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239045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic%20%28Dweezil%20Zappa%20album%29 | Automatic (Dweezil Zappa album) | Automatic is an album by Dweezil Zappa, released in 2000. "Purple Guitar" was the audition piece for Bryan Beller to work with Zappa on this album. The song "Secret Hedges" was featured on Adult Swim.
Track listing
All songs written by Dweezil Zappa except where noted.
"Fwakstension" performed by Zappa / Terry Bozzio / Scott Thunes – 4:13
"Automatic" performed by Zappa / Blues Saraceno / Joe Travers / Christopher Maloney – 3:59
"Hawaii Five-O" (Morton Stevens) performed by Zappa / Joe Travers – 1:52
"You're a Mean One Mister Grinch" (Dr. Seuss & Albert Hague) performed by Zappa / Ahmet Zappa / Joe Travers – 3:12
"Therapy" performed by Zappa / Terry Bozzio / Scott Thunes – 2:59
"12 String Thing" performed by Zappa / Joe Travers / Mark Meadows – 2:46
"Secret Hedges" (Zappa) – 2:12
"Habanera" (from the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet) performed by Zappa / Dick Cinnamon – 1:54
"Les Toreadors" (from the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet) performed by Zappa / Dick Cinnamon – 2:35
"Shnook" performed by Zappa / Scott Thunes / Mike Keneally – 2:55
"Dick Cinnamon's Office" performed by Zappa / Lisa Loeb / Joe Travers / Christopher Maloney - :55
"Purple Guitar" performed by Zappa / Joe Travers / Mike Keneally – 9:18
Personnel
Dweezil Zappa - lead electric and acoustic guitars, lead and harmony vocals, flange bass, bass, electric piano, arrangements, guitar arrangements, production, engineering, feedback, harmony
Blues Saraceno - guitars
Lisa Loeb - voices
Morgan Ågren - drums, percussion
Bryan Beller - bass, performer
Terry Bozzio - drums
Christopher Maloney - bass
Bob Clearmountain - mixing
Mike Keneally - rhythm guitar, backing vocals
Scott Thunes - bass
Joe Travers - drums, percussion
Ahmet Zappa - vocals
Steve Hall - mastering
Jason Freese - performer
References
Dweezil Zappa albums
Favored Nations albums
2000 albums | [
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] |
239049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shampoohorn | Shampoohorn | Shampoohorn is an album by Dweezil and Ahmet Zappa, under the group name Z, released in 1994.
The European version of the album was released months before the American version. Between the release of the two versions, Dweezil Zappa fired longtime Zappa bassist Scott Thunes due to inter-band conflicts, and hired bassist Bryan Beller, a Berklee honors graduate based on the recommendation of drummer Joe Travers (who had played extensively with Beller at Berklee) and an exhausting 5-day audition. After this change, the band continued to record. As a result, the European version of the album differs from the American version, which replaces "What Went Wrong In The Real World?", and "Bellybutton" with "In My Mind" and "My Beef Mailbox", both featuring Beller on bass.
Track listing
"Singer In The Woods"
"In My Mind"
"Did I Mention It Was Huge?"
"Jesus Clone"
"Loser"
"Kidz Cereal"
"Mommy"
"Dreaming"
"Rubberband"
"Mountains On The Moon"
"Lucky Jones"
"Leviathan"
"Doomed To Be Together"
"My Beef Mailbox"
"Them"
"Shampoohorn"
References
Dweezil Zappa albums
Barking Pumpkin Records albums
1994 albums | [
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239050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20manager | Project manager | A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers have the responsibility of the planning, procurement and execution of a project, in any undertaking that has a defined scope, defined start and a defined finish; regardless of industry. Project managers are first point of contact for any issues or discrepancies arising from within the heads of various departments in an organization before the problem escalates to higher authorities, as project representative.
Project management is the responsibility of a project manager. This individual seldom participates directly in the activities that produce the result, but rather strives to maintain the progress, mutual interaction and tasks of various parties in such a way that reduces the risk of overall failure, maximizes benefits, and minimizes costs.
Overview
A project manager is the person responsible for accomplishing the project objectives. Key project management responsibilities include
defining and communicating project objectives that are clear, useful and attainable
procuring the project requirements like workforce, required information, various agreements and material or technology needed to accomplish project objectives
managing the constraints of the project management triangle, which are cost, time, scope and quality
A project manager is a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the organization they are representing. An expertise is required in the domain the project managers are working to efficiently handle all the aspects of the project. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the client and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.
Project management key topics
to specify the reason why a project is important
to specify the quality of the deliverables
resource estimate
timescale
Investment, corporate agreement and funding
Implementation of management plan on to the project
team building and motivation
risk assessments and change in the project
maintain sustaining project
monitoring
stakeholder management
provider management
closing the project.
Project tools
The tools, knowledge and techniques for managing projects are often unique to project management. For example: work breakdown structures, critical path analysis and earned value management. Understanding and applying the tools and techniques which are generally recognized as good practices are not sufficient alone for effective project management. Effective project management requires that the project manager understands and uses the knowledge and skills from at least four areas of expertise. Examples are PMBOK, Application Area Knowledge: standards and regulations set forth by ISO for project management, General Management Skills and Project Environment Management There are also many options for project management software to assist in executing projects for the project manager and his/her team.
Project teams
When recruiting and building an effective team, the manager must consider not only the technical skills of each person, but also the critical roles and chemistry between workers. A project team has mainly three separate components: project manager, core team and contracted team.
Risk
Most of the project management issues that influence a project arise from risk, which in turn arises from uncertainty. The successful project manager focuses on this as his/her main concern and attempts to reduce risk significantly, often by adhering to a policy of open communication, ensuring that project participants can voice their opinions and concerns.
Responsibilities
The project manager is accountable for ensuring that everyone on the team knows and executes his or her role, feels empowered and supported in the role, knows the roles of the other team members and acts upon the belief that those roles will be performed. The specific responsibilities of the project manager may vary depending on the industry, the company size, the company maturity, and the company culture. However, there are some responsibilities that are common to all project managers, noting:
Developing the project plans
Managing the project stakeholders
Managing communication
Managing the project team
Managing the project risks
Managing the project schedule
Managing the project budget
Managing the project conflicts
Managing the project delivery
Contract administration
Types
Architectural project manager
Architectural project manager are project managers in the field of architecture. They have many of the same skills as their counterpart in the construction industry. And will often work closely with the construction project manager in the office of the general contractor (GC), and at the same time, coordinate the work of the design team and numerous consultants who contribute to a construction project, and manage communication with the client. The issues of budget, scheduling, and quality control are the responsibility of the project manager in an architect's office.
Construction project manager
Until recently, the American construction industry lacked any level of standardization, with individual States determining the eligibility requirements within their jurisdiction. However, several trade associations based in the United States have made strides in creating a commonly accepted set of qualifications and tests to determine a project manager's competency.
The Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) maintains the Certified Construction Manager (CCM) designation. The purpose of the CCM is to standardize the education, experience and professional understanding needed to practice construction management at the highest level.
The Project Management Institute has made some headway into being a standardizing body with its creation of the Project Management Professional (PMP) designation.
The Constructor Certification Commission of the American Institute of Constructors holds semiannual nationwide tests. Eight American Construction Management programs require that students take these exams before they may receive their Bachelor of Science in construction management degree, and 15 other universities actively encourage their students to consider the exams.
The Associated Colleges of Construction Education and the Associated Schools of Construction have made considerable progress in developing national standards for construction education programs.
The profession has recently grown to accommodate several dozen construction management Bachelor of Science programs.
Many universities have also begun offering a master's degree in project management. These programs generally are tailored to working professionals who have project management experience or project related experience; they provide a more intense and in depth education surrounding the knowledge areas within the project management body of knowledge.
The United States Navy construction battalions, nicknamed the SeaBees, puts their command through strenuous training and certifications at every level. To become a chief petty officer in the SeaBees is equivalent to a BS in construction management with the added benefit of several years of experience to their credit. See ACE accreditation.
Engineering project manager
In engineering, project management involves seeing a product or device through the developing and manufacturing stages, working with various professionals in different fields of engineering and manufacturing to go from concept to finished product. Optionally, this can include different versions and standards as required by different countries, requiring knowledge of laws, requirements and infrastructure.
Insurance claim project manager
In the insurance industry project managers often oversee and manage the restoration of a client's home/office after a fire, flood, or other disaster, covering the fields from electronics through to the demolition and construction contractors.
IT project manager
IT project management generally falls into two categories, namely software (development) project manager and infrastructure project manager.
Software project manager
A software project manager has many of the same skills as their counterparts in other industries. Beyond the skills normally associated with traditional project management in industries such as construction and manufacturing, a software project manager will typically have an extensive background in software development. Many software project managers hold a degree in computer science, information technology, management of information systems or another related field.
In traditional project management a heavyweight, predictive methodology such as the waterfall model is often employed, but software project managers must also be skilled in more lightweight, adaptive methodologies such as DSDM, Scrum and XP. These project management methodologies are based on the uncertainty of developing a new software system and advocate smaller, incremental development cycles. These incremental or iterative cycles are time boxed (constrained to a known period of time, typically from one to four weeks) and produce a working subset of the entire system deliverable at the end of each iteration. The increasing adoption of lightweight approaches is due largely to the fact that software requirements are very susceptible to change, and it is extremely difficult to illuminate all the potential requirements in a single project phase before the software development commences.
The software project manager is also expected to be familiar with the software development life cycle (SDLC). This may require in-depth knowledge of requirements solicitation, application development, logical and physical database design and networking. This knowledge is typically the result of the aforementioned education and experience. There is not a widely accepted certification for software project managers, but many will hold the Project Management Professional (PMP) designation offered by the Project Management Institute, PRINCE2 or an advanced degree in project management, such as a MSPM or other graduate degree in technology management.
IT infrastructure project management
An infrastructure IT PM is concerned with the nuts and bolts of the IT department, including computers, servers, storage, networking, and such aspects of them as backup, business continuity, upgrades, replacement, and growth. Often, a secondary data center will be constructed in a remote location to help protect the business from outages caused by natural disaster or weather. Recently, cyber security has become a significant growth area within IT infrastructure management.
The infrastructure PM usually has an undergraduate degree in engineering or computer science, while a master's degree in project management is required for senior level positions. Along with the formal education, most senior level PMs are certified, by the Project Management Institute, as a Project Management Professional. PMI also has several additional certification options, but PMP is by far the most popular.
Infrastructure PMs are responsible for managing projects that have budgets from a few thousand dollars up to many millions of dollars. They must understand the business and the business goals of the sponsor and the capabilities of the technology in order to reach the desired goals of the project. The most difficult part of the infrastructure PM's job may be this translation of business needs / wants into technical specifications. Oftentimes, business analysts are engaged to help with this requirement. The team size of a large infrastructure project may run into several hundred engineers and technicians, many of whom have strong personalities and require strong leadership if the project goals are to be met.
Due to the high operations expense of maintaining a large staff of highly skilled IT engineering talent, many organizations outsource their infrastructure implementations and upgrades to third-party companies. Many of these companies have strong project management organizations with the ability to not only manage their clients projects, but to also generate high quality revenue at the same time.
See also
Event planning and production
Master of Science in Project Management
Project engineer
Project management
Project planning
Product management
References
Further reading
Project Management Institute (PMI), USA
US DoD (2003). Interpretive Guidance for Project Manager Positions. August 2003.
Open source handbook for project managers Open source handbook for project managers. July 2006.
Collection of scholarly articles Project Management Training: Research. Nov 2012.
Project management
Management occupations
Building engineering
Product lifecycle management
Computer occupations | [
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239052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior%20Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%202003 | Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2003 | The Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2003 was the inaugural edition of the annual Junior Eurovision Song Contest for young singers aged eight to fifteen. It was held on 15 November 2003, in Copenhagen, Denmark. With Camilla Ottesen and Remee as the presenters, the contest was won by the then eleven-year-old Dino Jelusić, who represented with his song "Ti si moja prva ljubav" (You are my first love) while second and third place went to and the respectively. The next time that a country would win on its first attempt was in .
It was the first Eurovision contest to be broadcast in the 16:9 widescreen and high definition, but was also offered to broadcasters in the traditional 4:3 aspect ratio. It was also the first Eurovision Song Contest where a DVD of the contest would be released. It was decided that the country that won the contest would not necessarily host the next contest, to reduce the pressure on the contestants. It was announced before the contest took place that the next edition would be held in the United Kingdom (although in the end this did not happen).
Origins and history
The origins of the contest date back to 2000 when Danmarks Radio held a song contest for Danish children that year and the following year. The idea was extended to a Scandinavian song competition in 2002, known as MGP Nordic, with Denmark, Norway and Sweden as participants. The EBU picked up the idea for a song contest featuring children and opened the competition to all EBU member broadcasters making it a pan-European event. The working title of the programme was "Eurovision Song Contest for Children", branded with the name of the EBU's long-running and already popular song competition, the Eurovision Song Contest.
Location
Denmark was asked to host the first programme after their experience with their own contests and the MGP Nordic. Copenhagen was confirmed as the host city in November 2002. In January 2003, it was announced that the Danish broadcaster would host the inaugural contest at the 8,000 capacity Forum venue in the Danish capital.
Venue
Forum Copenhagen () is a large multi-purpose, rentable indoor arena located in Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark. It hosts a large variety of concerts, markets, exhibitions and other events. The venue can hold up to 10,000 people depending on the event. The Forum operates as a convention center, concert hall and indoor arena.
It was opened in February 1926 to host a car exhibition and was last renovated in 1996–97. Over two storeys there is a combined exhibition floor area of 5,000 m² and a separate restaurant for up to 250 seated guests. The Metro station Forum is adjacent to the building. Forum Copenhagen was designed by Oscar Gundlach-Pedersen, and the lighting was from Poul Henningsen's brand new PH-lamp. In 1929 it held an architecture exhibition, which was one of the first presentations of functionalism in Denmark, namely the Housing and Building Exhibition in Forum. It was at this exhibition that Arne Jacobsen and Flemming Lassen exhibited their subscription to the cylindrical "House of the Future".
Format
Presenters
In February 2003, there was speculation regarding the potential host of the first ever Eurovision Song Contest for Children. Initially, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), the organizer of the show, announced the possible allocation of this role to Irish vocalist and Eurovision Song Contest 1997 co-host Ronan Keating although no contract had yet been signed. On 10 October 2003, however, it was officially announced that the contest would be hosted by the Danish duo consisting of Camilla Ottesen and rapper Remee.
Running order
The draw for the running order of the contest was held on 6 October at Radiohuset, with Greece drawn to open the contest and the Netherlands drawn to close.
Voting
All countries used televoting to decide on their top ten. In normal Eurovision fashion, each country's favourite song was given 12 points, their second favourite 10, and their third to tenth favourites were given 8–1 points.
Opening and interval acts
The opening number was performed by Fu:el and Dance Faction, although this was not included in televised broadcast. The halftime entertainment was provided by two acts from the UK. Busted performed "Crashed the Wedding" but Charlie Simpson was absent due to illness. However, the following day he was present for a radio interview in the UK where it was implied by both himself and the other band members, that this was, in fact, a lie. The real reason for his absence was that he hated Eurovision. The Sugababes performed "Hole in the Head".
Postcards
The postcards featured all of the participants (and their backing dancers/singers) exploring different parts of Copenhagen. The postcard's audio would be an instrumental version of the opening theme. The following list shows the various places they visited:
The Tivoli Gardens
Forum Copenhagen
Royal Danish Theatre
Danish Aquarium
Strøget
Copenhagen Lakes
A hotel in Copenhagen
Hairdressers in Copenhagen
Parken
Copenhagen Skatepark
Copenhagen Zoo
A hotdog stand in Copenhagen
The Round Tower
A riding school in Copenhagen
An internet café in Copenhagen
Participating countries
16 countries competed in the first edition of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest. In an original press release for the contest, then entitled the "Eurovision Song Contest for Children", a draw was held to select 15 countries to take part in the inaugural contest, with Slovakian broadcaster Slovenská televízia (STV) and German broadcaster ARD being drawn to compete along with 13 other countries.
These countries would eventually be replaced by entries from , (added as 16th country before Germany and Slovakia withdrew) and , in their first ever Eurovision event. The Finnish broadcaster Yle also expressed a debut in the first contest, but went on to just broadcast it instead.
Results
Scoreboard
12 points
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another:
Spokespersons
Chloe Sofia Boleti
TBC
TBC
TBC
David Daurins
TBC
TBC
TBC
Jimmy Castro
TBC
Judith Bussé
Sasha Stevens
TBC
Siri Lindgren
TBC
Aisa
Other countries
For a country to be eligible for potential participation in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, it needs to be an active member of the EBU. It is currently unknown whether the EBU issue invitations of participation to all 56 active members like they do for the Eurovision Song Contest.
Finnish broadcaster Yle expressed an interest in participating in the contest. However, it was unsuccessful and they went on to broadcast it instead.
The EBU announced that they would hold a draw to determine which countries would participate in the contest. German broadcaster KiKa was one of the countries drawn. However, they announced their withdrawal from the contest and went on to broadcast it instead.
After Germany and Slovakia withdrew, the EBU sent an invitation to Irish broadcaster Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) who then submitted preliminary applications, but in the end declined to participate or broadcast the contest.
The EBU also sent an invitation to the Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA), but they declined to participate and also did not broadcast it. Ireland and Israel would later be replaced by Poland and Belarus, who received the final spot.
Slovakian broadcaster Slovenská televízia (STV), along with KiKa, was drawn to participate in the contest, however declined to participate and did not broadcast the show either.
Broadcasts
The rights to broadcast the contest were also acquired by broadcasters in Iceland (RÚV), Finland (Yle), Serbia and Montenegro (RTS/RTCG), Estonia (ETV), Germany (KI.KA), Australia (SBS) and Kosovo (RTK). Some of the participating broadcasters also transmitted the programme live on radio.
Official album
Junior Eurovision Song Contest: Copenhagen 2003, is a compilation album put together by the European Broadcasting Union, and was released by Universal Music Group on November 2003. The album features all the songs from the 2003 contest. On the track list Cyprus was misspelt as Cypres.
See also
European Broadcasting Union
Eurovision Song Contest 2003
Junior Eurovision Song Contest
References
External links
Eurovision Song Contest 2003
2003
2003 in Copenhagen
2003 song contests
2003 in Denmark
November 2003 events in Europe
Events in Copenhagen | [
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239053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20delay | Construction delay | Construction delays are situations where project events occur at a later time than expected due to causes related to the client, consultant, and contractor etc. In residential and light construction, construction delays are often the result of miscommunication between contractors, subcontractors, and property owners. These types of misunderstandings and unrealistic expectations are usually avoided through the use of detailed critical path schedules, which specify the work, and timetable to be used, but most importantly, the logical sequence of events which must occur for a project to be completed. Delays in construction projects are frequently expensive, since there is usually a construction loan involved which charges interest, management staff dedicated to the project whose costs are time dependent, and ongoing inflation in wage and material prices.
However, in more complex projects, problems will arise that are not foreseen in the original contract, and so other legal construction forms are subsequently used, such as change orders, lien waivers, and addenda.
In construction projects, as well in other projects where a schedule is being used to plan work, delays happen all the time. It is what is being delayed that determines if a project, or some other deadline such as a milestone, will be completed late.
Before analyzing construction delays, a clear understanding of the general types of delays is necessary. There are four basic ways to categorize delays:
Critical or Non-Critical
Excusable or Non-Excusable
Concurrent or Non-Concurrent
Compensable or Non-Compensable
Before determining the impact of a delay on the project, one must determine whether the delay is critical or non-critical. Additionally, all delays are either excusable or non-excusable. Both excusable and non-excusable delays can be defined as either concurrent or non-concurrent. Delays can be further broken down into compensable or non-compensable delays.
Moreover, the construction supply chain plays a major role in the construction market competition. Construction supply chain management assists enterprises by helping to improve competitiveness, increase profits and have more control over the different factors and variables within the project. A. Cox and P. Ireland contributed the myriad of construction supply chain which illustrated the main flows within the construction supply chain. In his research, Ghaith Al-Werikat analysed delays in relation to the myriad of construction supply chain. In particular, material flow, equipment flow, information flow, labour flow and client's information flow, offering a quantification of the impact of supply chain delays on construction projects performance. On the other hand, Economic historian Robert E. Wright argues that construction delays are caused by bid gaming, change order artistry, asymmetric information, and post contractual market power. Until those fundamental issues are confronted and resolved, many custom construction projects will continue to come in over budget, past due, or below contract specifications, he claims.
See also
Construction
Civil engineering
Project planning
References
Further reading
External links
Construction Risk.com Resource for information on latest trends in project delays and construction claims
Article outlining the different types of weather delays
Building engineering | [
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239055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave%20Desert | Mojave Desert | The Mojave Desert ( ; ) is a xeric desert in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada mountains in the Southwestern United States. It is named for the indigenous Mojave people. It is located primarily in southeastern California and southwestern Nevada, with small portions extending into Arizona and Utah.
Along with the Sonoran, Chihuahuan, and Great Basin deserts, a larger North American Desert is formed. Of these, the Mojave is the smallest and driest. The Mojave Desert is bordered to the west by the Sierra Nevada mountain range and the California montane chaparral and woodlands, and to the south and east by the Sonoran Desert, although the boundaries to the east of the Mojave Desert are less distinctive than the other boundaries as there is no distinctive presence of an indicator species, such as the Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia), which is endemic to the Mojave Desert. The Mojave Desert is distinguished from the Sonoran Desert and other deserts adjacent to it by its warm temperate climate, as well as flora and fauna such as ironwood (Olneya tesota), blue Palo Verde (Parkinsonia florida), chuparosa (Justicia californica), spiny menodora (Menodora spinescens), desert senna (Cassia armata), California dalea (Psorothamnus arborescens), and goldenhead (Acamptopappus shockleyi). With these other factors, the extent of these plants generally serves to differentiate the Mojave from the nearby Sonoran desert. The Mojave Desert displays typical basin and range topography, that is, generally having a pattern of a series of parallel mountain ranges and valleys. The Mojave Desert contains various silver, tungsten, iron and gold deposits. It is also the site of Death Valley, which is the lowest elevation in North America. The Mojave Desert is often colloquially called the "high desert", as most of it lies between .
The spelling Mojave originates from the Spanish language while the spelling Mohave comes from modern English. Both are used today, although the Mojave Tribal Nation officially uses the spelling Mojave; the word is a shortened form of , their endonym in their native language, which means "beside the water".
Conservation status
The Mojave Desert has a relatively stable and intact conservation status. In fact, the Mojave Desert is one of the best protected distinct ecoregions in the United States, as a result of the California Desert Protection Act, which established the Death Valley, Joshua Tree National Parks and the Mojave National Preserve. However, the southwest and central east portions of the Mojave Desert are particularly threatened as a result of off-road vehicles, human development, and agricultural grazing. The World Wildlife Fund lists the Mojave Desert as relatively "stable/intact."
Human development
In recent years, human development in the Mojave desert has become increasingly present. Human development at the major urban and suburban centers of Las Vegas and Los Angeles has had an increasingly damaging effect on the wildlife of the Mojave Desert. An added demand for landfill space as a result of the large metropolitan centers of Las Vegas and Los Angeles also has the real potential to drastically affect the flora and fauna of the Mojave Desert. Agricultural development along the Colorado river, which is close to the Eastern boundary of the Mojave Desert also causes habitat loss and degradation. Areas that are particularly affected by human development include Ward Valley and Riverside country. The United States military also maintains installations in the Mojave Desert. Thus, the Mojave is a critical training location for the United States Department of Defense.
Geology and physical features
The Mojave Desert is bordered by the San Andreas and the Garlock faults to the Southwest and to the North. The mountains elevated along the length of the San Andreas fault provide a clear border between the Mojave desert and the coastal regions to the West. The Garlock fault separates the Mojave Desert from the Sierra Nevada and Tehachapi mountains, which also provides a natural border to the Mojave Desert. There are also abundant alluvial fans, which are called bajadas, which form around the mountains within the Mojave desert and extend down toward the low altitude basins, which contain dried lake beds called playas, where water generally collects and evaporates, leaving large volumes of salt. These playas include Rogers Dry Lake, and China Lake. Dry lakes are a noted feature of the Mojave landscape. The Mojave Desert is also home to the Devils Playground, about of dunes and salt flats going in a northwest-southeasterly direction. The Devil's Playground is a part of the Mojave National Preserve and is between the town of Baker, California and Providence Mountains. The Cronese Mountains are within the Devil's Playground.
Relatively, there is not much riverine activity in the Mojave Desert. The intermittent Mojave River, which begins on the San Bernardino mountains and disappears deeper into the Mojave Desert flows through the Mojave generally underground. The Amargosa River also flows partly through the Mojave Desert along a southward path. The Manix, Mojave, and the Little Mojave lakes are all large but shallow. Soda Lake is the principal saline basine of the Mojave desert. Natural springs are typically rare throughout the Mojave desert, however, there are two notable springs, Ash Meadows, and Oasis Valley. Ash Meadows is formed from several other springs, which all draw from deep underground. Oasis Valley draws from the nearby Amargosa River.
The Mojave Desert is also a source of various minerals and metallic materials. The deposits of gold, tungsten, and silver have been mined frequently prior to the Second World War. Additionally, there have been deposits of copper, tin, lead-zinc, manganese, iron, and various radioactive substances but they have not been mined for commercial use.
Climate
The climate of the Mojave Desert is characterized by extremes in temperatures throughout the seasons. Freezing temperatures as well as strong winds are not uncommon in the winter, as well as precipitation such as rain and snow in the mountains. In contrast, temperatures above are not uncommon during the summer months. There is an annual average precipitation of , although regions at high altitudes such as the portion of the Mojave desert in the San Gabriel mountains. Most of the precipitation in the Mojave comes from the Pacific Cyclonic storms that are generally present passing Eastward in November to April. Such storms generally bring rain and snow only in the mountainous regions, as a result of the effect of the Sierra Nevada mountains, which creates a drying effect on its leeward slopes.
During the late summer months, there is also the possibility of strong thunderstorms which bring heavy showers or cloudbursts. These storms can result in flash flooding.
The Mojave Desert has not historically supported a fire regime because of low fuel loads and connectivity. However, in the last few decades, invasive annual plants such as some within the genera Bromus, Schismus and Brassica have facilitated fires by serving as a fuel bed for fires. This has significantly altered many areas of the desert. At higher elevations, fire regimes are regular but infrequent.
Prehistoric formation
The Mojave Desert was likely under shallow water for most of the time of its formation. Under this shallow coat of water, a large volume of sedimentary processes were likely taking place, causing in large deposits of limestones, silicates, and dolomites. During the Paleozoic Era, the area that is now the Mojave was again likely submerged under a greater sea. During the Mesozoic era, major tectonic activities such as thrust faulting and folding resulted in distinctive shaping as well as intrusion. During the Cenozoic, more tectonic deformation occurred whilst the Mojave was partly submerged. Major volcanic activity is thought to have occurred during the Oligocene. Large downpours during the Miocene likely significantly eroded the rock in the Mojave and accelerated deposition.
Tourism
The Mojave Desert is one of the most popular spots for tourism in North America, primarily because of the gambling destination of Las Vegas. The Mojave is also known for its scenery, playing host to Death Valley National Park, Joshua Tree National Park, and the Mojave National Preserve. Lakes Mead, Mohave, and Havasu provide water sports recreation, and vast off-road areas entice off-road enthusiasts. The Mojave Desert also includes three California State Parks, the Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve, in Lancaster, Saddleback Butte State Park, in Hi Vista and Red Rock Canyon State Park.
Several attractions and natural features are in the Calico Mountains. Calico Ghost Town, in Yermo, is administered by San Bernardino County. The ghost town has several shops and attractions, and inspired Walter Knott to build Knott's Berry Farm. The Bureau of Land Management also administers Rainbow Basin and Owl Canyon. The Calico Early Man Site, in the Calico Hills east of Yermo, is believed by some archaeologists, including the late Louis Leakey, to show the earliest evidence with lithic stone tools found here of human activity in North America.
Flora
The flora of the Mojave desert are helpful in determining the extents of the Mojave desert where there may not be distinctive geophysical boundaries, the Mojave desert consists of various endemic plant species, notably the Joshua Tree, which is a particularly notable endemic and indicator species of the desert. There are more endemic flora of the Mojave desert than almost anywhere in the world. Mojave Desert flora is not a vegetation type, although the plants in the area have evolved in isolation because of the physical barriers of the Sierra Nevadas and the Colorado Plateau. Predominant plants of the Mojave desert include all-scale (Atriplex polycarpa), creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), brittlebush (Encelia farinosa), desert holly (Atriplex hymenelytra), white burrobush (Hymenoclea salsola), and most notably, the Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia). Additionally, the Mojave desert is also home to various species of cacti, such as silver cholla (Cylindropuntia echinocarpa), Mojave prickly pear (O. erinacea), beavertail cactus (O. basilaris), and many-headed barrel cactus (Echinocactus polycephalus). Less common but distinctive plants of the Mojave desert include ironwood (Olneya tesota), blue Palo Verde (Parkinsonia Florida), chuparosa (Justicia californica), spiny menodora (Menodora spinescens), desert senna (Cassia armata), California dalea (Psorothamnus arborescens), and goldenhead (Acamptopappus shockleyi). The Mojave desert is generally abundant in winter annuals. The plants of the Mojave desert each generally correspond to an individual geographic feature. As such, there are distinctive flora communities within the desert.
Fauna
A good portion of the fauna of the Mojave Desert extends into the neighboring Sonoran and Great Basin deserts. The animal species of the Mojave Desert have generally less endemics than its flora. However, endemic fauna of the Mojave Desert include Kelso Dunes jerusalem cricket (Ammopelmatus kelsoensis), the Kelso Dunes shieldback katydid (Eremopedes kelsoensis), the Mohave ground squirrel (Spermophilus Mohavensis) and Amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis). The Mojave fringe-toed lizard (Uma Scoparia) is not endemic, but almost completely limited to the Mojave desert. Notable species of the Mojave desert include the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), which has adapted considerably to the conditions of the Mojave Desert and deserts in general. Various other species are particularly common in the Mojave Desert, such as the LeConte's thrasher (Toxostoma lecontei), banded gecko (Coleonyx variegatus), desert iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis), chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus), and regal horned lizard (Phrynosoma solare). Species of snake include the rosy boa (Lichanura trivirgata), Western patch-nosed snake (Salvadora hexalepis), and Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus).
Protected areas and parks
Various habitats and regions of the Mojave Desert have been protected by statute. Notably, Joshua Tree National Park, Death Valley National Park, and the Mojave National Preserve by the California Desert Protection Act of 1994. (Pub.L. 103–433). Various other national parks and state parks have regions within the Mojave Desert. These include Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve, which protects the fields of California poppies, Desert Tortoise Natural Area, Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park, Desert National Wildlife Refuge, Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Providence Mountains State Recreation Area, Red Cliffs National Conservation Area, Red Rock Canyon State Park, Saddleback Butte State Park, Snow Canyon State Park and Valley of Fire State Park.
2009 litigation
In 2009, U.S. District Judge Susan Illston ruled against the Bureau's proposed designation of additional off-road vehicle use allowance in the western Mojave Desert. According to the ruling, the Bureau of Land Management violated its own regulations when it designated approximately 5,000 miles (8,000 km) of off-roading routes in 2006. According to Judge Illston, the Bureau's designation was significantly "flawed because it does not contain a reasonable range of alternatives" to limit damage to sensitive habitat. Judge Illston found the bureau had inadequately analyzed the routes' impacts on air quality, soils, plant communities, riparian habitats, and sensitive species such as the endangered Mojave fringe-toed lizard, pointing out that the desert and its resources are "extremely fragile, easily scarred, and slowly healed."
Cities and regions
While the Mojave Desert itself is generally sparsely populated, it has increasingly become urbanized in recent years. The metropolitan areas include Las Vegas, the largest urban area in the Mojave and the largest urban area in Nevada with a population of about 2.3 million. St. George, Utah, is the northeasternmost metropolitan area in the Mojave, with a population of around 180,000 in 2020, and is located at the convergence of the Mojave, Great Basin and Colorado Plateau. The Los Angeles exurban area of Lancaster-Palmdale has more than 400,000 residents, and the Victorville area to its east has more than 300,000 residents. Smaller cities or micropolitan areas in the Mojave Desert include Helendale, Lake Havasu City, Kingman, Laughlin, Bullhead City and Pahrump. All have experienced rapid population growth since 1990. The California portion of the desert also contains Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, noted for experimental aviation and weapons projects.
The Mojave Desert has several ghost towns; the most significant are the gold-mining town of Oatman, Arizona, the silver and copper-mining town of Calico, California, and the old railroad depot of Kelso, California. Some of the other ghost towns are more modern, created when U.S. Route 66 (and the lesser-known U.S. Route 91) were abandoned in favor of the construction of Interstates.
References
External links
The Nature Explorers Mojave Desert Expedition - 1 hour 27 minute ecosystem video in July
Mojave Desert images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
Mojave Desert Blog
Mojave Desert Catalog Project
Deserts and xeric shrublands in the United States
Ecoregions of California
Ecoregions of the United States
Deserts of California
Deserts of Arizona
Deserts of Nevada
Deserts of Utah
Deserts of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Deserts of North America
Geography of Clark County, Nevada
Geography of Inyo County, California
Geography of Kern County, California
Geography of Lincoln County, Nevada
Geography of Los Angeles County, California
Geography of Mohave County, Arizona
Geography of Nye County, Nevada
Geography of San Bernardino County, California
Geography of Washington County, Utah
Geography of Southern California
Southwestern United States | [
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239056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20foreman | Construction foreman | A construction foreman or construction forewoman is the worker or skilled tradesperson who is in charge of a construction crew. This role is generally assumed by a senior worker.
Duties and functions
Normally the foreman is a construction worker with many years of experience in a particular trade who is charged with organizing the overall construction of a particular project for a particular contractor. Typically the foreman is a person with specialist knowledge of a given trade who has moved into the position and is now focused on an overall management of his trade on the job site. He or she is responsible for providing proper documentation to his workers so they can proceed with tasks.
Specifically, a foreman may train employees under his or her supervision, ensure appropriate use of equipment by employees, communicate progress on the project to a supervisor and maintain the employee schedule. Foremen may also arrange for materials to be at the construction site and evaluate plans for each construction job.
Not to be confused with a Project Manager, Project Supervisor, Superintendent, General Foreman, or a "Firstman".
See also
Civil engineering
References
Foreman | [
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239057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butthole%20Surfers | Butthole Surfers | Butthole Surfers is an American rock band formed in San Antonio, Texas, by singer Gibby Haynes and guitarists Paul Leary and Jonathan Grisham in 1981. The band has had numerous personnel changes, but its core lineup of Haynes, Leary, and drummer King Coffey has been consistent since 1983. Teresa Nervosa served as second drummer from 1983 to 1985, 1986 to 1989, and 2009. The band has also employed a variety of bass players, most notably Jeff Pinkus.
Emerging from the 1980s hardcore punk scene, Butthole Surfers quickly became known for their chaotic live shows, black comedy, and a sound that incorporated elements of psychedelia, noise rock, and punk as well as their use of sound manipulation and tape editing.
Although they were respected by their peers and attracted a devoted fanbase, Butthole Surfers had little commercial success until 1996's Electriclarryland. The album contained the hit single "Pepper", which climbed to number one on Billboards Modern Rock Tracks chart that year.
History
Formation (1976–1981)
Butthole Surfers formed at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas during the late 1970s, when students Gibson "Gibby" Haynes and Paul Leary Walthall (later just Paul Leary) met for the first time. Though it was their overall strangeness and shared taste in non-mainstream music that caused them to become friends, both appeared to be headed for very conventional careers. Haynes, as captain of Trinity's basketball team, as well as the school's "Accountant of the Year", soon graduated to a position with a respected Texas accounting firm, while Leary remained in college working on his MBA degree.
In 1981, Haynes and Leary published the magazine Strange V.D., which featured photos of abnormal medical ailments, coupled with fictitious, humorous explanations for the diseases. After being caught with one of these pictures at work, Haynes left the accounting firm and moved to Southern California. Leary, at the time one semester shy of his degree, dropped out of college and followed Haynes. After a brief period spent selling homemade clothes and linens emblazoned with Lee Harvey Oswald's image, the pair returned to San Antonio, and launched the band that would eventually become Butthole Surfers.
Early years (1981–1984)
Haynes and Leary played their debut show at a San Antonio night club, The Bonham Exchange, in 1981; at that time, they had not yet settled on the band name "Butthole Surfers". By 1982, the band were backed by the sibling rhythm section composed of bassist Quinn Mathews and his brother, drummer Scott Mathews. The band did not gain a following in San Antonio, and purchased a van to return to California later that summer.
During a brief concert at the Tool and Die club in San Francisco, Dead Kennedys frontman and Alternative Tentacles overseer Jello Biafra witnessed their performance and became a fervent fan. Biafra invited the group to open for Dead Kennedys and T.S.O.L. at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles, and soon made an offer that would launch their recording career; if they could get someone to lend them studio time, Alternative Tentacles would reimburse the studio when the album was complete. The band then returned to San Antonio to record at BOSS Studios (a.k.a. Bob O'Neill's Sound Studios, a.k.a. the Boss). However, the Mathews brothers did not enter the studio with Haynes and Leary; the two had quit following a physical altercation between Scott Mathews and Haynes. The bass position was taken over by Bill Jolly, who would play on Butthole Surfers' next two releases, and a number of drummers participated. The last of these, King Coffey (born Jeffrey Coffey), is still with the band to this day.
Released on Alternative Tentacles in July 1983, the resulting EP, Butthole Surfers (also known as Brown Reason to Live and Pee Pee the Sailor), offered songs with provocatively absurd titles like "The Shah Sleeps in Lee Harvey's Grave" and "Bar-B-Q Pope", alternately sung by Haynes and Leary. (Haynes would become the band's primary singer by the time of their first LP.) The album cover, like the many bizarre illustrations that would accompany Surfers' succeeding work, was designed by the band itself. Teeming with humor, Butthole Surfers laid the foundation for what was to come. It influenced at least one future superstar in Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain, who listed it as one of his ten favorite albums in his Journals. Cobain later went on to list the album "Pee Pee the Sailor" by Butthole Surfers as one of the fifty most influential albums for Nirvana's sound. Cobain would later meet his wife, Courtney Love of Hole, at a Butthole Surfers/L7 concert in 1991.
Soon after the release of Butthole Surfers, the band recruited a second drummer, Teresa Nervosa (born Teresa Taylor), who had played with Coffey in a number of high school marching bands in the Texas' Fort Worth and Austin areas. She and Coffey would drum in unison on separate, stand-up kits, adding to the spectacle of Surfers' ever-evolving stage show. Though Nervosa and Coffey repeatedly referred to themselves, and were referred to, as siblings, it has since been revealed that the two only presented themselves as such due to their similar appearances, and are not actually related. With her arrival, the band's core "classic lineup" — Haynes, Leary, Coffey, and Nervosa — was in place. With the exception of a number of different bass players and Nervosa's brief sabbatical from late 1985 to 1986, it remained largely unchanged until her final departure in 1989. In 2008, she returned to the band — their website announced 2009 tour dates including "Teresa Taylor".
In 1984, the band returned to BOSS Studios to record enough material for two full-length albums. Both were originally offered to Alternative Tentacles, with the first being Psychic... Powerless... Another Man's Sac. Before either album could be released, though, Alternative Tentacles had to acquire the master tapes from Bob O'Neill, BOSS Studios' namesake and owner. He refused to release them until he'd been reimbursed for the sessions, and Alternative Tentacles couldn't immediately afford to pay. After months of waiting, the band issued the concert recording Live PCPPEP on Alternative Tentacles out of financial desperation in September 1984. Mostly made up of live performances of songs from their debut, it prompted some critics and fans to joke that they had released the same album twice. Meanwhile, Bob O'Neill was preparing to release Psychic... on his own Ward 9 label to recoup his expenses.
Legend grows (1984–1987)
With some members working as dishwashers, the group was unhappy about the album being released on Ward 9. Terry Tolkin, a friend and their East Coast booking agent, signed the band to Corey Rusk's then-nascent Touch and Go Records in Detroit. Psychic... Powerless... Another Man's Sac was released in 1984. Building on their first EP, the band made psychedelia a much bigger part of their sound on this release, which made full use of the tape editing, non-traditional instrumentation, and sound modulation that came to define their studio recordings.
Just before the release of Psychic..., and with new bassist Terence Smart in tow (the first of many through 1986), the band commenced their first nationwide tour. It was on this outing that they truly established a national presence, starting at Touch and Go's early headquarters in Detroit before heading to New York City, where they impressed members of Sonic Youth, as well as Shockabilly member (and future Butthole Surfers bassist) Kramer. They then crisscrossed the country for several months, including a show in Seattle, that made a fan of future Soundgarden guitarist Kim Thayil. While in San Francisco at the end of the tour, and without a place to live, the band collectively decided to move to Winterville (a small town outside Athens, Georgia), where they admittedly made a hobby of stalking members of R.E.M. They purportedly planned to leave a van parked in front of Michael Stipe's house, with "Michael Stipe/Despite the Hype/I Still Wanna Suck/Your Big Long Pipe" painted on the side. Smart quit after falling in love with a friend of the band, and Trevor Malcolm, a young Canadian musician recommended by Touch and Go, replaced him on bass.
Word was spreading about the band's bizarre stage show by the time they hit the road again, resulting in ever-larger audiences at their concerts. Not long after Malcolm's arrival, the band recorded their act for posterity by filming two concerts at Detroit's Traxx club. Some of this footage was eventually packaged as Blind Eye Sees All, their only official video release to date. They purchased their first 8-track recorder at this time, and used it to record two songs later used on the A-side of Cream Corn from the Socket of Davis.
Reportedly unhappy with life in the band, Malcolm quit in mid-1985. A friend of the band's from Athens, Juan Molina, was brought in for a brief U.S. tour, but was not interested in becoming a full-time member. Without a permanent bassist and a quickly approaching European tour looming—the band's first—they contacted Kramer, who quickly agreed to join. Meanwhile, their second LP, which had been submitted to Alternative Tentacles as Rembrandt Pussy Horse, was still in limbo. The reasons for Alternative Tentacles' actions are unclear, but it is known that the label delayed a decision for about a year before ultimately refusing to publish it. While waiting, the band released the four-song Cream Corn from the Socket of Davis EP on Touch and Go in late 1985. Once Alternative Tentacles finally declined, the group went back into Kramer's Noise New York studio to record two new tracks to replace "Two Part" and "Tornadoes", which were originally intended for Rembrandt... before appearing on the Cream Corn... EP's B-side.
Following the European tour, Butthole Surfers experienced more upheaval when Nervosa left around Christmas 1985, as she was tired of the living conditions associated with constant touring and had a desire to be with family. She was replaced by another female drummer, Kytha Gernatt, who was dubbed Cabbage Gomez Jr. in the press soon after joining the band. Cabbage had previously performed with Kathleen Lynch (a.k.a. Kathleen, a.k.a. Ta-Da the Shit Lady) in the band Easturn Stars; Lynch gained fame as Butthole Surfers' infamous naked dancer from 1986 to 1989. Kramer also left during this period and was replaced by Jeff Pinkus, who gave the band's bass position its longest period of stability by staying until 1994.
