology. With 10,000 members, the association, based in Arlington, Virginia, includes archaeologists, cultural anthropologists, biological (or physical) anthropologists, linguistic anthropologists, linguists, medical anthropologists and applied anthropologists in universities and colleges, research institutions, government agencies, museums, corporations and non-profits throughout the world. The AAA publishes more than 20 peer-reviewed scholarly journals, available in print and online through AnthroSource. The AAA was founded in 1902.
History
The first anthropological society in the US was the American Ethnological Society of New York, which was founded by Albert Gallatin and revived in 1899 by Franz Boas after a hiatus. 1879 saw the establishment of the Anthropological Society of Washington (which first published the journal American Anthropologist, before it became a national journal), and 1882 saw the American Association for the Advancement of Science established an anthropological section. Boas and other anthropologist discussed the possibility of creating a single national society already in 1898, but fears that it might damage the AAAS caused a long discussion. In 1901 the AES and ASW sent members to attend the meeting of the AAAS anthropologists in Chicago in which discussions continued and there was general agreement that a national society should be formed. Boas advocated a restricted membership of 40 "professional anthropologists", but the AAA's first president, W. J. McGee, ensured that membership would be open to everyone with an interest in the discipline. At its incorporation, it assumed responsibility for the journal American Anthropologist, created in 1888 by the Anthropological Society of Washington (ASW).
Business affairs are conducted by a 41-member Section Assembly representing each of the association's constituent sections, and a 15-member Executive Board.
According to its articles of incorporation, the AAA was formed to:
promote the science of anthropology, to stimulate and coordinate the efforts of American anthropologists, to foster local and other societies devoted to anthropology, to serve as a bond among American anthropologists and anthropologic[al] organizations present and prospective, and to publish and encourage the publication of matter pertaining to anthropology.
From an initial membership of 175, the AAA grew slowly during the first half of the 20th century. Annual meetings were held primarily in the Northeast and accommodated all attendees in a single room.
The Association describes itself as "a democratic organization since its beginning."
In 2010, AAA Executive Board stripped the word "science" from a draft statement of its long-range plan, instead pledging to advance "the public understanding of humankind." The change set off a wide-ranging controversy over the definition of the discipline, with many archaeologists and physical anthropologists describing themselves as marginalized within the AAA. The final version of the long-range plan begins, "The strength of Anthropology lies in its distinctive position at the nexus of the sciences and humanities" and declares, "The purpose of the Association shall be to advance scholarly understanding of humankind in all its aspects ... drawing from and building upon knowledge from biological and physical sciences as well as the humanities and social sciences."
The offices of the AAA are located in Arlington, Virginia.
Sections
The AAA is composed of 40 sections, which are groups organized around identity affiliations or intellectual interests within the discipline of anthropology. Sections each have an elected president or chair; many publish journals and host meetings.
Sections
American Ethnological Society (AES)
Anthropology and the Environment (A&E)
The Archaeology Division of the American Anthropological Association (AD)
Association for Africanist Anthropology (AfAA)
Association for Feminist Anthropology (AFA)
Association for Political and Legal Anthropology (APLA)
Association for Queer Anthropology (AQA)
Association for the Anthropology of Policy (ASAP)
Association of Black Anthropologists (ABA)
Association of Indigenous Anthropologists (AIA)
Association of Latina and Latino Anthropologists (ALLA)
Association of Senior Anthropologists (ASA)
Biological Anthropology Section (BAS)
Central States Anthropological Association (CSAS)
Council for Museum Anthropology (CMA)
Council on Anthropology and Education (CAE)
Culture and Agriculture (C&A)
Evolutionary Anthropology Society (EAS)
General Anthropology Division (GAD)
Middle East Section (MES)
National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA)
National Association of Student Anthropologists (NASA)
Society for Anthropological Sciences (CAS)
Society for Anthropology in Community Colleges (SACC)
Society for Cultural Anthropology (SCA)
Society for East Asian Anthropology (SEAA)
Society for Economic Anthropology (SEA)
Society for Humanistic Anthropology (SHA)
Society for Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology (SLACA)
Society for Linguistic Anthropology (SLA)
Society for Medical Anthropology (SMA)
Society for Psychological Anthropology (SPA)
Society for the Anthropology of Consciousness (SAC)
Society for the Anthropology of Europe (SAE)
Society for the Anthropology of Food and Nutrition (SAFN)
Society for the Anthropology of North America (SANA)
Society for the Anthropology of Religion (SAR)
Society for the Anthropology of Work (SAW)
Society for Urban, National, and Transnational/Global Anthropology (SUNTA)
Society for Visual Anthropology (SVA)
Publications
The AAA publishes more than 20 section publications including American Anthropologist, American Ethnologist, Cultural Anthropology, Anthropology & Education Quarterly and Medical Anthropology Quarterly. The AAA's official magazine, Anthropology News, is published bimonthly. AAA publications are available online through AnthroSource. Since 2007, journals have been published in partnership with Wiley-Blackwell since 2007. Since 1962 the association has published the AAA AnthroGuide, giving staff and program information about anthropology departments.
Meetings
Since 1902, the society has held annual meetings. The AAA Annual Meeting, with more than 6,000 attendees, is the world's largest gathering of anthropologists. The meeting is held in a different location each year.
Public issues involvement
The AAA supported the passage of the Antiquities Act of 1906, protested the discontinuance of anthropological research in the Philippines (1915), urged the teaching of anthropology in high schools (1927), spoke out for the preservation of archaeological materials when dams were built by the Tennessee Valley Authority (1935), passed a pre-WWII resolution against racism (1938), and expressed the need to "guard against the dangers, and utilize the promise, inherent in the use of atomic energy" (1945).
In the 1960s and early 1970s, the association examined the issues of government-sponsored classified research, use of anthropologists by the military in Vietnam, secret research in Thailand, and the general problem of a code of ethics for anthropological research, particularly for the protection of the rights of those studied. Other issues addressed from the 1970s through the 1980s included illegal antiquities trade, the insertion of religious beliefs into social science texts, the preservation of endangered nonhuman primates, and the religious significance of peyote to Native Americans.
In 2004, in response to President George W. Bush's call for a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, the Association issued a statement on marriage and the family. It states:
The Association also has adopted resolutions against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, against the use of anthropological knowledge as an element for physical or psychological torture, and against any covert or overt U.S. military action against Iran.
A number of ideologically polarized debates within the discipline of anthropology have prompted the association to conduct investigations. These include the dispute between Derek Freeman and defenders of Margaret Mead, as well as the controversy over the book Darkness in El Dorado. In the latter case, Alice Dreger, an historian of medicine and science, and an outsider to the debate, concluded after a year of research that the American Anthropological Association was complicit and irresponsible in helping spread the falsehoods contained in the book, and not protecting "scholars from baseless and sensationalistic charges".
Race
The AAA has issued a number of statements on the topic of race, and since the 1950s has argued publicly that race is best understood as a cultural or bio-cultural rather than mostly biological construction.
In the 1990s, in response to what it felt was public confusion about the meaning of "race," particularly perceived public misconceptions about race and intelligence, the AAA Executive Board commissioned the American Anthropological Association Statement on Race as a constructed social mechanism. In 2006, the association developed and continues to manage a public education program titled "RACE: Are We So Different?" The program includes a traveling museum exhibit, an interactive website, and educational materials.
Human rights
Initially, AAA was highly skeptical of the concept of universal human rights, with some anthropologists arguing that because of cultural relativism there are no principles that can be universally valid for humans of all cultures. IN 1947 the AAA issued a statement on Human rights, noting that value judgments are culturally contextual and arguing that a declaration about universal human rights ought to take into consideration and encompass all the different human value systems. This stance has gradually been abandoned by most anthropologists, many of whom today see universal human rights as an important way through which discrimination, oppression of cultural minorities can be reduced.
Immigration policy
Arizona
On May 22, 2010, the AAA Executive Board issued a resolution that declared Arizona's SB1070, a law which empowers state law enforcement to assist with the enforcement of federal law, to be "unconstitutional." The Board claimed it would boycott Arizona, but would not boycott "Indian Reservations" within the state, until the law "is either repealed or struck down as constitutionally invalid." The Board did not state what it will do if the courts uphold SB1070 as constitutionally valid.
The Board stated that "The AAA has a long and rich history of supporting policies that prohibit discrimination based on ... national origin..."
On September 19, 2016, the U.S. District Court in Arizona entered a permanent injunction barring enforcement of the remaining provisions. With the law's repeal, AAA’s ban on considering AAA conferences in Arizona was lifted.
Engaging with the military
Vietnam War
In March 1967, during the Vietnam War, the Council of the AAA adopted a "Statement on Problems of Anthropological Research and Ethics" that stated:
Human Terrain System
Through 2007 and 2008, debates surrounding anthropologists and the military resurfaced in response to the Pentagon's Human Terrain System (HTS) project. Following a number of national news articles on the project, anthropologists began to debate the project and related ethical issues. Proponents of the program argued that anthropologists were providing much-needed cultural knowledge about local populations and helping to decrease violence in their areas of operation. Critics, however, argued that HTS anthropologists could not receive informed consent from their research subjects in a war zone and that information provided by anthropologists might put populations in danger.
To address these issues, the Association's Executive Board released a statement on 31 October 2007. It cited "sufficiently troubling and urgent ethical issues" raised by the project, including the difficulties for HTS anthropologists to receive informed consent without coercion from their research subjects and to uphold their ethical mandate to "do no harm" to those they study. The AAA urged members to adhere to its code of ethics, which outlines principles and guidelines for ethical behavior. However, the association does not adjudicate cases involving charges of unethical behavior or bar members from participating in the HTS program.
In addition, the Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with US Security and Intelligence Communities (CEAUSSIC) issued a final report released during the AAA's 2007 annual meeting, based on over a year of work. It neither endorsed nor condemned anthropological work with military, intelligence and security organizations, but instead outlined the opportunities and challenges of working in these sectors. Opposition to military cooperation was evident during that meeting. Some critics of the HTS program have suggested that scholars who perform classified work with the military be expelled from the organization. During an event organized by the Network of Concerned Anthropologists, a graduate student who had recently been expelled from the HTS program spoke out about her experiences. She argued that the program was poorly run but was doing positive work in helping military officers with "nation-building" activities.
AnthroSource
AnthroSource is the online repository of the journals of the American Anthropological Association. Launched in 2004, it contains current issues for fifteen of the Association's peer-reviewed publications, as well as an archive of the journals, newsletters, and bulletins published by the Association and its member sections. Members of the association receive access to AnthroSource as a benefit of membership, and institutions may receive access via paid subscription.
Until August 2007, AnthroSource was a collaboration between the University of California Press and the Association. It, along with all their journals, has since been removed from the University of California Press by the AAA Board and transferred to Wiley-Blackwell. Commencing 2008, AnthroSource was to be hosted and managed by Wiley-Blackwell as part of the five-year publishing contract awarded.
In 2013, the Association announced that it would experiment with making Cultural Anthropology an open-access journal; Brad Weiss, the society's president, said in a statement posted on the group's Web site, that "Starting with the first issue of 2014, CA will provide worldwide, instant, free (to the user), and permanent access to all of our content (as well as 10 years of our back catalog)," and that "Cultural Anthropology will be the first major, established, high-impact journal in anthropology to offer open access to all of its research"
Presidents
AAA presidents have been drawn from all of the four subdisciplines of American anthropology: Until 2003 the presidents counted 46 socio-cultural anthropologists, 19 archeologists, six physical anthropologists and six linguists.
William J McGee (1902–1904)
F W Putnam (1905–1906)
Franz Boas (1907–1908)
W H Holmes (1909–1910)
J Walter Fewkes (1911–1912)
Roland B Dixon (1913–1914)
F W Hodge (1915–1916)
Alfred L. Kroeber (1917–1918)
Clark Wissler (1919–1920)
W. C. Farabee (1921–1922)
Walter Hough (1923–1924)
Ales Hrdlicka (1925–1926)
Marshall H. Saville (1927–1928)
Alfred M. Tozzer (1929–1930)
George G. MacCurdy (1931)
John R. Swanton (1932)
Fay-Cooper Cole (1933–1934)
Robert H. Lowie (1935)
Herbert J. Spinden (1936)
Nels C. Nelson (1937)
Edward Sapir (1938)
Diamond Jenness (1939)
John M. Cooper (1940)
Elsie Clews Parsons (1941)
A.V. Kidder (1942)
Leslie Spier (1943)
Robert Redfield (1944)
Neil M Judd (1945)
Ralph Linton (1946)
Ruth Benedict (Jan-May 1947)
Clyde Kluckhohn (May-Dec 1947)
Harry L. Shapiro (1948)
A. Irving Hallowell (1949)
Ralph L. Beals (1950)
William W. Howells (1951)
Wendell C. Bennett (1952)
Fred R. Eggan (1953)
John Otis Brew (1954)
George P. Murdock (1955)
Emil W. Haury (1956)
E. Adamson Hoebel (1957)
Harry Hoijer (1958)
Sol Tax (1959)
Margaret Mead (1960)
Gordon R Willey (1961)
Sherwood L. Washburn (1962)
Morris E. Opler (1963)
Leslie A. White (1964)
Alexander Spoehr (1965)
John P. Gillin (1966)
Frederica de Laguna (1967)
Irving Rouse (1968)
Cora DuBois (1969)
George M. Foster Jr. (1970)
Charles Wagley (1971)
Anthony F. C. Wallace (1972)
Joseph B. Casagrande (1973)
Edward H. Spicer (1974)
Ernestine Friedl (1975)
Walter Goldschmidt (1976)
Richard Newbold Adams (1977)
Francis L. K. Hsu (1978)
Paul J. Bohannan (1979)
Conrad M. Arensberg (1980)
William C Sturtevant (1981)
M. Margaret Clark (1982)
Dell Hathaway Hymes (1983)
Nancy O. Lurie (1984–1985)
June Helm (1986–1987)
Roy Rappaport (1988–1989)
Jane Buikstra (1989–1991)
Annette Weiner (1991–1993)
James Peacock (1993–1995)
Yolanda T. Moses (1995–1997)
Jane Hill (1997–1999)
Louise Lamphere (1999–2001)
Don Brenneis (2001–2003)
Elizabeth M. Brumfiel (2003–2005)
Alan H. Goodman (2005–2007)
Setha Low (2007–2009)
Virginia R. Domínguez (2009–2011)
Leith Mullings (2011–2013)
Monica Heller (2013–2015)
Alisse Waterston (2015–2017)
Alex Barker (2017–2019)
Notes
References
External links
American Anthropological Association
RACE: Are We So Different?
Register to the Papers of American Anthropological Association, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution
History of the American Anthropological Associations Annual Meetings
Professional associations based in the United States
American anthropologists
Anthropology-related professional associations
Member organizations of the American Council of Learned Societies | [
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239508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackrock%2C%20Dublin | Blackrock, Dublin | Blackrock () is a suburb of Dublin, Ireland, northwest of Dún Laoghaire.
Location and access
Blackrock covers a large but not precisely defined area, rising from sea level on the coast to at White's Cross on the N11 national primary road. Blackrock is bordered by Booterstown, Mount Merrion, Stillorgan, Foxrock, Deansgrange and Monkstown.
Transport
Blackrock has a station on the Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which is 15 minutes away by train from the city centre. The DART runs on the same track that was built in 1834 for the Dublin and Kingstown Railway. Blackrock railway station, on both the DART and the mainline South Eastern Commuter railway line, opened on 17 December 1834.
Bus services operated by Dublin Bus and Go-Ahead Ireland also serves the area with multiple bus routes. These are routes 4, 7/A/D, 17/C/D, 46E, 84/A, 114 and 7N.
The Aircoach services to Dublin Airport from Dalkey and Greystones call at Blackrock en route to the airport.
The Blackrock bypass was built in the late 1980s and officially opened by Councillor Anne Brady on 24 March 1988. The bypass is part of the N31 which joins the harbour at Dún Laoghaire to the national Primary Route network.
History
Blackrock was historically a small fishing village, which began to be developed only in the 19th century, although a settlement at the same location from medieval times is well attested to.
Origin of the name
Blackrock, some hundreds of years ago was variously called Newtown-at-the Black Rock, Newtown on the Strand by the Black Rock, Newtown Castle Byrne, or simply Newtown, so that "Blackrock" is simply an abbreviation of one of its ancient titles. For example, the town was called Newtown in a 1488 Act of Parliament The name still survives in Newtown Avenue, and Newtown House. It was thus distinguished from Newtown-in-the-Deer-Park, as the village of Newtown Park was then called, from the circumstance that it was built in the Deer Park belonging to Stillorgan House, or Castle (a quo Newtownpark Avenue).
Blackrock is named after the local geological rock formation to be found in the area of Blackrock Park. Most of it is now buried under the park, but it is said that it is possible to see it just north of the pond. The rock itself is a limestone calp that when wet appears black, thus giving the name Black Rock. For the construction of the railway in 1834, the rock was extensively used for the wall cappings between Williamstown and Blackrock and can also be seen in the walls of the train station at Blackrock. St. Marys Chapel of Ease on St. Mary's Place, nicknamed the Black Church, is constructed using the same Black Rock (limestone calp), although the rock used in its construction is locally sourced to the church.
The Rock Road
The Rock Road, which forms the south-western boundary of the park, is said to form part of one of the oldest roads in the country, having been part of the ancient Slíghe Chualann constructed by the High King of Ireland several centuries before St. Patrick, to connect Tara with what is now southern Dublin and north-east Wicklow. The road may have facilitated the O'Toole and the O'Byrne clans in their raids on the neighbourhood of Dublin.
In 1787, the Blackrock road was such a common place for highway robberies that, in an attempt to put an end to these crimes, a local meeting was held at Jennett's Tavern in Blackrock and chaired by the then Lord Viscount Ranelagh. The meeting concluded when one of the outcomes was "Resolved, That we will give a reward of £20 to any person who will apprehend and prosecute to conviction any person guilty of a robbery upon the Blackrock-road, from Dublin to Dunleary, Bullock, Dalkey, Rochestown, Cabinteely, and Loughlinstown". In 1826, Rev. George Wogan, the curate of Donnybrook, was murdered in his house in Spafield Place near Ballsbridge. Later on the evening of his murder, two bandits were apprehended for a highway robbery on the Blackrock Road and confessed to the murder, and were hanged. This illustrates the danger faced by travellers of the Blackrock road at certain times in the past.
Blackrock Park
Blackrock had a beach that was a popular bathing place until the construction of the railway close to the shoreline. The space between the shore and the railway created an area that flooded with seawater at high tide. This created a malodorous salty marsh similar to that at Booterstown marsh. This marsh was a cause of local discomfort for years until it was decided by the Blackrock Town Commissioners (established in 1860) to fill the area in and create a park. The park, which stretches from Blackrock to Booterstown (encompassing Williamstown), was created in the early 1870s. The granite gates at the main entrance once belonged to a house called Vauxhall. The gardens at the entrance were part of the gardens of the old house.
The Williamstown Martello Tower in Blackrock Park was built between 1804–1806. When the tower was built, it would have been surrounded by seawater at high tide as it was built in the inter-tidal beach area. The tower became isolated from the sea when the construction of the railway took place, but seawater still flowed into the area at high tide. It wasn't until the filling in of the area to form the Blackrock Park that the tower was to be on dry land. That part of the tower, which is visible today, is actually the first floor as the ground floor is buried underground.
In 2007, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council published plans for the conservation and development of the park. The plans include the extensive redevelopment of the course of the Priory River, as well as the refurbishment of several of the buildings within the park. As of 2013, no work has been carried out as part of the redevelopment masterplan, with no start date published.
Blackrock Baths
The Blackrock baths were provided for by the railway company in 1839 and were built beside the Blackrock train station. A special train ticket also permitted entrance to the baths. In 1887, the baths were rebuilt in concrete with a large gentlemen's bath and a smaller ladies' bath. In 1928, the Urban District Council bought the baths for £2,000 and readied them for the Tailteann Games. The baths, with a 50-metre pool, were well known for their swimming galas and water polo and could accommodate up to 1,000 spectators."
Eddie Heron lived in Sandycove and is known for his achievement as 36 years undefeated Springboard and Highboard Diving Champion of Ireland. A plaque commemorating him is on the railway bridge that crosses over to the baths.
On 11 September 1891, Thomas Crean, while swimming with fellow students near Blackrock, helped rescue a 21-year-old art student named William Ahern. Crean noticed that Ahern was in trouble and together with a young solicitor named Leachman from Dundrum, he managed to bring him ashore. For his bravery, he was awarded a medal by the Royal Humane Society.
The decline in the use of the baths started in the 1960s when indoor heated swimming pools started to appear. Dún Laoghaire Corporation closed the Blackrock Baths in the late 1980s and by 1992, due to lack of maintenance, parts of the baths were dismantled. They have since been sold to developers Treasury Holdings. In 2013, the baths were demolished due to safety concerns following a routine inspection by Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council. It was found that the diving platform had been significantly corroded and detached from the pool base.
Historic houses
Many fine houses of historical and architectural significance were built in the area, some of which are still existing today, while others have been demolished.
Frescati House, built in 1739, was a fine example and was at one time the childhood home of Lord Edward FitzGerald. Frescati, despite much local protest to save it, was demolished in 1983 and Frascati Shopping Centre now stands in its place.
Maretimo House was built in 1770 as a summer residence for Nicholas Lawless, 1st Baron Cloncurry, who had his main house at Lyons Hill, County Kildare. His son Valentine Lawless, 2nd Baron Cloncurry gave land beside the house for the building of the Roman Catholic Church, St. John the Baptist. At the time of the construction of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, Lord Cloncurry was compensated with, among other things, a private railway bridge and harbour. Maretimo house was demolished in 1970 and apartments of the same name now stand in its place. The private railway bridge can still be seen today but is not maintained and its once elegant walkway has been replaced by a corrugated iron walkway.
Blackrock House, built-in 1774 by Sir John Lees (1737–1811), is one of a few 18th-century houses built with red brick. It has some fine features such as a two-storey red brick porch. It also features a large coach-house, stable yard and gate-lodge. With the construction of the railway, Lees was also compensated with a tunnel being built through his land. There is a ruin of a small summer-house near Lord Cloncurry's harbour. In the nineteenth century it was owned by the
Vance family. The house is still here to be seen today, although it is currently divided into flats.
Rosefield (previously Belleville) was demolished in 1983 to make way for the Blackrock Clinic. Rosefield was one of the first seaside villas built on the Fitzwilliam estate around 1750.
Talbot Lodge was an 18th-century villa that was later doubled in size. It was bought by the Sisters of Charity and became part of the Linden Convalescent Home. It was sold to developers and was demolished in December 1989.
Neptune House, built in 1767, is a Georgian building with a colourful history.
It was the country residence of John Scott, the first Earl of Clonmel, who was chief justice of the King's Bench in 1784. He was also known as 'Copper-faced Jack' for his aggressiveness in argument and skin tone.
In 1916, British troops who landed in Dún Laoghaire during the Easter Rising stayed in Neptune House.
Religion in history
The Church of Ireland built two churches in the area. The Booterstown parish was established in 1821 from the Donnybrook parish and the first church built was St. Philip and St. James Church in 1822 on Cross Avenue. To follow was All Saints Church on Carysfort Avenue in 1868.
The Catholic Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul founded St. Catherine's Seminary in 1939 with the purchase of the house Dunardagh, Temple Hill.
The Catholic Dominican Order came to Blackrock in the 1830s with the purchase of the house Sion Hill on the corner of Mount Merrion Avenue and Cross Avenue. They set up Sion Hill Convent, a girls' school called Dominican College Sion Hill, and Froebel College of Education. They also run an Adult Education Centre and they ran St. Catherine's College of Education for Home Economics between 1929 and 2007.
The Catholic Holy Ghost Fathers came to Blackrock from Paris and established Blackrock College in 1860 with the purchase of Castle Dawson. They later bought Williamstown Castle in 1875, Clareville in 1899 and Willow Park in 1924. All of these buildings, except Clareville, are still standing today and form Blackrock College and Willow Park School.
The Kellyite sect was formed by Rev. Thomas Kelly (1769–1855), who broke away from the Church of Ireland. He built a church called Christchurch on Carysfort Avenue. In 1872 the church was handed over to the Church of Ireland. In the early 1960s, the church was demolished as it was surplus to needs. The old church was located where the car park is on the corner of Carysfort Avenue and the Blackrock Bypass.
The Methodist congregation established a church on George's Avenue in the 19th century. The church is still standing but disused. The congregation moved to a new church beside the town hall on Newtown Avenue. The congregation consolidated with that of Dún Laoghaire around the middle of the 20th century. Since then the Blackrock building is used as a community meeting place called Urban Junction.
The Catholic Order of St. Camillus have a community residing at South Hill Avenue while Opus Dei established Rosemont secondary school off Temple Hill around 1970.
The Presbyterian Church in Ireland established their Blackrock Congregation in 1895. It met in the Blackrock Town Hall until they built St. Andrew's Church on Mount Merrion Avenue in 1899.
The Catholic Religious Sisters of Charity arrived in 1864 with the purchase of Linden and established Linden Convalescent Home. They later bought Talbot Lodge which became part of the convalescent home. The home was sold in the late 1990s to developers who built the Linden residential complex. More recently, in 2003, the congregation expanded Our Lady's Hospice to Blackrock with the opening of The Venerable Louis and Zelie Martin Hospice.
The Roman Catholic parish of Blackrock was established from Booterstown in 1922. The first church in the area was built on Sweetman's Avenue in 1823. In 1845 a much larger church, St. John the Baptist was constructed on Temple Hill. Another church was built in 1967 on Newtownpark Avenue called the Church of the Guardian Angels.
The Society of Friends (Quakers) have their Dublin burial grounds, Friends Burial Ground, at Temple Hill. Their meeting house is on Carrickbrennan Road, Monkstown.
Blackrock today
Features
Blackrock Clinic, a private clinic in Williamstown, was built on the site of Rosefield House.
The town hall was completed in 1865 while the Carnegie Library and the Technical Institute were built-in 1905. The site for the Technical Institute was presented to the Town Commissioners by a resident, William Field MP, in 1898.
Commerce
Blackrock is a large commercial centre with cafes, restaurants, an award-winning independent fine wine and craft beer store (Blackrock Cellar), boutiques, hairdressers and barbers, a tattoo and piercing studio, pharmacies, supermarkets, art galleries, antiques and home improvements outlets as well as bars such as The Breffni, Jack O'Rourkes, Flash Harry's, Conways, The Wicked Wolf, Kelly & Coopers and the Three Tun Tavern.
The Blackrock Shopping Centre was built in 1984 by Superquinn who managed the development and are the anchor store. Superquinn has now become Supervalu.
There are many high street finance branches for AIB, Bank of Ireland, EBS, National Irish Bank, Ulster Bank and the Blackrock Credit Union. Permanent TSB closed their Blackrock branch in March 2010 but retain their administrative offices on Carysfort Avenue.
There are many office buildings that house large corporations such as Zurich Financial Services and AIG, and car dealers such as Carroll & Kinsella Motors, Maxwell Motors (generally BMW) and Eco Aer (eco electric vehicles).
The Blackrock Market was set up in 1996 just off Main Street and has a range of independent sellers who sell all sorts of items like bean bags, candles, stamps and coins, second-hand books and antiques. In addition to a number of food stalls selling crepes, cakes and ethnic food, there are a number of restaurants including 3 Leaves (recommended by Michelin since 2019 for its classic and contemporary Indian cuisine), Hook't Fish & Chips, El Cellar Tapas restaurant & Wine bar, and the Michelin starred Liath Restaurant. The market is open Saturday and Sunday, but some stalls and restaurants open during the week also.
Enterprise & community
The area has a range of industries, notably in the IT and service areas.
In April 2010, a new business organisation for the area was formed. It is known as the Blackrock Business Network (BBN). In Spring 2011, a new website "I Love Blackrock" was launched. and promotes over 400 businesses in the area. In 2016 they launched their first Leprechaun Chase, a hugely popular fun run event for the local community on Saint Patrick's day followed by village entertainment - a Ceilí at the Cross and street performers.
Education
Primary schools
For a more comprehensive list of schools in Blackrock and its hinterland, see the link below (Primary Schools in South County Dublin).
Benincasa, Mount Merrion Avenue (Roman Catholic)
Carysfort National School, Convent Road (Roman Catholic)
Guardian Angels, Newtownpark Avenue (Roman Catholic)
International School of Dublin, Temple Road (non-denominational)
Willow Park, Rock Road (Roman Catholic)
St. Augustine's, Obelisk Park (Roman Catholic)
All Saints, Carysfort Avenue (Church of Ireland)
Booterstown National School, Cross Avenue (Church of Ireland)
Our Lady of Mercy National School, Rosemount Avenue (Roman Catholic)
Secondary schools
Blackrock College, Rock Road (Roman Catholic)
Blackrock Educate Together Secondary School, Newtownpark Avenue
Dominican College Sion Hill, Cross Avenue (Roman Catholic)
Newpark Comprehensive School, Newtownpark Avenue (Church of Ireland)
Newpark Music School, Newtownpark Avenue
Rosemont Secondary School, Temple Road (Roman Catholic)
St. Andrew's College, Booterstown Avenue (Inter-Denominational)
Third level
Carysfort College was a large teacher training college in the area until its closure in 1988
Froebel College of Education, Cross Avenue is one of the 5 major Teacher Training Colleges in Ireland. (Moved to NUI Maynooth campus in 2013)
Michael Smurfit Graduate School of Business is a business school of UCD that occupy the old buildings of Carysfort College
Newpark Music Jazz School, Newtownpark Avenue
Progressive College, Carysfort Avenue and UCD Blackrock Campus, specialises in the provision of a range of childcare and healthcare courses.
Blackrock Further Education Institute, located in the centre of Blackrock since 2015, following a re-location of Senior College Dun Laoghaire
Churches
All Saints, Carysfort Avenue (Church of Ireland)
Church of the Guardian Angels, Newtownpark Avenue (Roman Catholic)
St. Andrew's, Mount Merrion Avenue (Presbyterian)
St. John the Baptist, Blackrock (Roman Catholic)
St. Philip and St. James, Cross Avenue, (Church of Ireland)
People
Lord Edward FitzGerald (1763–1798) was born and lived in Frescati House for a part of his life. He was an Irish aristocrat and revolutionary and was one of the commanders in the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
Valentine Lawless (1773–1853) the second Baron Cloncurry, was an Irish politician and landowner that had a summer residence in Blackrock called Maretimo. He is reputed to have played a part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and 1803.
Patrick Byrne (1783–1864) lived at 3 Waltham Terrace from 1855. He was an architect who built many Catholic churches in Dublin including the local Catholic parish church, St. John the Baptist. He also served as a vice president of the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland.
James Stephens (1825–1901) at one time lived at 82 George's Avenue, Blackrock and was a founding member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood.
Charles Kickham (1828–1882) lived at James O'Connors former house of 2 Montpelier Place, off Temple Hill. He was a novelist, poet, journalist and one of the most prominent members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood.
Lieutenant General Harry Hammon Lyster (1830–1922) was born in Blackrock and was an Anglo-Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.
William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1838–1903) was an Irish historian and publicist born in Newtown Park. He is noted for his chief work of A History of England during the Eighteenth Century.
John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921) lived in a large 18th-century house called South Hill and developed the first practical pneumatic or inflatable tyre. He was one of the founders of the rubber company that bore his name, Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company.
Sir William Orpen (1878–1931) lived in a house called Oriel on Grove Avenue, just off Mount Merrion Avenue. He was a portrait painter and official war artist in the First World War. Some of his work is permanently on display in the National Gallery of Ireland.
Maurice Walsh (1879–1964) lived on both Stillorgan Park Avenue and Avoca Road in Blackrock. He is noted as a novelist and best known for his short story The Quiet Man.
Éamon de Valera (1882–1975) lived in a few houses in the area including Bellevue on Cross Avenue 1933–1940. He was educated at Blackrock College and later taught there and at Our Lady of Mercy College, Carysfort. He retired to Linden Convalescent Home after his Presidential term ended in 1973 and died there on 29 August 1975.
The writer James Joyce (1882–1941) lived in 23 Carysfort Avenue known as Leoville for one year in the early 1890s. This house is still extant. In his book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man he makes reference to the local parish church St. John the Baptist.
Kevin O'Higgins (1892–1927) rented Lisaniskea ("Lios na Uisce"), near Blackrock, in 1923–1925. He later moved to Dunamase on Cross Avenue and was the Minister for Justice in the Government of The Irish Free State. He was assassinated on the Booterstown end of Cross Avenue on his way to Mass at his local parish church on 10 July 1927 by members of the IRA. It is believed that he was assassinated for ordering the execution of many republicans, including Rory O'Connor (Irish republican). Rory O'Connor was Kevin's best man at his wedding in 1921.
Brian O'Nolan (1911–1966) lived at 4 Avoca Terrace and later at 81 Merrion Avenue. He was an Irish novelist and satirist, best known for his novels At Swim-Two-Birds and The Third Policeman written under the nom de plume Flann O'Brien.
The abstract painter Cecil King (1921–1986) lived for many years on Idrone Terrace, and one of his paintings is entitled Idrone.
George Thomas Stokes (1843–1898) was an Irish ecclesiastical historian and Church of Ireland clergyman. In 1868, he was nominated first vicar of the newly constituted charge of All Saints, Newtown Park, Co. Dublin, which he held till his death.
The artist Sean O'Sullivan, (1906–1964) lived for many years in Avoca Avenue. He painted many notable people including the President of Ireland, Éamon de Valera.
The portrait painter Reginald Gray was born in Blackrock in 1930. He lived for twenty-seven years at 10 Avoca Place and was a near neighbour of the artist Seán O'Sullivan. He lived most of his life in France. He is an elected member of The American Society of Portrait Artists.
Rowan Gillespie is an Irish bronze casting sculptor of international renown, who created the "Blackrock Dolmen" sculpture in Blackrock. He works out of Blackrock with a purpose-built bronze casting foundry in a house called Clonlea.
Ryan Tubridy was born in Blackrock in 1973 and went to Blackrock College. He is an RTÉ presenter of radio and television shows and the current host of the long-running chat show The Late Late Show.
Eoin Dillon, Uilleann piper, of Kila, was brought up in the Blackrock area and lived in Hollypark. Living in Blackrock influenced many of his contemporary tunes.
Actor Frank Kelly, best known for playing Father Jack on the television comedy series Father Ted, was born and lived for most of his life in Blackrock.
Travel writer and hospital founder Sarah Maud Heckford (1839-1903), was born in Blackrock.
First-class cricketer and British Army officer William Payne-Gallwey was born at Blackrock.
Gallery
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
Black Rock, Victoria
References
External links
Primary Schools in South County Dublin | [
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239509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian%20Empire | Serbian Empire | The Serbian Empire (, ) was a medieval Serbian state that emerged from the Kingdom of Serbia. It was established in 1346 by Dušan the Mighty, who significantly expanded the state.
Under Dušan's rule, Serbia was the major power in the Balkans and a multi-lingual empire that stretched from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth, with its capital in Skopje. He also promoted the Serbian Archbishopric to the Serbian Patriarchate. His son and successor, Uroš the Weak, lost most of the territory conquered by Dušan, hence his epithet.
The Serbian Empire effectively ended with the death of Uroš V in 1371 and the break-up of the Serbian state. Some successors of Stefan V claimed the title of Emperor in parts of Serbia until 1402, but the territory in Greece was never recovered.
History
Establishment
Stefan Dušan was the son of the Serbian king Stefan Dečanski (r. 1322–1331). After his father's accession to the throne, Dušan was awarded with the title of "young king". Although this title bore significant power in medieval Serbia, Stefan wanted his younger son, Simeon Uroš, to inherit him instead of Dušan. However, Dušan had significant support from the major part of the Serbian nobility, including the Serbian archbishop Danilo, and some of the king's most trusted generals, such as Jovan Oliver Grčinić. Tensions slowly rose between the king and his son, especially after the battle of Velbužd, where Dušan showed his military capabilities, and they seem to have culminated when king Stefan raided Zeta, a province in Serbia where Dušan ruled autonomously, being a tradition of Serbian heirs to rule this province. Advised by the nobility, Dušan later marched from Zeta to Nerodimlje, where he besieged his father and forced him to surrender the throne. Stefan was later imprisoned in the fortress of Zvečan, where he died.
In 1333, Dušan launched a large attack on the Byzantine empire, at the time ruled by the ambitious emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, with the help of a deserted Byzantine general, Syrgian. Dušan quickly conquered the cities of Ohrid, Prilep and Kastoria, and attempted to besiege Thessalonica in 1334, but was prevented conquering the city by the death of Syrgian, who had been assassinated by a Byzantine spy. Syrgian was a key figure in Dušan's army, as he had earned a great reputation in Greece, convincing Greek citizens to surrender cities rather than fight Dušan's armies.
By 1345, Dušan the Mighty had expanded his state to cover half of the Balkans, more territory than either the Byzantine Empire or the Second Bulgarian Empire in that time. Therefore, in 1345, in Serres, Dušan proclaimed himself "Tsar" ("Caesar"). On 16 April 1346, in Skopje (former Bulgarian capital), he had himself crowned "Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks", a title signifying a claim to succession of the Byzantine Empire. The ceremony was performed by the newly elevated Serbian Patriarch Joanikije II, the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon, and Nicholas, the Archbishop of Ohrid. At the same time, Dušan had his son Uroš crowned as King of Serbs and Greeks, giving him nominal rule over the Serbian lands, although Dušan was governing the whole state, with special responsibility for the newly acquired Roman (Byzantine) lands. These actions, which the Byzantines received with indignation, appear to have been supported by the Bulgarian Empire and tsar Ivan Alexander, as the Patriarch of Bulgaria Simeon had participated in both the creation of a Serbian Patriarchate of Peć and the imperial coronation of Stefan Uroš IV Dušan. Dushan made marriage alliance with Bulgarian tsar Ivan Alexander, marrying his sister Helena.
Reign of Stefan Dušan
Tsar Dušan doubled the size of Serbian state, seizing territories in all directions, especially south and southeast. Serbia held parts of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moravian Serbia, Kosovo, Zeta, modern North Macedonia, modern Albania, and half of modern Greece. He did not fight a single field battle, instead winning his empire by besieging cities. Dušan undertook a campaign against the Byzantine Empire, which was attempting to avert a deteriorating situation after the destruction caused by the Fourth Crusade. Dušan swiftly seized Thessaly, Albania, Epirus, and most of Macedonia.
After besieging the emperor at Salonica in 1340, he imposed a treaty assuring Serbia sovereignty over regions extending from the Danube to the Gulf of Corinth, from the Adriatic Sea to the Maritsa river, and including parts of southern Bulgaria up to the environs of Adrianople. Bulgaria had never fully recovered since its defeat by the Serbs at the Battle of Velbazhd. The outcome of the battle shaped the balance of power in the Balkans for the next decades to come and although Bulgaria did not lose territory, the Serbs could occupy much of Macedonia. Bulgarian tsar Ivan Alexander, whose sister Helena Dušan later married, became his ally between 1332 and 1365. Dušan ruled over major central part of the Balkan peninsula. He gave sanctuary to the former regent of the Byzantine Empire, John VI Kantakouzenos, in revolt against the government, and agreed to an alliance.
In 1349 and 1354, Dušan enacted a set of laws known as Dušan's Code. The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law and the first Serbian constitution, St. Sava's Nomocanon (1219). It was a Civil and Canon law system, based on the Ecumenical Councils, for the functioning of the state and the Serbian Orthodox Church. In 1355, Dušan began military preparations for new campaigns in the south and east east, but suddenly died of an unknown illness in December 1355.
Expansion into Bosnia and Dalmatia
Bordering Serbia to the west was the banate of Bosnia, ruled by Stephen II Kotromanic. During the reign of Dušan's father, Stefan Dečanski, Stephen expanded his rule to the Serbian provinces of Hum and Krajina, which stretched from Dubrovnik on the east to river Cetina on the west, Dušan, being busy with his conquests on the south, tried to solve this territorial dispute with diplomacy, but that didn't succeed, as Stephen continually refused or ignored Dušan's requests, counting on the help of his Hungarian protector king Louis I.
However, the situation changed when Louis signed a treaty with Dušan, so he could attack the kingdom of Naples without Dušan attacking him from the south. Stephen, feeling that his position in Hum and Krajina is becoming harder to defend, started building fortresses around river Neretva, to strengthen his presence and even went as far as to raid the Serbian province of Travunia, reaching as far as Kotor. Dušan couldn't tolerate this, so he marched with his army westward.
Dušan led 50 000 Infantry and 30 000 Cavalry across the Bosnian border. Stephen, knowing he couldn't face such a force, opted to retreat in front of it in hopes of leading the Serbian army into hard terrain, where he could potentially fight them off. However, this didn't work out because Bosnian nobility and even some of Stephen's own soldiers, unhappy with his rule, started defecting to Dušan. Dušan soon reached Bobovac, the capital of Bosnia, to which he laid siege. The Bosnian ban fled to Hungary, and Bosnia was left open for Dušan to conquer.
He left a portion of his army to continue besieging Bobovac; sent another portion to conquer the region of Krajina, while he himself led a third portion to conquer Hum. Then, after conquering Hum, Dušan proceeded to enter Dalmatia, in order to secure his sister's domains. His sister, Jelena Nemanjic-Subic, was married to the ban of Croatia, Mladen Subic, who died of plague in 1348, leaving his lands to his wife. After his death, Hungarians and Venetians both continually tried to take control over these lands, so Dušan entered Dalmatia to protect her sister's legal domains. He was welcomed as a liberator in Sibenik and Trogir, but as the Byzantine emperor John Kantakouzenos attacked Dušan from the south, capturing the city of Veria and Edessa, Dušan was forced to retreat and repel him. While he was on his way back, he was welcomed and prepared a great feast in Dubrovnik, where his wife stayed for some time.
It is unclear if Dušan kept control in these lands. Certain historians say Stephen Kotromanic returned and regained control in Bosnia, but the sources don't mention anything about him after Dušan's conquests, until his death in late 1353. Dušan most likely kept control over Dalmatia, since after his conquests, Serbian Orthodox monastery of Krka was built in that region. Also, he is recorded sending 2 military units under the command of his generals Đuraš Ilijić and Palman Bracht to protect the Dalmatian cities of Klis and Skradin in 1355. Djuras Ilijic surrendered Skradin to the Venetians some time after Dušan's death, on 10 January 1356, and Klis was conquered by the Croatian general Nikola Banic for the Hungarian king sometime after 1356, ending Serbian presence in Dalmatia.
Reign of Stefan Uroš V
Dušan was succeeded by his son, Stefan Uroš V, called "the Weak," a term that also described the empire as it slowly slid into feudal anarchy. The failure to consolidate its holdings after a sudden conquest led to the fragmentation of the empire. The period was marked by the rise of a new threat: the Ottoman Turkish sultanate gradually spread from Asia to Europe and conquered first Byzantine Thrace, and then the other Balkan states. Too incompetent to sustain the empire created by his father, Stefan V could neither repel attacks of foreign enemies nor combat the independence of his nobility. The Serbian Empire of Stefan V fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities, some of which did not even nominally acknowledge his rule. Stefan Uroš V died childless on 4 December 1371, after much of the Serbian nobility had been killed by the Ottoman Turks during the Battle of Maritsa.
Aftermath and legacy
The crumbling Serbian Empire under Uroš the Weak offered little resistance to the powerful Ottomans. In the wake of internal conflicts and decentralization of the state, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs under Vukašin at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, making vassals of the southern governors; soon thereafter, the Emperor died. As Uroš was childless and the nobility could not agree on a rightful heir, the Empire continued to be ruled by semi-independent provincial lords, who often were in feud with each other. The most powerful of these, Lazar Hrebeljanović, a Duke of present-day central Serbia (which had not yet come under Ottoman rule), stood against the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. The result was indecisive, but it led to the subsequent fall of Serbia. Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, succeeded as ruler, but by 1394 he had become an Ottoman vassal. In 1402 he renounced Ottoman rule and became a Hungarian ally; the following years are characterized by a power struggle between the Ottomans and Hungary over the territory of Serbia. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, and in 1458 Athens was taken. In 1459, Serbia was annexed, and then Greece a year later. During the following centuries of Ottoman rule, the legacy of former statehood, embodied in the Serbian Empire, became an integral part of Serbian national identity.
Administration
Law
After finishing most of his conquests, Stefan Dušan dedicated himself to supervising the administration of the empire. One key objective was to create a written legal code, an effort his predecessors had only begun. An assembly of bishops, nobles, and provincial governors was charged with creating a code of laws, bringing together the customs of the Slav countries.
Dušan's Code was enacted in two state assemblies, the first on May 21, 1349 in Skopje, and the second in 1354 in Serres. The law regulated all social spheres, thus it is considered a medieval constitution. The Code included 201 articles, based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting is notable with the articles 172 and 174 of Dušan's Code, which regulated juridical independence. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16-17). The Code had its roots in the first Serbian constitution — St. Sava's Nomocanon () from 1219, enacted by Saint Sava. St. Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of Civil law, based on Roman Law and Canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils. Its basic purpose was to organize the functions of the state and Serbian Orthodox Church.
The legislation resembled the feudal system then prevalent in Western Europe, with an aristocratic basis and establishing a wide distinction between nobility and peasantry. The monarch had broad powers but was surrounded and advised by a permanent council of magnates and prelates. The court, chancellery and administration were rough copies of those of Constantinople. The code enumerated the administrative hierarchy as following: "lands, cities, župas and krajištes"; the župas and krajištes were one and the same, where župas on the borders were called krajištes (frontier). The župa consisted of villages, and their status, rights, and obligations were regulated in the constitution. The ruling nobility possessed hereditary allodial estates, which were worked by dependent sebri, the equivalent of Greek paroikoi: peasants owing labour services, formally bound by decree. The earlier župan title was abolished and replaced with the Greek-derived kefalija (kephale, "head, master").
Economy
Commerce was another object of Dušan's concern. He gave strict orders to combat piracy and to assure the safety of travelers and foreign merchants. Traditional relations with Venice were resumed, with the port of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) becoming an important transaction point. Exploitation of mines produced appreciable resources.
East-west Roman roads through the empire carried a variety of commodities: wine, manufactures, and luxury goods from the coast; metals, cattle, timber, wool, skins, and leather from the interior. This economic development made possible the creation of the Empire. Important trade routes were the ancient Roman Via Militaris, Via Egnatia, Via de Zenta, and the Kopaonik road, among others. Ragusan merchants in particular had trading privileges throughout the realm. Security of trade and merchants on the roads was a major concern for the state authorities.
Srebrenica, Rudnik, Trepča, Novo Brdo, Kopaonik, Majdanpek, Brskovo, and Samokov were the main centers for mining iron, copper, and lead ores, and silver and gold placers. The silver mines provided much of the royal income, and were worked by slave-labour, managed by Saxons. A colony of Saxons worked the Novo Brdo mines and traded charcoal burners. The silver mines processed an annual 0.5 million dollars (1919 comparation).
The currency used was called dinars; an alternative name was perper, derived from the Byzantine hyperpyron. The golden dinar was the largest unit, and the imperial tax was one dinar coin, per house, annually.
Military
Serbian military tactics consisted of wedge-shaped heavy cavalry attacks with horse archers on the flanks. Many foreign mercenaries were in the Serbian army, mostly Germans as cavalry and Spaniards as infantry. The army also had personal mercenary guards for the emperor, mainly German knights. A German nobleman, Palman, became the commander of the Serbian "Alemannic Guard" in 1331 upon crossing Serbia on the way to Jerusalem; he became leader of all mercenaries in the Serbian Army. The main strength of the Serbian army were the heavily armoured knights feared for their ferocious charge and fighting skills, as well as hussars, versatile light cavalry formations armed mainly with spears and crossbows, ideal for scouting, raiding and skirmishing.
State insignia
The 1339 map by Angelino Dulcert depicts a number of flags, and Serbia is represented by a flag placed above Skoplje (Skopi) with the name Serbia near the hoist, which was characteristic for capital cities at the time the drawing was produced. The flag, depicting a red double-headed eagle, represented the realm of Stefan Dušan. A flag in Hilandar, seen by Dimitrije Avramović, was alleged by the brotherhood to have been a flag of Emperor Dušan; it was a triband with red at the top and bottom and white in the center. Emperor Dušan also adopted the Imperial divelion, which was purple and had a golden cross in the center. Another of Dušan's flags was the Imperial cavalry flag, kept at the Hilandar monastery on Mount Athos; a triangular bicolored flag, of red and yellow.
Gallery
Culture
Religion
Influenced by the clergy, Dušan showed extreme severity towards Roman Catholicism. Those who adopted the Latin rite were condemned to work in mines, and people who propagated it were threatened with death. The Papacy grew concerned about this and the increasing power of Dušan and aroused the old rivalry of the Catholic Hungarians against the Orthodox Serbs. Once again Dušan overcame his enemies from whom he seized Bosnia and Herzegovina, which marked the height of the Serbian Empire in Middle Ages. However the most serious menace came from the East, from the Turks. Entrenched on the shores of the Dardanelles, the Turks were the common enemies of Christendom. It was against them that the question of uniting and directing all forces in the Balkans to save Europe from the invasion arose. The Serbian Empire already included most of the region, and to transform the peninsula into a cohesive whole under a rule of a single master required seizure of Constantinople to add to Serbia what remained of the Byzantine Empire. Dušan intended to make himself emperor and defender of Christianity against the Islamic wave.
Education and arts
Education, to which St. Sava had given the first impulse, progressed remarkably during Dušan's reign. Schools and monasteries secured royal favor. True seats of culture, they became institutions in perpetuating Serbian national traditions. The fine arts, influenced by Italians, were not neglected. Architectural monuments, frescoes and mosaics testify the artistic level archived during this period.
Government
Emperors, and co-rulers
Stefan Dušan (1346–1355)
Stefan Uroš V (1355–1371)
co-ruler Vukašin of Serbia with the title of "king" (1365-1371)
designated heir Prince Marko with the title of "young king" (1369-1371)
For a list of magnates, feudal lords and officials, see Nobility of the Serbian Empire.
See also
Serbia in the Middle Ages
Serbian nobility conflict (1369)
References
Sources
External links
14th century in Serbia
Medieval Albania
Medieval Macedonia
Medieval Montenegro
Former empires
Former Slavic countries
Former countries in the Balkans
States and territories established in 1346
1346 establishments in Europe
1371 disestablishments in Europe
14th century in Greece
Greece–Serbia relations
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239512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP%2040 | MP 40 | The MP 40 (Maschinenpistole 40) is a submachine gun chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge. It was developed in Nazi Germany and used extensively by the Axis powers during World War II.
Designed in 1938 by Heinrich Vollmer with inspiration from its predecessor the MP 38, it was heavily used by infantrymen (particularly platoon and squad leaders), and by paratroopers, on the Eastern and Western Fronts as well as armoured fighting vehicle crews. Its advanced and modern features made it a favorite among soldiers and popular in countries from various parts of the world after the war. It was often called "Schmeisser" by the Allies, after Hugo Schmeisser, who designed the MP 18, although he was not involved in the design or production of the MP40. The weapon's other variants included the MP 40/I and the MP 41. From 1940 to 1945, an estimated 1.1 million were produced by Erma Werke.
Development
The Maschinenpistole 40 ("Machine pistol 40") descended from its predecessor the MP 38, which was in turn based on the MP 36, a prototype made of machined steel. The MP 36 was developed independently by Erma Werke's Berthold Geipel with funding from the German Army. It took design elements from Heinrich Vollmer's VPM 1930 and EMP. Vollmer then worked on Berthold Geipel's MP 36 and in 1938 submitted a prototype to answer a request from the Heereswaffenamt (Army Weapons Office) for a new submachine gun, which was adopted as MP 38. The MP 38 was a simplification of the MP 36, and the MP 40 was a further simplification of the MP 38, with certain cost-saving alterations, most notably in the more extensive use of stamped steel rather than machined parts.
The MP 40 was often called the "Schmeisser" by the Allies, after the weapon designer Hugo Schmeisser. Schmeisser had designed the MP 18, which was the first mass-produced submachine gun. He did not, however, have anything to do with the design or development of the MP 40, although he held a patent on the magazine.
Design
The MP 40 submachine guns are open-bolt, blowback-operated automatic arms. The only mode of fire is automatic, but the relatively low rate of fire permits single shots with controlled trigger pulls. The bolt features a telescoping return spring guide which serves as a pneumatic recoil buffer. The cocking handle was permanently attached to the bolt on early MP 38s, but on late-production MP 38s and MP 40s, the bolt handle was made as a separate part. It also serves as a safety by pushing the head of the handle into one of two separate notches above the main opening; this action locks the bolt in either the cocked (rear) or uncocked (forward) position. The absence of this feature on early MP 38s resulted in field expedients such as leather harnesses with a small loop that were used to hold the bolt in the forward position.
The MP 38 receiver was made of machined steel, but this was a time-consuming and expensive process. To save time and materials, and thus increase production, construction of the MP 40 receiver was simplified by using stamped steel and electro-spot welding as much as possible. The MP 38 also features longitudinal grooving on the receiver and bolt, as well as a circular opening on the magazine housing. These features were eliminated on the MP 40.