Their second LP was finally issued as Rembrandt Pussyhorse on Touch and Go in April 1986. Coming out some two years after the original sessions, it featured a different mix and song selection than Alternative Tentacles' unreleased version. Best known for its minimalist reworking of The Guess Who's "American Woman", it is one of the most experimental albums in Butthole Surfers' heavily experimental career. Following a particularly out-of-control tour, even by Butthole Surfers' standards, the band semi-settled in Winterville in the summer of 1986. Nervosa rejoined them (Cabbage having been fired months earlier), and they went to work on crafting their first home studio in a rental house on the outskirts of Athens. Before long, they started a leisurely recording session for their third full-length project. Released in March 1987, Locust Abortion Technician is one of the heaviest Butthole Surfers albums, and it is often considered their finest to date. Harnessing aspects of punk, heavy metal, and psychedelia, its unique sound produced a number of grinding, slower-paced songs, arguably making it an early precursor of grunge.
Evolution (1987–1991)
Around the time of Locust Abortion Technicians debut, the group bought a home in Driftwood, Texas, approximately outside Austin. It was a ranch house built into the side of a hill, with of surrounding property. As with the rental home near Athens, the compound was turned into a de facto recording studio. They did not live together in the new house for long, though, with Coffey being the first to move out and get his own place. They all had separate residences by 1991.
In early 1988, Butthole Surfers were ready to record a new album and wanted to use a modern studio for the first time, choosing a state-of-the-art facility in Texas. The following sessions took only one week, as the band had been performing most of the material for years. The band opted to follow this album's blueprint on future projects. In contrast, songs on their earlier recordings had undergone far more in-studio development and experimentation. Pinkus has expressed the opinion that the later, better-organized sessions stifled much of the spontaneous creativity that had propelled their earlier releases.
Hairway to Steven was issued in April, and marked a midway point between the band's experimental roots, and the more accessible recordings that would follow. While half of the material is as extreme sounding as their earlier work, other songs are more conventional. This was the first Butthole Surfers album to make extensive use of acoustic guitar. Hairway to Steven did not have song titles when first released, and instead represented each track with an absurdist, often scatological, cartoon. The band traveled widely in support of the album over the next year, including a very successful tour of Europe (helped in part by the influence of new UK distributor Blast First). Like their studio recordings, their live shows were beginning to lose much of their earlier chaos.
While touring during the winter of 1988, Butthole Surfers used a portable DAT recorder to tape various concerts. The strongest of these recordings were packaged as Double Live, a limited edition double album released on vinyl and cassette in 1989, and on CD the following year. This was the first release on the band's Latino Buggerveil label. Though the album, as of spring 2007, is out of print, its songs are available as free MP3 downloads on the band's official website. Issued in response to widespread, for-profit bootlegging of their live shows, it contained performances of songs from all of their previous studio albums and EPs.
Double Live was to be the last Butthole Surfers album to feature Nervosa, who left early in 1989. Shortly after leaving, she was diagnosed with an aneurysm, and was forced to undergo brain surgery. She further began to suffer from strobe light-induced seizures. In 1991, Nervosa (who has gone by Teresa Taylor since her retirement) had a small role in Richard Linklater's film Slacker. She was employed at the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired as recently as 1995.Slacker page, IMDb.com.
Butthole Surfers did not seek to replace her at the time, and opted to continue as a quartet. Following a final EP for Touch and Go—1989's Widowermaker—the band left their longtime recording partners to sign with longtime supporter Terry Tolkin at Rough Trade Records who had also brought them to Touch and Go, for a reportedly generous one-album deal. Prior to the new LP's debut, Rough Trade talked the band into first releasing 1990's The Hurdy Gurdy Man, which previewed material from the coming release. The same year, Rough Trade issued Digital Dump by The Jackofficers, Haynes and Pinkus's psychedelic house music side project.
piouhgd (pronounced "p.o.-ed", as in "pissed off") was the band's fifth full-length studio album, and their first for Rough Trade. Released in April 1991, it featured more electronic instrumentation, but was largely viewed as a disappointment in comparison to past recordings. Both Haynes and Leary have since expressed displeasure with the album. Regardless, the band was invited to be part of that summer's inaugural Lollapalooza tour. Around this time, Haynes collaborated with Ministry, contributing vocals on their 1991 single "Jesus Built My Hotrod", which was later included on 1992's Psalm 69: The Way to Succeed and the Way to Suck Eggs.
Mainstream recognition (1991–1999)
Rough Trade filed for bankruptcy in 1991, but not before releasing Leary's solo project, The History of Dogs. The following year, Butthole Surfers shocked many fans and critics by signing with the major label Capitol Records. In 2017, Paul Leary reflected: "I grew up listening to The Beatles and Grand Funk Railroad and Dean Martin, and the thought of being on the same record label that they were on was too fucking weird, really weird. A lot of people gave us grief for doing that, but fuck: I wasn't going to turn that down."
Capitol immediately reissued piouhgd and paired the band with their first big-name producer, John Paul Jones, best known as the bassist for Led Zeppelin. The fruit of their partnership, 1993's Independent Worm Saloon, featured a more straightforward rock approach at Jones's insistence. This paid off for Butthole Surfers, giving them their first minor radio hit, "Who Was in My Room Last Night?". It reached number 24 on Billboard'''s Modern Rock Tracks singles chart, while the album peaked at number 124 on the Billboard 200.Charts & awards – Billboard albums, Allmusic. Two of the new songs were featured on episodes of MTV's Beavis and Butt-head. Guitarist and huge influence on Butthole Surfers, Helios Creed played guitar on two of the songs from the record, "The Annoying Song" and "Clean It Up".
When Pinkus left in 1994, the remaining members enlisted a series of fill-in musicians, and continued to tour sporadically, even as all three pursued side projects. Haynes was working with Johnny Depp, Bill Carter, Sal Jenco, Flea, and others in a new group, P. In 1993, Haynes played with this band in Los Angeles' Viper Room, on the night the actor River Phoenix died of a drug overdose. Meanwhile, Leary was building a reputation as a skilled music producer, while Coffey set up his own record label Trance Syndicate. According to Leary and industry insiders, Haynes was increasingly dependent on hard drugs at this time, though Haynes has downplayed their concerns.
In 1995, the band contributed a cover of the Underdog theme song to be included on the tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA. Later that year, Haynes's side project, P, issued an eponymous LP on Capitol, while Coffey's Trance Syndicate label released the first Butthole Surfers compilation album.The Hole Truth... and Nothing Butt (album), 1995. Titled The Hole Truth... and Nothing Butt, it was mostly live tracks recorded at different venues from 1985 to 1991. In December, Butthole Surfers initiated what would become an extended legal battle with Touch and Go. At first, they were seeking to increase their profits from the albums released by the label, because the label chose a strategy of non-promotion. The case quickly became a fight for all ownership rights that dragged on for more than three years.
In 1996, Capitol released Butthole Surfers' Electriclarryland, which climbed to number 31 on the Billboard 200; the single "Pepper" topped the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Their songs started appearing on the soundtracks of major Hollywood movies, including Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet and John Carpenter's Escape from L.A. Despite improved sales with their second Capitol album, the group's relationship with the label was increasingly troubled. A planned 1998 project, After the Astronaut, was scrapped and Butthole Surfers acrimoniously split with their manager, Tom Bunch. In 1999, Butthole Surfers won their lawsuit against Touch and Go. Despite the outcome, several of Butthole Surfers' peers in the alternative music community, including Fugazi and Minor Threat lead singer Ian MacKaye, criticized them for having pursued the lawsuit. Haynes and others said they wouldn't have initiated the proceedings if they felt Rusk's dealings had been honorable. Rusk provided the band with indecipherable accounting statements. Rusk continued to insist his actions were honest even though the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit found otherwise. With the case resolved, the band reissued Psychic... Powerless... Another Man's Sac, Rembrandt Pussyhorse (with the Cream Corn... EP), Locust Abortion Technician, and Hairway to Steven on their Latino Buggerveil label.
Recent years (2000–present)
In 2000, the band hired Nathan Calhoun as bassist. Having resolved their dispute with Capitol, Butthole Surfers re-recorded most of After the Astronauts songs for Weird Revolution, on the Hollywood Records/Surfdog Records imprint. The album was released in August 2001, and reached number 130 on the Billboard 200. It was their most electronic album to date,Kennedy, Weird Revolution review, Allmusic. and the single "The Shame of Life" peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart.
Since then, the group has released two compilations on Latino Buggerveil: 2002's Humpty Dumpty LSD is a compilation of studio outtakes, while 2003's Butthole Surfers/Live PCPPEP, combines their first two Alternative Tentacles EPs.Track listing & liner notes, Butthole Surfers/Live PCPPEP (album), 2003. In 2004, Haynes formed Gibby Haynes and His Problem, who released an eponymous album on Surfdog Records later that year. While promoting the side project, Haynes indicated that another Butthole Surfers studio album was likely, and remarked that it would be "noisy". However, no release date has been announced.
The band reunited with Jeff Pinkus and Teresa Nervosa for a tour of the East Coast and Europe in Summer 2008 with the Paul Green School of Rock All Stars. It was the first time the reunited line up played together since 1989. The group performed at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival curated by Melvins and Mike Patton of Faith No More. The group's appearance at All Tomorrow's Parties led to a dispute with ATP founder and organizer Barry Hogan, who told a reporter for the Village Voice that Butthole Surfers (along with Killing Joke and The Black Lips) would never play the festival again. The reunited 1986-1989 "classic" lineup continued to tour into 2009, with stops in the United States & Canada.
In Austin, Texas, during their last scheduled show for the North American/Canada 2008-2009 tour on October 31, 2009, Haynes said "We played our first show as the Butthole Surfers in Austin. And this may be our last." Haynes has not yet clarified this statement. Recently, Paul Leary and King Coffey have both stated that the band will tour again if they can pull off another album. Currently, Paul Leary is producing the debut album from Carny. Butthole Surfers played two shows in Austin at Scoot Inn during Halloween 2010. A report in The New York Times suggested that, even though Butthole Surfers had not released an album of new material since 2001, the "songs are practically incidental to the spectacle" after seeing them perform along with psychedelic band Lumerians in Brooklyn.
The line-up of Haynes, Leary, Pinkus, and Coffey did a 12-show tour of mostly western U.S. states and one appearance in Canada from August 26, 2011, to September 11, 2011.
As of 2016 the group are on hiatus, with Leary saying: "I just don't want to play live anymore. It's not fun, I don't like touring. That hour on stage is a whole lot of fun, but the other 23 hours off stage just fucking suck."
They performed at the Day for Night music festival in Houston, Texas, which ran December 17–18, 2016.
In an interview with The Quietus in March 2017, Leary talked about the group possibly making a new album, their first in 16 years: "We've all been busy with our own separate things, and I've done a lot of producing in the past few years, and I've got to the point now where I feel like I've done doing that for a while, so it's time to make a new Butthole Surfers album. Especially now that Trump is president, jeez! If there was ever a time for a Butthole Surfers album it's fucking now. It just doesn't get any weirder than that."
In March 2019, the band released a visual history coffee table book, Butthole Surfers: What Does Regret Mean?, with author Aaron Tanner.
Name
The band did not begin as Butthole Surfers, although they did have a song of that title, possibly an early version of 1984's "Butthole Surfer". This changed at their first paid concert, when an announcer forgot what the band was called and used the song title for the group's name. They decided to keep the moniker, and have largely been billed as such ever since. Prior to that, Butthole Surfers performed under a different name at every live show. Early aliases included The Dick Clark Five, Nine cm Worm Makes Own Food, The Vodka Family Winstons, Ashtray Babyheads, Ed Asner Is Gay, Fred Astaire's Asshole, The Right to Eat Fred Astaire's Asshole, Zipgun, The Inalienable Right to Eat Fred Astaire's Asshole, and many others. In a 1996 Rolling Stone interview, when asked if he could go back and choose a different name for the band, Haynes replied "I would name the band: I'm Going to Shit in Your Mother's Vagina."
The name has long been a source of trouble for the band. Many clubs, newspapers, radio, and TV stations refuse to print or mention their full name, and instead opt to use "B.H. Surfers" or other abbreviations.
Stan Lee's The Best of the World's Worst (Rhino Entertainment, 1994) ranked it fifth on a list of worst band names that was topped with Strawberry Alarm Clock.
Live performances
In the 1980s, Butthole Surfers earned a reputation for their disturbing live performances that were both decadent and violent. As a result, they began to attract a wide range of curiosity seekers within a few years of their debut, in addition to traditional fans of punk rock who had supported them from the beginning. A staged reproduction of the band's live show was filmed for 1988's Bar-B-Que Movie, a short Super 8 mm film movie directed by Alex Winter, who is best known as "Bill S. Preston, Esq." from Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. Bar-B-Que Movie is a spoof of 1974's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, and the film ends with a music video-style performance of the song "Fast" (a.k.a. "Fart Song"), featuring Haynes, Leary, Coffey, Nervosa, and Jeff Pinkus, as well as dancer Kathleen Lynch. The track displayed many of the band's stage gimmicks, such as the burning cymbal, strobe lights, films, and smoke.
By the time Lynch left in 1989, Butthole Surfers' stage show had become more predictable, with previously random shockers being done at the same point in each night's performance. Teresa Nervosa quit for good around the same time, and King Coffey became the band's sole percussionist. Strobe lights, smoke machines, and even Gibby Haynes' burning cymbal are still part of the presentation, but the chaotic spontaneity of their 1980s performances is no longer on display.
Appearance
Lead vocalist and saxophonist Haynes (who sometimes sang through a bullhorn), guitarist Paul Leary, dual drummers Coffey and Nervosa (the latter briefly replaced by Cabbage), and whichever bassist happened to be filling in at the time, had a visual aspect. As with their music, their appearance was exceptionally non-conventional in the early days, including sideways mohawks, dreadlocks, unnaturally colored hair, and the like.
Known for taking the stage at early concerts with hundreds of clothespins attached to his hair and clothes, Haynes would often strip throughout a show until he was down to his underwear, or less, by the end. Other attire included flasher-style trench coats over his nakedness, ridiculously home-styled wigs and cross-dressing; often employing a skirt made of an American flag and a large '60s torpedo-style stuffed bra. At other times he would hide condoms full of stage blood in his clothes and repeatedly fall to the floor, appearing to bleed profusely. Some of Haynes' other favorite tricks involved throwing handfuls of photocopied cockroach images into the crowd, rolls and rolls of toilet paper tossed across the audience, as well as filling an inverted cymbal with lighter fluid, setting it (and sometimes his hand) on fire, and repeatedly hitting it with a mallet. As previously mentioned he would sing through almost anything that would alter his voice, including toilet paper rolls and megaphones early on, which eventually evolved into "Gibby's kit", a.k.a. "Gibbytronix", a rack of vocal effects stacked as high as he could reach, before which he would often stand for the majority of the show in later performances. He also often utilized various foot switches which would be used to activate certain vocal effects, and when thought to be dancing during some performances he would actually be stepping on his various pedals. Adding to the spectacle were Coffey and Nervosa, who played in unison on stand-up drum kits; behind which they would collapse onto the floor and out of eyeshot, to collect their breath and strength before rising just in time to play the next song. Finally, the whole band would often tear apart stuffed animals while on stage, throwing the stuffing through the air, creating a rather disturbing throbbing effect, caused by the stroboscopes that were always on.
In 1986, they first met Lynch (a.k.a. Kathleen, a.k.a. Ta-Da the Shit Lady), who was then working at a strip club called Sex World in New York City. Though never an official member, she became Butthole Surfers' famous "naked dancer", performing intermittently with them through 1989. One show in Washington, D.C. with GWAR saw Kathleen take the stage to dance in nothing but gold body paint and antique wooden snow shoes. At another particularly wild concert in 1986, Haynes and Lynch, by now completely bald, reportedly engaged in sexual intercourse while on stage, as Leary used a screwdriver to vandalize the club's speakers. This came after only five songs, during which time Haynes had started a small fire.
Equipment
Butthole Surfers began to take the collection of visual equipment seriously following Coffey's recruitment in 1983, when he added a clear plastic drum fitted with a strobe light to their show. Shortly afterwards, the band purchased what was reported as several thousand dollars worth of stolen strobe lights at a bargain rate, and their visual equipment soon took up more space than their instruments. Smoke machines were later added. Equally memorable was the band's propensity for projecting a variety of films behind them as they played, beginning with one 16-millimeter projector, before adding others. This set-up allowed them to play a number of overlapping movies at the same time which were often strangely angled, upside down or played in reverse. Combined with the increasing number of strobe lights, the effect created a visually disorienting atmosphere, which occasionally caused epileptic seizures in audience members.
The films' subject matter were often as disturbing as the manner in which they were played; with images of accidents, nuclear explosions, meat processing, spiders and scorpions stalking prey, gory driver's education films, and penis reconstruction surgery. Not all of the movies were horrific, and they often included nature, wildlife, and aquatic footage; as well as a color negative of a Charlie's Angels episode.
Members
Though Butthole Surfers have been through numerous official and unofficial members since 1981, current members Gibby Haynes, Paul Leary, and King Coffey have been together since 1983.
Timeline
Discography
Psychic... Powerless... Another Man's Sac (1984)
Rembrandt Pussyhorse (1986)
Locust Abortion Technician (1987)
Hairway to Steven (1988)
piouhgd (1991)
Independent Worm Saloon (1993)
Electriclarryland (1996)
Weird Revolution'' (2001)
Footnotes
References
External links
Official Butthole Surfers website
Band's biography/discography
Butthole Surfers at Alternative Tentacles
Butthole Surfers collection on the Internet Archive's live music archive
Video documentary of a three day stay in Minneapolis MN 1985
Alternative rock groups from Texas
Psychedelic rock music groups from Texas
Alternative Tentacles artists
Blast First artists
Capitol Records artists
Hollywood Records artists
Musical groups established in 1981
American experimental rock groups
American noise rock music groups
Rough Trade Records artists
Touch and Go Records artists
Trance Syndicate artists
Musical groups from San Antonio
Neo-psychedelia groups
Hardcore punk groups from Texas
Music of Austin, Texas | [
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239059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradesman | Tradesman | A tradesman or tradesperson is a skilled worker that specializes in a particular trade (occupation or field of work). Tradesmen usually have work experience, on-the-job training, and often formal vocational education in contrast to an apprentice, who is learning the trade.
As opposed to a craftsman or an artisan the occupation of a tradesman is not necessarily restricted to manual work.
History
In Victorian England:
The terms "skilled worker," "craftsman," "artisan," and "tradesman" were used in senses that overlap. All describe people with specialized training in the skills needed for a particular kind of work. Some of them produced goods that they sold from their own premises (e.g. bootmakers, saddlers, hatmakers, jewelers, glassblowers); others (e.g. typesetters, bookbinders, wheelwrights) were employed to do one part of the production in a business that required a variety of skilled workers. Still others were factory hands who had become experts in some complex part of the process and could command high wages and steady employment. Skilled workers in the building trades (e.g. carpenters, masons, plumbers, painters, plasterers, glaziers) were also referred to by one or another of these terms.
One study of Caversham, New Zealand at the turn of the century notes that a skilled trade was considered a trade that required an apprenticeship to entry. Skilled tradesmen worked either in traditional handicraft workshops or newer factories that emerged during the Industrial Revolution. Traditional handicraft roles included, for example: "sail-maker, candle-maker, cooper, japanner, lapidary and taxidermist, canister-maker, furrier, cap-maker, dobbin-maker, french-polisher, baker, miller, brewer, confectioner, watch-maker, tinsmith, glazier, maltster, wood-turner, saddler, shipwright, scale-maker, engraver and cutler."
Modern use and list of skilled trades
Tradesmen are contrasted with unskilled workers, agricultural workers, and professionals (those in the learned professions). Skilled tradesmen are distinguished:
from unskilled workers such as bus drivers, truck drivers, cleaning laborers, and landscapers in that the unskilled workers "rely heavily on physical exertion" while those in the skilled trades rely on and are known for "specific knowledge, skills, and abilities." Both types of work, however, are considered blue-collar.
from professionals in that the professionals require more education and have a higher duty of care and routinely make decisions "on the basis of expertise and ability in complex situations where there may be no, or little, previous history."
There is no definitive list of modern skilled trades, as definitions vary, with some lists being broader than others.
Earnings and social standing
A British study found that, after taking student loan repayments into account, a higher apprenticeship (at level 5 in the national qualifications frameworks) delivered higher lifetime median earnings than a degree from a university outside the Russell Group. Despite this, polling for the report found that apprenticeships have a lower perceived value than bachelor's degrees.
Data from the United States shows that, although vocational education is usually less financially lucrative in the long term than a bachelor's degree, it can still provide a respectable income at much less cost in time and money for training. Even ten years after graduation, there are many people with a certificate or associate degree who earn more money than those with a B.A.
The average taxable income for the top trades in Australia can be up to $100,000, while the average for all Australians is $85,800. As of 2020, the fastest growing trades in demand are Fencing, Handyman and Roofing.
See also
Artisan
Grey-collar worker
Guild
Journeyman
List of construction trades
Master craftsman
Renovation
Skilled worker
Trade union
Technician
Vocational education
References
Artisans
Occupations
Skilled tradespeople
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239060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey%20de%20Havilland | Geoffrey de Havilland | Captain Sir Geoffrey de Havilland, (27 July 1882 – 21 May 1965) was an English aviation pioneer and aerospace engineer. The aircraft company he founded produced the Mosquito, which has been considered the most versatile warplane ever built, and his Comet was the first jet airliner to go into production.
Early life
Born at Magdala House, Terriers, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, de Havilland was the second son of The Reverend Charles de Havilland (1854–1920) and his first wife, Alice Jeannette (née Saunders) (1854–1911). He was educated at Nuneaton Grammar School, St Edward's School, Oxford and the Crystal Palace School of Engineering (from 1900 to 1903).
Upon graduating from engineering training, de Havilland pursued a career in automotive engineering, building cars and motorcycles. He took an apprenticeship with engine manufacturers Willans & Robinson of Rugby, after which he worked as a draughtsman for The Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company Limited in Birmingham, a job from which he resigned after a year. He then spent two years working in the design office of Motor Omnibus Construction Company Limited in Walthamstow. While there he designed his first aero engine and had the first prototype made by Iris Motor Company of Willesden.
He married in 1909 and almost immediately embarked on the career of designing, building and flying aircraft to which he devoted the rest of his life.
Aviation career
Built with money borrowed from his maternal grandfather, de Havilland's first aircraft took two years to build. Unfortunately, he crashed it during its first very short flight at Seven Barrows near Litchfield, Hampshire in December 1909. He built a fresh biplane, making his first flight in it from a meadow near Newbury in September 1910. A memorial plaque presently marks the event. Subsequent designs were even more successful: in 1912 he established a new British altitude record of 10,500 feet (3.2 km) in an aircraft of his design, the B.E.2. Geoffrey was the designer and his brother Hereward was the test pilot.
In December 1910, de Havilland joined HM Balloon Factory at Farnborough, which was to become the Royal Aircraft Factory. He sold his second aeroplane (which he had used to teach himself to fly) to his new employer for £400. It became the F.E.1, the first aircraft to bear an official Royal Aircraft Factory designation. For the next three years, de Havilland designed, or participated in the design of, a number of experimental types at the "Factory". He was commissioned a second lieutenant (on probation) in the Royal Flying Corps on 2 September 1912, was appointed a reserve officer in the RFC on 24 November and was confirmed in his rank on 25 December.
In December 1913, de Havilland was appointed an inspector of aircraft for the Aeronautical Inspection Directorate. Unhappy at leaving design work, in May 1914 he was recruited to become the chief designer at Airco, in Hendon. He designed many aircraft for Airco, all designated by his initials, DH. Large numbers of de Havilland-designed aircraft were used during the First World War, flown by the Royal Flying Corps/Royal Air Force. De Havilland continued to serve in the RFC during the war. On 5 August 1914, he was promoted to lieutenant and appointed a flying officer in the RFC from the same date. He was briefly stationed in Montrose on the east coast of Scotland as an officer on war duty. Flying a Blériot, he was to protect British shipping from German U-boats. After a few weeks, he was released from this duty and returned to Airco. However, he nominally remained in the service until the end of the war. On 30 April 1916, he was promoted to captain and appointed a flight commander.
His employer, Airco, was bought in early 1920 by armaments group Birmingham Small Arms Company but discovering it was less than worthless BSA shut down Airco in July 1920. With the help of former Airco owner George Holt Thomas he formed de Havilland Aircraft Company employing some former colleagues. Pleased and impressed by the aircraft they built for him Alan Butler, thereafter company chairman, provided the capital to buy premises and then the airfield at Stag Lane Aerodrome, Edgware, where he and his colleagues designed and built a large number of aircraft, including the Moth family. One of his roles was as a test pilot for the company's aircraft.
In 1928 the subsidiary company De Havilland Canada was created to build Moth aircraft for the training of Canadian airmen. After the Second World War, it went on to design and produce a number of indigenous types, some of which proved highly successful.
In 1933 the company moved to Hatfield Aerodrome in Hertfordshire.
In 1944 he bought out his friend and engine designer Frank Halfords's consultancy firm, forming the de Havilland Engine Company with Halford as the head. Halford had previously designed a number of engines for de Havilland, including the de Havilland Gipsy and de Havilland Gipsy Major. Halford's first gas turbine design entered production as the de Havilland Goblin powering de Havilland's first jet, the Vampire.
De Havilland controlled the company until it was bought by the Hawker Siddeley Company in 1960. His financial backer, Alan Butler, remained a very involved chairman until he retired in 1950.
Retirement and death
De Havilland retired from active involvement in his company in 1955, though remaining as president. He continued flying up to the age of 70 making his final flight in a DH85 Leopard Moth, G-ACMA. He died aged 82, of a cerebral haemorrhage, on 21 May 1965 at Watford Peace Memorial Hospital, Hertfordshire.
Honours
De Havilland was made an OBE (Military Division) in the 1918 Birthday Honours, and was honoured with a CBE (Civil Division) in the 1934 Birthday Honours. He was decorated with the Air Force Cross (AFC) in the 1919 New Year Honours, in recognition of his service in the First World War. He was knighted in the 1944 New Year Honours, and was invested with his knighthood by George VI at Buckingham Palace on 15 February 1944. He was appointed to the Order of Merit (OM) in November 1962. He received numerous national and international gold and silver medals and honorary fellowships of learned and engineering societies, including the Gold Medal of the Royal Aero Club in 1947 and again in 1963.
In 1972 de Havilland was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame.
A statue of de Havilland was erected in July 1997 near the entrance to the College Lane campus of the University of Hertfordshire in Hatfield. He was a benefactor of the university, having given land adjoining the A1 to Hertfordshire County Council in 1951 for its precursor, the Hatfield Technical College. The statue was unveiled by the Duke of Edinburgh.
Family
The actresses Olivia de Havilland and Joan Fontaine were de Havilland's cousins; his father, Charles, and their father, Walter, were half-brothers. His younger brother, Hereward de Havilland, was also a noted pioneer aviator and test pilot. Sir Anthony de Havilland (1969 - ) is a direct descendent of James de Havilland (1553 - 1613) who migrated from Guernsey to Poole in Dorset and was granted the trade license for Poole.
In 1909, Geoffrey de Havilland married Louise Thomas, who had formerly been governess to de Havilland's sisters. They had three sons, Peter, Geoffrey and John. Two of the sons died as test pilots in de Havilland aircraft. His youngest son, John, died in an air collision involving two Mosquitoes in 1943. Geoffrey Jr carried out the first flights of the Mosquito and Vampire and was killed in 1946 flying the jet-powered DH 108 Swallow while diving at or near the speed of sound. Louise suffered a nervous breakdown following these deaths and died in 1949. De Havilland remarried in 1951, to Joan Mary Frith (1900–1974). They remained married until his death.
Posthumous
In 1975, de Havilland's 1961 autobiography, Sky Fever, was re-published by Peter and Anne de Havilland. It was originally published by Hamish Hamilton.
See also
de Havilland Aircraft Museum, London Colney, Hertfordshire
References
Notes
Bibliography
De Havilland, Geoffrey. Sky Fever: The Autobiography of Sir Geoffrey de Havilland. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press Ltd., 1999.
Smith, Ron. British Built Aircraft: Greater London. Stroud, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2002.
External links
Sir Geoffrey De Havilland (1882–1965), Aircraft designer and manufacturer: Sitter in 11 portraits
1882 births
1965 deaths
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
De Havilland
Geoffrey
English aerospace engineers
English aviators
Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society
Harmon Trophy winners
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Order of Merit
Neurological disease deaths in England
People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford
People from High Wycombe
People from Fulham
Fulham
History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)
Royal Aeronautical Society Gold Medal winners
Royal Flying Corps officers
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
20th-century English businesspeople | [
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239062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airwaves%20%28Badfinger%20album%29 | Airwaves (Badfinger album) | Airwaves is the eighth studio album released by British rock band Badfinger in 1979 on the Elektra label (a sister label to Warner Bros. Records, their previous label), the seventh album released that was credited to Badfinger. Anticipated as a comeback album for the group at the time, expectations were not quite realised, as the "group" now consisted of just the duo of Tom Evans and Joey Molland, accompanied by guitarist Joe Tansin and various session musicians.
History
Following the "hold" placed on the last Badfinger album, Head First, and the suicide of group co-founder Pete Ham in 1975, Badfinger disbanded, and the remaining members joined various other groups or dropped out of music for the next two years.
At the behest of Chicago musicians Joe Tansin (guitar/vocals) and Kenny Harck (drums), the then-unemployed Joey Molland formed a new group with the duo in Los Angeles. Molland later enticed his fellow former Badfinger member Tom Evans to also join the unnamed band.
After the band shopped demonstration records around the L.A. area, they discovered they would have more marketing power if they revived the Badfinger moniker. Although the name helped the group open doors to potential record labels, it also caused an inequality and friction between old and new Badfinger members within the band. As recordings commenced for the album, Harck was released by the band. Former Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins auditioned for the group but was not hired, and session musician Andy Newmark was finally brought in for the drum tracks. Tansin, whose songs were largely bypassed during production in favour of Evans and Molland tunes, quit the group immediately upon the album's completion.
With a short running time and basically only eight songs, Airwaves did not leave a strong impression on music reviewers upon its release. Critics also complained about the album's "West coast" production and the loss of the famous Badfinger sound. Molland, however, has often defended the album and its production. The band toured frequently in support of the album, but sales figures failed to garner optimism with Elektra and the label passed on issuing a follow-up LP.
Two singles were released from the album. "Lost Inside Your Love" did not enter the US charts, "Love Is Gonna Come at Last" managed a peak position at number 69 on Billboard. The actual album peaked at number 125 on the US charts.
Track listing
Side one
"Airwaves" (Evans/Molland) – 0:29
"Look Out California" (Evans) – 3:27
"Lost Inside Your Love" (Evans) – 2:42
"Love Is Gonna Come at Last" (Molland) – 3:37
"Sympathy" (Tansin) – 4:28
Side two
"The Winner" (Tansin) – 3:26
"The Dreamer" (Molland) – 5:20
"Come Down Hard" (Molland) – 3:48
"Sail Away" (Evans) – 3:31
1997 CD bonus tracks
+ Produced by Joe Tansin
++ Produced by Joey Molland
Personnel
As listed in liner notes of 1999 re-issue.
Badfinger
Tom Evans – lead vocals (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9), backing vocals (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10), bass (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8)
Joey Molland – lead vocals (4, 6, 7, 8, 13), backing vocals (3, 4, 5, 6, 7), electric and acoustic guitars (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13), electric piano (5)
Additional musicians
Joe Tansin – lead vocals (10, 11, 12, 14), co-lead vocal (6), backing vocals (3, 4, 6, 10, 14), electric and acoustic guitars (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14), mandolin (14), keyboards (11, 12)
Peter Clark – "leg, hands and feet" (1)
Nicky Hopkins – piano (3, 7, 9), Hammond organ (7)
Duane Hitchings – synthesizer (2, 6), piano (6)
Harry Pulver, Jr. – piano (13)
Scott Greer – piano (14)
Rick Salon – slide guitar (14)
Tom Lecher – bass (13)
Ken Harck – drums (2, 5), cardboard box (10), tom-toms (12)
Andy Newmark – drums (3, 8)
Steve Foreman – drums (6), percussion (4, 5, 7)
Bob Millea – drums (13)
Barry Sperti – saxophone (12)
David Malloy – backing vocals (2)
Dean Ford – backing vocals (14)
David Campbell – string arrangement (9)
Charts
References
Badfinger albums
1979 albums
Elektra Records albums
Albums produced by David Malloy | [
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239064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergamo | Bergamo | Bergamo (; ; from the proto-Germanic elements *berg +*heim, the "mountain home") is a city in the alpine Lombardy region of northern Italy, approximately northeast of Milan, and about from Switzerland, the alpine lakes Como and Iseo and 70 km (43 mi) from Garda and Maggiore. The Bergamo Alps (Alpi Orobie) begin immediately north of the city.
With a population of around 120,000, Bergamo is the fourth-largest city in Lombardy. Bergamo is the seat of the Province of Bergamo.
The metropolitan area of Bergamo extends beyond the administrative city limits, spanning over a densely urbanized area with slightly less than 500,000 inhabitants. The Bergamo metropolitan area is itself part of the broader Milan metropolitan area, home to over 8 million people.
The city of Bergamo is composed of an old walled core, known as Città Alta ("Upper Town"), nestled within a system of hills, and the modern expansion in the plains below. The upper town is encircled by massive Venetian defensive systems that are a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 9 July 2017.
Bergamo is well connected to several cities in Italy, thanks to the motorway A4 stretching on the axis between Milan, Verona, and Venice. The city is served by Il Caravaggio International Airport, the third-busiest airport in Italy with 12.3 million passengers in 2017. Bergamo is the second most visited city in Lombardy after Milan.
History
Antiquity
Bergamo occupies the site of the ancient town of Bergomum, founded as a settlement of the Celtic tribe of Cenomani. In 49 BCE it became a Roman municipality, containing c. 10,000 inhabitants at its peak. An important hub on the military road between Friuli and Raetia, it was destroyed by Attila in the 5th century.
Middle Ages
From the 6th century Bergamo was the seat of one of the most important Lombard duchies of northern Italy, together with Brescia, Trento, and Cividale del Friuli: its first Lombard duke was Wallaris.
After the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne, it became the seat of a county under one Auteramus (d. 816). An important Lombardic hoard dating from the 6th to 7th centuries was found in the vicinity of the city in the 19th century and is now in the British Museum.
From the 11th century onwards, Bergamo was an independent commune, taking part in the Lombard League which defeated Frederick I Barbarossa in 1165. The local Guelph and Ghibelline factions were the Colleoni and Suardi, respectively.
Feuding between the two initially caused the family of Omodeo Tasso to flee north , but he returned to Bergamo in the later 13th century to organize the city's couriers: this would eventually lead to the Imperial Thurn und Taxis dynasty generally credited with organizing the first modern postal service.
Early modern
After a short period under the House of Malatesta starting from 1407, Bergamo was ceded in 1428 by the Duchy of Milan to the Republic of Venice in the context of the Wars in Lombardy and the aftermath of the 1427 Battle of Maclodio.
Despite the brief interlude granted by the Treaty of Lodi in 1454, the uneasy balance of power among the Northern Italian states precipitated the Italian Wars, a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, also the Papal States, France, and the Holy Roman Empire.
The wars, which were both a result and cause of Venetian involvement in the power politics of mainland Italy, prompted Venice to assert its direct rule over its mainland domains.
As much of the fighting during the Italian Wars took place during sieges, increasing levels of fortification were adopted, using such new developments as detached bastions that could withstand sustained artillery fire.
The Treaty of Campo Formio (17 October 1797) formally recognized the inclusion of Bergamo and other parts of Northern Italy into the Cisalpine Republic, a "sister republic" of the French First Republic that was superseded in 1802 by the short-lived Napoleonic Italian Republic and in 1805 by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.
Late modern and contemporary
At the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Bergamo was assigned to the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a crown land of the Austrian Empire. The visit of Ferdinand I in 1838 coincided with the opening of the new boulevard stretching into the plains, leading to the railway station that was inaugurated in 1857.
The Austrian rule was at first welcomed, but later challenged by Italian independentist insurrections in 1848.
Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered Bergamo in 1859, during the Second Italian War of Independence. As a result, the city was incorporated into the newly founded Kingdom of Italy.
For its contribution to the Italian unification movement, Bergamo is also known as Città dei Mille ("City of the Thousand"), because a significant part of the rank-and-file supporting Giuseppe Garibaldi in his expedition against the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies came from Bergamo and its environs.
During the twentieth century, Bergamo became one of Italy's most industrialized areas.
In 1907, Marcello Piacentini devised a new urban master plan that was implemented between 1912 and 1927, in a style reminiscent of Novecento Italiano and Modernist Rationalism.
The 2017 43rd G7 summit on agriculture was held in Bergamo, in the context of the broader international meeting organized in Taormina. The "Charter of Bergamo" is an international commitment, signed during the summit, to reduce hunger worldwide by 2030, strengthen cooperation for agricultural development in Africa, and ensure price transparency.
In early 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, Bergamo's healthcare system was overwhelmed by patients with COVID-19. There were reports of doctors confronted with ethical dilemmas with too few ICU beds and mechanical ventilation systems. Morgues were overwhelmed, and images of military trucks carrying the bodies of COVID-19 victims out of the city were shared worldwide. Doctors pleaded with the rest of Italy, Europe, and the world to take the COVID-19 pandemic seriously. An investigative report by The New York Times found that faulty guidance and bureaucratic delays rendered the toll far worse than it had to be.
Geography
Climate
Cityscape
The town has two centres: Città alta ("upper city"), a hilltop medieval town, surrounded by 16th-century defensive walls, and the Città bassa ("lower city"). The two parts of the town are connected by funicular, roads, and footpaths.
Upper city
The upper city, surrounded by Venetian walls built in the 16th century, forms the historic centre of Bergamo.
Walking along the narrow medieval streets, you can visit numerous places of interest including:
Cittadella (Citadel), built under the rule of the Visconti in the mid-14th century.
Piazza Vecchia
Palazzo della Ragione. This was the seat of the administration of the city in the medieval municipal period. Built in the 12th century, it was revamped in the late 16th century by Pietro Isabello. The façade has the Lion of Saint Mark over a mullioned window, testifying to the long period of Venetian rule. The atrium has a well-preserved 18th-century sundial.
Palazzo Nuovo (Biblioteca Civica Angelo Mai). It was designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi in the early 17th century and completed in 1928.
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. It was built from 1137 on the site of a previous religious edifice of the 7th century. Construction continued until the 15th century. Of this first building the external Romanesque structure and the Greek cross plan remain. The interior was extensively modified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Noteworthy are the great Crucifix and the tomb of Gaetano Donizetti.
Cappella Colleoni, annexed to Santa Maria Maggiore, is a masterwork of Renaissance architecture and decorative art. It contains the tomb of Bartolomeo Colleoni.
Battistero (Baptistry), an elegant octagonal building dating from 1340.
Bergamo Cathedral. It was built in the late 17th century with later modifications.
Rocca. It was begun in 1331 on the hill of Sant'Eufemia by William of Castelbarco, vicar of John of Bohemia, and later completed by Azzone Visconti. A wider citadel was added, but is now partly lost.
San Michele al Pozzo Bianco. Built in the 12th century, this church contains several frescoes from the 12th to the 16th centuries, including paintings by Lorenzo Lotto.
Tempietto di Santa Croce. Small 12th century octagonal Romanesque chapel.
Museo Civico Archeologico. It is housed in the Cittadella.
Museo di Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi. It is housed in the Cittadella.
Orto Botanico di Bergamo "Lorenzo Rota" (botanical garden).
Lower city
The lower city is the modern centre of Bergamo. At the end of the 19th century Città Bassa was composed of residential neighborhoods built along the main roads that linked Bergamo to the other cities of Lombardy. The main boroughs were Borgo Palazzo along the road to Brescia, Borgo San Leonardo along the road to Milan and Borgo Santa Caterina along the road to Serio Valley. The city rapidly expanded during the 20th century. In the first decades, the municipality erected major buildings like the new courthouse and various administrative offices in the lower part of Bergamo in order to create a new center of the city. After World War II many residential buildings were constructed in the lower part of the city which are now divided into twenty-five neighborhoods:
Boccaleone
Borgo Palazzo
Borgo Santa Caterina
Campagnola
Carnovali
Celadina
Centro-Papa Giovanni XXIII
Centro-Pignolo
Centro-Sant'Alessandro
Città Alta
Colli
Colognola
Conca Fiorita
Grumello del Piano
Longuelo
Malpensata
Monterosso
Redona
San Paolo
San Tomaso de' Calvi
Santa Lucia (Bergamo)|Santa Lucia
Valtesse-San Colombano
Valverde con Valtesse-Sant'Antonio
Villaggio degli Sposi
The most relevant sites are:
Accademia Carrara
Galleria d'Arte Moderna e Contemporanea (GAMeC, Gallery of Modern and Contemporary Art).
Government
Demographics
In 2010, there were 119,551 people residing in Bergamo (in which the greater area has about 500 000 inhabitants), located in the province of Bergamo, Lombardia, of whom 46.6% were male and 53.4% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 16.79 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 23.61 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 17.88 percent (minors) and 20.29 percent (pensioners).
The average age of Bergamo residents is 45 compared to the Italian average of 43. In the eight years between 2002 and 2010, the population of Bergamo grew by 5.41 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 5.77 percent.
Economy
Bergamo is situated in Lombardy, Italy's northern region where about a quarter of the country's GDP is produced.
Nowadays, the city has an advanced tertiary economy focussed on banking, retail, and services associated to the industrial sector of its province. Corporations and firms linked to the city include UBI banking group, Brembo (braking systems), Tenaris (steel), and ABB (power and automation technology).
Culture
Notable natives
Bergamo was the hometown and last resting place of Enrico Rastelli, a highly technical and world-famous juggler who lived in the town and, in 1931, died there at the early age of 34. There is a life-sized statue of Rastelli within his mausoleum. A number of painters were active in the town as well; among these were Giovanni Paolo Cavagna, Francesco Zucco, and Enea Salmeggia, each of whom painted works for the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Sculptor Giacomo Manzù and the bass-baritone opera singer Alex Esposito were born in Bergamo.
The American electrical engineer and professor Andrew Viterbi, inventor of Viterbi's algorithm, was born in Bergamo, before migrating to the US during the Fascist era because of his Jewish origins. Designers born in Bergamo include the late Mariuccia Mandelli, the founder of Krizia and one of the first female fashion designers to create a successful line of men's wear.
Sports
Bergamo's football team is Atalanta who play in the top level Serie A at the Stadio Atleti Azzurri d'Italia.
The city has a women's volleyball team named Foppapedretti Bergamo.
The city is also home to the Bergamo Lions American football team, one of the most successful in European Football League history, winning multiple Eurobowls.
The Olympic gold medalist skier Sofia Goggia was born in Bergamo in 1992. She won the gold medal in downhill skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics and the silver medal at the 2022 Winter Olympics.
The Olympic gold medalist snowboarder Michela Moioli was born in a town in the metropolitan area of Bergamo in 1995. She won the gold medal in snowboard cross at the 2018 Winter Olympics and the silver medal in mixed team snowboard cross at the 2022 Winter Olympics.
Education
Transportation
Airport
Bergamo is served by Il Caravaggio International Airport south-east of the town. The city is also served by Milan Linate Airport south-west of Bergamo.
Motorway
Motorway A4 is the main axis connecting the city with the east and the west of the country, to cities such as Milan, Turin, Venice and Trieste.
Railway
Bergamo railway station is connected to Milan, Lecco, Cremona, Treviglio, Brescia and Monza with regional trains operated by Trenord.
The city is also served by two daily Frecciargento services to Rome operated by Trenitalia.
Urban transport
Transport within Bergamo is managed by ATB and includes a network of bus lines together with two funicular systems opened in 1887 ("Funicolare di Bergamo Alta") and in 1912 ("Funicolare di Bergamo San Vigilio"). The Bergamo–Albino light rail was inaugurated in 2009.
Two light rail lines are currently in the planning stage:
Line 2 Bergamo FS - Villa d'Almè - San Pellegrino Terme
Line 3 Hospital-Railway Station FS-Trade Fair - Bergamo Airport
International relations
Twin towns − sister cities
Bergamo is twinned with:
Greenville, United States, since 1985
Pueblo, United States
Mulhouse, France, since 1989
Tver', Russia, since 1989
Bengbu, People's Republic of China, since 1988
Cochabamba, Bolivia, since 2008
Olkusz, Poland, since 2009
Bergamo has a partnership with:
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland
Bolesław, Poland
Posadas, Argentina, as Friendship and Cooperation city since 1998
Consulates
Bergamo is home to the following consulates:
Bolivia
Malawi
Switzerland
Notable people
Giovanni Michele Alberto da Carrara
Gaetano Donizetti
Giacomo Manzù
Lorenzo Lotto
Andrea Previtali
Pietro Locatelli
Gianandrea Gavazzeni
Francesco Akira
See also
San Benedetto, Bergamo
San Bernardino in Pignolo, Bergamo
San Michele al Pozzo Bianco
References
Further reading
External links
Municipality of Bergamo official website
Visit Bergamo
Castles in Italy
History of Bergamo | [
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239068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumber | Plumber | A plumber is a tradesperson who specializes in installing and maintaining systems used for potable (drinking) water, and for sewage and drainage in plumbing systems.
History
The origin of the word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire. Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes and some were also covered with lead; lead was also used for piping and for making baths. The Latin for lead is . In medieval times, anyone who worked with lead was referred to as a plumber; this can be seen from an extract about workmen fixing a roof in Westminster Palace; they were referred to as plumbers: "To Gilbert de Westminster, plumber, working about the roof of the pantry of the little hall, covering it with lead, and about various defects in the roof of the little hall". Thus a person with expertise in working with lead was first known as a Plumbarius which was later shortened to plumber.
Plumbing activities
Years of training and/or experience are needed to become a skilled plumber; some jurisdictions also require that plumbers be licensed.
Common plumbing tasks and skills include:
Reading drawings and specifications, to determine the layout of water supply, waste, and venting systems
Detecting faults in plumbing appliances and systems, and correctly diagnosing their causes
Installing, repairing and maintaining domestic, commercial, and industrial plumbing fixtures and systems
Locating and marking positions for pipe connections, passage holes, and fixtures in walls and floors
Measuring, cutting, bending, and threading pipes using hand and power tools or machines
Joining pipes and fittings together using soldering techniques, compression fittings, threaded fittings, solvent weld, crimp and push-fit fittings.
Testing pipes for leaks using air or water pressure gauges
Paying attention, in all work undertaken, to legal regulations and safety issues
Ensuring that all safety standards and building regulations are met.
United States
Each state and locality may have its own licensing and taxing schemes for plumbers. Some states license journeymen and master plumbers separately, while others license only master plumbers. To become licensed, plumbers must meet standards for training and experience, and in most cases, pass a certification exam. There is no federal law establishing licenses for plumbers.
Canada
In Canada, licensing requirements differ by province; however, the provinces have pooled resources to develop an Interprovincial Program Guide that developed and now maintains apprenticeship training standards across all provinces. The Red Seal Program, formally known as the Interprovincial Standards Red Seal Program, is a program that sets common standards to assess the skills of tradespeople across Canada. The Red Seal, when affixed to a provincial or territorial trade certificate, indicates that a tradesperson has demonstrated the knowledge required for the national standard in that trade.
United Kingdom
National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) remained the main form of plumbing qualification until they were superseded in 2008 by the Qualification and Credit Framework (QCF) and then again, in 2015, into the National qualifications frameworks in the United Kingdom. The terms NVQ and SVQ (Scottish Vocational Qualification) are still widely used.
Plumbers in the United Kingdom are required to pass Level 2 and Level 3 vocational requirements of the City and Guilds of London Institute. There are several regulatory bodies in the United Kingdom providing accredited plumbing qualifications, including City and Guilds of London Institute and Pearson PLC.
Ireland
In Ireland, a 4-year apprenticeship plus qualification exam was necessary for someone to practice professionally. Accreditation of businesses is of great help in order to show their credibility and experience in the job.
Australia
Plumbing work is defined in the Australian Standards (AS3500) Regulations 2013 and refers to any operation, work or process in connection with installation, removal, demolition, replacement, alteration, maintenance or repair to the system of pipes and fixtures that conveys clean water into and liquid waste out of a building.
To become a licensed plumber a four year apprenticeship and a Certificate III in Plumbing is required.
As part of this course, instruction in the basics of gas fitting will be undertaken. Upon completion, these basics in gas fitting will allow the plumber to not only apply for his plumbing license but also an interim gas license and carry out gas work under the supervision of a fully qualified gas fitter.
To obtain a full gas license from the Department of Mines and Energy, the plumber will need to have worked on an interim gas license for a minimum period of twelve months and successfully completed a Certificate IV in Plumbing.
Dangers
There are many types of dangers to a plumber. These include electric shock, strains and sprains, cuts and lacerations, bruises and contusions, fractures, burns and scalds, foreign bodies in the eye, and hernias. Working at height or in confined spaces, or working with lead and asbestos are all on-site dangers that plumbers can face.
Infectious disease risks
Plumbers risk infections when dealing with human waste while repairing sewage systems. Microbes can be excreted in the faecal matter or vomit of the sufferer onto the toilet or sewage pipes. Human waste can contain infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, ascariasis, and schistosomiasis.
Other uses
The term "White House Plumbers" was a popular name given to the covert White House Special Investigations Unit established on July 24, 1971, during the presidency of Richard Nixon. Their job was to plug intelligence "leaks" in the U.S. Government relating to the Vietnam War (i.e. the Pentagon Papers); hence the term "plumbers".
See also
Pipefitter
Piping
References
Construction trades workers
Industrial occupations | [
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239071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welder | Welder | In a broad sense, a welder is anyone, amateur or professional, who uses welding equipment, perhaps especially one who uses such equipment fairly often. In a narrower sense, a welder is a tradesperson who specializes in fusing materials together. The term welder refers to the operator, the machine is referred to as the welding power supply. The materials to be joined can be metals (such as steel, aluminum, brass, stainless steel etc.) or varieties of plastic or polymer. Welders typically have to have good dexterity and attention to detail, as well as technical knowledge about the materials being joined and best practices in the field.
Safety issues
Welding, without the proper precautions appropriate for the process, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice. However, with the use of new technology and proper protection, the risks of injury and death associated with welding can be greatly reduced. Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or a flame, the risk of burns is significant. To prevent them, welders wear personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes the inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Full face welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a faceplate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, opaque welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.<ref name="Cary">Cary, Howard B. and Scott C. Helzer (2005). Modern Welding Technology. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. .</ref>
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides, which in some cases can lead to medical conditions like metal fume fever. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce fumes and various gases, most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Furthermore, because the use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes pose an explosion and fire risk, some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace. Welders with expertise in welding pressurized vessels, including submarine hulls, industrial boilers, and power plant heat exchangers and boilers, are generally referred to as boilermakers.
A lot of welders relate to getting small electrical shocks from their equipment. Occasionally, welders might work in damp crowded environments and they consider it to be a "part of the job." Welders can be shocked by faulty conditions in the welding circuit, or, from the work lead clamp, a grounded power tool that is on the bench (the workpiece or the electrode). All of these types of shocks come from the welding electrode terminal. Often these shocks are minor and are misdiagnosed as being an issue with a power tool or the power supply to the welder’s area. However, the more likely cause is from stray welding current which occurs when current from the welding cables leaks into the welder’s work area. Often this is not a serious problem, however, under the right circumstances, this can be fatal to the welder or anyone else inside the work area. When a welder feels a shock, they should take a minute to inspect the welding cables and ensure that they are clean and dry, and, that there are no cracks or gouges out of the rubber casing around the wire. These precautions may be life-saving to the welders.
Notable welders
Notable people who have worked as welders include:
İshak Alaton, Turkish businessman and investor
Steve Baer, passive-solar-energy designer/manufacturer, and author
Lucian Boz, Romanian literary critic, essayist, novelist, poet and translator
Bevan Braithwaite, chief executive of The Welding Institute
Hardcore Holly, American semi-retired professional wrestler
Mark Honadel, American businessman, former professional metal fabricator, welding instructor, industrial manager and politician
William A. Schmidt, American welder, shop foreman and politician
Stefan Löfven, Prime Minister of Sweden
Werner Herzog, German film director
Honoré Sharrer, American painter
Mohammad Abbas (cricketer), Pakistani cricketer
Jesse James (entrepreneur) West Coast Choppers custom vehicle maker and American television personality
Jessi Combs Host of Overhaulin', American professional racer, television personality, and metal fabricator.
Paul Teutul Sr. Founder of Orange County Choppers, Custom Motorcycle Manufacturing
Paul Teutul Jr. Co-Owner of Orange County Choppers, Custom Motorcycle Manufacturing
Billy Connolly Scottish Stand-up Comedian, Actor, Welded at a Shipyard in his youth.
Nyu Kok Meng, a Malaysian who formerly worked as a welder in Singapore prior to becoming an armed robber in the high-profile 1983 Andrew Road triple murders. He was currently released since 2005 after serving a life sentence and receiving 6 strokes of the cane for armed robbery.
See also
References
Further reading
ASM International (2003). Trends in Welding Research. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
Hicks, John (1999). Welded Joint Design. New York: Industrial Press. .
Kalpakjian, Serope and Steven R. Schmid (2001). Manufacturing Engineering and Technology''. Prentice Hall. .
Construction trades workers
Metalworking occupations
Production occupations | [
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239076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded%20metal%20arc%20welding | Shielded metal arc welding | Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to lay the weld.
An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. The workpiece and the electrode melts forming a pool of molten metal (weld pool) that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of heavy steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.
Development
After the discovery of the short pulsed electric arc in 1800 by Humphry Davy and of the continuous electric arc in 1802 by Vasily Petrov, there was little development in electrical welding until Auguste de Méritens developed a carbon arc torch that was patented in 1881.
In 1885, Nikolay Benardos and Stanisław Olszewski developed carbon arc welding, obtaining American patents from 1887 showing a rudimentary electrode holder. In 1888, the consumable metal electrode was invented by Nikolay Slavyanov. Later in 1890, C. L. Coffin received for his arc welding method that utilized a metal electrode. The process, like SMAW, deposited melted electrode metal into the weld as filler.
Around 1900, Arthur Percy Strohmenger and Oscar Kjellberg released the first coated electrodes. Strohmenger used clay and lime coating to stabilize the arc, while Kjellberg dipped iron wire into mixtures of carbonates and silicates to coat the electrode. In 1912, Strohmenger released a heavily coated electrode, but high cost and complex production methods prevented these early electrodes from gaining popularity. In 1927, the development of an extrusion process reduced the cost of coating electrodes while allowing manufacturers to produce more complex coating mixtures designed for specific applications. In the 1950s, manufacturers introduced iron powder into the flux coating, making it possible to increase the welding speed.
In 1945 Karl Kristian Masden described an automated variation of SMAW, now known as gravity welding. It briefly gained popularity in the 1960s after receiving publicity for its use in Japanese shipyards though today its applications are limited. Another little used variation of the process, known as firecracker welding, was developed around the same time by George Hafergut in Austria. In 1964 laser welding was developed in Bell Laboratory with the intention of using this technology as a communication tool. Due to the large force of energy coupled with the small area of focus, this laser became a powerful heat source for cutting and tooling.
Operation
To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece by a very light touch of the electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then pulled back slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the weld pool. Striking an arc, which varies widely based upon electrode and workpiece composition, can be the hardest skill for beginners. The orientation of the electrode to workpiece is where most stumble; if the electrode is held at a perpendicular angle to the workpiece, the tip will likely stick to the metal, which will fuse the electrode to the workpiece, causing it to heat up very rapidly. The tip of the electrode needs to be at a lower angle to the workpiece, which allows the weld pool to flow out of the arc. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases that protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler as it travels from electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduces the amount of time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding processes. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.
The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds.
Sloped, vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool. However, this generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing the time required to lay the weld.
Quality
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking.
Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. Secondary finishing services are often required due to the aesthetic appearance caused by the occurrence of molten splatter. It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition associated with direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.
Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern because it can potentially weaken the weld. Porosity is caused when the gaseous shield did not sufficiently shield the molten weld metal while the bead is laid or while it is cooling. What happens is that the weld bead is overexposed to and absorbs nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen from the atmosphere. When a porous weld cools, the newly absorbed gaseous molecules are released and the welder is left with a porous weld bead. Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though it is often easily visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an improper electrode.
Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be addressed by decreasing welding speed, increasing the current or using a smaller electrode. Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the weld prone to cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating are not employed. Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools and contracts.
Safety
SMAW welding, like other welding methods, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice if proper precautions are not taken. The process uses an open electric arc, which presents a risk of burns which are prevented by personal protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and long sleeve jackets. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area can lead to a condition called arc eye or flash burn, in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, especially in industrial environments, translucent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the filter glass used in helmets.
In addition, the vaporizing metal and flux materials expose welders to dangerous gases and particulate matter. The smoke produced contains particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, gases like carbon dioxide and ozone can form, which can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Some of the latest welding masks are fitted with an electric powered fan to help disperse harmful fumes.
Application and materials
Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes, accounting for over half of all welding in some countries. Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance and repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal arc welding has become more popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low equipment cost and wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among amateurs and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and unnecessary.
SMAW is often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for non-ferrous materials, it can be used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminium. The thickness of the material being welded is bounded on the low end primarily by the skill of the welder, but rarely does it drop below . No upper bound exists: with proper joint preparation and use of multiple passes, materials of virtually unlimited thicknesses can be joined. Furthermore, depending on the electrode used and the skill of the welder, SMAW can be used in any position.
Equipment
Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current welding power supply and an electrode, with an electrode holder, a ground clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting the two.
Power supply
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant, skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor fluctuations in the current.
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing the polarity so that the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is negatively charged increases the weld penetration. With alternating current the polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an even heat distribution and providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.
Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down transformer and for direct current models a rectifier, which converts alternating current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the welding machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce the voltage and increase the current. As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the power supplied by the transformer is around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be used to produce this effect, including multiple coil and inverter machines, with each using a different method to manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either varying the number of turns in the coil (in tap-type transformers) or by varying the distance between the primary and secondary coils (in movable coil or movable core transformers). Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable, use electronic components to change the current characteristics.
Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding power supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one sense they are simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can provide either AC or DC. However, the engine driven units are most practical in field work where the welding often must be done out of doors and in locations where transformer type welders are not usable because there is no power source available to be transformed.
In some units the alternator is essentially the same as that used in portable generating sets used to supply mains power, modified to produce a higher current at a lower voltage but still at the 50 or 60 Hz grid frequency. In higher-quality units an alternator with more poles is used and supplies current at a higher frequency, such as 400 Hz. The smaller amount of time the high-frequency waveform spends near zero makes it much easier to strike and maintain a stable arc than with the cheaper grid-frequency sets or grid-frequency mains-powered units.
Electrode
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to improve the weld quality. Electrodes can be divided into three groups—those designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly so that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.
The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes identical to that of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials like aluminium and copper. However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.
Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different compounds, including rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging embrittlement and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-shaped joint surface. Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially when combined with rutile, provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high moisture content, special procedures must be used to prevent excessive risk of cracking. Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive that increases the rate at which the electrode fills the weld joint, up to twice as fast.
To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand pounds per square inch (ksi). The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying element being contributed by the electrode.
Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of which is operated using DCEP, and provides deep weld penetration with a forceful arc capable of burning through light rust or oxides on the workpiece. E6011 is similar except its flux coating allows it to be used with alternating current in addition to DCEP. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal fillet welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013, and E7014, all of which provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and all-position welding.
Process variations
Though SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process, one notable process variation exists, known as gravity welding or gravity arc welding. It serves as an automated version of the traditional shielded metal arc welding process, employing an electrode holder attached to an inclined bar along the length of the weld. Once started, the process continues until the electrode is spent, allowing the operator to manage multiple gravity welding systems. The electrodes employed (often E6027 or E7024) are coated heavily in flux, and are typically in length and about thick. As in manual SMAW, a constant current welding power supply is used, with either negative polarity direct current or alternating current. Due to a rise in the use of semiautomatic welding processes such as flux-cored arc welding, the popularity of gravity welding has fallen as its economic advantage over such methods is often minimal. Other SMAW-related methods that are even less frequently used include firecracker welding, an automatic method for making butt and fillet welds, and massive electrode welding, a process for welding large components or structures that can deposit up to of weld metal per hour.
Notes
References
External links
Guidelines for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (.pdf)
Arc welding
Russian inventions
American inventions | [
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239086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarcord | Amarcord | Amarcord () is a 1973 Italian comedy-drama film directed by Federico Fellini, a semi-autobiographical tale about Titta, an adolescent boy growing up among an eccentric cast of characters in the village of Borgo San Giuliano (situated near the ancient walls of Rimini) in 1930s Fascist Italy. The film's title is a univerbation of the Romagnol phrase ("I remember"). The title then became a neologism of the Italian language, with the meaning of "nostalgic revocation". The titular role of Titta is indeed based on Fellini's childhood friend from Rimini, Luigi Titta Benzi. Benzi became a lawyer and remained in close contact with Fellini throughout his life.
Titta's sentimental education is emblematic of Italy's "lapse of conscience". Fellini skewers Mussolini's ludicrous posturings and those of a Catholic Church that "imprisoned Italians in a perpetual adolescence" by mocking himself and his fellow villagers in comic scenes that underline their incapacity to adopt genuine moral responsibility or outgrow foolish sexual fantasies.
The film won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film, and was nominated for two more Academy Awards: Best Director and Best Original Screenplay.
Plot
In Borgo San Giuliano, a village near Rimini, the arrival of fluffy poplar seeds floating on the wind heralds the arrival of spring. As night falls, the inhabitants make their way to the village square for a traditional bonfire in which the Old Witch of Winter is ritually burned. The townspeople play pranks on one another, explode fireworks, cavort with loose women and make lewd noises when the civically minded lawyer lectures on the history of the region.
School under Fascism is a tedious cavalcade of dry facts recited by instructors of varying levels of engagement and skill. All Titta and his fellow students can do is goof off or skip class when not called upon to solve math problems or identify obscure historical details. When Titta goes to confession, he is able to avoid telling Don Balosa about his masturbatory activities and attempt to seduce Gradisca, a glamorous older woman, because the priest is more concerned with floral arrangements.
Fascist officials come for a tour, and the schoolchildren are required to perform athletic routines for their approval. Titta's friend Ciccio daydreams about being married to his crush, Aldina, by the giant face of Mussolini. Surreptitiously wired into the bell tower of the town church, a gramophone plays a recording of "The Internationale" but it is soon shot at and destroyed by gun-crazy Fascists. Owing to his anarchist past, Titta's father Aurelio is brought in for questioning and forced to drink castor oil. He limps home in a nauseous state to be washed by his wife, Miranda.
One summer afternoon, the family visits Uncle Teo (Ciccio Ingrassia), Aurelio's brother, confined to an insane asylum. They take him out for a day in the country but he escapes into a tree yelling, "Voglio una donna!" ("I want a woman!"). All attempts to bring him down are met with stones that Teo carries in his pockets. A dwarf nun and two orderlies finally arrive on the scene. Marching up the ladder, the nun reprimands Teo, who obediently agrees to return to the asylum.
Fall arrives. The town's inhabitants embark in small boats to meet the passage of the SS Rex, the regime's proudest technological achievement. By midnight they have fallen asleep waiting for its arrival. Awakened by a foghorn, they watch in awe as the liner sails past, capsizing their boats in its wake. Titta's grandfather wanders lost in a disorienting fog so thick it seems to smother the house and the autumnal landscape. Walking out to the town's Grand Hotel, Titta and his friends find it boarded up. Like zombies, they waltz on the terrace with imaginary female partners enveloped in the fog.
The annual car race provides the occasion for Titta to daydream of winning the grand prize, Gradisca. One evening he visits the buxom tobacconist at closing time. She becomes aroused when he demonstrates he is strong enough to lift her, but is annoyed when he becomes overwhelmed as she presses her breasts into his face. She gives him a cigarette then coldly sends him home.
Winter brings with it record snowfall. Miranda nurses a sick Titta to health, then as spring arrives again, dies of an illness herself. Titta is devastated. Later, the village attends the reception for Gradisca's marriage to a Fascist officer. As Gradisca drives off with her Carabiniere, someone notices that Titta has gone too.
Cast
Bruno Zanin as Titta
Magali Noël as Gradisca, hairdresser
Pupella Maggio as Miranda Biondi, Titta's mother
Armando Brancia as Aurelio Biondi, Titta's father
Giuseppe Ianigro as Titta's grandfather
as Lallo or "Il Pataca", Titta's uncle
Ciccio Ingrassia as Teo, Titta's uncle
Stefano Proietti as Oliva, Titta's brother
Donatella Gambini as Aldina Cordini
Gianfranco Marrocco as Son of count
Ferdinando De Felice as Cicco
Bruno Lenzi as Gigliozzi
Bruno Scagnetti as Ovo
Alvaro Vitali as Naso
Francesco Vona as Candela
Maria Antonietta Beluzzi as the tobacconist
Josiane Tanzilli as Volpina
Deleted scene
A scene was shot that was later cut from the film by Fellini. The scene was shot without sound. It is described, however, in the novelization published by Rizzoli in 1973 and involves the contessa's loss of a diamond ring down her toilet. Carlini, or "Eau de cologne", the man who empties the town's cesspits, is called to retrieve it. This scene is available on the Criterion release of the film.
Reception
Europe
Released in Italy on 18 December 1973, Amarcord was an "unmitigated success". Critic Giovanni Grazzini, reviewing for the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, described Fellini as "an artist at his peak" and the film as the work of a mature, more refined director whose "autobiographical content shows greater insight into historical fact and the reality of a generation. Almost all of Amarcord is a macabre dance against a cheerful background".
The film was screened at the 1974 Cannes Film Festival, but wasn't entered into the main competition.
Russell Davies, British film critic and later a BBC radio host, compared the film to the work of Thornton Wilder and Dylan Thomas: "The pattern is cyclic ... A year in the life of a coastal village, with due emphasis on the seasons, and the births, marriages and deaths. It is an Our Town or Under Milk Wood of the Adriatic seaboard, concocted and displayed in the Roman film studios with the latter-day Fellini's distaste for real stone and wind and sky. The people, however, are real, and the many non-actors among them come in all the shapes and sizes one cares to imagine without plunging too deep into Tod Browning freak territory."
Rapidly picked up for international distribution after winning an Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1975, the film was destined to be Fellini's "last major commercial success". The film was voted at No. 50 on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008.
United States
When Amarcord opened in New York, critic Vincent Canby lauded it as possibly "Fellini's most marvelous film ... It's an extravagantly funny, sometimes dreamlike evocation of a year in the life of a small Italian coastal town in the nineteen-thirties, not as it literally was, perhaps, but as it is recalled by a director with a superstar's access to the resources of the Italian film industry and a piper's command over our imaginations. When Mr. Fellini is working in peak condition, as he is in Amarcord (the vernacular for "I remember" in Romagna), he somehow brings out the best in us. We become more humane, less stuffy, more appreciative of the profound importance of attitudes that in other circumstances would seem merely eccentric if not lunatic."
Critic Roger Ebert discussed Fellini's value as a director: "It's also absolutely breathtaking filmmaking. Fellini has ranked for a long time among the five or six greatest directors in the world, and of them all, he's the natural. Ingmar Bergman achieves his greatness through thought and soul-searching, Alfred Hitchcock built his films with meticulous craftsmanship, and Luis Buñuel used his fetishes and fantasies to construct barbed jokes about humanity. But Fellini ... well, moviemaking for him seems almost effortless, like breathing, and he can orchestrate the most complicated scenes with purity and ease. He's the Willie Mays of movies." Ebert gave the film four stars out of four and ranked it 4th in his 10 Best Films of 1973 list. He later included the film in his Great Movies list. Jay Cocks of Time magazine considered it "some of the finest work Fellini has ever done - which also means it stands with the best that anyone in film has ever achieved."
Amarcord currently holds an 87% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 8.19/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Ribald, sweet, and sentimental, Amarcord is a larger-than-life journey through a seaside village and its colorful citizens." In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made, Amarcord was ranked 30th among directors.
Accolades
Home media
In 1984, Amarcord became the first film released for home video fully letterboxed, as implemented by RCA for their Capacitance Electronic Disc videodisc format. The film was later released on DVD twice by the Criterion Collection, first in 1998, then re-released in 2006 with an anamorphic widescreen transfer and additional supplements. Criterion re-issued the 2006 release on Blu-ray Disc in 2011.
See also
List of submissions to the 47th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Italian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
Bibliography
Alpert, Hollis (1988). Fellini: A Life. New York: Paragon House.
Fava, Claudio and Aldo Vigano (1990). The Films of Federico Fellini. New York: Citadel.
Kezich, Tullio (2006). Fellini: His Life and Work. New York: Faber and Faber.
Pettigrew, Damian (2003). I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon. New York: Abrams.
Further reading
Angelucci, Gianfranco and Liliana Betti (ed.) (1974). Il film 'Amarcord' di Federico Fellini. Bologna: Cappelli editore.
Bondanella, Peter (1976). "'Amarcord': The Impure Art of Federico Fellini." in: Western Humanities Review, Volume 30, no. 2.
Bonnigal, Dorothée (2002). "Fellini's 'Amarcord': Variations on the Libidinal Limbo of Adolescence." in: Burke and Waller (ed.), Federico Fellini: Contemporary Perspectives, pp. 137–154.
Burke, Frank and Marguerite R. Waller (ed.) (2002). Federico Fellini: Contemporary Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Gaudenzi, Cosetta (2002). "Memory, Dialect, Politics: Linguistic Strategies in Fellini's 'Amarcord'." in: Burke and Waller (ed.): Federico Fellini: Contemporary Perspectives, pp. 155–168.
Gianetti, Louis (1976). "'Amarcord': Fellini & Politics." in: Cineaste, Volume XIX/1, n°. 92, 1976, pp. 36–43.
Ledeen, Michael A. (1974). "'Amarcord'." in: Society, Volume 12, n° 2, pp. 100–102.
Maccari, Cesare (1974). Caro Fellini, 'Amarcord', versi liberi e altre cronache. Parma: CEM Editrice.
Marcus, Millicent J. (1977). "Fellini's 'Amarcord': Film as Memory." in: Quarterly Review of Film and Video, Volume 2, n° 4, pp. 418–425.
Minore, Renato (ed.) (1994). Amarcord' Fellini. Introduction by Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, Rome: ed. Cosmopoli.
Pauletto, Franco, and Marcella Delitala (2008). Amarcord'. Federico Fellini. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni, lingua italiana per stranieri, Collana: Quaderni di cinema italiano per stranieri, p. 32. , .
Price, Theodore (1977). Fellini's Penance: the Meaning of 'Amarcord. Old Bridge, N.J.: Boethius Press.
Sciannameo, Franco (2005). Nino Rota, Federico Fellini, and the Making of an Italian Cinematic Folk Opera, 'Amarcord. Lewiston (NY): Edwin Mellen Press. .
External links
Amarcord: Federico of the Spirits an essay by Sam Rohdie at the Criterion Collection
(Janus Films Channel)
1973 films
1970s coming-of-age comedy-drama films
Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Films directed by Federico Fellini
Films about fascists
Films about prostitution in Italy
Films set in Emilia-Romagna
Films set in Italy
Films set in the 1930s
Films scored by Nino Rota
French films
Italian films
Italian coming-of-age comedy-drama films
Italian-language films
Works about Italian fascism
Films with screenplays by Federico Fellini
Films with screenplays by Tonino Guerra
1973 drama films
French coming-of-age comedy-drama films | [
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239096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parking | Parking | Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is often permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the buildings' users. Countries and local governments have rules for design and use of parking spaces.
Car parking is essential to car-based travel. Cars are typically stationary around 95 per cent of the time. The availability and price of car parking supports and subsidize car dependency. Car parking uses up a lot of urban land, especially in North America - as much as half in many North American city centers.
Parking facilities
Parking facilities can be divided into public parking and private parking.
Public parking is managed by local government authorities and available for all members of the public to drive to and park in.
Private parking is owned by a private entity. It may be available for use by the public or restricted to customers, employees or residents.
Such facilities may be on-street parking, located on the street, or off-street parking, located in a parking lot or parking garage.
On-street parking
On-street parking can come in the form of curbside or central parking.
Curbside parking may be parallel, angled or perpendicular parking. Parallel parking is often considered a complicated maneuver for drivers, however uses the least road width.
On-street parking can act as inexpensive traffic calming by reducing the effective width of the street.
On-street parking may be restricted for a number of reasons. Restrictions could include waiting prohibitions, which ban parking in certain areas; time restrictions; requirements to pay, e.g. at a Parking meter or using a pay by phone facility; or a permit zone, restricting parking to permit holders - often residents - only. Parking restrictions may be applied across a whole zone using a controlled parking zone or similar.
On-street parking is often criticised for being a bad use of high-value public space, especially where parking is free. In some cities, authorities have replaced parking spaces with Parklets.
Parking lots and garages
Parking lots (or car parks) generally come in either a structured or surface regime.
Structured regimes are buildings in which vehicles can be parked, including multi-storey parking garages, underground parking or a hybrid of the two. Such structures may be incorporated into a wider structure.
In the U.S., after the first public parking garage for motor vehicles was opened in Boston, May 24, 1898, livery stables in urban centers began to be converted into garages. In cities of the Eastern US, many former livery stables, with lifts for carriages, continue to operate as garages today.
Surface regimes involve using a clear lot to provide a single level of parking. This may be a stand-alone car park or located around a building.
There is a wide international vocabulary for multi-storey parking garages. In the Midwestern United States, they are known as parking ramp. In the United Kingdom, they are known as multi-storey car parks. In the Western US, they are called parking structures. In New Zealand, they are known as parking buildings. In Canada and South Africa, they are known as parkades.
Fringe parking
Fringe parking is an area for parking usually located outside the central business district and most often used by suburban residents who work or shop downtown.
Park and ride
Park and ride is a concept of parking whereby people drive or cycle to a car park away from their destination and use public transport or another form of transport, such as bicycle hire schemes, to complete their journey. This is done to reduce the amount of traffic congestion and the need for parking in city centres and to connect more people to public transport networks who may not be otherwise.
Bicycle parking
Parking lots specifically for bicycles are becoming more prevalent in many countries. These may include bicycle parking racks and locks, as well as more modern technologies for security and convenience. For instance, one bicycle parking lot in Tokyo has an automated parking system.
Certain parking lots or garages may contain parking facilities for other vehicles, such as bicycle parking. Underneath Utrecht Central station, there is a three-storey underground bicycle park which can store 12,656 bicycles.
Types of parking
In addition to basic car parking, variations of serviced parking types exist. Common serviced parking types are:
Carport (open-air single-level covered parking)
Valet parking
Meet and Greet Parking
Park and Fly Parking
Peer-to-peer shared parking
Parking spaces within car parks may be variously arranged.
Economics
Parking is one of the most important Intermediate goods in the modern market economy. Early economic analysis treated parking only as an end-of-trip cost. However, later work has recognised that parking is a major use of land in any urban area. According to the International Parking Institute, "parking is a $25 billion industry and plays a pivotal role in transportation, building design, quality of life and environmental issues". Annual parking revenue in the US alone is $10 billion.
In urban areas, car parks compete with each other and kerbside parking spaces. Drivers do not want to walk far from where they have parked, giving car parks local monopoly power.
Urban parking spaces can have a high value where the price of land is high. The prices in Boston for parking spaces have always been high, just in last August, the asking price ranged just under US$39,000 in the West End to almost $250,000 in the South End. According to Parkopedia's 2019 Global Parking Index, the cost for 2 hours of parking in USD$ for the top 25 global cities is as follows:
In the graph to the right or below the value above the line represents the out-of-pocket cost per trip, per person for each mode of transportation; the value below the line shows subsidies, environmental impact, social and indirect costs. When cities charge market rates for on-street parking and municipal parking garages for motor vehicles, and when bridges and tunnels are tolled for these modes, driving becomes less competitive in terms of out-of-pocket costs compared to other modes of transportation. When municipal motor vehicle parking is underpriced and roads are not tolled, the shortfall in tax expenditures by drivers, through fuel tax and other taxes might be regarded as a very large subsidy for automobile use: much greater than common subsidies for the maintenance of infrastructure and discounted fares for public transportation.
Parking price elasticity
The average response in parking demand to a change in price (parking price elasticity) is -0.52 for commuting and -0.62 for non-commuting trips. Non-commuters also respond to parking fees by changing their parking duration if the price is per hour.
Performance parking
Donald C. Shoup in 2005 argued in his book, The High Cost of Free Parking, against the large-scale use of land and other resources in urban and suburban areas for motor vehicle parking. Shoup's work has been popularized along with market-rate parking and performance parking, both of which raise and lower the price of metered street parking with the goal of reducing cruising for parking and double parking without overcharging for parking.
"Performance parking" or variable-rate parking is based on Dr Shoup's ideas. Electronic parking meters are used so that parking spaces in desirable locations and at desirable times are more expensive than less desirable locations. Other variations include rising rates based on duration of parking. More modern ideas use sensors and networked parking meters that "bid up" (or down) the price of parking automatically with the goal of keeping 85–90% of the spaces in use at any given time to ensure perpetual parking availability. These ideas have been implemented in Redwood City, California and are being implemented in San Francisco and Los Angeles.
One empirical study supports performance-based pricing by analyzing the block-level price elasticity of parking demand in the SFpark context. The study suggests that block-level elasticities vary so widely that urban planners and economists cannot accurately predict the response in parking demand to a given change in price. The public policy implication is that planners should utilize observed occupancy rates in order to adjust prices so that target occupancy rates are achieved. Effective implementation will require further experimentation with and assessment of the tâtonnement process.
Geography
The management of parking as a land use is an aspect of urban planning.
Municipal parking regulation introduced controls for parking on public land, often funded through parking meters. However, with the growth of car use, the supply of on-street parking became insufficient to meet demand. City centre merchants called on municipalities to subsidise car parking in the city centre to facilitate competition against new forms of car-centric commercial development.
Parking is a heavy land use. The total land area of parking in the US is at least the size of Massachusetts.
Off-street parking can be a temporary usage for a land owner to extract value from a vacant lot.
Parking restrictions
During the winter of 2005 in Boston, the practice of some people saving convenient roadway for themselves became controversial. At that time, many Boston districts had an informal convention that if a person shoveled the snow out of a roadspace, that person could claim ownership of that space with a marker. However, city government defied that custom and cleared markers out of spaces. Also see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parking_chair
Parking minimums and maximums
In congested urban areas parking of motor vehicles is time-consuming and often expensive. Urban planners who are in a position to override market forces must consider whether and how to accommodate or "demand manage" potentially large numbers of motor vehicles in small geographic areas. Usually, the authorities set minimum, or more rarely maximum, numbers of motor vehicle parking spaces for new housing and commercial developments, and may also plan their location and distribution to influence their convenience and accessibility. The costs or subsidies of such parking accommodations can become a heated point in local politics. For example, in 2006 the San Francisco Board of Supervisors considered a controversial zoning plan to limit the number of motor vehicle parking spaces available in new residential developments.
Tradeable parking allowances have been proposed for dense residential areas to reduce inequity and increase urban livability. In summary, each resident would receive an annual, fractional allowance for on-street parking. To park on the street, one must assemble a whole parking allowance by purchasing fractional allowances from others who do not own cars.
Parking by country
Germany
German municipalities have variegated transport cultures and policies, however common federal laws govern the use of street space and the rights of motorists. German law privileges parked cars as traffic and constrains the ability of municipal governments to implement diverse parking policies.
German legal principles determine that the use of public streets is for traffic, including car parking. Consequently, German motorists tend to assert a right to park for free on the public highway.
United Kingdom
United States
In some jurisdictions, those in possession of the proper ID tags or license plates are also free from parking violation tickets for running over their metered time or parking in an inappropriate place, as some disabilities may prohibit the use of regular spaces. Illegally parking in a disabled parking space or fraudulent use of another person's permit is heavily fined.
Parking at various destinations
Hospitals
In England, NHS hospitals are permitted to charge patients, staff and visitors for parking at the hospital. This has been criticised for adding extra costs to accessing healthcare. In Scotland and Wales, all hospital parking charges have been abolished.
Education
Most colleges and universities in the U.S. charge for parking. Some colleges even have a parking services department that issues daily, weekly and annual parking permits as well as enforces parking ordinances. An example of one such department is at Western Michigan University.
Airports
Most airports provide parking for patrons. Parking is normally split into short-stay parking, intended for those dropping off or picking up passengers, and long-stay parking, intended for staff and passengers who choose to drive to the airport. At larger airports, long-stay parking may be located further away from the terminal, while parking at the terminal will be more expensive. Some airports charge more for parking cars than for parking aircraft. Airports may be reluctant to discourage passengers from arriving at the airport by car due to the revenues generated.
At UK airports, it is rare for employees to pay for their car parking. Generally, the airports authority will charge for staff permits, but these permits will be purchased by employers and the cost not passed on to staff. Staff are generally more willing to park at a site away from the airport than passengers too.
Statistics
Parking Generation is a document produced by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) that assembles a vast array of parking demand observations predominately from the United States. It summarizes the amount of parking observed with various land uses at different times of the day/week/month/year including the peak parking demand. While it has been assailed by some planners for lack of data in urban settings, it stands as the single largest accumulation of actual parking demand data related to land use. Anyone can submit parking demand data for inclusion. The report is updated approximately every 5 to 10 years.
Finding parking
When the supply of kerbside parking in a particular area is less than the demand for parking, a phenomenon known as cruising occurs, where drivers drive on streets in search of a parking space. It can also occur where there is supply of kerbside space, but parking restriction or payment costs discourage drivers from parking there.
Cruising is an economic decision, with the cost of parking dominant in determining cruising behaviour. This is grounded in the principle that drivers will only cruise if the cost of cruising is lower than the savings of not parking in available chargeable spaces. Drivers are more likely to cruise if on-street parking is cheaper than off-street parking, the costs of fuel are cheap, the driver wishes to park for longer, the driver is alone in the car and the driver's time is not valuable to them. Cruising can be eliminated if the cost of on-street parking is set equal to the cost of off-street parking.
Automated Parking Guidance systems present drivers with dynamic information on parking within controlled areas (like parking garages and parking lots). The systems combine traffic monitoring, communication, processing and variable message sign technologies to provide the service.
Common mobile apps that help drivers find parking take different approaches, including:
AppyParking displays both the cheapest and nearest on and off-street parking rules for 14 major cities in the UK including London, as well as seeing live availability of parking bays where available. It also includes daily petrol prices for every petrol station in the UK through an in-app subscription.
Parkobility, ParkWhiz, SpotHero, JustPark, which allows for mobile booking at participating lots, garages and hotels,
MonkeyParking, which lets drivers departing a parking space sell that information to drivers looking for parking. This type of app has been outlawed in Boston and San Francisco.
Peer-to-Peer parking aggregators, such as Parqex, RoverParking, and SimpleParker, that match private parking space owners with drivers.
Some connected cars have mobile apps associated with the in-car system, that can locate the car or indicate the last place it was parked. Cars with Internavi communicate to each other indicating recently vacated spots.
San Francisco uses a system called SFpark, which has sensors embedded in the roadway. It allows drivers to find parking via mobile app, website, or SMS, and includes "smart" parking meters and garages that use variable pricing based on time and location to keep approximately 15% of parking spaces open.
Some South Boston spots also have sensors, so users of an app called Parker can find vacancies.
Ford Motor Company is developing a system called Parking Spotter, which allows vehicles to upload parking spot information into the cloud for other drivers to access.
Parking guidance and information system provides information about the availability of parking spaces within a controlled area. The systems may include vehicle detection sensors that can count the number of available spaces and display the information on various signs. There may be indicator lights that can lead drivers to an exact available spot.
An amusing alliterative slang term for finding an ideal parking spot directly in front of ones destination is Doris Day parking named for the American singer and actor who in numerous romantic comedy films was shown to immediately drive into the perfect spot time after time.
Statistically, the optimal strategy is to drive past the first empty spot and park in the next available spot.
See also
Alternate side parking
Automated parking system
Automatic parking
Back-in angle parking
Bicycle parking
Car condo
Controlled parking zone
Decriminalised parking enforcement
Disabled parking permit
Disc parking
Double parking
Franelero
Garage parking
Karpatiosorbus admonitor, the no parking whitebeam - so named because the type specimen was discovered with a no parking sign nailed to it
Lovers' lane
Men's parking space
Multi-storey car park
Omniview technology
Overspill parking
Parallel parking
Park and ride
Parking lot
Parking meter
Parking space
Parking space reservation in snowstorms
Parking guidance and information
Parking violation
Predatory towing
Residential zoned parking
Shared parking
Snow removal
Valet parking
Women's parking space
Zone Bleue
References
External links
International Parking Institute
Etymology of Parking | [
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239097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halide | Halide | A halide (rarely halogenide) is a binary phase, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative (or more electropositive) than the halogen, to make a, e.g., fluoride, chloride, or theoretically tennesside compound. The alkali metals combine directly with halogens under appropriate conditions forming halides of the general formula, MX (X = F, Cl, Br or I). Many salts are halides; the hal- syllable in halide and halite reflects this correlation. All Group 1 metals form halides that are white solids at room temperature.
A halide ion is a halogen atom bearing a negative charge. The halide anions are fluoride (), chloride (), bromide (), iodide () and astatide (). Such ions are present in all ionic halide salts. Halide minerals contain halides.
All these halides are colourless, high melting crystalline solids having high negative enthalpies of formation.
Tests
Halide compounds such as , and can be tested with silver nitrate solution, . The halogen will react with and form a precipitate, with varying colour depending on the halogen:
: no precipitate
: white
: creamy (pale yellow)
: green (yellow)
For organic compounds containing halides, the Beilstein test is used.
Uses
Metal halides are used in high-intensity discharge lamps called metal halide lamps, such as those used in modern street lights. These are more energy-efficient than mercury-vapor lamps, and have much better colour rendition than orange high-pressure sodium lamps. Metal halide lamps are also commonly used in greenhouses or in rainy climates to supplement natural sunlight.
Silver halides are used in photographic films and papers. When the film is developed, the silver halides which have been exposed to light are reduced to metallic silver, forming an image.
Halides are also used in solder paste, commonly as a Cl or Br equivalent.
Synthetic organic chemistry often incorporates halogens into organohalide compounds.
Compounds
Examples of halide compounds are:
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Potassium chloride (KCl)
Potassium iodide (KI)
Lithium chloride (LiCl)
Copper(II) chloride ()
Silver chloride (AgCl)
Calcium chloride ()
Chlorine fluoride (ClF)
Organohalides
Bromomethane ()
Iodoform ()
Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Hydrogen bromide(HBr)
See also
Salinity
Organohalide
Hydrogen halide
Silver halide
References
Salts | [
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239098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitTorrent | BitTorrent | BitTorrent is a communication protocol for peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P), which enables users to distribute data and electronic files over the Internet in a decentralized manner.
To send or receive files, a person uses a BitTorrent client on their Internet-connected computer. A BitTorrent client is a computer program that implements the BitTorrent protocol. BitTorrent clients are available for a variety of computing platforms and operating systems, including an official client released by BitTorrent, Inc. Popular clients include μTorrent, Xunlei Thunder, Transmission, qBittorrent, Vuze, Deluge, BitComet and Tixati. BitTorrent trackers provide a list of files available for transfer and allow the client to find peer users, known as "seeds", who may transfer the files.