One feature found on most MP 38 and MP 40 submachine guns is an aluminum, steel, or Margolit (a variation of Bakelite) resting bar under the barrel. This was used to steady the weapon when firing over the side of open-top armored personnel carriers such as the Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track. A handguard, also made of Margolit, is located between the magazine housing and the Margolit pistol grip. The barrel lacked any form of insulation, which often resulted in burns on the supporting hand if it was incorrectly positioned. The MP 40 also has a forward-folding metal stock, the first for a submachine gun, resulting in a shorter overall weapon when folded. However, this stock design was at times insufficiently durable for hard combat use.
Although the MP 40 was generally reliable, a major weakness was its 32-round magazine. Unlike the double-column, staggered-feed magazine found on the Thompson M1921/1928 variants, the MP 40 uses a double-column, single-feed version. The single-feed insert resulted in increased friction against the remaining cartridges moving upwards towards the feed lips, occasionally resulting in feed failures; this problem was exacerbated by the presence of dirt or other debris. Another problem was that the magazine was also sometimes misused as a handhold. This could cause the weapon to malfunction when hand pressure on the magazine body caused the magazine lips to move out of the line of feed, since the magazine well did not keep the magazine firmly locked. German soldiers were trained to grasp either the handguard on the underside of the weapon or the magazine housing with the supporting hand to avoid feed malfunctions.
Usage
At the outbreak of World War II, the majority of German soldiers carried either Karabiner 98k rifles or MP 40s, both of which were regarded as the standard weapons of choice for an infantryman.
However, later confrontations with Soviet troops such as the Battle of Stalingrad, where entire enemy units were armed with PPSh-41 submachine guns, the Germans found themselves out-gunned in short range urban combat which caused a shift in their tactics, and by the end of the war the MP 40 and its derivatives were sometimes issued to entire assault platoons. Starting in 1943, the German military moved to replace both the Karabiner 98k rifle and MP 40 with the new, revolutionary StG 44. By the end of World War II in 1945, an estimated 1.1 million MP 40s had been produced of all variants.
Post-war use
During and after the end of World War II, many MP 40s were captured or surrendered (upwards of 200,000) to the Allies and were then redistributed to the paramilitary and irregular forces of some developing countries. The Norwegian army withdrew the MP 38 from use in 1975 but used the MP 40 for some years more. In particular, the Territorials (Heimevernet) used it until about 1990, when it was replaced by the Heckler & Koch MP5.
Variants
MP 40/I
The MP 40/I (sometimes erroneously called MP 40/II) was a modified version of the standard MP 40 with a dual side-by-side magazine holder (for a theoretical ammunition total of 64 rounds), designed for special operations troops on the Eastern Front to compensate for the enemies' PPSh-41 larger magazine capacity. However, the design proved unsuccessful due to weight and reliability issues. Authentic versions, in addition to the dual mag magazine well, also have a smaller buttpad and shortened ejector.
MP 41
In 1941, Hugo Schmeisser designed the MP 41, which was, in reality, an MP 40 upper receiver with a lower receiver of an MP 28 submachine gun. It saw limited service, however, and was issued only to SS and police units in 1944. The MP 41 was also supplied to Germany's Axis ally Romania.
Later in 1941, rival company Erma Werke sued Haenel, at which Schmeisser was Chief Designer, for patent infringement. Production subsequently ceased on the MP41.
Influence on later weapons
The MP 38 and MP 40 also directly influenced the design of later weapons, including the Spanish Star Z45, the Yugoslavian Zastava M56, and the semi-automatic German Selbstladebüchse BD 38 replica.
Details of the MP 40 have also been adopted in other submachine guns, which otherwise differ significantly from a technical point of view:
The designers of the American M3 "Grease Gun" examined British Sten guns and captured MP 40s for usable construction details.
The folding stock became the model for those on later weapons, such as the Soviet PPS-43 and the AKS and AKMS versions of the AK-47.
The MP 40 magazine can also be used in the Belgian Vigneron submachine gun.
Operators
During World War II, the resistance and the Allies sometimes captured MP 40s to replace or supplement their own weapons. The MP 40 was used for several decades following World War II by many countries around the world in armed conflicts. Some found their way into guerrilla groups such as the Viet Cong or African guerrillas.
Its operators have included:
: the National Liberation Army used MP 40s supplied by Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
: French resistance used captured guns during World War II. MP 40s were also carried by French Army in the French Indochina and French Algeria.
: MP 38/40 supplied in 1954 from Czechoslovakia, still in service with the police at the end of the Guatemalan Civil War.
: Used in small numbers by the 55th Airborne Brigade and Iranian Imperial Guards.
Italian Partisans: Used examples captured from German soldiers.
Kosovo Liberation Army
used by the Wehrmacht, military police, Gestapo, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm, and Hitler Youth at the end of war.
captured MP 40s, were used by Polish rebels during the war.
: captured MP 40s were used by Soviet partisans and Worker-Peasant Red Army. After the war, the MP 40 with other weapons, were sold to others countries in the Eastern Bloc.
: copied as the Star Model Z-45.
: used by the South Vietnamese Popular Force.
: used against Israel.
: captured MP 40s used by United States during World War II and by Special Forces and their Civilian Irregular Defense Group program at the beginning of the Vietnam War. Some also apparently captured in the Iraq War.
: captured from the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and used by the Viet Minh, the Viet Cong and the People's Army of Vietnam.
: used by ZIPRA and ZANLA.
Civilian ownership in the United States
Following the Allied occupation of Europe in 1945, U.S. servicemen shipped home thousands of captured firearms as war trophies, including MP 40s. This practice required proper registration of automatic weapons in accordance with the National Firearms Act before they could be imported, but this was curtailed later in the occupation, meaning a relatively small number of civilian-transferable MP 40s remain in circulation and are valued at around $20,000-37,500 as of 2021, with some selling for almost $50,000.
There are several semi-automatic variants and cosmetic replicas of the MP 40 available for civilian ownership in the U.S. Beginning in 2014, American Tactical Imports began importing an MP 40 replica manufactured by German Sporting Guns GmbH chambered in .22LR, and since 2016 has also imported a pistol variant chambered in 9mm. The .22LR variant features an all-metal construction with period-accurate Bakelite furniture, a folding stock, and a faux-suppressor to meet barrel length import requirements. The 9mm variant is classified as a pistol and therefore does not ship with a folding stock. Both variants are closed-bolt, blowback-operated semi-automatic firearms that vary substantially from originally manufactured MP 40s in internal operation, making them more of an affordable cosmetic replica than a faithful reproduction. Neither of the GSG-manufactured variants are compatible with originally manufactured MP 40 parts and magazines.
See also
List of common World War II infantry weapons
List of submachine guns
List of World War II firearms of Germany
Footnotes
References
Sources
External links
Website dedicated to the MP 38, MP 40 and MP 41
Gunworld article on the MP 40
The Schmeisser MP41: A Hybrid Submachine Gun
9mm Parabellum submachine guns
Erma Werke firearms
MP 38 derivatives
Simple blowback firearms
Submachine guns of Germany
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1940
World War II infantry weapons of Germany
World War II submachine guns | [
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|
239513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectival | Adjectival | Adjectival may refer to:
Anything related to or serving as an adjective
Adjectival noun (Japanese)
Adjectival demonym, an adjective used to indicate a location (e.g. Irish, Italian)
List of adjectival and demonymic forms of place names
List of adjectivals and demonyms for subcontinental regions
List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations
List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities
List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies
List of adjectivals and demonyms for former regions
List of adjectival tourisms
See also
Adjective phrase
Adjectival noun (disambiguation) | [
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|
239515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal | Verbal | Verbal may refer to:
People
Verbal (rapper) (born 1975), Japanese rapper and music producer
Verbal Kent (born 1978), alternative hip hop artist from Chicago
Verbal Jint (born 1980), South Korean musician, rapper and record producer
Language
Something expressed with speech, rather than writing
Pertaining to verbs
Verbal noun, a noun formed from a corresponding verb
A word or group of words that functions as the head of a verb phrase
Person characterised by verbosity or fluency
Anything pertaining to language or the use of words, as opposed to nonverbal communication
Other uses
Roger "Verbal" Kint, a character in the 1995 film The Usual Suspects
Verbal, a magazine published by the Verbal Arts Centre, Northern Ireland
Verbal, a track on Amon Tobin's EP Verbal Remixes & Collaborations
See also
Procès-verbal, a legal term with a number of meanings
Verbal abuse (disambiguation)
Verbal agreement (disambiguation) | [
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|
239516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extract%2C%20transform%2C%20load | Extract, transform, load | In computing, extract, transform, load (ETL) is the general procedure of copying data from one or more sources into a destination system which represents the data differently from the source(s) or in a different context than the source(s). The ETL process became a popular concept in the 1970s and is often used in data warehousing.
Data extraction involves extracting data from homogeneous or heterogeneous sources; data transformation processes data by data cleaning and transforming it into a proper storage format/structure for the purposes of querying and analysis; finally, data loading describes the insertion of data into the final target database such as an operational data store, a data mart, data lake or a data warehouse.
A properly designed ETL system extracts data from the source systems, enforces data quality and consistency standards, conforms data so that separate sources can be used together, and finally delivers data in a presentation-ready format so that application developers can build applications and end users can make decisions.
Since the data extraction takes time, it is common to execute the three phases in pipeline. While the data is being extracted, another transformation process executes while processing the data already received and prepares it for loading while the data loading begins without waiting for the completion of the previous phases.
ETL systems commonly integrate data from multiple applications (systems), typically developed and supported by different vendors or hosted on separate computer hardware. The separate systems containing the original data are frequently managed and operated by different employees. For example, a cost accounting system may combine data from payroll, sales, and purchasing.
Extract
The first part of an ETL process involves extracting the data from the source system(s). In many cases, this represents the most important aspect of ETL, since extracting data correctly sets the stage for the success of subsequent processes. Most data-warehousing projects combine data from different source systems. Each separate system may also use a different data organization and/or format. Common data-source formats include relational databases, XML, JSON and flat files, but may also include non-relational database structures such as Information Management System (IMS) or other data structures such as Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM) or Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM), or even formats fetched from outside sources by means such as web spidering or screen-scraping. The streaming of the extracted data source and loading on-the-fly to the destination database is another way of performing ETL when no intermediate data storage is required.
An intrinsic part of the extraction involves data validation to confirm whether the data pulled from the sources has the correct/expected values in a given domain (such as a pattern/default or list of values). If the data fails the validation rules, it is rejected entirely or in part. The rejected data is ideally reported back to the source system for further analysis to identify and to rectify the incorrect records.
Transform
In the data transformation stage, a series of rules or functions are applied to the extracted data in order to prepare it for loading into the end target.
An important function of transformation is data cleansing, which aims to pass only "proper" data to the target. The challenge when different systems interact is in the relevant systems' interfacing and communicating. Character sets that may be available in one system may not be so in others.
In other cases, one or more of the following transformation types may be required to meet the business and technical needs of the server or data warehouse:
Selecting only certain columns to load: (or selecting null columns not to load). For example, if the source data has three columns (aka "attributes"), roll_no, age, and salary, then the selection may take only roll_no and salary. Or, the selection mechanism may ignore all those records where salary is not present (salary = null).
Translating coded values: (e.g., if the source system codes male as "1" and female as "2", but the warehouse codes male as "M" and female as "F")
Encoding free-form values: (e.g., mapping "Male" to "M")
Deriving a new calculated value: (e.g., sale_amount = qty * unit_price)
Sorting or ordering the data based on a list of columns to improve search performance
Joining data from multiple sources (e.g., lookup, merge) and deduplicating the data
Aggregating (for example, rollup — summarizing multiple rows of data — total sales for each store, and for each region, etc.)
Generating surrogate-key values
Transposing or pivoting (turning multiple columns into multiple rows or vice versa)
Splitting a column into multiple columns (e.g., converting a comma-separated list, specified as a string in one column, into individual values in different columns)
Disaggregating repeating columns
Looking up and validating the relevant data from tables or referential files
Applying any form of data validation; failed validation may result in a full rejection of the data, partial rejection, or no rejection at all, and thus none, some, or all of the data is handed over to the next step depending on the rule design and exception handling; many of the above transformations may result in exceptions, e.g., when a code translation parses an unknown code in the extracted data
Load
The load phase loads the data into the end target, which can be any data store including a simple delimited flat file or a data warehouse. Depending on the requirements of the organization, this process varies widely. Some data warehouses may overwrite existing information with cumulative information; updating extracted data is frequently done on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis. Other data warehouses (or even other parts of the same data warehouse) may add new data in a historical form at regular intervals — for example, hourly. To understand this, consider a data warehouse that is required to maintain sales records of the last year. This data warehouse overwrites any data older than a year with newer data. However, the entry of data for any one year window is made in a historical manner. The timing and scope to replace or append are strategic design choices dependent on the time available and the business needs. More complex systems can maintain a history and audit trail of all changes to the data loaded in the data warehouse.
As the load phase interacts with a database, the constraints defined in the database schema — as well as in triggers activated upon data load — apply (for example, uniqueness, referential integrity, mandatory fields), which also contribute to the overall data quality performance of the ETL process.
For example, a financial institution might have information on a customer in several departments and each department might have that customer's information listed in a different way. The membership department might list the customer by name, whereas the accounting department might list the customer by number. ETL can bundle all of these data elements and consolidate them into a uniform presentation, such as for storing in a database or data warehouse.
Another way that companies use ETL is to move information to another application permanently. For instance, the new application might use another database vendor and most likely a very different database schema. ETL can be used to transform the data into a format suitable for the new application to use.
An example would be an Expense and Cost Recovery System (ECRS) such as used by accountancies, consultancies, and legal firms. The data usually ends up in the time and billing system, although some businesses may also utilize the raw data for employee productivity reports to Human Resources (personnel dept.) or equipment usage reports to Facilities Management.
Real-life ETL cycle
The typical real-life ETL cycle consists of the following execution steps:
Cycle initiation
Build reference data
Extract (from sources)
Validate
Transform (clean, apply business rules, check for data integrity, create aggregates or disaggregates)
Stage (load into staging tables, if used)
Audit reports (for example, on compliance with business rules. Also, in case of failure, helps to diagnose/repair)
Publish (to target tables)
Archive
Challenges
ETL processes can involve considerable complexity, and significant operational problems can occur with improperly designed ETL systems.
The range of data values or data quality in an operational system may exceed the expectations of designers at the time validation and transformation rules are specified. Data profiling of a source during data analysis can identify the data conditions that must be managed by transform rules specifications, leading to an amendment of validation rules explicitly and implicitly implemented in the ETL process.
Data warehouses are typically assembled from a variety of data sources with different formats and purposes. As such, ETL is a key process to bring all the data together in a standard, homogeneous environment.
Design analysis should establish the scalability of an ETL system across the lifetime of its usage — including understanding the volumes of data that must be processed within service level agreements. The time available to extract from source systems may change, which may mean the same amount of data may have to be processed in less time. Some ETL systems have to scale to process terabytes of data to update data warehouses with tens of terabytes of data. Increasing volumes of data may require designs that can scale from daily batch to multiple-day micro batch to integration with message queues or real-time change-data-capture for continuous transformation and update.
Performance
ETL vendors benchmark their record-systems at multiple TB (terabytes) per hour (or ~1 GB per second) using powerful servers with multiple CPUs, multiple hard drives, multiple gigabit-network connections, and much memory.
In real life, the slowest part of an ETL process usually occurs in the database load phase. Databases may perform slowly because they have to take care of concurrency, integrity maintenance, and indices. Thus, for better performance, it may make sense to employ:
Direct path extract method or bulk unload whenever is possible (instead of querying the database) to reduce the load on source system while getting high-speed extract
Most of the transformation processing outside of the database
Bulk load operations whenever possible
Still, even using bulk operations, database access is usually the bottleneck in the ETL process. Some common methods used to increase performance are:
Partition tables (and indices): try to keep partitions similar in size (watch for null values that can skew the partitioning)
Do all validation in the ETL layer before the load: disable integrity checking (disable constraint ...) in the target database tables during the load
Disable triggers (disable trigger ...) in the target database tables during the load: simulate their effect as a separate step
Generate IDs in the ETL layer (not in the database)
Drop the indices (on a table or partition) before the load - and recreate them after the load (SQL: drop index ...; create index ...)
Use parallel bulk load when possible — works well when the table is partitioned or there are no indices (Note: attempting to do parallel loads into the same table (partition) usually causes locks — if not on the data rows, then on indices)
If a requirement exists to do insertions, updates, or deletions, find out which rows should be processed in which way in the ETL layer, and then process these three operations in the database separately; you often can do bulk load for inserts, but updates and deletes commonly go through an API (using SQL)
Whether to do certain operations in the database or outside may involve a trade-off. For example, removing duplicates using distinct may be slow in the database; thus, it makes sense to do it outside. On the other side, if using distinct significantly (x100) decreases the number of rows to be extracted, then it makes sense to remove duplications as early as possible in the database before unloading data.
A common source of problems in ETL is a big number of dependencies among ETL jobs. For example, job "B" cannot start while job "A" is not finished. One can usually achieve better performance by visualizing all processes on a graph, and trying to reduce the graph making maximum use of parallelism, and making "chains" of consecutive processing as short as possible. Again, partitioning of big tables and their indices can really help.
Another common issue occurs when the data are spread among several databases, and processing is done in those databases sequentially. Sometimes database replication may be involved as a method of copying data between databases — it can significantly slow down the whole process. The common solution is to reduce the processing graph to only three layers:
Sources
Central ETL layer
Targets
This approach allows processing to take maximum advantage of parallelism. For example, if you need to load data into two databases, you can run the loads in parallel (instead of loading into the first — and then replicating into the second).
Sometimes processing must take place sequentially. For example, dimensional (reference) data are needed before one can get and validate the rows for main "fact" tables.
Parallel processing
A development in ETL software is the implementation of parallel processing. It has enabled a number of methods to improve overall performance of ETL when dealing with large volumes of data.
ETL applications implement three main types of parallelism:
Data: By splitting a single sequential file into smaller data files to provide parallel access
Pipeline: allowing the simultaneous running of several components on the same data stream, e.g. looking up a value on record 1 at the same time as adding two fields on record 2
Component: The simultaneous running of multiple processes on different data streams in the same job, e.g. sorting one input file while removing duplicates on another file
All three types of parallelism usually operate combined in a single job or task.
An additional difficulty comes with making sure that the data being uploaded is relatively consistent. Because multiple source databases may have different update cycles (some may be updated every few minutes, while others may take days or weeks), an ETL system may be required to hold back certain data until all sources are synchronized. Likewise, where a warehouse may have to be reconciled to the contents in a source system or with the general ledger, establishing synchronization and reconciliation points becomes necessary.
Rerunnability, recoverability
Data warehousing procedures usually subdivide a big ETL process into smaller pieces running sequentially or in parallel. To keep track of data flows, it makes sense to tag each data row with "row_id", and tag each piece of the process with "run_id". In case of a failure, having these IDs help to roll back and rerun the failed piece.
Best practice also calls for checkpoints, which are states when certain phases of the process are completed. Once at a checkpoint, it is a good idea to write everything to disk, clean out some temporary files, log the state, etc.
Virtual ETL
, data virtualization had begun to advance ETL processing. The application of data virtualization to ETL allowed solving the most common ETL tasks of data migration and application integration for multiple dispersed data sources. Virtual ETL operates with the abstracted representation of the objects or entities gathered from the variety of relational, semi-structured, and unstructured data sources. ETL tools can leverage object-oriented modeling and work with entities' representations persistently stored in a centrally located hub-and-spoke architecture. Such a collection that contains representations of the entities or objects gathered from the data sources for ETL processing is called a metadata repository and it can reside in memory or be made persistent. By using a persistent metadata repository, ETL tools can transition from one-time projects to persistent middleware, performing data harmonization and data profiling consistently and in near-real time.
Dealing with keys
Unique keys play an important part in all relational databases, as they tie everything together. A unique key is a column that identifies a given entity, whereas a foreign key is a column in another table that refers to a primary key. Keys can comprise several columns, in which case they are composite keys. In many cases, the primary key is an auto-generated integer that has no meaning for the business entity being represented, but solely exists for the purpose of the relational database - commonly referred to as a surrogate key.
As there is usually more than one data source getting loaded into the warehouse, the keys are an important concern to be addressed. For example: customers might be represented in several data sources, with their Social Security Number as the primary key in one source, their phone number in another, and a surrogate in the third. Yet a data warehouse may require the consolidation of all the customer information into one dimension.
A recommended way to deal with the concern involves adding a warehouse surrogate key, which is used as a foreign key from the fact table.
Usually, updates occur to a dimension's source data, which obviously must be reflected in the data warehouse.
If the primary key of the source data is required for reporting, the dimension already contains that piece of information for each row. If the source data uses a surrogate key, the warehouse must keep track of it even though it is never used in queries or reports; it is done by creating a lookup table that contains the warehouse surrogate key and the originating key. This way, the dimension is not polluted with surrogates from various source systems, while the ability to update is preserved.
The lookup table is used in different ways depending on the nature of the source data.
There are 5 types to consider; three are included here:
Type 1
The dimension row is simply updated to match the current state of the source system; the warehouse does not capture history; the lookup table is used to identify the dimension row to update or overwrite
Type 2
A new dimension row is added with the new state of the source system; a new surrogate key is assigned; source key is no longer unique in the lookup table
Fully logged
A new dimension row is added with the new state of the source system, while the previous dimension row is updated to reflect it is no longer active and time of deactivation.
Tools
An established ETL framework may improve connectivity and scalability. A good ETL tool must be able to communicate with the many different relational databases and read the various file formats used throughout an organization. ETL tools have started to migrate into Enterprise Application Integration, or even Enterprise Service Bus, systems that now cover much more than just the extraction, transformation, and loading of data. Many ETL vendors now have data profiling, data quality, and metadata capabilities. A common use case for ETL tools include converting CSV files to formats readable by relational databases. A typical translation of millions of records is facilitated by ETL tools that enable users to input csv-like data feeds/files and import them into a database with as little code as possible.
ETL tools are typically used by a broad range of professionals — from students in computer science looking to quickly import large data sets to database architects in charge of company account management, ETL tools have become a convenient tool that can be relied on to get maximum performance. ETL tools in most cases contain a GUI that helps users conveniently transform data, using a visual data mapper, as opposed to writing large programs to parse files and modify data types.
While ETL tools have traditionally been for developers and IT staff, research firm Gartner wrote that the new trend is to provide these capabilities to business users so they can themselves create connections and data integrations when needed, rather than going to the IT staff. Gartner refers to these non-technical users as Citizen Integrators.
ETL vs. ELT
Extract, load, transform (ELT) is a variant of ETL where the extracted data is loaded into the target system first.
The architecture for the analytics pipeline shall also consider where to cleanse and enrich data as well as how to conform dimensions.
Ralph Kimball and Joe Caserta's book The Data Warehouse ETL Toolkit, (Wiley, 2004), which is used as a textbook for courses teaching ETL processes in data warehousing, addressed this issue.
Cloud-based data warehouses like Amazon Redshift, Google BigQuery, and Snowflake Computing have been able to provide highly scalable computing power. This lets businesses forgo preload transformations and replicate raw data into their data warehouses, where it can transform them as needed using SQL.
After having used ELT, data may be processed further and stored in a data mart.
There are pros and cons to each approach. Most data integration tools skew towards ETL, while ELT is popular in database and data warehouse appliances. Similarly, it is possible to perform TEL (Transform, Extract, Load) where data is first transformed on a blockchain (as a way of recording changes to data, e.g., token burning) before extracting and loading into another data store.
See also
Architecture patterns (EA reference architecture)
Create, read, update and delete (CRUD)
Data cleansing
Data integration
Data mart
Data mediation
Data mesh, a domain-oriented data architecture
Data migration
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
Enterprise architecture
Expense and cost recovery system (ECRS)
Hartmann pipeline
Legal Electronic Data Exchange Standard (LEDES)
Metadata discovery
Online analytical processing (OLAP)
Online transaction processing (OLTP)
Spatial ETL
References
Data warehousing | [
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|
239517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbial | Adverbial | In English grammar, an adverbial (abbreviated ) is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial clause or adverbial phrase) that modifies or more closely defines the sentence or the verb. (The word adverbial itself is also used as an adjective, meaning "having the same function as an adverb".) Look at the examples below:
Danny speaks fluently. (telling more about the verb)
Lorna ate breakfast yesterday morning. (telling when the verb's action occurred)
The form of adverbials
Adverbials most commonly take the form of adverbs, adverb phrases, temporal noun phrases or prepositional phrases. Many types of adverbials (for instance: reason and condition) are often expressed by clauses.
James answered immediately. (adverb)
James answered in English. (prepositional phrase)
James answered this morning. (noun phrase)
James answered in English because he had a foreign visitor. (adverbial clause)
An adverbial is a construction which modifies or describes verbs. When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb. Word groups, which are also considered to be adverbials, can also modify verbs: for example, a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a finite clause or a non-finite clause. Prepositional phrase in a sentence may be adverbial; that is, it modifies a verb.
Types of adverbials that form sentence elements
Adverbials are typically divided into four classes:
Adverbial complements (i.e. obligatory adverbial) are adverbials that render a sentence ungrammatical and meaningless if removed.
John put the flowers in the water.
Adjuncts: These are part of the core meaning of the sentence, but if omitted still leave a meaningful sentence.
John and Sophia helped me with my homework.
Conjuncts: These link two sentences together.
John helped; therefore, I was able to do my homework.
Disjuncts: These make comments on the meaning of the rest of the sentence.
Surprisingly, he passed all of his exams.
Distinguishing an adverbial from an adjunct
All verb- or sentence-modifying adjuncts are adverbials, but some adverbials are not adjuncts.
If the removal of an adverbial does not leave a well-formed sentence, then it is not an adjunct
If the adverbial modifies within a sentence element, and is not a sentence element in its own right, it is not an adjunct.
If the adverbial is not grammatically tied to the sentence it is not an adjunct, e.g.
Mr Reninson, however, voted against the proposal. (adverbial conjunct not adjunct)
Other types of adverbials
Directional and locative particles
Prepositions (in, out, etc.) may be used adverbially to indicate direction or location.
Superman flew in. (directional)
Are you in? (locative)
The car drove out. (directional)
The ball is out. (locative)
Negators
In some grammar models, negators such as "not" and "never" are considered adverbs with the function of negating adverbial clauses.
Expletives
Often ignored, expletives may take up many adverbial syntactic functions. Pragmatically and semantically, they often serve as intensifiers, boosting the content of the clause they appear in.
What the hell are you talking about?
You're freaking lying!
You bloody well know that smoking's not allowed here!
He got sodding killed.
References
Syntactic entities
English grammar | [
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|
239519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Novara | Battle of Novara | Battle of Novara may refer to:
Battle of Novara (1500), a battle between France and Milan during the Second Italian War
Battle of Novara (1513), a battle between the Holy League and France, within the War of the League of Cambrai
Battle of Novara (1821), between Sardinian regulars and Piedmontese liberals
Battle of Novara (1849), a battle between the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Sardinia, within the Italian unification wars | [
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239521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MG%2034 | MG 34 | The MG 34 (shortened from German: Maschinengewehr 34, or "machine gun 34") is a German recoil-operated air-cooled general-purpose machine gun, first tested in 1929, introduced in 1934, and issued to units in 1936. It introduced an entirely new concept in automatic firepower – the Einheitsmaschinengewehr (Universal machine gun) – and is generally considered the world's first general-purpose machine gun (GPMG). Both the MG 34 and MG 42 were erroneously nicknamed "Spandau" by Allied troops, a carryover from the World War I nickname for the MG 08, which was produced at the Spandau Arsenal.
The versatile MG 34 was chambered for the full-power 7.92×57mm Mauser rifle cartridge, and was arguably the most advanced machine gun in the world at the time of its deployment. The MG 34 was envisaged and well developed to provide portable light and medium machine gun infantry cover, anti-aircraft coverage, and even sniping ability. Its combination of exceptional mobility – being light enough to be carried by one man – and high rate of fire (of up to 900 rounds per minute) was unmatched. It entered service in great numbers from 1939. Nonetheless, the design proved to be rather complex for mass production, and was supplemented by the cheaper and simpler to mass produce MG 42, though both remained in service and production until the end of the war.
History
Before World War I
Even before World War I, the German military was already looking forward to replacing the heavy machine guns which proved to be such a success in that war. The MG13 was one of the first developments toward a goal of producing a weapon that could perform multiple roles, rather than just one. The MG13 was the result of reengineering the Dreyse Water-cooled machine gun to fit the new requirement. The twin-barreled Gast gun was developed with the goal of providing a high cyclic rate of fire weapon for anti-aircraft use and was reported to have reached cyclic rates of fire as high as 1,600 rounds per minute.
The Einheitsmaschinengewehr concept required that the operator could radically transform the machine gun for several purposes by changing its mount, sights and feed mechanism.
One of the Einheitsmaschinengewehr roles was to provide low-level anti-aircraft coverage. A high cyclic rate of fire is advantageous for use against targets that are exposed to a general-purpose machine gun for a limited time span, like aircraft or targets that minimize their exposure time by quickly moving from cover to cover. For targets that can be fired on by a general-purpose machine gun for longer periods than just a few seconds, the cyclic firing rate becomes less important.
After World War I
After World War I the German military faced restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty restricted the German Reichswehr (Realm Defence) to maximally stockpiling 792 heavy (bulky hard-to-maneuver water-cooled) machine guns and 1,134 light machine guns and actual production of machine guns and development of sustained fire weapons were prohibited. From 1933 Nazi Germany was committed to repudiating the Treaty of Versailles and its restrictions. As part of a (clandestine) military revitalization program the German military sought avenues to get around restrictions imposed by the treaty by resorting to innovative weapon design and engineering, German arms designers working abroad and other foreign assistance.
Development of the MG 34
In 1932 the Reichswehrministerium (Ministry of the Reichswehr) ordered several companies, including Rheinmetall, to develop a new Einheitsmaschinengewehr (Universal machine gun) to replace several role specific machine guns then in German use. The following specifications for the gun were set:
light weight
simplified operation
quick-change barrel
single-shot capability as well as two (fast and slower) cyclic rates
The MG 34 was based on a 1930 Rheinmetall design under the direction of Louis Stange at Rheinmetall's Sömmerda office, the MG 30. The Swiss and Austrian militaries had both licensed and produced the MG 30 from Rheinmetall shortly after it was patented and the gun started to enter service in Switzerland. The technical challenges in meeting the Reichswehrministerium specifications were broader than the gun development itself. It also encompassed various mounts and other accessories that had to adapt that gun to different roles. The MG 30 design was adapted and modified by Heinrich Vollmer of Mauser Industries. Vollmer originally designed the feed mechanism to accept MG 13/MG 15 inspired 75-round Patronentrommel 34 spring-loaded saddle-drum magazines. The Patronentrommel 34 was a rather complex magazine for which a filling device had to be used and requiring ordnance personnel and a special tool to optimize the spring tension for reliable feeding. Users were ordered not to adjust the drum spring tension.
The result, the multiple role capable MG 34, wherein Rheinmetall's Sömmerda plant had a significant influence, reflected the Reichswehrministerium specifications.
In 1937 the feed was redesigned to use reusable non-disintegrating Gurt 33 and Gurt 34 metal belts and a 50-round Gurttrommel 34 (belt drum).
The feeding system was based on the direct push-through of the cartridge out of the link into the gun's chamber. Accordingly, the link had to be of the half-open type to enable the motion of the bolt through the link.
Vollmer also increased the rate of fire. The MG 34's double crescent trigger dictated either semiautomatic or fully automatic firing modes. The capability to use the previous 75-round Patronentrommel 34 saddle-drum magazines (with a required change of the feed cover for a Trommelhalter magazine holder) was retained.
As the MG 34 was technically based on and featured design elements of several other machine guns, the German arms industry under the guidance of the Waffenamt (German Army Weapons Agency) negotiated and worked out complex royalties and patents matters regarding the MG 34 to every involved side's satisfaction.
Before large scale production commenced, 2,300 MG 34s in two main early versions, slightly more complex and different from the final design, were produced between 1935 and 1939. At the time it was introduced, it had a number of advanced features and the general-purpose machine gun concept that it aspired to was an influential one.
During the period between 1934 and the adoption of the final version the Waffenamt realized the MG 34 Einheitsmaschinengewehr was too complex and expensive to mass-produce and started looking for ways to simplify and rationalize the technical concept. In 1937, the Waffenamt requested three companies to submit new more economical Einheitsmaschinengewehr designs.
Adoption of the MG 34 and next Einheitsmaschinengewehr generation
The final version of the MG 34 was eventually adopted for main service on 24 January 1939.
The MG 34 was the mainstay of German Army support weapons from the time of its first pre large scale production issue in 1935 until 1942, when it was supplanted by the next Einheitsmaschinengewehr generation Maschinengewehr 42 or MG 42. Although the MG 34 was fairly reliable — it was sensitive to extreme weather conditions, dirt and mud — when competently maintained and dominant on the battlefield. Its dissemination throughout the German forces was hampered due to its elaborately milled precision engineering with tight tolerances and use of high-quality metal alloys, which resulted in high machine time, skilled labor requirements, production costs and a relatively slow rate of production. MG 34 production during the war amounted to over 350,000 units (12,822 units in 1939, 54,826 in 1940, 80,952 in 1941, 63,163 in 1942, 48,802 in 1943, 61,396 in 1944, and 20,297 in 1945). Attempts to incrementally improve the fundamental drawbacks of the basic MG 34 design failed. For its successor, the faster firing, less complex, sensitive and expensive MG 42, the Germans instead used mass production techniques similar to those that created the MP 40 submachine gun. In 1943, MG 42 production surpassed MG 34 production and continued to do so until the end of the war. The Germans nevertheless continued widespread production of MG 34s in parallel until the end of the war.
Combat use
In the field, the weapon could operate in offensive or defensive applications. The offensive model, with a mobile soldier, used either a 50-round Gurttrommel or a 75-round Patronentrommel 34. In a stationary defensive role, the gun was mounted on a bipod or tripod and fed by a non-disintegrating metal ammunition belt. Belts were carried in boxes of five. Each belt contained 50 rounds. Belt lengths could be linked for sustained fire. During sustained fire, barrels would have to be changed at intervals due to the heat generated by the rapid rate of fire. If the barrels were not changed properly, the weapon would misfire. Changing barrels was a rapid process for the trained operator and involved disengaging a latch and swinging the receiver to the right for the insertion of a new barrel into the barrel shroud. Accordingly, stationary defensive positions required more than one operator.
Europe
The MG 34 was used as the primary infantry machine gun, and remained as the primary armored vehicle defensive weapon as it took limited space to change barrels inside a vehicle. The MG 34 was intended to replace the MG 13 and other older machine guns, but these were still being used in World War II as demand was never met. It was intended to be replaced in infantry service by the MG 42, but there were never enough MG 42s, and MG 34s continued to be used in all roles until the end of World War II.
It was the standard machine gun of the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) and was also used as a secondary weapon on most German tanks and other armoured vehicles used during World War II.
East Asia
MG 34s captured by the British and Soviet armies were sent to both Chinese Nationalist and Chinese Communist forces during World War II and the Chinese Civil War. The French army sent captured MG 34s to Indochina during the Indochina War. Some models captured from the Germans by the Soviets or manufactured in Czechoslovakia post-WWII were supplied to the People's Liberation Army/People's Volunteer Army, PAVN and the Viet Cong during the Cold War. Several hundred more MG 34s that were in use with these groups were taken from either French or other Western nations fielding captured German weapons fighting against them in colonial wars or anti-communist conflicts.
Small arms doctrine
The German tactical infantry doctrine of the era based a (10-man Gruppe) squad's firepower on the general-purpose machine gun in the light machine gun role. The advantage of the general purpose machine gun concept was that it added greatly to the overall volume of fire that could be put out by a squad-sized unit.
It was possible for operating crews to lay down a non-stop barrage of fire, pausing only when the barrel had to be replaced. This allowed the MG 34 to tie up significantly larger numbers of enemy troops than was otherwise possible. The Americans and the British trained their troops to take cover from the fire of an MG 34, and assault the position during the small time window of barrel replacement.
The German military instructed that sustained cyclic rate fire must be avoided at all costs. In the bipod-mounted light machine gun role, MG 34 users were trained to fire short bursts and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. According to comparative tests by the US military under battle conditions, 7 to 10 rounds bursts with 15 bursts in a minute were most effective. For its medium machine gun role, the MG 34 was matched to the newly developed Lafette 34 tripod. In the tripod-mounted medium machine gun role, general-purpose machine gun users were trained to fire short bursts and bursts of 20 to 50 rounds and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. As a consequence of factors like the time spent reloading, aiming, changing hot barrels if necessary to allow for cooling, the MG 34's practical effective rate of fire was 150 rounds per minute.
The Allied nations' infantry doctrines of World War II based a squad's/rifle section's firepower centered on the rifleman and/or a magazine fed light machine gun (BAR, Bren, DP-27/DPM, FM 24/29), and they utilised weapons with cyclic fire rates of typically 450–600 rounds per minute.
Light machine gun fire support role
A German infantry Gruppe (squad) at the start of the war consisted of ten men; a non-commissioned officer or Unteroffizier squad leader, deputy squad leader, a three-man machine gun team (machine gunner, assistant gunner/loader and ammunition carrier) and five riflemen. The riflemen carried additional ammunition for the machine gun, hand grenades, explosive charges or a machine gun tripod as required and provided security and covering fire for the machine gun team. A full Gruppe (squad) carried 1,800 rounds of ammunition for the machine gun between them.
Medium machine gun fire support role
In the German heavy machine gun (HMG) platoons, each platoon served four MG 34/MG 42 machine guns, used in the sustained fire mode mounted on tripods. In 1944, this was altered to six machine guns in three sections with two seven-man heavy machine gun squads per section as follows:
Squad leader (NCO) MP40
Machine gunner (private) MG 34/MG 42 and Walther P38
Assistant gunner (private) pistol
Three riflemen (privates) rifles
Horse leader for horse, cart and trailer (private) rifle
The optimum operating crew of an MG 34 in its medium machine gun role was six men: the squad leader, the machine gunner who carried and fired the gun, the assistant gunner/loader who carried the tripod, and three riflemen who carried 1,800 rounds of ammunition between them, spare barrels, entrenching tools, and other items.
To enable the machine gun for its long-range direct fire and indirect fire support roles, optical sights could be added to a Zielfernrohrhalter (optical sight mounting bracket) on the tripod, allowing operating crews to continue using advanced planned and unplanned firing methods developed during World War I, though plunging fire or indirect fire methods were not as commonly used by machine gunners during World War II as they were during World War I.
Design details
Operating system
The MG 34 fires from an open bolt and this format both keeps the barrel open at both ends after firing ceases, allowing airflow through it and helping it to cool faster, and meanwhile retains the next unfired bullet outside the chamber until the trigger is squeezed again; and thus the cartridges are protected from the risk of cook-offs from high chamber temperatures after long bouts of sustained automatic fire. The firearm was designed with a rotating bolt operated by short recoil aided by a muzzle booster. When the firearm is ready to fire the bolt is pulled back to the rear and is held back by the sear. With the pull of the trigger the sear disengages sending the bolt forward under pressure from the recoil spring. A cartridge is stripped from the magazine or belt and the round is pushed into the chamber. As the bolt moves forward into battery the bolt rotates engaging the locking lugs and chamber locking the bolt to the barrel. The striker strikes and ignites the primer and the round is fired. The recoil causes the barrel and bolt to move backwards a short distance. The rearward movement of the barrel causes the rotating bolt to rotate back disengaging the locking lugs and unlocking the bolt from the barrel. The barrel returns to its forward position while the bolt recoils to its rear position. The spent cartridge case is ejected downward through an ejection port normally covered by a spring-loaded dust cover at the bottom of the receiver, just in front of the trigger group and the cycle can begin anew. The spring-loaded dust cover automatically opens when the gun is fired, but the user has to close it after firing to prevent dirt entering the receiver through the open port.
Sights
The MG 34 came with a standard iron sight line consisting of a notched 'V' sight mounted to a post in the rear and a single blade at the front. The sight came calibrated for ranges between in meter increments. The standard sight line had a sight radius. The MG 34 could accept a variety of different sighting systems, such as a spider web-type anti-aircraft sight or telescopic sights for use in specialty roles.
Feeding
The MG 34 could use non-disintegrating metallic-link belts, which have links that wrap around the cartridge case and are linked by a coiling wire on each side. The belts are intended for multiple reuse. Operation through the feed block is in one step by a feed arm housed in the feed cover. According to U.S. Ordnance Department tests, performed in 1942, the MG 34 was capable of lifting 75 rounds of belted ammunition during firing. The feeding system was based on the direct push-through of the cartridge out of the link into the gun's chamber. Accordingly, the link had to be of the half-open type to enable the motion of the bolt through the link. During World War II the Gurt 34/41-belt family was introduced. Gurt 34/41 belt links and wire spirals were made of thinner material — the Gurt 34 links were made of and Gurt 34/41 links of thick stamped steel sheet metal — that saved ⅓ of metal and counterintuitively yielded improved performance. Belts were supplied in a fixed length of 50 rounds, but could be linked up to make longer belts for sustained firing. Ammunition boxes contained 250 rounds in five 50-round belts. A 250-round Patronengurt 33 belt was also issued to machine guns installed in fixed emplacements such as bunkers. Patronenkasten 34 and Patronenkasten 41 ammunition boxes could hold up to 300 belted rounds. The Patronenkasten could contain an Einführstück belt starter-segment.
The 50-round Gurttrommel assault drum designed to be clipped to the left side of the gun was an alternative feed option. It was not a true magazine but held a coiled 50-round belt and corresponding Einführstück starter-segment preventing it from snagging, twisting and getting stuck during mobile assaults. The Gurttrommel belt container was commonly used until the end of World War II, with the MG 34 and MG 42.
The 75-round Patronentrommel 34 "double drum" magazine was the original pre-redesign feed method. This double drum or saddle magazine type was introduced on the MG 13, but the MG 13 magazine and Patronentrommel 34 were not interchangeable. After the MG 34 redesign, that enabled the MG 34 to use belted ammunition, the Patronentrommel 34 became a rare alternative feed option. The Patronentrommel 34 could be used only together with a Trommelhalter magazine holder that substituted the normal feed cover, thereby switching the gun from belt feeding to Patronentrommel 34 "double drum" magazine feeding. It contained 75 loose rounds in two spring-powered spirals twisting in opposite direction, feeding the chamber from opposite sides in turn. The Patronentrommel 34 was rather complicated and inconvenient to (re)load, adjust to work reliably, and in use. It had to be loaded by a special Trommelfüller 34 drum filler machine. This drum filler machine could be stored and carried in a Patronenkasten 34 ammunition box. An MG 34 configured to use the 75-round magazine could not be returned to belt-feed mode without substituting the Trommelhalter magazine holder for the normal feed cover. By the end of 1938 the Patronentrommel 34 and its accessories were officially withdrawn. This induced that Patronentrommel 34 use by infantry had ceased by 1941, with some mainly in the low level anti-aircraft role remaining in use on armoured vehicles. The MG 34 tended to fire at a somewhat higher cyclic rate when fed by a 75-round Patronentrommel 34 than when fed by a standard belt, due to the spring loading of the former.
Barrel
The barrel of the MG 34 could be quickly changed to avoid overheating during sustained fire by the machine gun crew and weighed . The service life of an MG 34 barrel was about 6,000 rounds assuming the barrel was used according to the regulations, which prohibited rapid or sustained fire beyond 250 rounds. In cases of emergency the rapid rate of a barrel was limited to 400 rounds. During a barrel change, the operator would disengage a latch on the left side of the receiver which held the receiver to the barrel sleeve. The entire receiver section could then pivot off to the right on its latitudinal axis, allowing the operator to pull the (hot) barrel out the back of the sleeve. A new cool(er) barrel would then be put in the back of the sleeve, and the receiver rotated back in line with the barrel sleeve and latched. The machine gun crew member responsible for a hot barrel change was issued protective asbestos mitts to prevent burns to the hands. The entire process took 10 to 15 seconds when performed by a well-trained crew, causing minimal downtime in battle.
For carrying and protecting spare barrel units, consisting of a barrel and its locking piece, a Laufschützer 34 (barrel protector) was used as a field accessory. When closed the Laufschützer 34 looked like a tubular container with mountings at its ends to attach a carrying/shoulder strap. During a barrel change a cool MG 34 barrel unit coming out of the Laufschützer 34 can be inserted in the machine gun and the replaced hot barrel unit can be placed in or on the opened Laufschützer 34 to cool down. Later in the war the universal Laufschützer 43 was introduced that could be used with MG 43 and MG 42 barrel units.
Trigger
A notable feature of the MG 34 was its double-crescent trigger, which provided select fire capability without the need for a fire mode selector switch. Pressing the upper segment of the trigger produced semi-automatic fire, while holding the lower segment of the trigger produced fully automatic fire. Though considered innovative at the time, the feature was eliminated due to its complexity on the MG 34's successor, the MG 42.
In the light machine gun role, it was used with a bipod and weighed only . In the medium machine gun role, it could be mounted on one of two tripods, a smaller one weighing , the larger Lafette 34 .
Lafette 34 tripod
For the medium machine gun role a larger tripod, the MG 34 Lafette 34, included a number of features, such as recoil absorbing buffer springs, a Zielfernrohrhalter (optical sight mounting bracket) for mounting an MG Z 34 or MG Z 40 periscope-type 4× power telescopic sight containing special sighting equipment for indirect fire or the late World War II MG Z 44, designed for direct fire only. Fitting such an optical sight enabled the machine gun to deliver direct fire out to . An accessory to lengthen these sights' periscope was available, allowing the use of them behind cover. The Lafette could be set up in a prone, kneeling or a high position and weighed on its own. The legs could be extended with a Lafetteaufsatzstück to allow it to be used in the low level anti-aircraft role, and when lowered, it could be placed to allow the gun to be fired "remotely" while it swept an arc in front of the mounting with fire. Mounted to the Lafette and aimed through the MG Z 34 or MG Z 40 telescopic sight the effective range of the MG 34 could be extended out to when fired indirectly. The Lafette 34 tripod also had a bolt box to store a (spare) bolt.
Another unique feature of German World War II machine guns was the Tiefenfeuerautomat feature on the Lafette 34 tripod. If selected, this feature mechanically controlled the rise and fall of the gun, elevating the gun for five rounds and then depressing it for four rounds. It lengthened the beaten zone by walking the fire in wave like motions up and down the range in a predefined area. The length of the beaten zone could be set on the Tiefenfeuerautomat. E.g., being unsure whether the real distance was , the gunner could make the mount do an automatic sweep between the elevations for and back. This sweeping of a selected beaten zone continued as long as the gun fired. The Lafette 34 had a Richt- und Überschießtafel (Overhead firing table) riveted to the rear body of the searchfire mechanism from the very start of production until the very end of it. In the later stages of World War II ballistic correction directions were added for overshooting friendly forces with S.m.E. – Spitzgeschoß mit Eisenkern (spitzer with iron core) ammunition of which the external ballistic behaviour started to significantly deviate from upwards compared to the s.S. Patrone (s.S. ball cartridge). A trigger handle, which enabled the operator to fire the gun without affecting the stability of the gun's point of aim, was attached to the Tiefenfeuerautomat searchfire unit. On the Lafette 34 it could be adjusted for both semi-automatic firing and full-automatic firing mode, although some simplified late-war mounts had the trigger configured for full-automatic firing mode only.
There were numerous other specialist mounts for the MG 34. The Dreibein 34, for example, was a simple high-standing tripod for mounting the gun in anti-aircraft mode. There were also mounts for bicycles, motorcycle sidecars, tanks and armoured vehicles (ball and pintle mounts), fortress positions, boat decks and even assault gliders. MG 34s were mounted in multiple-gun arrangements, particularly on vehicles, for low level anti-aircraft defence.
The MG 34 butt-stock could be easily removed to reduce the space occupied when mounted inside a vehicle. It was produced in various wood and bakelite versions.
Variants
MG 34 based improvement attempts
As the first war experiences in the beginning of World War II proved that a higher cyclic fire rate generates more dispersion of the bullets MG 34 based prototype guns like the MG 34S were requested. The MG 34S had a shortened and lightened barrel, a stiffer multi strands recoil spring and a better recoil booster to increase the rate of fire. The prototype weapons were developed into the very similar further improved MG 34/41, that could cope with a cyclic firing rate of 1,200 rounds per minute, but its components became highly stressed. The effort to simplify the basic MG 34 and reduce production effort and costs consisted mainly of discarding the possibility of semi-automatic fire, using a trigger group containing many stamped parts, and eliminating some complex machining operations during production. Technically, the ejector assembly was enlarged and strengthened, and the feed mechanism was modified to provide a more secure grip on the cartridge. The weight of the MG 34/41 was 14 kg, slightly more than the original MG 34 version. A limited run of MG 34/41 model guns, was completed and tested in combat trials at the Russian front. These guns exhibited durability problems, which is why the development of MG 34 based incrementally improved guns was discontinued. Instead, the German military preferred the technically fundamentally differing also combat trailed MG 39/41 gun. In early 1942 a further improved model of the MG 39/41 was officially accepted and designated as the MG 42.
MG 34 Panzerlauf
Most German tanks and other armoured vehicles used during World War II used the MG 34 Panzerlauf or MG 34 Panzermantel for secondary armament, the Jagdpanzer IV tank destroyer being the exception. The MG 42 was ill-suited for enclosed secondary or coaxial mounting due to the method of barrel change. The MG 42's barrel had to be removed and replaced by sliding the barrel out at an angle such that, when mounted on a tank/armoured vehicle, armour and space would have to be compromised to fit the weapon. Although the MG 34 was older than the (arguably) improved MG 42, its barrel could be swapped in-line with the gun, meaning that the MG 34 was favoured because it was simpler to design mountings for the gun. The MG 34 was also more versatile to feed, for instance using a 75-round Patronentrommel 34 double drum magazine or being select-fire.
The main difference of the MG 34 Panzerlauf and the regular MG 34 was the heavier, almost solid Panzermantel armored barrel shroud, almost completely lacking the ventilation holes of the regular MG 34. Further the MG 34 Panzerlauf featured bipod clamps for attaching a bipod and lacked the anti-aircraft sight bracket. When mounted inside the generally limited space inside an armored vehicle, the MG 34 user detachable butt-stock was taken off. A kit for quick conversion to ground use in the light machine gun role was carried inside the tank containing a butt-stock and a combined bipod and front sight assembly. About 50,000 MG 34 Panzerlauf or MG 34 Panzermantel were produced.
MG 81
The MG 34 was also used as the basis of a new aircraft-mounted machine gun, the MG 81 machine gun. For this role, the breech was slightly modified to allow feeds from either side, and in one version, two guns were bolted together on a single trigger to form a weapon known as the MG 81Z (for Zwilling, German for "twin" as in twin-mounted). Production of the MG 34 was never enough to satisfy any of its users, and while the MG81 was a significant improvement over the earlier MG 30-based MG 15 and MG 17 guns, these guns were used until the end of the war. As the Luftwaffe lost the battle for air superiority and declined in priority in the German war effort, MG 15s and MG 81s, which were designed as flexibly mounted aircraft machine guns, were modified and adapted for ground use by infantry, with varying degrees of success.
MG34F1 and MG34F2
Norway used and first converted the MG 34 in the 1950s to .30-06 Springfield designated as the MG34F1 and later to 7.62×51mm NATO designated as the MG34F2. These converted MG 34's were used by the Heimevernet (Norwegian Home Guard) until the mid 1990s.
TNW MG34
The TNW MG34 is a closed bolt, semi automatic only version of the MG34 made by TNW firearms, marketed towards civilian collectors, and was manufactured due to the high cost and rarity of the full auto versions. Although they stopped production in 2018, they continue to make part kits for the semi automatic variant of the MG34.
Gallery
Users
: supplied by Czechoslovakia
: probably supplied by Czechoslovakia.
: produced at Brno during German occupation of Czechoslovakia. Production continues after the war.
(post-war use on SK-1 armored car)
: received 1,000 MG34s in 1954 from Czechoslovakia
: supplied by Czechoslovakia
Used in the Korean War
Used by the NVA and Vietcong in the Vietnam War
(Used and first converted to .30-06 Springfield designated MG34F1 and later to 7.62×51mm NATO designated MG34F2 by the Heimevernet until mid 1990s)
: supplied by Czechoslovakia
Yugoslav Partisans
See also
List of World War II firearms of Germany
MG 30, predecessor
MG 42, successor
MG 3
MG 81 machine gun
SIG 710-3
References
Sources
External links
MG 34 - Modern Fireams
1943 U.S. Intelligence Report
US Army training video about the MG 34 from YouTube
The Pacific War 5: Chinese Infantry Weapons
Maschinengewehr 34, Beschreibung, Handhabung und Behandlung, Teil 1, Waffe vom 1.8.40
MG 34, Military Intelligence Service, Special Series No. 14, May 25, 1943, U.S. War Department
MG 34 (Maschinengewehr 34) : First universal machine gun
7.92×57mm Mauser machine guns
General-purpose machine guns
Machine guns of Germany
Medium machine guns
Short recoil firearms
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1936
World War II infantry weapons of Germany
World War II infantry weapons of China
World War II machine guns | [
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239522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Spurs | Battle of the Spurs | The Battle of the Spurs or (Second) Battle of Guinegate (, "Day of the Spurs"; deuxième bataille de Guinegatte) took place on 16 August 1513. It formed a part of the War of the League of Cambrai, during the ongoing Italian Wars. Henry VIII and Maximilian I were besieging the town of Thérouanne in Artois (now Pas-de-Calais). Henry's camp was at Guinegate, now called Enguinegatte. A large body of French heavy cavalry under Jacques de La Palice was covering an attempt by light cavalry to bring supplies to the besieged garrison. English and Imperial troops surprised and routed this force. The battle was characterised by the precipitate flight and extensive pursuit of the French. During the pursuit a number of notable French leaders and knights were captured. After the fall of Thérouanne, Henry VIII besieged and took Tournai.