Programmer Bram Cohen designed the protocol in April 2001, and released the first available version on 2 July 2001. On 15 May 2017, BitTorrent, Inc. (later renamed Rainberry, Inc.) released BitTorrent v2 protocol specification. libtorrent was updated to support the new version on 6 September 2020.
BitTorrent is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files, such as digital video files containing TV shows and video clips, or digital audio files containing songs. BitTorrent was responsible for 3.35% of all worldwide bandwidth—more than half of the 6% of total bandwidth dedicated to file sharing. In 2019, BitTorrent was a dominant file sharing protocol and generated a substantial amount of Internet traffic, with 2.46% of downstream, and 27.58% of upstream traffic. , BitTorrent had 15–27 million concurrent users at any time. , BitTorrent is utilized by 150 million active users. Based on this figure, the total number of monthly users may be estimated to more than a quarter of a billion (≈ 250 million).
The use of BitTorrent may sometimes be limited by Internet Service Providers (ISPs), on legal or copyright grounds. Users may choose to run seedboxes or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to circumvent these restrictions.
History
Programmer Bram Cohen, a University at Buffalo alumnus, designed the protocol in April 2001, and released the first available version on 2 July 2001.
The first release of the BitTorrent client had no search engine and no peer exchange. Up until 2005, the only way to share files was by creating a small text file called a "torrent", that they would upload to a torrent index site. The first uploader acted as a seed, and downloaders would initially connect as peers. Those who wish to download the file would download the torrent, which their client would use to connect to a tracker which had a list of the IP addresses of other seeds and peers in the swarm. Once a peer completed a download of the complete file, it could in turn function as a seed. These files contain metadata about the files to be shared and the trackers which keep track of the other seeds and peers.
In 2005, first Vuze and then the BitTorrent client introduced distributed tracking using distributed hash tables which allowed clients to exchange data on swarms directly without the need for a torrent file.
In 2006, peer exchange functionality was added allowing clients to add peers based on the data found on connected nodes.
BitTorrent v2 is intended to work seamlessly with previous versions of the BitTorrent protocol. The main reason for the update was that the old cryptographic hash function, SHA-1 is no longer considered safe from malicious attacks by the developers, and as such, v2 uses SHA-256. To ensure backwards compatibility, the v2 .torrent file format supports a hybrid mode where the torrents are hashed through both the new method and the old method, with the intent that the files will be shared with peers on both v1 and v2 swarms. Another update to the specification is adding a hash tree to speed up time from adding a torrent to downloading files, and to allow more granular checks for file corruption. In addition, each file is now hashed individually, enabling files in the swarm to be deduplicated, so that if multiple torrents include the same files, but seeders are only seeding the file from some, downloaders of the other torrents can still download the file. Magnet links for v2 also support a hybrid mode to ensure support for legacy clients.
Design
The BitTorrent protocol can be used to reduce the server and network impact of distributing large files. Rather than downloading a file from a single source server, the BitTorrent protocol allows users to join a "swarm" of hosts to upload and download from each other simultaneously. The protocol is an alternative to the older single source, multiple mirror sources technique for distributing data, and can work effectively over networks with lower bandwidth. Using the BitTorrent protocol, several basic computers, such as home computers, can replace large servers while efficiently distributing files to many recipients. This lower bandwidth usage also helps prevent large spikes in internet traffic in a given area, keeping internet speeds higher for all users in general, regardless of whether or not they use the BitTorrent protocol.
The file being distributed is divided into segments called pieces. As each peer receives a new piece of the file, it becomes a source (of that piece) for other peers, relieving the original seed from having to send that piece to every computer or user wishing a copy. With BitTorrent, the task of distributing the file is shared by those who want it; it is entirely possible for the seed to send only a single copy of the file itself and eventually distribute to an unlimited number of peers. Each piece is protected by a cryptographic hash contained in the torrent descriptor. This ensures that any modification of the piece can be reliably detected, and thus prevents both accidental and malicious modifications of any of the pieces received at other nodes. If a node starts with an authentic copy of the torrent descriptor, it can verify the authenticity of the entire file it receives.
Pieces are typically downloaded non-sequentially, and are rearranged into the correct order by the BitTorrent client, which monitors which pieces it needs, and which pieces it has and can upload to other peers. Pieces are of the same size throughout a single download (for example, a 10 MB file may be transmitted as ten 1 MB pieces or as forty 256 KB pieces).
Due to the nature of this approach, the download of any file can be halted at any time and be resumed at a later date, without the loss of previously downloaded information, which in turn makes BitTorrent particularly useful in the transfer of larger files. This also enables the client to seek out readily available pieces and download them immediately, rather than halting the download and waiting for the next (and possibly unavailable) piece in line, which typically reduces the overall time of the download. This eventual transition from peers to seeders determines the overall "health" of the file (as determined by the number of times a file is available in its complete form).
The distributed nature of BitTorrent can lead to a flood-like spreading of a file throughout many peer computer nodes. As more peers join the swarm, the likelihood of a successful download by any particular node increases. Relative to traditional Internet distribution schemes, this permits a significant reduction in the original distributor's hardware and bandwidth resource costs. Distributed downloading protocols in general provide redundancy against system problems, reduce dependence on the original distributor, and provide sources for the file which are generally transient and therefore there is no single point of failure as in one way server-client transfers.
Though both ultimately transfer files over a network, a BitTorrent download differs from a one way server-client download (as is typical with an HTTP or FTP request, for example) in several fundamental ways:
BitTorrent makes many small data requests over different IP connections to different machines, while server-client downloading is typically made via a single TCP connection to a single machine.
BitTorrent downloads in a random or in a "rarest-first" approach that ensures high availability, while classic downloads are sequential.
Taken together, these differences allow BitTorrent to achieve much lower cost to the content provider, much higher redundancy, and much greater resistance to abuse or to "flash crowds" than regular server software. However, this protection, theoretically, comes at a cost: downloads can take time to rise to full speed because it may take time for enough peer connections to be established, and it may take time for a node to receive sufficient data to become an effective uploader. This contrasts with regular downloads (such as from an HTTP server, for example) that, while more vulnerable to overload and abuse, rise to full speed very quickly, and maintain this speed throughout. In the beginning, BitTorrent's non-contiguous download methods made it harder to support "streaming playback". In 2014, the client Popcorn Time allowed for streaming of BitTorrent video files. Since then, more and more clients are offering streaming options.
Searching
The BitTorrent protocol provides no way to index torrent files. As a result, a comparatively small number of websites have hosted a large majority of torrents, many linking to copyrighted works without the authorization of copyright holders, rendering those sites especially vulnerable to lawsuits. A BitTorrent index is a "list of .torrent files, which typically includes descriptions" and information about the torrent's content. Several types of websites support the discovery and distribution of data on the BitTorrent network. Public torrent-hosting sites such as The Pirate Bay allow users to search and download from their collection of torrent files. Users can typically also upload torrent files for content they wish to distribute. Often, these sites also run BitTorrent trackers for their hosted torrent files, but these two functions are not mutually dependent: a torrent file could be hosted on one site and tracked by another unrelated site. Private host/tracker sites operate like public ones except that they may restrict access to registered users and may also keep track of the amount of data each user uploads and downloads, in an attempt to reduce "leeching".
Web search engines allow the discovery of torrent files that are hosted and tracked on other sites; examples include The Pirate Bay and BTDigg. These sites allow the user to ask for content meeting specific criteria (such as containing a given word or phrase) and retrieve a list of links to torrent files matching those criteria. This list can often be sorted with respect to several criteria, relevance (seeders-leechers ratio) being one of the most popular and useful (due to the way the protocol behaves, the download bandwidth achievable is very sensitive to this value). Metasearch engines allow one to search several BitTorrent indices and search engines at once.
The Tribler BitTorrent client was among the first to incorporate built-in search capabilities. With Tribler, users can find .torrent files held by random peers and taste buddies. It adds such an ability to the BitTorrent protocol using a gossip protocol, somewhat similar to the eXeem network which was shut down in 2005. The software includes the ability to recommend content as well. After a dozen downloads, the Tribler software can roughly estimate the download taste of the user, and recommend additional content.
In May 2007, researchers at Cornell University published a paper proposing a new approach to searching a peer-to-peer network for inexact strings, which could replace the functionality of a central indexing site. A year later, the same team implemented the system as a plugin for Vuze called Cubit and published a follow-up paper reporting its success.
A somewhat similar facility but with a slightly different approach is provided by the BitComet client through its "Torrent Exchange" feature. Whenever two peers using BitComet (with Torrent Exchange enabled) connect to each other they exchange lists of all the torrents (name and info-hash) they have in the Torrent Share storage (torrent files which were previously downloaded and for which the user chose to enable sharing by Torrent Exchange). Thus each client builds up a list of all the torrents shared by the peers it connected to in the current session (or it can even maintain the list between sessions if instructed).
At any time the user can search into that Torrent Collection list for a certain torrent and sort the list by categories. When the user chooses to download a torrent from that list, the .torrent file is automatically searched for (by info-hash value) in the DHT Network and when found it is downloaded by the querying client which can after that create and initiate a downloading task.
Downloading and sharing
Users find a torrent of interest on a torrent index site or by using a search engine built into the client, download it, and open it with a BitTorrent client. The client connects to the tracker(s) or seeds specified in the torrent file, from which it receives a list of seeds and peers currently transferring pieces of the file(s). The client connects to those peers to obtain the various pieces. If the swarm contains only the initial seeder, the client connects directly to it, and begins to request pieces. Clients incorporate mechanisms to optimize their download and upload rates.
The effectiveness of this data exchange depends largely on the policies that clients use to determine to whom to send data. Clients may prefer to send data to peers that send data back to them (a "tit for tat" exchange scheme), which encourages fair trading. But strict policies often result in suboptimal situations, such as when newly joined peers are unable to receive any data because they don't have any pieces yet to trade themselves or when two peers with a good connection between them do not exchange data simply because neither of them takes the initiative. To counter these effects, the official BitTorrent client program uses a mechanism called "optimistic unchoking", whereby the client reserves a portion of its available bandwidth for sending pieces to random peers (not necessarily known good partners, so called preferred peers) in hopes of discovering even better partners and to ensure that newcomers get a chance to join the swarm.
Although "swarming" scales well to tolerate "flash crowds" for popular content, it is less useful for unpopular or niche market content. Peers arriving after the initial rush might find the content unavailable and need to wait for the arrival of a "seed" in order to complete their downloads. The seed arrival, in turn, may take long to happen (this is termed the "seeder promotion problem"). Since maintaining seeds for unpopular content entails high bandwidth and administrative costs, this runs counter to the goals of publishers that value BitTorrent as a cheap alternative to a client-server approach. This occurs on a huge scale; measurements have shown that 38% of all new torrents become unavailable within the first month. A strategy adopted by many publishers which significantly increases availability of unpopular content consists of bundling multiple files in a single swarm. More sophisticated solutions have also been proposed; generally, these use cross-torrent mechanisms through which multiple torrents can cooperate to better share content.
Creating and publishing
The peer distributing a data file treats the file as a number of identically sized pieces, usually with byte sizes of a power of 2, and typically between 32 kB and 16 MB each. The peer creates a hash for each piece, using the SHA-1 hash function, and records it in the torrent file. Pieces with sizes greater than 512 kB will reduce the size of a torrent file for a very large payload, but is claimed to reduce the efficiency of the protocol. When another peer later receives a particular piece, the hash of the piece is compared to the recorded hash to test that the piece is error-free. Peers that provide a complete file are called seeders, and the peer providing the initial copy is called the initial seeder. The exact information contained in the torrent file depends on the version of the BitTorrent protocol.
By convention, the name of a torrent file has the suffix .torrent. Torrent files have an "announce" section, which specifies the URL of the tracker, and an "info" section, containing (suggested) names for the files, their lengths, the piece length used, and a SHA-1 hash code for each piece, all of which are used by clients to verify the integrity of the data they receive. Though SHA-1 has shown signs of cryptographic weakness, Bram Cohen did not initially consider the risk big enough for a backward incompatible change to, for example, SHA-3. As of BitTorrent v2 the hash function has been updated to SHA-256.
In the early days, torrent files were typically published to torrent index websites, and registered with at least one tracker. The tracker maintained lists of the clients currently connected to the swarm. Alternatively, in a trackerless system (decentralized tracking) every peer acts as a tracker. Azureus was the first BitTorrent client to implement such a system through the distributed hash table (DHT) method. An alternative and incompatible DHT system, known as Mainline DHT, was released in the Mainline BitTorrent client three weeks later (though it had been in development since 2002) and subsequently adopted by the μTorrent, Transmission, rTorrent, KTorrent, BitComet, and Deluge clients.
After the DHT was adopted, a "private" flag – analogous to the broadcast flag – was unofficially introduced, telling clients to restrict the use of decentralized tracking regardless of the user's desires. The flag is intentionally placed in the info section of the torrent so that it cannot be disabled or removed without changing the identity of the torrent. The purpose of the flag is to prevent torrents from being shared with clients that do not have access to the tracker. The flag was requested for inclusion in the official specification in August 2008, but has not been accepted yet. Clients that have ignored the private flag were banned by many trackers, discouraging the practice.
Anonymity
BitTorrent does not, on its own, offer its users anonymity. One can usually see the IP addresses of all peers in a swarm in one's own client or firewall program. This may expose users with insecure systems to attacks. In some countries, copyright organizations scrape lists of peers, and send takedown notices to the internet service provider of users participating in the swarms of files that are under copyright. In some jurisdictions, copyright holders may launch lawsuits against uploaders or downloaders for infringement, and police may arrest suspects in such cases.
Various means have been used to promote anonymity. For example, the BitTorrent client Tribler makes available a Tor-like onion network, optionally routing transfers through other peers to obscure which client has requested the data. The exit node would be visible to peers in a swarm, but the Tribler organization provides exit nodes. One advantage of Tribler is that clearnet torrents can be downloaded with only a small decrease in download speed from one "hop" of routing.
i2p provides a similar anonymity layer although in that case, one can only download torrents that have been uploaded to the i2p network. The bittorrent client Vuze allows users who are not concerned about anonymity to take clearnet torrents, and make them available on the i2p network.
Most BitTorrent clients are not designed to provide anonymity when used over Tor, and there is some debate as to whether torrenting over Tor acts as a drag on the network.
Private torrent trackers are usually invitation only, and require members to participate in uploading, but have the downside of a single centralized point of failure. Oink's Pink Palace and What.cd are examples of private trackers which have been shut down.
Seedbox services download the torrent files first to the company's servers, allowing the user to direct download the file from there. One's IP address would be visible to the Seedbox provider, but not to third parties.
Virtual private networks encrypt transfers, and substitute a different IP address for the user's, so that anyone monitoring a torrent swarm will only see that address.
Associated technologies
Distributed trackers
On 2 May 2005, Azureus 2.3.0.0 (now known as Vuze) was released, introducing support for "trackerless" torrents through a system called the "distributed database." This system is a Distributed hash table implementation which allows the client to use torrents that do not have a working BitTorrent tracker. Instead just bootstrapping server is used (router.bittorrent.com, dht.transmissionbt.com or router.utorrent.com). The following month, BitTorrent, Inc. released version 4.2.0 of the Mainline BitTorrent client, which supported an alternative DHT implementation (popularly known as "Mainline DHT", outlined in a draft on their website) that is incompatible with that of Azureus. In 2014, measurement showed concurrent users of Mainline DHT to be from 10 million to 25 million, with a daily churn of at least 10 million.
Current versions of the official BitTorrent client, μTorrent, BitComet, Transmission and BitSpirit all share compatibility with Mainline DHT. Both DHT implementations are based on Kademlia. As of version 3.0.5.0, Azureus also supports Mainline DHT in addition to its own distributed database through use of an optional application plugin. This potentially allows the Azureus/Vuze client to reach a bigger swarm.
Another idea that has surfaced in Vuze is that of virtual torrents. This idea is based on the distributed tracker approach and is used to describe some web resource. Currently, it is used for instant messaging. It is implemented using a special messaging protocol and requires an appropriate plugin. Anatomic P2P is another approach, which uses a decentralized network of nodes that route traffic to dynamic trackers. Most BitTorrent clients also use Peer exchange (PEX) to gather peers in addition to trackers and DHT. Peer exchange checks with known peers to see if they know of any other peers. With the 3.0.5.0 release of Vuze, all major BitTorrent clients now have compatible peer exchange.
Web seeding
Web "seeding" was implemented in 2006 as the ability of BitTorrent clients to download torrent pieces from an HTTP source in addition to the "swarm". The advantage of this feature is that a website may distribute a torrent for a particular file or batch of files and make those files available for download from that same web server; this can simplify long-term seeding and load balancing through the use of existing, cheap, web hosting setups. In theory, this would make using BitTorrent almost as easy for a web publisher as creating a direct HTTP download. In addition, it would allow the "web seed" to be disabled if the swarm becomes too popular while still allowing the file to be readily available. This feature has two distinct specifications, both of which are supported by Libtorrent and the 26+ clients that use it.
The first was created by John "TheSHAD0W" Hoffman, who created BitTornado. This first specification requires running a web service that serves content by info-hash and piece number, rather than filename.
The other specification is created by GetRight authors and can rely on a basic HTTP download space (using byte serving).
In September 2010, a new service named Burnbit was launched which generates a torrent from any URL using webseeding. There are server-side solutions that provide initial seeding of the file from the web server via standard BitTorrent protocol and when the number of external seeders reach a limit, they stop serving the file from the original source.
RSS feeds
A technique called broadcatching combines RSS feeds with the BitTorrent protocol to create a content delivery system, further simplifying and automating content distribution. Steve Gillmor explained the concept in a column for Ziff-Davis in December 2003. The discussion spread quickly among bloggers (Ernest Miller, Chris Pirillo, etc.). In an article entitled Broadcatching with BitTorrent, Scott Raymond explained:
The RSS feed will track the content, while BitTorrent ensures content integrity with cryptographic hashing of all data, so feed subscribers will receive uncorrupted content. One of the first and popular software clients (free and open source) for broadcatching is Miro. Other free software clients such as PenguinTV and KatchTV are also now supporting broadcatching. The BitTorrent web-service MoveDigital added the ability to make torrents available to any web application capable of parsing XML through its standard REST-based interface in 2006, though this has since been discontinued. Additionally, Torrenthut is developing a similar torrent API that will provide the same features, and help bring the torrent community to Web 2.0 standards. Alongside this release is a first PHP application built using the API called PEP, which will parse any Really Simple Syndication (RSS 2.0) feed and automatically create and seed a torrent for each enclosure found in that feed.
Throttling and encryption
Since BitTorrent makes up a large proportion of total traffic, some ISPs have chosen to "throttle" (slow down) BitTorrent transfers. For this reason, methods have been developed to disguise BitTorrent traffic in an attempt to thwart these efforts. Protocol header encrypt (PHE) and Message stream encryption/Protocol encryption (MSE/PE) are features of some BitTorrent clients that attempt to make BitTorrent hard to detect and throttle. As of November 2015, Vuze, Bitcomet, KTorrent, Transmission, Deluge, μTorrent, MooPolice, Halite, qBittorrent, rTorrent, and the latest official BitTorrent client (v6) support MSE/PE encryption.
In August 2007, Comcast was preventing BitTorrent seeding by monitoring and interfering with the communication between peers. Protection against these efforts is provided by proxying the client-tracker traffic via an encrypted tunnel to a point outside of the Comcast network. In 2008, Comcast called a "truce" with BitTorrent, Inc. with the intention of shaping traffic in a protocol-agnostic manner. Questions about the ethics and legality of Comcast's behavior have led to renewed debate about net neutrality in the United States. In general, although encryption can make it difficult to determine what is being shared, BitTorrent is vulnerable to traffic analysis. Thus, even with MSE/PE, it may be possible for an ISP to recognize BitTorrent and also to determine that a system is no longer downloading but only uploading data, and terminate its connection by injecting TCP RST (reset flag) packets.
Multitrackers
Another unofficial feature is an extension to the BitTorrent metadata format proposed by John Hoffman and implemented by several indexing websites. It allows the use of multiple trackers per file, so if one tracker fails, others can continue to support file transfer. It is implemented in several clients, such as BitComet, BitTornado, BitTorrent, KTorrent, Transmission, Deluge, μTorrent, rtorrent, Vuze, and Frostwire. Trackers are placed in groups, or tiers, with a tracker randomly chosen from the top tier and tried, moving to the next tier if all the trackers in the top tier fail.
Torrents with multiple trackers can decrease the time it takes to download a file, but also have a few consequences:
Poorly implemented clients may contact multiple trackers, leading to more overhead-traffic.
Torrents from closed trackers suddenly become downloadable by non-members, as they can connect to a seed via an open tracker.
Peer selection
BitTorrent, Inc. was working with Oversi on new Policy Discover Protocols that query the ISP for capabilities and network architecture information. Oversi's ISP hosted NetEnhancer box is designed to "improve peer selection" by helping peers find local nodes, improving download speeds while reducing the loads into and out of the ISP's network.
Implementations
The BitTorrent specification is free to use and many clients are open source, so BitTorrent clients have been created for all common operating systems using a variety of programming languages. The official BitTorrent client, μTorrent, qBittorrent, Transmission, Vuze, and BitComet are some of the most popular clients.
Some BitTorrent implementations such as MLDonkey and Torrentflux are designed to run as servers. For example, this can be used to centralize file sharing on a single dedicated server which users share access to on the network. Server-oriented BitTorrent implementations can also be hosted by hosting providers at co-located facilities with high bandwidth Internet connectivity (e.g., a datacenter) which can provide dramatic speed benefits over using BitTorrent from a regular home broadband connection. Services such as ImageShack can download files on BitTorrent for the user, allowing them to download the entire file by HTTP once it is finished.
The Opera web browser supports BitTorrent natively. Brave web browser ships with an extension which supports WebTorrent, a BitTorrent-like protocol based on WebRTC instead of UDP and TCP. BitLet allowed users to download Torrents directly from their browser using a Java applet (until browsers removed support for Java applets). An increasing number of hardware devices are being made to support BitTorrent. These include routers and NAS devices containing BitTorrent-capable firmware like OpenWrt. Proprietary versions of the protocol which implement DRM, encryption, and authentication are found within managed clients such as Pando.
Adoption
A growing number of individuals and organizations are using BitTorrent to distribute their own or licensed works (e.g. indie bands distributing digital files of their new songs). Independent adopters report that BitTorrent technology reduces demands on private networking hardware and bandwidth, an essential for non-profit groups with large amounts of internet traffic.
Some uses of BitTorrent for file sharing may violate laws in some jurisdictions (see legislation section).
Film, video, and music
BitTorrent Inc. has obtained a number of licenses from Hollywood studios for distributing popular content from their websites.
Sub Pop Records releases tracks and videos via BitTorrent Inc. to distribute its 1000+ albums. Babyshambles and The Libertines (both bands associated with Pete Doherty) have extensively used torrents to distribute hundreds of demos and live videos. US industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails frequently distributes albums via BitTorrent.
Podcasting software is starting to integrate BitTorrent to help podcasters deal with the download demands of their MP3 "radio" programs. Specifically, Juice and Miro (formerly known as Democracy Player) support automatic processing of .torrent files from RSS feeds. Similarly, some BitTorrent clients, such as μTorrent, are able to process web feeds and automatically download content found within them.
DGM Live purchases are provided via BitTorrent.
VODO, a service which distributes "free-to-share" movies and TV shows via BitTorrent.
Broadcasters
In 2008, the CBC became the first public broadcaster in North America to make a full show (Canada's Next Great Prime Minister) available for download using BitTorrent.
The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) has since March 2008 experimented with bittorrent distribution, available online. Only selected works in which NRK owns all royalties are published. Responses have been very positive, and NRK is planning to offer more content.
The Dutch VPRO broadcasting organization released four documentaries in 2009 and 2010 under a Creative Commons license using the content distribution feature of the Mininova tracker.
Cloud Service Providers
The Amazon AWS's Simple Storage Service (S3), until April 29, 2021, had supported sharing of bucket objects with BitTorrent protocols. As of June 13, 2020, the feature is only available in service regions launched after May 30, 2016. The feature for the existing customers will be extended for an additional 12 months following the deprecation. After April 29, 2022, BitTorrent clients will no longer connect to Amazon S3.
Software
Blizzard Entertainment uses BitTorrent (via a proprietary client called the "Blizzard Downloader", associated with the Blizzard "BattleNet" network) to distribute content and patches for Diablo III, StarCraft II and World of Warcraft, including the games themselves.
Wargaming uses BitTorrent in their popular titles World of Tanks, World of Warships and World of Warplanes to distribute game updates.
CCP Games, maker of the space simulation MMORPG Eve Online, has announced that a new launcher will be released that is based on BitTorrent.
Many software games, especially those whose large size makes them difficult to host due to bandwidth limits, extremely frequent downloads, and unpredictable changes in network traffic, will distribute instead a specialized, stripped down BitTorrent client with enough functionality to download the game from the other running clients and the primary server (which is maintained in case not enough peers are available).
Many major open source and free software projects encourage BitTorrent as well as conventional downloads of their products (via HTTP, FTP etc.) to increase availability and to reduce load on their own servers, especially when dealing with larger files.
Resilio Sync is a BitTorrent-based folder-syncing tool which can act as an alternative to server-based synchronisation services such as Dropbox.
Government
The British government used BitTorrent to distribute details about how the tax money of British citizens was spent.
Education
Florida State University uses BitTorrent to distribute large scientific data sets to its researchers.
Many universities that have BOINC distributed computing projects have used the BitTorrent functionality of the client-server system to reduce the bandwidth costs of distributing the client-side applications used to process the scientific data. If a BOINC distributed computing application needs to be updated (or merely sent to a user), it can do so with little impact on the BOINC server.
The developing Human Connectome Project uses BitTorrent to share their open dataset.
Academic Torrents is a BitTorrent tracker for use by researchers in fields that need to share large datasets
Others
Facebook uses BitTorrent to distribute updates to Facebook servers.
Twitter uses BitTorrent to distribute updates to Twitter servers.
The Internet Archive added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, and all newly uploaded files, in August 2012. This method is the fastest means of downloading media from the Archive.
By early 2015, AT&T estimated that BitTorrent accounted for 20% of all broadband traffic.
Routers that use network address translation (NAT) must maintain tables of source and destination IP addresses and ports. Because BitTorrent frequently contacts 20–30 servers per second, the NAT tables of some consumer-grade routers are rapidly filled. This is a known cause of some home routers ceasing to work correctly.
Legislation
Although the protocol itself is legal, problems stem from using the protocol to traffic copyright infringing works, since BitTorrent is often used to download otherwise paid content, such as movies and video games. There has been much controversy over the use of BitTorrent trackers. BitTorrent metafiles themselves do not store file contents. Whether the publishers of BitTorrent metafiles violate copyrights by linking to copyrighted works without the authorization of copyright holders is controversial. Various jurisdictions have pursued legal action against websites that host BitTorrent trackers.
High-profile examples include the closing of Suprnova.org, TorrentSpy, LokiTorrent, BTJunkie, Mininova, Oink's Pink Palace and What.cd. BitTorrent search engine The Pirate Bay torrent website, formed by a Swedish group, is noted for the "legal" section of its website in which letters and replies on the subject of alleged copyright infringements are publicly displayed. On 31 May 2006, The Pirate Bay's servers in Sweden were raided by Swedish police on allegations by the MPAA of copyright infringement; however, the tracker was up and running again three days later. In the study used to value NBC Universal in its merger with Comcast, Envisional examined the 10,000 torrent swarms managed by PublicBT which had the most active downloaders. After excluding pornographic and unidentifiable content, it was found that only one swarm offered legitimate content.
In the United States, more than 200,000 lawsuits have been filed for copyright infringement on BitTorrent since 2010. In the United Kingdom, on 30 April 2012, the High Court of Justice ordered five ISPs to block The Pirate Bay.
Security
One concern is the UDP flood attack. BitTorrent implementations often use μTP for their communication. To achieve high bandwidths, the underlying protocol used is UDP, which allows spoofing of source addresses of internet traffic. It has been possible to carry out Denial-of-service attacks in a P2P lab environment, where users running BitTorrent clients act as amplifiers for an attack at another service. However this is not always an effective attack because ISPs can check if the source address is correct.
Several studies on BitTorrent found files available for download containing malware. In particular, one small sample indicated that 18% of all executable programs available for download contained malware. Another study claims that as much as 14.5% of BitTorrent downloads contain zero-day malware, and that BitTorrent was used as the distribution mechanism for 47% of all zero-day malware they have found.
See also
Anonymous P2P
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
Bencode
Cache Discovery Protocol
Comparison of BitTorrent clients
Comparison of BitTorrent sites
Comparison of BitTorrent tracker software
Glossary of BitTorrent terms
Magnet URI scheme
Simple file verification
Super-seeding
Torrent poisoning
References
Further reading
External links
Specification
Unofficial BitTorrent Protocol Specification v1.0 at wiki.theory.org
Unofficial BitTorrent Location-aware Protocol 1.0 Specification at wiki.theory.org
Application layer protocols
Computer-related introductions in 2001
File sharing
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239099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling | Falling | Falling or fallin' may refer to:
Falling (physics), movement due to gravity
Falling (accident)
Falling (execution)
Falling (sensation)
People
Christine Falling (born 1963), American serial killer who murdered six children
Books
Falling (Provoost novel), a 1994 novel by Anne Provoost
Falling (Howard novel), a 1999 novel by Elizabeth Jane Howard
"Falling", a 1967 poem by James Dickey
Film and television
Falling (2008 film), a film by Richard Dutcher
Falling (2015 film), starring Adesua Etomi and Blossom Chukwujekwu
Falling (2020 film), an American-British-Canadian drama film
The Falling (1987 film), an American film by Deran Sarafian
The Falling (2014 film), a British film by Carol Morley
Falling (Dutch: Vallen), a 2001 film by Hans Herbots based on the novel by Anne Provoost
Falling, a 2005 ITV adaptation of the novel by Elizabeth Jane Howard
"Falling", an episode of the Adult Swim television series Off the Air
"Falling" (Supergirl), an episode of the CBS television series Supergirl
Music
Albums
Falling (Blue Peter album), 1983
Falling (Praga Khan album), 2001
Fallin (album), 2012
Songs
Falling
"Falling" (Alesso song), 2017
"Falling" (Alison Moyet song), 1993
"Falling" (Ant & Dec song), 1997
"Falling" (Boom! song), 2001
"Falling" (Bruce Guthro song), 1998
"Falling" (Candice Alley song), 2003
"Falling" (Cathy Dennis song), 1993
"Falling" (Crooked Colours song), 2020
"Falling" (Gravity Kills song), 1998
"Falling" (Haim song), 2013
"Falling" (Harry Styles song), 2019
"Falling" (Julee Cruise song), 1990
"Falling" (LeBlanc and Carr song), 1977
"Falling" (Melba Moore song), 1986
"Falling" (Montell Jordan song), 1996
"Falling" (Trent Harmon song), 2016
"Falling" (Trevor Daniel song), 2018
"Falling", by Anette Olzon from Shine, 2013
"Falling", by Brooke Hogan, 2009
"Falling", by Julian Marsh featuring Abigail, 2003
"Falling", by Lacuna Coil from Lacuna Coil, 1998
"Falling", by Little River Band from The Net, 1983
"Falling", by Lyra (singer), 2019
"Falling", by Roy Orbison, 1963
"Falling", by Staind from Chapter V, 2005
Fallin'
"Fallin'" (Alicia Keys song), 2001
"Fallin'" (Connie Francis song), 1958
"Fallin'" (Demy song), 2012
"Fallin'" (Jessica Mauboy song), 2017
"Fallin'" (Teenage Fanclub and De La Soul song), 1993
"Fallin'" (Why Don't We song), 2020
"Fallin'", from the musical They're Playing Our Song, 1978, covered by Sarah Geronimo
Other
Falling (game), a card game created by James Ernest
See also
Fall (disambiguation)
Fallin (disambiguation) | [
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239101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autofellatio | Autofellatio | Autofellatio is the act of oral stimulation of one's own penis as a form of masturbation. Only a limited number of males are physically capable of performing autofellatio.
History
Egyptologist David Lorton says that many ancient texts refer to autofellatio within the religion of Egypt, both in the realm of the gods and among the followers performing religious rituals. According to Lorton, in the Papyrus Bremner-Rhind 28, 20–24, in a document called "Book of Overthrowing Apophis", there is a poem narrating how the sun god Ra had created the god Shu and goddess Tefnut by fellating himself and spitting out his own semen onto the ground. In ancient Egyptian texts, this act is usually performed by the god Atum, and most texts depict only the spitting of the semen or only the masturbation, but not both.
Michel Foucault cites Artemidorus' Oneirocritica as identifying the act of "taking [one's] sex organ into one's [own] mouth" as one of three ways to commit "relations with oneself." Artemidorus thought that dreams of this "unnatural" act portended the death of one's children, loss of one's mistresses, or extreme poverty.
Physical aspects
Few men possess sufficient flexibility and penis length to safely perform the necessary frontbend. However, increased flexibility achieved via gravity-assisted positions, and physical training such as gymnastics, contortion, or yoga may make it possible for some. American biologists Craig Bartle and Alfred Charles Kinsey reported that fewer than 1% of males can successfully orally contact their own penis and that only 2 or 3 men in a thousand could perform a full autofellatio. Previously, autofellatio was considered by behavioristic science a problem rather than as a variety in sexual practice.
References in culture
Autofellatio is a niche in pornography. While relatively few pornographic films involve autofellatio, some pornographic actors are noted for this skill, including Ron Jeremy for his 1970s examples on film. Other actors, including Scott O'Hara, Cole Youngblood, Steve Holmes, and Ricky Martinez, have also been featured performing autofellatio. In Brian W. Aldiss' 1970 semi-autobiographical novel The Hand-Reared Boy, he describes group masturbation practices at a British boys' boarding school. One boy with an especially large penis is capable of fellating himself, a fact which the narrator, Horatio Stubbs, verifies.
Comedian Bill Hicks elaborated an oft-quoted riff on the subject of fellatio, "A woman one night yelled out, 'Yeah, you ever try it?' I said 'Yeah. Almost broke my back.'" Kevin Smith later developed a similar theme ("He broke his neck trying to suck his own dick") in his 1994 debut film Clerks. Writer/director Larry David, in his 1998 film Sour Grapes, used autofellatio as a recurring plot device with several mentions and muted shots of a lead actor fellating himself (back trouble allowing) throughout the movie. In a 26th season (2000–2001) Saturday Night Live sketch, Will Ferrell plays a character who joins a yoga class with the sole purpose of developing the ability to fellate himself as a part of reaching Samadhi. In the 2001 film Scary Movie 2, Professor Dwight Hartman (David Cross) performs autofellatio after rebuffing Theo's (Kathleen Robertson) offer to perform oral sex on him.
The opening sequence of the 2006 film Shortbus shows James (Paul Dawson) fellating himself on videotape; like all of Shortbuss sexual content, the scene was unsimulated.
In 1993, American feminist artist Kiki Smith created a beeswax life-size sculpture titled "Mother/Child" which included a depiction of a man performing autofellatio.
The term may be insulting to a man's masculinity, implying that someone performs autofellatio due either to extremely high self-regard or inability to get someone else to do it for him. This was the sense in which the term was used by President Donald Trump's former White House Communications Director Anthony Scaramucci, when he said of strategist Steve Bannon, "I'm not Steve Bannon, I'm not trying to suck my own cock."
See also
Autocunnilingus
Autoeroticism
Ior Bock
List of sex positions
Sexercises
References
External links
Interview with an Autofellator
Auto-Fellatio: If You Want Something Done Right, Do It Yourself - An editorial
Masturbation
Sex positions
Fellatio
Male masturbation | [
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239103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeping%20bag | Sleeping bag | A sleeping bag is an insulated covering for a person, essentially a lightweight quilt that can be closed with a zipper or similar means to form a tube, which functions as lightweight, portable bedding in situations where a person is sleeping outdoors (e.g. when camping, hiking, hill walking or climbing). Its primary purpose is to provide warmth and thermal insulation through its synthetic or down insulation. It also typically has a water-resistant or water-repellent cover that protects, to some extent, against wind chill and light precipitation, but a tent is usually used in addition to a sleeping bag, as it performs those functions better. The bottom surface also provides some cushioning, but a sleeping pad or camp cot is usually used in addition for that purpose. The bottom surface of a sleeping bag may be moderately water repellent, but a plastic tarp or groundsheet is often used to protect against moist ground.
There are a range of sleeping bag models designed for different purposes. Very lightly insulated sleeping bags are designed for summer camping use or for indoor use by children during slumber parties. Well-insulated bags are designed for cold weather use. The most well-insulated and lightweight sleeping bags, which are designed for serious hikers and adventurers, are more expensive than lightly insulated sleeping bags. One subcategory of cold-weather sleeping bag, the mummy bag, is so named because it has an insulated hood for the head. A bivouac sack (bivy) is a waterproof cover for a sleeping bag that may be used in place of a tent by minimalist, experienced hikers. A bivy bag may also be carried by day hikers as a backup or emergency shelter, to be used if they cannot make it back to their starting point by nightfall due to inclement weather or getting lost.
History
The "Euklisia Rug", from Ancient Greek εὖ (well) and κλισία (cot, sleeping-place), patented by mail-order pioneer Pryce Pryce-Jones in 1876, may have been the first forerunner of the modern sleeping bag. Pryce-Jones, a Newtown, Montgomeryshire Welsh entrepreneur developed the bag and exported around the world in the late 19th century. Documents show he sold 60,000 of these rugs to the Russian army - and the British army also bought them. There are records of civilian uses too - among missionaries in Africa and pioneers in the Australian outback.
Design types
A basic sleeping bag is simply a square blanket or quilt, fitted with a zipper on two or three sides, which enables users to get into the bag and then close it up. A sleeping bag of this type is packed by being folded in half or thirds, rolled up, and bound with straps or cords with cord locks. The basic design works well for most camping needs but is inadequate under more demanding circumstances.
The second major type of sleeping bag, sometimes called a mummy bag because of its shape, is different in a number of important ways. It tapers from the head end to the foot end, reducing its volume and surface area, and improving its overall heat retention properties. Some bags are designed especially to accommodate women's body shapes. Most mummy bags do not unzip all the way to the feet, because the zipper is a weak point in any sleeping bag's insulating qualities. Together with the tapered shape, this design feature helps protect the feet, which are more vulnerable to heat loss than other parts of the body. Another design feature is a drawstring, equipped with a cord lock, at the head end to help prevent the escape of warm air. A mummy bag often cannot be rolled like a rectangular bag. Instead, it is simply stuffed into a stuff sack or compression sack.
The bottom of a sleeping bag typically does not provide significant insulation, because body weight crushes the loft of the insulation material. It is therefore necessary to use a pad or other less crush-able insulation underneath the sleeper, especially in cold weather. Due to this, some sleeping bags do not include insulation on the bottom. Some include a sleeve for holding a sleeping pad. Additionally, some campers, especially ultralight backpackers or hammock campers, have started to use a top quilt, essentially a sleeping bag without a back. Some top quilts include a foot box, while others are just simple blankets.
Fill
Many insulating materials are available for sleeping bags. Inexpensive sleeping bags for warm weather use or use by children indoors typically have a layer of synthetic quilt insulation. Outdoor professionals and serious amateur adventurers usually prefer either synthetic fill (e.g. PrimaLoft), or natural fill (e.g. down), and they have debated the merits of these materials for years.
Synthetic fill does not readily absorb water, dries easily, and provides some warmth even when thoroughly soaked. These properties may save the user's life if, for example, the sleeping bag is accidentally dropped into water on a cold day. Synthetic material is also firm and resilient, so it insulates well even underneath a person's weight. However, synthetic fill cannot be compressed as much, and is heavier, so that load volume and weight is greater with synthetic fill bags. Furthermore, synthetic insulation tends to break down faster than its natural counterpart.
Down fill weighs less than synthetic and retains heat better, but usually costs more. Down must be kept dry; a soaked down sleeping bag may provide even less insulation than no sleeping bag at all, leading to hypothermia. Newer, more technically advanced sleeping bags often have water-resistant shells and can be used in damper conditions. It is also recommended to keep a sleeping bag in a larger sack (storage sack) as opposed to the small traveling sack (compression bag) during long periods of storage. However, many regular backpackers and hikers agree that hanging a sleeping bag, taking care to move the position of the bag on the hanger at intervals so as to not create a "dead spot" (a spot where the fill has been crushed so that it is no longer useful), is the best method of storing a bag for long periods.
Other materials, notably cotton and wool, have also been used for sleeping bags. Wool repels water nicely and also resists compression, but it weighs much more than any alternative. Cotton suffers from high water retention and significant weight, but its low cost makes it an attractive option for uses like stationary camping or car camping where these drawbacks are of less consequence. Cotton insulation does not provide warmth if it becomes wet (due, for example, to the sleeping bag falling into water), so cotton-insulated sleeping bags are not used by professionals or serious hikers.
Temperature ratings
In Europe, the EN 13537 standard (introduced in 2005) normalizes the temperatures at which a sleeping bag is rated for use. In March 2010, REI began requiring American manufacturers to follow the EN 13537 standard, and in October 2016, ISO 23537-1:2016 standard replaced the EN 13537 standard.
TheA test, relying on a heated mannequin, provides four temperatures:
the upper limit is the highest temperature at which a 'standard' adult man is able to have a comfortable night's sleep without excess sweating.
the comfort rating is based on a 'standard' adult woman having a comfortable night's sleep.
the lower limit is based on the lowest temperature at which a 'standard' adult man is deemed to be able to have a comfortable night's sleep.
the extreme rating is a survival only rating for a 'standard' adult man. This is an extreme survival rating only and it is not advisable to rely on this rating for general use.
The transition zone, in between the comfort and lower temperature, is usually considered as the best purchase guideline.
A sleeping bag's rating typically indicates the lowest temperature at which it will keep the average sleeper warm. For example, with a 0 °C bag, a person should be able to sleep in 0 °C temperature, but not necessarily comfortably.
There is no standard measurement rating in the U.S., so a bag from one company may not provide the same warmth as a 20 °F from another company. Other important variables include what the user plans to wear while sleeping, what type of sleeping pad is used, and how well the user holds heat in the bag.
It has been shown that moisture (either externally, or from sweating) severely decreases the insulating effect of sleeping bags.
Indoor sleeping bags
Indoor sleeping bags, sometimes called slumber bags, are widely available, often for use particularly by children. These are usually not designed to be weatherproof and are often made of natural fabrics instead of the synthetic fabrics commonly used for outdoor sleeping bags. Children's sleeping bags in particular often feature elaborate, brightly colored printed designs, such as images of popular media characters. Slumber bags make floor sleeping more comfortable, and are often used for sleepovers, family visits, and other situations where there are not enough beds for everyone.
The Icehotel in Jukkasjärvi, Sweden provides polar-tested sleeping bags for use while sleeping on their beds, which are bedded with reindeer furs, and have frames carved from ice.
Infant use
An infant sleeping bag is a bag-like garment or covering worn by infants for sleeping in. Infant sleeping bags differ from regular sleeping bags in design and purpose, being designed primarily for indoor rather than outdoor use, and usually featuring either arm holes or sleeves.
In the market, there are available for winter and summer baby sleeping bags. Also some brands make all season baby sleeping bags.
The definition used in the British Standard for safety of children's sleep bags is "sleep bags for the use of children with a minimum weight of 4 kg designed to provide sufficient warmth so as to remove the need for additional bedding when sleeping in a cot or similar product in which a child is contained." It goes on to exclude "garments with sleeves and feet, i.e. sleep suits or baby grows, or to products designed primarily for outdoor use or to keep children warm when in a pushchair."
See also
Bivouac sack
Cowboy bedroll
Mosquito net
Pertex
Sleeping bag liner
Swaddling
References
External links
Bags
Bedding
Camping equipment
Insulators
Mountaineering equipment | [
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239107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effort | Effort | Effort may refer to:
Effort, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place in Monroe County, Pennsylvania, United States
Effortfulness, the subjective experience of exertion when performing an activity
Effort (video game player), League of Legends pro-gamer
See also
Work (disambiguation)
Second Effort, a 1968 film
Effort heuristic, a rule of thumb to measure quality by effort
Effort values, part of the gameplay of Pokémon
Da Costa's syndrome, also known as Effort syndrome, a type of psychosomatic disorder | [
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239108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandread | Vandread | is a Japanese anime series directed by Takeshi Mori and created by the animation studios Gonzo and Media Factory.
The series is composed of two seasons (Vandread, released in 2000 and Vandread: The Second Stage, released in 2001), each composed of thirteen episodes of twenty-five minutes. The first series is summarized in the Vandread Taidōhen ("Integral") OVA in 2001, and the second in the Vandread Gekitōhen ("Turbulence") OVA, released in 2002. There is a Vandread Extra Stage Novel, that explains the events after Vandread: The Second Stage. Along with acquiring the licenses for the two original series from Geneon, Funimation also licensed the two OVAs.
Plot
Set in a universe where humans have colonized the galaxy, and in one star system, men and women are completely segregated (on completely different planets: Mejere by the women, Taraak by the men) causing the gender war to be more than just a metaphor.
Male protagonist Hibiki Tokai, a third-class laborer, takes up a bet to steal a high-tech humanoid robot, known as a Vanguard, from a male attack force battleship about to fight the "evil females". Still on board when the battleship takes off, Hibiki is caught in a battle with female pirates that causes all of the ship's crew to evacuate, except for Hibiki, Duelo McFile, and Bart Garsus. Stuck on board and held as prisoners by female pirates, things seem to have hit an all-time low for Hibiki until the retreating males retaliate by firing torpedoes at the ship to prevent it from falling into women's hands. The Paksis Pragma, the mysterious, living core of the battleship, eradicates the missile, forming a wormhole that sends the pirates and warship to a distant part of the galaxy, fusing the battleship with the female pirates' vessel. The fusion results in a quirky ship with very smooth lines, a host of technical problems, and various hidden capabilities that become apparent later on. The Vanguard Hibiki attempted to steal has also been altered along with three of the women's fighters, known as Dreads, allowing the separate ships to combine. The fusion of Hibiki's mecha with one of the fighters is called a Vandread, the eponymous mecha.
In this alternate, futuristic universe, men and women (at least on Taraak and Mejere) consider each other to be completely separate species (Hibiki gains the nickname "Mr. Alien" from Dita Liebely, the female protagonist), and the three men put up with much abuse at the hands of their female captors, but gradually make their presence accepted: Hibiki as a mecha fighter and technician, Duelo as a skilled doctor and engineer, and Bart as the ship's helmsman and navigator.
The story of the first season revolves around the crew's trip back to the system where their respective home worlds are. Along the way, they encounter strange, robotic machines, both enigmatic and rather Borg-like, though they do not communicate at all. After a few attacks with the unknown enemy, the crew manages to take some alien data samples from a desert planet. The data is read out: "Blood platelets, white blood cells, red blood cells..." Their alien enemies kills human beings and harvests their body parts from them. Not only this, but a later encounter with the flagship of the "Harvesters", the name given to the enemy, reveals that the robots were sent out by the people of Earth, the same planet humans originated from, whose colonists would eventually colonize Mejere, Taraak, and countless other planets.
At the start of the second season, they rescue an escape pod from the Harvesters. The pod contains a girl, Misty Cornwell of Pluto, the last planet in the Earth's solar system to be harvested, and a virus which enters the ship's systems. When the correct password is entered, the virus shuts down and the crew is given access to the hidden data that the pod brings, revealing why the Earthlings are harvesting their own species.
Following the initial drive to colonize, pollution has devastated Earth, making any life on the planet near impossible. Huge metal gears now cover the Earth's stratosphere in an attempt to create a living environment for people in massive structures surrounding the planet. Earthlings, alone and dying on the toxic planet, began to question the humanity of the colonists. Eventually, they convinced themselves that only the inhabitants of Earth are human, and all other humans exists solely to ensure their continued existence. Their solution, therefore, was to send out the Harvester fleet of machines created from the same basic material as the Nirvanas core, the Paksis Pragma. The Harvesters raid and dominate colonies to obtain body parts, allowing the Earthlings to replace their own dying bodies, thus becoming immortal through the lives of others.
Furthermore, it is revealed that the leaders of the original colonists who founded Mejere and Taraak—led by Hibiki's parents, Grandpa and Grandma—were unwilling to lose any future natural-born children to the Harvester Fleets, and so decided upon what they considered to be a most painful but utterly necessary sacrifice: separating the original male and female colonists on two separate planets to create artificially-created twin-races of genetically engineered sons and daughters through the mixed-cloning of the First Generation (the majority of whom still remain secretly secured in cryo-stasis and guarded by the man who raised Hibiki), who would serve as the substitutes to be harvested by Earth, instead of what would have otherwise been the natural-born children of the original colonists.
For the crew, fighting is not just about defeating their enemy and surviving; they need to rush back to their respective home worlds in time to warn their people. But will the leaders of the planets listen to their almost impossible tale?
Media
Anime
Manga
The manga is very different from the anime, containing several major and minor changes with an almost entirely new story line. The differences includes:
The story line is much shorter than the anime, with only 14 chapters.
Hibiki starts as a member of a Tarak fleet, being a Vanguard Pilot rather than stealing one. He is the only male to board the Nirvana. He is also slightly less hotheaded, and admits his feelings for Dita more openly.
Dita is less childish in the manga, and addresses Hibiki by name, rather than "Mr. Alien".
Nearly half of the major cast doesn't appear, including Duelo, Pyoro, Magno, Misty, Paiway, Ezra, Gascogne, Rabat and Butan. However, Bart appears in the first chapter, but not (and does not join) as a crew member of Nirvana.
Human beings from other planets don't appear. Also, the name Lord Grandpa and Grandma are not mentioned as the ruler of Taraak and Mejere respectively.
Hibiki's Vanguard does not change from the Paxis, and there is only one Vandread and it is the form Hibiki and Dita share. Its fusion is also made permanent. An evil counterpart to the Vandread exists, called the Vandora.
Meia is captain of the Nirvana.
Jura is the fourth bridge operator rather than a Dread pilot.
Barnette, rather than lay her interests in Jura, sets her eyes on Hibiki instead.
B.C. is a female and is the main antagonist in the first manga. It is also revealed that she was in love with a man, meaning she did not come from Taraak, Mejere, or Earth.
In the anime, the enemy is called "The Harvest", but in the manga, the enemy is called "Terran" which means invader. "Terran" can also be a reference to Terra the Latin name for Earth meaning a citizen of Earth. Since the enemy originated from the Earth this meaning is likely.
Two new characters exist exclusive for the manga:
Tenhou Farland, a green-haired, twelve-year-old girl, with a unique ability to interact with machines and finds a surrogate brother in Hibiki.
Asra Mutie, the blue-haired pilot of the Vandora. She helps the Nirvana crew, only to know who they are. She initially plays a similar role of Misty from the anime, interacting with Hibiki and being more experienced in the relations between men and women, which causes jealously to Dita. When the Vandora takes control of Asra, Hibiki, Dita, and Tenhou save her, and Asra officially joins the crew.
Glossary
Paxis
Pragma Paxis
The blue energy entity acting as the Nirvanas core. It originates from a different universe, but encountered earthlings and became separated in two when it was used for the Ikazuchi; its twin stays on Earth. Due to its unique properties, it has been used to generate energy in various ships, without the builders realizing the nature of the Paksis. Meanwhile, the Paksis on Earth takes on a red color, after infusing with Earth's hatred and refusal to open their hearts.
As the Nirvana crew learns that the Paksis is a sentient being, they also start to bond with Pyoro, a navigation robot that was linked with the Paksis. The result was Pyoro becoming sentient, and developing a personality of its own. Occasionally, the Paksis will override Pyoro's systems to communicate with the crew members. Machines linked with the Paksis may also 'evolve' to some extent, thus resulting in the upgrades to Dita's, Meia's and Jura's Dreads and Hibiki's Vanguard. These upgrades would provide the basis for the three Vandread types, and eventually, the Super Vandread, which is the fusion of all three Dreads, the Vanguard, and Pyoro.
The Harvesters, from the influence of the red Paksis, can also evolve and become stronger through combining smaller Harvester units, creating almost-exact copies of the Vandreads, as well as the Nirvana, which could transform into humanoid robot. Also, the Paksis has a self-preservation instinct, which it revealed when it fused the Ikazuchi and Magno's pirate ship, creating a wormhole and transporting the crew light years away from Taraak and Mejere.
Harvest Fleet
The overall main villains of the series. It was created by the humans remaining on Earth to go out to colonized worlds and "harvest" the inhabitants, i.e., killing them and ripping them apart for the organs so the people on Earth could use them. Although some planets would resist the harvest fleet, they could never stop it. The primary ships in the fleet consists of smaller cube-like robots that combine to form larger ships and weapons. Throughout the whole series, smaller ships from the fleets are encountered by the Nirvana, taking a variety of forms.
In the finale of the first series, a harvest flagship was encountered. These ships dwarf nearly every other ship seen in the series, which in addition to their own weapons, have a massive number of cube robots with them. At that point, the cube robots had also learned how to form copies of the Vandreads. The only way the flagship could be stopped was turning a large gas-planet into a star, which destroyed most its support and after which the flagship was destroyed by Vandread Dita. Harvest flagships were occasionally fought in Second Stage, and continued to be dangerous enemies.
During Second Stage, the cube robots showed the ability to form copies of the Nirvana, though the copies were instead armed with a powerful beam weapon and could transform into humanoid robots. The harvest ships had also upgraded themselves later in the series, growing even deadlier. In the finale of the series, all of the harvest flagships assembled to attack Taraak and Mejere, but a coalition between the two planets, along with a number of other planets that had been attacked by the harvest fleet, and the crew of the Nirvana destroyed them all. However, one final ship was shown, similar in appearance to the harvest flagships, but much larger and more menacing.
According to Rabat, its purpose is to destroy planets no longer needed by the harvest fleet. It appears to be built around a huge energy weapon, but it also possesses numerous others. This ship also contains the Paksis that was left on Earth, which spoke through the body of a young boy. This ship was initially able to overpower even Super Vandread, but when Hibiki mocked the Paksis for its stubborn views it went insane and attempted to destroy the entire galaxy with an out of control wormhole. Super Vandread was nearly defeated but Nirvanas own Paksis Pragma protected it with a net-like shield.
Vehicles and mechas
Nirvana
The battleship the characters use throughout the series. It houses the Pragma Paxis as the ship's core, powering almost anything within the vessel. After the Ikazuchi battleship and Magno's pirate ship were thrown into the wormhole, created by the Paksis, both ships began to fuse with one another. At first, the crew was unsure what to call their new ship, but after a lottery was held in giving a name, Magno christened the vessel Nirvana from a list of entries. Bart Garsus fills in as the ship's pilot. At first the ship lacked of any kind of offensive weaponry, instead owning a extremely powerful shield constructed in several layers. It only gets its armament after Bart's sheer will to protect a sickly girl on a planet under the attack forces the Nirvana evolution to develop a series of turrets that encompasses the ship's hull, all of which fire a laser that automatically locks onto enemy units, while bypassing all friendly units as the laser can turn freely in any direction even after being fired.
Dreads
The space fighters used by Magno's pirate crew. Most Dreads are armed with vulcans, missiles, and laser cannons, depending on how the Dread is customized to the pilot's taste. Before battle, each Dread goes through the Registry system and is fitted with the chosen weapons. With the help of Gascogne's supply vessel, a Dread can be re-armed during battle. When the Paksis created the wormhole the Dreads of Dita, Meia and Jura underwent changes. All three Dreads became structurally different from the others, while possessing greater firepower than an average Dread. When any of these Dreads fuses with Hibiki's Vanguard, they become a powerful Vandread. In Vandread: Second Stage, after becoming the Super Vandread, the three fighters receive an additional boost of power from the fusion, noted from Parfait's analysis. All Dreads are extremely large, Hibiki's Vanguard actually enters the Dreads it combines with
Vanguards/Bangaata
The newly introduced mobile weapons of Taraak. These machines carry an assortment of melee weapons, ranging from swords, axes, spears to chainsaws. As well, they can easily withstand artillery fire. Initially, along with the Ikazuchi battleship, the Vanguards were used to eliminate any hostiles (mainly, space pirates and the women of Mejere) that threatened Taraak airspace, until Magno's pirate ship hijacked the battleship. Hibiki's Vanguard (though it really was not his), like the Dreads, was also affected by the Paksis, transforming it into an even bulkier version of its original self. Later, when fused with either Dita's, Meia's or Jura's Dreads, it becomes the all-powerful Vandread. In Vandread: Second Stage, after becoming the Super Vandread, the Vanguard receives a small physical transformation, and possibly an additional boost of power from the fusion.
Ikazuchi
The name of the flagship of the Taraak Imperial Fleet. Formerly a colony vessel, it was reformatted to become a battleship. Its purpose was to eliminate any hostiles (mainly, space pirates and the women of Mejere) that threatened Taraak airspace, until Magno's Pirate ship hijacked it and the Tarak crew separated the new section of the Ikazuchi from the original one which ended under the tenure of the pirates, to prevent that women could take advantage of the ship they attempted to destroy the old section with missiles, which in turn prompted the Paksis to create a wormhole to escape. The wormhole created by the Paksis Pragma fused the Ikazuchi and Magno's pirate ship into a completely different vessel, later to be called the Nirvana.
Dita-type VANDREAD
The first Vandread to appear. It is the fusion of Dita's Dread and Hibiki's Vanguard. This Vandread resembles a giant mobile fighter, with its main armament to be a pair of enormously powerful long-range energy cannons that are usually strong enough to fend off the enemy. They can also be used as a pair of cutting weapons, whenever in melee combat. Finally, the cannons themselves can be removed from the frame of the machine and interlock to become a throwable spear. Other armaments include its massive, physical strength, being able to rip apart some of the enemies it encounters, and bulky armor. More or less, this Vandread incorporates an offensive strategy. In the cockpit, Dita sits on Hibiki's lap while controlling the unit.
Meia-type VANDREAD
The second Vandread to appear. It is the fusion of Meia's Dread and Hibiki's Vanguard. This Vandread resembles a silver eagle and its main form of attack is a high-velocity ram, which pierces all enemy units in its path of flight. It has also demonstrated the ability to fire an energy beam from between the horns on its head. It is also the only Vandread not referred to by name, and is easily fastest of the three types. In the cockpit, Hibiki sits on Meia's lap while controlling the unit, much to Meia's annoyance.
Jura-type VANDREAD
The third Vandread to appear. It is the fusion of Jura's Dread and Hibiki's Vanguard. This Vandread resembles a red crab with around 8 green discs orbiting the machine and one large disc as part of the machine's frame. More of a defensive weapon than an offensive one, its main armament is an enhanced shielding system, which allows it to cover any object, up to the size of a planet. Other armaments include a laser from each disc that fires in all 8 directions, its movable arms, and even redirecting matter with the large disc (in one episode, the Vandread draws water from a planet to destroy a Harvester machine), but its weapons aren't nearly as powerful as those used by the other Vandreads so it generally doesn't take part in head-on fighting. In the cockpit, there is a circular seat with a central table that houses the controls.
Super VANDREAD
The fourth and final Vandread to appear, and by far the most powerful. It is the fusion of Dita's, Meia's, and Jura's Dreads; Hibiki's Vanguard; and Pyoro (which prompts him to christen the fusion "Vandread Pyoro"). The overall power of this machine is unknown, however, it can be said that the Super Vandread incorporates all three Vandread types into its design: with a wave of its hand, the Super Vandread can erect a shield strong enough to absorb any enemy fire (Jura-type); the discs scattered around its frame can form to fire an extremely powerful laser (Jura-type, Dita-type); a large energy sword, created from the hands, easily slices any Harvester unit (Dita-type); it still maintains significant speed for a combined machine (Meia-type). It is the least used of the Vandreads, which for overall plot reasons is simply because it would make nearly all battles too easy (in its debut it easily destroyed a copy of the Nirvana and a Harvest Flagship). The only time it met an enemy that could challenge it was in the form of world destroying harvest ship.
Songs
Opening and ending songs
Trust ("Vandread" opening; also used as the ending in the last "Second Stage" episode) by Salia
Himegoto ("Vandread" ending) by SiLC
Justice ("Second Stage" opening) by Aki Kudou
Yes, Together ("Second Stage" ending) by Yasunori Iwasaki, sung by Aki Kudou
Spacy Spicy Love ("Taidouhen" opening) by Mejare Pirates
Proof ("Turbulance" ending) by Mejare Pirates
Insert songs
What a Wonderful World ("Vandread" insert song) by Donna Burke
Somedays ("Second Stage" insert) by Donna Burke
Ikutose Karuka/Many Many Tears
Good Day Friends (Dita's song) by Yumi Kakazu
Kanojo wa Dandysm (Barnette's song)
Moon Light Lullaby (Meia's song) by Fumiko Orikasa
Slow Down (Jura's song)
Welcome Home (Parfet's song)
References
External links
Vandread FUNimation Teaser Site
2000 anime television series debuts
2000 Japanese novels
2000 manga
2001 anime television series debuts
2002 manga
Comedy anime and manga
Funimation
Geneon USA
Gonzo (company)
Japanese LGBT-related television shows
Kadokawa Shoten manga
Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko
Light novels
Female harem anime and manga
Mecha anime and manga
Wowow original programming
Anime with original screenplays
Shōnen manga
Space opera anime and manga | [
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239109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Peru | President of Peru | The president of Peru (), formally recognized as the President of the Republic of Peru (), is the head of state and head of government of Peru. The president is the head of the executive branch and is the Supreme Head of the Armed Forces and Police of Peru. The office of president corresponds to the highest magistracy in the country, making the president the highest ranking public official in Peru. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru, the Congress of Peru can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to the legislature.
The president is elected to direct the general policy of the government, work with the Congress of the Republic and the Council of Ministers to enact reform, and be an administrator of the state, enforcing the Constitution of 1993 which establishes the presidential requirements, rights, and obligations. The executive branch is located at the Palacio de Gobierno, located in the historic center of Lima. The building has been used and occupied by the heads of state of Peru, dating back to Francisco Pizarro and the viceroys of Peru.
The current President of Peru is Pedro Castillo, who succeeded Francisco Sagasti on 28 July 2021. He was elected in the 2021 Peruvian general election.
Presidential terms and transitions
Constitutional limits
Ordinarily, the president is elected to a five-year term, and is barred from immediate reelection. A former president can run again after being out of office for a full term. The change of government takes place on 28 July, which is the date of independence from Spain and thus a national holiday.
The Congress of the Republic has the power to end a president's term prematurely through impeachment. Under Article 113 of the Constitution of 1993, the president can be removed due to death, "permanent moral or physical disability" determined by Congress, resignation, fleeing national territory without permission from Congress, or dismissal for committing infractions outlined in Article 117 of the Constitution.
Four presidents of Peru have attempted to resign: Guillermo Billinghurst (forced resignation), Andrés Avelino Cáceres, Alberto Fujimori, and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski. Two presidents have been impeached unsuccessfully, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra (first impeachment) while the impeachments of Guillermo Billinghurst, Alberto Fujimori and Martín Vizcarra (second impeachment) have been successful.
The president is elected to a term of 5 years without immediate re-election. A presidential inauguration is held every five years on 28 July in Congress. The last directly elected president was President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, who was elected for a term from 2016 to 2021. Following the presidential line of succession, Vice President Martín Vizcarra, former governor of Moquegua, Minister of Transportation, and Ambassador to Canada, succeeded him as president following Kuczynski's resignation in 2018 to fill the remaining term. In 2020, Vizcarra was impeached and removed from office and the presidential line of succession led to the ascension of President of Congress Manuel Merino to the presidency. Merino resigned the office within a week of his inauguration amid pressure from mass protests. Congress elected Francisco Sagasti to fill the remaining term.
There have also been a number of unrecognized presidents. In 1992 and 2019, after the dissolution of the Congress, the legislative body unsuccessfully removed the president from office and swore in vice presidents as the de facto president.
There are 14 presidents that became presidents through a coup d'état. The last successful coup d'état was carried out by Alberto Fujimori in 1992, who is now imprisoned for human rights violations and corruption.
Inauguration
Setting and attendees
Presidential inaugurations take place in the Congress of the Republic of Peru in the capital city of Lima. Presidential inaugurations always take place on 28 July of its respective year, although in the case of constitutional succession, an inauguration is on the day that the presidential successor arrives in Lima, Peru. The presidential inauguration precedes the National Parade of the Military of Peru.
Foreign dignitaries have often assisted the democratic transition of power in Peru.
Presidential oath
The contemporary placed presidential oath in Spanish is as follows:Yo, Martín Alberto Vizcarra Cornejo, juro por Dios, por la patria, y por todos los peruanos que ejerceré fielmente el cargo de Presidente de la República que me ha confiado el nación para el periodo 2018 a 2021, que defenderé la soberanía nacional y la integridad física y moral de la República, que cumpliré y hare cumplir la constitución política y las leyes del Perú, y que reconocerá, respetando la libertad de corto, la importancia de la Iglesia Católica en la formación cultural y moral de los peruanos.
Martín Alberto Vizcarra Cornejo, Presidential Oath of Office July 28, 2018 In EnglishThe English translation is as follows:I, [complete name of presidential elect], swear to God, to the Homeland, and to all Peruvians that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Republic of Peru that has been entrusted to me by the Nation for the period [start of mandate] to [end of mandate], that I will defend the sovereignty of the nation as well as the physical and moral integrity of the Nation, that I will comply and enforce the political constitution and laws of Peru, and that I will recognize, respecting freedoms, the importance of the Roman Catholic Church in the cultural and moral formation of Peruvians. The President of Congress conventionally holds the presidential sash before the President-elect takes the oath of office. Once the President-elect has taken the oath of office, the president is recognized by all branches of the Government of Peru as the democratic President of the Republic of Peru, symbolized by the President of the Congress passing the presidential sash. The nominee is recognized as the President of Peru with and only with the presidential sash.
As of 2019, there have been two illegitimate presidential inaugurations performed by the Congress of Peru, but not recognized by either the executive branch or the armed forces: one in 1995 and the inauguration of Mercedes Aráoz in 2019 amidst a confrontation between the executive and legislative powers of Peru.
There is also an emphasis on Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church in the oath of office. All presidents of Peru have been Catholic and have taken the oath of office alongside the Christian Bible, and in front of a Catholic Crucifix.
Origin
Pre-Columbian era
The first State recognizable as such under current concepts in the central Andes was the Wari civilization, whose system of government has not yet been fully unraveled. Later, between the thirteenth century and the sixteenth century, the Inca civilization developed, whose State, based on the political management of reciprocity and alien to all European conceptions of then and now, had the Sapa Inca at its head.
The modern Peruvian state is the heir of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1532, the Spanish conquerors arrived in the territory, imposed their dominion and managed to establish a Spanish dependency. This dependence began as governorships corresponding to the conquerors, with the title of Governor. The Governorate of the New Toledo (Diego de Almagro) – which otherwise never consolidated – had as its capital the city of Cusco, the current historical capital of Peru. The Governorate of the New Castile (Francisco Pizarro) had as its capital the City of Kings, as Lima was also called initially and it was on this that the Viceroyalty was instituted after the civil wars.
In 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was established, whose government was held by the representative of the King of Spain (Head of State) with the title of Viceroy of Peru (Head of Government). The true organizer of the viceregal state was Francisco de Toledo.
This period had only two stages corresponding to the two Spanish dynasties: the houses of Habsburg and Bourbon, and lasted 282 years from its establishment in 1542 to the Capitulation of Ayacucho in 1824, despite the independence of Peru in 1821.
José Fernando de Abascal was in charge of centralizing Spanish political and military power in Peru. His successors, the last viceroys of Peru were parallel to Jose de San Martin and his first successors. Joaquín de la Pezuela and José de la Serna faced the liberating armies and the last of them signed the capitulation. Finally, Pío Tristán was the interim viceroy in charge of transferring power to the patriots.
Republic era
In July 1821, during the Peruvian War of Independence, the autonomous states lying in the viceroyalty of Peru declared themselves as independent and sovereign from influence and mediation from the Spanish Empire. Recognizing the impending threat of Spanish backlash to regain their lost colonies, the autonomous viceroyalty began to draft a constitution on which they would decide to base the sovereign nation. Working closely with the Constituent Congress of Peru in 1822, a formal constitution was created, named the Constitution of 1823. Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro, a Peruvian politician, presided and led the Constituent Congress of Peru, leading to him being subjectively regarded as the first informal President of Peru.
The first articles of the 1823 Constitution consisted of 24 items, known as the "Bases". These bases formally defined the borders of the Andean nation and formally created the First Republic of Peru, which still holds until the present day. The governing board, led by Luna Pizarro, declared Peruvian autonomy from Spain and a Catholic state. Additionally, the Constitution defined the three powers of the government, the executive, judicial and the legislative power. The Governing board, a colloquial terminology that was used to classify the ten politicians that devised these 24 items, was the first representation of executive power and the executive branch in Peruvian history.
Later, issues arose around the bases which granted the protectorate of Peru, Simon Bolivar, overwhelming power over the legislative and executive organs of the Peruvian government. At the same time, Bolivar was already undergoing a campaign to establish a dictatorship around Andean Latin American nations. As a precursor, this incentivized the initial drafters of the constitution and the Governing Board to accelerate the process of defining reasonable executive powers, balance the three branches of power, and begin to draft an idea for the roles and powers of the official position of state leader of Peru.
The Act of Independence was signed in Lima on 15 August 1821, and soon after the government was left under the charge of José de San Martín with the title of Protector. Later, the legislative branch occupied the executive branch. In 1823 the Congress appointed José de la Riva Agüero as the first President of the Republic of the history of Peru. Since then, that has been the main denomination that has held the great majority of the rulers of Peru. The same first Political Constitution of 1823 (after the appointment of Riva Agüero) recognizes the position, and says ex officio: "Article 72. Resides exclusively the exercise of executive power in a citizen with the name of President of the Republic."
Only two constitutions have been contrary, partially, to the presidential republican system, the Lifetime Political Constitution of 1826 emanating from Simón Bolívar and expressing:The exercise of the Executive Power resides in a Life President, a Vice President, and four Secretaries of State.By 1827, an outline of an executive along with the executive branch had been drawn out to prevent a Bolivarian dictatorship which would be seen by the populace as a general return to Spanish tyrannical rule. As a result, on 28 July 1827, Manuel Salazar assumed the formal office of the presidency and became the first president of Peru to be elected by the populace, marking the start of the Presidency of Peru.
Powers and duties
1823 Constitution
The President is head of the general administration of the Republic, and his authority extends both to the preservation of public order internally, and to external security in accordance with the Constitution and laws.
The duties exclusive to the President have been defined the 1823 Constitution as:
To promulgate, execute, protect, and comply with the laws, decrees, and resolutions of the Congress of Peru and to issue the orders indispensable for its effect.
To have supreme command over the armed forces of Peru.
To order and verify democratic free elections on the days indicated by the Constitution.
To declare war when appropriate after being passed through the Congress of Peru.
To regulate and join peace treaties, alliances, and other agreements coming from foreign states according to the Constitution.
To oversee and determine the investment of the funds allocated by the Congress of Peru to the various branches of the public administration.
Appoint officers and officials of the Peruvian Armed Forces with the agreement and consent of Congress.
Appoint Ministers, members of the Presidential Cabinet, the Prime Minister, and diplomats with the agreement and consent of Congress.
Ensure the proper administration of justice in the Peruvian Judicial System and on the compliance of the judgments that they pronounce, as well as establish the trial by jury courts.
Inform the legislature of the political and military status quo of the Republic of Peru, indicating substantial improvements or suitable reforms in every branch of Peruvian society.
Limitations of the executive power
The President cannot and will not personally command the armed force without the consent of Congress.
The President cannot and will not leave the nation without permission from Congress.
Under no pretext can the President conduct business with members of the Supreme Court.
The President cannot and will not deprive any Peruvian of personal liberty, and if public security requires the arrest or detention of any person, the President may order the appropriate detention with the indispensable condition that within twenty-four hours the detainee will be available to their respective judge.
Furthermore, the President cannot and will not impose any penalties. The Minister who signed the order of detention, and the official who executes it can act on behalf of the detainee's individual freedom.
The President cannot and will not defer or suspend sessions of the Congress under any circumstances.
1826 Constitution
The powers of the President of the Republic are:
Open sessions of the Congress, and present the legislative body a message about the State of the Republic yearly.
Propose the Vice President of Peru to Congress and appoint Secretaries of the Republic.
Dismiss the Vice President and Secretaries of the Republic, whenever the President deems it appropriate.
Send, publish, circulate, and enforce the laws.
Authorize the regulations and orders that maximizes compliance with the Constitution, laws and public treaties of the Republic.
Send and enforce the judgments of the Courts of Justice.
Request the extension of ordinary sessions of the Legislative Body for up to thirty days.
Convene the Legislative Body for extraordinary sessions, in a case where it is absolutely necessary.
To have the permanent force of the sea and land for exterior defense of the Republic.
To send in person the armies of the Republic in peace and in war. When the President is absent from the capital, the Vice President in charge of the Republic will take the duties and responsibilities of the President.
When the President leads the war in person, the President may reside in all the territory occupied by national arms.
Have the National Militia for internal security, within the limits of its departments and outside of them, with the consent of the Legislative Body.
Name all employees of the Army and Navy.
Establish military schools, and nautical schools.
Command to establish military hospitals and homes for the disabled.
Give withdrawals and licenses. Grant the pensions of the military and their families in accordance with the laws, and arrange, according to them, all the rest consequent to this branch.
Declare war on behalf of the Republic, after the decree of the Legislative Body.
Grant patents for privateering.
Take care of the collection and investment of contributions according to the laws.
Name employees.
Direct diplomatic negotiations, and celebrate treaties of peace, friendship, federation, alliance, truces, armed neutrality, trade, and any other, always having to precede the approval of the Legislative Body.
Appoint the Public Ministers, Consuls and subordinates of the Department of Foreign Affairs.
Receive foreign ministers
Grant the pass, or suspend the conciliar decisions, pontifical, brief and resigned with the consent of the Power to whom it corresponds.
Propose to the Chamber of Censors, in short, individuals for the Supreme Court of Justice, and those who have to submit to the Archbishoprics, Bishoprics, Canongias and perks.
Present to the Senate for approval one of the list of candidates proposed by the Electoral Body for Prefects, Governors and Corregidores.
Choose one of the list of candidates proposed by the Ecclesiastical Government for priests and vicars of the provinces.
Suspend up to three months for employees, provided there is cause for it.
Commute the capital sentences decreed to the inmates by the Courts.
Issue, on behalf of the Republic, titles or appointments to all employees.
Limitations of executive power
The President may not deprive any Peruvian of his liberty, nor impose on him any penalty.
When the security of the Republic requires the arrest of one or more citizens, it may not exceed forty-eight hours without placing the accused at the disposal of the competent Court or Judge.
He may not deprive any individual of his property, but in the event that the public interest so requires, but he must precede a just compensation to the owner.
It will not be able to prevent the elections or the other functions that by the laws compete to the Powers of the Republic.
He can not absent himself from the territory of the Republic, nor from the capital, without permission from the Legislative Body.
1860 Constitution
The powers of the President of the Republic are:
To preserve the internal order and the external security of the Republic without contravening the laws.
Convene the ordinary Congress and the extraordinary, when there is a need.
Concurring to the opening of the Congress, presenting a message about the state of the Republic and about the improvements and reforms it deems appropriate.
Take part in the formation of laws, in accordance with this constitution.
Enact and enforce the laws and other resolutions of the Congress; and give decrees, orders, regulations and instructions for their better compliance.
Give the necessary orders for the collection and investment of public revenues in accordance with the law.
Require judges and courts for the prompt and accurate administration of justice.
Enforce the judgments of the courts and courts.
Organize the forces of sea and land: distribute them, and dispose of them for the service of the Republic.
Have the National Guard in their respective provinces, without being able to remove them, but in case of sedition on the border, or in the war outside.
To direct diplomatic negotiations and to conclude treaties, placing on them the express condition that they will be submitted to the Congress.
Receive foreign Ministers and admit the Consuls.
Appoint and remove the Ministers of State and the Diplomatic Agents.
To clear licenses and pensions, according to the laws.
Exercise the Board in accordance with the laws and current practice.
Present to Archbishops and Bishops, with the approval of Congress, those who are elected according to the law.
Present for the Dignities and Canongias of the Cathedrals, for the parishes and other ecclesiastical benefits, in accordance with the laws and current practice.
Celebrate concordats with the Apostolic Chair, following the instructions given by Congress.
Grant or deny the passage to the conciliar decrees, papal bulls, briefs and rescripts, with the consent of the Congress, and previously hearing the Supreme Court of Justice, if they were related to contentious matters.
Provide vacant jobs, whose appointment corresponds according to the Constitution and special laws.
1993 Constitution
The President of the Republic, in addition to the Head of State, is the Head of the national Government. Its functions are explicit in the Constitution and the Organic Law of the Executive Power.
Comply and enforce the Constitution and treaties, laws and other legal provisions.
Represent the State, inside and outside the Republic.
Direct the general policy of the Government.
Ensure the internal order and the external security of the Republic.
Convene elections for President of the Republic and for representatives to Congress, as well as for mayors and aldermen and other officials indicated by law.
Summon the Congress to an extraordinary legislature; and sign, in that case, the decree of convocation.
Direct messages to the Congress at any time and obligatorily, in a personal form and in writing, upon the installation of the first annual ordinary legislature. The annual messages contain a detailed exposition of the situation of the Republic and the improvements and reforms that the President deems necessary and convenient for consideration by the Congress. The messages of the President of the Republic, except for the first one, are approved by the Council of Ministers.
Exercise the power to regulate the laws without transgressing or denaturing them; and, within such limits, issue decrees and resolutions.
Comply and enforce the judgments and resolutions of the jurisdictional bodies.
Fulfill and enforce the resolutions of the National Elections Jury.
Direct foreign policy and international relations; and celebrate and ratify treaties.
Appoint ambassadors and plenipotentiary ministers, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, with the responsibility of reporting to the Congress.
Receive foreign diplomatic agents and authorize the consuls to exercise their functions.
Preside over the National Defense System; and organize, distribute and arrange the employment of the Armed Forces and the National Police.
Adopt the necessary measures for the defence of the Republic, the integrity of the territory and the sovereignty of the State.
Declare war and sign peace, with authorization from Congress.
Manage public finances
Negotiate loans
Dictate extraordinary measures, by emergency decrees with the force of law, in economic and financial matters, when the national interest requires it and with a charge of reporting to the Congress. Congress may modify or repeal the aforementioned emergency decrees.
Regulate tariff rates.
Grant pardons and commute sentences. Exercising the right of grace for the benefit of the accused in cases where the stage of instruction has exceeded twice its term plus its extension.
Confer decorations on behalf of the Nation.
Authorize Peruvians to serve in a foreign army.
Grant extradition, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, following a report from the Supreme Court of Justice of the Republic.
Preside over the Forum of the National Agreement, being able to delegate this function to the President of the Council of Ministers.
Exercise the other functions of government and administration that the Constitution and the laws entrust to it.
The acts of the President of the Republic that lack ministerial endorsement are null. It corresponds to the President of the Republic to preside over the Council of Ministers when it is convened or when he attends its sessions. The President of the Republic appoints and removes the President of the council. Appoints and removes the other ministers, on the proposal and with an agreement, respectively, from the President of the council.
The ministers are individually responsible for their own acts and for the presidential acts they endorse. All ministers are jointly and severally liable for criminal acts or violations of the Constitution or the laws that the President of the Republic incurs or that are agreed upon in the council, even if they save their vote unless they resign immediately.
The Constitution of 1993, a product of the Presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), is the constitution that is currently in place.
Presidential symbols
Presidential sash
The presidential sash is the most distinctive feature that the President wears and has been used since the beginning of the Republic. It was inherited from the last Viceroys. The placement and delivery of the presidential sash symbolize a democratic transition of power. The band is used by the President of Congress until the new president is sworn in.
It is a bicolor band that carries the national colors (red and white). This band is worn diagonally from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. At the waist, like a brooch, the band was embroidered in golden thread the Coat of arms of Peru. There is a Lima family that has traditionally made them. They are made to measure for each President and have been used normally with formal suit: suit, tuxedo or military uniform. Since 2006, the Shield was moved up to chest height.
A symbolic act narrated by Ricardo Palma in his famous Peruvian Traditions was made during the confused first half of the 1840s, by President Justo Figuerola. This, in front of the protests made by the pope in front of his home, he asked his daughter to take the presidential band out of the dresser drawer and give it to the people from the balcony. The crowd left happy and alive to Figuerola and went to find someone to impose the garment, which, so many times coveted, this time did not find who wanted to stick it.
The Ministers of State wear a red-and-white sash; Supreme Members, Congressmen of the Republic, Magistrates of the Constitutional Court, Members of the National Council of the Magistracy, Supreme Prosecutors, the Ombudsman, etc., wear red-and-white collars with medals that recognize them as such.
Grand Necklace of Brilliance
The necklace is the symbol of the highest authority in the country. It is composed of gold and encrusted with diamonds, bearing at the center a medal that contains the coat of arms of Peru. Presidents Oscar R. Benavides Larrea, Manuel Prado y Ugarteche and Jose Luis Bustamante y Rivero notably used the large necklace and other insignias. Its use disappeared after the administration of Fernando Belaúnde Terry. Recently its use was 'revived' by Alan García Pérez in the European Union Summit held precisely in Lima in May 2008.
Plaque
The President of the Republic carries a plaque in the left upper pocket of the bag in the manner of a lanyard with the insignia of the military command that recognizes him as Supreme Chief of the Armed Forces. It is the heir of the distinctive and military honors worn by presidents belonging to the Armed Forces throughout the history of the country. It is golden and has the shape of a radiant sun.
Staff
The staff originates from the Spanish custom of symbolizing power with a cane. The custom was introduced in the eighteenth century in the Andes, after the rebellion of José Gabriel Túpac Amaru and Túpac Catari in 1780 to represent the dignity of mayor of Incas. Unlike Argentina, the use of a cane that symbolizes the power and office of President (symbolically, varayoc), has not been common in the history of the Peruvian presidency and has been replaced innumerable times by the saber or the sword of the military presidents. Only a handful of cases are remarkable. Mariano Ignacio Prado, José Balta and Augusto B. Leguía used it in pictures and presidential photographs. Recently, Alejandro Toledo, made use of the cane in his symbolic assumption to the charge in Cusco and also on a few other occasions. Its most recent use corresponds to 29 July 2008, the date of the traditional military parade, when Alan García carried a small presidential staff, the same one used by Ollanta Humala in the military parade on 29 July 2011.
History
During its more than 190 years of independence, Peru has been ruled by the military leaders who fought for independence, the leaders of the War of the Pacific, representatives of the aristocracy, and democratically elected leaders. Also, the history of the presidency has involved civil wars, coups and violence. More than once, several individuals claimed the right to be president at the same time.
Different titles have been used, such as "Protector of Peru" (used by José de San Martín), and "Supreme Protector" (by Andrés de Santa Cruz).
The following table contains a list of the individuals who have served as President of Peru.
Eligibility
The Constitution of 1823, the first constitution of this country, indicates that to be the President of Peru one must:
Be a person born in Peru.
Gather the same qualities as to be a leader.
Be a citizen in practice.
Be over 35 years old
Be from Peru
Have a property or income of eight hundred soles at least, or exercise any industry that yields them annually, or be a public professor of some science.
The Constitution of 1826, on the other hand, incorporating some subjective concepts, requires the following:
Be a practicing citizen, and a native of Peru.
Be over thirty years of age.
Have done important services to the Republic.
Have well-known talents in the administration of the State.
Never have been convicted by the Courts, even for minor offenses.
The Constitution of 1856 states the requirements to be president: be Peruvian by birth, citizen in office and thirty-five years of age and ten of domicile in the Republic, which will remain virtually unchanged until today. As of 1979, the requirement of having resided in the country for the last ten years is eliminated.
Constitution of 1993 (contemporary)
A President must be Peruvian by birth (those who are Peruvians by naturalization can not access the position). He must be more than thirty-five years of age at the time he is applying and fully exercising his civil rights, that is, he must not bear any penal sanction or civil declaration of disability, which includes the right to vote.
They can not be candidates for the presidency if they have not left office six months before the election:
The Ministers and Deputy Ministers of State, the Comptroller General.
The members of the Constitutional Court, the National Council of the Judiciary, the Judicial Power, the Public Ministry, the National Elections Jury, and the Ombudsman.
The President of the Central Reserve Bank, the Superintendent of Banking, Insurance and Private Administrators of Pension Funds and the National Superintendent of Tax Administration.
The members of the Armed Forces and the National Police in activity.
The other cases that the Constitution provides.
According to the Organic Law of Elections, they can not run for the Presidency or Vice Presidencies of the Republic:
The Ministers and Deputy Ministers of State, the Comptroller General of the Republic and the regional authorities, if they have not resigned at least six months before the election.
The members of the Constitutional Court, of the National Council of the Judiciary, of the Judicial Power, of the Public Ministry, of the organisms that comprise the Electoral System and the Ombudsman, if they have not left office 6 (six) months before the election
The President of the Central Reserve Bank, the Superintendent of Banking and Insurance, the Superintendent of Tax Administration, the National Superintendent of Customs and the Superintendent of Private Pension Funds Administrators, if they have not resigned at least six months before the election.
The members of the Armed Forces and the National Police who have not retreated to the retirement situation at least six months before the election
The spouse and consanguineous relatives within the fourth degree, and the related ones within the second, of the one that exercises the Presidency or has exercised it in the year preceding the election.
List of presidents of Peru
Post-presidency
All former elected presidents of Peru since 1985 have been prosecuted since leaving office:
Francisco Morales Bermudez was sentenced to life in prison by an Italian court in January 2017.
Prior to his resignation in 2000, Alberto Fujimori escaped to Japan seeking political refuge, where he faxed his resignation to Peru. He unsuccessfully attempted to run for a parliamentary position in the Parliament of Japan, and ultimately returned to Latin America in 2006 to run for the 2006 presidential elections. The refugee president's flight diverted to Chile, where he stayed for six days. Peruvian officials and the President of Peru during the time expressed discontent at Chilean officials for allowing the indicted former president into the continent without repercussion. Ultimately, Fujimori flew back to Peru for unstated reasons and was arrested. Fujimori was convicted of corruption, bribery, human rights violations, crimes against humanities, murder, and other charges, for 25 years of prison until 2031. Fujimori served his sentence until 2017, where then Peruvian President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski issued a presidential pardon, clearing Fujimori of his conviction. Following the resignation of Kuczynski, the pardon was declared illegitimate and Fujimori was arrested and returned to confinement. Presently, Fujimori remains in custody, serving the rest of his 25-year sentence.