Prelude
Context
Henry VIII had joined in the Holy League, as the League of Cambrai was also known, on 13 October 1511 with Venice and Spain to defend the Papacy from its enemies and France with military force. Henry promised to attack France at Guyenne, landing 10,000 men at Hondarribia in the Basque Country in June 1512. This army was conveyed by the admiral Edward Howard, and commanded by Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset. It remained at Bayonne till October supporting Ferdinand II of Aragon's action in the Kingdom of Navarre, though undersupplied and in poor morale. Maximilian joined the league in November. Louis XII of France hoped that Scotland would aid France against England.
Siege of Thérouanne
In May 1513 English soldiers began to arrive in number at Calais to join an army commanded by George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Steward of the Household. Shrewsbury was appointed Lieutenant-General on 12 May, John Hopton commanded the troop ships. On 17 May Henry announced to the Cinque Ports and Edward Poynings, Constable of Dover Castle, that he would join the invasion in person, and had appointed commissioners to requisition all shipping. In Henry's absence across the sea (ad partes transmarinas), Catherine of Aragon would rule England and Wales as Rector and Governor (Rectrix et Gubernatrix).
The Chronicle of Calais recorded the names and arrivals of Henry's aristocratic military entourage from 6 June onwards. At the end of the month the army set out for Thérouanne. Shrewsbury commanded the vanguard of 8,000, and Charles Somerset, Lord Herbert the rearward of 6,000. Henry VIII arrived in person at Calais on 30 June, with the main grouping of 11,000 men. The army was provided by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey as Almoner, and comprised several different types of martial forces including cavalry, artillery, infantry, and longbowmen using arrows with hardened steel heads, designed to penetrate armour more effectively. Eight hundred German mercenaries marched in front of Henry.
Shrewsbury set up a battery and dug mines towards the town's walls, but made little progress against the defending garrison of French and German soldiers in July. The town was held for France by Antoine de Créquy, sieur de Pont-Remy who returned fire until the town surrendered, and the English called one distinctive regular cannon shot the "whistle." Reports of setbacks and inefficiency reached Venice. On the way to Thérouanne two English cannon called "John the Evangelist" and the "Red Gun" had been abandoned, and French skirmishing hampered their recovery with loss of life. Edward Hall, the chronicle author, mentions the role of Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex in this operation and the advice given by Rhys ap Thomas. An Imperial agent of Margaret of Savoy wrote that two "obstinate men" govern everything, these were Charles Brandon, Viscount Lisle who he called the "Grand Esquire" and the Almoner Wolsey.
Henry camped to the east of Thérouanne at a heavily defended position, described by English chronicles as environed with artillery, such as "falcons, serpentines, cast hagbushes, tryde harowes, and spine trestles (bolt firing tarasnice)", with Henry's field accommodation consisting of a wooden cabin with an iron chimney, with large tents of blue water-work, yellow, and white fabric, topped by the King's beasts, the Lion, Dragon, Greyhound, Antelope, and Dun Cow.
The Emperor Maximilian came to Aire-sur-la-Lys in August, with a small force (either a small escort that cannot be called an army or about 1,000 to 4,000 horsemen, depending on the sources). Henry donned light armour and dressed his entourage in cloth-of gold and came to Aire on 11 August, where Maximilian's followers were still dressed in black in mourning for his wife Bianca Maria Sforza. Henry hosted Maximilian at a tent with a gallery of cloth-of-gold at his camp over the weekend beginning 13 August. According to the chronicles, the weather on the day of the meeting was the "foulest ever." News of Henry's meeting with Maximilian in person delighted Catherine of Aragon, who wrote to Wolsey that it was an honour for Henry and would raise Maximilian's reputation; he would be "taken for a nother man that he was befor thought".
Louis XII of France determined to break the siege. In July a force of 800 Albanians commanded by Captain Fonterailles pushed through the besieger's lines and successfully delivered gunpowder and supplies including bacon to the gates of the town, leaving 80 soldiers as reinforcements. Fonterailles was helped by covering artillery fire from the town. Reports sent to Venice mentioned 300 English casualties or more, and Fonterailles' statement that the town could hold out till the feast day of the Nativity of the Virgin, on 8 September. The Venetians were aware that their French sources might have been misrepresenting the situation to gain their support.
Battle
The French attempt to supply Thérouanne
A second French attempt was organized for 16 August, with a force assembled at Blangy to the south. This French army was made up of companies of gendarmes and pikemen, with some other troops as well. These included a type of French light cavalry called "stradiotes" (stradiots), equipped with short stirrups, beaver hats, light lances, and Turkish swords. These may have been Albanian units.
In response to the new threat, English military engineers had built five bridges overnight over the river Lys to allow their army free passage to the other side and Henry moved his camp to Guinegate (now called Enguinegatte), on 14 August, after displacing a company of French horse armed with spears who were stationed at the Tower of Guinegate.
The French infantry were left at Blangy, while the heavy cavalry were divided into two companies, one under the command of La Palice and Louis, Duke of Longueville, the other under Charles IV, Duke of Alençon. Alençon's smaller force made an attack on the besieging positions commanded by Lord Shrewsbury, the larger force against the south of the besieging lines where Lord Herbert commanded. Both attacks were designed to act as diversions in order that the stradiots be able to reach Thérouanne with supplies. Each stradiot had a side of bacon at his saddlebow and a sack of gunpowder behind him.
Combat
The French had hoped to catch the besieging army unprepared by moving out before dawn; however, the English 'border prickers' (light cavalry from the Scottish borders) were out and they detected the movement of the larger of the two bodies of French cavalry. Henry VIII drew up a field force from the siege lines sending out a vanguard of 1,100 cavalry, following this with 10,000–12,000 infantry. La Palice's force encountered English scouts at the village of Bomy, 5 miles from Thérouanne; the French, realising that the English were alert, checked themselves on the edge of a hillside. The stradiots then began their rather forlorn attempt to contact the garrison, riding in a wide arc towards the town.
Historical accounts derived from English and Imperial sources differ slightly.
According to Sir Charles Oman, whose narrative is largely based on the mid 16th century English Chronicle of Edward Hall, La Palice made a mistake in staying in his exposed position too long, presumably he was doing so in order to allow the stradiots the greatest possibility of success. The English heavy cavalry of the vanguard drew up opposite Palice's front, while the mounted archers dismounted and shot at the French from a flanking hedgerow. Now aware of the approach of the English infantry in overwhelming numbers, La Palice tardily ordered his force to retreat. At this point the Clarenceux Herald is said to have urged the Earl of Essex to charge. The English men-at-arms and other heavy cavalry charged just as the French were moving off, throwing them into disorder. To complete the French disarray, the stradiots crashed in confusion into the flank of the French heavy cavalry, having been driven off from approaching the town by cannon fire. At much the same time, a body of Imperial cavalry also arrived to menace the other flank of the French horsemen. Panic now seized the French cavalry, whose retreat became a rout. La Palice tried to rally them, but to no effect. In order to flee more quickly the French gendarmes threw away their lances and standards, some even cut away the heavy armour of their horses. The chase went on for many miles until the French reached their infantry at Blangy. During the pursuit many notable French knights were captured, along with a royal duke and the French commander, La Palice, himself. Meanwhile, the smaller French force had been driven off, Sir Rhys ap Thomas capturing four of their standards. The initial cavalry clash took place between the village of Bomy and Henry's camp at Guinegate.
According to Reinhold Pauli and others, Maximilian recommended that parts of the troops should be sent to the flank and rear of the enemy and lighter cannons should be put on the ridge of the neighbouring hill. He then commanded 2,000 vanguard cavalry troops himself. Marchal reports that the emperor had prepared the battle plan in mind even before arriving at the English headquarters. Henry had wanted to lead the cavalry charge, but was advised against this by his allies. So the task fell upon the 53-year-old emperor (he had won two battles in the same area, including the First Guinegate where he was a young leader supported by veterans), who in battle acted as commander-in-chief of the allied forces and directed the military operations in person. He charged impetuously with the cavalry against the French as soon as contact was made. The French cavalry initially charged back strongly, but quickly gave way and retreated. According to Howitt, the French retreat was intended as a distraction that would allow Duke of Alençon to provide the city with supplies (but the Duke was repelled by Lord Herbert before reaching the gates of the city), but soon turned into a disastrous flight that the French commanders could not control.
Contemporary accounts
The day was soon called the "Battle of the Spurs" (in French: La Journée d'Esperons) because of the haste of the French horse to leave the battlefield. In the summer of 1518 the English ambassador in Spain, Lord Berners, joked that the French had learned to ride fast at the "jurney of Spurres."<ref>J. G. Nichols, ed., Diary of Henry Machyn, Camden Society (1848), p. 401; Letters & Papers, vol. 2 (1864), no. 4282</ref>
The same evening the Imperial Master of the Posts, Baptiste de Tassis sent news of the battle to Margaret of Savoy from Aire-sur-la-Lys in Artois; "Early in the day the Emperor and the King of England encountered 8,000 French horse; the Emperor, with 2,000 only, kept them at bay until four in the afternoon, when they were put to flight. A hundred men of arms were left upon the field, and more than a hundred taken prisoners, of the best men in France; as the Sieur de Piennes, the Marquis de Rotelin, and others." Henry sent his own account to Margaret of Savoy on the following day. He mentioned that the French cavalry had first attacked Shrewsbury's position blockading the town, capturing 44 men and wounding 22. An Imperial cavalry manoeuvre brought the French horse within range of the guns, and the French cavalry fled.
The chronicle writer Edward Hall gave a somewhat different account. Hall, who says the French called it the "battle of the Spurs", centres the action around a hill, with English archers at the village of "Bomye." He has the French cavalry break after a show of English banners organized by the Clarenceux Herald, Thomas Benolt. Hall mentions that Maximilian advised Henry to deploy some artillery on another hill "for out-scourers" but does not mention any effect on the outcome. Although Henry wished to ride into the battle, he stayed with the Emperor's foot soldiers on the advice of his council.
After a three-mile chase, amongst the French prisoners were Jacques de la Palice, Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard and Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville. Although reports mention the Emperor's decision for his troops to serve under Henry's standard, Hall's account suggests friction between the English and Imperial forces, during the day and over prisoners taken by the Empire, who were "not brought to sight" and released. Henry returned to his camp at Enguinegatte and heard reports of the day's actions. During the fighting the garrison of Thérouanne had come out and attacked Herbert's position. According to report, three English soldiers of note were killed, with 3,000 French casualties. Nine French standards were captured, with 21 noble prisoners dressed in cloth-of-gold.
Aftermath
Fall of Thérouanne
On 20 August, now unthreatened by French counter-attacks, Henry moved his camp from Guinegate to the south of the town. Thérouanne fell on 22 August, according to diplomatic reports the garrison were initially unimpressed by a show of captured colours, but the French and German garrison were drawn into negotiation with Shrewsbury by their lack of supplies. Shrewsbury welcomed Henry to the town and gave him the keys. Eight or nine hundred soldiers were set to work demolishing the walls of the town and three large bastions which were pushed into the deep defensive ditches. The dry ditches contained deeper pits which were designed for fires to create smoke to choke assailants. The Milanese ambassador to Maximilian, Paolo Da Laude, heard that it was planned to burn the town after demolition was completed. On 5 September Pope Leo X was told of the English victories by the Florentine ambassador and his congratulations were conveyed to Cardinal Wolsey.
Siege of Tournai
While demolition continued at Thérouanne, after discussions on 4 September, allied attention moved to Tournai, though Henry would have preferred an attack on Boulogne. Maximilian and Henry went to St Pol, St Venan, Neve and Béthune, and on 10 September Henry entered Lille with great ceremony where Margaret of Savoy held court. That evening, Henry played on the lute, harp, lyre, flute, and horn, and danced with "Madame the Bastard" till nearly dawn, "like a stag", according to the Milanese ambassador. The same day the army began the siege of Tournai, and Maximilian and Henry visited on 13 September.
At this time Henry VIII was troubled by Scottish preparations for invasion of England in support of France, and had exchanged angry words with a Scottish herald at Thérouanne on 11 August. The Scots army was defeated at the battle of Flodden on 9 September. Before Tournai fell Catherine of Aragon sent John Glyn to Henry with the blood-stained coat and gauntlets of James IV of Scotland. Catherine suggested Henry should use the coat as his battle-banner, and wrote that she had thought to send him the body too, but 'Englishmen's hearts would not suffer it.' It was suggested that James' body would be her exchange with Henry for his French prisoner, the Duke of Longueville. Longueville had been captured at Thérouanne by John Clerke of North Weston, sent to Catherine, and lodged in the Tower of London. The idea of an exchange was reported to Alfonso d'Este Duke of Ferrara in Italy, that Catherine had promised, as Henry "sent her a captive duke, she should soon send him a king".
Tournai fell to Henry VIII on 23 September. The defenders of Tournai had demolished houses in front of their gates on 11 September, and burnt their suburbs on 13 September. On 15 September the wives and children of the townspeople were ordered to repair damage to the walls caused by the besieger's cannon. On the same day the town council proposed a vote whether the town should declare for France or the Empire. The vote was suspended (mis en surseance) and the people appointed deputies to treat with Henry VIII. Charles Brandon captured one of the gatehouses and took away two of its statues as trophies, and the garrison negotiated with Henry and Richard Foxe, Bishop of Winchester, on 20 September. The events within the town were misunderstood in English chronicles, Raphael Holinshed and Richard Grafton wrote that a disaffected "vaunt-parler" had set fire to the suburbs to hasten their surrender, while the Provost canvassed the townspeople's opinion.
Henry attended mass in Tournai Cathedral on 2 October and knighted many of his captains. The town presented Margaret of Austria with a set of tapestries woven with scenes from the Book of the City of Ladies by Christine de Pizan. Tournai remained in English hands, with William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy as Governor. The fortifications and a new citadel were reconstructed between August 1515 and January 1518, costing around £40,000. Work ceased because Henry VIII planned to restore the town to France. Tournai was returned by treaty on 4 October 1518. The surveyor of Berwick, Thomas Pawne, could not find a market for the unused building materials there, and sent stones by boat via Antwerp to Calais, some carved with English insignia, along with the machinery of two watermills. The construction work at Tournai has been characterized as retrogressive, lacking the input of a professional military engineer, and an "essentially medieval" conception out of step with Italian innovations.
Propaganda
Henry and Maximilian jointly published an account of their victories, under the title; Copia von der erlichen und kostlichen enpfahung ouch früntliche erbietung desz Küngs von Engelland Keyser Maximilian in Bickardy (Picardy) gethon, Unnd von dem angryff und nyderlegung do selbs vor Terbona (Thérouanne) geschähen. Ouch was un wy vyl volck do gewäsen, erschlagen, und gefangen. Ouch die Belägerung der stat Bornay (sic: Tournai) und ander seltzam geschichten, (1513), which can be translated as; Of the honourable and sumptuous reception and friendly courtesy shown by the King of England to the Emperor Maximilian in Picardy; and of the attack and defeat which took place there before Thérouanne. Also what and how many people there were slain and captured. Also the siege of the town of Tournay and other strange histories.The book contains a woodcut of their meeting and one of Maximilian in battle. The battle at Guinegate was described in this manner;"About twelve o'clock the French in three divisions appeared upon another hill (for here and there are little hills and valleys); and as soon as the Emperor knew it he got up and sent for the German horsemen, numbering scarcely 1,050, and the Burgundians, about 1,000 (or 2,000), and commanded to muster the troops and to keep the Germans by him. The French united in one division amounting to 10,000 (or 7,000) cavalry in array and fired guns at the Emperor's horsemen, but all went too high and did no hurt. Thus the Burgundians and certain English struck [them], and as they turned and the Emperor saw the Burgundians hard pressed, he at once ordered the German horsemen to attack on the flank; but before they struck the French had turned about and fled. Our horsemen pursued them until within a short mile of their camp and brought back the prisoners and banners hereafter indicated. When the Emperor saw that no more harm could be done them, and they were near their camp wherein were yet 20,000 foot, he retired all the men in good order and marched to the camp, remaining all night in the field. In this skirmish the English used no other cry than Burgundia."
An Italian poem, La Rotta de Francciosi a Terroana'' on the fall of Therouanne was printed in Rome in September 1513. Maximilian also commissioned woodcut images of his meeting with Henry from Leonhard Beck, and from Albrecht Dürer who included a scene of the mounted rulers joining hands in the Triumphal Arch. Henry commissioned commemorative paintings of the meeting and of the battle which showed him involved in the centre of the action, though Hall pointed out he took advice to stay with the foot soldiers. In Henry's inventory, one painting was noted as "A Table wherein is conteined the Seginge of Torney and Turwyn". Maximilian's tomb at the Hofkirche, Innsbruck, constructed in 1553 to designs by Florian Abel includes a marble relief of the meeting by Alexander Colyn following Dürer's woodcut.
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Maximilian objected to the use of his name in the battle report (even before that, he adopted the red rose and the Cross of Saint George, and declared that he would serve as Henry's soldier, to avoid the complaint that his force was too small in comparison with his position and his promises). According to Patrick Fraser Tytler, Howitt and others, Maximilian had an ulterior motive in his flattering behaviours towards Henry, which was later understood by some historians (such as Comyn) as Maximilian acting like a mercenary soldier, as Henry was the side who footed the bill for the whole campaign. Additionally, Maximilian wanted to destroy the city walls of Tournai (which usually served as a foothold for French intervention and threatened his grandson Charles's Burgundian territories). He accomplished this with his own counsel and the help of Thomas Wolsey, to whom he promised help in getting the bishopric of Tournai (Wolsey, who turned out to be the biggest winner in the aftermath according to Derek Wilson, did get the bishoprics of both Lincoln and Tournai. Later he relinquished the latter in exchange for a pension of 12,000 livres.). On the other hand, Henry VIII and his queen Catherine did feel genuine gratitude for Maximilian's assistance and later sent him the sizeable sum of 100,000 golden florin.
English knights made at the Battle of Spurs and in Tournai
The following were made knights banneret after the battle of the Spurs on 16 September 1513, Edward Hall specifically mentioned the knighting of John Peachy, captain of the King's horse, as a banneret and John Car who was "sore hurt" as a knight.
Andrew Wyndsore, Treasurer of the King's middle-ward
Robert Dymoke, Treasurer of the rear-ward
Randolph Brereton, marshall of the rear-ward
On 2 October 1513, after Henry attended mass at Tournai Cathedral the following were knighted:
With others, and more were knighted at Lille on 13 and 14 October.
Notes
References
(Latin & English)
External links
Painting of 'The Meeting of Henry VIII and the Emperor Maximilian I', RCT RCIN 405800
Painting of the Battle of Spurs, RCT RCIN 406784
English painting of the meeting at Thérouanne , c. 1520 at the Tower of London, via UK National Education Network
Albrecht Dürer's woodcut of the meeting, Auckland Art Gallery, (without inscription)
History of fortification at Tournai, Fortified Places
1513 in France
Battles of the War of the League of Cambrai
Battles involving England
Battles involving France
Battles involving the Holy Roman Empire
Battles in Hauts-de-France
Conflicts in 1513
16th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
England–France relations
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry VIII | [
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|
239523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollerussa | Mollerussa | Mollerussa is the capital of the comarca of Pla d'Urgell, in the province of Lleida, Catalonia, Spain.
It is 250 metres above sea level. In 2010 it had a population of 14,733.
Demography:
References
Further reading
General history
Thematic
External links
Official website
Government data pages
Municipalities in Pla d'Urgell
Populated places in Pla d'Urgell | [
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239528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20Labour%20Party | Independent Labour Party | The Independent Labour Party (ILP) was a British political party of the left, established in 1893, when the Liberals appeared reluctant to endorse working-class candidates, representing the interests of the majority. A sitting independent MP and prominent union organiser, Keir Hardie, became its first chairman.
The party was positioned to the left of Ramsay MacDonald’s Labour Representation Committee, which was founded in 1900 and soon renamed the Labour Party, and to which the ILP was affiliated from 1906 to 1932. In 1947, the organisation's three parliamentary representatives defected to the Labour Party, and the organisation rejoined Labour as Independent Labour Publications in 1975.
Organisational history
Background
As the nineteenth century came to a close, working-class representation in political office became a great concern for many Britons. Many who sought the election of working men and their advocates to the Parliament of the United Kingdom saw the Liberal Party as the main vehicle for achieving this aim. As early as 1869, a Labour Representation League had been established to register and mobilise working-class voters on behalf of favoured Liberal candidates.
Many trade unions themselves became concerned with gaining parliamentary representation to advance their legislative aims. From the 1870s a series of working-class candidates financially supported by trade unions were accepted and supported by the Liberal Party. The federation of British unions, the Trades Union Congress (TUC), formed its own electoral committee in 1886 to further advance its electoral goals.
Many socialist intellectuals, particularly those influenced by Christian socialism and similar notions of the ethical need for a restructuring of society, also saw the Liberals as the most obvious means for obtaining working-class representation. Within two years of its foundation in 1884, the gradualist Fabian Society officially committed itself to a policy of permeation of the Liberal Party.
A number of so-called "Lib-Lab" candidates were subsequently elected Members of Parliament by this alliance of trade unions and radical intellectuals working within the Liberal Party.
The idea of working with the middle-class Liberal Party to achieve working-class representation in parliament was not universally accepted, however. Marxist socialists, believing in the inevitability of class struggle between the working-class and the capitalist class, rejected the idea of workers making common cause with the petty bourgeois Liberals in exchange for scraps of charity from the legislative table. The orthodox British Marxists established their own party, the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) in 1881.
Other socialist intellectuals, despite not sharing the concept of class struggle were nonetheless frustrated with the ideology and institutions of the Liberal Party and the secondary priority which it appeared to give to its working-class candidates. Out of these ideas and activities came a new generation of activists, including Keir Hardie, a Scot who had become convinced of the need for independent labour politics while working as a Gladstonian Liberal and trade union organiser in the Lanarkshire coalfield. Working with SDF members such as Henry Hyde Champion and Tom Mann he was instrumental in the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party in 1888.
In 1890, the United States imposed a tariff on foreign cloth which led to a general cut in wages throughout the British textile industry. There followed a strike in Bradford, the Manningham Mills strike, which produced as a by-product the Bradford Labour Union, an organisation which sought to function politically independently of either major political party. This initiative was replicated by others in Colne Valley, Halifax, Huddersfield and Salford. Such developments showed that working-class support for separation from the Liberal Party was growing in strength.
Further arguments for the formation of a new party were to be found in Robert Blatchford's newspaper The Clarion, founded in 1891, and in Workman's Times, edited by Joseph Burgess. The latter collected some 3,500 names of those in favour of creating a party of labour independent from the existing political organisations.
In the 1892 general election, held in July, three working men were elected without support from the Liberals, Keir Hardie in South West Ham, John Burns in Battersea, and Havelock Wilson in Middlesbrough, the last of whom actually faced Liberal opposition. Hardie owed nothing to the Liberal Party for his election, and his critical and confrontational style in Parliament caused him to emerge as a national voice of the labour movement.
Founding conference
At a TUC meeting in September 1892, a call was issued for a meeting of advocates of an independent labour organisation. An arrangements committee was established and a conference called for the following January. This conference was chaired by William Henry Drew and was held in Bradford 14–16 January 1893 at the Bradford Labour Institute, operated by the Labour Church. It proved to be the foundation conference of the Independent Labour Party and MP Keir Hardie was elected as its first chairman.
About 130 delegates were in attendance at the conference, including in addition to Hardie such socialist and labour worthies as Alderman Ben Tillett, author George Bernard Shaw, and Edward Aveling, son-in-law of Karl Marx. Some 91 local branches of the Independent Labour Party were represented, joined by 11 local Fabian Societies, four branches of the Social Democratic Federation, and individual representatives of a number of other socialist and labour groups. German Socialist leader Edward Bernstein was briefly permitted to address the gathering to pass along the best wishes for success from the Social Democratic Party of Germany.
A proposal was made by a Scottish delegate, George Carson, to name the new organisation the "Socialist Labour Party", but this was defeated by a large margin by a counterproposal reaffirming the name "Independent Labour Party", moved by the logic that there were large numbers of workers not yet prepared to formally accept the doctrine of socialism who would nonetheless be willing to join and work for an organisation "established for the purpose of obtaining the independent representation of labour".
Despite the apparent timidity in naming the organisation, the inaugural conference overwhelmingly accepted that the object of the party should be "to secure the collective and communal ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange". The party's programme called for a range of progressive social reforms, including free "unsectarian" education "right up to the universities", the provision of medical treatment and school feeding programmes for children, housing reform, the establishment of public measures to reduce unemployment and provide aid to the unemployed, a minimum-wage law, welfare programmes for orphans, widows, the elderly, the disabled, and the sick, the abolition of child labour, the abolition of overtime and piecework, and an eight-hour workday.
The keynote address of the foundation conference was delivered by Keir Hardie, who observed that the Labour Party was "not an organisation but rather 'the expression of a great principle,' since it 'had neither programme nor constitution". Hardie emphasised the fundamental demand of the new organisation as being the achievement of economic freedom and called for a party structure which gave full autonomy to every locality, and only seeking to bind these groups "to such central and general principles as were indispensable to the progress of the movement".
The conference also established the basic organisational structure of the new party. Annual Conferences, composed of delegates from each local unit of the organisation, were declared the "supreme and governing authority of the party". A Secretary was to be elected, to serve under the direct control of a central body known as the National Administrative Committee (NAC). This NAC was in turn to be made up of regionally appointed delegates who were in theory confined to act according to the instructions given them by branch conferences.
Early years
The new party was founded in a social environment of great hope and expectation. However, the first few years were difficult. The direction of the party, its leadership and organisation were heavily contested and the expected electoral progress did not emerge.
The party did not fare well in its first major test of national support, the 1895 general election. With the NAC taking a lead in organising the party's contests, and with finance tight just 28 candidates ran under the ILP banner. A special conference decided that support could be given to either ILP or SDF candidates, which brought a further four contests into the picture. None was elected, however, with even the popular party leader Keir Hardie going to defeat in a straight fight with the Conservatives. The electoral debacle of 1895 marked an end to the unbridled optimism which had attended the party's foundation.
From its beginning, the ILP was never a homogeneous unit, but rather attempted to act as a "big tent" party of the working class, advocating a rather vague and amorphous socialist agenda. Historian Robert E. Dowse has observed:
"From the beginning the ILP attempted to influence the trade unions to back a working-class political party: they sought, as Henry Pelling states: 'collaboration with trade unionists with the ultimate object of tapping trade union funds for the attainment of Parliamentary power.' The socialism of the ILP was ideal for achieving this end; lacking as it did any real theoretical basis it could accommodate practically anything a trade unionist was likely to demand. Fervent and emotional, the socialism of the ILP could accommodate, with only a little strain, temperance reform, Scottish nationalism, Methodism, Marxism, Fabian gradualism, and even a variety of Burkean conservatism. Although the mixture was a curious one, it did have the one overwhelming virtue of excluding nobody on dogmatic grounds, a circumstance, on the left and at the time, which cannot be lightly dismissed."
Of course in a party of loose and diverse opinions, the essential nature of the organisation and its programme would always remain a matter of debate. Initial decisions about party organisation were rooted in an idea of strict democracy. These arguments did have some impact, as the conference held to set policy prior to the 1895 general election and the abolition of the position of party "President" in 1896 testified to the power of such arguments. Nonetheless, the NAC came to possess considerable power over the party's activities, including hegemonistic control over crucial matters such as electoral decisions and relations with other parties. The electoral defeat of 1895 hastened the establishment of centralising and anti-democratic practices of this kind.
In the last years of the 19th century, four figures emerged on the NAC who remained at the centre of the party shaping its direction for the next 20 years. In addition to the beloved party leader Keir Hardie came the Scot Bruce Glasier, elected to the NAC in 1897 and succeeding Hardie as Chairman in 1900; Philip Snowden, an evangelical socialist from the West Riding, and Ramsay MacDonald, whose adhesion to the ILP had been secured in the wake of his disillusionment with the Liberal Party over its rejection of a trade unionist candidate in the 1894 Sheffield Attercliffe by-election. While there were substantial personal tensions between the four, they shared a fundamental view that the party should seek alliance with the unions and rather than an ideology-based socialist unity with the Marxist Social Democratic Federation.
Following the failure of 1895, this leadership became reluctant to overextend the party by running in too many electoral races. By 1898 the decision was formally made to restrict electoral contests to those where a reasonable performance could be expected rather than putting forward as many candidates as possible to maximise exposure for the party and to accumulate a maximum total vote.
The relationship with the trade unions was also problematic. In the 1890s the ILP was lacking in alliances with the trade union organisations. Individual rank and file trade unionists could be persuaded to join the party out of a political commitment shaped by their industrial experiences, but connection with top leaderships was lacking.
The ILP played a central role in the formation of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, and when the Labour Party was formed in 1906, the ILP immediately affiliated to it. This affiliation allowed the ILP to continue to hold its own conferences and devise its own policies, which ILP members were expected to argue for within the Labour Party. In return, the ILP provided a good part of Labour's activist base during its early years.
The party matures
The emergence and growth of the Labour Party, a federation of trade unions with the socialist intellectuals of the ILP, helped its constituent parts develop and grow. In contrast to the doctrinaire Marxism of the SDF and its even more orthodox offshoots like the Socialist Labour Party and the Socialist Party of Great Britain, the ILP had a loose and inspirational flavour that made it relatively more easy to attract newcomers. Victor Grayson recalled a 1906 campaign in the Colne Valley which he was proud to have conducted "like a religious revival," without reference to specific political problems. Future party chairman Fenner Brockway later recounted the revivalist mood of the gatherings of his local ILP branch gathering in 1907:
"On Sunday nights a meeting was conducted rather on the lines of the Labour Church Movement—we had a small voluntary orchestra, sang Labour songs and the speeches were mostly Socialist evangelism, emotion in denunciation of injustice, visionary in their anticipation of a new society."
While this inspirational presentation of socialism as a humanitarian necessity made the party accessible as a sort of secular religion or a means for the practical implementation of Christian principles in daily life, it bore with it the great weakness of being non-analytical and thus comparatively shallow. It also offered a political home for some of the women's franchise movement in the UK, the Liverpool branch appointing Alice Morrissey as the branch secretary (1907–08) and first female delegate to a regional Labour Representative Committee. As the movement for women's suffrage grew, the ILP had engaged with the non-militant suffragists, for example, Mary H. J. Henderson, Parliamentary Secretary for the Scottish Womens' Suffrage Societies, chaired a joint meeting with ILP, with Ethel Snowden as key speaker in Dundee in 1914.
As the historian John Callaghan has noted, in the hands of Hardie, Glasier, Snowden and MacDonald socialism was little more than "a vague protest against injustice." However, in 1909 the ILP laid the basis for the production of agitational material with the establishment of the National Labour Press.
Still, the relationship between the ILP and the Labour Party was characterised by conflict. Many ILP members viewed the Labour Party as being too timid and moderate in their attempts at social reform, detached as it was from the socialist objective during its first years. Consequently, in 1912 came a split in which many ILP branches and a few leading figures, including Leonard Hall and Russell Smart, chose to amalgamate with the SDF of H. M. Hyndman in 1912 to found the British Socialist Party.
Until 1918, individuals could only join the Labour Party through an affiliated body, the most significant of which were the Fabian Society and the ILP. As a result, particularly from 1914, many individuals – particularly ones formerly active in the Liberal Party – joined the ILP, in order to become active in the Labour Party. While affiliated body membership was not required after 1918, the presence of MacDonald and other leading Labour Party figures in the ILP's leadership meant many converts to the Labour Party continued to join through the ILP, a process which continued until about 1925.
The ILP and the Great War
On 11 April 1914 the party celebrated its 21st anniversary with a congress in Bradford. The party had grown well in the previous decade, standing with a membership of approximately 30,000. The rank and file membership of the party as well as its leadership were pacifist, now as ever, having held from the beginning that war was "sinful".
The guns of August 1914 shook every left organisation in Britain. As one observer later put it: "Hyndman and Cunningham Graham, Thorne and Clynes had sought peace while it endured, but now that war had come, well, Socialists and Trade Unionists, like other people had got to see it through." With respect to the Labour Party, most of the members of the organisation's executive as well as most of the 40 Labour MPs in Parliament lent their support to the recruiting campaign for the Great War. Only one section held aloof—the Independent Labour Party.
The ILP's insistence on standing by its long-held ethically based objections to militarism and war proved costly both in terms of its standing in the eyes of the general public as well as its ability to hold sway over the politicians who ran under its banner. A stream of its old Members of Parliament left the party over the ILP's refusal to support the British war effort. Among those breaking ranks were George Nicoll Barnes, J. R. Clynes, James Parker, George Wardle and G. H. Roberts.
Others held true to the party and its principles. Ramsay MacDonald, a committed pacifist, immediately resigned the chairmanship of the Labour Party in the House of Commons. Keir Hardie, Philip Snowden, W. C. Anderson, and a small group of like-minded radical pacifists, maintained an unflinching opposition to the government and its pro-war Labour allies. The 1917 Russian Revolution Conference in Leeds called for "the complete independence of Ireland, India and Egypt".
During the war the ILP's criticism of militarism was somewhat muted by public condemnation and periodic episodes of physical violence, which included a wild scene on 6 July 1918, during which an agitated group of discharged soldiers rushed an ILP meeting being addressed by Ramsay MacDonald in the Abbey Wood section of London. Stewards at the door of the ILP meeting were overpowered by the mob, who in what was described as a "riotous scene" broke chairs and wielded their parts as weapons, seizing the auditorium and dispersing the socialists into the night.
The ILP and the Third International
Following the termination of World War I in November 1918, the Second International was effectively relaunched and the question of whether the ILP should affiliate with this renewed Second International or with some other international grouping loomed large. The majority of ILP members saw the old Second International as hopelessly compromised by its support for the European bloodbath of 1914, and the ILP formally disaffiliated from the International in the spring of 1920. In January 1919, Moscow issued a call for the formation of a new Third International, a formation which held great appeal to a small section of the ILP's most radical members,
including economist Emile Burns, journalist R. Palme Dutt, and the future Member of Parliament Shapurji Saklatvala, along with Charles Barber, Ernest H. Brown, Helen Crawfurd, C. H. Norman, and J. Wilson. They called themselves the Left Wing Group of the ILP.
The conservative leadership of the ILP, notably Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden, strongly opposed affiliation to the new Comintern. In opposition to them the radical wing of the ILP organised itself as a formal faction called the Left Wing Group of the ILP in an effort to move the ILP into the Communist International. The faction began to produce its own bi-weekly newspaper called The International, a four-page broadsheet published in Glasgow, and sent greetings to the conference which established a Communist Party of Great Britain, although they did not attend.
In addition to cutting its ties with the Second International, the 1920 Annual Conference of the ILP directed its executive to contact the Swiss Socialist Party with a view to establishing an all-inclusive international which would join the internationalist left-wing socialist parties with their revolutionary socialist brethren of the new Moscow international. In a letter dated 21 May 1920, ILP chairman Richard Wallhead and National Council member Clifford Allen asked a further set of questions of the Comintern. The Executive Committee of the Communist International (ECCI) was asked for its positions on such matters as demands for rigid adherence to its programme, applicability of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the Soviet system to Great Britain, and its view on the necessity of armed force as a universal principle.
In July 1920 the fledgling Comintern gave an unequivocal reply: while the presence of communists inside the organisation was acknowledged, and their membership in a new Communist Party welcomed, there would be no joint organisation with those like "the Fabians, Ramsay MacDonald, and Snowden" who had previously made use of "the musty atmosphere of parliamentary work" and "petty concessions and compromises" on behalf of the labour movement:
[T]hese leaders have lost touch with the wide unskilled masses, with the toiling poor, they have become oblivious of the growth of capitalist exploitation and of the revolutionary aims of the proletariat. It seemed to them that because the capitalists treated them as equals, as partners in their transactions, the working class had secured equal rights with capital. Their own social standing secure and material position improved, they looked upon the world through the rose-coloured spectacles of a peaceful middle-class life. Disturbed in their peaceful trading with the representatives of the bourgeoisie by the revolutionary strivings of the proletariat they were the convinced enemies of the revolutionary aims of the proletariat.
The ECCI instead made its appeal directly to "the communists of the Independent Labour Party", noting that "the revolutionary forces of England are split up" and urging them to unite with communist members of the British Socialist Party, the Socialist Labour Party, and radical groups in Wales and Scotland. "The emancipation of the British working class and of the working class of the whole world depends upon the Communist elements of England forming a single Communist Party", the ECCI declared.
The agitation for affiliation to the Third International of Moscow came to a head in 1921 at the annual conference of the ILP. There an overwhelming vote of the party's branches voted not to affiliate with the Third International. This decision was followed by the exit of the defeated radical faction, which immediately joined the CPGB.
The "centrism" of the ILP, caught between the reformist politics of the Second International and the revolutionary politics of the Third International, led it to leading a number of other European socialist groups into the "Second and a Half International" between 1921 and 1923. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1923 and 1933.
The ILP and Labour Party governments (1922–1931)
At the 1922 general election several ILP members became MPs (including future ILP leader James Maxton) and the party grew in stature. The ILP provided many of the new Labour MPs, including John Wheatley, Emanuel Shinwell, Tom Johnston and David Kirkwood. However, the first Labour government, returned to office in 1924, proved to be hugely disappointing to the ILP. This came despite 30% of the cabinet holding ILP membership; of the most prominent of these figures, Ramsay MacDonald was removed as editor of the ILP's Socialist Review in 1925, and Philip Snowden resigned from the ILP in 1927.
1928 policy conferences
The ILP's response to the first Labour government was to devise its own programme for government. Throughout 1928, the ILP developed a "Socialism in Our Time" platform, largely formulated by H. N. Brailsford, John A. Hobson and Frank Wise. The programme consisted of eight policies:
The Living Wage, incompletely applied
A substantial increase of the Unemployment Allowance
The nationalisation of banking, incompletely applied
The bulk purchase of raw materials
The bulk purchase of foodstuffs
The nationalisation of power
The nationalisation of transport
The nationalisation of land
Of these eight policies, the living wage, the unemployment allowance, nationalisation of banking and the bulk purchase of raw materials and foodstuffs were the chief concern of the ILP. Increasing the unemployment allowance and switching to bulk purchasing were to be done in the conventional way, but the method of paying the living wage differed from Labour practices. The ILP criticised the "Continental" method of paying wage allowances from employers' pools, which had been implemented in 1924 by Rhys Davies. The ILP proposed to redistribute the national income, meeting the cost of the allowances by taxing high income earners.
The nationalisation of banking involved more significant changes to economic policy, and had nothing in common with Labour practices. The ILP proposed that once a Labour government took office it should hold an enquiry into the banking system that would prepare a detailed scheme for transferring the Bank of England to public control, revise the operation of the Bank Acts and ensure that "control of credit is exercised in the national interest and not in the interest of powerful financial groups" by making creditors shift entirely to cheques and possibly getting rid of gold reserves, thus ending the policy of deflation practised by the Treasury and the Bank of England.
The Labour leadership did not support the programme. In particular, MacDonald objected to the slogan "Socialism In Our Time", as he viewed socialism as a gradual process. For the duration of the second Labour government (1929–31), 37 Labour MPs were sponsored by the ILP, but none were appointed to the cabinet. Instead, the group provided the left opposition to the Labour leadership. The 1930 ILP conference decided that where their policies diverged from the Labour Party their MPs should break the whip to support the ILP policy.
1931 ILP Scottish Conference
It was becoming clearer that the ILP was diverging further away from the Labour Party and at the 1931 ILP Scottish Conference the issue of whether the party should still affiliate to Labour was discussed. It was decided to continue to do so, but only after Maxton himself intervened in the debate.
From disaffiliation to the Second World War
At the 1931 general election the ILP candidates refused to accept the standing orders of the Parliamentary Labour Party and stood without Labour Party support. Five ILP members were returned to Westminster and created an ILP group outside the Labour Party. In 1932 a special conference of the ILP voted to disaffiliate from Labour. The same year the ILP co-founded the London Bureau of left-socialist parties, later called the International Revolutionary Marxist Centre or "Three-and-a-Half International", administered by the ILP and chaired by its leader, Fenner Brockway, for most of its existence.
The Labour left-winger Aneurin Bevan described the ILP's disaffiliation as a decision to remain "pure, but impotent". Outside the Labour Party the ILP went into decline. In just three years it lost 75% of its members, the total falling from 16,773 in 1932 to 4,392 in 1935, as it lost adherents to the Labour Party, the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) and the Trotskyists. Some members of the ILP who had chosen to remain within the Labour Party were instrumental in creating the Socialist League, while the majority of Scottish members left to form the Scottish Socialist Party and members in Northern Ireland left en masse to form the Socialist Party of Northern Ireland. In 1934 a breakaway group in the Northwest of England left to form the Independent Socialist Party.
The remaining ILP membership tended to be young and radical. They were particularly active in supporting the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, and around twenty-five members and sympathisers, including George Orwell, went to Spain as members of an ILP Contingent of volunteers to assist the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), a sister party to the ILP in the Three-and-a-Half International.
From the mid-1930s onwards the ILP also attracted the attention of the Trotskyist movement, and various Trotskyist groups worked within it, notably the Marxist Group, of which C. L. R. James, Denzil Dean Harber and Ted Grant were members. There was also a group of ILP members, the Revolutionary Policy Committee, who were sympathetic to the CPGB and eventually left to join that party. From the late 1930s the ILP had the support of several key figures in the tiny Pan-Africanist movement in Britain, including George Padmore and Chris Braithwaite, as well as left-wing writers such as George Orwell, Reginald Reynolds and Ethel Mannin.
In 1939 the ILP wrote to the Labour Party requesting reaffiliation subject to a right to advocate its own policies where it had a "conscientious objection" to Labour policy. Labour refused to agree to this condition, stating that its usual rules for affiliation could not be waived for the ILP.
World War II and beyond
As in 1914, the ILP opposed World War II on ethical grounds, and turned to the left. One aspect of its leftist policies in this period was that it opposed the war-time truce between the major parties and actively contested Parliamentary elections. In one such contest, the Cardiff East by-election in 1942, this was with the result that Fenner Brockway, the ILP candidate, found himself opposed by a Conservative candidate for whom the local Communist Party actively campaigned.
The ILP still had some significant strength at the end of the war, but it went into crisis shortly afterwards. At the 1945 general election it retained three MPs, all in Glasgow, although only one of them had a Labour opponent. Its conference rejected calls to reaffiliate to the Labour Party. A major blow came in 1946 when the party's best known public spokesman, James Maxton MP, died. The ILP narrowly held his seat in the 1946 Glasgow Bridgeton by-election (against a Labour opponent). However, all its MPs defected to Labour at various stages in 1947, and the party was roundly defeated at the 1948 Glasgow Camlachie by-election, in a seat it had won easily only three years earlier. The party was never again able to win a significant vote in a parliamentary election.
Despite these blows, the ILP continued. Throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s it pioneered opposition to nuclear weapons and sought to publicise ideas such as workers' control. It also maintained links with the remnants of its fraternal groups, such as the POUM, who were in exile, as well as campaigning for decolonisation.
In the 1970s, the ILP reassessed its views on the Labour Party, and in 1975 it renamed itself Independent Labour Publications and became a pressure group inside Labour.
List of chairs
1894–1900: Keir Hardie
1900–03: J. Bruce Glasier
1903–06: Philip Snowden
1906–09: J. Ramsay MacDonald
1909–10: F. W. Jowett
1910–13: W. C. Anderson
1913–14: J. Keir Hardie
1914–17: F. W. Jowett
1917–20: Philip Snowden
1920–23: Richard C. Wallhead
1923–26: Clifford Allen
1926–31: James Maxton
1931–34: Fenner Brockway
1934–39: James Maxton
1939–41: C. A. Smith
1941–43: John McGovern
1943–48: Bob Edwards
1948–51: David Gibson
1951–53: Fred Barton
1953–57: Annie Maxton
1957–60: Jim Graham
1960–61: Annie Maxton
1961–62: Fred Morel
1962–74: Emrys Thomas
1974–75: Stan Iveson
Other notable members
Conferences of the ILP
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Name
! Location
! Dates
! Delegates
|-
! 1893
| align="center" | Founding Conference
| align="center" | Bradford
| align="center" | 14–16 January
| align="center" | 120
|-
! 1894
| align="center" | 2nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Manchester
| align="center" | 2–3 February
| align="center" |
|-
! 1895
| align="center" | 3rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Newcastle upon Tyne
| align="center" | 15–17 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1896
| align="center" | 4th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Nottingham
| align="center" | 6–7 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1897
| align="center" | 5th Annual Conference
| align="center" | London
| align="center" | 19–20 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1898
| align="center" | 6th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Birmingham
| align="center" | 11–12 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1899
| align="center" | 7th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leeds
| align="center" | 3–4 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1900
| align="center" | 8th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Glasgow
| align="center" | 16–17 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1901
| align="center" | 9th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leicester
| align="center" | 8–9 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1902
| align="center" | 10th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Liverpool
| align="center" | 31 March – 1 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1903
| align="center" | 11th Annual Conference
| align="center" | York
| align="center" | 13–14 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1904
| align="center" | 12th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Cardiff
| align="center" | 4–5 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1905
| align="center" | 13th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Manchester
| align="center" | 24–25 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1906
| align="center" | 14th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Stockton On-Tees
| align="center" | April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1907
| align="center" | 15th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Derby
| align="center" | April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1908
| align="center" | 16th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Huddersfield
| align="center" | 20–21 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1909
| align="center" | 17th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Edinburgh
| align="center" | 10–13 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1910
| align="center" | 18th Annual Conference
| align="center" | London
| align="center" | March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1911
| align="center" | 19th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Birmingham
| align="center" | 17–18 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1912
| align="center" | 20th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Merthyr Tydfil
| align="center" | 8–9 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1913
| align="center" | 21st Annual Conference
| align="center" | Manchester
| align="center" | March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1914
| align="center" | 22nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Bradford
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
! 1915
| align="center" | 23rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Norwich
| align="center" | 5–6 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1916
| align="center" | 24th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Newcastle upon Tyne
| align="center" | 23–24 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1917
| align="center" | 25th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leeds
| align="center" | 8–10 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1918
| align="center" | 26th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leicester
| align="center" | 1–2 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1919
| align="center" | 27th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Huddersfield
| align="center" | 19–22 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1920
| align="center" | 28th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Glasgow
| align="center" | 3–6 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1921
| align="center" | 29th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Southport
| align="center" | 26–29 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1922
| align="center" | 30th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Nottingham
| align="center" | 16–18 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1923
| align="center" | 31st Annual Conference
| align="center" | London
| align="center" | April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1924
| align="center" | 32nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | York
| align="center" | April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1925
| align="center" | 33rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Gloucester
| align="center" | 10–14 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1926
| align="center" | 34th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Whitley Bay
| align="center" | 2–6 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1927
| align="center" | 35th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leicester
| align="center" | 15–19 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1928
| align="center" | 36th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Norwich
| align="center" | 6–10 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1929
| align="center" | 37th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Carlisle
| align="center" | 30 March – 2 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1930
| align="center" | 38th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Birmingham
| align="center" | 19–22 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1931
| align="center" | 39th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Scarborough
| align="center" | 4–7 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1932
| align="center" | 40th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 26–29 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1933
| align="center" | 41st Annual Conference
| align="center" | Derby
| align="center" | 15–18 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1934
| align="center" | 42nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | York
| align="center" | 31 March – 3 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1935
| align="center" | 43rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Derby
| align="center" | 20–23 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1936
| align="center" | 44th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Keighly
| align="center" | 11–14 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1937
| align="center" | 45th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Glasgow
| align="center" | 27–30 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1938
| align="center" | 46th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Manchester
| align="center" | 16–19 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1939
| align="center" | 47th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Scarborough
| align="center" | 8–10 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1940
| align="center" | 48th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Nottingham
| align="center" | 23–25 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1941
| align="center" | 49th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Nelson, Lancashire
| align="center" | 12–14 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1942
| align="center" | 50th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 4–6 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1943
| align="center" | Jubilee Annual Conference
| align="center" | Bradford
| align="center" | 24–26 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1944
| align="center" | 52nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leeds
| align="center" | 8–10 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1945
| align="center" | 53rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 31 March – 2 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1946
| align="center" | 54th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Southport
| align="center" | 20–22 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1947
| align="center" | 55th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Ayr
| align="center" | 5–7 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1948
| align="center" | 56th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Southport
| align="center" | 27–29 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1949
| align="center" | 57th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 16–18 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1950
| align="center" | 58th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Whitley Bay
| align="center" | 8–10 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1951
| align="center" | 59th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 24–26 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1952
| align="center" | 60th Annual Conference
| align="center" | New Brighton
| align="center" | 12–14 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1953
| align="center" | 61st Annual Conference
| align="center" | Glasgow
| align="center" | 17–19 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1954
| align="center" | 62nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Bradford
| align="center" | April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1955
| align="center" | 63rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Harrogate
| align="center" | 9–11 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1956
| align="center" | 64th Annual Conference
| align="center" | London
| align="center" | 31 March – 2 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1957
| align="center" | 65th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Whitley Bay
| align="center" | 20–22 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1958
| align="center" | 66th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Harrogate
| align="center" | 5–7 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1959
| align="center" | 67th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 28–30 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1960
| align="center" | 68th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Wallasey
| align="center" | 16–18 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1961
| align="center" | 69th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Scarborough
| align="center" | 1–3 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1962
| align="center" | 70th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 21–23 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1963
| align="center" | 71st Annual Conference
| align="center" | Bradford
| align="center" | 13–15 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1964
| align="center" | 72nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Southport
| align="center" | 28–30 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1965
| align="center" | 73rd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 17–19 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1966
| align="center" | 74th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 9–11 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1967
| align="center" | 75th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Blackpool
| align="center" | 25–27 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1968
| align="center" | 76th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 13–15 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1969
| align="center" | 77th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 5–7 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1970
| align="center" | 78th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 28–30 March
| align="center" |
|-
! 1971
| align="center" | 79th Annual Conference
| align="center" | Morecambe
| align="center" | 10–12 April
| align="center" |
|-
! 1972
| align="center" | 80th Annual Conference
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
! 1973
| align="center" | 81st Annual Conference
| align="center" | Scarborough
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
! 1974
| align="center" | 82nd Annual Conference
| align="center" | Leeds
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
|}
Source: On-line Register of the ILP Archives at the British Library of Political and Economic Science, https://archive.today/20120716063644/http://library-2.lse.ac.uk/archives/handlists/ILP/ILP.html
Election results
Footnotes
See also
Independent Labour Party election results
Scottish Labour Party (1888-1893)
Further reading
Gidon Cohen, The Failure of a Dream: The Independent Labour Party from Disaffiliation to World War II. I.B. Tauris, 2007.
Robert E. Dowse, Left in the Centre: The Independent Labour Party, 1893–1940. London: Longmans, 1966.
June Hannam and Karen Hunt, Socialist Women, Britain, 1880s to 1920s. London: Routledge, 2002.
David Howell, British Workers and the Independent Labour Party, 1888–1906. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983.
David Howell, MacDonald's Party: Labour Identities and Crisis 1922–1931. Oxford University Press, 2007.
David James, Tony Jowitt and Keith Laybourn (eds) The Centennial History of the Independent Labour Party. Halifax: Ryburn, 1992.
John McIlroy and Alan Campbell, ‘The last chance saloon? The Independent Labour Party and miners’ militancy in the Second World War revisited’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 46, no. 4 (2011), pp. 871–897.
Alan McKinlay and R. J. Morris (eds), The ILP on Clydeside, 1893–1932: From Foundation to Disintegration. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991.
Henry Pelling, The Origins of the Labour Party. London: Macmillan, 1954.
Logie Barrow and Ian Bullock, Democratic Ideas and the British Labour Movement, 1880–1914 (1996)
Ian Bullock, Romancing the Revolution, The Myth of Soviet Democracy and the British Left (2011)
Ian Bullock, Under Siege: The Independent Labour Party in Interwar Britain (2017)
External links
The Independent Labour Party Archive at marxists.org
1924: The First Labour Government UK Parliament Living Heritage
Byers, Michael. ILP: Independent Labour Party. Published on Red Clydeside: a history of the labour movement in Glasgow, a project of the Glasgow Digital Library. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
Ryan, Mordecai. "Britain's Biggest Left Party, 1893–1945, and What Became of It: The history of the ILP". Published in Solidarity, organ of the Alliance for Workers' Liberty Issue 3/85, 8 December 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
Cox, Judy. "Skinning a Live Tiger Paw by Paw: Reform, Revolution and Labour", International Socialism, Retrieved 4 October 2009.
Archives of the Independent Labour Party are held at LSE Library. An online catalogue of these papers is available.