Following the end of his term in 2006, Alejandro Toledo abruptly withdrew from Peruvian politics. Toledo and his spouse, Eliane Karp, both moved to California, in the United States, where they have resided since, to avoid prosecution. Toledo and his wife were charged with multiple offenses of corruption and probing, and have been summoned to Peru for a trial. Toledo ignored this warning and proceeded to remain in the United States. Toledo claimed to have been a professor at Stanford University, but the university verified that Toledo was solely invited as a one-time guest speaker to the institution. Many efforts have been made by former President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and President Martin Vizcarra to extradite Toledo, but no responses have been heard from the United States government. In March 2019, Toledo was temporarily arrested for public drunkenness in California, and was released later that night. Via a call in, Toledo denied that he was arrested. There is currently a $25,000 reward for the ex-president. In August 2019, Toledo was finally arrested in Northern California as part of an extradition request from the Ministry of Justice of Peru. He has been held in custody ever since and awaiting for a clear for extradition from the United States government.
Ollanta Humala and his wife, Nadine Heredia, were abruptly arrested following the end of his term. Both of them were detained for 6 months for investigation on the means of corruption, but were later released. There were no conclusions or evidence provided by the investigation. Humala continues to reside in Lima awaiting his trial.
Following his resignation in March 2018, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski quietly left the Government Palace and returned to his home in the district of San Isidro. Kuczynski remained out of the public eye for the following ten months, but was then summoned to the Department of Justice. All of Kuczynski's bank accounts were frozen and he was prohibited from leaving the country. Kuczynski made few public appearances, but on the first anniversary of his resignation, Kuczynski made his first major public appearance on El Commercio. The former president mentioned his present financial ruins and the amounts of loans he was forced to make. Additionally, Kuczynski mentioned that he felt betrayed by Martin Vizcarra, the incumbent President of Peru who succeeded Kuczynski following his resignation. On 10 April 2019, Kuczynski was arrested for primary corruption charges on the basis of an ongoing investigation into his connections with Odebrecht, money laundering, and bribery. At the end of his detention, Kuczynski was sentenced to three years of house imprisonment until 2022.
Manuel Merino was president for five days from 10 to 15 November 2020, following the impeachment and removal of Martín Vizcarra by the Peruvian Congress, before stepping down amid widespread protests resulting in casualties. He was inaugurated as president following the line of succession established in the constitution.
Alan García died by suicide on 17 April 2019 before being arrested.
Demographics of the presidents
In contemporary history, two presidents are known not to have been of direct Peruvian descent, being Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000) and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018). Fujimori is of Japanese descent and Kuczynski is of German, French and Polish descent. A majority of presidents have been born in Lima.
Three presidents have been assassinated in Peru's history—Felipe Santiago Salaverry, Tomás Gutiérrez, and Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro. The president who has reached the longest life span is Francisco Morales Bermúdez (1975–1980), who is currently 99 years of age. One president, Alan García (1985–1990, 2006–2011), committed suicide.
The tallest recorded president is Alan García, who stood at 1.93 m. The shortest is Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006), who stands at 1.65 m. The oldest person to assume the presidency was Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) who assumed the presidency at 78 years and 217 days, with the second being Fernando Belaunde Terry (1963–1968, 1980–1985) who assumed his second presidency at 78 years and 39 days.
Three Peruvian presidents lived into their 90's:
(born on 4 October 1921) (age ), the longest Lived Peruvian President and Prime Minister.
José Luis Bustamante y Rivero (15 January 1894 – 11 January 1989) (aged )
Manuel María Ponce Brousset (5 April 1874 – 18 July 1966) ()
Line of succession
Names of incumbents :
'President of the Republic: Pedro Castillo
First Vice President: Dina Boluarte
Second Vice President: (vacant'')
President of Congress: Maricarmen Alva
First Vice President of Congress: Lady Camones
Second Vice President of Congress: Enrique Wong
Third Vice President of Congress: Patricia Chirinos
See also
Prime Minister of Peru
References
Peru
Presidents
Presidents
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239112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20table | Mathematical table | Mathematical tables are lists of numbers showing the results of a calculation with varying arguments. Trigonometric tables were used in ancient Greece and India for applications to astronomy and celestial navigation, and continued to be widely used until electronic calculators became cheap and plentiful, in order to simplify and drastically speed up computation. Tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions were common in math and science textbooks, and specialized tables were published for numerous applications.
History and use
The first tables of trigonometric functions known to be made were by Hipparchus (c.190 – c.120 BCE) and Menelaus (c.70–140 CE), but both have been lost. Along with the surviving table of Ptolemy (c. 90 – c.168 CE), they were all tables of chords and not of half-chords, that is, the sine function. The table produced by the Indian mathematician Āryabhaṭa (476–550 CE) is considered the first sine table ever constructed.
Āryabhaṭa's table remained the standard sine table of ancient India. There were continuous attempts to improve the accuracy of this table, culminating in the discovery of the power series expansions of the sine and cosine functions by Madhava of Sangamagrama (c.1350 – c.1425), and the tabulation of a sine table by Madhava with values accurate to seven or eight decimal places.
Tables of common logarithms were used until the invention of computers and electronic calculators to do rapid multiplications, divisions, and exponentiations, including the extraction of nth roots.
Mechanical special-purpose computers known as difference engines were proposed in the 19th century to tabulate polynomial approximations of logarithmic functions – that is, to compute large logarithmic tables. This was motivated mainly by errors in logarithmic tables made by the human computers of the time. Early digital computers were developed during World War II in part to produce specialized mathematical tables for aiming artillery. From 1972 onwards, with the launch and growing use of scientific calculators, most mathematical tables went out of use.
One of the last major efforts to construct such tables was the Mathematical Tables Project that was started in the United States in 1938 as a project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), employing 450 out-of-work clerks to tabulate higher mathematical functions. It lasted through World War II.
Tables of special functions are still used. For example, the use of tables of values of the cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution – so-called standard normal tables – remains commonplace today, especially in schools, although the use of scientific and graphical calculators is making such tables redundant.
Creating tables stored in random-access memory is a common code optimization technique in computer programming, where the use of such tables speeds up calculations in those cases where a table lookup is faster than the corresponding calculations (particularly if the computer in question doesn't have a hardware implementation of the calculations). In essence, one trades computing speed for the computer memory space required to store the tables.
Tables of logarithms
Tables containing common logarithms (base-10) were extensively used in computations prior to the advent of electronic calculators and computers because logarithms convert problems of multiplication and division into much easier addition and subtraction problems. Base-10 logarithms have an additional property that is unique and useful: The common logarithm of numbers greater than one that differ only by a factor of a power of ten all have the same fractional part, known as the mantissa. Tables of common logarithms typically included only the mantissas; the integer part of the logarithm, known as the characteristic, could easily be determined by counting digits in the original number. A similar principle allows for the quick calculation of logarithms of positive numbers less than 1. Thus a single table of common logarithms can be used for the entire range of positive decimal numbers. See common logarithm for details on the use of characteristics and mantissas.
History
In 1544, Michael Stifel published Arithmetica integra, which contains a table of integers and powers of 2 that has been considered an early version of a logarithmic table.
The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614, in a book entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms). The book contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables related to natural logarithms. The English mathematician Henry Briggs visited Napier in 1615, and proposed a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms to form what is now known as the common or base-10 logarithms. Napier delegated to Briggs the computation of a revised table. In 1617, they published Logarithmorum Chilias Prima ("The First Thousand Logarithms"), which gave a brief account of logarithms and a table for the first 1000 integers calculated to the 14th decimal place.
The computational advance available via common logarithms, the converse of powered numbers or exponential notation, was such that it made calculations by hand much quicker.
Trigonometric tables
Trigonometric calculations played an important role in the early study of astronomy. Early tables were constructed by repeatedly applying trigonometric identities (like the half-angle and angle-sum identities) to compute new values from old ones.
A simple example
To compute the sine function of 75 degrees, 9 minutes, 50 seconds using a table of trigonometric functions such as the Bernegger table from 1619 illustrated above, one might simply round up to 75 degrees, 10 minutes and then find the 10 minute entry on the 75 degree page, shown above-right, which is 0.9666746.
However, this answer is only accurate to four decimal places. If one wanted greater accuracy, one could interpolate linearly as follows:
From the Bernegger table:
sin (75° 10′) = 0.9666746
sin (75° 9′) = 0.9666001
The difference between these values is 0.0000745.
Since there are 60 seconds in a minute of arc, we multiply the difference by 50/60 to get a correction of (50/60)*0.0000745 ≈ 0.0000621; and then add that correction to sin (75° 9′) to get :
sin (75° 9′ 50″) ≈ sin (75° 9′) + 0.0000621 = 0.9666001 + 0.0000621 = 0.9666622
A modern calculator gives sin(75° 9′ 50″) = 0.96666219991, so our interpolated answer is accurate to the 7-digit precision of the Bernegger table.
For tables with greater precision (more digits per value), higher order interpolation may be needed to get full accuracy. In the era before electronic computers, interpolating table data in this manner was the only practical way to get high accuracy values of mathematical functions needed for applications such as navigation, astronomy and surveying.
To understand the importance of accuracy in applications like navigation note that at sea level one minute of arc along the Earth's equator or a meridian (indeed, any great circle) equals one nautical mile (approximately ).
See also
Abramowitz and Stegun Handbook of Mathematical Functions
Difference engine
Ephemeris
Group table
History of logarithms
Nautical almanac
Matrix
Multiplication table
Random number table
A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates
Table (information)
Truth table
Jurij Vega
References
External links
LOCOMAT : A census of mathematical and astronomical tables.
Mathematical tools
History of mathematics | [
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] |
239114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrus | Abrus | Abrus is a genus of flowering plants in the pea family, Fabaceae and the only genus in the tribe Abreae. It contains 13–18 species, but is best known for a single species: jequirity (A. precatorius). The highly toxic seeds of that species are used to make jewellery.
Species
Abrus aureus R.Vig. (Madagascar)
Abrus baladensis (Somalia)
Abrus bottae (Saudi Arabia, Yemen)
Abrus canescens Welw. ex Baker (Africa)
Abrus cantoniensis Hance (China)
Abrus diversifoliatus (Madagascar)
Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. (India)
Abrus gawenensis Thulin (Somalia)
Abrus kaokoensis Swanepoel & Kolberg (Namibia)
Abrus laevigatus E.Mey. (Southern Africa)
Abrus longibracteatus Labat (Laos, Vietnam)
Abrus madagascariensis R.Vig. (Madagascar)
Abrus melanospermus Hassk. (Tropical & Subtropical Asia to SW. Pacific)
Abrus parvifolius (R.Vig.) Verdc. (Madagascar)
Abrus precatorius L. - Jequirity (Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia)
Abrus pulchellus Wall. ex Voigt (Africa)
Abrus sambiranensis R.Vig. (Madagascar)
Abrus schimperi Hochst. ex Baker (Africa)
Abrus somalensis Taub. (Somalia)
Abrus wittei Baker f. (Zaire)
References
Faboideae
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239121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculation | Calculation | A calculation is a deliberate process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more results. The term is used in a variety of senses, from the very definite arithmetical calculation of using an algorithm, to the vague heuristics of calculating a strategy in a competition, or calculating the chance of a successful relationship between two people.
For example, multiplying 7 by 6 is a simple algorithmic calculation. Estimating the fair price for financial instruments using the Black–Scholes model is a more complex algorithmic calculation.
Statistical estimations of the likely election results from opinion polls also involve algorithmic calculations, but produces ranges of possibilities rather than exact answers.
To calculate means to determine mathematically in the case of a number or amount, or in the case of an abstract problem to deduce the answer using logic, reason or common sense. The English word derives from the Latin calculus, which originally meant a small stone in the gall-bladder (from Latin calx). It also meant a pebble used for calculating, or a small stone used as a counter in an abacus (Latin abacus, Greek abax). The abacus was an instrument used by Greeks and Romans for arithmetic calculations, preceding the slide-rule and the electronic calculator, and consisted of perforated pebbles sliding on iron bars.
Comparison to computation
Calculation is a prerequisite for computation. The difference in the meaning of calculation and computation appears to originate from the late medieval period.
See also
Calculus (disambiguation) — list of general methods of calculation by application area
Complexity class — theoretical notion to categorize calculability
Cost accounting — business application of calculation
List of algorithms — fully formalized, computer-executable methods of calculation
Mental calculation — performing arithmetics using one's brain only
References
External links
"The Lifting of the Veil in the Operations of Calculation" is a manuscript, from the 18th-century, in Arabic, by Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi, about calculation processes
Elementary arithmetic
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239122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrus%20precatorius | Abrus precatorius | Abrus precatorius, commonly known as jequirity bean or rosary pea, is a herbaceous flowering plant in the bean family Fabaceae. It is a slender, perennial climber with long, pinnate-leafleted leaves that twines around trees, shrubs, and hedges.
The plant is best known for its seeds, which are used as beads and in percussion instruments, and which are toxic because of the presence of abrin. Ingestion of a single seed, well chewed, can be fatal to both adults and children. The plant is native to Asia and Australia. It has a tendency to become weedy and invasive where it has been introduced.
Names
Abrus precatorius is commonly known as jequirity, Crab's eye, or rosary pea, paternoster pea, love pea, precatory pea or bean, prayer bead, John Crow Bead, coral bead, red-bead vine, country licorice, Indian licorice, wild licorice, Jamaica wild licorice, Akar Saga, coondrimany, gidee gidee, Jumbie bead, ratti / rettee / retty, goonjaa / gunja / goonja / gunjaa, or weather plant.
Ecology and invasiveness
Abrus precatorius is a severely invasive plant in warm temperate to tropical regions, so much so that it has become effectively pantropical in distribution. It had been widely introduced by humans, and the brightly coloured and hard-shelled seeds had been spread by birds. By the end of the twentieth century, it had been proclaimed as an invasive weed in many regions including some in Belize, Caribbean Islands, Hawaii, Polynesia and parts of the mainland United States. In Florida in particular, the plant has invaded undisturbed pinelands and hammocks, including the vulnerable pine rocklands.
Once Abrus precatorius plants have grown to maturity under favourable conditions, their deep roots are extremely difficult to remove, and the plants' aggressive growth, hard-shelled seeds, and ability to sucker, renders an infestation extremely difficult to eradicate and makes it very difficult to prevent re-infestation. Herbicides such as glyphosate are effective, but need skilled application if they are not to do more harm than good.
Toxin
The toxin abrin is a dimer consisting of two protein subunits, termed A and B. The B chain facilitates abrin's entry into a cell by bonding to certain transport proteins on cell membranes, which then transport the toxin into the cell. Once inside the cell, the A chain prevents protein synthesis by inactivating the 26S subunit of the ribosome. One molecule of abrin will inactivate up to 1,500 ribosomes per second.
Symptoms are identical to those of ricin, except abrin is more toxic by almost two orders of magnitude; the fatal dose of abrin is approximately 1/75 that of the fatal dose of ricin (though the abrin in ingested seeds may be absorbed much more slowly than the ricin in Ricinus communis even if the seeds are chewed and the coat penetrated, allowing time for successful rescue efforts in at least some cases.) Abrin has an of only 0.56 μg/kg in mice, and Kingsbury lists a toxic dose in humans at 0.00015% body weight, or approximately 0.1 mg for a 150 lb human. Ingesting intact seeds may result in no clinical findings, as they can pass undigested through the gastrointestinal tract because of their hard shell.
This plant is also poisonous to horses.
Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, liver failure, and death, usually after several days.
Uses
Jewelry
The seeds of Abrus precatorius are much valued in native jewelry for their bright coloration. Most beans are black and red, reminiscent of a ladybug, though other colors exist. Jewelry-making with jequirity seeds is rumoured to be somewhat hazardous. There are persistent reports that the workers who pierce the seeds in order to thread them can suffer poisoning or even death from a pinprick, but there seems to be little evidence. An online search found 265 scientific papers referring to Abrus precatorius, but not one of them dealt with occupational poisoning.
In Trinidad in the West Indies the brightly colored seeds are strung into bracelets and worn around the wrist or ankle to ward off jumbies or evil spirits and "mal-yeux"—the evil eye. The Tamils use Abrus seeds of different colors. The red variety with black eye is the most common, but there are black, white and green varieties as well.
In March 2012 a recall was issued for bracelets made using Jequirity Beans sold by the Eden Project and other outlets in the UK.
Unit of measure
The seeds of Abrus precatorius are very consistent in weight, even under different moisture conditions due to the water-impermeable seed-coat. Formerly Indians used these seeds to weigh gold using a measure called a Ratti, where 8 Ratti = 1 Masha; 12 Masha = 1 Tola (11.6 Grams).
As a weapon
According to the 1898 King's American Dispensatory,
Abrus seeds are the agents by which the Chamàr or "Native Skinner" caste of India carry on the felonious poisoning of cattle for the purpose of securing their hides. This is done by means of small spikes, called sui (needles) or sutari (awls), which are prepared by soaking the awl in a thin paste of the water-soaked, pounded seeds, and then drying the weapon in the sun, after which it is oiled and sharpened upon stone, affixed in a handle, and then used to puncture the skin of the animal.
An 1881 work by the District Superintendent of Police for British-occupied Bengal details the preparation and use of the sutari for the killing of cattle and in at least six murder cases. A native, promised a reduced sentence for the poisoning of a fellow villager's bullock in exchange for his testimony, demonstrated the technique. First the outer shells of red or white seeds were cracked between stones, then the two cotyledons from within thirty or forty seeds were soaked in water for ten minutes. These seeds were ground to a paste and rolled up into six sharp-ended one-inch cones, which were inserted into either end of three pieces of straw and "exposed to the moderate influence of the sun" to dry, whereupon they regained some of the original hardness of the seed. In this account, the sutaries were described as being these cones, entirely made up of the hardened seed paste. The dried cones were checked for sharpness, and if need be, whetted with a brick and re-set. Finally, to prevent softening, they were waterproofed by "burying them for a night in some sort of animal grease." For testing, which Major Ramsay asked to be done exactly like a surreptitious killing, the prisoner set two sutaries into a 1.5-inch wooden handle meant to be held in the hand by pressing them into a rag stretched over sockets in the wood. A wandering "Brahmanee bull" was procured, and the prisoner brought the sutari down in one direction and away in the other, so as to break off the cones inside the animal's flesh behind the horn, then pressed the skin over the broken ends leaving no obvious trace of the injury. This process was repeated with two more cones to the base of the animal's tongue. The bull died after 34.5 hours, leaving no visible trace of the sutaries but a small amount of pus at the wound site, whose swelling had mostly subsided by the time of death.
The 1890 Pharmacographia Indica gives an account, based in part on the above work, describing the sutaris or suis (the terms being equivalent, depending on district, with the former based on the object's resemblance to the point of a cobbler's awl). It describes the sutaris as 3/4 inch long and weighing 1.5 to 2 grains, varying in color from dirty white to black, and describes the handle as 3 to 3.5 inches long and frequently made from two joints of bamboo wood, with sockets 1/4 to 3/8 inch deep and with the cavity exposed at one end for storage of additional sutaris. The weapons were sometimes made with the milky juice of Calotropis gigantea instead of water, which was said to speed the effect, and were sometimes supplemented with metallic mercury, dhatura, aconite, and/or arsenic. It is added that "any attempt to withdraw the sutari by pulling at the pieces sticking out, invariably breaks it, a portion being left in the wound." One man murdered by a single blow with a pair of sutaris died after three days; another, from whom the material had been successfully excised, died three days later of tetanus. The price of one of these killings was said to total 16.5 rupees; the killers were punished by transportation for life.
In traditional medicine
Abrus precatorius, called "Gulaganji" in Kannada, kundu mani in Tamil, Guruvinda ginja in Telugu and 'Kunni kuru' in Malayalam, has been used in Siddha medicine for centuries. The white variety is used to prepare oil that is claimed to be an aphrodisiac. A tea is made from the leaves and used for fevers, coughs and colds. Seeds are poisonous and therefore are only consumed after heat treatment. The Tamil Siddhars knew about the toxic effects in plants and suggested various methods which is called "suththi seythal" or purification. This is done by boiling the seeds in milk and then drying them. Like with castor oil, the protein toxin is denatured when subjected to high temperatures rendering it innocuous.
The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia’ records that "The roots of this plant are used in India as a substitute for liquorice, though they are somewhat bitter. In Java the roots are considered demulcent. The leaves, when mixed with honey, are applied to swellings, and in Jamaica are used as a substitute for tea. Under the name of "Jequirity" the seeds have recently been employed in cases of ophthalmia, a use to which they have long been put in India and Brazil."
The plant is also used in Ayurveda and is said to promote hair growth. It is sometimes used as an ingredient in Indian hair products.
Laboratory study of extracts
A variety of pharmacological effects have been observed in rodents, but have not been demonstrated clinically in humans, including:
An ethanolic extract of Abrus precatorius was found to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic potential in rodents.
A methanolic extract of A. precatorius seeds causes reversible alterations in the estrous cycle pattern and completely blocked ovulation in Sprague-Dawley rats.
Studies on aqueous, methanolic and chloroform extracts of Abrus precatorius showed greater inhibitory activity against a number of disease-causing bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, and Escherichia coli.
Cultural significance
In Rajasthan, India, Chirmi song is associated with this plant. There is also evidence that this plant has significant economic value to the traditional Zulu people, due to the fact that it is a form of income for Zulu people that make and sell crafts that were made from the seeds of this plant.
Gallery
See also
List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil
List of poisonous plants
Notes
References
Mendes, John (1986). Cote ce Cote la: Trinidad & Tobago Dictionary. Arima, Trinidad.
External links
Abrus precatorius: Plant of deadly but most beautiful seeds at Disabled World
Where did the rosary pea come from
Evaluation of the Invasiveness of Non-native Plants at Archbold Biological Station
INCHEM - Chemical Safety Information from Intergovernmental Organizations: Abrus precatorius L.
Abrus precatorius Linn. Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University)
Faboideae
Flora of China
Flora of tropical Asia
Flora of Australia
Plants used in Ayurveda
Decorative fruits and seeds
Pantropical flora | [
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239125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privet | Privet | A privet is a flowering plant in the genus Ligustrum. The genus contains about 50 species of erect, deciduous or evergreen shrubs, sometimes forming small or medium-sized trees, native to Europe, north Africa, Asia, many introduced and naturalised in Australasia, where only one species extends as a native into Queensland. Some species have become widely naturalized or invasive where introduced. Privet was originally the name for the European semi-evergreen shrub Ligustrum vulgare, and later also for the more reliably evergreen Ligustrum ovalifolium and its hybrid Ligustrum × ibolium used extensively for privacy hedging, though now the name is applied to all members of the genus. The generic name was applied by Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) to L. vulgare. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, but the OED states that there is no evidence to support this.
Description
Privet is a group of shrubs and small trees of southern and eastern Asia, from the Himalayas extending into Australia. They may be evergreen or deciduous, and are tolerant of different soil types. They often have conspicuous heads of white flowers followed by black berries.
Uses and cultivation
In addition to being cultivated to create ornamental hedges and foliage, privet is also widely used in horticulture and flower arrangements. The oval leaf privet Ligustrum ovalifolium is used for hedges, while its flexible twigs are sometimes used as cords for lashing. The tree species, especially Chinese privet is frequently used as a street tree in Europe, while other species including Ligustrum japonicum and Ligustrum quihoui are among the others also sometimes used as ornamental plants in gardens.
Privet became very popular in Britain as a replacement for ornamental railings around properties, which had been lost to the 1941 Government compulsorily requisitioning of all post-1850 iron gates and railings for the war effort the idea being that the donated metal would be melted down for use in the manufacture of armaments in WWII, although this ultimately did not happen. The remaining stubs of sawn-off railings can still be seen on many garden walls in the UK, often partly obscured by privet bushes.
Chinese privet is used in traditional herbal medicine. The decoction of privet leaves or bark helps to treat diarrhea, stomach ulcers, chronic bowel problems, chapped lips, sore mouths and throats, and a wash for skin problems. Privet leaves and bark have bitter properties that make a useful tea for improving appetite and digestion in chemotherapy patients. Kuding is a Chinese tea made from either a Ligustrum or Ilex species.
Some species produce a fruit, which is mildly toxic to humans. Symptoms from eating privet fruit include nausea, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, low blood pressure, and low body temperature. At least some privet species are known to be toxic to horses.
Ecology
A plant may produce thousands of fruits, most of which are eaten by birds.
Privet is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the common emerald, common marbled carpet, copper underwing, engrailed, mottled beauty, scalloped hazel, small angle shades, v-pug, privet hawk moth and willow beauty.
Invasiveness
Privet is a successful invasive species because of its ability to outcompete and therefore displace native vegetation, due to its adaptability. Various species are now a problem in North America, Australia and New Zealand.
Additional information
Privet (translated into German as ) is a core part of Michael Frayn's novel Spies, which was published in 2002. In the Harry Potter novels by J. K. Rowling, the Dursley family lives at #4 Privet Drive. In the German translation, they live on Ligusterweg.
Selected species
The Integrated Taxonomic Information System lists eleven "accepted" species of Ligustrum. Additional species are listed in other references.
Ligustrum amamianum (China)
Ligustrum amurense (Northern China) – Amur privet
Ligustrum angustum (China)
Ligustrum australianum (Wet Tropics, NE. & C. Qld, Australia) – Australian privet
Ligustrum chenaultii (Yunnan Province, China)
Ligustrum compactum (Himalayas, southwest China)
Ligustrum confusum (Himalayas, Khasi Hills)
Ligustrum delavayanum (Southwest China, Myanmar)
Ligustrum expansum (China)
Ligustrum glomeratum (Thailand, Malaysia)
Ligustrum gracile (China)
Ligustrum henryi (Central China)
Ligustrum ibota (Japan)
Ligustrum indicum (Himalayas, Indochina)
Ligustrum japonicum (Japan, Korea)
Ligustrum leucanthum (China)
Ligustrum lianum (China)
Ligustrum liukiuense (Taiwan)
Ligustrum longitubum (China)
Ligustrum lucidum (China, Japan, Korea) - Chinese privet, glossy privet
Ligustrum massalongianum (Himalayas)
Ligustrum micranthum (the Bonin Islands, the Volcano Islands)
Ligustrum microcarpum (Taiwan); often included in L. sinense.
Ligustrum morrisonense (Taiwan)
Ligustrum obovatilimbum (China)
Ligustrum obtusifolium (East Asia) – Japanese deciduous privet
Ligustrum ovalifolium (Japan) – Japanese privet, oval-leaved privet
Ligustrum pedunculare (China)
Ligustrum pricei (Taiwan)
Ligustrum punctifolium
Ligustrum quihoui (China)
Ligustrum retusum (China)
Ligustrum robustum (India to Vietnam)
Ligustrum sempervirens (Western China)
Ligustrum sinense (China, Taiwan) – Chinese privet
Ligustrum strongylophyllum (Central China)
Ligustrum tenuipes. (China)
Ligustrum tschonoskii (Japan)
Ligustrum vulgare (Europe, northwest Africa, southwest Asia) – common privet, European privet
Ligustrum xingrenense (China)
Ligustrum yunguiense (China)
References
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239126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Jones%20%28mathematician%29 | William Jones (mathematician) | William Jones, FRS (16751 July 1749) was a Welsh mathematician, most noted for his use of the symbol (the Greek letter Pi) to represent the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. He was a close friend of Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley. In November 1711 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was later its vice-president.
Biography
William Jones was born the son of Siôn Siôr (John George Jones) and Elizabeth Rowland in the parish of Llanfihangel Tre'r Beirdd, about west of Benllech on the Isle of Anglesey. He attended a charity school at Llanfechell, also on the Isle of Anglesey, where his mathematical talents were spotted by the local landowner Lord Bulkeley, who arranged for him to work in a merchant's counting-house in London. His main patrons were the Bulkeley family of north Wales, and later the Earl of Macclesfield.
Jones initially served at sea, teaching mathematics on board Navy ships between 1695 and 1702, where he became very interested in navigation and published A New Compendium of the Whole Art of Navigation in 1702, dedicated to a benefactor John Harris. In this work he applied mathematics to navigation, studying methods of calculating position at sea. After his voyages were over he became a mathematics teacher in London, both in coffee houses and as a private tutor to the son of the future Earl of Macclesfield and also the future Baron Hardwicke. He also held a number of undemanding posts in government offices with the help of his former pupils.
Jones published Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos in 1706, a work which was intended for beginners and which included theorems on differential calculus and infinite series. This used for the ratio of circumference to diameter, following earlier abbreviations for the Greek word periphery (περιφέρεια) by William Oughtred and others. His 1711 work Analysis per quantitatum series, fluxiones ac differentias introduced the dot notation for differentiation in calculus.
He was noticed and befriended by two of Britain's foremost mathematicians – Edmund Halley and Sir Isaac Newton – and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1711. He later became the editor and publisher of many of Newton's manuscripts and built up an extraordinary library that was one of the greatest collections of books on science and mathematics ever known, and only recently fully dispersed.
He married twice, firstly the widow of his counting-house employer, whose property he inherited on her death, and secondly, in 1731, Mary, the 22-year-old daughter of cabinet-maker George Nix, with whom he had two surviving children. His son, also named William Jones and born in 1746, was a renowned philologist who established links between Latin, Greek and Sanskrit, leading to the concept of the Indo-European language group.
References
External links
William Jones and other important Welsh mathematicians
William Jones and his Circle: The Man who invented Pi
Pi Day 2015: meet the man who invented π
1675 births
1749 deaths
People from Anglesey
17th-century English mathematicians
18th-century British mathematicians
Welsh mathematicians
Fellows of the Royal Society
17th-century Welsh scientists
18th-century Welsh scientists | [
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239136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentaprism | Pentaprism | A pentaprism is a five-sided reflecting prism used to deviate a beam of light by a constant 90°, even if the entry beam is not at 90° to the prism.
The beam reflects inside the prism twice, allowing the transmission of an image through a right angle without inverting it (that is, without changing the image's handedness) as an ordinary right-angle prism or mirror would.
The reflections inside the prism are not caused by total internal reflection, since the beams are incident at an angle less than the critical angle (the minimum angle for total internal reflection). Instead, the two faces are coated to provide mirror surfaces. The two opposite transmitting faces are often coated with an antireflection coating to reduce spurious reflections. The fifth face of the prism is not used optically but truncates what would otherwise be an awkward angle joining the two mirrored faces.
In cameras
A variant of this prism is the roof pentaprism which is commonly used in the viewfinder of single-lens reflex cameras. The camera lens renders an image that is both vertically and laterally reversed, and the reflex mirror re-inverts it leaving an image laterally reversed. In this case, the image needs to be reflected left-to-right as the prism transmits the image formed on the camera's focusing screen. This lateral inversion is done by replacing one of the reflective faces of a normal pentaprism with a "roof" section, with two additional surfaces angled towards each other and meeting at 90°, which laterally reverses the image back to normal. Reflex cameras with waist-level finders (viewed from above), including many medium format cameras, display a laterally reversed image directly from the focusing screen which is viewed from above.
Compared to the pentamirror
The same optical paths can be realized with three mirrors, in an arrangement called the pentamirror. While substantially lighter, the light enters and exits the mirrors' glass several times, each time losing brightness and instead scattering. The pentaprism is typically much heavier, but only has one entrance and one exit, providing a notably superior optical performance. Additionally, pentamirrors can conceivably go out of alignment while a pentaprism's facets are perfectly aligned until it is destroyed.
In surveying
In surveying a double pentaprism (two pentaprisms stacked on top of each other) and a plumb-bob are used to stake out right angles, e.g. on a construction site.
See also
Pentamirror
Single-lens reflex camera
Digital single-lens reflex camera
Retroreflector
References
Prisms
Prismatoid polyhedra
Photography equipment
Surveying instruments | [
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239138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability%20%28statistics%29 | Reliability (statistics) | In statistics and psychometrics, reliability is the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions:"It is the characteristic of a set of test scores that relates to the amount of random error from the measurement process that might be embedded in the scores. Scores that are highly reliable are precise, reproducible, and consistent from one testing occasion to another. That is, if the testing process were repeated with a group of test takers, essentially the same results would be obtained. Various kinds of reliability coefficients, with values ranging between 0.00 (much error) and 1.00 (no error), are usually used to indicate the amount of error in the scores." For example, measurements of people's height and weight are often extremely reliable.
Types
There are several general classes of reliability estimates:
Inter-rater reliability assesses the degree of agreement between two or more raters in their appraisals. For example, a person gets a stomach ache and different doctors all give the same diagnosis.
Test-retest reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next. Measurements are gathered from a single rater who uses the same methods or instruments and the same testing conditions. This includes intra-rater reliability.
Inter-method reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent when there is a variation in the methods or instruments used. This allows inter-rater reliability to be ruled out. When dealing with forms, it may be termed parallel-forms reliability.
Internal consistency reliability, assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.
Difference from validity
Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently is not necessarily measuring what you want to be measured. For example, while there are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job performance.
While reliability does not imply validity, reliability does place a limit on the overall validity of a test. A test that is not perfectly reliable cannot be perfectly valid, either as a means of measuring attributes of a person or as a means of predicting scores on a criterion. While a reliable test may provide useful valid information, a test that is not reliable cannot possibly be valid.
For example, if a set of weighing scales consistently measured the weight of an object as 500 grams over the true weight, then the scale would be very reliable, but it would not be valid (as the returned weight is not the true weight). For the scale to be valid, it should return the true weight of an object. This example demonstrates that a perfectly reliable measure is not necessarily valid, but that a valid measure necessarily must be reliable.
General model
In practice, testing measures are never perfectly consistent. Theories of test reliability have been developed to estimate the effects of inconsistency on the accuracy of measurement. The basic starting point for almost all theories of test reliability is the idea that test scores reflect the influence of two sorts of factors:
1. Factors that contribute to consistency: stable characteristics of the individual or the attribute that one is trying to measure.
2. Factors that contribute to inconsistency: features of the individual or the situation that can affect test scores but have nothing to do with the attribute being measured.
These factors include:
Temporary but general characteristics of the individual: health, fatigue, motivation, emotional strain
Temporary and specific characteristics of individual: comprehension of the specific test task, specific tricks or techniques of dealing with the particular test materials, fluctuations of memory, attention or accuracy
Aspects of the testing situation: freedom from distractions, clarity of instructions, interaction of personality, etc.
Chance factors: luck in selection of answers by sheer guessing, momentary distractions
The goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to errors in measurement and how much is due to variability in true scores.
A true score is the replicable feature of the concept being measured. It is the part of the observed score that would recur across different measurement occasions in the absence of error.
Errors of measurement are composed of both random error and systematic error. It represents the discrepancies between scores obtained on tests and the corresponding true scores.
This conceptual breakdown is typically represented by the simple equation:
Observed test score = true score + errors of measurement
Classical test theory
The goal of reliability theory is to estimate errors in measurement and to suggest ways of improving tests so that errors are minimized.
The central assumption of reliability theory is that measurement errors are essentially random. This does not mean that errors arise from random processes. For any individual, an error in measurement is not a completely random event. However, across a large number of individuals, the causes of measurement error are assumed to be so varied that measure errors act as random variables.
If errors have the essential characteristics of random variables, then it is reasonable to assume that errors are equally likely to be positive or negative, and that they are not correlated with true scores or with errors on other tests.
It is assumed that:
1. Mean error of measurement = 0
2. True scores and errors are uncorrelated
3. Errors on different measures are uncorrelated
Reliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement.
This equation suggests that test scores vary as the result of two factors:
1. Variability in true scores
2. Variability due to errors of measurement.
The reliability coefficient provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of true score variance to the total variance of test scores. Or, equivalently, one minus the ratio of the variation of the error score and the variation of the observed score:
Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test.
Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-test reliability. Each method comes at the problem of figuring out the source of error in the test somewhat differently.
Item response theory
It was well known to classical test theorists that measurement precision is not uniform across the scale of measurement. Tests tend to distinguish better for test-takers with moderate trait levels and worse among high- and low-scoring test-takers. Item response theory extends the concept of reliability from a single index to a function called the information function. The IRT information function is the inverse of the conditional observed score standard error at any given test score.
Estimation
The goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to errors in measurement and how much is due to variability in true scores.
Four practical strategies have been developed that provide workable methods of estimating test reliability.
1. Test-retest reliability method: directly assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next.
It involves:
Administering a test to a group of individuals
Re-administering the same test to the same group at some later time
Correlating the first set of scores with the second
The correlation between scores on the first test and the scores on the retest is used to estimate the reliability of the test using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient: see also item-total correlation.
2. Parallel-forms method:
The key to this method is the development of alternate test forms that are equivalent in terms of content, response processes and statistical characteristics. For example, alternate forms exist for several tests of general intelligence, and these tests are generally seen equivalent.
With the parallel test model it is possible to develop two forms of a test that are equivalent in the sense that a person's true score on form A would be identical to their true score on form B. If both forms of the test were administered to a number of people, differences between scores on form A and form B may be due to errors in measurement only.
It involves:
Administering one form of the test to a group of individuals
At some later time, administering an alternate form of the same test to the same group of people
Correlating scores on form A with scores on form B
The correlation between scores on the two alternate forms is used to estimate the reliability of the test.
This method provides a partial solution to many of the problems inherent in the test-retest reliability method. For example, since the two forms of the test are different, carryover effect is less of a problem. Reactivity effects are also partially controlled; although taking the first test may change responses to the second test. However, it is reasonable to assume that the effect will not be as strong with alternate forms of the test as with two administrations of the same test.
However, this technique has its disadvantages:
It may be very difficult to create several alternate forms of a test
It may also be difficult if not impossible to guarantee that two alternate forms of a test are parallel measures
3. Split-half method:
This method treats the two halves of a measure as alternate forms. It provides a simple solution to the problem that the parallel-forms method faces: the difficulty in developing alternate forms.
It involves:
Administering a test to a group of individuals
Splitting the test in half
Correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the test
The correlation between these two split halves is used in estimating the reliability of the test. This halves reliability estimate is then stepped up to the full test length using the Spearman–Brown prediction formula.
There are several ways of splitting a test to estimate reliability. For example, a 40-item vocabulary test could be split into two subtests, the first one made up of items 1 through 20 and the second made up of items 21 through 40. However, the responses from the first half may be systematically different from responses in the second half due to an increase in item difficulty and fatigue.
In splitting a test, the two halves would need to be as similar as possible, both in terms of their content and in terms of the probable state of the respondent. The simplest method is to adopt an odd-even split, in which the odd-numbered items form one half of the test and the even-numbered items form the other. This arrangement guarantees that each half will contain an equal number of items from the beginning, middle, and end of the original test.
4. Internal consistency: assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Cronbach's alpha is a generalization of an earlier form of estimating internal consistency, Kuder–Richardson Formula 20. Although the most commonly used, there are some misconceptions regarding Cronbach's alpha.
These measures of reliability differ in their sensitivity to different sources of error and so need not be equal. Also, reliability is a property of the scores of a measure rather than the measure itself and are thus said to be sample dependent. Reliability estimates from one sample might differ from those of a second sample (beyond what might be expected due to sampling variations) if the second sample is drawn from a different population because the true variability is different in this second population. (This is true of measures of all types—yardsticks might measure houses well yet have poor reliability when used to measure the lengths of insects.)
Reliability may be improved by clarity of expression (for written assessments), lengthening the measure, and other informal means. However, formal psychometric analysis, called item analysis, is considered the most effective way to increase reliability. This analysis consists of computation of item difficulties and item discrimination indices, the latter index involving computation of correlations between the items and sum of the item scores of the entire test. If items that are too difficult, too easy, and/or have near-zero or negative discrimination are replaced with better items, the reliability of the measure will increase.
(where is the failure rate)
See also
Coefficient of variation
Congeneric reliability
Consistency (statistics)
Homogeneity (statistics)
Test-retest reliability
Internal consistency
Levels of measurement
Accuracy and precision
Reliability theory
Reliability engineering
Reproducibility
Validity (statistics)
References
External links
Internal and external reliability and validity explained.
Uncertainty models, uncertainty quantification, and uncertainty processing in engineering
The relationships between correlational and internal consistency concepts of test reliability
The problem of negative reliabilities
Comparison of assessments
Market research
Psychometrics
Survival analysis
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239140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity%20%28statistics%29 | Validity (statistics) | Validity is the main extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure. Validity is based on the strength of a collection of different types of evidence (e.g. face validity, construct validity, etc.) described in greater detail below.
In psychometrics, validity has a particular application known as test validity: "the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores" ("as entailed by proposed uses of tests").
It is generally accepted that the concept of scientific validity addresses the nature of reality in terms of statistical measures and as such is an epistemological and philosophical issue as well as a question of measurement. The use of the term in logic is narrower, relating to the relationship between the premises and conclusion of an argument. In logic, validity refers to the property of an argument whereby if the premises are true then the truth of the conclusion follows by necessity. The conclusion of an argument is true if the argument is sound, which is to say if the argument is valid and its premises are true. By contrast, "scientific or statistical validity" is not a deductive claim that is necessarily truth preserving, but is an inductive claim that remains true or false in an undecided manner. This is why "scientific or statistical validity" is a claim that is qualified as being either strong or weak in its nature, it is never necessary nor certainly true. This has the effect of making claims of "scientific or statistical validity" open to interpretation as to what, in fact, the facts of the matter mean.
Validity is important because it can help determine what types of tests to use, and help to make sure researchers are using methods that are not only ethical, and cost-effective, but also a method that truly measures the idea or constructs in question.
Test validity
Validity (accuracy)
Validity of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid. E.g. a scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Validity is also dependent on the measurement measuring what it was designed to measure, and not something else instead. Validity (similar to reliability) is a relative concept; validity is not an all-or-nothing idea. There are many different types of validity.
Construct validity
Construct validity refers to the extent to which operationalizations of a construct (e.g., practical tests developed from a theory) measure a construct as defined by a theory. It subsumes all other types of validity. For example, the extent to which a test measures intelligence is a question of construct validity. A measure of intelligence presumes, among other things, that the measure is associated with things it should be associated with (convergent validity), not associated with things it should not be associated with (discriminant validity).
Construct validity evidence involves the empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. Such lines of evidence include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including the relationships between responses to different test items. They also include relationships between the test and measures of other constructs. As currently understood, construct validity is not distinct from the support for the substantive theory of the construct that the test is designed to measure. As such, experiments designed to reveal aspects of the causal role of the construct also contribute to constructing validity evidence.
Content validity
Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves "the systematic examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured" (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997 p. 114). For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas of intelligence discussed in the scientific literature?
Content validity evidence involves the degree to which the content of the test matches a content domain associated with the construct. For example, a test of the ability to add two numbers should include a range of combinations of digits. A test with only one-digit numbers, or only even numbers, would not have good coverage of the content domain. Content related evidence typically involves a subject matter expert (SME) evaluating test items against the test specifications. Experts should pay attention to any cultural differences. For example, when a driving assessment questionnaire adopts from England (e. g. DBQ), the experts should consider right-hand driving in Britain. Some studies found how this will be critical to get a valid questionnaire. Before going to the final administration of questionnaires, the researcher should consult the validity of items against each of the constructs or variables and accordingly modify measurement instruments on the basis of SME's opinion.
A test has content validity built into it by careful selection of which items to include (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Items are chosen so that they comply with the test specification which is drawn up through a thorough examination of the subject domain. Foxcroft, Paterson, le Roux & Herbst (2004, p. 49)<ref>Foxcroft, C., Paterson, H., le Roux, N., & Herbst, D. Human Sciences Research Council, (2004). 'Psychological assessment in South Africa: A needs analysis: The test use patterns and needs of psychological assessment practitioners: Final Report: July. Retrieved from website: http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/outputDocuments/1716_Foxcroft_Psychologicalassessmentin%20SA.pdf</ref> note that by using a panel of experts to review the test specifications and the selection of items the content validity of a test can be improved. The experts will be able to review the items and comment on whether the items cover a representative sample of the behavior domain.
Face validity
Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a certain criterion; it does not guarantee that the test actually measures phenomena in that domain. Measures may have high validity, but when the test does not appear to be measuring what it is, it has low face validity. Indeed, when a test is subject to faking (malingering), low face validity might make the test more valid. Considering one may get more honest answers with lower face validity, it is sometimes important to make it appear as though there is low face validity whilst administering the measures.
Face validity is very closely related to content validity. While content validity depends on a theoretical basis for assuming if a test is assessing all domains of a certain criterion (e.g. does assessing addition skills yield in a good measure for mathematical skills? To answer this you have to know, what different kinds of arithmetic skills mathematical skills include) face validity relates to whether a test appears to be a good measure or not. This judgment is made on the "face" of the test, thus it can also be judged by the amateur.
Face validity is a starting point, but should never be assumed to be probably valid for any given purpose, as the "experts" have been wrong before—the Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Witches) had no support for its conclusions other than the self-imagined competence of two "experts" in "witchcraft detection," yet it was used as a "test" to condemn and burn at the stake tens of thousands men and women as "witches."
Criterion validity
Criterion validity evidence involves the correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it compares the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to be valid. For example, employee selection tests are often validated against measures of job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion).
If the test data and criterion data are collected at the same time, this is referred to as concurrent validity evidence. If the test data are collected first in order to predict criterion data collected at a later point in time, then this is referred to as predictive validity evidence.
Concurrent validity
Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related (or correlated). Returning to the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to current employees and then correlated with their scores on performance reviews.
Predictive validity
Predictive validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization can predict (or correlate with) other measures of the same construct that are measured at some time in the future. Again, with the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to applicants, all applicants are hired, their performance is reviewed at a later time, and then their scores on the two measures are correlated.
This is also when measurement predicts a relationship between what is measured and something else; predicting whether or not the other thing will happen in the future. High correlation between ex-ante predicted and ex-post actual outcomes is the strongest proof of validity.
Experimental validity
The validity of the design of experimental research studies is a fundamental part of the scientific method, and a concern of research ethics. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn.
Statistical conclusion validity
Statistical conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. This began as being solely about whether the statistical conclusion about the relationship of the variables was correct, but now there is a movement towards moving to ‘reasonable’ conclusions that use: quantitative, statistical, and qualitative data.
Statistical conclusion validity involves ensuring the use of adequate sampling procedures, appropriate statistical tests, and reliable measurement procedures. As this type of validity is concerned solely with the relationship that is found among variables, the relationship may be solely a correlation.
Internal validity
Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions about causal'' relationships can be made (e.g. cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research design. Good experimental techniques, in which the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under highly controlled conditions, usually allow for higher degrees of internal validity than, for example, single-case designs.
Eight kinds of confounding variable can interfere with internal validity (i.e. with the attempt to isolate causal relationships):
History, the specific events occurring between the first and second measurements in addition to the experimental variables
Maturation, processes within the participants as a function of the passage of time (not specific to particular events), e.g., growing older, hungrier, more tired, and so on.
Testing, the effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second testing.
Instrumentation, changes in calibration of a measurement tool or changes in the observers or scorers may produce changes in the obtained measurements.
Statistical regression, operating where groups have been selected on the basis of their extreme scores.
Selection, biases resulting from differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups.
Experimental mortality, or differential loss of respondents from the comparison groups.
Selection-maturation interaction, etc. e.g., in multiple-group quasi-experimental designs
External validity
External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be true for other cases, for example to different people, places or times. In other words, it is about whether findings can be validly generalized. If the same research study was conducted in those other cases, would it get the same results?
A major factor in this is whether the study sample (e.g. the research participants) are representative of the general population along relevant dimensions. Other factors jeopardizing external validity are:
Reactive or interaction effect of testing, a pretest might increase the scores on a posttest
Interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variable.
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements, which would preclude generalization about the effect of the experimental variable upon persons being exposed to it in non-experimental settings
Multiple-treatment interference, where effects of earlier treatments are not erasable.
Ecological validity
Ecological validity is the extent to which research results can be applied to real-life situations outside of research settings. This issue is closely related to external validity but covers the question of to what degree experimental findings mirror what can be observed in the real world (ecology = the science of interaction between organism and its environment). To be ecologically valid, the methods, materials and setting of a study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation.
Ecological validity is partly related to the issue of experiment versus observation. Typically in science, there are two domains of research: observational (passive) and experimental (active). The purpose of experimental designs is to test causality, so that you can infer A causes B or B causes A. But sometimes, ethical and/or methological restrictions prevent you from conducting an experiment (e.g. how does isolation influence a child's cognitive functioning?). Then you can still do research, but it is not causal, it is correlational. You can only conclude that A occurs together with B. Both techniques have their strengths and weaknesses.
Relationship to internal validity
On first glance, internal and external validity seem to contradict each other – to get an experimental design you have to control for all interfering variables. That is why you often conduct your experiment in a laboratory setting. While gaining internal validity (excluding interfering variables by keeping them constant) you lose ecological or external validity because you establish an artificial laboratory setting. On the other hand, with observational research you can not control for interfering variables (low internal validity) but you can measure in the natural (ecological) environment, at the place where behavior normally occurs. However, in doing so, you sacrifice internal validity.
The apparent contradiction of internal validity and external validity is, however, only superficial. The question of whether results from a particular study generalize to other people, places or times arises only when one follows an inductivist research strategy. If the goal of a study is to deductively test a theory, one is only concerned with factors which might undermine the rigor of the study, i.e. threats to internal validity. In other words, the relevance of external and internal validity to a research study depends on the goals of the study. Furthermore, conflating research goals with validity concerns can lead to the mutual-internal-validity problem, where theories are able to explain only phenomena in artificial laboratory settings but not the real world.
Diagnostic validity
In psychiatry there is a particular issue with assessing the validity of the diagnostic categories themselves. In this context:
content validity may refer to symptoms and diagnostic criteria;
concurrent validity may be defined by various correlates or markers, and perhaps also treatment response;
predictive validity may refer mainly to diagnostic stability over time;
discriminant validity may involve delimitation from other disorders.
Robins and Guze proposed in 1970 what were to become influential formal criteria for establishing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. They listed five criteria:
distinct clinical description (including symptom profiles, demographic characteristics, and typical precipitants)
laboratory studies (including psychological tests, radiology and postmortem findings)
delimitation from other disorders (by means of exclusion criteria)
follow-up studies showing a characteristic course (including evidence of diagnostic stability)
family studies showing familial clustering
These were incorporated into the Feighner Criteria and Research Diagnostic Criteria that have since formed the basis of the DSM and ICD classification systems.
Kendler in 1980 distinguished between:
antecedent validators (familial aggregation, premorbid personality, and precipitating factors)
concurrent validators (including psychological tests)
predictive validators (diagnostic consistency over time, rates of relapse and recovery, and response to treatment)
Nancy Andreasen (1995) listed several additional validators – molecular genetics and molecular biology, neurochemistry, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and cognitive neuroscience – that are all potentially capable of linking symptoms and diagnoses to their neural substrates.
Kendell and Jablinsky (2003) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between validity and utility, and argued that diagnostic categories defined by their syndromes should be regarded as valid only if they have been shown to be discrete entities with natural boundaries that separate them from other disorders.
Kendler (2006) emphasized that to be useful, a validating criterion must be sensitive enough to validate most syndromes that are true disorders, while also being specific enough to invalidate most syndromes that are not true disorders. On this basis, he argues that a Robins and Guze criterion of "runs in the family" is inadequately specific because most human psychological and physical traits would qualify - for example, an arbitrary syndrome comprising a mixture of "height over 6 ft, red hair, and a large nose" will be found to "run in families" and be "hereditary", but this should not be considered evidence that it is a disorder. Kendler has further suggested that "essentialist" gene models of psychiatric disorders, and the hope that we will be able to validate categorical psychiatric diagnoses by "carving nature at its joints" solely as a result of gene discovery, are implausible.
In the United States Federal Court System validity and reliability of evidence is evaluated using the Daubert Standard: see Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. Perri and Lichtenwald (2010) provide a starting point for a discussion about a wide range of reliability and validity topics in their analysis of a wrongful murder conviction.
See also
All models are wrong
Concurrent validity
Content validity
Construct validity
Cross-validation (statistics)
External validity
Face validity
Internal validity
Predictive validity
Regression model validation
Statistical conclusion validity
Statistical model validation
Validity (logic)
Validity scale
Validation (disambiguation)
Sensitivity and specificity
References
Further reading
Philosophy of science
Psychometrics
Educational psychology | [
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239142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poldark | Poldark | Poldark is a series of historical novels by Winston Graham, published from 1945 to 1953 and continued from 1973 to 2002. The first novel, Ross Poldark, was named for the protagonist of the series. The novel series was adapted twice for television by the BBC, firstly in 1975 and later in 2015.
Historical setting
The series comprises 12 novels: the first seven are set in the 18th century, concluding in Christmas 1799; the remaining five are concerned with the early years of the 19th century and the lives of the descendants of the previous novels' main characters. Graham wrote the first four Poldark books during the 1940s and 1950s. Following a long hiatus, he decided to resume the series and published The Black Moon in 1973.
Novels
Each of the novels is subtitled A Novel of Cornwall. In a preface to The Black Moon, Graham explained his decision to revive the series after a two-decade hiatus.
Main characters
Ross Poldark
Ross Poldark is the titular protagonist of the series. He is a British Army officer who returns to his home in Cornwall from the American War of Independence only to find that Elizabeth Chynoweth, having believed him dead, is about to marry his cousin Francis Poldark. Ross attempts to restore his own fortunes by reopening one of the family's derelict copper mines.
After several years, Ross marries Demelza Carne, an urchin he has taken in as a servant. Although gradually reconciled to the loss of Elizabeth's love, it takes Ross some time to realise his love for Demelza. Over 20 years, they have five children: Julia, Jeremy, Clowance, Isabella-Rose (called Bella), and Henry (called Harry).
In his autobiography, Graham states that Ross's character was, in part, based upon a fighter pilot he met on a train during World War II.
Demelza Poldark, née Carne
Taken home from Redruth Fair by Ross, miner's daughter Demelza and her dog Garrick have an unpromising start. However, she soon develops into a charming, amusing, lovely young woman, eventually winning Ross's affection. Dark and earthy, she is the total opposite of the fragile Elizabeth. The two women are wary but polite towards each other. Demelza shows courage and fierce loyalty to Ross but is somewhat impulsive, causing trouble for both of them. She has six brothers.
Dwight Enys
A young doctor who arrives in Cornwall after training in London. He strikes up a firm friendship with Ross which proves strong and enduring. He is conscientious and generous, often not charging his poorest patients for his services. He becomes involved with a young miner's wife with tragic results. After his rescue from a French prison camp, he eventually marries a young heiress, Caroline Penvenen.
Caroline Enys, née Penvenen
Caroline is an orphan, taken in and raised by her rich uncle, Ray. Strong-willed and independent, she begins a romance with Dwight Enys against her uncle's wishes, culminating in a disastrous plan to elope. They eventually marry after Dwight's rescue from a prison camp in France. Caroline and Dwight's first daughter, Sarah, has a congenital heart defect and dies in infancy. Two more daughters, Sophie and Meliora, follow.
Elizabeth Poldark (née Chynoweth) now Warleggan
She was Ross Poldark's very first love and he hers, but thinking him dead in America she marries Ross's cousin Francis. The marriage is a failure. After Francis's death, Elizabeth struggles with poverty and loneliness, eventually accepting George Warleggan as her husband. She has two sons: one with Francis (Geoffrey Charles), and the other supposedly with George (Valentine). She has a daughter with George called Ursula, but Elizabeth dies in childbirth. Between her betrothal to George and the wedding, Ross pays her a visit and rapes her. It was established in The Angry Tide that Valentine was Ross's son:
"Though Elizabeth had been constitutionally strong enough, perhaps some exhaustion in the ancient Chynoweth strain was to be the cause of this virtual obliteration of her personal appearance in any of her children, and the dominance of the three fathers. Geoffrey Charles was already like Francis. Valentine would grow ever more like the man who had just left the house. And little Ursula would become sturdy and strong and thick-necked and as determined as a blacksmith."
Graham, Winston. The Angry Tide: A Novel of Cornwall 1798–1799 (Poldark Book 7) (p. 602). Pan Macmillan. Kindle Edition.
George Warleggan
Ross's arch-enemy is of a new class of industrialists and bankers. Although regarded as an upstart by the aristocracy, through ruthlessness and cunning he becomes increasingly powerful. Always impeccably dressed and elegantly behaved, he constantly schemes to increase his own wealth at the expense of others, including the Poldarks. He becomes enamoured of Elizabeth, eventually marrying her after she is widowed, and they have two children, Valentine and Ursula. He also becomes a member of Parliament. Eventually, several years after Elizabeth's death, he remarries a wealthy woman named Harriet (who is very fond of her large pet dogs, much to George's disdain), and they have twin daughters.
Francis Poldark
Ross's cousin Francis has a tendency to be flippant but his feelings are strong and he can be very obstinate. The two cousins were friends as boys but their relationship is tested severely when Francis marries Elizabeth, with lasting repercussions for them all. He has one son with Elizabeth - Geoffrey Charles Poldark, and later dies in a tragic accident in his mine.
Verity Blamey, née Poldark
Francis's sister and Ross's cousin Verity is described as plain, with fluffy hair and a mobile mouth. She has been a dutiful, unmarried daughter who looks after the affairs of her father, Charles Poldark, and his estate. She meets and falls in love with Andrew Blamey, a sea captain. Unfortunately he has a terrible secret that is soon revealed, and she seems to lose her chance of happiness. Eventually Andrew and Verity marry, and she becomes friends with his first children - Esme and James, Andrew and Verity later have one child - a son named Andrew.
The Reverend Osborne Whitworth
Osborne Whitworth appears briefly in the first Poldark series of novels, but comes to feature prominently in the second series when he marries Morwenna Chynoweth, Elizabeth's cousin, who is in love with Drake Carne, Demelza's brother. Whitworth's main preoccupations are money and women. He is loud and arrogant, delivering sermons which intimidate his parishioners more than inspire them. He also sexually abuses his wife; when he is no longer able to force himself upon her during her pregnancy, he begins an affair with her fifteen-year-old sister, Rowella, which proves to be his undoing. He has a son, named John Conan, and two daughters with his first wife.
Drake Carne
The brother of Demelza Poldark and Sam Carne, he comes to stay with Ross and Demelza after his father's death and encounters Geoffrey Charles Poldark and his governess Morwenna Chynoweth. He forms a close friendship with Geoffrey Charles and falls in love with Morwenna yet she is forced by George Warleggan to marry Osborne Whitworth. He becomes a blacksmith and later when Osborne Whitworth dies he does marry Morwenna and they have a child named Loveday, when Geoffrey Charles returns to Cornwall from Spain they continue their friendship with him.
Jeremy Poldark
Jeremy Poldark is the second child of Ross and Demelza Poldark, he features heavily in the later books, having interests in his fathers mines and in early forms of cars. He falls in love with a local noblewoman- Cuby Trevanion, who continuously rejects him as she is expected to marry into a richer family, eventually she realises she loves him and they run away together. Jeremy and Cuby then go to France where he fights in the army and then dies at Waterloo, leaving Cuby devastated and a pregnant widow.
Valentine Warleggan
The son of Elizabeth Warleggan (née Chynoweth & Poldark) and George Warleggan, although it is later acknowledged that he is likely the son of Elizabeth and Ross Poldark. In the later novels he goes about drinking and gambling and being an all round rather bad influence especially on Andrew Blamey (the son of Verity Blamey (née Poldark) and Andrew Blamey). He also marries a rich widow (Selina Pope) and has many secret affairs.
Clowance Poldark
The third child of Ross and Demelza, she has flirtations with the miner Ben Carter and various noblemen, yet she marries the mysterious Stephen Carrington a.k.a the Stranger from the Sea while unaware of his history of murder and his ex-wife and son.
Stephen Carrington
A character who first appears in the novel The Stranger from the Sea. He's a rather suspicious character who marries Clowance Poldark, despite his history of murder and first wife he announces is dead, but it is later found that his wife was alive when he married Clowance- rendering their marriage void. He embarks on various schemes including one he enacts with Jeremy Poldark and Ben Carter in which they break into a carriage and steal some jewels and money- some of it belonging to George Warleggan and his new wife Harriet Warleggan. He then becomes involved in trading vessels and missions to Europe. His undoing is a flirtation with Harriet Warleggan which ends in him falling off his horse into a ditch and breaking his back.
Geoffrey Charles Poldark
The first son of Elizabeth Poldark and only child of Francis Poldark. He almost dies of the 'putrid throat' (diphtheria) as an infant and is nursed back to health by Demelza at the cost of Demelza and Ross Poldark's first child - Julia. Later he forms a close friendship with Elizabeth's cousin -Morwenna, and Demelza's brother- Drake. He is sent away to school by his new step-father George Warleggan and later joins the army. He encounters his uncle Ross Poldark at war in Portugal and eventually returns to Cornwall and his home at Trenwith. He marries a woman named Amadora who he met in Spain and they have a child.
Isabella-Rose (Bella) Poldark
The fourth child of Ross and Demelza Poldark. She has a love of music and singing and gains a reputation for being musically talented.
Television adaptations of the novels
The BBC adapted the first seven books of the novel sequence as Poldark, first broadcast in 1975 (a series of 16 episodes) and in 1976–77 (a second series of 13 episodes). Robin Ellis portrayed Ross and Angharad Rees was featured as Demelza.
In 1996, HTV produced a pilot episode of The Stranger from the Sea, written by Robin Mukherjee, which became a controversial adaptation using a new cast featuring John Bowe as Ross Poldark and Mel Martin as Demelza. Fans protested, and over fifty members of the Poldark Appreciation Society picketed HTV's headquarters in Bristol wearing 18th century costumes. The pilot was unsuccessful, and no further episodes were made.
The BBC began broadcasting a new adaptation of the novels (the first seven books) in 2015, again titled Poldark, with Aidan Turner in the title role and Eleanor Tomlinson as Demelza. Like the original 1975 BBC adaptation, this new series has been taken up by the PBS network for broadcast in the United States. This adaptation was broadcast by the BBC in five series, with the last episode of series 5 broadcast on 26 August 2019.
People who inspired the characters
Graham mentions in his autobiography Memoirs of a Private Man that the character of Demelza is based on his own wife Jean, at least in part.
Graham states in Poldark's Cornwall that the Bodmin Moor hamlet of Demelza was the inspiration for his character's first name.
In Poldark's Cornwall, Graham reveals that the name "Poldark" is a product of his imagination. He initially named the character after his friend, a chemist named Polgreen. However, Polgreen did not sound strong or mysterious enough for the character, so Graham changed Polgreen to Poldark.
Ross Poldark's physical characteristics are based upon those of an injured flying officer whom Graham met on a train during the Second World War.
The Carne brothers (Sam and Drake) could be based on the pioneers of Methodism John and Charles Wesley.
Allusions to historical events and real places
In his autobiography Memoirs of a Private Man, Graham explains that some of the stories and plots in the book draw from actual people and events from Cornish history. According to Graham, the names of the original people and places (and sometimes the dates) have been adapted or changed, but essentially the material facts remain the same.
Some examples that Winston Graham used are:
The story of the physician (Dr. Enys) who was called out to attend a young girl's (Caroline Penvenen) dog.
The incident with the fishbone where (Caroline) believes she has the putrid throat, and eventually Dr Enys is called out to her, removing a fishbone to cure her.
The fifth Poldark novel, Black Moon, is set between 1794 and 1795. A total lunar eclipse visible from the UK occurred on 14 February 1794 and is the inspiration for the title. The "black moon" occurs on the day of Valentine Warleggan's birth and he is named after 14 February, Valentine's Day. The ending of the lunar eclipse is erroneously depicted. Astronomically, the earth's shadow is concave towards the dark portion of the moon's surface, throughout the eclipse. In the "Black moon" episode, as the eclipse ends, the earth's shadow is concave towards the light portion of the moon's surface.
Hendrawna is his name for Perranporth.
Graham's source material for his description of Launceston Gaol was taken from John Howard's "The State of Prisons in England and Wales" published initially in 1777. Graham used the reissued 1784 edition.
Publication history
The first novel Ross Poldark, was published in the UK in 1945. Upon re-publication in the US in 1951, it was retitled The Renegade, and significantly shortened by approximately 12%, with most editions since then using the shorter, revised text.
The second novel, Demelza, was published in the UK in 1946. Upon re-publication in the US in 1953, it was also significantly shortened, by approximately 14%, with most editions since then using the shorter text.
Notes
References
Further reading
The Poldark Cookery Book; by Jean M. Graham. Triad / Granada, 1981
External links
Poldark (1996) on IMDb
Cornish culture
Novels set in Cornwall
20th-century British novels
History of Cornwall
British novels adapted into television shows | [
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239143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac%20Watts | Isaac Watts | Isaac Watts (17 July 1674 – 25 November 1748) was an English Congregational minister, hymn writer, theologian, and logician. He was a prolific and popular hymn writer and is credited with some 750 hymns. His works include "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross", "Joy to the World", and "Our God, Our Help in Ages Past". He is recognized as the "Godfather of English Hymnody"; many of his hymns remain in use today and have been translated into numerous languages.
Life
Watts was born in Southampton, Hampshire, England in 1674 and was brought up in the home of a committed religious nonconformist; his father, also Isaac Watts, had been incarcerated twice for his views. Watts had a classical education at King Edward VI School, Southampton, learning Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
Watts displayed a propensity for rhyme from an early age. He was once asked why he had his eyes open during prayers, to which he responded:
He received corporal punishment for this, to which he cried:
Watts could not attend Oxford or Cambridge because he was a nonconformist and these universities were restricted to Anglicans—as were government positions at the time. He went to the Dissenting Academy at Stoke Newington in 1690. Much of the remainder of his life centred on that village, which is now part of Inner London.
Following his education, Watts was called as pastor of a large independent chapel in London, Mark Lane Congregational Chapel, where he helped train preachers, despite his poor health. He held religious opinions that were more nondenominational or ecumenical than was common for a nonconformist Congregationalist. He had a greater interest in promoting education and scholarship than preaching for any particular sect.
Watts took work as a private tutor and lived with the nonconformist Hartopp family at Fleetwood House on Church Street in Stoke Newington. Through them, he became acquainted with their immediate neighbours Sir Thomas Abney and Lady Mary. He eventually lived for a total of 36 years in the Abney household, most of the time at Abney House, their second residence. (Lady Mary had inherited the manor of Stoke Newington in 1701 from her late brother Thomas Gunston.)
On the death of Sir Thomas Abney in 1722, his widow Lady Mary and her unmarried daughter Elizabeth moved all her household to Abney House from Hertfordshire, and she invited Watts to continue with them. He particularly enjoyed the grounds at Abney Park, which Lady Mary planted with two elm walks leading down to an island heronry in the Hackney Brook, and he often sought inspiration there for the many books and hymns that he wrote.
Watts lived at Abney Hall in Stoke Newington until his death in 1748; he was buried in Bunhill Fields. He left an extensive legacy of hymns, treatises, educational works, and essays. His work was influential amongst nonconformist independents and religious revivalists of the 18th century, such as Philip Doddridge, who dedicated his best-known work to Watts.
Watts and hymnody
Sacred music scholars Stephen Marini, Denny Prutow and Michael LeFebvre describe the ways in which Watts contributed to English hymnody and the previous tradition of the Church. Watts led the change in practice by including new poetry for "original songs of Christian experience" to be used in worship, according to Marini. The older tradition was based on the poetry of the Bible: the Psalms. According to LeFebvre, Psalms had been sung by God's people from the time of King David, who with a large staff over many years assembled the complete book of Psalms in a form appropriate for singing (by the Levites, during Temple sacrifices at the time). The practice of singing Psalms in worship was continued by Biblical command in the New Testament Church from its beginnings in Acts through the time of Watts, as documented by Prutow. The teachings of 16th-century Reformation leaders such as John Calvin, who translated the Psalms in the vernacular for congregational singing, followed this historic worship practice. Watts was not the first Protestant to promote the singing of hymns; however, his prolific hymn writing helped usher in a new era of English worship as many other poets followed in his path.
Watts also introduced a new way of rendering the Psalms in verse for church services, proposing that they be adapted for hymns with a specifically Christian perspective. As Watts put it in the title of his 1719 metrical Psalter, the Psalms should be "imitated in the language of the New Testament." Besides writing hymns, Isaac Watts was also a theologian and logician, writing books and essays on these subjects.
Logic
Watts wrote a textbook on logic which was particularly popular; its full title was, Logick, or The Right Use of Reason in the Enquiry After Truth With a Variety of Rules to Guard Against Error in the Affairs of Religion and Human Life, as well as in the Sciences. This was first published in 1724, and it was printed in twenty editions.
Watts wrote this work for beginners of logic, and arranged the book methodically. He divided the content of his elementary treatment of logic into four parts: perception, judgement, reasoning, and method, which he treated in this order. Each of these parts is divided into chapters, and some of these chapters are divided into sections. The content of the chapters and sections is subdivided by the following devices: divisions, distributions, notes, observations, directions, rules, illustrations, and remarks. Every contentum of the book comes under one or more of these headings, and this methodical arrangement serves to make the exposition clear.
In Watts' Logic, there are notable departures from other works of the time, and some notable innovations. The influence of British empiricism may be seen, especially that of contemporary philosopher and empiricist John Locke. Logic includes several references to Locke and his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which he espoused his empiricist views. Watts was careful to distinguish between judgements and propositions, unlike some other logic authors. According to Watts, judgement is "to compare... ideas together, and to join them by affirmation, or disjoin then by negation, according as we find them to agree or disagree". He continues, "when mere ideas are joined in the mind without words, it is rather called a judgement; but when clothed with words it is called a proposition". Watts' Logic follows the scholastic tradition and divides propositions into universal affirmative, universal negative, particular affirmative, and particular negative.
In the third part, Watts discusses reasoning and argumentation, with particular emphasis on the theory of syllogism. This was considered a centrally important part of classical logic. According to Watts, and in keeping with logicians of his day, Watts defined logic as an art (see liberal arts), as opposed to a science. Throughout Logic, Watts revealed his high conception of logic by stressing the practical side of logic, rather than the speculative side. According to Watts, as a practical art, logic can be really useful in any inquiry, whether it is an inquiry in the arts, or inquiry in the sciences, or inquiry of an ethical kind. Watts' emphasis on logic as a practical art distinguishes his book from others.
By stressing a practical and non-formal part of logic, Watts gave rules and directions for any kind of inquiry, including the inquiries of science and the inquiries of philosophy. These rules of inquiry were given in addition to the formal content of classical logic common to textbooks on logic from that time. Watts' conception of logic as being divided into its practical part and its speculative part marks a departure from the conception of logic of most other authors. His conception of logic is more akin to that of the later, nineteenth-century logician, C. S. Peirce.
Isaac Watts' Logic became the standard text on logic at Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard and Yale, being used at Oxford for well over 100 years. Charles Sanders Peirce, the nineteenth-century logician, wrote favourably of Watts' Logic. When preparing his own textbook, titled A Critick of Arguments: How to Reason (also known as the Grand Logic), Peirce wrote, 'I shall suppose the reader to be acquainted with what is contained in Dr Watts' Logick, a book... far superior to the treatises now used in colleges, being the production of a man distinguished for good sense.'
Watts followed the Logic in 1741 by a supplement, The Improvement of the Mind. This also went through numerous editions and later inspired Michael Faraday. It was also widely used as a moral textbook in schools.
Legacy, honours and memorials
On his death, Isaac Watts' papers were given to Yale University in the Colony of Connecticut, which nonconformists (Puritans/Congregationalists) had established. King Edward VI School, Southampton, which he attended, named one of its houses "Watts" in his honour.
The Church of England and Lutheran Church remember Watts (and his ministerial service) annually in the Calendar of Saints with a commemoration on 25 November, and the Episcopal Church on the following day.
The earliest surviving monument to Watts is in Westminster Abbey; this was completed shortly after his death. His much-visited chest tomb at Bunhill Fields dates from 1808, replacing the original that had been paid for and erected by Lady Mary Abney and the Hartopp family.
Another early memorial may be lost: a bust to Watts commissioned on his death for the London chapel with which he was associated. The chapel was demolished in the late 18th century: remaining parts of the memorial were rescued at the last minute by a wealthy landowner for installation in his chapel near Liverpool, but it is not known whether the bust survives. Another bust is installed at the nonconformist Dr Williams's Library, in central London.
The first public statue stands at Abney Park, where Watts lived for more than 30 years at the manor house, and where he also died. The park later became Abney Park Cemetery, opened in 1840; and the statue of Watts was erected here by public subscription in 1845. It stands in Dr Watts' Walk, in front of the Abney Park Chapel, and was designed by the leading British sculptor, Edward Hodges Baily. A scheme for a commemorative statue on this spot had been promoted in the late 1830s by George Collison, who in 1840 published an engraving as the frontispiece of his book about cemetery design in Europe and America, and at Abney Park in particular. Collison's proposal was never commissioned, and Baily's design was adopted instead.
A later, rather similar statue was also funded by public subscription and erected in a new Victorian public park named after Watts in Southampton, the city of his birth. In the mid-nineteenth century, the Congregational Dr Watts Memorial Hall was built in Southampton and also named after him. It was lost to redevelopment after the Second World War, but the Isaac Watts Memorial United Reformed Church was built on the site.
In 1974, the City of Southampton commemorated the tercentenary of Watts' birth by commissioning the biography Isaac Watts Remembered, written by David G. Fountain, who like Watts, was a nonconformist minister from Southampton.
Cultural or contemporary influences
One of Watts' best-known poems was an exhortation "Against Idleness and Mischief" in Divine Songs for Children. This was parodied by Lewis Carroll in the poem "How Doth the Little Crocodile", included in Chapter 2 of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. His parody is better known than Watts' original poem. The poem was also featured in the segment on the cartoon programme "Rocky and His Friends" called "Bullwinkle's Corner", in which Bullwinkle Moose recites poetry. In this case, the poem was titled "The Bee", with no author credit.
A second example appears in Chapter 10 of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, the poem "'Tis the Voice of the Lobster", which parodies the opening lines of "The Sluggard": "'Tis the voice of the sluggard; I heard him complain, / 'You have waked me too soon, I must slumber again.'"
In his novel David Copperfield (1850), Charles Dickens has school master Dr. Strong quote from Watts' "Against Idleness and Mischief".
The 1884 comic opera Princess Ida includes a punning reference to Watts in Act I. At Princess Ida's women's university, no males are allowed. Her father King Gama says that "She'll scarcely suffer Dr. Watts' 'hymns'".
A poem often referred to as "False Greatness" by Joseph Merrick ("The Elephant Man"), which was used in writing or "signature block" by Merrick, starting "Tis true, my form is something odd
but blaming me, is blaming God..." is often (incorrectly) quoted or cited as a work by Isaac Watts. In fact only the last few sentences were penned by Watts ("False Greatness", book II-Horae lyricae 1743) starting "Mylo, forbear to call him bless'd That only boasts a large estate..."
Works
Books
Horae Lyricae: Poems, Chiefly of the Lyric Kind (2nd ed. 1709)
Guide to Prayer (1715; 4th ed. corr 1725)
Psalms of David: Imitated in the Language of the New Testament, and Apply'd to the Christian State and Worship (1719)
Logick: or, the Right use of Reason in the Enquiry After Truth, with a Variety of Rules to Guard Against Error in the Affairs of Religion and Human Life, as Well as in the Sciences (1726)
The Strength and Weakness of Human Reason: or, the Important Question about the Sufficiency of Reason to Conduct Mankind to Religion and Future Happiness, Argued Between an Inquiring Deist and a Christian Divine: and the Debate Compromis'd and Determin'd to the Satisfaction of Both (1731)
Faith and Practice: Represented in Fifty-Four Sermons on the Principal Heads of the Christian Religion: Preached at Berry-street, 1733 (1739)
The Improvement of the Mind: or, a Supplement to the Art of Logick: Containing a Variety of Remarks and Rules for the Attainment and Communication of Useful Knowledge, in Religion, in the Sciences, and in Common Life (1741)
Vol 1 Vol 2 at The Internet Archive (1768, 1773, 1787 edition)
The Knowledge of the Heavens and the Earth Made Easy ..., first edition, 1726; 1760 edition at Google Books
The Doctrine of the Passions – Explain'd and Improv'd, [fifth edition] (1795)
A Short View of the Whole Scripture History: With a Continuation of the Jewish Affairs From the Old Testament Till the Time of Christ; and an Account of the Chief Prophesies that Relate to Him Watts is thought to be the author of the tract: An Essay on the Freedom of Will in God and Creatures (copy on The Internet Archive).
Divine Songs Attempted in Easy Language for the Use of Children (17560
Hymns
Watts' hymns include:Joy to the World (based on Psalm 98, tune by an unknown composer using fragments from Handel, first published in England in 1833, popularized by American Lowell Mason)
When pain and anguish seize me, Lord
Come ye that Love the Lord (often sung with the chorus [and titled] "We’re marching to Zion")
Come Holy Spirit, Heavenly Dove
Jesus Shall Reign Where’er the Sun (based on Psalm 72)Our God, Our Help in Ages Past (based on Psalm 90)When I Survey the Wondrous CrossAlas! and Did My Saviour Bleed
How Sweet and Awful Is the Place
This Is the Day the Lord Hath Made
'Tis by Thy Strength the Mountains Stand
When I Can Read My Title Clear
I Sing the Mighty Power of God (originally entitled Praise for Creation and Providence from Divine Songs Attempted in Easy Language for the Use of Children)
My Shepherd Will Supply My Need (based on Psalm 23)
Bless, O My Soul! the Living God (based on Psalm 103)
Many of Watts' hymns are included in the Anglican Hymns Ancient and Modern, the Oxford Book of Common Praise, the Christadelphian hymnal, the Episcopal Church's Hymnal 1982, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, the Baptist Hymnal, the Presbyterian Trinity Hymnal, and the Methodist Hymns and Psalms. Many of his texts are also used in the American hymnal, The Sacred Harp, using what is known as the shape note notation used for teaching non-musicians. Several of his hymns are used in the hymnals of the Church of Christ, Scientist and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
See also
Africa (William Billings)
Congregational church
English Dissenter
Independent (religion)
Puritan
Notes
References
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External links
Isaac Watts at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
A Solemn Address to the Great and Ever Blessed God (1802), originally published as A Faithful Inquiry after the Ancient and Original Doctrine of the Trinity'' (1745)
background info and midi files
Hymns by Isaac Watts
O God our help in ages past (school hymn of King Edward VI School, Southampton, Watts' alma mater)
Isaac Watts Remembered (David G. Fountain, 1974) Biography commissioned by Southampton City Council (his home city) to commemorate 300 years of his birth ()
Monergism.com Isaac Watts Links to works of Isaac Watts
Logic by Isaac Watts
Improvement of the Mind by Isaac Watts
The Harmony of all the Religions which God ever Prescribed to Men and all his Dispensations towards them by Isaac Watts
The Ruin and Recovery of Mankind by Isaac Watts
1674 births
People from Southampton
1748 deaths
English nonconformist hymnwriters
English evangelicals
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
English Congregationalist ministers
17th-century Congregationalist ministers
People educated at King Edward VI School, Southampton
Anglican saints
English logicians
English male poets
English Calvinist and Reformed theologians
18th-century Congregationalist ministers
17th-century English clergy
18th-century English non-fiction writers
18th-century English male writers
Burials at Bunhill Fields
English philosophers
18th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Calvinist and Reformed hymnwriters
Congregationalist hymnwriters
English male non-fiction writers
18th-century English poets
17th-century hymnwriters
18th-century hymnwriters | [
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239145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20Antonietta%20Beluzzi | Maria Antonietta Beluzzi | Maria Antonietta Beluzzi (26 July 1930 – 9 August 1997) was an Italian actress who appeared in a number of films in her native country. She is probably best known as the large and huge-breasted tobacconist in Federico Fellini's Amarcord, whose sexual arousal by the male teenager protagonist ends with ironic results. This casting occurred ten years after Fellini first cast her in an uncredited role (as a screen test candidate for La Saraghina) in 8½.
In a minor plot point, her performance in Amarcord is discussed fondly by the characters in John Irving's Until I Find You (2005).
Filmography
References
External links
1930 births
1997 deaths
Italian film actresses
Actors from Bologna
20th-century Italian actresses | [
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239148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Appuleius%20Saturninus | Lucius Appuleius Saturninus | Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (died late 100 BC) was a Roman populist and tribune. He is most notable for introducing a series of legislative reforms, alongside his associate Gaius Servilius Glaucia and with the consent of Gaius Marius, during the last years of the second century BC. Senatorial opposition to these laws eventually led to an internal crisis, the declaration of the senatus consultum ultimum, and the deaths of Saturninus, Glaucia, and their followers in 100 BC.
Biography
Quaestor
As quaestor (104 BC) he superintended the imports of grain at Ostia, but was removed by the Roman Senate (an unusual proceeding), and replaced by Marcus Aemilius Scaurus.
First Tribuneship
In 103 BC he was elected tribune of the plebs. He entered into an agreement with Gaius Marius, and in order to gain the favour of his soldiers proposed that each of his veterans should receive an allotment of 100 iugera of land in the Roman province of Africa. He was also chiefly instrumental in securing the election of Marius to his fourth consulship (102 BC).
An opportunity to retaliate against the Nobiles was afforded him by the arrival (101 BC) of ambassadors from Mithridates VI of Pontus, with large sums of money for bribing the Senate; compromising revelations were made by Saturninus, who insulted the ambassadors. He was brought to trial for violating the law of nations, and only escaped conviction by an ad misericordiam appeal to the people. To the first tribunate of Saturninus is probably to be assigned his law on maiestas, the exact provisions of which are unknown, but its object was probably to strengthen the power of the tribunes and the Populares; it dealt with the minuta majestas (diminished authority) of the Roman people, that is, with all acts tending to impair the integrity of the Commonwealth, being thus more comprehensive than the modern word "treason".
One of the chief objects of Saturninus's hatred was Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, who, when censor, endeavoured to remove Saturninus from the Senate on the ground of immorality, but his colleague refused to assent. In order to ingratiate himself with the people, who still cherished the memory of the Gracchi, Saturninus took about with him Lucius Equitius, a paid freedman, who made himself out to be the son of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. Sempronia, sister of the dead Gracchi, refused to acknowledge her alleged nephew.
Second Tribuneship
Marius, on his return to Rome after his victory over the Cimbri, finding himself isolated in the senate, entered into a compact with Saturninus and his ally Gaius Servilius Glaucia, and the three formed a kind of triumvirate, supported by the veterans of Marius and many of the common people. By the aid of bribery and assassination Marius was elected (100 BC) consul for the sixth time, Glaucia praetor, and Saturninus tribune for the second time. Saturninus now brought forward an agrarian law, the lex Appuleia agraria, an extension of the African law already alluded to. It was proposed that all the land north of the Padus (Po) lately in possession of the Cimbri, including that of the independent Celtic tribes which had been temporarily occupied by them, should be held available for distribution among the veterans of Marius. This was problematic, since the land was already the property of the provincials who had been dispossessed by the Cimbri.
Colonies were to be founded in Sicilia, Achaea, Transalpine Gaul, and Macedonia, which were to be purchased with the Gold of Tolosa, the temple treasures embezzled by Quintus Servilius Caepio. Further, though they were classed as Roman, Italians were to be admitted to these colonies, and as they were to be burgess colonies, the right of the Italians to equality with the Romans was thereby partially recognized. The city mob therefore strongly opposed the bill, resenting sharing their citizen rights with the Italian allies, and Saturninus was obliged to call up rural voters from outside the city to pass the bill.
A clause provided that, within 5 days after the passing of the law, every senator should take an oath to observe it, under penalty of being expelled from the senate and heavily fined. All the senators subsequently took the oath except Metellus Numidicus, who went into exile. Saturninus also brought in a bill, the object of which was to gain the support of the people by supplying grain at a nominal price. The bill either reduced the already cheap price fixed by the corn-law of Caius Gracchus, or was a repeal of a former Senatorial repeal of Gracchus' law, though the former is more likely. The quaestor Quintus Servilius Caepio the Younger declared that the treasury could not stand the strain, and Saturninus' own colleagues interposed their veto. Saturninus ordered the voting to continue, and Caepio dispersed the meeting by violence. The Senate declared the proceedings null and void, because thunder had been heard; Saturninus replied that the Senate had better remain quiet; otherwise the thunder might be followed by hail. The bills (leges Appuleiae) were finally passed by the aid of the Marian veterans.
Downfall and death
Marius, finding himself overshadowed by his colleagues and compromised by their excesses, thought seriously of breaking with them, and Saturninus and Glaucia saw that their only hope of safety lay in their retention of office. At the elections for 99, held probably in late summer–autumn 100, Saturninus was elected tribune for the third time for the year beginning December 10 100, and Glaucia, although at the time praetor and therefore not eligible until after the lapse of 2 years, was a candidate for the consulship. Marcus Antonius was elected without opposition; the other candidate, Gaius Memmius, who seemed to have the better chance of success, was beaten to death by the hired agents of Saturninus and Glaucia, while the voting was actually going on.
This produced a complete revulsion of public feeling. The Senate met on the following day, declared Saturninus and Glaucia public enemies, and issued the so-called 'final decree' (senatus consultum ultimum) calling upon Marius to defend the State. Marius had no alternative but to obey. Saturninus, defeated in a pitched battle in the Roman Forum, took refuge with his followers in the Capitol, where, the water supply having been cut off, they were forced to capitulate. Marius, having assured them that their lives would be spared, removed them to the Curia Hostilia, intending to proceed against them according to law. But the more impetuous members of the aristocratic party climbed onto the roof, stripped off the tiles, and stoned Saturninus and many others to death. Glaucia, who had escaped into a house, was dragged out and killed.
Descendants
His daughter Appuleia may have married well despite the family disgrace, and was perhaps the mother of two consuls, including the triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.
Cultural depictions
The historical novels The First Man in Rome and The Grass Crown, by Colleen McCullough, largely focus on the rise and fall of Gaius Marius and his lengthy career. Lucius Appuleius Saturninus is a secondary character with his own plot line in the first novel. Several sections are written from Saturninus' point of view.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Appian, Bell. civ. i. 28–33
Diod. Sic. xxxvi 12
Plutarch, Marius, 28–30
Livy, Epit. 69
Florus iii. 16
Velleius Paterculus ii. 12
Auctor ad Herennium i. 21
Aurelius Victor, De viris illustribus, 73
Orosius v. 17
Cicero, Pro Balbo, 21, 48, Brutus, 62, De oratore, ii. 49, De haruspicum responsis, 19, Pro Sestio, Pro Rabirio, passim
Mommsen, Hist. of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iv. ch. 6
G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, ii. ch. 10
E. Klebs in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopädie, ii. 1 (1896)
2nd-century BC births
100 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Romans
1st-century BC Romans
Saturninus, Lucius
Assassinated Roman politicians
Deaths by stoning
Populares
Roman quaestors
Senators of the Roman Republic
Tribunes of the plebs | [
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239150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Memmius%20%28poet%29 | Gaius Memmius (poet) | Gaius Memmius (died circa 49 BC, incorrectly called Gemellus, "The Twin") was a Roman orator and poet. He was Tribune of the Plebs (66 BC), possibly a patron of Lucretius, and an acquaintance of Catullus and Helvius Cinna. His sister Memmia was married to Gaius Scribonius Curio.
While at first a strong supporter of Pompey, he later quarrelled with him and went over to Caesar, whom he had previously attacked. In 54 BC, as candidate for the consulship, he lost Caesar's support by revealing a scandalous transaction in which he and his fellow candidate had been implicated.