Anti-Stalinist left
Labour parties in the United Kingdom
Labour movement in the United Kingdom
Political parties established in 1893
1893 establishments in the United Kingdom
1975 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Political parties disestablished in 1975 | [
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|
239532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topaz%20%281969%20film%29 | Topaz (1969 film) | Topaz is a 1969 American espionage thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Based on the 1967 Cold War novel Topaz by Leon Uris, the film is about a French intelligence agent who becomes entangled in the Cold War politics of before the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis and then the breakup of an international Soviet spy ring in France. The story is loosely based on the 1962 Sapphire Affair, which involved the head of France's SDECE in the United States, the spy Philippe Thyraud de Vosjoli, a friend of Uris, who played an important role in "helping the U.S. discover the presence of Russian offensive missiles in Cuba."
The film stars Frederick Stafford, Dany Robin, John Vernon, Karin Dor, Claude Jade, Michel Subor, Michel Piccoli, Philippe Noiret, and John Forsythe.
Plot
In Copenhagen in 1962, a high-ranking Soviet intelligence officer, Boris Kusenov (Per-Axel Arosenius), defects to the West. During debriefing, CIA agent Mike Nordstrom (John Forsythe) learns that Soviet missiles with nuclear warheads will be placed in Cuba.
Needing physical evidence, Nordstrom discloses Kusenov's name to French agent André Devereaux (Frederick Stafford) and asks him to bribe Luis Uribe (Donald Randolph), a member of Cuba's UN delegation, to provide photographs of documents that confirm the missile bases in Cuba. Devereaux decides to accompany his daughter, Michèle (Claude Jade), on her honeymoon to New York City with his son-in-law, François Picard (Michel Subor).
In New York City, a French-Martinican agent, Philippe Dubois (Roscoe Lee Browne), is to contact Uribe, who is the secretary to Cuban official Rico Parra (John Vernon), who is staying at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem to show solidarity with the black community.
Dubois sneaks into the hotel and bribes Uribe to take the documents from Parra's office to photograph. Parra catches Dubois photographing the documents. Chased and shot at by Cuban revolutionaries, Dubois purposefully knocks into Devereaux, who is watching events from the other side of the street, and slips him the camera. A red-headed Cuban guard helps Devereaux to get up but lets him go. Dubois escapes into the crowd around the hotel.
Dubois's photos confirm that the Soviets are placing missiles in Cuba. Devereaux, despite his wife's accusations of infidelity, flies to Cuba. His mistress, Juanita de Cordoba (Karin Dor), was the widow of a "hero of the Revolution," which enables her to work undercover in the resistance. Upon his arrival, Devereaux finds Parra, another of her lovers, leaving Juanita's mansion. Devereaux asks Juanita to take photographs of the missiles. Juanita's loyal domestic staff, Carlotta and Pablo Mendoza, pose as picnickers and photograph the missiles. Pursued, the two hide the incriminating film before they are captured.
During a mass rally and a lengthy speech by the líder máximo, the red-headed Cuban guard recognises Devereaux's face from the New York City incident.
Parra has heard from the tortured Carlotta Mendoza that Juanita is their leader. He embraces her and shoots her dead to save her from extreme torture.
At the Havana airport, the Cuban authorities fail to find the microfilms that Deveraux has. He returns to find that his wife has left him. Devereaux is to be recalled to Paris. Kusenov tells him about the existence of a Soviet spy organisation, "Topaz," within the French intelligence service. He is given the name of NATO official Henri Jarré (Philippe Noiret), who leaked documents to the KGB.
In Paris, he is picked up at the airport by his daughter and his son-in-law. Michèle brings to a cocktail Jacques Granville (Michel Piccoli), an old friend of André. Michèle hopes that her parents will get along, but Nicole cannot forgive André's affair with Juanita. André and Michèle stay alone, and Jacques complains the agent Martin (John van Dreelen) that Nicole married Andre.
Devereaux researches the leak and invites some of his old friends and colleagues, including Jarré, to a lunch at a fine Paris restaurant under the pretext of helping Devereaux prepare for his inquiry. Devereaux tells the others about Topaz to provoke some reaction. Jarré claims that it is misinformation and that Kusenov died a year ago.
Jarré starts to panic and visits the leader of the spy ring, Jacques Granville. Devereaux, Nicole, and Granville were close friends from their days together during the French Resistance. Granville tells Jarré that it was a mistake to say Kusenov was dead since the Americans will easily discover that Jarré lied. As Jarré leaves Granville's house, Devereaux's wife arrives to meet Granville, her lover.
Devereaux sends his son-in-law, François, to interview Jarré. Devereaux and Michèle rush to Jarré's flat and find Jarré dead, which is a staged suicide, and François has disappeared. After being clubbed and kidnapped, François managed to escape from his captors' car with an overheard phone number.
Nicole tells her family with tearful eyes that since the phone number is Granville's, he must be the leader of Topaz. Granville, exposed, commits suicide (in the American and the French versions) or flees to the Soviet Union (in the British version).
Cast
Frederick Stafford as André Devereaux
Dany Robin as Nicole Devereaux
Karin Dor as Juanita de Cordoba
John Vernon as Rico Parra
Claude Jade as Michèle Picard
Michel Subor as François Picard
Michel Piccoli as Jacques Granville
Philippe Noiret as Henri Jarré
Roscoe Lee Browne as Philippe Dubois
Per-Axel Arosenius as Boris Kusenov
John Forsythe as Michael Nordstrom
Edmon Ryan as McKittreck
Sonja Kolthoff as Mrs. Kusenov
Tina Hedström as Tamara Kusenov (as Tina Hedstrom)
John van Dreelen as Claude Martin
Donald Randolph as Luis Uribe (as Don Randolph)
Roberto Contreras as Muñoz
Carlos Rivas as Hernandez
Roger Til as Jean Chabrier
Lewis Charles as Pablo Mendoza
Sándor Szabó as Emile Redon (as Sandor Szabo)
Anna Navarro as Carlotta Mendoza
Lew Brown as American Official
John Roper as Thomas
George Skaff as René d'Arcy
Ann Doran as Mrs Foryth (uncredited)
Eva Wilma as Rosita Gomez (uncredited)
Production
Screenplay
Shel Talmy and William Piggott Brown first tried to option the film rights to Leon Uris's novel for $500,000 in 1967, but the deal was halted by the Bank of England because of the 1967 devaluation of the pound sterling. Alfred Hitchcock first hired Uris to adapt his own novel for the screen five months later. Afterwards Philippe de Vosjoli filed a lawsuit against Uris, Universal Pictures, and MCA Inc claiming that they had stole the plot for the novel and film from his unpublished manuscript Le reseau Topaz. De Vosjoli and Uris settled out of court with a deal that would give Uris full rights to the profits from the film but gave de Vosjoli half of the profits from the novel.
Reportedly, Hitchcock and Uris differed on aspects of character development, with Hitchcock claiming that Uris had not humanised the villains of the story. Uris also did not appreciate Hitchcock's insistence on adding black humour. After a portion of the draft had been written, Uris left the film. Hitchcock attempted to hire Arthur Laurents to complete the work on the screenplay, but he refused, leaving an unfinished draft while the shooting schedule was rapidly approaching. Ultimately, Samuel A. Taylor, cowriter of Vertigo, was hired, but the film began without a completed screenplay. Some scenes were written only hours before they were filmed.
Hitchcock changed the script shortly before the beginning of filming, and the distributor, Universal, forced an ending that was different from the one that was preferred by Hitchcock. For Topaz, Hitchcock engaged the 19-year-old French actress Claude Jade from Truffaut's Stolen Kisses. She and Dany Robin, who was cast as her mother, would provide the glamour in the story. "Jade is a rather quiet young lady," Hitchcock later said, "but I wouldn't guarantee [that] about her behaviour in a taxi."
Production
Like his previous films Rope and The Trouble with Harry, Hitchcock intended the film to be an experiment for whether colours, predominantly red, yellow and white, could be used to reveal and to influence the plot. He later admitted that it did not work out.
Production began on September 25, 1968, and concluded at the beginning of March 1969. Portions of Topaz were filmed on location in Copenhagen; Wiesbaden, West Germany; Virginia, Paris, New York City, and Washington, DC. The remainder of the film was shot at Universal Studios Hollywood and in and around Los Angeles.
Prior to Hitchcock's decision to hire Maurice Jarre to compose the score, other composers who were interested in offering their services included Michel Legrand, Richard Rodney Bennett, and Ravi Shankar.
Hitchcock cameo
Hitchcock's signature cameo appearance occurs around 28 minutes into the film. At the airport, he is seated in a wheelchair as he is being pushed by a nurse. She stops, and he nonchalantly stands and greets a man and proceeds to walk off screen with him.
Alternate versions and endings
The original cut of the film ended with a duel between André and Jacques in a French football stadium. It was shot by associate producer Herbert Coleman when Hitchcock had to return to the United States for a family emergency. Audiences panned the ending during test screenings. They also said the film was far too long.
Under pressure from the studio, Hitchcock shot a second ending that he actually liked better, with Jacques escaping on an Aeroflot flight to the Soviet Union as André and Nicole board their adjacent Pan Am flight back to the United States. However, the ending apparently confused audiences. Also, screenwriter Samuel Taylor objected to the villain escaping unpunished, and there were fears that the ending would offend the French government.
As a compromise, Hitchcock used existing footage to create a third ending in which Granville is exposed and expelled from a NATO meeting. Over a shot of the exterior of his apartment, the sound of a gunshot tells that he commits suicide behind his drawn curtains since no footage of his suicide existed.
The film was released with this third ending and was also edited down by nearly 20 minutes to a final length of 127 minutes. The "airport ending" briefly appeared on British prints of the film by mistake, but those prints were soon altered to match the version that was released elsewhere.
The 143-minute cut of the film was released for the first time by Universal on DVD in 1999; it used the second ending in which Jacques escapes. All three endings appear as extras on the DVD, together with an "Appreciation" by Leonard Maltin in which Maltin discusses the deleted scenes and the alternate endings.
The longer version of the film has been released numerous times on DVD and Blu-ray in the US and in many other markets. However some markets, like Germany, Japan and Scandinavia, continue to have the shorter theatrical cut on DVD and Blu-ray.
Reception
Box office
Topaz earned $3.8 million in box office rentals from the United States and Canada in 1970.
Critical reaction
Vincent Canby of The New York Times placed the film on his year-end list of the ten best films of 1969 and declared it a "huge success, a quirky, episodic espionage tale made rich and suspenseful, not through conventional Hitchcockian narrative drive, but through odd, perverse Hitchcockian detail, economy of cinematic gesture, and an over-all point of view that can never for a moment be mistaken as belonging to anyone but Hitchcock." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times also liked the film and wrote that although there was a "loss of momentum" at the climax because of the time taken to resolve the complex plot, the first three quarters of the film were "bravura displays of the fabled Hitchcock technique, replete with dazzling camera movements and acute imagery." Thomas singled out the Harlem sequence as among "the best that Hitchcock has ever done."
Variety wrote that it "tends to move more solidly and less infectiously than many of the maestro of menace's best remembered pix. Yet Hitchcock has brought in a full quota of twists and tingling moments. It is just that the picture seems to move predictably and lacks the fun and surprise blood curdling moments that can lift his thrillers with breathtaking excitement." The Monthly Film Bulletin in Britain wrote that the film had "intermittent pleasures (the silent conversation behind hotel doors seen from across the street, the long pull back across the conference room and the reverse track forward ending with a zoom on to Piccoli's face), yet we are constantly deprived of the action set pieces which would have given the narrative its much needed boost. It is known that Hitchcock had trouble with the climax (and juggled three different endings); but the one finally chosen for the commercial print here looks as if it could have been devised by anyone." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote, "The film as a whole dies from a lack of humor and animation.... The awful truth is that Hitchcock would probably be better off if he retired. The most one can say for his direction of 'Topaz' is that it's polished: The compositions are symmetrical and the photography is glossy. But if this is all it is, the film might as well be the work of a disinterested computer." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker called it "the same damned spy picture he's been making since the thirties, and it's getting longer, slower, and duller." John Simon described Topaz as both wretched and senile.
Some American critics complained that there was no Hollywood star in the movie such as Ingrid Bergman or Cary Grant although the cast included the renowned international film stars (Claude Jade, Michel Piccoli, and Philippe Noiret), the last of whom had previous successes that had been primarily in France. Some attribute Hitchcock's casting choices to his negative experience of working with Paul Newman on Torn Curtain, but Hitchcock is said to have approached Sean Connery, who had worked with him in Marnie, for André and Catherine Deneuve for his wife. Some critics have inferred that Hitchcock was hoping to groom the relatively-unknown Frederick Stafford as a star of his own making, like Tippi Hedren; however, Stafford remained unknown in Hollywood though he had a lengthy career in European films.
In 1969, Hitchcock won the Best Director Award for Topaz from the National Board of Review.
Topaz had its American network television premiere on NBC Saturday Night at the Movies on January 29, 1972. Topaz currently holds a 69% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10.
See also
List of American films of 1969
Martel affair
References
External links
Poster Topaz
1969 films
1960s spy films
American spy films
American films
Articles containing video clips
Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock
Films with screenplays by Samuel A. Taylor
Films scored by Maurice Jarre
Cold War spy films
Films about the Cuban Missile Crisis
Films based on American novels
Films shot in Denmark
Films set in Cuba
Films set in 1962
Universal Pictures films
Films set in Havana
Films set in Copenhagen
Films about the KGB
Films set in New York City
Films set in Harlem
Films shot in Germany
Films shot in Virginia
Films shot in Washington, D.C.
Films shot in Paris
Films shot in Copenhagen
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in Los Angeles | [
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239536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair%20F-102%20Delta%20Dagger | Convair F-102 Delta Dagger | The Convair F-102 Delta Dagger was an American interceptor aircraft designed and manufactured by Convair.
Built as part of the backbone of the United States Air Force's air defenses in the late 1950s, it entered service in 1956. Its main purpose was to intercept invading Soviet strategic bomber fleets (primarily the Tupolev Tu-95) during the Cold War. A total of 1,000 F-102s were built.
A member of the Century Series, the F-102 was the USAF's first operational supersonic interceptor and delta-wing fighter. It used an internal weapons bay to carry both guided missiles and rockets. As originally designed, it could not achieve Mach 1 supersonic flight until redesigned with area ruling. The F-102 replaced subsonic fighter types such as the Northrop F-89 Scorpion, and by the 1960s, it saw limited service in the Vietnam War in bomber escort and ground-attack roles. It was supplemented by McDonnell F-101 Voodoos and, later, by McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs.
Many of the F-102s were transferred from the active duty Air Force to the Air National Guard by the mid-to-late 1960s, and, with the exception of those examples converted to unmanned QF-102 Full Scale Aerial Target (FSAT) drones, the type was totally retired from operational service in 1976. The follow-on replacement was the Mach-2 Convair F-106 Delta Dart, which was an extensive redesign of the F-102.
Design and development
Initial designs and problems
On 8 October 1948, the board of senior officers of the U.S. Air Force (USAF) made recommendations that the service organize a competition for a new interceptor scheduled to enter service in 1954; as such, the all-new design would initially be dubbed the "1954 Ultimate Interceptor". Four months later, on 4 February 1949, the USAF approved the recommendation and prepared to hold the competition the following year. In November 1949, the Air Force decided that the new aircraft would be built around a fire-control system (FCS). The FCS was to be designed before the airframe to ensure compatibility. The airframe and FCS together were called the weapon system.
In January 1950, the USAF Air Materiel Command issued request for proposals (RFPs) to 50 companies for the FCS, of which 18 responded. By May, the list was revised downward to 10. Meanwhile, a board at the U.S. Department of Defense headed by Major General Gordon P. Saville reviewed the proposals, and distributed some to the George E. Valley-led Air Defense Engineering Committee. Following recommendations by the committee to the Saville Board, the proposals were further reduced to two competitors, Hughes Aircraft and North American Aviation. Although the Valley Committee thought it was best to award the contract to both companies, Hughes was chosen by Saville and his team on 2 October 1950.
Proposals for the airframe were issued on 18 June 1950, and in January 1951 six manufacturers responded. On 2 July 1954, three companies, Convair, Republic and Lockheed won the right to build a mockup. Until then, Convair had done research into delta-winged aircraft, experimenting with different designs, two of which fell under the name P-92. Of the three, the best design was to win the production contract under the name "Project MX-1554". In the end, Convair emerged as the victor with its design, designated "XF-102", after Lockheed dropped out and Republic built only a mockup. The development of three different designs was too expensive and in November, only Convair was allowed to continue with its Model 8-80. To speed development, it was proposed to equip the prototypes and pre-production aircraft with the less-powerful Westinghouse J40 turbojet. Continued delays to the J67 and MA-1 (formerly "MX-1179") FCS led to the decision to place an interim aircraft with the J40 and a simpler fire control system (dubbed "E-9") into production as the F-102A. The failure of the J40 led to the Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet with afterburner, rated with of thrust being substituted for the prototypes and F-102As. This aircraft was intended to be temporary, pending the development of the F-102B, which would employ the more advanced Curtiss-Wright J67, a licensed derivative of the Bristol-Siddeley Olympus which was still in development. The F-102B would later evolve to become the F-106A, dubbed the "Ultimate Interceptor".
The prototype YF-102 made its first flight on 23 October 1953, at Edwards AFB, but was lost in an accident nine days later. The second aircraft flew on 11 January 1954, confirming a dismal performance. Transonic drag was much higher than expected, and the aircraft was limited to Mach 0.98 (i.e. subsonic), with a ceiling of 48,000 ft (14,630 m), far below the requirements.
Major redesign
To solve the problem and save the F-102, Convair embarked on a major redesign, incorporating the recently discovered area rule, while at the same time simplifying production and maintenance. The redesign entailed lengthening the fuselage by 11 ft (3.35 m), being "pinched" at the midsection (dubbed the "Coke Bottle configuration"), with two large fairings on either side of the engine nozzle, with revised intakes and a new, narrower canopy. A more powerful model of the J57 was fitted, and the aircraft structure was lightened.
At the same time the wing was redesigned, being made thinner and wider. The leading edge was given a conical droop, with the apex at the root, to improve handling at low speeds. Because the droop remained within the shock cone of the leading edge, the drag rise at supersonic speeds was minimal. A second, inboard fence was added.
The first revised aircraft, designated YF-102A flew on 20 December 1954, 118 days after the redesign started, exceeding Mach 1 the next day. The revised design demonstrated a speed of Mach 1.22 and a ceiling of 53,000 ft (16,154 m). These improvements were sufficient for the Air Force to allow production of the F-102, with a new production contract signed in March 1954.
The production F-102A had the Hughes MC-3 fire control system, later upgraded in service to the MG-10. It had a three-segment internal weapons bay under the fuselage for air-to-air missiles. Initial armament was three pairs of GAR-1/2/3/4 (Later re-designated as AIM-4) Falcon missiles, which included both infrared homing and semi-active radar homing variants. The doors of the two forward bays each had tubes for 12 FFARs (for a total of 24) with initially 2 in (5.1 cm) being fitted and later 2.75 in (70 mm) replacing them. The F-102 was later upgraded to allow the carrying of up to two GAR-11/AIM-26 Nuclear Falcon missiles in the center bay. The larger size of this weapon required redesigned center bay doors with no rocket tubes. Plans were considered to fit the MB-1 Genie nuclear rocket to the design, but although a Genie was test fired from a YF-102A in May 1956, it was never adopted.
The F-102 received several major modifications during its operational lifetime, with most airframes being retrofitted with infrared search/tracking systems, radar warning receivers, transponders, backup artificial horizons, and improvements to the fire control system. A proposed close-support version (never built) would have incorporated, in addition, an internal Gatling gun, an extra two hardpoints for bombs (in addition to the two underwing pylons for drop tanks that were fitted to all production F-102s), bigger internal fuel tanks, and an in-flight-refueling probe. The F-102 was subsonic when fitted with drop tanks.
To train F-102A pilots, the TF-102A trainer was developed, with 111 eventually manufactured. The aircraft was designed with side-by-side seating to facilitate pilot training, a popular concept in the 1950s (also used with the American Cessna T-37, British Hawker Hunter T.7 and English Electric Lightning T.4, among others). This required a redesign of the cockpit and a nose almost as wide as that of a Convair 340 commercial airliner. The new nose introduced buffeting, the source of which was traced to the bulbous canopy. Vortex generators were added to the top of the canopy to prevent the buffet which had started at about Mach 0.72. The intake ducts were revised as the inlets were repositioned. Despite the many changes, the aircraft was combat-capable, although this variant was predictably slower, reaching only subsonic speeds in level flight.
The numerous inherent design and technical limitations of the F-102 led to a proposed successor, initially known as the F-102B "Ultimate Interceptor". The improved design, in which the proposed Curtiss-Wright J67 jet engine was eventually replaced by a Pratt & Whitney J75, underwent so many aerodynamic changes (including variable-geometry inlets) that it essentially became an entirely new aircraft and hence was redesignated and produced as the F-106 Delta Dart. Convair would also use a delta wing design in the Mach 2 class Convair B-58 Hustler bomber.
Operational history
Introduction to service
The first operational service of the F-102A was with the 327th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at George Air Force Base, in April 1956, and eventually a total of 889 F-102As were built, production ending in September 1958. TF-102s and F-102s were used in the 1960s by the Air Defense Command (ADC) at Perrin AFB, Texas to train new F-102 pilots. They also provided platform training on flight characteristics of delta-winged aircraft for pilots who were destined to fly the B-58 Hustler bomber for the Strategic Air Command (SAC).
The F-102's official name, "Delta Dagger", was never used in common parlance, with the aircraft being universally known as the "Deuce." The TF-102 was known as the "Tub" because of its wider fuselage with side-by-side twin seating.
During the time the F-102A was in service, several new wing designs were used to experiment with the application of increased conical camber to the wings. Ultimately, a design was selected that actually increased elevon area, reduced takeoff speed, improved the supersonic L/D ratio and increased the aircraft's ceiling to 56,000 ft (17,069 m). A modification was required to the landing gear doors due to the wing redesign.
The Air Defense Command had F-102 Delta Daggers in service in 1960 and the type continued to serve in large numbers with both Air Force and Air National Guard units well into the 1970s. George W. Bush, later President of the United States, flew the F-102 in the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group based at Ellington AFB in Houston, Texas as part of his Texas Air National Guard service from 1968 to 1972.
Vietnam War service
The F-102 served in the Vietnam War, flying fighter patrols and serving as bomber escorts. A total of 14 aircraft were lost in Vietnam: one to air-to-air combat, several to ground fire and the remainder to accidents.
Initially, F-102 detachments began to be sent to bases in Southeast Asia in 1962 after radar contacts detected by ground radars were thought to possibly be North Vietnamese Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF) Il-28 "Beagle" bombers considered to be a credible threat in that time period. The F-102s were sent to Thailand and other nearby countries to intercept these aircraft if they threatened South Vietnam.
Later on, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strikes, codenamed "Arc Light", were escorted by F-102s based in the theater. It was during one of these missions that an F-102 was shot down by a VPAF Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 using an AA-2 Atoll heat-seeking missile. The MiGs approached undetected, and one of the F-102s was hit by an air-to-air missile, which did not explode immediately, but remained lodged in the aft end of the aircraft, causing stability problems. As the pilot reported the problem to his wingman, the wingman observed the damaged Delta Dagger explode in midair, killing the pilot. This was the only air-to-air loss for the F-102 during the Vietnam War. The other F-102 pilot fired AIM-4 missiles at the departing MiG-21s, but no hit was recorded.
The F-102 was employed in the air-to-ground role with limited success, although neither the aircraft nor the training for its pilots were designed for that role. The 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron's Deuces arrived at Da Nang Air Base, 4 August 1964 from Clark Air Base, Philippines. The interceptor was equipped with 24 2.75 in (70 mm) FFARs in the fuselage bay doors. These could be used to good effect against various types of North Vietnamese targets in daylight. At night it proved less dangerous to use heat-seeking Falcon missiles in conjunction with the F-102's nose-mounted IRST (Infrared Search & Track) on nighttime harassment raids along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Some F-102As were configured to accommodate a single AIM-26 Super Falcon in each side bay in lieu of the two conventional AIM-4 Falcons. Operations with both the F-102A and TF-102A two-seaters (which were used in a Forward Air Control role because its two seats and 2.75 in/70 mm rockets offered good versatility for the mission) continued in Vietnam until 1968 when all F-102s were returned to the United States.
Later use
In 1973, six aircraft were converted to target drones as QF-102As and later PQM-102Bs (simulating MiG-21 threat aircraft) under a Full Scale Aerial Target (FSAT) project known as Pave Deuce. Eventually, the program converted hundreds of F-102s for use as target drones for newer fighter aircraft, as well as testing of the U.S. Army's Patriot missile system.
The F-102 and TF-102 were exported overseas to both Turkey and Greece. The Turkish F-102s saw combat missions during the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus. There have been claims of air combat between Greek F-5s and Turkish F-102s above the Aegean Sea during the Turkish invasion. A Greek internet website editor, Demetrius Stergiou, claims that the Greek F-5s had shot down two Turkish F-102s, while the Turkish side has claimed that their F-102s had shot down two Greek F-5s; however, both Greece and Turkey still officially deny any aircraft losses. The F-102 was finally retired from both of those air forces in 1979.
The F-102 left U.S. service in 1976, while the last QF-102A / PQM-102B drone was expended in 1986. No F-102s remain in flyable condition today, although many can be seen at museums or as permanent static displays as gate guardians at Air Force and Air National Guard installations.
Variants
YF-102
Prototypes. Non area-ruled fuselage. Powered by 14,500 lbf (64.5 kN) J57-P-11, two built.
YF-102A
Area-ruled prototypes. Powered by 16,000 lbf (71.2 kN) J57-P-23. Four converted from pre-production aircraft.
F-102A
Production Model. Initial eight pre-production aircraft built with non-area ruled fuselage. Remainder built (879) with area ruled fuselage.
TF-102A
Two-seat training version, 111 built.
F-102B
The original designation of the F-106A.
F-102C
Proposed tactical attack version with J57-P-47 engine. Two converted As, as YF-102C engineering test beds.
QF-102ATarget drones converted from the F-102A. Six built.
PQM-102A Unpiloted target drones. 65 converted.
PQM-102B Revised target drone conversion, capable of being flown remotely or by pilot in cockpit. 146 converted.
Operators
Hellenic Air Force
In 1969, Greece acquired 24 of these aircraft for use by the 114th Combat Wing at Tanagra Air Base. 19 of them were single-seat F-102As, five were two-seat TF-102As. They served with the Greek air force until 1977, when the F-102s were replaced by Mirage F1CG fighters.
.
Turkish Air Force
Beginning in 1968, approximately 50 F-102As and TF-102As were transferred to Turkey from USAF stocks. Before transfer to Turkey, they were overhauled by CASA in Seville. They were initially assigned to the 191st Filo (Squadron) based at Murted, replacing the F-84F Thunderstreaks previously assigned to this unit. This unit was redesignated 142nd Filo in early 1973. In 1971, F-102s were also assigned to the 182nd Filo based at Diyarbakır, replacing the F-84Fs previously being flown by this unit. F-102s remained in service with these two squadrons until mid-1979, when they were replaced by the F-104G in the 142nd Filo and by the F-100C in the 182nd Filo.
United States Air Force
Air Defense Command / Aerospace Defense Command
2nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Suffolk County AFB (1956–1959)
5th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Suffolk County AFB (1956–1960)
11th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Duluth AFB (1956–1960)
18th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Wurtsmith AFB (1957–1960)
27th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Griffiss AFB (1957–1959)
31st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Wurtsmith AFB (1956–1957); transferred to Alaska Air Command
37th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Ethan Allen AFB (1957–1960)
47th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Niagara Falls AFB (1958–1960)
48th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Langley AFB (1957–1960)
57th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Naval Station Keflavik (1962–1973)
59th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Goose Bay AFB(1960–1966)
61st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Truax Field (1957–1960)
64th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – McChord AFB (1957–1960), Paine Field (1960–1966)
71st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Selfridge AFB (1958–1960)
76th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Westover AFB (1961–1963)
82d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Travis AFB (1957–1966)
86th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Youngstown AFB (1957–1960)
87th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Lockbourne AFB (1958–1960)
95th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Andrews AFB (1958–1959)
317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – McChord AFB (1957–1958)
318th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – McChord AFB (1957–1960)
323d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Truax Field (1956–1957), Harmon AFB (1957–1960)
325th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Truax Field (1957–1966)
326th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Richards-Gebaur AFB (1957–1967)
327th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – George AFB (1956–1958), Thule AB (1958–1960)
329th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – George AFB (1958–1960)
331st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Webb AFB (1960–1963)
332nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – McGuire AFB (1957–1959), England AFB (1959–1960), Thule AB (1960–1965)
438th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Kincheloe AFB (1957–1960)
456th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Castle AFB (1958–1960)
460th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Portland AFB (1958–1966)
482nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Seymour Johnson AFB (1956–1965)
498th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Geiger Field (1957–1959)
Alaskan Air Command
317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Elmendorf AFB (1958–1970)
31st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Elmendorf AFB (1957–1958)
United States Air Forces in Europe
32d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Soesterberg AB (1960–1969)
431st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Zaragosa AB (1960–1964)
496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Hahn AB (1960–1970)
497th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Torrejon AB (1960–1963)
525th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Bitburg AB (1959–1969)
526th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Ramstein AB (1960–1970)
Pacific Air Forces
4th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Misawa AB (1957–1965)
16th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Naha AB (1959–1965)
40th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Yokota AB (1957–1965)
64th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Clark AB (1966–1969)
68th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Itazuke AB (1957–1965)
82d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Naha AB (1966–1971)
509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron – Clark AB (1959–1970)
Air National Guard
102d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, NY ANG – Suffolk County ANGB (1972–1975)
111th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, TX ANG – Ellington Field (1960–1975)
116th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, WA ANG – Geiger Field (1965–1969)
118th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, CT ANG – Bradley ANGB (1966–1971)
122nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, LA ANG – NAS New Orleans (1960–1971)
123d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, OR ANG – Portland ANGB (1966–1971)
132nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, ME ANG – Bangor ANGB (1969–1970)
134th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, VT ANG – Burlington ANGB (1965–1975)
146th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, PA ANG – Pittsburgh AP (1961–1975)
151st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, TN ANG – McGhee-Tyson ANGB (1963–1964)
152d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, AZ ANG – Tucson ANGB (1966–1969)
157th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, SC ANG – MacEntire ANGB (1963–1975)
159th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, FL ANG – Imeson Field (1960–1968), Jacksonville ANGB 1968–1974
175th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, SD ANG – Sioux Falls AFB (1960–1970)
176th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, WI ANG – Truax Field (1966–1974)
178th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, ND ANG – Hector Field (1966–1969)
179th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, MN ANG – Duluth ANGB (1966–1971)
182nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, TX ANG – Kelly AFB (1960–1969)
186th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, MT ANG – Great Falls ANGB (1966–1972)
190th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, ID ANG – Gowen Field (1964–1975)
194th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, CA ANG – Fresno ANGB (1964–1974)
196th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, CA ANG – Ontario IAP (1965–1975)
199th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, HI ANG – Hickam AFB (1960–1977)
Aircraft on display
Canada
F-102A
56-1266 – Stephenville, Newfoundland. This aircraft was formerly of the U.S. 59th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, Goose Bay (Happy Valley), Labrador.
Greece
F-102A
56-1106 – Tanagra.
56-1232 – Larisa.
TF-102A
56-2355 – Hellenic Air Force Museum Tatoi
55-4035 = Hellenic Air Force Museum Tatoi.
Netherlands
F-102A
Registration unknown - On display at the Nationaal Militair Museum, Soesterberg. Former Greek aircraft, painted as 56-1032, 32nd FIS USAF.
Turkey
F-102A
55-3386 – Istanbul Aviation Museum.
TF-102A
56-2368 – Istanbul Aviation Museum.
United States
YF-102A
53-1787 – Air Park at Jackson Barracks Military Museum, New Orleans, Louisiana
53-1788 – Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina.
TF-102A
54-1351 – Selfridge Military Air Museum, Selfridge ANGB, Mount Clemens, Michigan.
54-1353 – Century Circle at Edwards Air Force Base, near Rosamond, California
54-1366 – Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona.
56-2317 – Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base (former Grissom AFB), Peru, Indiana.
56-2337 – Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas.
56-2346 – Pennsylvania National Guard Military Museum, Pennsylvania National Guard Headquarters, Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania. (Aircraft was assigned to the Pennsylvania Air National Guard, at the 112th Fighter Interceptor Group, Pittsburgh International Airport, Coraopolis, Pennsylvania from 1960–1974 and is on loan from the National Museum of the United States Air Force).
56-2352 – Southern Museum of Flight, Birmingham, Alabama.
56-2353 – Wisconsin National Guard Memorial Library and Museum, Volk Field, Camp Douglas, Wisconsin.
56-2364 – Castle Air Museum, Atwater, California.
F-102A
53-1801 – Joe Foss Field Air National Guard Station - 114th Fighter Wing, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.
53-1804 – Fresno Air National Guard Base - 144th Fighter Wing, Fresno, California.
53-1816 – Boise Idaho Military History Museum, Boise, Idaho.
54-1405 – Strategic Air and Space Museum, Ashland, Nebraska
54-1373 – Hickam AFB, Honolulu, Hawaii.
55-3366 – Pacific Aviation Museum, Ford Island, Honolulu, Hawaii.
56-0984 – Wings Over the Rockies Museum, (former Lowry AFB) Denver, Colorado.
56-0985 – McEntire Air National Guard Base, South Carolina
56-0986 – MAPS Air Museum, Akron-Canton Regional Airport, Ohio.
56-1017 – South Dakota Air and Space Museum, Ellsworth AFB, Rapid City, South Dakota.
56-1053, (painted as 56-1274), – Alaska Heritage Park, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.
56-1105 – Lions Park in Great Falls, Montana.
56-1109 – Peterson AFB, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
56-1114 – March Field Air Museum, March ARB (former March AFB), Riverside, California.
56-1115 – Fairchild AFB, Spokane, Washington.
56-1134 – Arizona ANGB, Tucson, Arizona.
56-1140 – Aerospace Museum of California, former McClellan AFB, Sacramento, California.
56-1151 – Museum of Aviation, Robins AFB, Warner Robins, Georgia.
56-1219 – Empire State Aerosciences Museum, Schenectady County Airport, New York.
56-1252 – Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Houston, Texas. Future President of the United States George W. Bush flew this model with the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group, 111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron of the Texas Air National Guard in the early 1970s. It is mounted on a pole that exits the burner. His name is on the canopy.
56-1264 – Connecticut ANGB - 103rd FW, Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
56-1268 – San Diego Air and Space Museum, Gillespie Field, El Cajon, California.
56-1273 – Wisconsin National Guard Memorial Library and Museum, Volk Field, Camp Douglas, Wisconsin.
56-1282 – Transportation and Industry Museum of Alaska, Wasilla, Alaska.
56-1325, (painted as 56-1476), – Minnesota Air National Guard Base, Minneapolis, Minnesota
56-1368 – Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon.
56-1393 – Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona.
56-1413 – Castle Air Museum (former Castle AFB), Atwater, California.
56-1415 – Pittsburgh IAP Air Reserve Station (located at Pittsburgh International Airport), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Refurbished in 2010
56-1416 – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio.
56-1427 – Travis AFB Heritage Center, Travis AFB, Fairfield, California.
56-1502, (painted as 55-3432), - North Dakota ANGB - 119TH FG, Fargo, North Dakota.
56-1505 – Minot AFB, Minot, North Dakota.
56-1515 – McChord Air Museum, McChord Air Force Base, Washington.
57-0788 – Long Island MacArthur Airport, Long Island, New York.
57-0817, (painted as 56-1357), - Florida Air National Guard Base - 125th Fighter Wing, Jacksonville, Florida.
57-0826 – Sheppard AFB, Wichita Falls, Texas.
57-0833 – Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill AFB, Utah.
57-0858 – Burlington Air National Guard Base, Burlington, Vermont.
57-0906 – Museum of Aviation, Warner Robins AFB, Macon, Georgia.
Specifications (F-102A)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Drendel, Lou. Century Series in Color (Fighting Colors). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1980. .
Green, William. The World's Fighting Planes. London: Macdonald, 1964.
Gunston, Bill. "Convair F-102: An Analysis of America's Home-defence Interceptor". Flight, 19 April 1957, pp. 512–518.
Gunston, Bill. Fighters of the Fifties. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press Publishers & Wholesalers, Inc., 1981. .
Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses: United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia, 1961–73. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. North Branch, Minnesota, USA: Specialty Press, 2008. .
Mendenhall, Charles A. Delta Wings: Convair's High-Speed Planes of the Fifties and Sixties. Motorbooks. 1983.
Pace, Steve. X-Fighters: USAF Experimental and Prototype Fighters, XP-59 to YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1991. .
Peacock, Lindsay. "Convair's Delta Defender: The F-102 Story". Air International, Vol. 30, No. 1, January 1986, pp. 28–37, 52. ISSN 0306-5634.
Taylor, Michael J. H., ed. "The Convair Delta Dagger". Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th Century. New York: Modern Publishing, 1995. .
Wegg, John. General Dynamics Aircraft and their Predecessors. London: Putnam, 1990. .
Winchester, Jim, ed. "Convair F-102 Delta Dagger." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. .
External links
Aerospaceweb's Profile of the F-102
Global Aircraft's F-102 Specs., Achievements, and Photos
Joe Baugher's F-102 Delta Dagger History
Aero-Web: List of F-102 Delta Dagger on display in the US.
F-102
Tailless delta-wing aircraft
Convair F-102 Delta Dagger
Single-engined jet aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1953
Low-wing aircraft
Second-generation jet fighters | [
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|
239540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20English | Alex English | Alexander English (born January 5, 1954) is an American former professional basketball player, coach, and businessman.
A South Carolina native, English played college basketball at the University of South Carolina. He was drafted in the second round of the National Basketball Association (NBA) draft in 1976. English played the small forward position and was a star player for the Denver Nuggets in the 1980s. During his Nuggets tenure (1979–1989), the team made the NBA playoffs nine consecutive times, won two Midwest Division titles, and reached the 1985 Western Conference Finals. English played 15 seasons in the NBA for four teams, averaging 21.5 points and 5.5 rebounds per game. English scored more points than any other NBA player during the 1980s. He was named to eight NBA All-Star teams and made the All-NBA Second Team three times. His number 2 jersey was retired by the Denver Nuggets in 1992, and he was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1997.
After his playing career ended, English worked for the NBA, served as an assistant coach for several NBA teams, was involved in various business ventures, dabbled in acting, and became an NBA ambassador. He currently sits on the Board of Trustees at his alma mater the University of South Carolina.
Early life
English was born and raised in Columbia, South Carolina. For some of his childhood, he and his siblings lived with their grandmother while their parents worked in New York. During this time, English often subsisted on a single meal per day.
English attended Dreher High School in Columbia. On January 31, 2020, his number 22 jersey was retired by the high school.
College career
English attended the University of South Carolina in Columbia from 1972 to 1976. He started every game over a four-year career and was arguably the first African-American sports star at the school. He scored a record 1,972 points and was only the third player at the school to record over 1,000 rebounds and connect on better than 50% of his field-goal attempts. English was selected to two independent All-America teams in 1975 and 1976. In the academic realm, English "developed interests that he still maintains in art, sculpture, literature, and, especially poetry." He graduated with a bachelor's degree in English in 1976.
Professional career
Milwaukee Bucks (1976–1978)
English was drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks in the second round of the 1976 NBA draft with the 23rd pick.
Indiana Pacers (1978–1980)
English signed with the Indiana Pacers as a free agent after the 1977–78 season. English became a starter in Indiana and began to establish a reputation as a scorer, averaging 16 points per game during the 1978–79 season on another rebuilding team.
Denver Nuggets (1980–1990)
English was traded to the Denver Nuggets midway through the 1979–80 season for George McGinnis, a former Pacers star from their ABA days. Though coming off of an All-Star season in 1978–79, McGinnis was only a shadow of his former self and was out of the league by 1982. English went on to become a star player for the Nuggets.
In his first full season with the Nuggets in 1980–81, English averaged a then-career high 23.8 points.
In the 1981–82 season, English averaged 25.4 points and the team advanced to postseason play. He earned a position on the All-Star Team and All-NBA Second Team. The following year, in 1982–83, English won the league scoring title with an average of 28.4 points per game, while teammate Kiki Vandeweghe placed second averaging 26.7 points. Then in 1983–84 English placed fourth in the league in scoring.
In the 1984–85 season English raised his scoring average to 27.9 points to pick up some of the slack from Kiki Vandeweghe's departure. Denver won its division and secured the second seed in the Western Conference. In the 1985 playoffs, English averaged 30.2 points as the Nuggets defeated the San Antonio Spurs and Utah Jazz to meet the Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference Finals, where they would fall to the eventual NBA-champion Lakers in five games. English suffered a right thumb injury in Game 4, which required surgery and rendered him unable to play for the rest of the series. With the Nuggets already dealing with injuries to other players, English's injury was thought by some to have nearly ensured a Laker victory in the series. English later stated in a 2006 interview that "I think that if I had not broken my thumb [...] we had a chance to beat the Lakers."
English recorded his career-best average of 29.8 points per game in the subsequent 1985–86 season, finishing third in the league behind Atlanta Hawks Dominique Wilkins and Utah Jazz Adrian Dantley. In the 1986 NBA All-Star Game, English set his All-Star career-high by scoring 16 points on 8-of-12 shooting in 16 minutes off the bench for the West squad.
In 1988, English received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award for his community service efforts.
After the 1989–90 season, in which English's scoring average dipped to 17.9 and he largely struggled to maintain his level of play compared to previous seasons, English became a free agent, and the Nuggets elected not to re-sign him.
Dallas Mavericks (1990–1991)
At age 36, English signed a one-year contract with the Dallas Mavericks where he once again played off the bench, this time averaging just under 10 points per game. He played his final NBA game in 1991 for the Mavericks.
Napoli (1991–1992)
No other NBA team signed English for the 1991–1992 season, and after a stint in Italy with Basket Napoli, English ended his playing career.
Legacy
When English left the Denver Nuggets, he was the holder of nearly every team record, including most career points (21,645), assists (3,679), games (837) and minutes (29,893) in a Nuggets uniform, along with the highest career scoring average with the team (25.9) of any player. The Nuggets retired English's number 2 jersey in 1992. , English's career 25,613 points place him 19th on the NBA's all-time career scoring list. While in Denver, English made the NBA All-Star Team eight times and the All-NBA Second Team three times. During his Nuggets tenure, the team made the NBA playoffs nine consecutive times and won two Midwest Division titles.
English retired with NBA career averages of 21.5 points and 5.5 rebounds per game.
He was the first NBA player to score 2,000 points in eight consecutive seasons, and he has the distinction of being the top NBA scorer in the 1980s. English was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1997.
Coaching career
English began his coaching career in the National Basketball Development League (now called the NBA G League) as the head coach of the North Charleston Lowgators in the 2001–02 season. The Lowgators tied for the best record during the regular season and were eliminated in the championship series during the playoffs.
Before the 2002-03 NBA season, English joined the coaching staff of the Atlanta Hawks. The following year, he was hired by the Philadelphia 76ers as an assistant coach.
English then joined the Toronto Raptors in 2004 to serve as assistant coach and director of player development. On June 5, 2009, it was announced that English would stay with the Raptors as an assistant coach. On July 13, 2011, with the team heading in a new direction after the hiring of new head coach Dwane Casey, English was not given a new contract, and his services were not retained.
On January 13, 2012, English was added to the Sacramento Kings coaching staff under head coach Keith Smart. On June 5, 2013, new Kings coach Michael Malone announced that the 2012–13 assistant coaches, including English, would not be retained for the 2013–14 season.
Other work
Sports
English was the first-ever director of player programs for the National Basketball Players Association.
SEC Network announced on November 11, 2014 that English had been hired as a color analyst.
Since 2014, English has been an active participant in the Sports Diplomacy's Sports Envoy program for the U.S. Department of State. In this function, he has traveled to Italy, the Republic of Korea, and Chile, where he worked with Nykesha Sales and Candace Wiggins to conduct basketball clinics and events that reached more than 1900 youth from underserved areas. In so doing, English helped contribute to Sports Diplomacy's mission to reach out to youth populations in order to promote growth and a stable democratic government.
English participates in Basketball Without Borders. He is an NBA ambassador and has taught at NBA academies in various countries.
Business
English and his wife, Vanessa, owned Wendy's franchises in South Carolina. English has also formed a company called GreenSmart Botanicals, which sells hemp-related products.
Acting
English has dabbled in acting. His acting debut came in the 1987 motion picture Amazing Grace and Chuck, playing a fictitious Boston Celtics star. He then had roles in the television series Midnight Caller in some 1989 episodes and played the head coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers in Eddie (1996). He also played a role as "The Premiere" in the 1997 film The Definite Maybe.
English later acted in a 2007 film called Lumera for which his son Alex Jr. was the producer and executive director. In 2013, he appeared on a half-hour TV special called The Nothing But Net Show, which was also directed by his son.
Personal life
English is married to Vanessa English. Alex and Vanessa English have five children. As of 2020, English resides in Blythewood, South Carolina.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee
| 60 || 6 || 10.8 || .477 || – || .767 || 2.8 || .4 || .3 || .3 || 3.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee
| 82 || 4 || 18.9 || .542 || – || .727 || 4.8 || 1.6 || .5 || .7 || 9.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 81 || 69 || 33.3 || .511 || – || .752 || 8.1 || 3.3 || .9 || 1.0 || 16.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Indiana
| 54 || 15 || 28.3 || .504 || .000 || .814 || 7.0 || 2.6 || .8 || .6 || 14.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 24 || 24 || 36.5 || .485 || .667 || .762 || 9.4 || 3.4 || 1.2 || 1.2 || 21.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 81 || 81 || 38.2 || .494 || .600 || .850 || 8.0 || 3.6 || 1.3 || 1.2 || 23.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 36.8 || .551 || .000 || .840 || 6.8 || 5.3 || 1.1 || 1.5 || 25.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 36.4 || .516 || .167 || .829 || 7.3 || 4.8 || 1.4 || 1.5 ||bgcolor="CFECEC"|28.4*
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 77 || 35.0 || .529 || .143 || .824 || 5.7 || 5.0 || 1.0 || 1.2 ||26.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 81 || 81 || 36.1 || .518 || .200 || .829 || 5.7 || 4.2 || 1.2 || .6 || 27.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 81 || 81 || 37.3 || .504 || .200 || .862 || 5.0 || 4.0 || .9 || .4 || 29.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 37.6 || .503 || .267 || .844 || 4.2 || 5.1 || .9 || .3 || 28.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 80 || 80 || 35.2 || .495 || .000 || .828 || 4.7 || 4.7 || .9 || .3 || 25.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 82 || 82 || 36.5 || .491 || .250 || .858 || 4.0 || 4.7 || .8 || .1 || 26.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 80 || 80 || 27.6 || .491 || .400 || .880 || 3.6 || 2.8 || .6 || .3 || 17.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Dallas
| 79 || 26 || 22.1 || .439 || .000 || .850 || 3.2 || 1.3 || .5 || .3 || 9.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 1,193 || 753 || 31.9 || .507 || .217 || .832 || 5.5 || 3.6 || .9 || .7 || 21.5
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star
| 8 || 4 || 18.5 ||.500 || .000 || .500 || 2.3 || 1.9 || .8 || .5 || 9.1
The NBA adopted the three-point line in the 1979–80 season.
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1978
| style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee
| 9 || – || 23.1 || .615 || – || .781 || 4.7 || 1.4 || .7 || .8 || 13.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1982
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 3 || – || 39.3 || .473 || .000 || .857 || 7.7 || 5.7 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 19.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1983
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 7 || – || 38.6 || .447 || .000 || .887 || 6.3 || 6.0 || .6 || 1.0 || 25.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1984
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 5 || – || 40.6 || .588 || .000 || .893 || 8.0 || 5.6 || .6 || .4 || 29.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1985
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 14 || 14 || 38.3 || .536 || .000 || .890 || 6.6 || 4.5 || 1.2 || .4 || 30.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1986
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 10 || 10 || 39.4 || .463 || .000 || .859 || 3.5 || 5.2 || .4 || .4 || 27.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1987
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 3 || 3 || 25.3 || .510 || .000 || .857 || 4.7 || 3.3 || .0 || .0 || 18.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1988
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 11 || 11 || 39.8 || .455 || .000 || .814 || 5.4 || 4.4 || .6 || .3 || 24.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1989
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 3 || 3 || 36.0 || .516 || .000 || .875 || 4.3 || 3.7 || .3 || .0 || 26.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1990
| style="text-align:left;"| Denver
| 3 || 3 || 25.3 || .568 || .000 || .818 || 3.0 || 3.0 || .7 || .3 || 19.7
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 68 || 44 || 35.7 || .503 || .000 || .862 || 5.5 || 4.3 || .7 || .5 || 24.4
The NBA adopted the three-point line in the 1979–80 season.
Incomplete statistics.
See also
List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual scoring leaders
References
External links
Basketball Hall of Fame profile
Alex English at Basketball Reference
1954 births
Living people
African-American basketball coaches
African-American basketball players
American expatriate basketball people in Canada
American expatriate basketball people in Italy
American men's basketball players
Atlanta Hawks assistant coaches
Basketball coaches from South Carolina
Basketball players from Columbia, South Carolina
Basket Napoli players
Dallas Mavericks players
Denver Nuggets players
Indiana Pacers players
Milwaukee Bucks draft picks
Milwaukee Bucks players
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
National Basketball Players Association presidents
Philadelphia 76ers assistant coaches
Sacramento Kings assistant coaches
Small forwards
South Carolina Gamecocks men's basketball players
Sportspeople from Columbia, South Carolina
Toronto Raptors assistant coaches
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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|
239543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Toney | Andrew Toney | Andrew Toney (born November 23, 1957) is an American former professional basketball player for the National Basketball Association's Philadelphia 76ers from 1980 to 1988.
Professional career
Philadelphia 76ers (1980-1988)
He was dubbed "The Boston Strangler" by Boston sportswriters during the 76ers' and Celtics' rivalry in the early 1980s because of his ability to single-handedly dominate games against the Celtics, including Game 7 of the 1982 Eastern Conference Finals when he scored 34 points in the game. He also scored 30 points in Game 2, 39 points in Game 4 and averaged 26.4 points per game in that series.
Toney was drafted by the Sixers out of Southwestern Louisiana (now the University of Louisiana at Lafayette) with the eighth pick of the 1980 NBA draft.
He was named to two All-Star teams, in 1982 and 1983, and averaged 15.9 points per game for his career.
Toney was an integral part of the 1982–83 76ers championship team averaging 22 points a game, alongside teammates Julius Erving, Moses Malone, Bobby Jones and Maurice Cheeks, but his career was cut short after seven seasons by chronic foot injuries; the team did not believe that he was hurting before it was revealed that he had stress fractures on both feet. This led to a few years of bitterness between Toney and 76ers management.
Pat Williams, vice president of basketball operations for the Orlando Magic, shared an anecdote with Tony Rizzo while being interviewed on The Really Big Show on ESPN850 WKNR in Cleveland on February 11, 2010, while promoting his latest book about the late Chuck Daly. Williams said that when he was a general manager back in the days of their great rivalry with the Lakers and Sixers (c. 1980–1983), he asked Danny Ainge, the Celtics guard, what player he worried about the most come playoff time. "Not Magic or Dr. J, it's Andrew Toney that keeps me awake at night!" said Ainge. Williams went on to say that were it not for injuries Toney would have been a Hall of Famer. Charles Barkley stated that Toney was the best player he ever played with.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 75 || || 23.6 || .495 || .310 || .712 || 1.9 || 3.6 || .8 || .1 || 12.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 77 || 1 || 24.8 || .522 || .424 || .742 || 1.7 || 3.7 || .8 || .2 || 16.5
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|†
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 81 || 81 || 30.5 || .501 || .289 || .788 || 2.8 || 4.5 || 1.0 || .2 || 19.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 78 || 72 || 32.8 || .527 || .316 || .839 || 2.5 || 4.8 || .9 || .3 || 20.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 70 || 65 || 32.0 || .492 || .371 || .862 || 2.5 || 5.2 || .9 || .3 || 17.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 6 || 0 || 14.0 || .306 || .000 || .375 || .8 || 2.0 || .3 || .0 || 4.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 52 || 12 || 20.3 || .451 || .328 || .796 || 1.6 || 3.6 || .3 || .2 || 10.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Philadelphia
| 29 || 15 || 18.0 || .421 || .333 || .806 || 1.6 || 3.7 || .4 || .2 || 7.3
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 468 || 246 || 26.9 || .500 || .342 || .797 || 2.2 || 4.2 || .8 || .2 || 15.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 2 || 0 || 20.0 || .625 || .000 || 1.000 || .5 || 5.0 || 2.0 || .0 || 10.5
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1981
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 16 || || 22.3 || .428 || .111 || .815 || 2.3 || 3.4 || .7 || .4 || 13.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1982
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 21 || || 33.7 || .507 || .333 || .796 || 2.4 || 4.9 || .9 || .1 || 21.8
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba"|1983†
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 12 || || 29.8 || .470 || .000 || .754 || 2.3 || 4.6 || .9 || .1 || 18.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1984
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 5 || || 36.0 || .519 || .000 || .767 || 2.2 || 3.8 || .8 || .2 || 20.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1985
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 13 || 13 || 34.0 || .477 || .429 || .770 || 2.5 || 5.1 || .9 || .4 || 16.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|1987
| style="text-align:left;”|Philadelphia
| 5 || 0 || 20.8 || .382 || .000 || 1.000 || 1.8 || 5.4 || .4 || .4 || 5.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 72 || 13 || 29.8 || .478 || .235 || .786 || 2.3 || 4.5 || .8 || .3 || 17.4
Personal life
Toney's son Channing played NCAA Division I basketball at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and played few matches professionally in Poland with Asseco Prokom Gdynia. He also won the second-tier Finnish Division I championship with Bisons Loimaa.
Today, he lives in Atlanta, working as an elementary school teacher.
References
External links
Where are they now? Andrew Toney - NBA.com
1957 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Birmingham, Alabama
Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns men's basketball players
National Basketball Association All-Stars
Philadelphia 76ers draft picks
Philadelphia 76ers players
Shooting guards
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople | [
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|
239556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MG%2042 | MG 42 | The MG 42 (shortened from German: Maschinengewehr 42, or "machine gun 42") is a 7.92×57mm Mauser general-purpose machine gun designed in Nazi Germany and used extensively by the Wehrmacht and the Waffen-SS during the second half of World War II.
Entering production in 1942, it was intended to supplement and replace the earlier MG 34, which was more expensive and took much longer to produce, but both weapons were produced until the end of World War II.
Designed to be low-cost and easy to build, the MG 42 proved to be highly reliable and easy to operate. It is most notable for its very high cyclic rate for a gun using full power service cartridges, averaging about 1,200 rounds per minute compared to around 850 for the MG 34, and perhaps 450 to 600 for other common machine guns like the M1919 Browning or FM 24/29 or Bren. This ability made it extremely effective in providing suppressive fire, and its unique sound led to it being nicknamed "Hitler's buzzsaw".
The MG 42 was adopted by several armed organizations after the war, and was both copied and built under licence. The MG 42's lineage continued past Nazi Germany's defeat, forming the basis for the nearly identical MG1 (MG 42/59), chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO, which subsequently evolved into the MG1A3, and later the Bundeswehr's MG 3, Italian MG 42/59 and Austrian MG 74. It also spawned the Yugoslav unlicensed nearly identical Zastava M53.
The MG 42 lent many design elements to the Swiss MG 51 and SIG MG 710-3, French AA-52, American M60 and Belgian MAG general-purpose machine guns and the Spanish 5.56×45mm NATO Ameli light machine gun.
History
Before World War I
Even before World War I, the German military was already looking forward to replacing the heavy machine guns which proved to be such a success in that war. The MG13 was one of the first developments toward a goal of producing a weapon that could perform multiple roles, rather than just one. The MG13 was the result of reengineering the Dreyse Water-cooled machine gun to fit the new requirement. The twin-barreled Gast gun was developed with the goal of providing a high cyclic rate of fire weapon for anti-aircraft use which was reported to have reached cyclic rates of fire as high as 1,600 rounds per minute.
1930s
This eventually led to the Einheitsmaschinengewehr (Universal machine gun) introducing an entirely new concept in automatic firepower. By changing its mount, sights and feed mechanism, the operator could radically transform an Einheitsmaschinengewehr for several purposes.
The MG 34 is considered to be the first modern general-purpose machine gun or Einheitsmaschinengewehr. It was developed to use the standard German 7.92×57mm Mauser full-power rifle round. It was envisaged and well developed to provide portable light and medium machine gun infantry cover, low level anti-aircraft coverage, and even sniping ability. Equipped with a quick-change barrel and fed either with non-disintegrating metallic-link belts, or from a 50-round Gurttrommel (belt drum) or a 75-round spring-loaded saddle-drum Patronentrommel 34 magazines (with a simple change of the feed cover for a Trommelhalter magazine holder), the MG 34 could sustain fire for much longer periods of time than other portable squad-level weapons such as the American M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), Soviet Degtyaryov machine gun (DP-27) and the British Bren gun, which were fed by box magazines, while also being much lighter and more portable than crew-served weapons like the Browning M1919 or Vickers machine guns (which also lacked quick-change barrels). The MG 34 was also quite versatile; not only was it able to be fed from belted ammunition or a saddle drum magazine, it could also be fired from a bipod, an innovative Lafette 34 tripod or various pintle mounts for armored vehicles. Switching between a bipod and a tripod required no special tools, as the mounting latch was spring-loaded. As the MG 34 Panzerlauf, it was used throughout the war as secondary armament on panzers and other vehicles.
However, the MG 34 did have fundamental drawbacks, such as sensitivity to extreme weather conditions, dirt and mud, and comparatively complex and expensive production. Attempts to incrementally improve the basic MG 34 design failed.
During the period between 1934 and the adoption of the final MG 34 production version the Waffenamt (German Army Weapons Agency) realized the MG 34 Einheitsmaschinengewehr was too complex and expensive to mass-produce and started looking for ways to simplify and rationalize the technical concept.
Development of the MG 42
In order to address these issues, a draft specification was made and a contest was held for an MG 34 replacement. Three companies were asked in February 1937 to submit designs: Metall und Lackierwarenfabrik Johannes Großfuß AG of Döbeln, Rheinmetall-Borsig AG of Sömmerda, and Stübgen AG of Erfurt. The design and mock-up gun proposals were submitted in October 1937. Großfuß AG's entry proved to be the best design by far, employing a unique recoil-operated roller locking mechanism whereas the two competing entries used a gas-actuated system. The Großfuß company had no earlier experience in weapons manufacture, specializing in pressed and stamped steel components (the company's staple product was sheet metal lanterns). Dr.-Ing. Werner Gruner, one of the leading design engineers with Großfuß, knew nothing about machine guns when he was given the task of being involved with the project, although he specialized in the technology of mass production. Gruner would attend an army machine gunner's course to familiarize himself with the utility and characteristics of such a weapon, also seeking input from soldiers. He then recycled an existing Mauser-developed operating system and incorporated features from his experiences with army machine gunners and lessons learned during the early stages of the war. Being made largely out of pressed and stamped appropriately hardened carbon steel metal, only the most important parts were elaborately milled from solid steel, and using spot welding and riveting to connect parts the new design required considerably less machining and fewer high grade steel alloys containing metals that became scarce in Germany during World War II. It was much simpler to build than other machine guns — it took 75 man hours to complete the new gun as opposed to 150 man hours for the MG 34 (a 50% reduction), of raw materials as opposed to for the MG 34 (a 44% reduction) — and cost 250 RM as opposed to 327 RM (a 24% reduction).
The initial trials of the Großfuß functional model presented in April 1938 gave rise to improvement requests by the machine gun contest board. The resulting Großfuß MG 39 prototype gun presented in February 1939 remained similar to the earlier MG 34 overall, a deliberate decision made to maintain familiarity and capability to use the various mounts and other accessories developed for the MG 34 to adapt the gun to different roles. The only major changes from the gunner's perspective were dropping of the saddle-drum-magazine feed option, leaving the weapon to fire belted ammunition, or from a single 50-round drum-shaped Gurttrommel belt container fitted to the gun's receiver, and simplifying the weapon's open sights for aiming purposes. All these changes were intended to increase, maintain, or accommodate the gun's high rate of fire. Although made of relatively inexpensive and simple parts, the prototypes proved to be considerably more rugged and resistant to jamming than the precisely machined and somewhat temperamental MG 34. Further trials resulted in selecting the Großfuß MG 39 prototype gun for final production development. A limited run of about 1,500 of further improved MG 39/41 pre mass-production model guns, was completed in 1941 and by the end of 1941 tested in combat trials.
Adoption of the MG 42
In early 1942 the final model of the weapon was officially accepted, and manufacturing of the mass-production model began, as the MG 42, contracts going to Großfuß, Mauser-Werke, Gustloff-Werke, Steyr and others. The MG 42 was first deployed in May 1942 by the Deutsches Afrikakorps (German Africa Corps expeditionary force in Africa) and introduced by mid-1942 on all fronts. Production during the war amounted to over 400,000 units (17,915 units in 1942, 116,725 in 1943, 211,806 in 1944, and 61,877 in 1945).
In 1943, MG 42 production surpassed MG 34 production and continued to do so until the end of the war. The Germans nevertheless continued widespread production of MG 34s in parallel until the end of the war.
MG 42 nicknames
The distinctive sound caused by the high cyclic firing rate gave rise to a variety of nicknames. The Germans called it the Hitlersäge (Hitler’s Saw), Schnellespritze (Fast Sprayer), Knochensäge (Bone Saw), Tripperspritze (Gonorrhoea Syringe) and elektrisches MG (Electric MG). The Soviets called it the "Linoleum Ripper", and British and American troops called it "Hitler's Buzzsaw", or "Hitler's Zipper". Like the MG 34, British troops sometimes called it a "Spandau", a traditional generic term for all German machine guns, left over from the famous Allied nickname for the MG 08 Maxim-derivative used by German forces during World War I and derived from its manufacturer's plates noting the city of Spandau where some were produced. Brazilian expeditionary soldiers fighting in Italy used to refer to the MG 42 as Lourdinha; this nickname is due to the fact that the bride of one of the soldiers, named Maria de Lourdes, was a seamstress and the sound of MG 42 was similar to the sound of her sewing machine (Lourdinha is a common nickname in Brazil for women called Maria de Lourdes).
Small arms doctrine
The German tactical infantry doctrine of the era based a (10-man Gruppe) squad's firepower on the general-purpose machine gun in the light machine gun role so that the role of the rifleman was largely to carry ammunition and provide covering fire for the machine gunners. The advantage of the general purpose machine gun concept was that it added greatly to the overall volume of fire that could be put out by a squad-sized unit.
It was possible for operating crews to lay down a non-stop barrage of fire, pausing only when the barrel had to be replaced. This allowed the MG 42 to tie up significantly larger numbers of enemy troops than was otherwise possible. The Americans and the British trained their troops to take cover from the fire of an MG 42, and assault the position during the sub 10 seconds time window of barrel replacement.
The Allied nations' infantry doctrines of World War II based a squad's/rifle section's firepower centered on the rifleman and/or a magazine fed light machine gun (BAR, Bren, DP-27/DPM, FM 24/29), and they utilised weapons with cyclic fire rates of typically 450–600 rounds per minute. The (slower) rapid firing rate used in emergency/final defensive line situations of the MG 42 was up to 500 rounds per minute. The Allied nations had machine guns with similar rates of fire, but mounted them almost exclusively in aircraft, where the fleeting opportunities for firing made such high rates necessary. The Allies did have similar weapons, such as the M1919 Browning machine gun and the Vickers K machine gun, but these were issued more sparsely than the MG 42, with the Vickers K being an aircraft machine gun, only issued to infantry in specialized circumstances.
Light machine gun fire support role
A German infantry Gruppe (squad) at the start of the war consisted of ten men; a non-commissioned officer or Unteroffizier squad leader, deputy squad leader, a three-man machine gun team (machine gunner, assistant gunner/loader and ammunition carrier) and five riflemen. As personal small arms, the squad leader was issued a rifle, or as of around 1941 a submachine gun, the machine gunner and his assistant were issued pistols and the deputy squad leader, ammunition carrier and the riflemen were issued rifles. The riflemen carried additional ammunition, hand grenades, explosive charges or a machine gun tripod as required and provided security and covering fire for the machine gun team. Two of the standard issue bolt-action Karabiner 98k rifles in the squad could be replaced with semi-automatic Gewehr 43 rifles and occasionally, StG 44 assault rifles could be used to re-arm the whole squad, besides the machine gun. A full Gruppe (squad) carried 1,800 rounds of ammunition for the machine gun between them.
Medium machine gun fire support role
In the German heavy machine gun (HMG) platoons, each platoon served four MG 34/MG 42 machine guns, used in the sustained fire mode mounted on tripods. In 1944, this was altered to six machine guns in three sections with two seven-man heavy machine gun squads per section as follows:
Squad leader (NCO) MP40
Machine gunner (private) MG 34/MG 42 and Walther P38
Assistant gunner (private) pistol
Three riflemen (privates) rifles
Horse leader for horse, cart and trailer (private) rifle
The optimum operating crew of an MG 42 in its medium machine gun role was six men: the squad leader, the machine gunner who carried and fired the gun, the assistant gunner/loader who carried the tripod, and three riflemen who carried 1,800 rounds of ammunition between them, spare barrels, entrenching tools, and other items.
To enable the machine gun for its long-range direct fire and indirect fire support roles, optical sights could be added to a Zielfernrohrhalter (optical sight mounting bracket) on the tripod, allowing operating crews to continue using advanced planned and unplanned firing methods developed during World War I, though plunging fire or indirect fire methods were not as commonly used by machine gunners during World War II as they were during World War I.
Operation
One of the Einheitsmaschinengewehr (Universal machine gun) roles was to provide low-level anti-aircraft coverage. A high cyclic rate of fire is advantageous for use against targets that are exposed to a general-purpose machine gun for a limited time span, like aircraft or targets that minimize their exposure time by quickly moving from cover to cover. For targets that can be fired on by a general-purpose machine gun for longer periods than just a few seconds, the cyclic firing rate becomes less important. As a consequence, one of the MG 42's most notable features was in its high cyclic rate of fire of about 1,200 to 1,500 rounds per minute, twice the rate of the Vickers and Browning machine guns, which fired at a rate of about 600 rounds per minute. The ear could not easily discern the sound of individual shots being fired, instead hearing a sound described as like "ripping cloth" or a buzzsaw.
The MG 42's high cyclic rate of fire sometimes proved a liability mainly in that, while the weapon could be used to devastating effect, it could quickly exhaust its ammunition supply. For this reason, it was not uncommon for all soldiers operating near an MG 42 to carry extra ammunition, thus providing the MG 42 with a backup source when its main supply was exhausted. Another disadvantage of the MG 42 was that the high cyclic rate of fire led to the barrel overheating quickly during rapid fire. After around 150 rounds of rapid fire, the gun operator would open a side hatch (leading to the barrel) and replace the hot barrel with a new cool(er) one. Non-observance of this technical limitation renders the barrel prematurely unusable. The machine gun crew member responsible for a hot barrel change was issued protective asbestos mitts to prevent burns to the hands.
The German military instructed that sustained fire must be avoided at all costs. They ruled that the results of sustained fire were disappointing and that the expenditure of ammunition involved was "intolerable." In the bipod-mounted light machine gun role, MG 42 users were trained to fire short bursts of 3 to 7 rounds and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. According to comparative tests by the US military under battle conditions, 5 to 7 rounds bursts with 22 bursts in a minute were most effective. For its medium machine gun role, the MG 42 was matched to the newly developed Lafette 42 tripod. In the tripod-mounted medium machine gun role, MG 42 users were trained to fire short bursts and bursts of 20 to 50 rounds and strive to optimize their aim between bursts fired in succession. As a consequence of factors like the time spent reloading, aiming, changing hot barrels if necessary to allow for cooling, the MG 42's practical effective rate of fire was 154 rounds per minute, versus 150 rounds per minute for the MG 34.
Design details
The MG 42 is a 7.92×57mm Mauser, air-cooled, belt fed, open bolt, recoil-operated machine gun with a quick change barrel.
Its parts are attached to a thick stamped sheet metal housing that functions as the receiver and barrel sleeve.
It weighed 11.57 kg in the light machine gun role with the bipod, lighter than the MG 34 and easily portable. The bipod, the same one used on the MG 34, could be mounted to the front or the center of the gun depending on how and where it was being used.
The shoulder stock is designed to permit gripping with the left hand to hold it secure against the shoulder.
The MG 42 incorporated lessons hard-won on the Eastern Front. Both the cocking handle and the catch for the top cover to the working parts were designed so that the gunner could operate them wearing arctic mittens or with a stick or rod. This was vital for winter conditions where contact by bare flesh on cold metal could cause severe injury, such as instant frostbite. The MG 42 also functioned well in other climates; dust and dirt in North Africa and Italy was less likely to jam the MG 42 than the more temperamental MG 34.
The MG 42 is capable only of fully automatic fire. Single shots are difficult, even for experienced operators, due to the weapon's high cyclic rate of fire and the ability to fire a short burst of no more than three rounds was usually accepted as the training standard. The weapon features a recoil booster at the muzzle which adds extra rearwards force to augment that caused by recoil, thereby improving functional reliability and rate of fire. Besides amplifying recoil and managing and timing rearwards force exerted by propellant gas generated pressure, the recoil booster assembly ends in a muzzle shroud and also functions as a guide sleeve for the barrel and a muzzle flash arrester.
The method of barrel change made the MG 42 unsuitable for internal secondary or co-axial armament on World War II era German tanks or other armored vehicles with the exception of the Jagdpanzer IV. Early versions of the Jagdpanzer IV carried two standard (no modification made) MG 42s on both sides of the main gun mantlet/glacis, firing through a firing port which was protected by an armored cover plate (with the MG 42 retracted) when not in use. Later version Jagdpanzer IVs carried only one MG 42 as internal secondary armament.
The MG 42 belt-feed mechanism inspired the design used in the M60 machine gun. The trigger mechanism of the FN MAG or MAG-58 is a virtual copy of the MG 42's and the FN MAG's belt-feed mechanism is also very similar.
Operating mechanism
The roller-locked bolt assembly consists of a bolt head, two rollers, a striker sleeve featuring a wedge-shaped front, bolt body, and a large multi strands around a central coil return spring, which is responsible for pushing the bolt assembly into battery (the locked position) and returning it there when it is unlocked and pushed backwards by the recoil of firing or by the charging handle. As the striker sleeve is movable back and forth within the bolt assembly, the return spring is also responsible for pushing the striker sleeve forward during locking (described below). The bolt assembly locks with the barrel's breech (the end the cartridge is loaded into) via a prong type barrel extension behind the breech. As it is recoil-operated and fired from an open bolt, the weapon must be manually charged with the side-mounted charging handle.
The roller-locked recoil operation functions as follows: two cylindrical rollers, positioned in tracks on the bolt head, are pushed outwards into matching tracks in the barrel extension by the striker sleeve and lock the bolt in place against the breech. In the locked position during firing the rollers rest on parallel surfaces relative to the bore axis on the bolt head ensuring a full lockup. Upon firing, rearward force from the recoil of the cartridge ignition combined with the additional rearward force generated by the muzzle booster start to move the barrel and bolt assembly rearwards for a total distance of . These two parts start the unlocking sequence after the barrel and bolt assembly have moved rearwards when the parts have moved far back enough that the rollers start the rest on angled/oblique surfaces and allow the rollers to move inwards, controlled by the wedge-shaped front of the striker sleeve, back to their previous position, unlocking the bolt head and allowing the bolt assembly to further recoil rearwards, extracting the spent cartridge case and ejecting it downwards through an ejection port normally covered by a spring-loaded dust cover at the bottom of the receiver, just in front of the trigger group. The spring-loaded dust cover automatically opens when the gun is fired, but the user has to close it after firing to prevent dirt entering the receiver through the open port. Simultaneously the barrel is pushed forward by a recuperator spring to its starting position. The three-wire braided return spring then pushes the bolt assembly forwards again, pushing a new cartridge out of the belt into the breech. The sequence repeats as long as the trigger is depressed.
The original MG 42 roller-locked action had an undesirable tendency to exhibit bolt-bounce. It was possible to unintentionally have high pressure gas moving backwards in the MG 42 towards the operator(s) when the action was not fully locked. This causes unacceptable dangerous conditions and out of battery ignitions can result in catastrophic gun failures. Enough guns were damaged and put out of action for repair or lost to warrant finding the cause and a solution. After investigation using high-speed photography the rollers in the bolt were found to "bounce" back and forth or oscillate up to when lock up is proceeding and then they settle into full lock up. Once the problem was identified, the temporary solution was to design and manufacture extra sturdy ammunition with primers with a slightly slower ignition time which allowed the rollers to settle into lockup and issue that ammunition specifically for MG 42 use. A more practical solution to control the harmonics problem in the roller/wedge system and make the MG 42 less ammunition ignition timing sensitive was needed. The roller-locking system inherent problem was solved after World War II by developing and adding bolt-bounce preventing bolt catches to the action. These can also be retroffited to MG 42 bolts.
The cyclic firing rate of the MG 42 can be altered by installing different bolts and return springs. A heavier bolt uses more recoil energy to overcome inertia, thus slowing the cyclic rate of the machine gun. Heavy bolts also were used along with stiffer return springs. The standard MG 42 bolt weight for a 1,500 rounds per minute cyclic rate of fire is .
Sights
The open-type iron sighting line has a relatively short radius and consists of a "∧-type" height adjustable front sight on a folding post and a leaf rear sight with an open V-notch sliding on a ramp, graduated from in increments. An auxiliary anti-aircraft "spider web" ring sight is kept in the maintenance kit, that can be fitted on the barrel jacket to be used in conjunction with a folding anti-aircraft rear peep sight that is attached by a hinge to the rear sight element base.
Feeding
The MG 42 could use non-disintegrating metallic-link belts, which have links that wrap around the cartridge case and are linked by a coiling wire on each side. The belts are intended for multiple reuse. As in the MG 34, operation through the feed block is by a feed arm housed in the feed cover. The feeding system was based on the direct push-through of the cartridge out of the belt link into the gun's chamber. Accordingly, the link had to be of the half-open type to enable the motion of the bolt through the link. New in the MG 42 was that two belt feed pawls are linked to the front end of the feed arm by an intermediate link, in such a way that when one pawl is feeding, the other pawl is riding over the next round in the belt. Because of that, feed is performed in two steps, on both the opening and closing movement of the bolt, instead of one step as in the earlier MG 34. This enhances the smoothness of the feeding process by improved ammunition belt retention for more precise indexing with the feedway and reduces mechanical stress put on the feed unit and belt links. According to Infantry Journal in 1947, the operating momentum driven MG 42 feed system will not function reliably under a cyclic firing rate of 850 rounds per minute.
During World War II the Gurt 34/41-belt family was introduced. Gurt 34/41 belt links and wire spirals were made of thinner material — the Gurt 34 links were made of and Gurt 34/41 links of thick stamped steel sheet metal — that saved ⅓ of metal and counterintuitively yielded improved performance. Belts were supplied in a fixed length of 50 rounds, but could be linked up to make longer belts for sustained firing. Ammunition boxes contained 250 rounds in five 50-round belts. A 250-round Patronengurt 33 belt was also issued to machine guns installed in fixed emplacements such as bunkers. Patronenkasten 34 and Patronenkasten 41 ammunition boxes could hold up to 300 belted rounds. The Patronenkasten could contain an Einführstück belt starter-segment.
The Gurttrommel assault drum was an alternative feed option and designed to be clipped to the left side of the gun. It was not a true magazine but held a coiled 50-round belt and corresponding Einführstück starter-segment preventing it from snagging, twisting and getting stuck during mobile assaults. The Gurttrommel belt container was commonly used until the end of World War II, with the MG 42 and the earlier MG 34.
Barrel
The long barrel and its prong type barrel extension used for lock up, made up the barrel unit of the MG 42. It could be quickly changed by the machine gun crew and weighed including the locking piece. The barrels could have traditional rifling or polygonal rifling. Polygonal rifling was an outgrowth of a cold-hammer forging process developed by German engineers before World War II. The process addressed the need to produce more durable machine gun barrels in less time than those produced with traditional methods. Later produced barrel bores featured hard-chrome plating to make them more durable. The different versions meant that the service life of an MG 42 barrel varied between 3,500 and 8,000 rounds assuming the barrel was used according to the regulations, which prohibited rapid fire beyond 150 rounds. Excessive overheating caused by rapid firing about 500 rounds through a barrel resulted in unacceptable wear of the bore rendering the barrel useless.
For carrying and protecting spare barrel units, consisting of a barrel and its locking piece, the Laufschützer 42 (barrel protector) was used as a field accessory. When closed the Laufschützer 42 looked like a tubular container with mountings at its ends to attached a carrying/shoulder strap. During a barrel change a cool MG 42 barrel unit coming out of the Laufschützer 42 can be inserted in the machine gun and the replaced hot barrel unit can be placed in or on the opened Laufschützer 42 to cool down. The Laufschützer 42 was derived from the Laufschützer 34 that served the same purpose for MG 34 barrel units. Later in the war the universal Laufschützer 43 was introduced that could be used with MG 43 and MG 42 barrel units.
Lafette 42 tripod
For the medium machine gun role a large tripod, the Lafette 42, was available that included a number of features, such as recoil absorbing buffer springs, a Zielfernrohrhalter (optical sight mounting bracket) for mounting an MG Z 34 or MG Z 40 periscope-type 4× power telescopic sight containing special sighting equipment for indirect fire, or the late World War II MG Z 44, designed for direct fire only. Fitting such an optical sight enabled the machine gun to deliver direct fire out to . An accessory to lengthen these sights' periscope was available to use these sights behind cover. The Lafette could be set up in a prone, kneeling or high position. The Lafette 42 weighed on its own and was a simplified version of the Lafette 34 used for the MG 34, as the MG 42 could be operated more easily from a Lafette and featured no semi-automatic firing mode. The legs could be extended with a Lafetteaufsatzstück to allow it to be used in the low level anti-aircraft role, and when lowered, it could be placed to allow the gun to be fired "remotely" while it swept an arc in front of the mounting with fire. Mounted to the Lafette and aimed through the MG Z 34 or MG Z 40 telescopic sight, the effective range of the MG 42 could be extended out to when fired indirectly. The Lafette 42 tripod also had a bolt box to store a (spare) bolt and return spring.
Another unique feature of German World War II machine guns was the Tiefenfeuerautomat feature on the Lafette 42 and Lafette 34 tripods. It lengthened the beaten zone by walking the fire in wave-like motions up and down the range in a predefined area. The length of the beaten zone could be set on the Tiefenfeuerautomat. E.g., being unsure whether the real distance was , the gunner could make the mount do an automatic sweep between the elevations for and back. This sweeping of a selected beaten zone continued as long as the gun fired. The Lafette 42 had a Richt- und Überschießtafel (Overhead firing table) riveted to the rear body of the searchfire mechanism from the very start of production until the very end of it. In the later stages of World War II ballistic correction directions were added for overshooting friendly forces with S.m.E. - Spitzgeschoß mit Eisenkern (spitzer with iron core) ammunition of which the external ballistic behaviour started to significantly deviate from upwards compared to the s.S. Patrone (s.S. ball cartridge). A trigger handle, which enabled the operator to fire the gun without affecting the aim, was attached to the Tiefenfeuerautomat searchfire unit.
There were numerous other specialist mounts for the MG 42. The Dreibein 34, for example, was a simple high-standing tripod for mounting the gun in anti-aircraft mode. There were also mounts for various vehicles, motorcycle sidecars, and fortress positions. MG 42s were mounted in multiple-gun arrangements, particularly for low level anti-aircraft defence.
The butt-stock was produced in various wood and bakelite versions.
Variants and developments
Finnish MG 42
Finland acquired 5 MG 42s in July 1943 for evaluation. Three were tested with front units. Finland decided to produce 4,000 MG 42s modified to fire 7.62×54mmR cartridges but only one modified prototype was ever made.
MG 45
In 1944, the material shortages of the Third Reich led to the development of a newer version, the MG 45 (or MG 42V), which had a different operating mechanism that used roller-delayed blowback as opposed to roller locking. For this reason, the MG 45 is considered a different type of firearm, as the mechanisms of these two guns are different. It used steel of lesser quality, which reduced weight to 9 kg, while retaining the horizontal cocking handle. First tests were undertaken in June 1944, but development dragged on and eventually only ten were built. The tested MG 45/42V fired 120,000 rounds in succession at a cyclic rate of fire around 1,350 to 1,800 rounds per minute.
The MG 42V had some influence in the post-war development of roller-delayed blowback system, as employed in issued CETME, SIG and Heckler & Koch small arms.
T24 machine gun
The T24 machine gun was a prototype reverse engineered copy of the German MG 42 general-purpose machine gun developed during World War II as a possible replacement for the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle and M1919A4 for infantry squads. The T24 was chambered for the .30-06 Springfield cartridge.
By February 1943, US ordnance authorities published the first report on the MG 42, following testing of a captured gun. The quick barrel changing and belt feed systems were considered some of the best design features. The US Army wanted to be able to manufacture this general-purpose gun because it was technically advanced and much easier to make than the World War II US light and medium machine guns and it was decided to convert several MG 42s to fire .30-06 Springfield M2 ball ammunition.
Saginaw Steering Gear Division of General Motors received a contract to construct two working converted MG 42 prototypes designated as the T24 machine gun. It could also be used on an M2 Tripod. The gun was made as an almost exact copy of the MG 42 which was chambered in 7.92×57mm Mauser. Some engineering changes were to use a barrel chambered for the .30-06 Springfield service round and an extremely increased weight bolt and stiffer return spring in an effort to reduce the cyclic rate consistent with US rate requirements. Saginaw Steering Gear did not adjust the prototypes for the longer .30-06 Springfield (7.62×63mm) cartridge case.
When one of the two T24 machine gun prototypes was fired at Aberdeen Proving Ground, it fired only one shot and failed to eject the cartridge. A second attempt had the same result. The other prototype was plagued with excessive ejection failures and to a lesser extent failures to feed. The average cyclic rate of fire of the tested weapon was 614 rounds per minute. During January to February 1944, testing at Aberdeen Proving Ground were unsatisfactory. Firings were discontinued in February 1944 after 51 malfunctions and firing a total of 1,583 rounds by authorization of Major C. Balleisen, O.C.O. In March 1944 the US military concluded that functioning of the T24 machine gun prototype was unsatisfactory and recommended that further development was required before this weapon be subjected to the lengthy and severe standard light machine gun test.
However, the realization that the .30-06 Springfield cartridge was too long for the prototype gun's mechanism to easily and reliably work with resulted in the discarding of the project. Saginaw Steering Gear did not get the opportunity to correct the flaws that caused the inability to obtain reliable uninterrupted automatic functioning and further optimize and ready the weapon for mass production before World War II ended.
MG 51
The Swiss MG 51 or 7.5 mm Maschinengewehr 1951 was based on the design of the MG 42 chambered for 7.5×55mm Swiss GP 11. The final design, which appeared in 1950, was in most respects still similar to the MG 42, although many components were produced by machining instead of stamping, which increased the weight, the stability and the production costs of the machine gun. To prevent short shots Waffenfabrik Bern changed the locking system from roller to flapper locking. These locking methods are similar in concept. The resulting weapon had a cyclic rate of fire of 1,000 rounds per minute, was in the light machine gun role heavier than the German MG 42, and much more finely made and finished.
M53
In Yugoslavia this MG 42 variant was built at the state-owned Zavodi Crvena Zastava company as the Zastava M53 using original German machinery, retaining the 7.92×57mm Mauser chambering. By doing so, the Yugoslavs retained the original weapon's design features, making the M53 a near exact copy of the German MG 42. The only major differences were a slower 950 rounds per minute cyclic rate of fire and no anti-aircraft sight mount. The aiming range of the M53 is , and the terminal range of the bullet is , the same as the MG 42. MG 42s captured in Yugoslavia at the end of World War II were put into reserve of Yugoslav People's Army as M53/42s. The last military use of M53s in Yugoslavia was in 1999. Some quantities of M53s were exported to Iraq in the 1980s and saw extensive action during both Gulf wars. The M53 was known under the nickname Шарац (Šarac).
MG 3
At the end of World War II the original technical drawings and data for the MG 42 were captured by the Soviets. These would eventually find their way to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The MG3 (originally the MG 1 launched in 1958) is the MG 42 design rechambered to 7.62×51mm NATO. It is the primary general-purpose machine gun of the modern German armed forces (Bundeswehr). A number of other (NATO) armies around the world have adopted the MG3, and it remains in widespread service today.
The MG 3 and its preceding variants all share a high level of parts interchangeability with the original MG 42. Like the MG 42, the MG3 cyclic rates of fire can be altered by exchanging the standard weight (about ) bolt used for the standard 1,100–1,300 rounds per minute rate of fire for an extra weight (about ) bolt for a reduced 800–950 rounds per minute rate of fire. Those bolts also are used along with different recoil springs.
The Italian MG 42/59 licensed MG 3 variant produced by Beretta, Whitehead Motofides and Franchi since 1959, features an extremely heavy bolt which reduces the cyclic rate of fire to around 800 rounds per minute.
MG 74
The final variant to date is the MG 74, developed by Austria and since 1974 it is the standard machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces.
After its founding in 1955, the Austrian army was equipped with old guns temporarily out of U.S. stocks. Starting in 1959 these Browning M1919s were largely replaced by the MG 42 with modified barrel and bolt for the new 7.62×51mm NATO. But to introduce a modern weapon of its own production the Office of Defence Technology, in cooperation with Steyr Mannlicher and Beretta developed a gun specifically for the Austrian Army. The German MG 42/59 that was introduced in 1959 with the Bundeswehr to replace the U.S. machine guns, served as the basis, which was similar to the Austrian 7.62 mm MG 42. Targets were to reduce, among other things, the cyclic rate of fire and weight and have more versatile sights and mount. The development of the weapon was completed in 1974. It replaced from this year the MG 42 as the MG 74 of the Austrian Federal Army.
The modifications to the basic MG 42 design include an extra heavy bolt ( vs. the MG 3 bolt) which reduces the cyclic rate of fire to around 850 rounds per minute. The rate of fire can be varied up to cyclic rate of fire of around 1,150 rounds per minute, if necessary, by changing the bolt and return spring. In addition, a select fire trigger group was added to allow semi-automatic fire (single shot) compared to the traditional fully automatic only fire capability of the original MG 42 design. The MG 74 also has a modern polymer stock and handgrips (usually colored green) to save weight, adjustable rear sight (35° horizontal, vertical 15°) and additional anti-aircraft sight or (low light) optical sights can be mounted optional.
SIG MG710
The Swiss SIG MG 710-3 general-purpose machine gun was based on the design of the MG42V/MG45 using a slight modification of the roller-delayed action and chambered for 7.62×51mm NATO. Its cyclic rate of fire is 900 rounds per minute. The first version looks very much like the MG42.
Influence on other designs
The MG 42's belt-feed mechanism was copied and used in the design of the M60 machine gun. The trigger mechanism of the FN MAG or MAG-58 is a virtual copy of the MG 42's and its belt-feed is also very similar.
Users
: National Liberation Front
: Used by Mukti Bahini forces during the Bangladesh Liberation War
: M53
: evaluation only
: 440 received from Germany in 1943
: Used ex-German MG-42s. Two of an intended batch of ten MG 42s were converted in Norway to .30-06 Springfield and designated as MG42F1. The conversion project abruptly ended as most of Norway's stockpile of MG 42s was sold abroad at the same time.
: known as m/944, replaced by FN Minimi mk3
: M53
: used during the Bizerte crisis
– Produced as M53.
– MG-42 and M53
See also
CETME Ameli, Spanish GPMG
FG 42
ShKAS machine gun, Soviet aircraft ordnance, only Allied machine gun that could fire faster than the MG 42
References
Bibliography
External links
Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide (FILM) MG 42, proper assault (video clip)
Modern Firearms and Ammunition: MG 42
U.S. Report on MG 42 from World War II
7.92×57mm Mauser machine guns
General-purpose machine guns
Machine guns of Germany
Medium machine guns
MG 42 derivatives
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1942
World War II infantry weapons of Germany
World War II machine guns | [
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|
239558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar%20bill | Dollar bill | Dollar bill may refer to:
Currency
Dollar bill, a banknote (or bill) of any of the currencies that are named dollar
Australian one-dollar note
United States one-dollar bill
Music
Dollar Bill (group), a Swedish hip hop group
"Dollar Bill" (song), by Screaming Trees from Sweet Oblivion
Fictional characters
Dollar Bill, a recurring character in Billions
Dollar Bill, a character in Lego Agents
Dollar Bill, a minor character in Watchmen
See also
Bill Dollar (1950-1996), real name William Everett Dollar, radio host and DJ
"Million Dollar Bill", a song by Whitney Houston | [
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239564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20International | Communist International | The Communist International (Comintern), also known as the Third International, was an international organization founded in 1919 that advocated world communism, headed by the Soviet Union. The Comintern resolved at its Second Congress to "struggle by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the state". The Comintern was preceded by the 1916 dissolution of the Second International.
The Comintern held seven World Congresses in Moscow between 1919 and 1935. During that period, it also conducted thirteen Enlarged Plenums of its governing Executive Committee, which had much the same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, dissolved the Comintern in 1943 to avoid antagonizing his allies in the later years of World War II, the United States and the United Kingdom. It was succeeded by the 1947 Cominform.
Organizational history
Failure of the Second International
Differences between the revolutionary and reformist wings of the workers' movement had been increasing for decades, but the outbreak of World War I was the catalyst for their separation. The Triple Alliance comprised two empires, while the Triple Entente was formed by three. Socialists had historically been anti-war and internationalist, fighting against what they perceived as militarist exploitation of the proletariat for bourgeois states. A majority of socialists voted in favor of resolutions for the Second International to call upon the international working class to resist war if it were declared.
But after the beginning of World War I, many European socialist parties announced support for the war effort of their respective nations. Exceptions were the British Labour Party and the socialist party of the Balkans. To Vladimir Lenin's surprise, even the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted in favor of war. After influential anti-war French Socialist Jean Jaurès was assassinated on 31 July 1914, the socialist parties hardened their support in France for their government of national unity.
Socialist parties in neutral countries mostly supported neutrality, rather than totally opposing the war. On the other hand, during the 1915 Zimmerwald Conference, Lenin, then a Swiss resident refugee, organized an opposition to the "imperialist war" as the Zimmerwald Left, publishing the pamphlet Socialism and War where he called socialists collaborating with their national governments social chauvinists, i.e. socialists in word, but nationalists in deed.
The Second International divided into a revolutionary left-wing, a moderate center-wing, and a more reformist right-wing. Lenin condemned much of the center as "social pacifists" for several reasons, including their vote for war credits despite publicly opposing the war. Lenin's term "social pacifist" aimed in particular at Ramsay MacDonald, leader of the Independent Labour Party in Britain, who opposed the war on grounds of pacifism but did not actively fight against it.
Discredited by its apathy towards world events, the Second International dissolved in 1916. In 1917, after the February Revolution overthrew the Romanov Dynasty, Lenin published the April Theses which openly supported revolutionary defeatism, where the Bolsheviks hoped that Russia would lose the war so that they could quickly cause a socialist insurrection.
Impact of the Russian Revolution
The victory of the Russian Communist Party in the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917 was felt throughout the world and an alternative path to power to parliamentary politics was demonstrated. With much of Europe on the verge of economic and political collapse in the aftermath of the carnage of World War I, revolutionary sentiments were widespread. The Russian Bolsheviks headed by Lenin believed that unless socialist revolution swept Europe, they would be crushed by the military might of world capitalism just as the Paris Commune had been crushed by force of arms in 1871. The Bolsheviks believed that this required a new international to foment revolution in Europe and around the world.
First Period of the Comintern
During this early period (1919-1924), known as the First Period in Comintern history, with the Bolshevik Revolution under attack in the Russian Civil War and a wave of revolutions across Europe, the Comintern's priority was exporting the October Revolution. Some communist parties had secret military wings. One example is the M-Apparat of the Communist Party of Germany. Its purpose was to prepare for the civil war the Communists believed was impending in Germany and to liquidate opponents and informers who might have infiltrated the party. There was also a paramilitary organization called the Rotfrontkämpferbund.
The Comintern was involved in the revolutions across Europe in this period, starting with the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919. Several hundred agitators and financial aid were sent from the Soviet Union and Lenin was in regular contact with its leader Béla Kun. Soon, an official Terror Group of the Revolutionary Council of the Government was formed, unofficially known as Lenin Boys. The next attempt was the March Action in Germany in 1921, including an attempt to dynamite the express train from Halle to Leipzig. After this failed, the Communist Party of Germany expelled its former chairman Paul Levi from the party for publicly criticising the March Action in a pamphlet, which was ratified by the Executive Committee of the Communist International prior to the Third Congress. A new attempt was made at the time of the Ruhr crisis in spring and then again in selected parts of Germany in the autumn of 1923. The Red Army was mobilized, ready to come to the aid of the planned insurrection. Resolute action by the German government cancelled the plans, except due to miscommunication in Hamburg, where 200–300 Communists attacked police stations, but were quickly defeated. In 1924, there was a failed coup in Estonia by the Estonian Communist Party.
Founding Congress
The Comintern was founded at a Congress held in Moscow on 2–6 March 1919. It opened with a tribute to Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, recently murdered by the Freikorps during the Spartakus Uprising, against the backdrop of the Russian Civil War. There were 52 delegates present from 34 parties. They decided to form an Executive Committee with representatives of the most important sections and that other parties joining the International would have their own representatives. The Congress decided that the Executive Committee would elect a five-member bureau to run the daily affairs of the International. However, such a bureau was not formed and Lenin, Leon Trotsky and Christian Rakovsky later delegated the task of managing the International to Grigory Zinoviev as the Chairman of the Executive. Zinoviev was assisted by Angelica Balabanoff, acting as the secretary of the International, Victor L. Kibaltchitch and Vladmir Ossipovich Mazin. Lenin, Trotsky and Alexandra Kollontai presented material. The main topic of discussion was the difference between bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat.
The following parties and movements were invited to the Founding Congress:
Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
Spartacus League (later became the Communist Party of Germany)
Communist Party of German Austria
Hungarian Communist Workers' Party (in power during Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic)
Communist Party of Finland
Polish Communist Workers’ Party
Communist Party of Estonia
Communist Party of Latvia
Communist Party of Lithuania
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Byelorussia
Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine (Ukrainian section of Russian Communist Party)
The revolutionary elements of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party (who founded the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia)
Social Democratic and Labour Party of Bulgaria (Tesnyatsi)
Left-wing of the Socialist Party of Romania (who would create the Romanian Communist Party)
Left-wing of the Serbian Social Democratic Party (later formed the League of Communists of Yugoslavia)
Social Democratic Left Party of Sweden
Norwegian Labour Party
For Denmark, the Klassekampen group
Communist Party of the Netherlands
Revolutionary elements of the Belgian Labour Party (who would create the Communist Party of Belgium in 1921)
Groups and organisations within the French socialist and syndicalist movements
Left-wing within the Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (later formed the Communist Party of Switzerland)
Italian Socialist Party
Revolutionary elements of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (formed the Spanish Communist Party and the Spanish Communist Workers' Party)
Revolutionary elements of the Portuguese Socialist Party (formed the Portuguese Maximalist Federation)
British socialist parties (particularly the current represented by John Maclean)
Socialist Labour Party (United Kingdom)
Revolutionary elements of the workers' organisations of Ireland
Revolutionary elements among the Shop stewards (United Kingdom)
Socialist Labor Party (United States)
Left elements of the Socialist Party of America (the tendency represented by the Socialist Propaganda League of America, later formed the Communist Party USA)
Industrial Workers of the World (international trade union based in the United States)
Workers' International Industrial Union (United States)
The Socialist groups of Tokyo and Yokohama (Japan, represented by Sen Katayama)
Socialist Youth International (represented by Willi Münzenberg)
Of these, the following attended (see list of delegates of the 1st Comintern congress): the communist parties of Russia, Germany, German Austria, Hungary, Poland, Finland, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Byelorussia, Estonia, Armenia, the Volga German region; the Swedish Social Democratic Left Party (the opposition), Balkan Revolutionary People's of Russia; Zimmerwald Left Wing of France; the Czech, Bulgarian, Yugoslav, British, French and Swiss Communist Groups; the Dutch Social-Democratic Group; Socialist Propaganda League and the Socialist Labor Party of America; Socialist Workers' Party of China; Korean Workers' Union, Turkestan, Turkish, Georgian, Azerbaijanian and Persian Sections of the Central Bureau of the Eastern People's and the Zimmerwald Commission.
Zinoviev served as the first Chairman of the Comintern's Executive Committee from 1919 to 1926, but its dominant figure until his death in January 1924 was Lenin, whose strategy for revolution had been laid out in What Is to Be Done? (1902). The central policy of the Comintern under Lenin's leadership was that communist parties should be established across the world to aid the international proletarian revolution. The parties also shared his principle of democratic centralism (freedom of discussion, unity of action), namely that parties would make decisions democratically, but uphold in a disciplined fashion whatever decision was made. In this period, the Comintern was promoted as the general staff of the world revolution.
Second World Congress
Ahead of the Second Congress of the Communist International, held in July through August 1920, Lenin sent out a number of documents, including his Twenty-one Conditions to all socialist parties. The Congress adopted the 21 conditions as prerequisites for any group wanting to become affiliated to the International. The 21 Conditions called for the demarcation between communist parties and other socialist groups and instructed the Comintern sections not to trust the legality of the bourgeois states. They also called for the build-up of party organisations along democratic centralist lines in which the party press and parliamentary factions would be under the direct control of the party leadership.
Regarding the political situation in the colonized world, the Second Congress of the Communist International stipulated that a united front should be formed between the proletariat, peasantry and national bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. Amongst the twenty-one conditions drafted by Lenin ahead of the congress was the 11th thesis which stipulated that all communist parties must support the bourgeois-democratic liberation movements in the colonies. Notably, some of the delegates opposed the idea of alliance with the bourgeoisie and preferred giving support to communist movements in these countries instead. Their criticism was shared by the Indian revolutionary M. N. Roy, who attended as a delegate of the Mexican Communist Party. The Congress removed the term bourgeois-democratic in what became the 8th condition.
Many European socialist parties divided because of the adhesion issue. The French Section of the Workers International (SFIO) thus broke away with the 1920 Tours Congress, leading to the creation of the new French Communist Party (initially called French Section of the Communist International – SFIC). The Communist Party of Spain was created in 1920, the Communist Party of Italy was created in 1921, the Belgian Communist Party in September 1921 and so on.
Third World Congress
The Third Congress of the Communist International was held between 22 June–12 July 1921 in Moscow.
Fourth World Congress
The Fourth Congress, held in November 1922, at which Trotsky played a prominent role, continued in this vein.
In 1924, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party joined Comintern. At first, in China both the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang were supported. After the definite break with Chiang Kai-shek in 1927, Joseph Stalin sent personal emissaries to help organize revolts which at this time failed.
The Fourth World Congress was coincidentally held within days of the March on Rome by Benito Mussolini and his PNF in Italy. Karl Radek lamented the proceedings in Italy as the "largest defeat suffered by socialism and communism since the beginning of the period of world revolution", and Zinoviev programmatically announced the similarities between fascism and social democracy, laying the groundwork for the later social fascism theory.
Fifth to Seventh World Congresses: 1925–1935
Second Period
Lenin died in 1924 and the next year saw a shift in the organization's focus from the immediate activity of world revolution towards a defence of the Soviet state. In that year, Joseph Stalin took power in Moscow and upheld the thesis of socialism in one country, detailed by Nikolai Bukharin in his brochure Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat? (April 1925). The position was finalized as the state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article On the Issues of Leninism. Stalin made the party line clear: "An internationalist is one who is ready to defend the USSR without reservation, without wavering, unconditionally; for the USSR it is the base of the world revolutionary movement, and this revolutionary movement cannot be defended and promoted without defending the USSR".
The dream of a world revolution was abandoned after the failures of the Spartacist uprising in Germany and of the Hungarian Soviet Republic and the failure of all revolutionary movements in Europe such as in Italy, where the fascist squadristi broke the strikes and quickly assumed power following the 1922 March on Rome. This period up to 1928 was known as the Second Period, mirroring the shift in the Soviet Union from war communism to the New Economic Policy.
At the Fifth World Congress of the Comintern in July 1924, Zinoviev condemned both Marxist philosopher Georg Lukács's History and Class Consciousness, published in 1923 after his involvement in Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic, and Karl Korsch's Marxism and Philosophy. Zinoviev himself was dismissed in 1926 after falling out of favor with Stalin. Bukharin then led the Comintern for two years until 1928, when he too fell out with Stalin. Bulgarian Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov headed the Comintern in 1934 and presided until its dissolution.
Geoff Eley summed up the change in attitude at this time as follows: By the Fifth Comintern Congress in July 1924 [...] the collapse of Communist support in Europe tightened the pressure for conformity. A new policy of "Bolshevization" was adopted, which dragooned the CPs toward stricter bureaucratic centralism. This flattened out the earlier diversity of radicalisms, welding them into a single approved model of Communist organization. Only then did the new parties retreat from broader Left arenas into their own belligerent world, even if many local cultures of broader cooperation persisted. Respect for Bolshevik achievements and defense of the Russian Revolution now transmuted into dependency on Moscow and belief in Soviet infallibility. Depressing cycles of "internal rectification" began, disgracing and expelling successive leaderships, so that by the later 1920s many founding Communists had gone. This process of coordination, in a hard-faced drive for uniformity, was finalized at the next Congress of the Third International in 1928.
The Comintern was a relatively small organization, but it devised novel ways of controlling communist parties around the world. In many places, there was a communist subculture, founded upon indigenous left-wing traditions which had never been controlled by Moscow. The Comintern attempted to establish control over party leaderships by sending agents who bolstered certain factions, by judicious use of secret funding, by expelling independent-minded activists and even by closing down entire national parties (such as the Communist Party of Poland in 1938). Above all, the Comintern exploited Soviet prestige in sharp contrast to the weaknesses of local parties that rarely had political power.
Communist front organizations
Communist front organizations were set up to attract non-members who agreed with the party on certain specific points. Opposition to fascism was a common theme in the popular front era of the mid 1930s. The well-known names and prestige of artists, intellectuals and other fellow travelers were used to advance party positions. They often came to the Soviet Union for propaganda tours praising the future. Under the leadership of Zinoviev, the Comintern established fronts in many countries in the 1920s and after. To coordinate their activities, the Comintern set up international umbrella organizations linking groups across national borders, such as the Young Communist International (youth), Profintern (trade unions), Krestintern (peasants), International Red Aid (humanitarian aid), Sportintern (organized sports) and more. Front organizations were especially influential in France, which in 1933 became the base for communist front organizer Willi Münzenberg. These organizations were dissolved in the late 1930s or early 1940s.
Third Period
In 1928, the Ninth Plenum of the Executive Committee began the so-called Third Period, which was to last until 1935. The Comintern proclaimed that the capitalist system was entering the period of final collapse and therefore all communist parties were to adopt an aggressive and militant ultra-left line. In particular, the Comintern labelled all moderate left-wing parties social fascists and urged the communists to destroy the moderate left. With the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany after the 1930 federal election, this stance became controversial.
The Sixth World Congress also revised the policy of united front in the colonial world. In 1927 in China, the Kuomintang had turned on the Chinese Communist Party, which led to a review of the policy on forming alliances with the national bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. The Congress did make a differentiation between the character of the Chinese Kuomintang on one hand and the Indian Swaraj Party and the Egyptian Wafd Party on the other, considering the latter as an unreliable ally yet not a direct enemy. The Congress called on the Indian Communists to utilize the contradictions between the national bourgeoisie and the British imperialists.
Seventh World Congress and the Popular Front
The Seventh and last Congress of the Comintern was held between 25 July and 20 August 1935. It was attended by representatives of 65 communist parties. The main report was delivered by Dimitrov, other reports were delivered by Palmiro Togliatti, Wilhelm Pieck and Dmitry Manuilsky. The Congress officially endorsed the popular front against fascism. This policy argued that communist parties should seek to form a popular front with all parties that opposed fascism and not limit themselves to forming a united front with those parties based in the working class. There was no significant opposition to this policy within any of the national sections of the Comintern. In France and Spain, it would have momentous consequences with Léon Blum's 1936 election which led to the Popular Front government.
Stalin's purges of the 1930s affected Comintern activists living in both the Soviet Union and overseas. At Stalin's direction, the Comintern was thoroughly infused with Soviet secret police and foreign intelligence operatives and informers working under Comintern guise. One of its leaders, Mikhail Trilisser, using the pseudonym Mikhail Aleksandrovich Moskvin, was in fact chief of the foreign department of the Soviet OGPU (later the NKVD). At Stalin's orders, 133 out of 492 Comintern staff members became victims of the Great Purge. Several hundred German communists and antifascists who had either fled from Nazi Germany or were convinced to relocate in the Soviet Union were liquidated and more than a thousand were handed over to Germany. Fritz Platten died in a labor camp and the leaders of the Indian (Virendranath Chattopadhyaya or Chatto), Korean, Mexican, Iranian and Turkish communist parties were executed. Out of 11 Mongolian Communist Party leaders, only Khorloogiin Choibalsan survived. Leopold Trepper recalled these days: "In house, where the party activists of all the countries were living, no-one slept until 3 o'clock in the morning. [...] Exactly 3 o'clock the car lights began to be seen [...] we stayed near the window and waited [to find out], where the car stopped".
Dissolution
At the start of World War II, the Comintern supported a policy of non-intervention, arguing that the war was an imperialist war between various national ruling classes, much like World War I had been, but when the Soviet Union itself was invaded on 22 June 1941, the Comintern changed its position to one of active support for the Allies. On 15 May 1943, a declaration of the Executive Committee was sent out to all sections of the International, calling for the dissolution of the Comintern. The declaration read: The historical role of the Communist International, organized in 1919 as a result of the political collapse of the overwhelming majority of the old pre-war workers' parties, consisted in that it preserved the teachings of Marxism from vulgarisation and distortion by opportunist elements of the labor movement.
But long before the war it became increasingly clear that, to the extent that the internal as well as the international situation of individual countries became more complicated, the solution of the problems of the labor movement of each individual country through the medium of some international centre would meet with insuperable obstacles.
Concretely, the declaration asked the member sections to approve: To dissolve the Communist International as a guiding centre of the international labor movement, releasing sections of the Communist International from the obligations ensuing from the constitution and decisions of the Congresses of the Communist International.
After endorsements of the declaration were received from the member sections, the International was dissolved. The dissolution was interpreted as Stalin wishing to calm his World War II allies (particularly Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill) and to keep them from suspecting the Soviet Union of pursuing a policy of trying to foment revolution in other countries.
Successor organizations
The Research Institutes 100 and 205 worked for the International and later were moved to the International Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, founded at roughly the same time that the Comintern was abolished in 1943, although its specific duties during the first several years of its existence are unknown.
Following the June 1947 Paris Conference on Marshall Aid, Stalin gathered a grouping of key European communist parties in September and set up the Cominform, or Communist Information Bureau, often seen as a substitute to the Comintern. It was a network made up of the communist parties of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (led by Josip Broz Tito and expelled in June 1948). The Cominform was dissolved in 1956 following Stalin's 1953 death and the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
While the communist parties of the world no longer had a formal international organization, they continued to maintain close relations with each other through a series of international forums. In the period directly after the Comintern's dissolution, periodical meetings of communist parties were held in Moscow. Moreover, World Marxist Review, a joint periodical of the communist parties, played an important role in coordinating the communist movement up to the break-up of the Eastern Bloc in 1989–1991.
British historian Jonathan Haslam reports that even after in Moscow archives:
all references to the Communist International and later the international department of the central committee, which drove the revolutionary side of foreign policy, were removed from published diplomatic documents, in order to fit in with the prevailing dogma established by Vladimir Lenin that the Soviet Government had nothing to do with Comintern. I gave up co-editing a series of documents on Russo-American relations because my Russian colleague could not or would not get over that hurdle....Even today [2020], when the Russians are more liberal in their censorship of documentary publications, one has to verify where possible through other sources independent of Moscow. And although Comintern’s archives are available on the web, most of it them are still closed to the reader, even though officially declassified, and much of it is in German only. One always has to ask, what has been cut out deliberately?
Comintern-sponsored international organizations
Several international organizations were sponsored by the Comintern in this period:
Communist Youth International (1919–1943)
Red International of Labour Unions (Profintern, formed in 1920)
Communist Women's International (formed in 1920)
International Red Aid (MOPR, formed in 1922)
Red Peasant International (Krestintern, formed in 1923)
Red Sports International (Sportintern)
International of the Proletarian Freethinkers (1925–1933)
League against Imperialism (formed in 1927)
Workers International Relief
International Liaison Department
The OMS (, otdel mezhdunarodnoy svyazi, ), also known in English as the International Liaison Department (1921–1939), was the most secret department of the Comintern. It has also been translated as the Illegal Liaison Section and Foreign Liaison Department.
One historian has described: The OMS was the Comintern's department for the coordination of subversive and conspiratorial activities. Some of its functions overlapped with those of the main Soviet intelligence agencies, the OGPU and the GRU, whose agents sometimes were assigned to the Comintern. But the OMS maintained its own set of operations and had its own representative on the central committees of each Communist party abroad. In 2012, historian David McKnight stated: The most intense practical application of the conspiratorial work of the Comintern was carried out by its international liaison service, the OMS. This body undertook clandenstine courier activities and work which supported underground political activities. These included the transport of money and letters, the manufacture of passports and other false documents and technical support to underground parties, such as managing "safe houses" and establishing businesses overseas as cover activities.
World congresses and plenums of Comintern
Congresses
Plenums of ECCI
Related meetings
See also
Anti-Comintern Pact
Bolshevization
Communist International, Its magazine
Communist University of the National Minorities of the West
Communist University of the Toilers of the East
Communist Workers' International
Executive Committee of the Communist International
Foreign affairs of the Soviet Union'
Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
International Communist Opposition
International Entente Against the Third International
International Lenin School
International relations (1919–1939)
International Revolutionary Marxist Centre
International Working Union of Socialist Parties (2 1⁄2 International founded by Austro-Marxists)
Moscow Sun Yat-sen University
Spanish Civil War
Stalinism
Lists
List of communist parties
List of delegates of the 1st Comintern Congress
List of delegates of the 2nd Comintern Congress
List of left-wing internationals
List of members of the Comintern
Internationals
First International
Second International
Fourth International
Fifth International
Notes
References
Further reading
Barrett, James R. "What Went Wrong? The Communist Party, the US, and the Comintern." American Communist History 17.2 (2018): 176-184.
Belogurova, Anna. "Networks, Parties, and the" Oppressed Nations": The Comintern and Chinese Communists Overseas, 1926–1935." Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review 6.2 (2017): 558-582. online
Belogurova, Anna. The Nanyang Revolution: The Comintern and Chinese Networks in Southeast Asia, 1890–1957 (Cambridge UP, 2019). focus on Malaya
Caballero, Manuel. Latin America and the Comintern, 1919-1943 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)
Carr, E.H. Twilight of the Comintern, 1930–1935. New York: Pantheon Books, 1982. online free to borrow
Chase, William J. Enemies within the Gates? The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939. (Yale UP, 2001).
Dobronravin, Nikolay. "The Comintern, 'Negro Self-Determination' and Black Revolutions in the Caribbean." Interfaces Brasil/Canadá 20 (2020): 1-18. online
Drachkovitch, M. M. ed. The Revolutionary Internationals (Stanford UP, 1966).
Drachewych, Oleksa. "The Comintern and the Communist Parties of South Africa, Canada, and Australia on Questions of Imperialism, Nationality and Race, 1919-1943" (PhD dissertation, McMaster University, 2017) online.
Dullin, Sabine, and Brigitte Studer. "Communism+ transnational: the rediscovered equation of internationalism in the Comintern years." Twentieth Century Communism 14.14 (2018): 66–95.
Gankin, Olga Hess and Harold Henry Fisher. The Bolsheviks and the World War: The Origin of the Third International. (Stanford UP, 1940) online.
Gupta, Sobhanlal Datta. Comintern and the Destiny of Communism in India: 1919-1943 (2006) online
Haithcox, John Patrick. Communism and nationalism in India: MN Roy and Comintern policy, 1920–1939 (1971). online
Hallas, Duncan. The Comintern: The History of the Third International. London: Bookmarks, 1985.
Hopkirk, Peter. Setting the East Ablaze: Lenin's Dream of a Empire in Asia 1984 (1984).
Ikeda, Yoshiro. "Time and the Comintern: Rethinking the Cultural Impact of the Russian Revolution on Japanese Intellectuals." in Culture and Legacy of the Russian Revolution: Rhetoric and Performance–Religious Semantics–Impact on Asia (2020): 227+.
James, C.L.R., World Revolution 1917–1936: The Rise and Fall of the Communist International. (1937). online
Jeifets, Víctor, and Lazar Jeifets. "The Encounter between the Cuban Left and the Russian Revolution: The Communist Party and the Comintern." Historia Crítica 64 (2017): 81-100.
Kennan, George F. Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin (1961) pp. 151–93. online
Lazitch, Branko and Milorad M. Drachkovitch. Biographical dictionary of the Comintern (2nd ed. 1986).
McDermott, Kevin. "Stalin and the Comintern during the 'Third Period', 1928-33." European history quarterly 25.3 (1995): 409-429.
McDermott, Kevin. "The History of the Comintern in Light of New Documents," in Tim Rees and Andrew Thorpe (eds.), International Communism and the Communist International, 1919–43. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1998.
McDermott, Kevin, and J. Agnew. The Comintern: a History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin. Basingstoke, 1996.
Melograni, Piero. Lenin and the Myth of World Revolution: Ideology and Reasons of State 1917–1920, Humanities Press, 1990.
Priestland, David. The Red Flag: A History of Communism. 2010.
Riddell, John. "The Comintern in 1922: The Periphery Pushes Back." Historical Materialism 22.3–4 (2014): 52–103. online
Smith, S. A. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism (2014), ch 10: "The Comintern".
Taber, Mike (ed.), The Communist Movement at a Crossroads: Plenums of the Communist International's Executive Committee, 1922–1923. John Riddell, trans. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2019.
Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1973. (2nd ed. Praeger Publishers, 1974). online
Valeva, Yelena. The CPSU, the Comintern, and the Bulgarians (Routledge, 2018).
Worley, Matthew et al. (eds.) Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern: Perspectives on Stalinization, 1917–53. (2008).
The Comintern and its Critics (Special issue of Revolutionary History Volume 8, no 1, Summer 2001).
Historiography
Drachewych, Oleksa. "The Communist Transnational? Transnational studies and the history of the Comintern." History Compass 17.2 (2019): e12521.
McDermott, Kevin. "Rethinking the Comintern: Soviet Historiography, 1987–1991," Labour History Review, 57#3 (1992), pp. 37–58.
McIlroy, John, and Alan Campbell. "Bolshevism, Stalinism and the Comintern: A historical controversy revisited." Labor History 60.3 (2019): 165-192. online
Redfern, Neil. "The Comintern and Imperialism: A Balance Sheet." Journal of Labor and Society 20.1 (2017): 43-60.
Primary sources
Banac, I. ed. The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov 1933-1949 (Yale UP, 2003).
Davidson, Apollon, et al. (eds.) South Africa and the Communist International: A Documentary History. 2 vol. 2003.
Degras, Jane T. The Communist International, 1919–43 (3 Vols. 1956); documents; online vol 1 1919–22; vol 2 1923–28 vol 3 1929-43 (PDF).
Firsov, Fridrikh I., Harvey Klehr, and John Earl Haynes, eds. Secret Cables of the Comintern, 1933–1943. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014. online review
Gruber, Helmut. International Communism in the Era of Lenin: A Documentary History (Cornell University Press, 1967)
Kheng, Cheah Boon, ed. From PKI to the Comintern, 1924–1941 (Cornell University Press, 2018). on China
Riddell, John (ed.): The Communist International in Lenin's Time, Vol. 1: Lenin's Struggle for a Revolutionary International: Documents: 1907–1916: The Preparatory Years. New York: Monad Press, 1984.
Riddell, John (ed.): The Communist International in Lenin's Time, Vol. 2: The German Revolution and the Debate on Soviet Power: Documents: 1918–1919: Preparing the Founding Congress. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1986.
Riddell, John (ed.) The Communist International in Lenin's Time, Vol. 3: Founding the Communist International: Proceedings and Documents of the First Congress: March 1919. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1987.
Riddell, John (ed.) The Communist International in Lenin's Time: Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples Unite! Proceedings and Documents of the Second Congress, 1920. In Two Volumes. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991.
Riddell, John (ed.) The Communist International in Lenin's Time: To See the Dawn: Baku, 1920: First Congress of the Peoples of the East. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1993.
Riddell, John (ed.) Toward the United Front: Proceedings of the Fourth Congress of the Communist International, 1922. Lieden, NL: Brill, 2012.
External links
Comintern History Archive Marxists Internet Archive
Lenin's speech: The Third, Communist International ()
Site Comintern Archives
Site Comintern Archives
Program of the Communist International. Together With Its Constitution (adopted at 6th World Congress in 1928)
The Communist International Journal of the Comintern, Marxists Internet Archive
Outline History of the Communist International
The Internationale by R. Palme Dutt, 1964
Report from Moscow, 3rd International congress, 1920 by Otto Rühle
Article on the Third International from the Encyclopædia Britannica
Communist organizations
History of socialism
Left-wing internationals
Far-left politics
Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
Political internationals
Stalinist organizations
Stalinism
Defunct international non-governmental organizations
History of the Soviet Union
1919 establishments in Russia
1943 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Organizations established in 1919
Organizations disestablished in 1943
International Socialist Organisations | [
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|
239570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mocha | Mocha | Mocha may refer to:
Places
Mocha Island, an island in Biobío Region, Chile
Mocha, Chile, a town in Chile
Mocha, Ecuador, a city in Ecuador
Mocha Canton, a government subdivision in Ecuador
Mocha, a segment of Kutiyana (Vidhan Sabha constituency), Gujarat, India
Mocha, a village in Madhya Pradesh, India
Mocha, Yemen, a city in Yemen
People
Mocha Uson or Mocha (born 1982), stage name of Philippine performer and blogger Margaux Justiniano Uson
Nickname of Maurie Dunstan (1929–1991), Australian rules footballer
Nickname of Aída García Naranjo (born 1951), Peruvian educator, singer, and politician
Software
Mocha (decompiler), for the Java language
Mocha (JavaScript framework), for writing unit tests
Mocha, the working title of the programming language later named JavaScript
Mocha-brand image-processing software products from Imagineer Systems
Other uses
Caffè mocha, a beverage that incorporates coffee, chocolate and milk
Mocha, a coffee-and-chocolate flavor of ice cream
Mocha coffee bean, a cultivated variety
A moth of the genus Cyclophora
A moth of the European species Cyclophora annularia
Mocha or Shekkacho language, a language of Ethiopia
See also
MOCA (disambiguation)
MOCCA (disambiguation)
Moka (disambiguation)
Rapid Climate Change-Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array (RAPID/MOCHA), a research project | [
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|
239571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Order%20%28white%20supremacist%20group%29 | The Order (white supremacist group) | The Order, also known as the (German for Brothers Keep Silent or Brothers' Silence), Silent Brotherhood or less commonly known as the "Aryan Resistance Movement", was a white supremacist terrorist organization active in the United States between September 1983 and December 1984. The group raised funds via armed robbery. Ten members were tried and convicted for racketeering, and two for their role in the 1984 murder of radio talk show host Alan Berg.
History
The Order was founded by Robert Jay Mathews in late September 1983 at his farm near Metaline, Washington. Mathews's farm is where the members reportedly trained. Mathews was baptized into the Mormon faith in 1969, the year he turned sixteen. He formed the "Sons of Liberty", an anti-communist militia mostly made up of Mormon survivalists, fundamentalists and associates of John Singer that had no connection to the historical American organization of the same name other than inspirational.
A fundamental goal of The Order was revolution against the American government, which its members, and those of other white supremacist groups, believed to be controlled by a cabal of prominent Jews with internationalist and Jewish-racial loyalties, rather than loyalty to the American nation. The Order was named after, and partly modeled on, a fictional terrorist group in William Luther Pierce's novel The Turner Diaries. The Order's goals included the establishment of a homeland (now the Northwest Territorial Imperative) from which Jews and non-whites would be barred. They often referred to the United States federal government as ZOG, an acronym for Zionist Occupied Government. Members of the Order included Randy Evans, Gary Yarborough, Bruce Pierce, Denver Parmenter, Frank DeSilva (also known as Frank Silva), Richard Scutari, David Lane, Randy Duey, and David Tate.
The Order drew up a hit list of enemies, and on June 18, 1984 radio talk show host Alan Berg was murdered in front of his home by Bruce Pierce, assisted by other members of The Order. Berg was number two on The Order's list.
In December 1984, authorities were able to track Mathews down to a house on Whidbey Island where he refused to surrender. During a shootout, the house was ignited by incendiary flares and became engulfed in flames, and Mathews was killed. Mathews is considered a martyr by some white nationalists.
Funding
Next, the group discussed how to fund actions of The Order, considering bidding on lumber-jacking and timber contracts, counterfeiting money, diaspora funding from overseas oil countries, and robberies. Though timber contracts were legal, counterfeiting money appealed to the ideals of the group in that it undermined the government by devaluing US currency. Robbery was first denied as an option due to its perceived sinful nature, until someone suggested they could rob pimps and dope dealers, which would raise money for the organization as well as set back street criminals in their businesses.
The organization won a bid on a timber trimming contract for a trail in the Salmo-Priest Wilderness. After five hours of grueling work, Matthews decided to call off the work and head home. Headed back to the trucks, David Lane muttered, "Well, we're going to have to be better thinkers than our fathers were, because we're sure not the men they were," while Matthews mentions that the pay off from the job "would not fund the right wing for a week anyway." The Order decided to try their hand at robberies, attempting to target pimps and dope dealers. After weeks of trailing black men in flashy cars and realizing they had no idea what a pimp or dope dealer truly looked like, they decided to switch to other crimes for funding.
The Order raised money through robbery. This began with the robbery of a porn video store, which netted them $369.10. Their later robberies were more effective, including a bank robbery, followed by a series of three armored car robberies. In the armored car robberies, they took a total of $4.1 million, including their final armored car robbery near Ukiah, California that netted them $3.8 million. The Order detonated a timed firebomb in a movie theater in Seattle (causing no deaths or injuries), in order to occupy the police during their second planned armored car robbery that took place the next day. Proceeds from these robberies were distributed to leaders of sympathetic organizations such as William Pierce (National Alliance) and Frazier Glenn Miller, Jr. (White Patriot Party).
The Order also ran a counterfeiting operation, but their bills were of poor quality, especially early on, and they led to Bruce Pierce being jailed early on, which later precipitated the group's downfall.
Downfall
The Order was ultimately brought down when a member, Tom Martinez, approached the FBI and offered to turn informant. His role in the organisation had been to pass counterfeit money and he had been arrested on June 29, 1984, for passing counterfeit ten dollar bills to buy liquor. After he was released on his own recognizance Mathews convinced him to go underground and during this period Martinez learned that Mathews intended to kill the liquor store owner in order to prevent him from testifying. When he learned of Mathews' plan, Martinez approached the FBI and offered to turn informant.
Convictions
Ten members of The Order were tried and convicted under Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) statutes with the help of the testimony of Frazier Glenn Miller, Jr., who testified against Order members in order to have his own sentence reduced. In a separate trial, three other members of The Order were tried and convicted of violating the civil rights of Alan Berg. No one has been charged in the murder of Berg. David Lane, the getaway driver for Berg's assailants, was sentenced to 190 consecutive years on the charges of racketeering, conspiracy, and violating Berg's civil rights. He died in prison in 2007. Order member Bruce Pierce was sentenced to 252 years in prison for his involvement in the Berg murder, and died of natural causes at the Allenwood Federal Correctional Complex on August 16, 2010 at the age of 56. Like Mathews, Lane and Pierce are regarded by many white-supremacists as heroes, political prisoners, and martyrs. In another trial, 14 men were charged with sedition, conspiracy, and civil rights violations. Thirteen of them were acquitted, and the judge dismissed the charges against the fourteenth man for lack of evidence.
A 2011 NPR report claimed that some of the people associated with this group were imprisoned in a highly restrictive Communication Management Unit. Richard Scutari, a member of the Order, was sentenced to a 60-year prison term in 1986, and was transferred to USP Marion CMU in July 2008.
Members
The Order II (Bruder Schweigen Strike Force II)
The Order II, which is also known as the Bruder Schweigen Strike Force II, was an attempt to perpetuate the activities of the first Order by David and Deborah Dorr, both of whom were previously members of the Aryan Nations, but their activities were confined to the state of Idaho. The group launched its first attack on March 6, 1986, when it sent a packaged bomb to Gary Solomon, a local Jewish businessman who owned the Solomon Trucking company in Hayden Lake, Idaho. No casualties resulted from the incident and it is unknown whether or not the explosion caused any property damage. The bomb was sent by David Dorr, the leader of Order II, a group that grew out of the original Order, which had previously collapsed. Order II (Bruder Schweigen Strike Force II) was also anti-government and anti-Semitic.
On August 7 of the same year, a 12-inch tube bomb exploded at Fred Bower's auto repair shop in Hayden, Idaho, causing about $2000 in damage. No casualties resulted from the incident. The two perpetrators, David and Deborah Dorr, and an alleged third perpetrator, Edward W. Hawley, were members of the Bruder Schweigen Strike Force II.
On September 16, 1986, the explosion was reported in front of the house of a Catholic priest who lived in the city of Coeur d'Alene, in Idaho, the explosion caused no injuries, it only caused property damage. On September 29, 1986, his latest attack targeted a federal building, a telephone and luggage store, and a restaurant parking lot in Coeur d'Alene, without causing any injuries.
The ATF and local, state and federal security forces collected evidence from the scene of the blast and executed a federal search warrant at Dorr's residence three days later. Special agents discovered a shelter that housed fully automatic AR-15 assault rifles which was a violation of federal firearms laws, as well as 30 other firearms, large amounts of ammunition and counterfeit money.
They also discovered bomb-making components that were used in the September 29 explosion, as well as in previous bombings. The militants received federal sentences which ranged from 6 to 30 years and state sentences which ranged from 5 years to life in prison.
See also
Aryan Republican Army
Elohim City, Oklahoma
Footnotes
Further reading
Dees, Morris. Gathering Storm: America's Militia Threat. Harper Perennial, 1997.
Söderman, Magnus; Holappa, Henrik. Unbroken Warrior: The Richard Scutari Letters. Nationellt Motstånd Förlag, 2011.
External links
FBI file on the Order
1983 establishments in Washington (state)
American bank robbers
Aryan Nations
Clandestine groups
Neo-fascist terrorism
Neo-Nazi organizations in the United States
Organizations designated as terrorist in North America
Organizations established in 1983
White-supremacist organized crime groups in the United States
Religiously motivated violence in the United States
Terrorism in the United States
White nationalist terrorism
1984 disestablishments in Washington (state) | [
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|
239573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaiyaphum%20province | Chaiyaphum province | Chaiyaphum (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-seven provinces (changwat) lies in central northeastern Thailand also called Isan. Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Khon Kaen, Nakhon Ratchasima, Lopburi, and Phetchabun.
Toponymy
The word chaiya originates from the Sanskrit word jaya meaning 'victory', and the word phum from Sanskrit bhumi meaning 'earth' or 'land'. Hence the name of the province literally means 'land of victory'. The Malay/Indonesian/Sanskrit word jayabumi is equivalent.
Geography
The province is bisected by the Phetchabun mountain range, with the highest elevation in the province at 1,222 m. The east of the province is part of the Khorat Plateau.
Four national parks are in the province. Tat Ton National Park is in the northwest, featuring some scenic waterfalls and dry dipterocarp forests. The biggest attraction of the Sai Thong National Park in the west is the Sai Thong waterfall, but also some fields of the Siam tulip. Similar fields can be found in the Pa Hin Ngam National Park in the southwest, scheduled to be gazetted in the future. This park's name ('beautiful rock forest') derives from the strangely-shaped rock formations found there. Phu Laenkha National Park covers 200 km2 of forested hills northwest of Chaiyaphum city. The total forest area is or 31.4 percent of provincial area.
History
The history of the city of Chaiyaphum dates back to the Khmer Empire in the 12th century, when it was a small city on the route from Angkor to Prasat Singh (Kanchanaburi province).
In 1817 the area was settled by Lao people led by Nai Lae, an official of King Anouvong of Vientiane, which was a tributary state of the Thai monarch. They settled in Baan Nam Khun Nong E Chan in Nakhon Ratchasima province, but soon abandoned it in favor of Ban Luang (today's city of Chaiyaphum). In 1826 Anouvong rebelled against the Thai King Rama III, seeking to gain complete independence. Nai Lae, by then made a chao praya by the Thai monarch, supported the Siamese troops. Chao Phaya Lae was killed defending his city against Anouvong's army, but Anouvong was defeated by Thai forces weeks later and Anouvong taken in chains to Bangkok. King Rama III remembered Chao Phraya Lae for his loyalty and awarded him the title Phraya Phakdi Chumpon. He is still a local hero and his statue has become a symbol of the province.
People
Most people in Chaiyaphum province are ethnically Lao. The first language of most people is the Isan language, a dialect of the Lao language.
Economy
The principal crops of Chaiyaphum include rice, tapioca, sugar cane, and taro root. Chulabhorn Dam, in Thung Lui Lai Subdistrict, Khon San District is a major source of irrigation water. Due to the severe drought in 2019, the Royal Irrigation Department (RID) is proposing to build three more dams in Chaiyaphum: Wang Saphung Dam in Nong Bua Daeng District, Lam Nam Chee Dam in Ban Khwao District, and Prong Khun Petch Dam in Nong Bua Rawe District. The dams would have a combined capacity of 160 million m3 of water, which could irrigate 127,000 rai of farmland.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a triangular flag, a symbol of victory in war.
The provincial tree is the Siamese senna (Cassia siamea), and the provincial flower the Siam Tulip (Curcuma alismatifolia).
The provincial slogan เมืองโบราณ บ้านนักสู้ ภูเสียดฟ้า ป่าช้างหลาย ทุ่งไพรรก น้ำตกใส ผ้าไหมดี สตรีงาม แดนธรรมแดนทอง
translates to 'Enchanted city, home to heroes, mountain peaks, elephant forests, waterfalls, beautiful silk, lovely ladies, conscientious Buddhists'.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 16 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 124 subdistricts (tambons) and 1393 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Chaiyaphum Provincial Administration Organisation () and 36 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Chaiyaphum has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 35 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 106 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
See also
Khit cloth
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20100106134642/http://www.chaiyaphum.go.th/ Official website (Thai)
Provinces of Thailand | [
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|
239576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20defunct%20National%20Football%20League%20franchises | List of defunct National Football League franchises | Membership in the National Football League (NFL) is certified by a franchise. A franchise is awarded by the league to each member club, and serves as the league's authorization to operate as a professional football club in their city. Franchises award member clubs the exclusive right to hold professional football games between league members within a 75-mile radius of their city, as well as the exclusive rights to market games in their area.
There are currently 32 clubs in the league, with any new members only being approved with the support of three-quarters of current members. In the event of egregious misconduct, the League Commissioner has the power to suspend or revoke a club's franchise.
The NFL has had 49 franchises become defunct over its history, including ten of the league's twelve charter franchises: only the Chicago Bears and Arizona Cardinals survive to the present day.
While the league had expanded to 22 franchises by 1926, at a league meeting in April 1927, the decision was made to revoke the franchises of 10 clubs in weak financial situations.
Five of these defunct NFL franchises (the Akron Pros/Indians, Canton Bulldogs, Cleveland Bulldogs/Indians, Frankford Yellow Jackets, and Providence Steam Rollers) won NFL championships before they folded.
As of 2021, the most recent franchise to become defunct was the Dallas Texans in 1952, which folded after playing one season.
Defunct franchises
See also
National Football League franchise moves and mergers
Steagles
Card-Pitt
List of defunct and relocated Major League Baseball teams
List of defunct National Basketball Association teams
List of defunct and relocated National Hockey League teams
Major League Soccer defunct clubs
Notes
References
General
Specific
External links
National Football League
National Football League
Defunct
National Football League | [
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239582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril%20Lucaris | Cyril Lucaris | Cyril Lucaris or Loukaris (, 13 November 1572 – 27 June 1638), born Constantine Lucaris, was a Greek prelate and theologian, and a native of Candia, Crete (then under the Republic of Venice). He later became the Greek Patriarch of Alexandria as Cyril III and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as Cyril I. Calvinist contemporaries, and some modern Calvinist writers as well, have claimed that he strove for a reform of the Eastern Orthodox Church along Calvinist Protestant lines. Attempts to bring Calvinism into the Orthodox Church were rejected, and Cyril's actions, motivations, and specific viewpoints remain a matter of debate among scholars. However, the Orthodox Church recognizes him as a hieromartyr and defender of the Orthodox faith against both the Jesuit Catholics and Calvinist Protestants. The official glorification of Cyril Loukaris took place by decision of the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Alexandria on 6 October 2009, and his memory is commemorated on 27 June.
Life
Cyril Lucaris was born in Candia (Heraklion), Kingdom of Candia on 13 November 1572, when the island was part of the Venetian Republic's maritime empire. In his youth he travelled through Europe, studying at Venice and the University of Padua, and at Geneva where he came under the influence of Calvinism and the Reformed faith. Lucaris pursued theological studies in Venice and Padua, Wittenberg and Geneva where he developed greater antipathy for Roman Catholicism. Probably, during that time he was the Rector of Ostroh Academy.
While the exact date is unknown, Lucaris was ordained in Constantinople. In 1596 Lucaris was sent to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by Meletius Pegas, Patriarch of Alexandria, to lead the Orthodox opposition to the Union of Brest-Litovsk, which proposed a union of Kiev with Rome. For six years Lucaris served as professor of the Orthodox academy in Vilnius (now in Lithuania). In 1601, Lucaris was installed as the Patriarch of Alexandria at the age of twenty-nine. He would continue to hold this office for twenty years, until his elevation to the See of Constantinople. During these years, Lucaris adopted a theology which was heavily influenced by Protestant Reformation doctrine. On 6 September, he wrote a letter to Mark Antonio de Dominis, a former Roman Catholic Archbishop, writing:
Due to Turkish oppression combined with the proselytization of the Orthodox faithful by Jesuit missionaries, there was a shortage of schools which taught the Orthodox Faith and the Greek language. Roman Catholic schools were set up and Catholic churches were built next to Orthodox ones, and since Orthodox priests were in short supply something had to be done. His first act was to found a theological seminary in Mount Athos, the Athoniada school.
In 1627, he authorized the establishment of a Greek language printing press in Istanbul, the first of its kind. However, the French government lodged an official protest with Ottoman authorities once the press began to publish anti-Catholic polemics, and as a result, Ottoman authorities ordered its closure one year later.
He sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli to produce the first translation of the New Testament in Modern Greek.
Calvinism
Cyril's aim was to reform the Eastern Orthodox Church along Calvinistic lines, and to this end he sent many young Greek theologians to the universities of Switzerland, the northern Netherlands and England. In 1629 he published his famous Confessio (Calvinistic doctrine), but as far as possible accommodated to the language and creeds of the Orthodox Church. It appeared the same year in two Latin editions, four French, one German and one English, and in the Eastern Church it started a controversy which brought critics at several synods, in 1638 at Constantinople, in 1642 at the Synod of Iași, and culminated in 1672 with the convocation by Dositheos, Patriarch of Jerusalem, of the Synod of Jerusalem, by which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned.
Cyril was also particularly well disposed towards the Church of England, and corresponded with the Archbishops of Canterbury. It was in his time that Metrophanes Kritopoulos – later to become Patriarch of Alexandria (1636–39) – was sent to England to study. Both Lucaris and Kritopoulos were lovers of books and manuscripts, and many of the items in the collections of books and these two Patriarchs acquired manuscripts that today adorn the Patriarchal Library.
In 1629 in Geneva the Eastern Confession of the Christian faith was published in Latin, containing the Calvinist doctrine. In 1633 it was published in Greek. The Council of Constantinople in 1638 anathematized both Cyril and the Eastern Confession of the Christian faith, but the Council of Jerusalem in 1672, specially engaged in the case of Cyril, completely acquitted him, testified that the Council of Constantinople cursed Cyril not because they thought he was the author of the confession, but for the fact that Cyril hadn't written a rebuttal to this essay attributed to him. However, Western scholars continue to insist on the Calvinism of Cyril, referring not only to a confession, but also in his extensive correspondence with Protestant scholars (especially the letters of 1618–20 to the Dutchman's Velgelmu).
The Orthodox historian Bishop Arseny (Bryantsev) challenged the authenticity of the correspondence and, incidentally, points to the 50 letters of Cyril of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Moscow Patriarch Philaret, stored in a Moscow archive of the main Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the evidence of Cyril's commitment to Orthodoxy, as well as in his 1622 letter in which he speaks of Protestantism as a blasphemous doctrine.
Politics and death
Lucaris was several times temporarily deposed and banished at the instigation of both his Orthodox opponents and the Catholic French and Austrian ambassadors, while he was supported by the Protestant Dutch and English ambassadors to the Ottoman capital. Finally, when the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV was about to set out for the Persian War, the Patriarch was accused of a design to stir up the Cossacks, and to avoid trouble during his absence the Sultan had him strangled by the Janissaries on 27 June 1638 aboard a ship in the Bosporus. His body was thrown into the sea, but it was recovered and buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and only brought back to Constantinople after many years.
Lucaris was honoured as a saint and martyr shortly after his death, and Eugenios of Aitolia compiled an akolouthia (service) to celebrate his memory.
According to a 1659 letter to Thomas Greaves from Edward Pococke (who, on his book-hunting travels for archbishop William Laud, had met Lucaris) many of the choicest manuscripts from Lucaris' library were saved by the Dutch ambassador who sent them by ship to Holland. Although the ship arrived safely, it sank the next day in a violent storm along with its cargo.
Legacy
Lucaris' position in Eastern Orthodoxy continues to be a matter of debate in the church. Some Orthodox accept the view of most secular historians that he was an advocate of Calvinism. Others say his personal position was distorted by his enemies, and that he remained loyal to Orthodox teachings.
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
– article from an Orthodox standpoint claiming Lucaris was not a Calvinist.
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1572 births
1638 deaths
Cyril 03 of Alexandria
Greek saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Greek theologians
17th-century Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople
17th-century Eastern Orthodox martyrs
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Greece
Kingdom of Candia
Executed priests
People executed by strangulation
17th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire
17th-century Greek people
17th-century Greek politicians
17th-century Greek writers
17th-century Greek educators
17th-century Greek philosophers | [
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239583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas%20Texans%20%28NFL%29 | Dallas Texans (NFL) | The Dallas Texans played in the National Football League (NFL) for one season, 1952, with a record of 1–11.
The Texans are considered one of the worst teams in NFL history, both on and off the field, and while based in Dallas, they were later based in Hershey, Pennsylvania and Akron, Ohio during their only season. After the team folded, the league awarded its assets to the new Baltimore Colts (who moved to Indianapolis in 1984).
Professional football returned to Dallas in 1960, as the American Football League (AFL) commenced operations with one of its eight charter members in Dallas (also called the Texans), while the NFL added the Dallas Cowboys.
While both franchises have proved far more successful both on and off the field, only the Cowboys remained in Dallas: the AFL Texans moved to Kansas City and were re-branded the Chiefs in 1963.
In 2002, the NFL would revive the Texans nickname when it added the Houston Texans as its 32nd franchise.
Since their demise, the Dallas Texans are regarded as being the last NFL franchise to collapse outright and permanently cease operations: none of the Colts, the AFL/NFL Texans/Chiefs, the Cowboys, or the modern NFL Texans claim any relationship with the earlier 1952 Texans franchise or its predecessors (including NFL charter member the Dayton Triangles), despite the players and assets remaining contiguous.
History
After the 1951 season, the financially troubled New York Yanks franchise, originally founded as the Dayton Triangles, was put on the market by Ted Collins, who had founded the franchise in 1944 as the Boston Yanks before moving it to New York City in 1949, rebranding them as the Bulldogs, and rebranded it again as the Yanks in 1950. After failing to find a buyer, Collins sold the team back to the League.
On January 29, 1952, a Dallas-based group led by a pair of young millionaires, Giles Miller and his brother Connell, completed the purchase of what was ostensibly a new franchise: the first-ever major league sports team based in Texas. However, the Millers also acquired the entire Yanks roster in the sale; thus, for all intents and purposes, the brothers bought the Yanks and relocated them to Dallas.
Home games were set for the 75,000-seat Cotton Bowl, home stadium of the Southern Methodist University Mustangs: the Millers originally wanted to name the team the Rangers, but decided to call them the Texans instead.
1952 season
The Millers believed that the growing state of Texas, with its longstanding support of college and high school football, would be a natural fit for the NFL to move farther south and west, while the team owners approved the move with an 11–1 vote.
While Giles Miller had declared "There is room in Texas for all kinds of football", the opening game against the New York Giants set the tone for the season and the franchise. While the Texans scored the first touchdown, they missed the extra point and did not score again, losing 24–6 in front of only 17,499 fans at the Cotton Bowl.
Fan interest quickly waned as the team collapsed to 0–9 and showed no sign of being competitive: in the four games the Texans played at the Cotton Bowl, they lost all four by an average of eighteen points, and drew a total of only 54,065 fans: this was by far the lowest in the League, and barely half of the 25,000 per game required for the team to break even. The nadir came in a November 9 game against the Los Angeles Rams, a 27–6 blowout loss which attracted only 10,000 fans, and as it turned out, would be the last game the Texans would play in Texas.
By this time, the Millers had sustained losses of $250,000, and were unable to meet payroll, a situation exacerbated by woeful ticket sales, or get any financial support from local businesses – an important factor even in the 1950s – to cover these debts or even operating expenses. The Millers sold the team back to the league on November 14 with five games remaining in the season.
Afterwards, the NFL moved the franchise's operations temporarily to Hershey, Pennsylvania (though it kept the Dallas Texans name), and moved the Texans' last two home games out of Dallas, thus making them a traveling team.
The team played one of its remaining two relocated home games at the Rubber Bowl in Akron, Ohio, where the franchise tallied its only win under the Texans moniker, an upset over the Chicago Bears of George Halas, in front of a meager crowd of only 2,208 fans on Thanksgiving Day. This remains the lowest attendance at any professional football game since 1939 (excluding 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic severely limited attendance).
As a measure of how low the NFL ranked on the sports scene in the early 1950s, the Akron high school Championship Game played at the Rubber Bowl that morning attracted 14,284 fans, far outdrawing the afternoon's professional contest.
Head coach Jim Phelan jokingly suggested because of the small turnout, the Texans players should "go into the stands and shake hands with each fan," while Halas had been so certain that the Bears would overpower the lowly Texans that he started only his second-string players. The Texans jumped out to a 20–2 lead, and after a Bears rally, scored a touchdown with 34 seconds left for an upset 27–23 win.
With the victory, the NFL avoided having a franchise with a winless regular season, something that had not happened since .
The team's final game was a 41–6 blowout loss at the hands of the Detroit Lions: while this game had been scheduled to be played in Dallas, it was moved to Detroit after the league took over the team, thus forcing the Texans (who were the designated home team) to make their second trip of the year to Briggs Stadium – this game drew 12,252 fans, less than one-third of that of the average for the Lions' home games that year. Two weeks later, the Lions won the NFL Championship.
George Taliaferro, the team's leading rusher, was selected to the Pro Bowl at the end of the season.
The end of the Texans
The NFL was unable to find a buyer for the Texans, and decided to relocate the team after the 1952 season. A few months later, the NFL granted a new franchise to a Baltimore-based ownership group headed by Baltimorean Carroll Rosenbloom, and awarded it the remaining assets (including the players) of the failed Texans. Rosenbloom named his new team the Baltimore Colts (after the unrelated previous team from the competing All-America Football Conference, which merged with the NFL in 1950).
The Colts (who relocated to Indianapolis in 1984) do not claim the history of the earlier Triangles/Dodgers/Tigers/Yanks/Bulldogs/Yanks/Texans as their own, despite the Colts' inaugural 1953 roster including many of the players from the previous season's Texans, and a number of players from the 1950-1951 Yanks. Likewise, the NFL considers the new Colts to be a 1953 expansion team and not as a continuation of the charter NFL member Triangles or any other franchise.
As a result, the Texans, officially speaking, are the last NFL team as of 2021 to permanently cease operations and not be included in the lineage of any current franchise.
After the Texans
Although the NFL rapidly grew more prosperous during the latter part of the 1950s (especially after the success of "The Greatest Game Ever Played", the 1958 Championship Game at Yankee Stadium between the vaunted New York Giants and the developing Colts, leading to a later profitable nationwide television contract), the 1952 debacle in Dallas left the NFL leery of further expansion.
Unable to persuade other NFL owners to reconsider, Texas oil scion Lamar Hunt, with others, founded the American Football League as a direct competitor to the older NFL.
When Hunt's own Dallas Texans were announced as charter members of the new league, the NFL quickly reconsidered its position on expansion, and made a second venture into Dallas in 1960, establishing what would become a far more successful team, the Dallas Cowboys (briefly known in the beginning as the Dallas Rangers: a minor league baseball team of that same name was expected to disband, but didn't, so the "Cowboys" name was later adopted for the NFL team in mid-March 1960). Both franchises shared the Cotton Bowl (also the home of Southern Methodist University's (SMU) Mustangs) stadium for their first three seasons.
Five months after winning the 1962 AFL Championship in double overtime, Hunt, realizing he had no prospect of the Texans competing with the NFL's Cowboys in Dallas, relocated the Texans to Kansas City and rebranded them as the Chiefs, the second and last of two occasions that a professional football Champion has played the following season in another city.
The Texans nickname was later revived by the NFL for the Houston Texans, an expansion team awarded in 2002 to fill the void left after the Houston Oilers (also a charter AFL franchise) relocated to Nashville, Tennessee in 1997, subsequently being rebranded as the Tennessee Titans.
Notable players
Pro Football Hall of Fame
Others
Jack Adkisson, more famous as professional wrestler - Fritz Von Erich
Joe Campanella, as Baltimore Colts' general manager in 1967
Brad Ecklund
Weldon Humble
Chuck Ortmann
George Taliaferro
Frank Tripucka
Buddy Young
George Young, Baltimore high school and NFL coach with the Baltimore Colts, Miami Dolphins and general manager of the New York Giants, then later NFL executive staff.
First round draft selection
After Richter, a star at the University of California, made it clear he did not want to play for Dallas, he was traded to the Los Angeles Rams, sending him closer to home. While the Rams sent a whopping eleven players to Dallas in exchange - still the second-biggest trade involving a single player in NFL history as of 2022 - the deal turned out to be very lopsided in the Rams' favor.
Richter went on to play nine seasons in Los Angeles and be elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, while of the eleven players sent to Dallas, defensive back/end Tom Keane was the only one of the eleven who lasted in the League beyond 1952, making All-Pro for the Baltimore Colts in 1953 before he retired in 1955. Of the remaining ten players, four did not last beyond the Texans' only season, and six never played another down of professional football.
Season-by-season
1952 results
^ moved from Dallas
References
External links
The Pro Football Hall of Fame page on the Dallas Texans.
Season stats
American football teams established in 1952
American football teams disestablished in 1952
Defunct National Football League teams
Defunct American football teams in Texas
American football teams in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex
Dayton Triangles
Boston Yanks
Brooklyn Dodgers (NFL)
1952 establishments in Texas
1952 disestablishments in the United States | [
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|
239585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaolin%20Kung%20Fu | Shaolin Kung Fu | Shaolin Kung Fu (), also called Shaolin Wushu (), or Shaolin quan (), is one of the oldest, largest, and most famous styles of wushu, or kung fu. It combines Ch'an philosophy and martial arts and originated and was developed in the Shaolin temple in Henan province, Greater China during its 1500-year history. Popular sayings in Chinese folklore related to this practice include "All martial arts under heaven originated from Shaolin" and "Shaolin kung fu is the best under heaven," indicating the influence of Shaolin kung fu among martial arts. The name Shaolin is also used as a brand for the so-called external styles of kung fu. Many styles in southern and northern China use the name Shaolin.
History
Chinese martial arts before Shaolin
Chinese historical records, like Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, the Bibliographies in the Book of the Han Dynasty, the Records of the Grand Historian, and other sources document the existence of martial arts in China for thousands of years. For example, the Chinese martial art of wrestling, Shuai Jiao, predates the establishment of Shaolin temple by several centuries. Since Chinese monasteries were large landed estates, sources of considerable regular income, monks required protection. Historical discoveries indicate that, even before the establishment of Shaolin temple, monks had arms and also practiced martial arts. In 1784 the Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods made the earliest extant reference to the Shaolin Monastery as Chinese boxing's place of origin. This is, however, a misconception, but shows the historical importance of Shaolin kung fu.
Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589 AD)
Shaolin temple established
Bodhidharma is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch. According to Chinese legend, he also began the physical training of the monks of Shaolin Monastery that led to the creation of Shaolin kung fu. In Japan, he is known as Daruma.
In 495 AD, Shaolin temple was built among the Song mountains in Henan province. The first monk who preached Buddhism there was the Indian monk named Buddhabhadra (), simply called Batuo () by the Chinese. There are historical records that Batuo's first Chinese disciples, Huiguang () and Sengchou (), both had exceptional martial skills. For example, Sengchou's skill with the tin staff is even documented in the Chinese Buddhist canon. After Buddhabadra, the monk Bodhidharma (), described as either Central Asian or South Asian (Indian) and simply called Damo () by the Chinese, came to Shaolin in 527 AD. His Chinese disciple, Huike (), was also a highly trained martial arts expert. There are hints that these first three Chinese Shaolin monks, Huiguang, Sengchou, and Huike, may have been military men before entering the monastic life.
Bodhidharma's influence
Some popular historians consider Bodhidharma, the first patriarch of Chinese Buddhism to have had a major influence on Shaolin Kung Fu.
The idea of Bodhidharma influencing Shaolin boxing is based on a qigong manual written during the 17th century. This is when a Taoist with the pen name 'Purple Coagulation Man of the Way' wrote the Sinews Changing Classic in 1624, but claimed to have discovered it. The first of two prefaces of the manual traces this succession from Bodhidharma to the Chinese general Li Jing via "a chain of Buddhist saints and martial heroes." The work itself is full of anachronistic mistakes and even includes a popular character from Chinese fiction, the 'Qiuran Ke' ('Bushy Bearded Hero') (), as a lineage master. Literati as far back as the Qing Dynasty have taken note of these mistakes. The scholar Ling Tinkang (1757–1809) described the author as an "ignorant village master."
Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907 AD): Shaolin soldier monks
During the short period of the Sui dynasty (581–618), the building blocks of Shaolin kung fu took an official form, and Shaolin monks began to create fighting systems of their own. The 18 methods of Luohan with a strong Buddhist flavour were practiced by Shaolin monks since this time, which was later used to create more advanced Shaolin martial arts. Shaolin monks had developed very powerful martial skills, and this showed itself towards the end of the Sui dynasty.
Like most dynastic changes, the end of the Sui Dynasty was a time of upheaval and contention for the throne. The oldest evidence of Shaolin participation in combat is a stele from 728 that attests to two occasions: a defense of the monastery from bandits around 610 and their role in the defeat of Wang Shichong at the Battle of Hulao in 621. Wang Shichong declared himself Emperor. He controlled the territory of Zheng and the ancient capital of Luoyang. Overlooking Luoyang on Mount Huanyuan was the Cypress Valley Estate, which had served as the site of a fort during the Jin and a commandery during the Southern Qi. Sui Emperor Wen had bestowed the estate on a nearby monastery called Shaolin for its monks to farm but Wang Shichong, realizing its strategic value, seized the estate and there placed troops and a signal tower, as well as establishing a prefecture called Yuanzhou. Furthermore, he had assembled an army at Luoyang to march on the Shaolin Temple itself.
The monks of Shaolin allied with Wang's enemy, Li Shimin, and took back the Cypress Valley Estate, defeating Wang's troops and capturing his nephew Renze. Without the fort at Cypress Valley, there was nothing to keep Li Shimin from marching on Luoyang after his defeat of Wang's ally Dou Jiande at the Battle of Hulao, forcing Wang Shichong to surrender. Li Shimin's father was the first Tang Emperor and Shimin himself became its second. Thereafter Shaolin enjoyed the royal patronage of the Tang.
Though the Shaolin Monastery Stele of 728 attests to these incidents in 610 and 621 when the monks engaged in combat, it does not allude to martial training in the monastery, or to any fighting technique in which its monks specialized. Nor do any other sources from the Tang, Song and Yuan periods allude to military training at the temple. According to Meir Shahar, this is explained by a confluence of the late Ming fashion for military encyclopedias and, more importantly, the conscription of civilian irregulars, including monks, as a result of Ming military decline in the 16th century.
Stele and documentary evidence shows the monks historically worshiped the Bodhisattva Vajrapani's "Kimnara King" form as the progenitor of their staff and bare hand fighting styles.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
From the 8th to the 15th centuries, no extant source documents Shaolin participation in combat; then the 16th and 17th centuries see at least forty extant sources attest that, not only did monks of Shaolin practice martial arts, but martial practice had become such an integral element of Shaolin monastic life that the monks felt the need to justify it by creating new Buddhist lore. References to Shaolin martial arts appear in various literary genres of the late Ming:
the epitaphs of Shaolin warrior monks, martial-arts manuals, military encyclopedias, historical writings, travelogues, fiction, and even poetry.
These sources, in contrast to those from the Tang Dynasty period, refer to Shaolin methods of combat unarmed, with the spear, and with the weapon that was the forte of the Shaolin monks and for which they had become famous, the staff. By the mid-16th century military experts from all over Ming China were travelling to Shaolin to study its fighting techniques.
Around 1560 Yú Dàyóu travelled to Shaolin Monastery to see for himself its monks' fighting techniques, but found them disappointing. Yú returned to the south with two monks, Zongqing and Pucong, whom he taught the use of the staff over the next three years, after which Zongqing and Pucong returned to Shaolin Monastery and taught their brother monks what they had learned. Martial arts historian Tang Hao traced the Shaolin staff style Five Tigers Interception to Yú's teachings.
The earliest extant manual on Shaolin kung fu, the Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method was written in around 1610 and published in 1621 from what its author Chéng Zōngyóu learned during a more than ten-year stay at the monastery.
Conditions of lawlessness in Henan—where the Shaolin Monastery is located—and surrounding provinces during the late Ming Dynasty and all of the Qing Dynasty contributed to the development of martial arts.
Meir Shahar lists the martial arts T'ai chi ch'uan, Chang Family Boxing, Bāguàquán, Xíngyìquán and Bajiquan as originating from this region and this time period.
Pirates
From the 1540s to the 1560s, pirates known as wokou raided China's eastern and southeastern coasts on an unprecedented scale.
The geographer Zheng Ruoceng provides the most detailed of the 16th-century sources which confirm that, in 1553, Wan Biao, Vice Commissioner in Chief of the Nanjing Chief Military Commission, initiated the conscription of monks—including some from Shaolin—against the pirates. Warrior monks participated in at least four battles: at the Gulf of Hangzhou in spring 1553 and in the Huangpu River delta at Wengjiagang in July 1553, Majiabang in spring 1554, and Taozhai in autumn 1555.
The monks suffered their greatest defeat at Taozhai, where four of them fell in battle; their remains were buried under the Stūpa of the Four Heroic Monks (Si yi seng ta) at Mount She near Shanghai.
The monks won their greatest victory at Wengjiagang. On 21 July 1553, 120 warrior monks led by the Shaolin monk Tianyuan defeated a group of pirates and chased the survivors over ten days and twenty miles. The pirates suffered over one hundred casualties and the monks only four.
Not all of the monks who fought at Wengjiagang were from Shaolin, and rivalries developed among them. Zheng chronicles Tianyuan's defeat of eight rival monks from Hangzhou who challenged his command. Zheng ranked Shaolin first of the top three Buddhist centers of martial arts. Zheng ranked Funiu in Henan second and Mount Wutai in Shanxi third. The Funiu monks practiced staff techniques which they had learned at the Shaolin Monastery. The Wutai monks practiced Yang Family Spear (楊家槍; pinyin: Yángjiā qiāng).
Contents
Shaolin temple has two main legacies: Chan (), which refers to Chan Buddhism, the religion of Shaolin, and Quan (), which refers to the martial arts of Shaolin. In Shaolin, these are not separate disciplines and monks have always pursued the philosophy of the unification of Chan and Quan (). In a deeper point of view, Quan is considered part of Chan. As late Shaolin monk Suxi said in the last moments of his life, "Shaolin is Chan, not Quan."
On the Quan (martial) side, the contents are abundant. A usual classification of contents are:
Basic skills (): These include stamina, flexibility, and balance, which improve the body abilities in doing martial maneuvers. In Shaolin kung fu, flexibility and balance skills are known as "childish skill" (), which have been classified into 18 postures.
Power skills (): These include:
Qigong meditation: Qigong meditation itself has two types, internal (), which is stationary meditation, and external (), which is dynamic meditation methods like Shaolin four-part exercise (), eight-section brocade (), Shaolin muscle-changing scripture (), and others.
The 72 arts: These Include 36 soft and 36 hard exercises, which are known as soft and hard qigong.
Combat skills (, "skills"): These include various barehanded, weapon, and barehanded vs. weapon routines (styles) and their combat () methods.
Styles
Like the usual system of Chinese martial arts, Shaolin combat methods are taught via forms (). Forms that are technically closely related are coupled together and are considered of the same sub-style. These are usually called the small and the big forms, like the small and big hong quan, which altogether make the Shaolin hong quan style, and the small and big pao quan, etc. There are also some styles with one form, like taizu chang quan. Indeed, these styles are not complete or stand-alone, this is just a classification of different forms of Shaolin kung fu based on their technical contents.
Shaolin kung fu has more than hundreds of extant styles. There is recorded documentation of more than a thousand extant forms, which makes Shaolin the biggest school of martial art in the world. In the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), Shaolin monks chose 100 of the best styles of Shaolin kung fu. Then they shortlisted the 18 most famous of them. However, every lineage of Shaolin monks have always chosen their own styles. Every style teaches unique methods for fighting () and keeping health via one or a few forms. To learn a complete system, Shaolin monks master a number of styles and weapons. The most famous styles of Shaolin kung fu are:
List of known styles
Arhat's 18 hands (): known as the oldest style.
Flood style (): with the small form () known as the son of the styles, and the big form () known as the mother of the styles,
Explosive style (): known as the king of the styles,
Penetrating-Arms style (),
7-star & Long Guard the Heart and Mind Gate style (),
Plum Blossom style (),
Facing & Bright Sun style (),
Arhat style (): known as the most representative style,
Vajrapani style (),
Emperor's Long-range style (): known as the most graceful style,
6-Match style (),
Soft style (),
Mind style ()
Imitative styles () (including Dragon, Tiger, Leopard, Eagle, Monkey, Mantis, etc.),
Drunken style (),
and many other styles.
Internal and external kung fu
Huang Zongxi described martial arts in terms of Shaolin or "external" arts versus Wudang or internal arts in 1669. It has been since then that Shaolin has been popularly synonymous for what are considered the external Chinese martial arts, regardless of whether or not the particular style in question has any connection to the Shaolin Monastery. Some say that there is no differentiation between the so-called internal and external systems of the Chinese martial arts, while other well-known teachers hold the opinion that they are different. For example, the Taijiquan teacher Wu Jianquan:
Those who practice Shaolinquan leap about with strength and force; people not proficient at this kind of training soon lose their breath and are exhausted. Taijiquan is unlike this. Strive for quiescence of body, mind and intention.
Influence on other martial arts
Some lineages of karate have oral traditions that claim Shaolin origins. Martial arts traditions in Japan,
Korea, Sri Lanka and certain Southeast Asian countries cite Chinese influence as transmitted by Buddhist monks.
Recent developments in the 20th century such as Shorinji Kempo () practised in Japan's Sohonzan Shorinji () still maintains close ties with China's Song Shan Shaolin Temple due to historic links. Japanese Shorinji Kempo Group received recognition in China in 2003 for their financial contributions to the maintenance of the historic edifice of the Song Shan Shaolin Temple.
References
Chinese martial arts
Buddhist martial arts
Shaolin Temple | [
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239587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding%20Nemo | Finding Nemo | Finding Nemo is a 2003 American computer-animated adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Directed by Andrew Stanton with co-direction by Lee Unkrich, the screenplay was written by Stanton, Bob Peterson, and David Reynolds from a story by Stanton. The film stars the voices of Albert Brooks, Ellen DeGeneres, Alexander Gould, and Willem Dafoe. It tells the story of an overprotective clownfish named Marlin who, along with a regal blue tang named Dory, searches for his missing son Nemo. Along the way, Marlin learns to take risks and comes to terms with Nemo taking care of himself.
Released on May 30, 2003, Finding Nemo won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, the first Pixar film to do so. It received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised the visual elements, screenplay and characters that has been cited as funny to both young moviegoers and their parents. The film was also nominated in three more categories, including Best Original Screenplay. Additionally, it became the highest-grossing animated film at the time of its release, and was the second-highest-grossing film of 2003, earning a total of $871 million worldwide by the end of its initial theatrical run.
Finding Nemo is the best-selling DVD title of all time, with over 40 million copies sold , and was the highest-grossing G-rated film of all time before Pixar's own Toy Story 3 overtook it. The film was re-released in 3D in 2012. In 2008, the American Film Institute named it as the 10th greatest animated film ever made as part of their 10 Top 10 lists. A sequel, Finding Dory, was released in June 2016.
Plot
Marlin is a clownfish who lives in an anemone in the Great Barrier Reef. His wife, Coral, and almost all of their eggs are killed in a barracuda attack. Only one damaged egg remains, which Marlin names Nemo.
Some time later, Marlin is overprotective of Nemo, who was born with a stunted right fin. On Nemo's first day of school, Marlin embarrasses Nemo, and the two argue. While Marlin is talking to Nemo's teacher, Nemo defiantly approaches a nearby speedboat, where he is captured by a pair of scuba divers. Marlin pursues the boat in vain and meets Dory, a blue tang who suffers from acute short-term memory loss, who offers her help. The two encounter three sharks who have sworn to abstain from eating fish. Marlin discovers a diver's mask that fell from the boat; he accidentally hits Dory with it, giving her a nosebleed. The scent sends one of the sharks into a feeding frenzy, but they flee after accidentally setting off a ring of old naval mines, which knock Marlin and Dory unconscious.
Nemo is placed in an aquarium in the office of dentist Philip Sherman in Sydney, Australia. He meets the "Tank Gang", including yellow tang Bubbles, starfish Peach, cleaner shrimp Jacques, blowfish Bloat, royal gramma Gurgle, and damselfish Deb, led by Gill, a Moorish idol. Nemo learns he is to be given to Sherman's young niece, Darla, who has killed her previous fish. Gill devises a risky escape plan: Nemo, who can fit inside the aquarium's filter tube, will jam the filter with a pebble, forcing Sherman to put the fish into plastic bags while he cleans the tank, giving them the opportunity to roll out the window and into the harbor. Nemo attempts the maneuver, but fails and is almost killed.
Marlin and Dory wake up unharmed, but the mask falls into a deep trench. They descend after it and encounter an anglerfish that chases them. Dory memorizes the address written on the goggles, and they escape. Dory and Marlin receive directions from a school of moonfish, but Marlin disregards them to take what he believes is a safer route. They stumble into a forest of jellyfish, the stings of which knock them unconscious. They awaken in the East Australian Current with a group of sea turtles, including Crush and his son, Squirt. Marlin tells them about his quest, and the story is relayed across the ocean to Sydney where a pelican, Nigel, tells the Tank Gang. Inspired by his father's bravery, Nemo makes another attempt to jam the filter and succeeds, and soon the aquarium is covered in green algae.
Marlin and Dory exit the East Australian Current and are consumed by a blue whale. Dory tries communicating with the whale, which expels them through its blowhole at Sydney Harbour. They meet Nigel, who helps the pair escape from a group of seagulls and takes them to the dentist's office. Sherman has installed a new high-tech filter, foiling the Tank Gang's escape. Darla arrives, but Nemo plays dead to save himself. Nigel causes a disturbance, terrifying Darla and throwing the office into chaos. Marlin, seeing Nemo's act, believes Nemo is dead. After Sherman throws Nigel out (along with Marlin and Dory), Gill helps Nemo escape through a drain that leads to the ocean.
Despondent, Marlin bids farewell to Nigel and Dory, and begins his journey home. Marlin's departure causes Dory to lose her memory. Nemo reaches the ocean and meets Dory, but she does not remember him. However, her memory returns when she reads the word "Sydney" on a drainpipe. Dory reunites Nemo with Marlin, but a fishing trawler captures her in a net along with a school of groupers. With his father's blessing, Nemo enters the net and he and Marlin instruct all of the fish to swim down. Their combined force breaks the boat's net, allowing them to escape. Marlin and Nemo reconcile.
After returning home to the reef, Marlin is more confident while Dory has remained friends with the sharks. Marlin and Dory see Nemo off as he goes to school.
At the dentist's, the filter has broken, and the gang, having been put in bags, have escaped into the harbor. Still stuck in the bags, they ponder what to do next.
Voice cast
Production
The inspiration for Nemo sprang from multiple experiences, going back to director Andrew Stanton's childhood, when he loved going to the dentist to see the fish tank, assuming that the fish were from the ocean and wanted to go home. In 1992, shortly after his son was born, he and his family took a trip to Six Flags Discovery Kingdom (which was called Marine World at the time). There, after seeing the shark tube and various exhibits, he felt that the underwater world could be done beautifully in computer animation. Later, in 1997, he took his son for a walk in the park but realized that he was overprotecting him and lost an opportunity to have a father-son experience that day.
In an interview with National Geographic magazine, Stanton said that the idea for the characters of Marlin and Nemo came from a photograph of two clownfish peeking out of an anemone:
In addition, clownfish are colourful, but do not tend to come out of an anemone often. For a character who has to go on a dangerous journey, Stanton felt a clownfish was the perfect type of fish for the character. Pre-production of the film began in early 1997. Stanton began writing the screenplay during the post-production of A Bug's Life. As a result, Finding Nemo began production with a complete screenplay, something that co-director Lee Unkrich called "very unusual for an animated film". The artists took scuba diving lessons to study the coral reef.
Stanton originally planned to use flashbacks to reveal how Coral died but realized that by the end of the film there would be nothing to reveal, deciding to show how she died at the beginning of the movie. The character of Gill also was different from the character seen in the final film. In a scene that was eventually deleted, Gill tells Nemo that he's from a place called Bad Luck Bay and that he has brothers and sisters in order to impress the young clownfish, only for the latter to find out that he was lying by listening to a patient reading a children's storybook that shares exactly the same details.
The casting of Albert Brooks, in Stanton's opinion, "saved" the film. Brooks liked the idea of Marlin being this clownfish who isn't funny and recorded outtakes of telling very bad jokes.
The idea for the initiation sequence came from a story conference between Andrew Stanton and Bob Peterson while they were driving to record the actors. Although he originally envisioned the character of Dory as male, Stanton was inspired to cast Ellen DeGeneres when he watched an episode of Ellen in which he saw her "change the subject five times before finishing one sentence". The pelican character named Gerald (who in the final film ends up swallowing and choking on Marlin and Dory) was originally a friend of Nigel. They were going to play against each other with Nigel being neat and fastidious and Gerald being scruffy and sloppy. The filmmakers could not find an appropriate scene for them that did not slow the pace of the picture, so Gerald's character was minimized.
Stanton himself provided the voice of Crush the sea turtle. He originally did the voice for the film's story reel and assumed they would find an actor later. When Stanton's performance became popular in test screenings, he decided to keep his performance in the film. He recorded all his dialogue while lying on a sofa in Unkrich's office. Crush's son Squirt was voiced by Nicholas Bird, the young son of fellow Pixar director Brad Bird. According to Stanton, the elder Bird was playing a tape recording of his young son around the Pixar studios one day. Stanton felt the voice was "this generation's Thumper" and immediately cast Nicholas.
Megan Mullally was originally going to provide a voice in the film. According to Mullally, the producers were dissatisfied to learn that the voice of her character Karen Walker on the television show Will & Grace was not her natural speaking voice. The producers hired her anyway, and then strongly encouraged her to use her Karen Walker voice for the role. When Mullally refused, she was dismissed.
To ensure that the movements of the fish in the film were believable, the animators took a crash course in fish biology and oceanography. They visited aquariums, went diving in Hawaii, and received in-house lectures from an ichthyologist. As a result, Pixar's animator for Dory, Gini Cruz Santos, integrated "the fish movement, human movement, and facial expressions to make them look and feel like real characters." Production designer Ralph Eggleston created pastel drawings to give the lighting crew led by Sharon Calahan ideas of how every scene in the film should be lit.
The Great white shark, Bruce, got his name from the classic Universal film Jaws. The animatronic shark they used on set while filming Jaws was nicknamed "Bruce" because Steven Spielberg's divorce lawyer's name was Bruce Raiman. The "Here's Brucey!" quote is a reference to the Jack Nicholson line from the 1980 horror film, The Shining.
The film was dedicated to Glenn McQueen, a Pixar animator who died of melanoma in October 2002. Finding Nemo shares many plot elements with Pierrot the Clownfish, a children's book published in 2002, but allegedly conceived in 1995. The author, Franck Le Calvez, sued Disney for infringement of his intellectual rights and to bar Finding Nemo merchandise in France. The judge ruled against him, citing the color differences between Pierrot and Nemo.
Localization
In 2016, Disney Character Voices International's senior vice president Rick Dempsey, in collaboration with the Navajo Nation Museum, created a Navajo dubbing of the movie titled Nemo Há’déést’íí which was released in theaters March 18–24 of the same year. The project was thought as a means to preserve Navajo language, teaching the language to kids through a Disney movie. The studio held auditions on the reservation, but finding an age-appropriate native speaker to voice Nemo was hard, Dempsey said, as the majority of native Navajo speakers are over 40 years old. The end credits version of the song Beyond the Sea, covered in the English version by Robbie Williams, was also adapted into Navajo, with Fall Out Boy's lead singer Patrick Stump performing it. Finding Nemo was the second movie to receive a Navajo dubbing: in 2013, a Navajo version of Star Wars was created.
Soundtrack
Finding Nemo was the first Pixar film not to be scored by Randy Newman. The original soundtrack album, Finding Nemo, was scored by Thomas Newman, his cousin, and released on May 20, 2003. The score was nominated for the Academy Award for Original Score, losing to The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.
Release
Marketing
Disney released a teaser trailer of Finding Nemo in the fall of 2002. This trailer was not only found online, but also on the Monsters, Inc. home video releases. It was even shown in theaters, being attached to the screenings of The Santa Clause 2. Trailers for Finding Nemo were later attached to the home video releases of Treasure Planet, Beauty and the Beast: Belle's Magical World and other Disney films. There were also Fishy Facts with sharks, turtles and pelicans. This featurette can be found on the second disc of the Collector's Edition DVD release of A Bug's Life, which was released on May 27, 2003, three days before the debut of Finding Nemo.
McDonald's restaurants began to sell eight Happy Meal toys based on the film. At the 100th North American International Toy Fair event in New York City, Hasbro unveiled a variety of Finding Nemo toys. A cereal themed to the film was released by Kellogg's, consisting of naturally sweetened oats with fish-shaped marshmallows. Finding Nemo was advertised as promotional partners on other companies, like Frito-Lay, Keebler, Pepsi, Ralphs, Dreyer's, Jel Sert, AirHeads, Orville Redenbacher's and THQ. Before May 26, 2003, stickers on over 50 million bags of potato chips alerted consumers to a sweepstakes dangling a trip for four to Sydney, Australia with a visit to the Great Barrier Reef. On May 17, 2003, Frito-Lay hosted an event at each of the Walmart stores, where kids could use 3D goggles to find hidden images of Nemo. Kellogg's packed eight different water toys depicting film characters inside Frosted Flakes, Rice Krispies, Honey Smacks and Cocoa Rice Krispies cereal boxes. The Honey Smacks, Frosted Flakes, Cinnamon Crunch Crispix and Froot Loops boxes also carried a Nemo memory card game on back panels. Plus, a Nemo-themed Marshmallow Froot Loops cereal featured four of the film's characters. Consumers could mail in two UPCs from the three Kellogg's cereals to receive a large beach towel. Besides this, the company unveiled a new type of Pop-Tarts inspired by Finding Nemo. Known as the Great Berry Reef Pop-Tarts, they had a wild berry filling and fish sprinkles. A pool raft was available with two Pop-Tart UPCs and shipping, handled by Draft Worldwide of Chicago. Eggo waffles would offer holographic swimming goggles with the purchase of two of its products with shipping and handling. For their snacks division, Kellogg's offered consumers who purchased two packages of select products and two gallons of milk with a giant inflatable shark. The company advertised the film on Vanilla Wafers, Chips Deluxe, Mini Fudge Shoppe Fudge Stripes, Soft Batch Chocolate Chip Cookies, Rice Krispies Treats and limited edition Nemo-themed cookies.
On May 20, 2003, Kellogg's recalled Frosted Flakes cereal boxes due to their extremely close resemblance of a Hasbro memory card game. A lawsuit was filed against the company, which included a full-page reproduction of the front of a Frosted Flakes box with the cereal's familiar Tony the Tiger mascot grinning next to two fish and a turtle from the film. Disney had licensed the characters to use on the game cards. Hasbro had filed the suit to protect its trademark against blatant infringement.
Theatrical
Finding Nemo was not only the fifth Pixar film, but was also the first one to be released during the summer instead of November, much like its four predecessors. The film opened in theaters with The Italian Job and Wrong Turn on May 30, 2003.
Home media
Finding Nemo was released on VHS and DVD on November 4, 2003. The DVD release sold more than 8 million copies on the first day of release, taking Spider-Mans record for having the highest single-day DVD sales. It also surpassed Monsters, Inc. for having the highest single-day record for an animated movie. Within two weeks, it went on to become the best-selling DVD of its time, selling over 15 million copies and beating The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. With over 40 million copies sold, Finding Nemo currently holds the record for the best-selling DVD release of all time. This DVD consists of two separate discs direct from the digital source. The first disc features a widescreen version (1.78:1 aspect ratio) and the second disc features a fullscreen version (family-friendly 1.33:1 aspect ratio without pan and scan). Both discs feature an introduction in the main menu, fish icons in the corner of the menus that transform the screen into a virtual aquarium and are THX certified. On the first disc, the menus take place in the ocean and bonus features include the in-depth documentary Making Nemo, visual commentary with deleted scenes and design galleries. As for the second disc, the menus take place at the dentist office. There are sneak peeks for The Incredibles, Home on the Range, The Lion King 1½ and other upcoming film releases. Bonus features on this disc include Knick Knack, an original 1989 short film, Exploring the Reef, Mr. Ray's Encyclopedia, a guessing game called Fisharades, Storytime and behind-the-scenes with character interviews, studio tour and publicity. Both Exploring the Reef and Knick Knack can also be selected in the main menu.
The film was then released on both Blu-ray 3D and Blu-ray on December 4, 2012, with both a 3-disc and a 5-disc set. In 2019, Finding Nemo was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray.
Reception
Box office
During its original theatrical run, Finding Nemo grossed $339.7 million in the United States and Canada and $531.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $871.0 million. It was the second-highest-grossing film of 2003. Finding Nemo also defeated The Matrix Reloaded to become the highest-grossing film of the 2003 summer season. The film sold an estimated 56.4 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
Finding Nemo set an opening weekend record for an animated feature, making $70.6 million worldwide. It would hold this record until Shrek 2 took it the following year. Upon its release, the film took the number #1 spot off of Bruce Almighty. In just 10 days, the box office increased to $143.3 million. When 2 Fast 2 Furious opened during the second week, Finding Nemo was put into second place. It then returned to the number #1 spot the following week. The film had earned $29.2 million, bringing the total to $192.3 million worldwide. This made it the first film to reclaim the number #1 spot since James Bond's Die Another Day and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets in 2002. It would continue dominate the box office following the weaker openings of Rugrats Go Wild, Hollywood Homicide and Dumb and Dumberer: When Harry Met Lloyd. Lacking a strong new movie, the overall box office took a dip after rising for two straight weekends, compared to 24% from the previous summer when Scooby-Doo opened with $54.2 million. Finding Nemo reached the $200 million mark on its 20th day of release. The film stayed in its same position for a brief period of time until it was taken by Hulk. Not too long after, it managed to cross over X2 with a higher amount of money. Following the release of Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines in July 2003, Finding Nemo earned an extra $11 million, pulling its total haul to $274.9 million, which made it the top-grossing movie of the year. The film even surpassed Shrek to become the number #2 spot on the all-time list for animated movies. Around the same time, another Disney film called Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl was released. As for Finding Nemo, the film would approach $300 million later that month. Both films would rival other Buena Vista Pictures films, such as Freaky Friday and Bringing Down the House. Finding Nemo ended up spending 11 weeks in the top 10 domestically (including 7 weeks in the top 5), remaining there until August 14. By the end of the summer season, it had earned $330 million, beating out Gigli, S.W.A.T. and its rivals. In addition, the film had dominated newly released sequels, like Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life and Bad Boys II. While The Matrix and X-Men sequels had easily outgrossed their predecessors, others fell well short and underperformed. Officials once dashed off cheap sequels to wring a few more dollars out of a blockbuster brand name. Franchises such as Austin Powers and The Mummy taught the industry that by investing more up front to bring back key talent, sequels could produce larger paydays than their predecessors. Finding Nemo became the highest-grossing animated film in North America ($339.7 million), outside North America ($531.3 million), and worldwide ($871.0 million), in all three occasions out-grossing The Lion King. In North America, it was surpassed by both Shrek 2 in 2004 and Toy Story 3 in 2010. Outside North America, it stands as the fifth-highest-grossing animated film. Worldwide, it now ranks fourth among animated films. Moreover, it was the highest-grossing Disney film for three years before being surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest in 2006.
The film had impressive box office runs in many international markets. In Japan, its highest-grossing market after North America, it grossed ¥11.2 billion ($102.4 million), becoming the highest-grossing foreign animated film in local currency (yen). It has only been surpassed by Frozen (¥25.5 billion). Following in biggest grosses are the U.K., Ireland and Malta, where it grossed £37.2 million ($67.1 million), France and the Maghreb region ($64.8 million), Germany ($53.9 million), and Spain ($29.5 million).
3D re-release
After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King, Disney re-released Finding Nemo in 3D on September 14, 2012, with a conversion cost estimated to be below $5 million. For the opening weekend of its 3D re-release in North America, Finding Nemo grossed $16.7 million, debuting at the No. 2 spot behind Resident Evil: Retribution. The film earned $41.1 million in North America and $28.2 million internationally, for a combined total of $69.3 million, and a cumulative worldwide total of $940.3 million.
Critical response
Another review aggregation website, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 90 out of 100, based on 38 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars, calling it "one of those rare movies where I wanted to sit in the front row and let the images wash out to the edges of my field of vision". Ed Park of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review, saying "It's an ocean of eye candy that tastes fresh even in this ADD-addled era of SpongeBob SquarePants." Mark Caro of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars, saying "You connect to these sea creatures as you rarely do with humans in big-screen adventures. The result: a true sunken treasure." Hazel-Dawn Dumpert of LA Weekly gave the film a positive review, saying "As gorgeous a film as Disney's ever put out, with astonishing qualities of light, movement, surface and color at the service of the best professional imaginations money can buy." Jeff Strickler of the Star Tribune gave the film a positive review, saying it "proves that even when Pixar is not at the top of its game, it still produces better animation than some of its competitors on their best days." Gene Seymour of Newsday gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, saying "The underwater backdrops take your breath away. No, really. They're so lifelike, you almost feel like holding your breath while watching." Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Parental anxiety may not be the kind of stuff children's films are usually made of, but this perfectly enchanting movie knows how to cater to its kiddie audience without condescending to them."
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film three-and-a-half out of five, saying "The best break of all is that Pixar's traditionally untethered imagination can't be kept under wraps forever, and "Nemo" erupts with sea creatures that showcase Stanton and company's gift for character and peerless eye for skewering contemporary culture." Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Visual imagination and sophisticated wit raise Finding Nemo to a level just below the peaks of Pixar's Toy Story movies and Monsters, Inc.." Terry Lawson of the Detroit Free Press gave the film three out of four, saying "As we now expect from Pixar, even the supporting fish in "Finding Nemo" are more developed as characters than any human in the Mission: Impossible movies." Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three and half out of four, saying "Finding Nemo is an undersea treasure. The most gorgeous of all the Pixar films—which include Toy Story 1 and 2, A Bug's Life and Monsters, Inc.—Nemo treats family audiences to a sweet, resonant story and breathtaking visuals. It may lack Monsters, Inc.s clever humor, but kids will identify with the spunky sea fish Nemo, and adults will relate to Marlin, Nemo's devoted dad." Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle gave the film an A-, saying "Finding Nemo lives up to Pixar's high standards for wildly creative visuals, clever comedy, solid characters and an involving story." Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film an A-, saying "A simple test of humanity: If you don't laugh aloud while watching it, you've got a battery not a heart."
Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film four out of four, saying "A dazzling, computer-animated fish tale with a funny, touching script and wonderful voice performances that make it an unqualified treat for all ages." Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film four out of four, saying "Enchanting; written with an effortless blend of sweetness and silliness, and animated with such rainbow-hued beauty, you may find yourself wanting to freeze-frame it." Daphne Gordon of the Toronto Star gave the film four out of five, saying "One of the strongest releases from Disney in years, thanks to the work of Andrew Stanton, possibly one of the most successful directors you've never heard of." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three and a half out of four, saying "Finding Nemo isn't quite up there with the company's finest work—there's finally a sense of formula setting in—but it's hands down the best family film since Monsters, Inc." C.W. Nevius of The San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four, saying "The visuals pop, the fish emote and the ocean comes alive. That's in the first two minutes. After that, they do some really cool stuff." Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, saying "Finding Nemo will engross kids with its absorbing story, brightly drawn characters and lively action, and grown-ups will be equally entertained by the film's subtle humor and the sophistication of its visuals." David Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review, saying "A visual marvel, every frame packed to the gills with clever details, Finding Nemo is the best big-studio release so far this year."
Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review, saying "Nemo, with its ravishing underwater fantasia, manages to trump the design glamour of earlier Pixar films." Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A, saying "In this seamless blending of technical brilliance and storytelling verve, the Pixar team has made something as marvelously soulful and innately, fluidly American as jazz." Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four, saying "As eye-popping as Nemo's peepers and as eccentric as this little fish with asymmetrical fins." David Germain of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review, saying "Finding Nemo is laced with smart humor and clever gags, and buoyed by another cheery story of mismatched buddies: a pair of fish voiced by Albert Brooks and Ellen DeGeneres." Anthony Lane of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review, saying "The latest flood of wizardry from Pixar, whose productions, from Toy Story onward, have lent an indispensable vigor and wit to the sagging art of mainstream animation." The 3D re-release prompted a retrospective on the film nine years after its initial release. Stephen Whitty of The Star-Ledger described it as "a genuinely funny and touching film that, in less than a decade, has established itself as a timeless classic." On the 3D re-release, Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly wrote that its emotional power was deepened by "the dimensionality of the oceanic deep" where "the spatial mysteries of watery currents and floating worlds are exactly where 3D explorers were born to boldly go".
Finding Nemo was included on a number of best-of lists. The film appeared on professional rankings from BBC and The Independent based on retrospective appraisal, as one of the greatest films of the twenty-first century. Several publications have listed it as one of the best animated films, including: IGN (2010), USA Today, Elle (both 2018), Parade, Complex, and Time Out New York (all 2021). In December 2021, the film's screenplay was listed number 60 on the Writers Guild of America's "101 Greatest Screenplays of the 21st Century (So Far)".
Accolades
Finding Nemo won the Academy Award and Saturn Award for Best Animated Film. It also won the award for Best Animated Film at the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards, the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards, the National Board of Review Awards, the Online Film Critics Society Awards, and the Toronto Film Critics Association Awards. The film received many other awards, including: Kids Choice Awards for Favorite Movie and Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie (Ellen DeGeneres), and the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress (Ellen DeGeneres).
The film was also nominated for two Chicago Film Critics Association Awards, for Best Picture and Best Supporting Actress (Ellen DeGeneres), a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, and two MTV Movie Awards, for Best Movie and Best Comedic Performance (Ellen DeGeneres).
In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten Top Ten", the best 10 films in 10 "classic" American film genres, after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Finding Nemo was acknowledged as the 10th best film in the animation genre. It was the most recently released film among all 10 lists, and one of only three movies made after the year 2000 (the others being The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring and Shrek).
American Film Institute recognition:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – Nominated
AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 10 Animated film
Environmental concerns and consequences
The film's use of clownfish prompted mass purchase of the fish breed as pets in the United States, even though the story portrayed the use of fish as pets negatively and suggested that saltwater aquariums are notably tricky and expensive to maintain. The demand for clownfish was supplied by large-scale harvesting of tropical fish in regions like Vanuatu. The Australian Tourism Commission (ATC) launched several marketing campaigns in China and the United States to improve tourism in Australia, many of them utilizing Finding Nemo clips. Queensland used Finding Nemo to draw tourists to promote itself to vacationers. According to National Geographic, "Ironically, Finding Nemo, a movie about the anguish of a captured clownfish, caused home-aquarium demand for them to triple."
The reaction to the film by the general public has led to environmental devastation for the clownfish, and has provoked an outcry from several environmental protection agencies, including the Marine Aquarium Council, Australia. The demand for tropical fish skyrocketed after the film's release, causing reef species decimation in Vanuatu and several other reef areas. After seeing the film, some aquarium owners released their pet fish into the ocean, but failed to release them into the correct oceanic habitat, which introduced species that are harmful to the indigenous environment, a practice that is harming reefs worldwide.
Legacy
Sequel
A spin-off sequel to this film was released in June 2016, titled Finding Dory. It focuses on Dory having a journey to reunite with her parents (Diane Keaton and Eugene Levy). Like the previous film, Finding Dory was a financial success and fared well with critics.
Video games
A video game based on the film was released in 2003, for PC, Xbox, PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Game Boy Advance. The goal of the game is to complete different levels under the roles of Nemo, Marlin or Dory. It includes cut scenes from the movie, and each clip is based on a level. It was also the last Pixar game developed by Traveller's Tales. Upon release, the game received mixed reviews. A Game Boy Advance sequel, titled Finding Nemo: The Continuing Adventures, was released in 2004.
Theme park attractions
Finding Nemo has inspired numerous attractions and properties at Disney Parks around the world, including: Turtle Talk with Crush, which opened in 2004 at Epcot, 2005 in Disney California Adventure Park, 2008 in Hong Kong Disneyland, and 2009 in Tokyo DisneySea; Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage, which opened in 2007 in Disneyland Park; The Seas with Nemo & Friends, which opened in 2007 at Epcot; Finding Nemo – The Musical, which opened in 2007 in Disney's Animal Kingdom; and Crush's Coaster, which opened in 2007 at Walt Disney Studios Park.
Notes
References
External links
from Disney
from Pixar
2003 computer-animated films
2003 films
2000s American animated films
3D animated films
3D re-releases
American 3D films
American computer-animated films
American films
American animated feature films
Animated films about fish
Best Animated Feature Academy Award winners
Best Animated Feature Annie Award winners
Best Animated Feature Broadcast Film Critics Association Award winners
2000s English-language films
Films scored by Thomas Newman
Films directed by Andrew Stanton
Films set in Sydney
Films with screenplays by Andrew Stanton
Pixar animated films
Walt Disney Pictures films
Father and son films | [
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|
239589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Birdcage | The Birdcage | The Birdcage is a 1996 American comedy film directed by Mike Nichols, adapted by Elaine May, and starring Robin Williams, Gene Hackman, Nathan Lane, and Dianne Wiest. Dan Futterman, Calista Flockhart, Hank Azaria, and Christine Baranski appear in supporting roles. It is an English-language remake of the 1978 Franco-Italian film La Cage aux Folles and the musical of the same name.
Plot
Armand Goldman is the openly gay owner of a drag club in South Beach called The Birdcage; his life partner Albert, an effeminate and flamboyant man, plays Starina, the star attraction of the club. They live together in an apartment above The Birdcage with Agador, their openly gay flamboyant Guatemalan housekeeper who aspires to be in Albert's drag show.
One day, Armand's son Val, who resulted from Armand's drunken one-night stand with a woman named Katharine, comes home to announce that he has been seeing a young woman named Barbara whom he intends to marry. Although unhappy about the news, Armand agrees to support Val. Unfortunately, Barbara's parents are the ultra-conservative Republican Senator Kevin Keeley and his wife Louise.
Kevin, co-founder of a conservative group called the Coalition for Moral Order, becomes embroiled in a political scandal when the group's co-founder and Kevin's fellow senator is found dead in the bed of an underage black prostitute. Louise and Barbara convince Kevin that a visit to meet the family of his daughter's fiancé would be the perfect way to stave off bad press, so they set out for South Beach.
Barbara shares news of her father's plan to Val; to cover the Goldmans' truth, she has told her parents that Armand is straight and a cultural attaché to Greece. Armand dislikes the idea of being forced into the closet, but agrees to play along, enlisting the help of friends and club employees to redecorate the family's apartment to more closely resemble a traditional household. Val and Armand attempt to get Albert out of the house, but when they fail Albert suggests that he will pose as Val's straight uncle. Armand contacts Katharine and explains the situation; she promises to come to the party and pretend to be his wife. Armand then tries to coach Albert on how to be straight, but Albert's flamboyant nature makes the task difficult. When Albert realizes his plan will not fool anyone, he takes offense and locks himself in his room.
The Keeleys arrive at the Goldmans' (who are calling themselves "Coleman" for the evening to hide their Jewish heritage) redecorated apartment; they are greeted by Agador, who is attempting to pass as a Greek butler named Spartacus for the night. Unfortunately, Katharine gets caught in traffic, and the Keeleys begin wondering where "Mrs. Coleman" is. Suddenly, Albert enters, dressed and styled as a conservative middle-aged woman. Armand, Val, and Barbara are nervous, but Kevin and Louise are taken in by the disguise.
Despite the success of the evening, trouble begins when the senator's chauffeur betrays him to two tabloid journalists, Harry Radman and his photographer, who have been hoping for a scoop on the Coalition story and follow the Keeleys to South Beach. While they research The Birdcage, they also remove a note that Armand has left on the door informing Katharine not to come upstairs. When she arrives, she unknowingly reveals the deceptions, leading Val to confess to the scheme and finally identify Albert as his true parent.
Kevin is initially confused by the situation, but Louise informs him of the truth and scolds him for being more concerned with his career than his family's happiness. When attempting to leave, he is ambushed by the paparazzi camped outside to take his picture. Albert then realizes that there is a way for the family to escape without being recognized. He dresses them in drag and they use the apartment's back entrance to sneak into The Birdcage where, by dancing to "We Are Family", they make their way out of the nightclub without incident. Barbara and Val are married in an interfaith service that both families attend.
Cast
Robin Williams as Armand Goldman
Gene Hackman as Senator Kevin Keeley
Nathan Lane as Albert Goldman
Dianne Wiest as Louise Keeley
Dan Futterman as Val Goldman
Calista Flockhart as Barbara Keeley
Hank Azaria as Agador Spartacus
Christine Baranski as Katharine Archer, Val's mother
Tom McGowan as Harry Radman
Grant Heslov as National Enquirer photographer
Soundtrack
Three songs written by Stephen Sondheim were adapted and arranged for the film by composer Jonathan Tunick. The song that Albert rehearses during the sequence with the gum-chewing dancer is entitled "Little Dream" and was written specifically for use in the film. Albert's first song as "Starina" is "Can That Boy Foxtrot", cut from Sondheim's Follies. The song that Armand and Katharine sing and dance to in her office, "Love Is in the Air", had been intended as the opening number for the musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum in 1962. The song was cut from the show and replaced with "Comedy Tonight". In addition to the Sondheim songs, Tunick utilized dance-style music such as Donna Summer's "She Works Hard for the Money" and "We Are Family"; along with Gloria Estefan and Miami Sound Machine's "Conga".
Reception
The film opened on March 8, 1996, and grossed $18,275,828 in its opening weekend, topping the box office. It remained at No. 1 for the next three weeks before being derailed by the openings of Primal Fear and A Thin Line Between Love and Hate. By the end of its 14-week run, the film had grossed $124,060,553 domestically and $61,200,000 internationally, eventually reaching a total of US$185,260,553 worldwide.
The film received positive reviews upon its release. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an 81% approval rating based on reviews from 52 critics. The site's critical consensus reads, "Mike Nichols wrangles agreeably amusing performances from Robin Williams and Nathan Lane in this fun, if not quite essential, remake of the French-Italian comedy La Cage aux Folles." On Metacritic the film has a score of 72% based on reviews from 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
James Berardinelli wrote in ReelViews, "The film is so boisterously entertaining that it's easy for the unsuspecting viewer not to realize that there's a message here." Desson Thomson of The Washington Post described the film as "A spirited remake of the French drag farce [that] has everything in place, from eyeliner to one-liner". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly called the film "Enchantingly witty". Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, especially praising Robin Williams' performance: "...this is one of his most cohesive and least antic performances. It's also a mischievously funny one: He does a fine job of integrating gag lines with semi-serious acting..."
The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) praised the film for "going beyond the stereotypes to see the characters' depth and humanity. The film celebrates differences and points out the outrageousness of hiding those differences". The film was also nominated for a GLAAD Media Award.
Accolades
See also
Cross-dressing in film and television
List of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender-related films by storyline
References
External links
1996 comedy films
1996 films
1996 LGBT-related films
American comedy films
American films
American films based on plays
American LGBT-related films
American remakes of French films
American remakes of Italian films
Cross-dressing in American films
Drag (clothing)-related films
English-language films
Films about anti-LGBT sentiment
Films about weddings
Films based on adaptations
Films directed by Mike Nichols
Films set in Miami
Films shot in Miami
Films with screenplays by Elaine May
Gay-related films
Homophobia in fiction
LGBT-related comedy films
United Artists films | [
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|
239591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novus%20ordo%20seclorum | Novus ordo seclorum | The phrase Novus ōrdō sēclōrum (, ; "New order of the ages") is the second of two mottos added by the secretary of the Congress of the Confederation, Charles Thomson, on the reverse (the back side) of the Great Seal of the United States (the first motto is Annuit cœptis).
Origin and phrase meaning
The phrase is a reference to the fourth Eclogue of Virgil, which contains a passage (lines 5-8) that reads:
The forms saecla, saeclorum etc. were normal alternatives to the more common saecula etc. throughout the history of Latin poetry and prose. The form saeculorum is impossible in hexameter verse: the ae and o are long, the u short by position.
Medieval Christians read Virgil's poem as a prophecy of the coming of Christ. The Augustan Age, although pre-Christian, was viewed as a golden age preparing the world for the coming of Christ. The great poets of this age were viewed as a source of revelation and light upon the Christian mysteries to come.
The word seclorum does not mean "secular", but is the genitive (possessive) plural form of the word saeculum, meaning (in this context) generation, century, or age. Saeculum did come to mean "age, world" in late, Christian Latin, and "secular" is derived from it, through secularis. However, the adjective "secularis," meaning "worldly," is not equivalent to the genitive plural "seclorum," meaning "of the ages."
The motto Novus ordo seclorum was translated and added to the seal by Charles Thomson, a Latin expert who was involved in the design of the Great Seal, as "A new order of the ages." Thomson said it was to signify "the beginning of the new American Era" as of the date of the Declaration of Independence.
See also
Annuit cœptis
E pluribus unum
Eye of Providence
List of Latin phrases
List of national mottos
List of U.S. state and territory mottos
United States national motto
References
Latin mottos
National symbols of the United States | [
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239593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Gilbert | Paul Gilbert | Paul Brandon Gilbert is an American hard rock and heavy metal guitarist. He is best known for being the co-founder of the band Mr. Big. He was also a member of Racer X, with whom he released several albums. In 1996, Gilbert launched a solo career, for which he has released numerous solo albums, and featured in numerous collaborations and guest appearances on other musicians' albums.
Gilbert has been voted fourth-best on GuitarOne magazine's "Top 10 Greatest Guitar Shredders of All Time". He has also ranked in Guitar World's "50 Fastest Guitarists of All Time" list.
Shrapnel Records
Gilbert was raised mostly in the small Pittsburgh suburb of Greensburg, Pennsylvania. He began playing music at age six; by age 15, he was touring local clubs with his band (Tau Zero), and had been featured in Guitar Player magazine (alongside fellow up-and-comer Yngwie Malmsteen). Around 1981, Gilbert first contacted Mike Varney (founder of Shrapnel Records), asking for a gig with metal mega-star Ozzy Osbourne. At the time, Varney couldn't think why Osbourne would want a 15-year-old guitarist; but, after listening to Gilbert's demo tape, he changed his mind. They continued talking over the next 3 years, culminating in Gilbert's 1984 cross-country move to Los Angeles to attend the GIT (Guitar Institute of Technology). Even at the young age of 17, Gilbert quickly became a local legend due to his advanced and extremely fast alternate picking technique, his young age, and his massive repertoire of cover material. He was hired as a GIT instructor in 1985, and recorded Racer X's debut album Street Lethal soon after.
Racer X
Formed in Los Angeles in 1985, Racer X was originally composed of Paul Gilbert (lead guitar), Juan Alderete (bass guitar), Harry Gschoesser (drums), and Jeff Martin (vocals). They were heavily influenced by Judas Priest, and Gilbert's playing was reminiscent of Yngwie Malmsteen, displaying fast-driven solos with extreme-level technique. Gschoesser was replaced by Scott Travis (who would later become Judas Priest's drummer) in 1986, and Bruce Bouillet, one of Gilbert's private students at GIT, was added as a second guitarist after demonstrating an ability to harmonize Gilbert's string skipping sequences. Gilbert gained recognition as one of the world's fastest guitarists due to incredibly technical pieces like "Technical Difficulties", "Frenzy", "Scarified", "Y.R.O." and "Scit Scat Wah". Around this time, Gilbert also recorded his first instructional video, Intense Rock, in which he demonstrated a number of his famous techniques and practice regimens in detail. Throughout his career he would go on to release many more instructional videos.
Racer X toured the American southwest, primarily the state of California, and would often sell out thousand-seat venues. Despite their rigorous fan base, the band did not have prospects for a major label deal and Gilbert became increasingly disinterested. In 1987, he was approached by Talas bassist Billy Sheehan, one of his biggest influences, about forming a band that would eventually become Mr. Big.
Gilbert left Racer X in 1988, but reformed it after the 1996 breakup of Mr. Big. Paul contacted the members of Racer X, and all agreed to return with the exception of Bruce Bouillet, who could barely play guitar at the time due to a severe bout of carpal tunnel syndrome. In mid-1999, the band recorded the album Technical Difficulties, which went gold in Japan. Racer X's new record label requested a follow-up; so, in late 2000, they released Superheroes, mixed by Bouillet.
To further capitalize on their new-found success in Japan, Universal Japan requested that the band perform for a live-album CD and DVD. On May 25, 2001, the band played their first live performance in thirteen years, to a sold-out crowd, at the world-famous Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles. The resulting CD and DVD were released in 2002 under the title Snowball of Doom.
In January 2002, in support of Superheroes and Snowball of Doom, Racer X toured Japan and Taiwan. The band performed these shows in their Superheroes costumes. The tour's final show, in Yokohama, was hastily recorded in two tracks on the sound board and later released as Snowball of Doom 2. Later that year, Universal Japan pushed for another Racer X release. In October 2002, all four members of Racer X gathered at Gilbert's house in Las Vegas to record Getting Heavier, which was sold alongside Snowball of Doom 2 in a package deal. Although the album was a successful release in Japan, some fans were disappointed with the lighter tracks, which resembled a Paul Gilbert solo album more than a conventional Racer X album.
Racer X performed at the 2009 NAMM show at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California. Andy Timmons and his band opened the show, followed by a solo set from Paul Gilbert, and finally Racer X. The Racer X lineup consisted of Paul Gilbert, Scott Travis, Jeff Martin and John Alderete.
Mr. Big
When bass guitarist Billy Sheehan left David Lee Roth's solo band in 1988, he and Gilbert co-founded Mr. Big, which included Pat Torpey on drums and Eric Martin on vocals. The band was initially successful in Japan, but achieved international stardom with the 1991 release of their second studio album Lean into It. This album featured the acoustic ballad "To Be with You", which received strong play on radio stations and MTV, rising to #1 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Mr. Big broke up in 1996, at which point Gilbert launched his solo career. When Mr. Big reformed soon after, Gilbert, who was already committed to his own record contract, was replaced by Richie Kotzen. Mr. Big disbanded again in 2002, but Gilbert reunited the original members in June 2009 for a worldwide reunion tour. The band recorded a new album with producer Kevin Shirley titled What If.... The album was released in Japan on Dec. 15th, 2010, in Europe on Jan. 21st, 2011 and in the U.S. in Feb. 2011. A tour to support the album kicked off at the Hollywood location of The House of Blues on April 2, 2011, followed by several dates in Japan. In May and June 2011, the tour continued in Taiwan, China, Korea, The Philippines, and Europe.
In September 2014, Mr. Big released ...The Stories We Could Tell, produced by Pat Regan. During the recording of the album, it was revealed that drummer Pat Torpey had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. For the tour that followed, Mr. Big enlisted the help of drummer Matt Starr of Burning Rain, to take over Torpey's drumming duties, whilst Torpey acted as "drum producer". Torpey did accompany the band on the subsequent tour, playing hand percussion, providing backup vocals and drumming on a few tracks per show.
The band released their 9th studio effort, Defying Gravity, on July 7, 2017. It would be the last album to feature Pat Torpey and first to feature Matt Starr taking over the role of drummer.
On February 7, 2018, drummer Pat Torpey died from complications of Parkinson's disease at the age of 64. His last show took place at the Wulfrun Hall in Wolverhampton on 23 November 2017.
A memorial show took place on 23 May 2018 at The Canyon in Agoura Hills, California, with former member Richie Kotzen as a special guest. The all-star finale of "To Be With You" included, among others, Matt Sorum, Dave Amato, Ricky Phillips, Keith St John, Prescott Niles, Kelly Keagy, Jeff Scott Soto, Ace Von Johnson and Gregg Bissonette.
In October 2018, singer Eric Martin said in an interview with Friday NI Rocks that the band is in the process of planning their next album. According to the frontman, once the band is done with its 2019 touring commitments, they will subsequently disband: "Yeah, that's the last hurrah – that's it. It feels a little uncomfortable to keep going without Pat Torpey."
Other projects
In May 2003 Gilbert performed twice with the project Yellow Matter Custard, a Beatles cover band consisting also of Mike Portnoy (ex-Dream Theater), Neal Morse (ex-Spock's Beard), and Matt Bissonette. In February 2011, Yellow Matter Custard reformed for three shows across America. Kasim Sulton replaced Matt Bissonette for these shows due to other commitments. The band took their name from a Beatles lyric in the song "I Am the Walrus": "Yellow matter custard, dripping from a dead dog's eye".
Gilbert rejoined Portnoy along with Dave LaRue and Daniel Gildenlöw for a Led Zeppelin tribute band called Hammer of the Gods in November 2003. The same year, Gilbert toured Japan with Linus Of Hollywood, TJ Helmerich, and Scot Coogan in support of his solo albums Burning Organ, Paul the Young Dude/The Best of Paul Gilbert, and Gilbert Hotel. In September 2005, he joined Portnoy, Sean Malone, and Jason McMaster in the Rush tribute band Cygnus and the Sea Monsters. In May 2006, he joined Portnoy, Gary Cherone, and Billy Sheehan to form Amazing Journey: A Tribute to The Who, playing three shows. The band (excluding Sheehan) destroyed their equipment after the show in homage.
Gilbert was revealed to be the guest guitarist on the 2007 Neal Morse solo album Sola Scriptura. That same year, Gilbert toured with Bruce Bouillet to promote Gilbert's first instrumental album Get Out of My Yard. Joining him on tour was Gilbert's wife Emi on keyboards. Gilbert also joined Joe Satriani and John Petrucci on the 2007 G3 tour. This was the fifth North American G3 run and the 12th tour worldwide since its inception.
On January 23, 2008, Gilbert released an instrumental album titled Silence Followed by a Deafening Roar. The album was released in Europe on March 31, 2008, and in America on April 8, 2008. This was Gilbert's second instrumental album.
On October 22, 2008, Gilbert released an album with vocalist Freddie Nelson entitled United States. The collaboration has been described as a cross between Queen and Mr. Big.
Gilbert performed with Racer X at the 2009 NAMM show at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California. Andy Timmons and his band opened the show, followed by a solo set from Gilbert, and finally Racer X. This Racer X lineup consisted of Gilbert, Scott Travis, Jeff Martin and John Alderete.
Gilbert also joined George Lynch and Richie Kotzen on the Guitar Generation tour.
On June 30, 2010, Gilbert's new album Fuzz Universe was released in Japan, with a release in America and Europe soon after. It was Gilbert's third instrumental solo album. A cover version of Johnny Cash's "Leave That Junk Alone" was featured as a Japanese bonus track.
On June 25, 2014, Gilbert released his studio album Stone Pushing Uphill Man. Initially only available in Japan, the album was eventually released in the United States on August 12, 2014.
Gilbert is currently the Rock Guitar instructor for ArtistWorks, an online music school.
Influences and style
When interviewed about his musical and stylistic influences, Paul Gilbert mentions many different artists, including: Randy Rhoads, Kim Mitchell, Eddie Van Halen, Yngwie Malmsteen, Tony Iommi, Alex Lifeson, Jimmy Page, Johnny Ramone, Robin Trower, Ritchie Blackmore, Pat Travers, Gary Moore, Michael Schenker, Judas Priest, Akira Takasaki, Steve Clark, Jimi Hendrix, Kiss, and The Ramones. On many occasions, Gilbert has stated that his uncle Jimi Kidd was vital in heavily fueling Gilbert's childhood interest in playing guitar. Gilbert grew up a great fan of Todd Rundgren, Cheap Trick and The Beatles, artists who frequently influence his songwriting style. He stated on the Space Ship Live DVD that George Harrison is one of his favorite guitar players. Guitar World magazine declared him one of 50 of the world's fastest guitarists of all time, along with Buckethead, Eddie Van Halen, and Yngwie Malmsteen.
Paul Gilbert composes music in a wide variety of styles, including pop, rock, metal, blues, and funk. However, Gilbert is perhaps best known for his fast playing speed and stylistic versatility. He is noted in particular for his efficient, staccato-like picking technique. He combines fast picking and legato techniques in the same phrase, usually instinctively. When teaching/demonstrating a particular phrase, he has to think about what he is actually doing with his right hand in order to explain it. Despite being famous for his heavy metal work and his rapid right hand ability, Gilbert has since dissociated himself from that style of playing, instead gravitating towards blues and melodic ideas.
Instructional career
Paul Gilbert wrote his own section of the British guitar magazine, Total Guitar, where he normally demonstrated guitar techniques in the magazine and accompanying CD. Even before that, he contributed instructional articles to Guitar Player magazine in a late 1980s/early 1990s series entitled "Terrifying Guitar 101". His period of working with Total Guitar spanned 31 issues until the November 2006 issue. Gilbert also teaches at the Guitar Institute of Technology (GIT) regularly, and is also an "honorary dean" of the GIT division in Japan. Gilbert visits Japan, enjoying the lifestyle like his Shrapnel labelmate Marty Friedman, who still lives in Japan and speaks Japanese fluently. Gilbert is known for his instructional videos, which are often comical in nature. One of his instructional videos includes him pulling a rabbit out of his guitar, putting his guitar in a straitjacket and having presents thrown at him by members of the film crew. Gilbert also was, for a short time, the guitar teacher of Buckethead, Joey Tafolla, Russ Parrish (A.K.A. Satchel from Steel Panther), Michelle Meldrum (the late wife of Europe guitarist John Norum) and Nicole Couch of Phantom Blue. Gilbert now writes a column for Premier Guitar entitled "Shred Your Enthusiasm". In May, 2012 he launched the Online Rock Guitar School with Paul Gilbert as a part of the ArtistWorks Guitar Campus.
In August 2014, Gilbert participated in the G4 Experience—a week-long guitar camp—with fellow guitarists Joe Satriani, Andy Timmons, and multi-instrumentalist Mike Keneally.
Equipment
Paul Gilbert primarily uses his Ibanez PGM signature series guitars, identified by the unique painted on "F-holes". Although earlier PGM models featured the Ibanez Lo-Pro/Edge double locking tremolo system, many of his guitars (such as his main PGM300) were modified to accommodate a fixed bridge after he stopped using whammy bars in the early 90s, hence the Ibanez PGM301 guitar. Along with his signature guitars, Gilbert often uses his sticker-covered "Dino" Ibanez RG750, in addition to a wide variety of Ibanez solid-body and semi-hollow electric guitars. Recently, Gilbert has been using Ibanez "Fireman" (a reversed-body Ibanez Iceman with single-coil pickups and an extra cutaway) guitars, which he designed himself. A red version of The Ibanez Fireman is to be mass-produced for consumers at a more affordable price than the Ibanez PGMFRM1 (current Paul Gilbert signature Fireman) in Fall 2011. Gilbert now has a short (22.2 inch) scale signature guitar - the Ibanez PGMM31 based on the existing Ibanez Mikro range.
In 2014, Gilbert announced his new Ibanez signature model guitar, FRM250MF, at NAMM 2014.
Gilbert endorses Direct Sound extreme isolation headphones, using the EX-29 model. Suffering tinnitus after years of loud music in headphones and live, Paul has posted a list of recommendations on how to help prevent tinnitus and noise-induced loss.
In 2020, Gilbert collaborated with boutique pedal maker JHS Pedals and released the "PG-14" tube-like distortion pedal.
Personal life
Gilbert was married from 1993 to 1998 to Patricia Gilbert (née Patterson).
As of 2012 Gilbert resided in Portland, Oregon with his second wife Emi Gilbert. They married in 2005.
On 24 August 2014 Emi gave birth to their son, Marlon Kanzan Gilbert.
Discography
Solo
King of Clubs (1998; Japan Oricon Album Chart #28)
Flying Dog (1998; Japan Oricon Album Chart #23)
Alligator Farm (2000; Japan Oricon Album Chart #24)
Raw Blues Power (2002; w/ Jimi Kidd; Japan Oricon Album Chart #94)
Burning Organ (2002; Japan Oricon Album Chart #27)
Gilbert Hotel (2003)
Space Ship One (2005; Japan Oricon Album Chart #53)
Get Out of My Yard (2006; Japan Oricon Album Chart #52)
Silence Followed by a Deafening Roar (2008; Japan Oricon Album Chart #39)
United States (2009; w/ Freddie Nelson)
Fuzz Universe (2010; Japan Oricon Album Chart #57)
Vibrato (2012)
Stone Pushing Uphill Man (2014)
I Can Destroy (2016)
Behold Electric Guitar (2019)
Werewolves of Portland (2021)
'TWAS (2021)
EPs
Tribute to Jimi Hendrix (1991; Japan Oricon Album Chart #59)
Tough Eskimo (2007)
Live albums
Beehive Live (1999; Japan Oricon Album Chart #72)
Acoustic Samurai (2003; Japan Oricon Album Chart #94)
PG-30 Zepp Tokyo 2016.9.26' (2017)
Compilation albums
Paul the Young Dude/The Best of Paul Gilbert (2003; Japan Oricon Album Chart #31)
with Racer XSee: Racer X Discography Street Lethal (1986)
Second Heat (1987)
Technical Difficulties (1999)
Superheroes (2000)
Getting Heavier (2002)
with Mr. BigSee: Mr. Big Discography Mr. Big (1989)
Lean into It (1991)
Bump Ahead (1993)
Hey Man (1996)
What If... (2011)
...The Stories We Could Tell (2014)
Defying Gravity (2017)
Guest appearances
Black Sheep - Trouble in the Streets- (1985)
Missing Lynx - Atomic Basement Tapes (1985)
Darrell Mansfield Band - Revelation (1985)
Jeff Berlin - Pump It! (1986)
Joey Tafolla - Out of the Sun (1987)
Todd Rundgren - Nearly Human (1989)
Various artists - Guitars That Rule the World (1992)
Samad - Samad (1994)
Carmine Appice's Guitar Zeus - Carmine Appice's Guitar Zeus (1996)
Akira Takasaki - Wa (1996)
Gregg Bissonette - Gregg Bissonette (1998)
Pat Torpey - Odd Man Out (1998)
Pat Torpey - Y2K: Odd Man Out (1999)
Various artists - In Rock Soundtrack (2000)
Hughes Turner Project - HTP (2002)
Various artists - Battle Gear III: The Edge (2003)
Kim Fox - Return to Planet Earth (2003)
Various artists - Guitar Wars (2003)
Marco Minnemann - Mieze (2004)
Pintsize - Five Feet... No Inches (2005; credited as "Dick Image")
Marco Minnemann - Contraire de la chanson (2006)
Wisely - Parador (2006)
Jeff Pilson's War and Peace - Light at the End of the Tunnel (2006)
Jeff Martin - The Fool (2006)
Neal Morse - Sola Scriptura (2007)
Neal Morse - Lifeline (2008)
MC Lars - This Gigantic Robot Kills - (2008)
Bowling for Soup - Merry Flippin' Christmas Volume 1 (2009)
MC Lars - "Guitar Hero Hero" (2009)
Neal Morse - Momentum (2012)
Nick Johnston- In A Locked Room On The Moon (2013)
Jacky Vincent - Star X Speed Story (2013)
Ciro Manna - XY (2015)
Ayreon - The Source (2017)
Jason Becker - Triumphant Hearts (2018)
Donnie Vie - Beautiful Things (2019)
Tribute album appearances
Various artists - Smoke on the Water: A Tribute (1994)
Various artists - Jeffology: A Guitar Chronicle (1996)
Various artists - Merry Axemas: A Guitar Christmas (1997)
Various artists - Humanary Stew: A Tribute to Alice Cooper (1999)
Various artists - Warmth in the Wilderness: A Tribute to Jason Becker (2001)
Yellow Matter Custard - One Night in New York City (2003)
Various artists - Spin the Bottle: an All-Star Tribute to Kiss (2004)
Various artists - Numbers from the Beast: An All Star Tribute to Iron Maiden (2005)
Hammer of the Gods - Two Nights in North America (June 12, 2006)
Cygnus and the Sea Monsters - One Night in Chicago (2006)
Amazing Journey - One Night in New York City (March 18, 2007)
Yellow Matter Custard - One More Night In New York City (2011)
Videography
Intense Rock Jams - Sequences & Techniques VHS version (1988)
Intense Rock II featuring Paul Gilbert VHS version (1991)
Terrifying Guitar Trip VHS version (1995)
Guitars from Mars Japanese DVD release (1996)
Guitars from Mars II Japanese DVD release (1996)
Eleven Thousand Notes DVD
Guitar Wars DVD
Space Ship Live DVD (2005)
Complete Intense Rock DVD (2006)
Terrifying Guitar Trip DVD (2006)
Get Out Of My Yard Guitar Instructional DVD/VCD (2007)
One Night In New York City - Yellow Matter Custard (2003)
Two Nights In North America - Hammer Of The Gods (2006)
One Night In Chicago - Cygnus And The Sea Monsters (2006)
One Night In New York City - Amazing Journey (2007)
Silence Followed By A Deafening Roar Guitar Instructional DVD And Shred Annex (2008)
The Last Note of Freedom PG-30 Live At Zepp Tokyo 2016'' DVD (2017)
References
External links
The official Paul Gilbert site
Online Rock Guitar School with Paul Gilbert
The official Racer X site
Paul Gilbert Guitar Noize Interview
Paul Gilbert on Last.fm
Paul Gilbert artist page at Guitar Video Channel
1966 births
Living people
American heavy metal guitarists
American pop rock singers
Lead guitarists
Racer X (band) members
Mr. Big (American band) members
G3 (tour)
People from Greensburg, Pennsylvania
People from Carbondale, Illinois
Musicians Institute alumni
Singers from Pennsylvania
Guitarists from Pennsylvania
20th-century American guitarists | [
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|
239596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Raelettes | The Raelettes | The Raelettes (or occasionally The Raelets or The Raeletts) were an American girl group formed in 1958 to provide backing vocals for Ray Charles. They were reformed from the group The Cookies. Between 1966 and 1973, the Raelettes recorded on Tangerine Records as a separate act produced and accompanied by Charles.
History
Reformed by Ray Charles from the all-girl singing group The Cookies, Charles first invited The Cookies for a recording session in New York City, in August 1956, where they taped "Lonely Avenue", "I Want To Know" and "Leave My Woman Alone". Margie Hendrix, Dorothy Jones, and Darlene McCrea formed the first line-up.
The Raelettes were officially established in 1958. The first lineup consisted of Darlene McCrea, Margie Hendricks, Patricia Lyles, and Gwendolyn Berry. The Raelettes were an integral part of Charles' organization and provided backing vocals on various hits, such as "Night Time Is the Right Time" (1958), "What'd I Say" (1959) and "Hit the Road Jack" (1961).
The second known line-up was Margie Hendrix, Patricia Lyles, Gwen Berry, and Darlene McCrea. In the early years, Margie Hendrix was the Raelette's foremost member. Ray Charles said about her: "Aretha, Gladys, Etta James — these gals are all bad, but on any given night, Margie will scare you to death." Ray and Margie had many affairs, but she started using drugs and alcohol and after a final argument in 1964, she was fired from the Raelettes and later died in 1973.
The group always consisted of 4 or 5 singers. The ever-changing lineup included Minnie Riperton, Merry Clayton, Clydie King of the Blackberries, Edna Wright of Honey Cone, and latter-day Supreme Susaye Greene.
Charles also produced and played piano on solo singles for various Raelettes. He formed Tangerine Records in 1962, and the Raeletts released three top 40 R&B hits between 1967 and 1971: "One Hurt Deserves Another" (1967), "I'm Gettin' 'Long All Right" (1968), and "Bad Water" (1971). The compilation Souled Out was released in 1970, featuring songs R&B duo Ike & Tina Turner had recorded for Tangerine.
In the 1970s, Mable John sang lead vocals and the Raelttes toured independent of Charles. After she left the Raelettes returned to the background for good, with various lineups backing Charles until his death in 2004.
Members
Shalaine Adams
Mabel Armed
Fritz Basket
Dorothy Berry
Gwen "Squatty Roo" Berry
Tangy Biggers
Anita Brooks
Alexandra Brown
Helen Bryant
Dottie Clark
Merry Clayton
Chrylynn Cobb (1978)
Trudy Cochran (1977 - 1991)
Kathryn Collier (c 1973)
Sharon Creighton (1986 - 1987)
Pamela Diggs-King (1992)
Karen Evans (1996 - 1999)
Verlyn Flenaugh (1968)
Lillian Fort (1964 - 1965)
Valerie Geason
Renee Georges (1994–96;2000-2003)
Deborah Gleese (1977)
Rita Graham (1968 - 1969)
Susaye Greene (1968 - 1975)
Katrina Harper-Cooke
Avis Harrell
Margie Hendricks
Peggy Hutcherson
Denise Jackson
Doretta James (1957)
Mable John (1968 - 1978, 1998)
Ann Johnson (1981 - 1985)
Clydie King (1966 - 1968)
Beverly Ann Lesure(1968)
Pat Lion (1957)
Pat (Priscilla) Lyles (1955 - 1965)
Kathy Mackey (1997)
Tammy McCann (2001)
Marilyn McCoo (1965)
Gladezz McCoy
Darlene McCrea(1956 - 1964)
Tonette McKinney(1994 - 2003)
Paula Michelle (1991)
Janice Mitchell (1981 - 1986)
Mae Mosely-Lyles (1959 - 1960)
Vernita Moss (1969 - 1975)
Paula More (1991 - 1992)
Kay Nickerson (1989-1994)
Pat Peterson (1980 - 1989)
Bobbie Pierce (1964)
Madelyn Quebec (1973-1987)
Patricia Richards (1963)
Minnie Riperton
Donna M. Jones
Ruby Rae Roberson (1959-1960)
Vermetea Royster (1965-1966)
Mae Saunders (1960-1961)
Cynthia Scott (1972-1974)
Linda Sims (1975-1978)
Bettye Smith (1960)
Gwendolyn Smith (1988-1991)
Joy Styles
Barbara Nell Terrault (1968)
Brianna Perry Tucker (2001-2002)
Andromeda Turre
Lalomie Washburn (1990)
Tracey Whitney (1991)
Elaine Woodard (1983-1987)
Angela Workman (1987-1999)
Edna Wright (1966)
Estella Yarbrough (1969-2003)
Discography
Albums
1970: Souled Out (Tangerine 1511) – The Raelets with Ike & Tina Turner
1972: (Ray Charles Presents The) Raeletts, Yesterday... Today... Tomorrow (Tangerine 1515)
1993: The Raelettes, Hits And Rarities (Titanic Records TR-CD 4422)
Singles
References
External links
Rita Graham website
Discography at discogs.com
Ray Charles Personnel and Co-Performers
Ray Charles & The Raelettes
African-American girl groups
Ray Charles
Musical backing groups
Tangerine Records artists | [
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|
239598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scout | Scout | Scout may refer to:
Youth movement
Scout (Scouting), a child, usually 10–18 years of age, participating in the worldwide Scouting movement
Scouts (The Scout Association), section for 10-14 year olds in the United Kingdom
Scouts BSA, section for 11 to 17 year olds in the United States of America
Scouting, Scouting Movement or Scout Movement
Traditional Scouting, a trend to return Scouting to traditional style and activities
World Organization of the Scout Movement, the international body for Scout organisations
The Scout Association, the national scout organisation for the United Kingdom
Scouting (magazine), a publication of the Boy Scouts of America
Military uses
Scout, to perform reconnaissance
Units
United States
Blazer's Scouts, a unit who conducted irregular warfare during the American Civil War
United States Army Indian Scouts, Native Americans who were active in the American West in the late 19th–early 20th centuries
Apache Scouts, part of the United States Army Indian Scouts, who performed most of their service during the Apache Wars
Cavalry scout, a reconnaissance specialist in the United States Army
Philippine Scouts, a military organization of the United States Army from 1901 to 1948
South Pacific Scouts, a jungle warfare unit formed during World War II from Fijians and Solomon Islanders
Scout Sniper, a reconnaissance specialist in the U.S. Marine Corps
United Kingdom and Commonwealth
Lovat Scouts, a Scottish Highland yeomanry regiment of the British Army in the Second Boer War
Grey's Scouts, a Rhodesian mounted infantry unit raised in 1975
Selous Scouts, a special forces regiment of the Rhodesian Army from 1973 to 1980
India
Ladakh Scouts, an Indian Army high mountain and border security regiment specialized for the Ladakh region
Arunachal Scouts, an Indian Army high mountain regiment specialized for the state of Arunachal Pradesh
Sikkim Scouts, an Indian Army regiment specialized for the state of Sikkim
Pakistan
Gilgit Baltistan Scouts, an internal security and border force in Pakistan
Bajaur Scouts
Chitral Scouts
Equipment
Scout (aircraft), pre-1920s (British) terminology for a single-seat fighter
Scout plane, a type of shipborne surveillance aircraft
Scout rifle, a class of general-purpose rifles
Steyr Scout, a modern scoped bolt-action rifle manufactured by Steyr Mannlicher
AD Scout, a fighter aircraft designed to defend Britain from Zeppelin bombers during World War I
IAI Scout, an unmanned air vehicle used by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1982 Lebanon War
Westland Scout, British military helicopter
HMS Scout, the name of various British Royal Navy ships
USS Scout, the name of various United States Navy ships
Ajax (armoured vehicle), formerly Scout SV, an armoured fighting vehicle
Occupations
Scout (association football), attends football matches to collect intelligence
Scout (sport), a professional sports talent-scout
Scout or bedder, a domestic assistant at Oxford University
Transportation
Aircraft
Aeronca K Scout, an American light airplane first marketed in 1937
Aeryon Scout, a small reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) designed and built in Canada
American Champion Scout, a two-seat, high-wing, single-engined airplane that entered production in the U.S. in 1974
Eagles Wing Scout, an American powered parachute
Tennessee Propellers Scout, an American powered parachute design
Other transportation
Scout (autonomous boat), an autonomous boat designed to complete a transatlantic crossing
Scout (train), a passenger train of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, inaugurated in 1916
Scout Motor Services, now Ribble Motor Services, a bus operator in North West England
International Harvester Scout, an off-road vehicle which was produced from 1961 to 1980
Arts and entertainment
Scout (1987 film), a 1987 British television film by Frank McGuinness in the anthology series ScreenPlay
Scout (comics), a comic book series by Timothy Truman, first published in 1985
Scout, a playable class type in the 2007 video game Team Fortress 2
Other uses
Scout (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name Scout
Scout (operating system), at the University of Arizona
Scout (rocket family), American launch vehicles designed to place small satellites into orbit around the Earth
Scout (travel website), a travel website
Scout.com, a sports publishing company
Mars Scout Program, a U.S. initiative to send a series of small, low-cost robotic missions to Mars
Scout, an education toy line of LeapFrog Enterprises
See also
The Scout (disambiguation)
Guide (disambiguation)
Pioneer (disambiguation)
Indian scout (disambiguation) | [
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|
239599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s%20theorem | Fermat's theorem | The works of the 17th-century mathematician Pierre de Fermat engendered many theorems. Fermat's theorem may refer to one of the following theorems:
Fermat's Last Theorem, about integer solutions to an + bn = cn
Fermat's little theorem, a property of prime numbers
Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, about primes expressible as a sum of squares
Fermat's theorem (stationary points), about local maxima and minima of differentiable functions
Fermat's principle, about the path taken by a ray of light
Fermat polygonal number theorem, about expressing integers as a sum of polygonal numbers
Fermat's right triangle theorem, about squares not being expressible as the difference of two fourth powers
See also
List of things named after Pierre de Fermat
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|
239612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cta%20D%C5%8Dkan | Ōta Dōkan | , also known as Ōta Sukenaga (太田 資長) or Ōta Dōkan Sukenaga, was a Japanese samurai warrior-poet, military tactician and Buddhist monk. Ōta Sukenaga took the tonsure (bald scalp) as a Buddhist priest in 1478, and he also adopted the Buddhist name, Dōkan, by which he is known today. Dōkan is best known as the architect and builder of Edo Castle (now the Imperial Palace) in what is today modern Tokyo; and he is considered the founder of the castle town which grew up around that Ōnin era fortress.
Ōta clan genealogy
The Ōta clan originated in 15th-century Musashi Province. They claimed descent from Minamoto no Yorimasa, and through that branch of the Minamoto they claimed kinship with the Seiwa-Genji.
The feudal progenitor of the clan name, Ōta Sukekuni, established himself at Ōta in Tanba Province, and he adopted this location name as his own. He traced his lineage as a fifth-generation descendant of Yorimasa.
In a special context created by the Tokugawa shogunate, the Ōta clan were identified as tozama or outsiders, in contrast with the fudai or insider daimyō clans which were hereditary vassals or allies of the Tokugawas.
In, 1638, Ōta Sukemune, the grandson of Ōta Yasusuke, was granted Nishio Domain in Mikawa Province; and then, in 1645, he and his family was transferred to Hamamatsu Domain (35,000 koku) in Tōtōmi Province. Yasusuke's descendants were moved several times by shogunate decree, residing successively in 1687 at Tanaka Domain in Suruga Province, in 1703 at Tanakura Domain in Mutsu Province, and in 1728 at Tatebayashi Domain in Kōzuke Province. Then, in the period spanning the years 1746 through 1868, this branch of the Ōta clan established itself at Kakegawa Domain (53,000 koku) in Tōtōmi.
The head of this clan line was ennobled as a "Viscount" in the Meiji period.
Events of Dōkan's life
Although born into the Ōta clan—and claimed by the Ōta as a clan celebrity—Dōkan served as a vassal of the Ōgigayatsu branch of the Uesugi clan which occupied land in the Kantō region of Honshū.
Dōkan is credited with designing and building Edo Castle for Uesugi Sadamasa (1443–1494) over the fortifications Edo Shigenaga had earlier built. Work on the defensive walls and moats began in 1457; and he took the name Dōkan the following year.
Ōgigayatsu Uesugi Mochitomo ordered Ōta Michizane and Dōkan to construct fortifications at Kawagoe in 1457.
As a military strategist, he is reputed to have been an effective tactician; but political intrigues can be as deadly as any battle. Despite years of distinguished service, the Uesugi clan leader proved fickle. Dōkan met an untimely end at Uesugi Sadamasa's home in Sagami (modern-day Kanagawa) after he was falsely accused of disloyalty during a period when the Uesugi family struggled through an internal clan conflict. His death poem is as follows:
Following his death, the castle was then abandoned until it was taken over by Ieyasu in 1590.
Dōkan was also well-read in classical (Heian period) literature; and like other samurai of his time, Dōkan was said to have been a skilled poet, but only fragments attributed to him have survived.
Dōkan is also credited with having selected the site of the Hikawa Shrine, which is dedicated to Sugawara no Michizane, the kami of poetry and scholarship. Hikawa Shrine is located very near Edo Castle.
Legacy
Dōkan's residence in Kamakura became Eishō-ji, a Buddhist temple. The temple complex was founded by Okaji, a daughter of Ōta Yasusuke who would have been one of Dōkan's great-great-grandsons. Okaji was one of Tokugawa Ieyasu's attendants, and she later became a foster mother to Tokugawa Yorifusa (1603–61), the founder of the Mito branch of the Tokugawa family. After Ieyasu's death, Okatsu became a nun, taking the name Eishoin. The third shōgun, Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604–51), granted her the property her ancestors had once owned. In 1636, Eishoin had a temple built and she invited a daughter of Yorifusa to join her. Eisho-ji's prosperity helped preserve the memory of the 15th century ancestor who once lived in the same place.
In the late 16th century, Dōkan's Edo Castle was chosen as the new home of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had been persuaded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi to transfer the seat of his clan holdings into the Kantō. With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in the early 17th century, Edo Castle became the center of the shogunate government. When the shogunate was displaced in the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century, the newly named Tokyo became an Imperial capital with an Imperial Palace rising from the former shōgun's stronghold. Every October 1, modern Tokyo celebrates the anniversary of its founding, which becomes a festival in honor of the memory of the samurai who would become honored as the founder of a great city.
The city of Isehara celebrates Dōkan's contributions to the area with the annual Dōkan festival each summer.
Dōkan's 15th century poetic description of what was once just a fortified hill on the Sumida River near Edo Bay would become the basis for metropolitan Tokyo Governor Ryokichi Minobe's 1971 re-election slogan: "Give Tokyo back its blue sky!"
Instead of stone walls, the defense works around the 15th-century castle were only grassy embankments, and the structures inside them were not grand. The initial enclosure which served as the castle's core area, the space which would have been Dōkan's hon-maru, was modestly sized; but the moats were extensive for that time period. These moats and their locations would figure prominently in the serial phases of construction and development which followed.
Dōkan is also credited with diverting the Hira River east at Kandabashi to create the Nihonbashi River.
Celebrations attending the 500th Anniversary of Greater Tokyo illuminated parts of the story of Dōkan's life and achievements; and since that time, he has remained a well-known figure in modern popular culture.
See also
Nakajima Utako
Notes
References
Appert, Georges and H. Kinoshita. (1888). Ancien Japon. Tokyo: Imprimerie Kokubunsha.
Févé, Nicholas and Paul Waley. (2003). Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, Power and Memory in Historical Perspecitive: Place, Power and Memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo. London: Routledge. (cloth)
Itasaka, Gen. (1986). "Ōta Dōkan," Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha. (cloth)
Naito, Akira. (2003). Edo, the City that Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Papinot, Edmund. (1906) Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie du japon. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha...Click link for digitized 1906 Nobiliaire du japon (2003)
Turnbull, Stephen r. (1998). The Samurai Sourcebook. London: Cassell & Co.
City founders
Samurai
1432 births
1486 deaths
Ōta clan
Place of birth missing
Place of death missing
15th-century Japanese poets | [
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239613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy%20Carleton%2C%201st%20Baron%20Dorchester | Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester | Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester (3 September 1724 – 10 November 1808), known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Anglo-Irish soldier and administrator. He twice served as Governor of the Province of Quebec, from 1768 to 1778, concurrently serving as Governor General of British North America in that time, and again from 1785 to 1795. The title Baron Dorchester was created on 21 August 1786.
He commanded British troops in the American War of Independence, first leading the defence of Quebec during the 1775 rebel invasion, and the 1776 counteroffensive that drove the rebels from the province. In 1782 and 1783, he led as the commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America. In this capacity he was notable for carrying out the Crown's promise of freedom to slaves who joined the British, and he oversaw the evacuation of British forces, Loyalists and more than 3,000 freedmen from New York City in 1783 to transport them to a British colony. Toward this end, Carleton assigned Samuel Birch to create the Book of Negroes.
The military and political career of his younger brother, Thomas Carleton, was interwoven with his own, and Thomas served under him in the Canadas.
Early career
Guy Carleton was born into an Ulster Protestant military family that had lived in Ulster in the north of the Kingdom of Ireland since the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century, and was one of three brothers (the others being Thomas Carleton and William Carleton) who served in the British military. He was born and raised in Strabane in the west of County Tyrone, just across the River Foyle from Lifford in County Donegal. Guy also had a sister, Connolly Crawford. When he was fourteen his father, Christopher Carleton, died, and his mother, Catherine Carleton, then married Reverend Thomas Skelton. He received a limited education.
In 1742, at the age of seventeen, Carleton was commissioned as an ensign into the 25th Regiment of Foot, in which in 1745 he was promoted lieutenant. During this period he became a friend of James Wolfe; he may have served with Wolfe at the Battle of Culloden during the Jacobite rising of 1745. Two of his brothers, William and Thomas, also joined the British Army.
In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Despite British troops having been engaged on the European continent since 1742, it was not until 1747 that Carleton and his regiment were despatched to Flanders. They fought the French, but were unable to prevent the Fall of Bergen-op-Zoom, a major Dutch fortress, and the war was brought to a halt by an armistice. In 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed and Carleton returned to Britain. He was frustrated to still only be a lieutenant, and believed his opportunities of advancement would be limited with the end of the war.
In 1751 he joined the 1st Foot Guards and in 1752 was promoted to captain. His career received a major boost when he was chosen, at the suggestion of Wolfe, to act as a guide to The 3rd Duke of Richmond during a tour of the battlefields of the recent war. Richmond would become an influential patron to Carleton.
Seven Years' War
Germany
In 1757, Guy Carleton was made a lieutenant colonel and served as part of the Army of Observation made up of German troops designed to protect Hanover from French invasion. The army was forced to retreat following the Battle of Hastenbeck and eventually concluded the Convention of Klosterzeven, taking them out of the war. After the convention was signed, Carleton returned to Britain. In 1758 he was made the lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 72nd Regiment of Foot. James Wolfe selected Carleton as his aide in the 1758 attack on Louisburg. King George II declined to make this appointment, possibly because of negative comments he made about the soldiers of Hanover during his service on the Continent.
For some time he was unable to gain active position, until he was sent back to Germany to serve as an aide-de-camp to Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick.
Canada
In December 1758 Wolfe, now a major general, was given command of the upcoming campaign against the city of Quebec, and selected Carleton as his quarter-master general. King George refused to make this appointment also until Lord Ligonier talked to the king about the matter and the king changed his mind. When Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton arrived in Halifax he assumed command of six hundred grenadiers. He was with the British forces when they arrived at Quebec in June 1759. Carleton was responsible for the provisioning of the army and also acting as an engineer supervising the placement of cannon. Carleton received a head wound during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and he returned to England after the battle in October 1759.
France and Havana
On 29 March 1761, as the lieutenant colonel of the 72nd Regiment of Foot he took part in the attack on Belle Île, an island off the coast of the northern part of the Bay of Biscay, off the coast of France. Carleton led an attack on the French, but was seriously wounded and prevented from taking any further part in the fighting. After four weeks of fighting, the British gained complete control of the island.
He was made colonel in 1762 and took part in the British expedition against Cuba, which also included Richard Montgomery, who went on to oppose him in 1775. On 22 July, he was wounded leading an attack on a Spanish outpost.
In 1764 he transferred to the 93rd Regiment of Foot.
Governor of Quebec
On 7 April 1766, Carleton was named acting Lieutenant Governor and Administrator of Quebec with James Murray officially in charge. He arrived in Quebec on 22 September 1766. As Carleton had no experience in public affairs and came from a politically insignificant family, his appointment is unusual and was possibly a surprise to him. One connection may have been due to the Duke of Richmond, who in 1766 been made Secretary of State for the North American colonies. Fourteen years earlier, Carleton had tutored the Duke. The Duke was the colonel of the 72nd Regiment of Foot, while Carleton was its lieutenant colonel. He appointed Carleton as commander-in-chief of all troops stationed in Quebec.
The government consisted of a Governor, a council, and an assembly. The governor could veto any action of the council, but London had also given Carleton instructions that all of his actions required the approval of the council. Most officials of the province at this time did not receive a salary and received their income through fees they charged for their services. Carleton tried to replace this system with one in which the officials received a regular salary, but this position was never supported in London. When Carleton renounced his own fees, Murray was furious.
After Murray resigned his position, Carleton was appointed Captain General and Governor-in-Chief on 12 April 1768. Carleton took the oath of office on 1 November 1768. On 9 August 1770 he sailed for England for what he thought was a few months' consultation on issues related to the integration of Quebec into the British system. During his absence, Hector Theophilus de Cramahé, the lieutenant governor, ran the provincial government, with the aid of the first chief justice, William Hey, and the Attorney-General, Francis Maseres. The British merchants of Quebec, many of whom had become disaffected to the colonial administration under Murray, were, at least initially, of good will. The merchants would later be agent for e.g. the Quebec Act of 1774 (14 Geo. III, c.83) and finally the partition of the two Canadas in the Constitutional Act of 1791 (31 Geo. III, c.31).
Marriage and family
On 22 May 1772, at the age of nearly 48, Carleton married Lady Maria Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl of Effingham. They had issue nine sons and two daughters. His elder brothers having predeceased him, and himself dying two years before his father, third son Lieutenant-Colonel Christopher Carleton was father of Arthur, 2nd Baron Dorchester; Christopher's younger brother, the sixth son, Lieutenant-Colonel George Carleton, was father of Guy, the 3rd Baron. The title was extinct at the 3rd Baron's death in 1897, but it was revived when his daughter, Henrietta, was created Baroness Dorchester; the title was extinct at the death of her son, Dudley, 2nd Baron, in 1963.
Later career
Carleton was promoted to major general on 25 May 1772. While he was in London, the Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774, based upon his recommendations. It determined how the province was to be administered and was part of a continuing effort to respect some French traditions while ensuring rights of citizens as understood by the Kingdom of Great Britain.
Carleton and Maria returned to Quebec on 18 September 1774, where he began implementing the provisions of the act. While the clergy and the seigneurs (landowners) were happy with provisions favorable to them, British merchants and migrants from the Thirteen Colonies objected to a number of the provisions, which they thought were pro-Catholic. They argued that only English-speaking Protestants should be able to vote or hold public office. Many of the habitants were unhappy with the provisions reinstating the tithe in support of the Catholic Church, as well as seigneurial obligations, such as the corvée (a labor requirement).
In late 1774, the First Continental Congress sent letters to Montreal denouncing the Quebec Act for promoting Catholicism by allowing Catholics to hold civil service positions and reinstating the tithe. John Brown, an agent for the Boston Committee of Correspondence, arrived in Montreal in early 1775 as part of an effort to persuade citizens to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress, scheduled to meet in May 1775. Carleton, while aware of this activity, did nothing to prevent it, beyond discouraging publication of the Congressional letter in the province's only newspaper.
American War of Independence
Defence of Canada
Carleton received notice of the start of the rebellion in May 1775, soon followed by the news of the rebel capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point, and the raid on Fort Saint-Jean. As he had previously sent two of his regiments to Boston, he had only about 800 regular soldiers left in Quebec. His attempts to raise a militia met with limited success at first, as neither the ethnic French nor the English residents were willing to join. Area Natives were willing to fight on the British side, and the Crown wanted them to do so, but Carleton turned their offer down because he feared the Natives attacking non-combatants. For the same reason, he limited Guy Johnson and his Iroquois allies, who had come to Quebec from New York, to operating only in Quebec.
During the summer of 1775, Carleton directed the preparation of provincial defences, which were focused on Fort Saint-Jean. In September, the Continental Army began its invasion and besieged the fort. When it fell in November, Carleton was forced to flee from Montreal to Quebec City, escaping capture by disguising himself as a commoner.
In December 1775 he directed the city's defences in the Battle of Quebec and the ensuing siege, which was broken by the arrival of British troops in May 1776 under command of John Burgoyne, who was appointed second-in-command. Carleton's younger brother Thomas was part of the relief effort.
Guy Carleton launched a counteroffensive against the rebels, which included repelling an attempted attack on Trois-Rivières. In June 1776, he was appointed a Knight Companion of the Bath. He was promoted to the rank of a general for America only on 26 March 1776.
The next month Carleton commanded British naval forces on the Richelieu River, culminating in the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in October 1776 against a rebel fleet led by General Benedict Arnold. The British, with a significantly superior fleet, won a decisive victory, destroying or capturing most of the rebel fleet, but the delay prevented Carleton from continuing on to capture Fort Ticonderoga that year. His brother Thomas and nephew Christopher both served on his staff during the campaign. The morning following the battle, a small island in Lake Champlain was named Carleton's Prize, perhaps to Carleton's embarrassment at the time.
He was promoted to lieutenant general on 6 September 1777. In 1777, command of the major northern expedition to divide the rebel colonies was given to General Burgoyne. Upset that he had not been given its command, Carleton asked to be recalled. He was replaced as governor and military commander of Quebec in 1778 by Frederick Haldimand, and returned to England. In 1780 he was appointed by Prime Minister Lord North to a commission investigating public finances. This post he held until 1782, when General Sir Henry Clinton was recalled in the aftermath of the 1781 surrender at Yorktown. Carleton was appointed to replace Clinton as Commander-in-Chief, America, in May 1782. His headquarters in New York City were located at Number One Broadway.
Evacuation of New York
In August 1783, Carleton was informed that Great Britain would grant the United States its independence. With his exit from New York imminent, Carleton asked to be relieved of his command. With this news, Loyalists began an exodus from the Thirteen Colonies and Carleton did his best to have them resettled outside the United States.
At a meeting with George Washington, among others, to arrange for the implementation of those parts of the Treaty of Paris relating to the evacuation of New York City, then commanded by Carleton and still occupied by the British Army, many Loyalists and former slaves, Carleton refused to deliver over the human property to the Americans at the time of the British evacuation. Instead, he proposed a registry so that "the owners might eventually be paid for the slaves who were entitled to their freedom by British Proclamation and promises."
Sir Guy noted that nothing could be changed in any Articles that were inconsistent with prior policies or National Honour. He added that the only mode was to pay for the Negroes, in which case justice was done to all, the former slaves and the owners. Carleton said that it would be a breach of faith not to honour the British policy of liberty to the Negro and declared that if removing them proved to be an infraction of the treaty, then compensation would have to be paid by the British government. To provide for such a contingency, he had a register kept of all Negroes who left, called the Book of Negroes, entering their names, ages, occupations, and names of their former masters. The Americans agreed to this, but as far as can be determined, the Crown never paid compensation. The British transported about 3,000 freedmen and other Loyalists to Nova Scotia for resettlement. As the colony struggled, some of the freedmen later chose in the early 1790s to go to Freetown, Sierra Leone, where the British set up a new colony, which included the Black Poor from London.
Washington disagreed with Sir Guy's actions and wrote: "…the measure is totally different from the letter and spirit of the Treaty but waiving the specialty of the point, leaving this decision to our respective Sovereigns I find it my duty to signify my readiness in conjunction with you to enter into agreements, or take any measures which may be deemed expedient to prevent the future carrying away any Negroes or other property of the American people."
On 28 November the evacuation was finished, and on 5 December Carleton departed from Staten Island to return to England. John Campbell of Strachur succeeded him as Commander-in-Chief, North America, although the post was then much reduced in scope.
Post-war years and death
Upon his return to England, Carleton recommended the creation of a position of Governor General of all the provinces in British North America. Instead he was appointed "Governor-in-chief", with simultaneous appointments as governor of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and St. John's Island (present-day Prince Edward Island). He arrived in Quebec on 23 October 1786. His position as Governor-in-chief was mostly ignored. He found quickly that his authority in any of the provinces other than Quebec was effective only while he was present in person.
He was raised to the Peerage of Great Britain in August 1786 as The 1st Baron Dorchester, Baron of Dorchester in the County of Oxford.
The Constitutional Act of 1791 split the large territory of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, corresponding roughly to areas settled by ethnic British and ethnic French, respectively. Sir Alured Clarke was named as the lieutenant governor of Lower Canada and John Graves Simcoe the lieutenant governor of Upper Canada. In August 1791 Carleton left for Britain and on 7 February 1792 took his seat in the House of Lords. He left for Canada again on 18 August 1793 to resume his duties there. His replacement, Robert Prescott, arrived in May 1796. On 9 July 1796 Carleton sailed from Canada to Britain, never to return.
In retirement Lord Dorchester, as he was now, lived mostly at Greywell Hill, adjoining Nately Scures, in Hampshire. After about 1805 he moved to Stubbings House at Burchett's Green, near Maidenhead, in Berkshire. On 10 November 1808, he died suddenly at Stubbings. He was buried in the parish church of St Swithun's, Nately Scures.
Honours and legacy
He was honoured by numerous places and educational institutions named for him:
, a Canadian Forces Naval Reserve Division in Ottawa
Carleton University in Ottawa
Dorchester Avenue in Ottawa
The Carleton, Halifax, Nova Scotia
Carleton, Nova Scotia
Carleton Village, Nova Scotia
Dorchester Road in Niagara Falls, Canada
Dorchester Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in Montreal since renamed René Lévesque Boulevard
Dorchester Square in downtown Montreal
Dorchester Island and the parish and town of Dorchester, all of New Brunswick
Carleton Street, in:
Carlton Street in Downtown Toronto is indirectly named for Carleton via Ann Wood for her brother Guy Carleton Wood of Cornwall, Ontario
Saint John, New Brunswick
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
Fredericton, New Brunswick
St. Andrews, New Brunswick
Moosomin, Saskatchewan
Rue Dorchester, a thoroughfare in Quebec City.
Old Carleton County Court House, Upper Woodstock, New Brunswick
Carleton Place, a town in Eastern Ontario
Carleton County, New Brunswick
Carleton County, Ontario, that became the Region of Ottawa-Carleton, and then the City of Ottawa with amalgamation in 2001.
Carleton-sur-Mer, Quebec, a town on the North Shore of Baie de Chaleurs.
Guysborough County, Nova Scotia (Guys' borough)
Guy's Restaurant, in his birthplace of Strabane, is also named after Carleton. The restaurant was formerly known as the Carleton Club.
Lord Dorchester High School in Dorchester, Ontario
Sir Guy Carleton Secondary School in Ottawa
Sir Guy Carleton Elementary School in Vancouver, British Columbia.
Carleton is mentioned in a Fort Saint-Jean plaque erected in 1926 by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada at the Royal Military College Saint-Jean. "Constructed in 1743 by M. de Léry under orders from Governor la Galissonnière. This post was for all the military expeditions towards Lake Champlain. On 31 August 1760, Commandant de Roquemaure had it blown up in accordance with orders from the Governor de Vaudreuil in order to prevent its falling into the hands of the English. Rebuilt by Governor Carleton, in 1773. During the same year, under the command of Major Charles Preston of the 26th Regiment, it withstood a 45-day siege by the American troops commanded by General Montgomery."
Carleton Island, part of the Thousand Islands, is near the Royal Military College of Canada. The Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, named Wolfe island in General James Wolfe's honour in 1792. The surrounding islands bear the names of Wolfe's generals: Howe, Carleton, Amherst and Gage (now Simcoe). The island was ceded to the Americans in 1794 as part of Jay's Treaty.
Via Rail Canada has a Manor sleeping car named after Sir Guy Carleton in his honour and there is a plaque inside the railcar explaining his exploits.
The first railroad in Canada, the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad had its first locomotive (a 0-2-0) named "Dorchester".
Carleton Point, a short-lived Loyalist settlement on Great Abaco Island, Bahamas, was named for him
The Dorchester Review magazine (est. 2011 at Ottawa) is named in his honour.
Before 1790s Niagara Falls, Ontario was once called Mount Dorchester in honour of Carleton.
See also
List of Governors General of Canada
List of Lieutenant Governors of Quebec
Commander-in-Chief, North America
History of Quebec
History of North America
Constitutional history of Canada
References
Bibliography
Billias, George Athan, Editor, George Washington's Opponents, William Marrow and Company, Inc., New York, 1969, 103–135.
Nelson, Paul David. General Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester: Soldier-Statesman of Early British Canada. Associated University Presses, 2000.
Reynolds, Paul R., Guy Carleton, A Biography, 1980,
Wrong, George M. Canada and the American Revolution. New York, 1968.
External links
St Swithun's Church, Nately Scures, England Plaque memorial for Guy Carleton, Gobernador de Quebec y Thomas Carleton Gobernador de New Brunswick
1724 births
1808 deaths
18th-century Anglo-Irish people
British Army generals
British military personnel of the French and Indian War
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Governors of British North America
Lieutenant Governors of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Governors of the Province of Quebec (1763–1791)
Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath
People from Strabane
People from Hart District
People from Maidenhead
King's Own Scottish Borderers officers
78th Highlanders officers
Grenadier Guards officers
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) | [
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239618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burwell%2C%20Cambridgeshire | Burwell, Cambridgeshire | Burwell is a village and civil parish in Cambridgeshire, England, some 10 miles (16 km) north-east of Cambridge. It lies on the south-east edge of the Fens. Westward drainage is improved by Cambridgeshire lodes (waterways), including Burwell Lode, a growth factor in the village. A population of 6,309 in the 2011 census was put at 6,417 in 2019.
History
Etymology
The name "Burwell", Anglo-Saxon in origin, refers to a fort (burh-) close to a spring (-well). The first record of the name dates from 1060. It appears in the 1086 Domesday Book as Burewelle, Burwella and Burwelle. There is a spring in the south of the village, close to remains of the 12th-century Burwell Castle, and evidence of previous settlement on or near the castle site.
Old maps sometimes name the village in the plural, "Burwells". which may refer to a pair of parishes: Burwell St Mary and Burwell St Andrew, or to a distinction between the High Town round the churches in the south of the village and the newer North Street and Newnham parts, separated by a causeway.
Early settlement
There is evidence of prehistoric human activity in the vicinity of Burwell. Flint tools such as axes dating from the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic have been found on the west side of the village. Other burned and worked flint has been found close to the spring, dating from the late Neolithic, but most of the activity in the area at the time seemed to have been on the fen to the west of the village, where a large number of flint and stone tools discovered on a raised piece of ground suggest there was already settlement before the onset of the https://uploadpie.com/NASxMyBronze Age. During the Neolithic, peat began to form on the fenland round the village, which partly buried the prehistoric sites.
Activity on the fen continued into the Bronze Age, as did activity close to the spring but they were joined by increasing activity on the heath in the south of the parish, where barrows are known to have existed. The southern part of the parish is also the highest ground within it, and is close to the ancient Icknield Way.
As Burwell entered the Iron Age, activity on the fens to the west appears to have decreased as the conditions became more marshy. However, ditch systems and enclosures were found there during excavations in 1969 and 1995. Activity near the spring continued, with evidence of a burial in a nearby ditch. Settlement was revealed in 2005 on the eastern edge of the village.
Settlement close to the spring continued after Roman colonisation of Britain. Evidence has been found north of St Mary's Church. Roman archaeological remains have been found round the village, including pottery, vessels and bowls, a lead vat, and coins perhaps relating to a villa in Ness Road, north of the village. Evidence of another villa in the same area comes in roof tiles from the 2nd century CE, although findings here and there cover the 2nd to 4th centuries. Reach Lode on the north-west edge was probably of Roman construction, as was the original Burwell Lode, since been replaced.
Waterway
The village is located at the head of Burwell Lode, a man-made waterway that connects it with the River Cam. The present course, laid out in the mid-17th century, replaced an older route that was probably Roman in origin. The lode splits in two at the village, each branch serving a series of basins, warehouses and wharves located at the bottom of long strips of land, with merchants' houses at the far end of them.
The village and lode gained importance with the opening in the 1850s of the Burwell Chemical Works owned by T. T. Ball. By the 1890s, this had become the Patent Manure Works owned by Colchester and Ball. About 10,000 tons of goods a year were shipped along it, using three steam tugs and a fleet of lighters. Prentice Brothers Ltd built barges in the village until 1920, and continued repairing them there after they bought the fertiliser factory in 1921. The factory was later owned by Fisons. Boats continued to be used to move the fertiliser to Fenland farms until 1948. Commercial use of the lode ceased in 1963, when the traffic in sugar beet stopped.
Burwell Castle
The village is the site of an unfinished castle in Spring Close, whose final wall was knocked down by the Fire Brigade testing a fire hose in the 1930s, but the dry moat is still visible. It was built during "The Anarchy", the mid-12th-century conflict in the reign of King Stephen. Despite a settlement that the throne would pass to Henry II on Stephen's death, the Barons took the opportunity to fight their own battles. Of these, Geoffrey de Mandeville was notably troublesome. After turning against Stephen, he set up an impregnable base around Ely, from which he attacked towns such as Cambridge. So the king ordered castles be built to surround him. The few known potential sites of these included Rampton (Giant's Hill), Ramsey (Booth's Hill), Burwell, and possibly Knapwell.
At Burwell, a moat was constructed and the stone keep partially built when Geoffrey attacked and was mortally wounded. His revolt then collapsed and the castle was left unfinished. The narrow lane along the side of the church next to Spring Close, where the Castle stood, is named Mandeville.
Barn Fire
On 8 September 1727, a travelling puppet show was filled with onlookers in a Burwell barn in what is now Cuckolds Row, near the centre of the village. The doors were nailed shut to stop further people getting in, an act that led to tragedy. Richard Whittaker, an ostler employed by the owner of the barn came back to feed the horses. He seems to expect to be admitted free but was not. He made his way to the stable, clambered over a partition with a candle lantern and peered in to watch. The candle set fire to the hay within. It was reported that with no way to escape, 80 of the 140 people inside perished in the ensuing blaze. Whittaker was tried at Cambridge Assizes in 1728, but acquitted.
The Newcastle Courantreported on the fire
The victims were buried in the churchyard of St Mary's, at the opposite end of the High Street, beneath a stone engraved with a blazing heart and angels' wings. An inscription on the reverse, added in 1910 when the stone was restored, states: "To the memory of the 78 people who were burnt to death in a barn at Burwell on Sept 8th 1727." Inside the church is a separate memorial to two other victims, John and Ann Palmer. On 8 September 2005, a memorial plaque was unveiled at the site of the fire.
The Ipswich Journal of 26 February 1774 reported how "an old man who died recently near Newmarket who just before his death confessed that he set fire to a barn at Burwell, Cambridgeshire on the 8th of September 1727 when no less than 80 persons lost their lives and that having an antipathy to the puppet showman was the cause of him committing the action." That man was Richard Whittaker!
Governance
Burwell is a parish and thus has a parish council to deal with matters within the village. These include the maintenance and provision of both village halls, the recreation ground, playgrounds, and allotments. The Parish Council convenes at the Jubilee Reading Room on The Causeway.
Burwell parish lies within Burwell ward and provides three councillors to East Cambridgeshire District Council, which convenes at The Grange, Ely. A larger Burwell electoral division provides one councillor to Cambridgeshire County Council, convening at Shire Hall in Cambridge.
The local government boundary has varied over the years. At parish level, the boundary followed Devil's Dyke through the neighbouring village of Reach, bisecting it until it was turned into a new parish in 1961. The other boundaries of Burwell parish have also changed slightly over the years, most clearly on the south-eastern edge, where part of it including some of Newmarket Racecourse passed to Newmarket when the boundary was adjusted to follow the A14 bypass in 1993. The boundaries with Newmarket and Exning parishes follow the boundary between the counties of Cambridgeshire and Suffolk.
As elsewhere in England, a system of Hundreds covered Cambridgeshire until the 19th century. Burwell included the south-west edge of Staploe Hundred, along with the nearby parishes of Chippenham, Fordham, Isleham, Kennett, Landwade, Snailwell, Soham and Wicken.
East Cambridgeshire District Council came into being in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. Before the reorganisation, Burwell had lain inside Newmarket Rural District since 1894. Between 1875 and 1894, this was part of a larger Newmarket Rural Sanitary District which also encompassed Moulton Rural District in neighbouring West Suffolk.
The boundaries of Cambridgeshire itself also changed over the years up to 1974. Before Huntingdon and Peterborough joined the county in 1974, Burwell fell within Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely, covering the southern and eastern parts of today's county. Between 1888 and 1965, the village fell within a smaller administrative county of Cambridgeshire, covering only the southern part of the present one.
Geography
Climate
Clunch quarry
Until the mid-20th century, a building material known as clunch – a soft rock which is one type of chalk limestone – was dug in Burwell. Remains of the open quarry can be seen either side of Bloomsfield. This was worked from 1252 to 1952 and used on many of the houses in Burwell. It remains the name of a local community magazine.
Priory Wood
Burwell has a small area of woodland planted in 1998 as a community project to mark the coming millennium. It is owned and maintained by the Woodland Trust. The official name comes from an ancient priory, which also gave its name to local roads such as Priory Close and Abbey Close.
Population
Notable people
In birth order:
Geoffrey de Mandeville, 1st Earl of Essex (died 1144) was mortally wounded at Burwell in the rebellion against Stephen, King of England.
Edward Fitzball (born Ball, 1792–1873), a London playwright specializing in melodrama, was born in Burwell.
William Wickins (1862–1933), Anglican Archbishop of Calcutta and Honorary Chaplain to the King, was a curate in Burwell.
Marjory Stephenson (1885–1948), a biochemist specializing in microbial metabolism, grew up in Burwell. She became one of the first two female members of the Royal Society in 1945.
Eric Ennion (1900–1981), natural historian and broadcaster, was a GP in Burwell for 20 years.
Thomas Malcolm Charlton (1923–1997), civil engineer and science historian, retired to Burwell in 1979.
John Louis Mansi (1926–2010), actor, lived in Burwell in the 1980s.
Lawrence Harvey (born 1972), formerly of the Turks and Caicos Islands national football team, has worked in Burwell as a quantity surveyor.
Culture and community
Carnival
The village hosts an annual carnival in June, which raises money for charity. A parade travels from Margaret Field in the south of the village to the Recreational Ground, where stalls and fairground rides are present.
Twinning
The village is twinned with Lizy-sur-Ourcq and Mary-sur-Marne and with a small town, Ocquerre. All three are situated in France; Lizy is mentioned on signs as you enter the village. Visits from Burwell to the twins are organised by the Burwell Village Twinning Association.
A plate marking the twinning is located on a wall outside the Year 3 classroom at the village primary school, Burwell Village College (Primary).
Transport
Road access to Burwell is mainly along the B1102 Cambridge to Mildenhall road, which runs the length of the village, and the B1103, which links the village with Newmarket. The A14 passes along the southernmost edge of Burwell parish on the Cambridgeshire–Suffolk border, but cannot be joined without leaving the parish.
Bus transport is provided by Stagecoach in Cambridge route 10 running through the village between Cambridge and Newmarket. Stagecoach took over what used to be Cambus in the mid-1990s, Cambus itself having split from the Eastern Counties Omnibus Company in 1984. Eastern Counties absorbed Burwell and District in 1979, the local bus company having provided transport to nearby Cambridge, Newmarket and Bury St Edmunds, and to destinations further afield, such as Great Yarmouth and Felixstowe.
Between 1884 and 1965, railway station, in the south of the village, was served by the Cambridge to Mildenhall railway. The station closed to passengers in 1962. Although nothing of it remains, its earlier presence is acknowledged in the names of the streets Railway Close and Station Gate. There was also a halt on Newmarket Road to the south-east of the village, where the B1103 still goes over a former railway bridge.
To the north of the village, temporary tramways provided access from the nearby Ipswich to Ely Line to the local brickworks, situated near the Lode.
Burwell Lode is navigable up to the edge of the village at Anchor Lane. The Lode joins Reach Lode in the north-west corner of the parish before they flow into the River Cam at Upware, 5 miles from Burwell.
Education
Burwell contains a nursery, a Montessori and a playgroup for pre-school children. The old school house on the High Street, a listed building dating from 1864, is now a private residence.
Children attend Burwell Village College (Primary) up to the age of 11 and then go to secondary schools at either Soham or Bottisham.
Burwell Museum
The museum shows life through the centuries on the edge of the Cambridgeshire fens. Opened in 1992, it occupies a collection of buildings, some reconstructed from other sites, such as an 18th-century timber-framed barn, and others built in local style mainly with reclaimed materials, such as the wagon sheds/granary display area.
The displays are set out as "scenes" (resembling stage sets) with groups of artefacts making up each, to give an idea of how, where and when items were used. Themes and exhibits cover agriculture, period rooms and household items, military life, a blacksmith's shop, a reconstruction of a Roman potter's workshop, a Victorian school room, and vintage vehicles, carts and farm equipment.
The museum is a regular venue for school trips. Eight local schoolchildren appeared in 2012 in a TV programme about the Cambridgeshire fens that was filmed here.
The neighbouring Grade II*-listed windmill, Stevens' Mill, forms part of the museum and opens with it. It was probably built about 1820. It stayed in the Carter family until 1884, when it was sold to George Mason, who had been the tenant miller. By the 1920s, the mill, at one time powered also by steam, was owned by the Stevens family. When Warren Stevens retired in 1955, the mill became redundant and fell into disrepair. The Burwell Museum obtained funding of £400,000 from Heritage Lottery Fund to restore it.
Religion
Church of England
Burwell has a large, Grade I-listed parish church in the High Street in the south of the village. Dedicated to St Mary the Virgin, the church is in Perpendicular Gothic style and dates back to the 15th century, although some parts are older. It has an active churchgoing membership of 50–70. The vicar since April 2011 is Rev. Dr Eleanor Williams.
Baptist Church
At the northern end of the village, Burwell has a Baptist church with a membership of about 50. Since May 2015, the minister has been Rev. Chris Johnson.
Trinity Church
Located near St Mary's, Trinity is a small church founded by a merger of the Methodist and United Reformed communities in 1988. It has a regular congregation of about 20.
Others
The nearest Roman Catholic church is Our Lady and St Etheldreda in Newmarket. The village has a number of former churches converted to other uses. The large cemetery in Ness Road has a small non-denominational chapel.
Sport
Burwell Swifts F.C. play football in Division 1A of the NMC Cambridgeshire Football League, with a reserve team in Division 3B.
Burwell Tigers F.C. play association football in Division 5A of the NMC Cambridgeshire Football League.
There are two youth football clubs: the Burwell Swallows and Burwell Tigers.
Burwell Cricket Club is based on Tan House Lane, with a 1st XI in the East Anglian Premier League.
Media
The village has a community magazine, Clunch, dealing with news on a village level. The village is in the catchment areas of the Cambridge News and Newmarket Journal newspapers, and the radio stations BBC Radio Cambridgeshire and Heart East. For television Burwell is in the BBC East and ITV Anglia regions. Among several books on the village is an illustrated Memories of Burwell by Frank Czucha published in April 2017, available locally.Burwell Community Radio started broadcasting in 2020 and serves the village with a number of specialist music, documentary, interviews and community features.
See also
HMS Burwell (H94)
References
Notes
Sources
External links
burwell.co.uk
burwellvillage.net
Burwell Village College (Primary)
Burwell Museum
Burwell Village Twinning Association
St Mary's Church website
Cambridgeshire Churches: St Mary's, Burwell
Baptist Church website
Villages in Cambridgeshire
Civil parishes in Cambridgeshire
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|
239619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian%20I%20of%20Antioch | Flavian I of Antioch | St. Flavian I of Antioch (; February 404) was a bishop or Patriarch of Antioch from 381 until his death.
He was born about 320, most probably in Antioch. He inherited great wealth, but resolved to devote his riches and his talents to the service of the church. In association with Diodore, afterwards bishop of Tarsus, he supported the Orthodox faith (i.e., Orthodox Christian) against the Arian heretic Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius as Patriarch of Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside the city walls for religious services (according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the practice of antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services of the church).
When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch in 361 he ordained Flavian to the priesthood, and on the death of Meletius in 381 Flavian was chosen to succeed him. The schism between the two parties was, however, far from being healed. The Bishop of Rome and the Patriarch of Alexandria refused to acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme Eustathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius, continued to exercise authority over a portion of the church.
On the death of Paulinus in about 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor. After the death of Evagrius, (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in preventing the election of a successor, though the Eustathians still continued to hold separate meetings. Through the intervention of John Chrysostom soon after his elevation to the patriarchate of Constantinople in 398, and the influence of the emperor Theodosius I, Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as the sole legitimate bishop of Antioch.
Nevertheless, the Eustathian schism was not finally healed until 415 due to the reconciliation efforts of Alexander (appointed bishop 412), successor to Porphyrios (also spelled Porphyrus). Flavian is posthumously venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a Saint.
See also
Flavian II of Antioch
Other Flavians and Flaviani
References
320 births
404 deaths
Patriarchs of Antioch
4th-century Byzantine bishops
5th-century Byzantine bishops
4th-century archbishops
5th-century archbishops
5th-century Christian saints | [
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|
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