Being subsequently condemned for illegal practices at the election, he withdrew to Athens, and afterwards, to Mytilene. He died around 49 BC. He is remembered chiefly because it was to him that Lucretius addressed the De rerum natura, perhaps with the idea of making him a convert to the doctrines of Epicurus. It appears from Cicero that he possessed an estate on which were the ruins of Epicurus' house, and that he had determined to build on the site a house for himself. According to Ovid he was the author of erotic poems. He possessed considerable oratorical abilities, but his contempt for Latin letters and preference for Greek models impaired his efficiency as an advocate.
Gaius Memmius was married to Fausta Cornelia, the daughter of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. They had at least one son, Gaius Memmius, suffect consul in 34 BC.
References
49 BC deaths
Roman-era poets
1st-century BC Romans
1st-century BC Roman poets
Tribunes of the plebs
Memmii
Year of birth unknown | [
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239157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey%20Gilbert | Humphrey Gilbert | Sir Humphrey Gilbert (c. 1539 – 9 September 1583) was an English adventurer, explorer, member of parliament and soldier who served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and was a pioneer of the English colonial empire in North America and the Plantations of Ireland. He was a maternal half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh and a cousin of Sir Richard Grenville.
Biography
Early life
Gilbert was the fifth son of Otho Gilbert of Compton, Greenway and Galmpton, all in Devon, by his wife Catherine Champernowne. His brothers Sir John Gilbert and Adrian Gilbert, and his half-brothers Carew Raleigh and Sir Walter Raleigh, were also prominent during the reigns of Queen Queen Elizabeth I and King James VI and I. Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeth's governess, who introduced her young kinsmen to the court. Gilbert's uncle, Sir Arthur Champernowne, involved him in the plantation of Ireland between 1566 and 1572.
Gilbert's mentor was Sir Henry Sidney. He was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, where he learned to speak French and Spanish and studied war and navigation. He went on to reside at the Inns of Chancery in London in about 1560–1561.
Gilbert's Latin mottoes, Quid Non ("Why not?") and Mutare vel Timere Sperno ("I scorn to change or to fear"), indicate his chosen philosophy.
Gilbert was present at the siege of Newhaven in Havre-de-Grâce (Le Havre), Normandy, where he was wounded in June 1563. By July 1566 he was serving in Ireland under the command of Sir Henry Sidney (then Lord Deputy of Ireland) against Shane O'Neill, but was sent to England later in the year with dispatches for the Queen. (See Plantations of Ireland and Tudor conquest of Ireland). At that point he took the opportunity of presenting the Queen with his A Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia (Cathay) (published in revised form in 1576), treating of the exploration of a Northwest Passage by America to China.
Gilbert was described as "of higher stature than of the common sort, and of complexion cholerike". Certain contemporaries speculated that he was a pederast.
Military career in Ireland
After the assassination of Shane O'Neill in 1567, he was appointed Governor of Ulster and served as a member of the Irish Parliament. At about this time he petitioned William Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's principal secretary, for a recall to England citing "for the recovery of my eyes", but his ambitions still rested in Ireland, and particularly in the southern province of Munster. In April 1569 he proposed the establishment of a presidency and council for the province, and pursued the notion of an extensive settlement around Baltimore (at the southwest tip of modern County Cork), which was approved by the Dublin council. At the same time, he was involved with Sidney and Sir Thomas Smith, the Secretary of State, in planning the Enterprise of Ulster, a large settlement in the east of the northern province of Ulster, by Devonshire gentlemen.
Gilbert's actions in the south of Ireland played a significant part in the outbreak of the first of the Desmond Rebellions. Sir Peter Carew (d.1575), his Devonshire kinsman, was pursuing a provocative, and somewhat far-fetched, claim to the inheritance of certain lands within the Butler territories in south Leinster. The 3rd Earl of Ormonde, a bosom companion of Queen Elizabeth's from childhood and head of the Butler dynasty, was absent in England, and the clash of Butler influence with the Carew claim created havoc.
Gilbert was eager to participate and, after Carew's seizure of the barony of Idrone (in modern County Carlow) in the summer of 1569, he pushed westward with his forces across the River Blackwater and joined up with his kinsman to defeat Sir Edmund Butler, the Earl of Ormond's younger brother. Violence spread in a confusion from Leinster and across the province of Munster, when the Geraldines of Desmond, led by James FitzMaurice FitzGerald, rose against the incursion.
Gilbert was then created Colonel by Lord Deputy Sidney and was charged with the pursuit of FitzGerald. The Geraldines were driven out of Kilmallock, but returned to lay siege to Gilbert, who drove off their superior force in a sally during which his horse was shot from under him and his buckler transfixed with a spear. After that initial success, he marched unopposed through Kerry and Connello, taking 30 to 40 castles.
During the three weeks of this campaign, all Irish were treated without quarter and put to the sword, including women and children. A gruesome spectacle was devised by Gilbert to cow the rebel supporters, utilising the decapitated heads of his Irish enemies:
Gilbert explicitly advocated the killing of Irish non-combatant women and others under the following rationale;
John Perrot used a similar practice at Kilmallock a few years later. Gilbert is also said to have sent Captain Apsley into Kerry to inspire terror.
Gilbert's attitude to the Irish may be captured in one quote from him, dated 13 November 1569: "These people are headstrong and if they feel the curb loosed but one link they will with bit in the teeth in one month run further out of the career of good order than they will be brought back in three months."
Once Ormond had returned from England and called in his brothers, the Geraldines found themselves outgunned. In December 1569, after one of the chief rebels had surrendered, Gilbert was knighted at the hands of Sidney in the ruined FitzMaurice camp, reputedly amid heaps of dead gallowglass warriors.
A month after Gilbert's return to England FitzMaurice retook Kilmallock with 120 soldiers, defeating the garrison and sacking the town for three days, leaving it "the abode of wolves". Three years later FitzMaurice surrendered.
Member of Parliament and adventurer
In 1570 Gilbert returned to England, where he married Anne Ager, daughter of John Ager (alias Aucher, etc.) of Otterden, who bore him six sons and one daughter. In 1571 he was elected to the Parliament of England as a Member of Parliament for Plymouth, Devon, and in 1572 for Queenborough. Controversially he argued in favour of the crown prerogative in the matter of royal licenses for purveyance. In business affairs, he involved himself in an alchemical project with Smith, hoping for iron to be transmuted into copper and antimony, and lead into mercury.
By 1572 Gilbert had turned his attention to the Spanish Netherlands, where he fought an unsuccessful campaign in support of the Dutch Sea beggars at the head of a force of 1,500 men, many of whom had deserted from Smith's aborted plantation in the Ards of Ulster. In the period 1572–1578 Gilbert settled down and devoted himself to writing. In 1573 he presented the Queen with a proposal for an academy in London, which was eventually put into effect by Sir Thomas Gresham with the establishment of Gresham College. Gilbert also helped to set up the Society of the New Art with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, both of whom maintained an alchemical laboratory in Limehouse.
The rest of Gilbert's life was spent in a series of failed maritime expeditions, the financing of which exhausted his family fortune.
After receiving letters patent on 11 June 1578, Gilbert set sail in November 1578 with a fleet of seven vessels from Plymouth in Devon for North America. The fleet was scattered by storms and forced back to port some six months later. The only vessel to have penetrated the Atlantic to any great distance was the Falcon under Raleigh's command.
In the summer of 1579 William Drury, Lord Deputy of Ireland, commissioned Gilbert and Raleigh to attack James FitzMaurice Fitzgerald again by sea and land and to intercept a fleet expected to arrive from Spain with aid for the Irish. At this time Gilbert had three vessels under his command: the 250-ton Anne Ager (named after his wife), the Relief, and the 10-ton Squirrell, a small frigate notable for having completed the voyage to America and back within three months under the command of a captured Portuguese pilot.
Gilbert set sail in June 1579 after a spell of bad weather, and promptly got lost in fog and heavy rain off Land's End, Cornwall, an incident which caused the Queen to doubt his seafaring ability. His fleet was then driven into the Bay of Biscay and the Spanish soon slipped past and sailed into Dingle harbour, where they made their rendezvous with the Irish. In October Gilbert put into the port of Cobh in Cork, where he delivered a terrible beating to a local gentleman, smashing him about the head with a sword. He then fell into a row with a local merchant, whom he murdered on the dockside.
Gilbert became one of the leading advocates for the then-mythical Northwest Passage to Cathay (China), a country written up in great detail by Marco Polo in the 13th century for its abundance of riches. Gilbert made an elaborate case to counter the calls for a Northeast Passage to China. During the winter of 1566 he and his principal antagonist Anthony Jenkinson (who had sailed to Russia and crossed that country down to the Caspian Sea) argued the pivotal question of polar routes before Queen Elizabeth. Gilbert claimed that any north-east passage was far too dangerous: "the air is so darkened with continual mists and fogs so near the pole that no man can well see either to guide his ship or direct his course." By logic and reason a north-west passage was assumed to exist, and Columbus had discovered America with far less evidence; it was imperative for England to catch up, to settle in new lands and thus to challenge the Iberian powers. Gilbert's contentions won support and money was raised, chiefly by the London merchant Michael Lok, for an expedition. The fearless Martin Frobisher was appointed captain and left England in June 1576, but the quest for a north-west passage failed: Frobisher returned with a cargo of a black stone – which was found to be worthless – and a native Inuit.
Newfoundland and death
It was assumed that Gilbert would be appointed President of Munster after the dismissal of Ormond as lord lieutenant of the province in the spring of 1581. At this time Gilbert was member of parliament for Queenborough, Kent, but his attention was again drawn to North America, where he hoped to seize territory on behalf of the English crown.
The six-year exploration licence Gilbert had secured by letters patent from the crown in 1578 was on the point of expiring, when he succeeded in 1583 in raising significant sums from English Catholic investors. The investors were constrained by penal laws in their own country, and loath to go into exile in hostile parts of Europe; the prospect of American settlement appealed to them, especially as Gilbert was proposing to seize some nine million acres (36,000 km2) around the river Norumbega, to be parcelled out under his authority (although to be held ultimately by the Crown).
However, the Privy Council insisted that the investors pay recusancy fines before departing, and Catholic clergy and Spanish agents worked to dissuade them from interfering in America. Shorn of his Catholic financing, Gilbert set sail with a fleet of five vessels in June 1583. One of the vessels – Bark Raleigh, owned and commanded by Raleigh – turned back owing to lack of victuals. Gilbert's crews were made up of misfits, criminals and pirates, but in spite of the many problems caused by their lawlessness, the fleet reached Newfoundland.
On arriving at the port of St John's, Gilbert was blockaded by the fishing fleet under the organisation of the port admiral (an Englishman) on account of piracy committed against a Portuguese vessel in 1582 by one of Gilbert's commanders. Once this resistance was overcome, Gilbert waved his letters patent about and, in a formal ceremony, took possession of Newfoundland (including the lands 200 leagues to the north and south) for the English crown on 5 August 1583. This involved the cutting of turf to symbolise the transfer of possession of the soil, according to the common law of England. The locals presented him with a dog, which he named Stella after the North Star. He claimed authority over the fish stations at St John's and levied tax on the fishermen from several countries who worked this rich sea near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
Within weeks his fleet departed, having made no attempt to form a settlement, due to lack of supplies. During the return voyage, Gilbert insisted on sailing in his hardy old favourite, . He soon ordered a controversial change of course for the fleet. Owing to his obstinacy and disregard of the views of superior mariners, the ship Delight ran aground and soon sank with the loss of all but sixteen of its crew on one of the sandbars of Sable Island. Delight had been the largest remaining ship in the squadron (an unwise choice to lead in uncharted coastal waters) and contained most of the remaining supplies. Later in the voyage a sea monster was sighted, said to have resembled a lion with glaring eyes.
After discussions with Edward Hayes and William Cox, captain and master of Golden Hind, Gilbert decided on 31 August to return. The fleet made good speed, clearing Cape Race after two days, and was soon clear of land. Gilbert had stepped on a nail on the Squirrel and, on 2 September, went aboard Golden Hind to have his foot bandaged and to discuss means of keeping the two little ships together on their Atlantic crossing. Gilbert refused to leave Squirrel and after a strong storm they had a spell of clear weather and made fair progress. Gilbert went aboard Golden Hind again, visited with Hayes, and insisted once more on returning to Squirrel, even though Hayes insisted she was over-gunned and unsafe for sailing. Nearly away from Cape Race, near the Azores, they encountered high waves of heavy seas, "breaking short and high Pyramid wise", said Hayes.
On 9 September, Squirrel was nearly overwhelmed but recovered. Despite the persuasions of others, who wished him to take to the larger vessel, Gilbert stayed put and was observed sitting in the stern of his frigate, reading a book.
When Golden Hind came within hailing distance, the crew heard Gilbert cry out repeatedly, "We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land!" as he lifted his palm to the skies to illustrate his point. At midnight the frigate's lights were extinguished and the watch on Golden Hind cried out "the Generall was cast away". Squirrel had gone down with all hands. The frigate was devoured and swallowed up by the sea.
Coincidentally, Gilbert's distant cousin Richard Grenville would also die at sea off the Azores.
It is thought Gilbert's reading material was the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, which contains the following passage: "He that hathe no grave is covered with the skye: and, the way to heaven out of all places is of like length and distance."
Legacy
Gilbert was part of a remarkable generation of Devonshire men, who combined the roles of adventurer, writer, soldier and mariner. A. L. Rowse wrote of him as,
an interesting psychological case, with the symptoms of disturbed personality that often go with men of mark, not at all the simple Elizabethan seaman of Froude's Victorian view. He was passionate and impulsive, a nature liable to violence and cruelty – as came out in his savage repression of rebels in Ireland – but also intellectual and visionary, a questing and original mind, with the personal magnetism that went with it. People were apt to be both attracted and repelled by him, to follow his leadership and yet be mistrustful of him.
He was outstanding for his initiative and originality, if not for his successes, but it is in his efforts at colonisation that he had most influence. In Ireland Ulster and Munster were forcibly colonised by the English, and the American adventure did eventually flourish. The formality of his annexation of Newfoundland eventually achieved reality in 1610. Perhaps of more significance was the issuance of a royal charter to Raleigh in 1584, based in part from Gilbert's earlier patent; with this backing he undertook the Roanoke expeditions, the first sustained attempt by the English crown to establish colonies in North America.
Gilbert was father to Ralegh Gilbert, who was to become second in command of the failed Popham Colony in Maine. One of his later relatives was the architect C. P. H. Gilbert.
Gilbert Sound near Greenland was named after him by John Davis.
At Memorial University of Newfoundland, a court of the Burton's Pond Apartments are named "Gilbert Court" in his honour.
Popular culture
Fire in the Abyss (1983) by Stuart Gordon – Gilbert is the main character, and is transported four hundred years into the future
The Gate of Time (1966) by Philip José Farmer – Gilbert is not displaced forward in time but sidewise into an alternate timeline
Notes
Bibliography
Payne, Edward John. (1893, 1900). Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America. 1, 2.
Ronald, Susan. (2007). The Pirate Queen: Queen Elizabeth I, her Pirate Adventurers, and the Dawn of Empire. Harper Collins: New York. .
External links
Newfoundland voyage – The Modern History Sourcebook
Letters Patent issued to Gilbert by Queen Elizabeth I, 1578
Early Newfoundland Settlement Schemes
English explorers
Walter Raleigh
1530s births
1583 deaths
People of British North America
People of Elizabethan Ireland
English MPs 1571
English MPs 1572–1583
People educated at Eton College
People from Brixham
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Members of the Parliament of England for Plymouth
People from Marldon | [
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239158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20British%20Museum%20is%20Falling%20Down | The British Museum is Falling Down | The British Museum is Falling Down (1965) is a comic novel by British author David Lodge about a 25-year-old poverty-stricken student of English literature who, rather than work on his thesis (entitled "The Structure of Long Sentences in Three Modern English Novels") in the reading room of the British Museum, is distracted time and again from his work and who gets into trouble instead.
Summary
Set in Swinging London, the novel describes one day in the life of Adam Appleby, who lives in constant fear that his wife might be pregnant again with a fourth child. As Catholics, they are denied any form of contraception and have to play "Vatican roulette" instead. Adam and Barbara have three children: Clare, Dominic, and Edward; their friends ask if they "intend working through the whole alphabet".
In the course of only one busy day several chances to make some money present themselves to Adam. For example, he is offered the opportunity to edit a deceased scholar's unpublished manuscripts; however, when he eventually has a look at them, he feels uncomfortable, realizing that the man's writings are worthless drivel. Also, at the house in Bayswater where he is supposed to get the papers, Adam has to cope with an assortment of weird characters ranging from butchers to a young virgin intent on seducing him.
Lodge's novel makes extensive use of pastiche, incorporating passages where both the motifs and the styles of writing used by various authors are imitated. For instance, there is a Kafkaesque scene in which Adam has to renew his ticket for the British Museum Reading Room. The final chapter of the novel is a monologue by Adam's wife in the style of Molly Bloom's soliloquy in Ulysses.
This use of different styles mirrors James Joyce's Ulysses, a work that is also about a single day. When Lodge's novel first came out quite a number of reviewers and critics, not appreciating the literary allusions, found fault with Lodge for his unhomogeneous writing.
Footnotes
1965 British novels
British Museum in media
Novels about museums
Novels by David Lodge
Novels set in London | [
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239160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy%20Bolin | Tommy Bolin | Thomas Richard Bolin (August 1, 1951 – December 4, 1976) was an American guitarist and songwriter who played with Zephyr (from 1969 to 1971), The James Gang (from 1973 to 1974), and Deep Purple (from 1975 to 1976), in addition to maintaining a notable career as a solo artist and session musician.
Musical career
Early years
Tommy Bolin was born in Sioux City, Iowa, United States, and began playing with a band called The Miserlous before he was asked to join another band called Denny and The Triumphs in 1964 at age 13. The band included Dave Stokes on lead vocals, Brad Miller on guitar and vocals, Bolin on lead guitar, Steve Bridenbaugh on organ and vocals, Denny Foote on bass, and Brad Larvick on drums. They played a blend of rock and roll, R&B and the pop hits of the moment, and when bassist Denny Foote left the band to be replaced by the drummer's brother George Larvick Jr, they changed their name to A Patch of Blue. An album was released in 1969, Patch of Blue Live! from two 1967 concerts in Correctionville, Iowa and in Sioux City. In 1969, the band was inducted in the Iowa Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.
Bolin moved to Boulder, Colorado in his late teens and then played in a band called American Standard (with future songwriting collaborator Jeff Cook) before joining Ethereal Zephyr, a band named after a train that ran between Denver and Chicago. When record companies became interested, the name was shortened to Zephyr. This band included Bolin on lead guitar, David Givens on bass, and Givens' wife Candy Givens on vocals. The band had begun to do larger venues, opening for more established acts such as Led Zeppelin. Their second album, entitled Going Back to Colorado, featured a new drummer, Bobby Berge, who would pop up from time to time in musician credits in album liner notes from Bolin's later projects.
In 1972, the 20-year old Bolin formed the fusion jazz-rock-blues band Energy. Unable to secure a record contract, the band never released an album during Bolin's lifetime. However, several recordings have been released posthumously. Bolin briefly reunited with David and Candy Givens in a band called the 4-Nikators, after which he took nearly a year off from music. During this time, he wrote close to a hundred songs.
James Gang and Billy Cobham
Stuck between the musical direction he wanted to pursue and a nearly-empty bank account, 1973 found Bolin replacing Domenic Troiano, who had replaced Joe Walsh in the James Gang. He recorded two James Gang records: Bang in 1973 and Miami in 1974. Bolin wrote or co-wrote all but one song on these two albums.
In between the two James Gang albums, Bolin played on Mahavishnu Orchestra member Billy Cobham's solo album Spectrum, which included Bolin on guitar, Cobham on drums, Leland Sklar on bass and Jan Hammer (also of Mahavishnu Orchestra) on keyboards and synthesizers. Jon Lord of Deep Purple called Spectrum "an utterly astounding album. There was Tommy Bolin just shredding away like mad. And it was just gorgeous stuff, all improvised, all just off the top of his head."
After the Miami tour, Bolin wanted out of the James Gang. He went on to do session work for numerous rock bands and also with a number of jazz artists including Alphonse Mouzon's album Mind Transplant, considered "easily one of the best fusion recordings of all time" by AllMusic reviewer Robert Taylor. He also toured with Carmine Appice and The Good Rats. At the start of 1975, Bolin was a guest studio guitarist for Canadian band Moxy during the recording of their debut album, on which Bolin contributed guitar solos for six songs.
First solo album and Deep Purple
Later in 1975, Bolin signed with Nemperor records to record a solo album. Bolin was encouraged and coached by The Beach Boys to do his own vocals on this album as well. Session players on this record included David Foster, David Sanborn, Jan Hammer, Stanley Sheldon, Jeff Porcaro, Phil Collins and Glenn Hughes (uncredited due to contractual reasons). During the recording of this album, he was contacted by Deep Purple.
After Ritchie Blackmore left Deep Purple, the band had a meeting and discussed whether to disband or try to find a replacement, and chose the latter option. David Coverdale had been listening to the Billy Cobham LP Spectrum, on which Bolin was lead guitarist for four songs. He decided he wanted Bolin in Deep Purple, and invited him over for a jam. He jammed with the band for four hours and the job was his. The band then relocated to Munich, Germany, to begin work on Come Taste the Band. Bolin wrote or co-wrote seven of the record's nine tracks, including the instrumental "Owed to G," which was a tribute to George Gershwin. Come Taste the Band was released in October 1975, and Australian, Japanese and US tours ensued. Bolin's solo album Teaser was released in November, but his obligations to Deep Purple meant he could not support his own album with a tour.
While the Come Taste the Band album sold moderately well and revitalized Deep Purple for a time, the concert tours had many low points. Audiences expected Bolin to play solos that sounded like Blackmore's, but the guitarists' styles were very different. Bolin's issues with hard drugs plus fellow band member Glenn Hughes' cocaine addiction, also led to several below-par concert performances. One such concert in Tokyo came after Bolin had passed out and fell asleep on his left arm for eight hours. At showtime, he was only able to play simple chords in a bar fashion, with keyboardist Jon Lord having to play many of the guitar parts on the organ. Unfortunately, this concert was recorded for a live album called Last Concert in Japan. Despite pleas by band members to not release the album, it came out in Japan and found its way into the UK and the US. A better concert recording by this Deep Purple lineup was made in Long Beach, California in early 1976, and released in 1995 as King Biscuit Flower Hour Presents: Deep Purple in Concert.
The Tommy Bolin Band and second solo album
After Deep Purple disbanded in March 1976, Bolin was free to form the Tommy Bolin Band and he hit the road while making plans for a second solo album. The Tommy Bolin Band had a rotating cast of players which included Narada Michael Walden, Mark Stein, Norma Jean Bell, Reggie McBride, Jimmy Haslip, Max Carl Gronenthal and eventually Bolin's younger brother Johnnie Bolin on drums.
By mid-1976, CBS Records signed Bolin and he began to record Private Eyes, his second and last solo record, in June. The album was released in September, and a supporting tour ensued.
Death
Bolin's tour for Private Eyes would be his final live appearances. He opened for Peter Frampton and Jeff Beck. In his final show, he opened for Beck on December 3, 1976 in Miami, and encored with a rendition of "Post Toastee." He also posed for his last photo, sitting backstage with Jeff Beck after the show, which appeared in Rolling Stone. The article in Rolling Stone stated, "Just before Bolin's final concert, Jon Marlowe of The Miami News, after an interview with the guitarist, told him, 'Take care of yourself,' to which Tommy replied, 'I've been taking care of myself my whole life. Don't worry about me. I'm going to be around for a long time.'" (Issue No. 230; page 14). Hours later, Bolin died from an overdose of heroin and other substances, including alcohol, cocaine and barbiturates. He is buried in Calvary Cemetery in Sioux City, Iowa.
Personal life
He was the first child in the family of Richard Bolin and Barbara Joseph. Bolin's father Richard was of Swedish descent and his mother Barbara was the daughter of Lebanese immigrants from Ferzol, Lebanon. His maternal grandfather Abraham "Abe" Joseph was a recording musician in Lebanon before immigrating to the USA. The Bolin estate has about 15 records of his grandfather in the safe vault. He had two younger brothers named Johnnie (drummer with Black Oak Arkansas) and Rick (a singer).
In a 1975 article, Bolin called himself an entirely self-taught guitarist who plays by ear, stating, "I only ever had four lessons. I don’t know any scales at all. I know what to play, but don’t know any scales because I never bothered to learn any."
Tributes
In 2008, a book titled Touched By Magic: The Tommy Bolin Story by author Greg Prato was released, which featured all-new interviews with former bandmates, family members, and friends of Bolin, which recounted his entire life story. The same year, a photo of Bolin was used for the front cover for the book Gettin' Tighter: Deep Purple '68–'76, by author Martin Popoff.
In 2010, several well-known artists gathered to create a tribute album titled Mister Bolin's Late Night Revival, a compilation of 17 previously unreleased tracks written by the guitar legend. The CD includes works by HiFi Superstar, Doogie White, Eric Martin, Troy Luccketta, Jeff Pilson, Randy Jackson, Rex Carroll, Rachel Barton, Derek St. Holmes, Kimberley Dahme, and The 77s. A percentage of the proceeds from this project will benefit the Jackson Recovery Centers.
Producer Greg Hampton (who has previously worked on such archival Bolin releases as Whips and Roses) co-produced (with Gov't Mule leader Warren Haynes) a tribute to Bolin, Tommy Bolin and Friends: Great Gypsy Soul, which was released in 2012, and featured contributions from Brad Whitford, Nels Cline, John Scofield, Myles Kennedy, Derek Trucks, Steve Morse, and Peter Frampton, among many others.
Discography
Tribute albums
Glenn Hughes, Johnnie Bolin & Friends - Tommy Bolin: 1997 Tribute (1998)
Mister Bolin's Late Night Revival (2010)
Tommy Bolin and Friends: Great Gypsy Soul (2012)
References
Bibliography
Popoff, Martin (2008). Gettin' Tighter: Deep Purple '68–'76. Power Chord Press. ASIN 0-9811057-1-8
Prato, Greg (2008). Touched by Magic: The Tommy Bolin Story. Createspace.
Smets, Eric (2012). Tommy Bolin: Voodoo Child (French Edition). Camion Blanc. ASIN B-00CW9WP-7-8
Thompson, Dave (2004). Smoke on the Water: The Deep Purple Story. ECW Press.
External links
Billboard.com article by Greg Prato
"Touched by Magic" by Greg Prato
Review of "Teaser" on "Cool Album of the Day"
1951 births
1976 deaths
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American singers
Alcohol-related deaths in Florida
American blues guitarists
American heavy metal guitarists
American male guitarists
American people of Lebanese descent
American people of Swedish descent
American rock singers
American session musicians
Blues rock musicians
Cocaine-related deaths in Florida
Deep Purple members
Drug-related deaths in Florida
Guitarists from Iowa
James Gang members
Lead guitarists
People from Sioux City, Iowa
Singers from Iowa
Slide guitarists
20th-century American male musicians | [
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] |
239162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpse%20%28disambiguation%29 | Corpse (disambiguation) | A corpse is a dead human body.
Corpse may also refer to:
The Corpse, a 1971 British horror film
The Corpse, a black ops group within the Green Lantern Corps
Corpse Husband, also known as Corpse, a YouTuber and rapper
People with the surname
Keli Corpse (born 1974), Canadian retired professional ice hockey player
See also
Corpse paint, a style of black and white makeup used by black metal bands
Corpse plant, a plant with the smell of a rotting animal
Corpsing, theatrical slang for an actor breaking character during a scene, usually by laughing
Corps, a military grouping
Carcass (disambiguation)
Cadaver (disambiguation)
Carrion (disambiguation) | [
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239164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lefkada | Lefkada | Lefkada (, Lefkáda, ), also known as Lefkas or Leukas (Ancient Greek and Katharevousa: Λευκάς, Leukás, modern pronunciation Lefkás) and Leucadia, is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea on the west coast of Greece, connected to the mainland by a long causeway and floating bridge. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Lefkada. It is situated on the northern part of the island, approximately 25 minutes by automobile away from Aktion National Airport. The island is part of the regional unit of Lefkada.
Geography
Lefkada measures from north to south, and from east to west. The area of the island is about , the area of the municipality (including the islands Kalamos, Kastos and several smaller islets) is . Its highest point is the mountain Stavrota, above sea level, situated in the middle of the island. The east coast section of the island has small resorts of Lygia, Nikiana and Perigiali, all north of Nidri, the largest resort on the island. It is set in a sheltered location with views across to Skorpios (formerly owned by Aristotle Onassis), Meganisi and other small islands, as well as the Greek mainland. The main coastal road from Lefkada to Vasiliki runs through the village, although a bypass has now been completed which skirts the village to the west. There are regular car ferries to Kefalonia, Ithaca and Meganissi.
south of Nidri is the resort of Vasiliki, a windsurfing center. There are ferries to Kefalonia and Ithaca from Vasiliki. South of Vasiliki is Cape Lefkada, where the Greek female poet Sappho allegedly leapt to her death from the 30 m high cliffs.
The famous beach of Porto Katsiki is located on Lefkada's west coast. Lefkada was attached to mainland Greece (see below about Homer's Ithaca being Lefkada). The Corinthians dug a trench in the 7th century BC on its isthmus.
The southernmost tip of the island is called Cape Dukato, a name sometimes applied to the whole island.
Climate
The island has a typical Mediterranean climate: hot summers and cool winters, especially in the mountains.
History
Antiquity
The myth about Sappho's suicide at Cape Lefkada is related to other myths linking the island to the ancient Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite, and to Odysseus, the hero of Homer's Odyssey. The German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld, having performed excavations at various locations of Lefkada, was able to obtain funding to do work on the island by suggesting that Lefkada was Homer's Ithaca, and the palace of Odysseus was located west of Nydri on the south coast of Lefkada. There have been suggestions by local tourism officials that several passages in the Odyssey point to Lefkada as a possible model for Homeric Ithaca. The most notable of these passages pushed by the local tourism board describes Ithaca as an island reachable on foot, which was the case for Lefkada since it is not really an island, that it was connected to the mainland by a narrow causeway. According to Strabo, the coast of Acarnania was called Leucas in earlier times. The ancient sources call Leucas a Corinthian colony, perhaps with a Corcyraen participation. In medieval British legend, Brutus of Troy found Lefkada abandoned after pirate attacks, and after offering a sacrifice to a statue of Diana in the temple of a ruined city there, was granted a vision telling him to go to Britain and found an empire.
The ancient town was founded in the 7th century BC, somewhat to the south of the modern capital of the island. During the Peloponnesian War, Leucas joined the Peloponnesian League.
The town was conquered during the 3rd century by Agathocles of Syracuse.
Middle Ages
Byzantine period
No information survives on the island during the early Byzantine period, when the town possibly disappeared in the turmoils of the Migration Period. Nevertheless, unlike the Epirote mainland, where widespread Slavic settlement is attested from the late 6th until mid-8th centuries, only a handful of traces attest to a Slavic settlement in Lefkada.
Information continues to be sparse during the middle Byzantine period. The island is attested as a bishopric at the Fourth Council of Constantinople in 879, and was raised to archbishopric under Emperor Leo VI the Wise (). Administratively, it was likely part of the Theme of Cephallenia. Liutprand of Cremona visited the island during his 968 embassy to Constantinople, in 1099 it was raided by Dagobert of Pisa, it is mentioned in al-Idrisi's geography in the mid-12th century.
Epirote and Latin rule
The Republic of Venice was accorded privileges in the island in 1198, and possession of the island in the treaty of partition of the Byzantine Empire in 1204. In the event Lefkada apparently became part of the Despotate of Epirus, although this is not explicitly attested until 1259.
The name Santa Maura is first attested for the island and its capital in 1292, when Genoese ships in Byzantine employ raided it. In 1295, the Despot of Epirus Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas ceded the island to his son-in-law, the Count palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos John I Orsini. Orsini soon after received permission from Charles II of Naples to build a castle there, which became the core of the Castle of Santa Maura.
The Orsini family lost Lefkada in 1331 to Walter VI of Brienne, who in 1343 ceded the castrum Sancte Maure and the island to the Venetian Graziano Giorgio. In 1360/62, Leonardo I Tocco seized Lefkada, assuming the title of duke (dux Lucate), whence the island is sometimes also referred to as "the Duchy" (el Ducato and variants thereof) in Western sources of the period. The local Orthodox archbishop was evicted. After Albanian clans took over much of Epirus in the 1350s and 1360s, they launched frequent attacks on the island between 1375 and 1395. Carlo I Tocco () made the island the capital of his domains, which apart from the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos also included much of the Epirote mainland, and enlarged the fortified town.
In 1413, the Prince of Achaea, Centurione II Zaccaria, launched an attack on Lefkada and its castle with Albanian mercenaries, but it was defeated with help from the Republic of Venice. The Ottomans captured most of Epirus and raided the island, leading the Tocci to consider ceding it to the Venetians.
Faced with expanding Ottoman power in the mainland, the Tocci became vassals of the Ottoman sultans. The last of them, Leonardo III Tocco () was helped to maintain his rule through his marriage to Milica Branković, a niece of the highly esteemed step-mother of the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (), but when she died, he married the Aragonese Francesca Marzano. The couple quickly became hated by their Greek subjects due to their oppressive taxation. Lefkada, along with Cephalonia and Zakynthos, was captured by the Ottoman admiral Gedik Ahmed Pasha in 1479. Part of the population was deported to Constantinople, as part of Mehmed's
policy to repopulate his capital.
Ottoman period
The Ottomans called the island Levkada ( or ), with the name Aya Mavra (, from Greek , meaning "Santa Maura") reserved for the castle and capital of the island, where almost the entire population lived. Under Ottoman rule, it was initially a kaza of the sanjak of Karli-Eli, which from belonged to the Eyalet of the Archipelago, subordinated to the chief admiral of the Ottoman navy, the Kapudan Pasha. The kaza of Lefkada comprised not only the island, but also part of the adjoining mainland. The Venetians briefly occupied the island in 1502–03, during the Second Ottoman–Venetian War, but returned it to the Ottomans in the final peace settlement. With about a thousand inhabitants in , the town of Lefkada was both the largest settlement as well as the main military installation in the sanjak, with 111 soldiers and 9 artillerymen. As with the rest of the sanjak, at the time the entire population appears to have been Christian, and only the fortress garrisons and administrators were Muslim; thus the only mosques were located inside the fortresses.
A lack of water led to the construction of a long aqueduct from the island's interior to the town in 1564, during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (). Bringing water to the walled town as well as to the much larger—some 700–800 houses—open town that had grown around it, this was of the most important works of Ottoman civil architecture in the western Balkans. On top of the aqueduct was a footpath that was the only access to the island, other than by the sea. In the aftermath of the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Lepanto, the castle was unsuccessfully besieged by the forces of the Holy League. As a result, it was completely rebuilt and enlarged by the Kapudan Pasha Kılıç Ali Pasha in 1572–1574 into a hexagonal fortress with large towers as artillery platforms.
In the 17th century, Lefkada became a separate sanjak within the Eyalet of the Archipelago, although according to Evliya Çelebi it belonged briefly to the Morea Eyalet in the 15th and 17th centuries. Evliya visited the island in 1670/71, and left a long and accurate description of the fortifications, but also of the town, where Islam had apparently made considerable progress. According to Evliya, the walled town boasted five Friday mosques, including an Imperial Mosque (Hünkar Camii), which was a converted church, a minor mosque (masjid), a madrasa, two schools (maktab), a bath (hammam), and five public fountains (çeshme). The walled town with its 200 stone houses was now occupied exclusively by Muslims, while the two suburbs (varosh) to the east and west were built of wood and had a mixed population. The western one was far larger, with 300 houses to 40–50 in the eastern one, and had a wooden mosque and masjid, a tekke, a maktab, two caravanserais, as well as seven small churches. Evliya remarks that this suburb had many wineshops, which were popular with both the inhabitants and the garrison. Another suburb (the Varosh-i Lefqada) was located on the island itself, with some 700 houses, all of them inhabited by Christian Greeks, who had 20 churches. Evliya's account is corroborated by Jacob Spon and George Wheler's account that the town had about 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants, mostly Greeks or Turks.
According to the descriptions of travellers like Evliya, Lefkada was an urban centre of some importance, boasting "two of the largest works of Ottoman civil and military architecture in the Western Balkans", namely the aqueduct built by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent () and the Castle of Santa Maura, which was completely rebuilt by Kılıç Ali Pasha in the reign of Sultan Selim II ().
Venetian period
The island was conquered by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini following a sixteen-day siege in 1684, during the opening stages of the Morean War. Morosini evacuated the walled town and demolished both it and the two suburbs directly outside the walls, turning them into the castle's glacis. Only the island suburb remained, known as "Amaxiki" until the 19th century. With the evicted inhabitants settling there, this became the main town of the island, the predecessor of the modern city of Lefkada. The Venetians also removed all buildings associated with Islam.
The Venetians modernized the castle in the 1710s, removing the last traces of the medieval castle and adding outworks towards the eastern, mainland side. During the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War, following the Ottoman reconquest of the Morea in 1715, the Venetians initially abandoned Lefkada to focus their resources on the defence of Corfu. The castle was abandoned and partly demolished, but after the Siege of Corfu ended in a Venetian victory, the island was reoccupied and the fortifications restored.
Venetian rule over the island was uninterrupted, apart from a rebellion of the local Greeks in 1769, until the Fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797.
Post-Venetian period until the union with Greece
Following the end of the Republic of Venice in 1797, Lefkada, like the other Venetian Ionian Islands, was occupied by the French, who held it until a Russo-Turkish expedition under Fyodor Ushakov captured it in 1799. In 1800, the Septinsular Republic was established, a Russian protectorate under de jure Ottoman suzerainty. The Russian Empire employed troops recruited from fugitive klephts and armatoloi in the Ionian Islands, particularly of Lefkada. Among these were captains Anastasios Tselios and Apostolos Levendakis, the latter who already in 1802 offered to raise a company of 60 fighters on Lefkada to support the Russians. Ali Pasha of Ioannina, who coveted possession of the Ionian Islands, besieged Lefkada in 1807. For this purpose he erected two forts on the mainland shore, the Tekke Castle and the St. George's Castle, but his attacks on the Castle of Santa Maura were successfully repulsed the local Russian and Greek forces of the Septinsular Republic. French rule was restored in 1807, after the Treaty of Tilsit, but in 1810, the British captured the island. In 1815, the United Kingdom set up the United States of the Ionian Islands as a protectorate, including Lefkada.
Much of the town, including the Ottoman aqueduct, was destroyed in an earthquake in 1825. After this, the town was rebuilt in wood to prevent similar damage. In 1864 the islands were ceded to Greece. The island then numbered about 24,000 inhabitants.
Lafcadio Hearn Historical Center
The first museum in Europe for Lafcadio Hearn, who was born on the island and is named after it, was inaugurated in Lefkada on July 4, 2014, as Lafcadio Hearn Historical Center. It contains early editions, rare books and Japanese collectibles. The visitors, through photos, texts and exhibits, can wander in the significant events of Lafcadio Hearn's life, but also in the civilizations of Europe, America and Japan of late 18th and early 19th centuries through the open mind of his lectures, writings and tales. The municipalities of Kumamoto, Matsue, Shinjuku, Yaizu, Toyama University, Koizumi family and other people from Japan and Greece contributed to the establishment of Lafcadio Hearn Historical Center.
Municipality
The present municipality Lefkada was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 7 former municipalities, that became municipal units:
Apollonioi
Ellomenos
Kalamos
Karya
Kastos
Lefkada (city)
Sfakiotes
The municipality covers the island Lefkada and the smaller islands Kastos and Kalamos.
Education
Regional Development department, part of Ionian university based in Lefkada.
Transport
Greek National Road 42
Aktion (Preveza) Airport
Notable people
(in chronological order)
Marcos Christino Fioravanti (1775–1862), co-founder of Santo Antônio da Patrulha in Brazil
Frederick Temple (1821–1902), Archbishop of Canterbury
Aristotelis Valaoritis (1824–1879), poet and politician
Lafcadio Hearn (1850–1904), Greco-Irish orientalist and writer, named after the island
Petros Soumilas (1861–1955), Greek Army officer who reached the rank of lieutenant general.
Dimitrios Golemis (1874–1941), athlete
Grigorios Karydis (1912–1968), musician, opera composer and professor of philharmonic orchestra
Aggelos Sikelianos (1884–1951), poet and playwright
Tzavalas Karousos or Karoussos (1904–1969), actor
Aristotle Onassis, (1906–1975), Greek shipping tycoon
Panos Rontoyannis (1911–1996), philologist and historian
Theodoros Stamos (1922–1997), Greek-American painter
Apostolos Kaklamanis (1936-), politician
Evaggelos Vlassopoulos (1935–2002), politician
George Ktenas (1938-2004), politician
Gerasimos Caclamanes (1940-2003) mathematician and author
Agnes Baltsa (1944-), opera singer
Spyros Vrettos (1960-), poet
John Zavitsanos (1962-), American trial lawyer
Spiros Marangos (1967-), footballer
Marina Lambrini Diamandis (1985-), singer and songwriter
Gallery
See also
Egremni
Notes
Sources
External links
[http://www.lefkadaofficial.com
Official Travel Guide to Lefkada]
[http://www.lefkadaofficial.com/enjoy-the-island/ Lefkada Official App
Lefkada Prefecture
Travel Guide to Lefkada
The official page of Greek National Tourism Organization
Map of Homer's Ithaka (Lefkada), Same and Asteris according to Wilhelm Dörpfeld. Digital library of Heidelberg University.
Photo of Dörpfeld's excavation site at Lefkada near Nydri, early in the 20th century. Digital library of Heidelberg University.
Lafcadio Hearn Historical Center
Lefkadian Traditional Winery
Islands of the Ionian Islands (region)
Islands of Greece
Municipalities of the Ionian Islands (region)
Corinthian colonies
Septinsular Republic
Landforms of Lefkada (regional unit)
United States of the Ionian Islands
Populated places in Lefkada (regional unit) | [
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] |
239168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upton%2C%20Bexley | Upton, Bexley | Upton was a hamlet in the southwest of today's Bexleyheath in the London Borough of Bexley. It is, for few purposes today, in the historic county of Kent.
Originally, it was on fertile, south- and west-facing slopes, below the main heathland/pasture of the parish of Bexley. As the town known as Bexleyheath arose during the late 19th century and in early half of the next century, Upton became absorbed into it.
In 1860, Red House, the elegant brick and tile home designed by Philip Webb for William Morris, was built on the heath in Upton. Red House is now preserved by the National Trust.
From 1887 to 1978, it was heavily associated with a hospital on Upton Road. The building was still there in 2019.
Gallery
References and footnotes
Districts of the London Borough of Bexley
Areas of London | [
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239171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20Cuba | Provinces of Cuba | Administratively, Cuba is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (the Isla de la Juventud). The last modification was approved in August 2010 (by the Cuban National Assembly), splitting Havana province into two new provinces: Artemisa (which incorporates the three eastern municipalities of the neighbour Pinar del Río) and Mayabeque. The new provinces started functioning from January 1, 2011. Havana City Province (Ciudad de La Habana) recovered its original name: La Habana (Havana in English).
List of provinces
From west to east, Cuba's provinces are:
Pinar del Río
Artemisa
La Habana
Mayabeque
Matanzas
Cienfuegos
Villa Clara
Sancti Spíritus
Ciego de Ávila
Camagüey
Las Tunas
Granma
Holguín
Santiago de Cuba
Guantánamo
Isla de la Juventud ("special municipality")
History
The provinces were created in 1879 by the Spanish colonial government. From 1879 to 1976, Cuba was divided into 6 provinces, which maintained with little changes the same boundaries and capital cities, although with modifications in official names. These "historical" provinces are the following (from west to east):
Pinar del Río
La Habana, included the city of Havana, current Mayabeque, some municipalities of current Artemisa Province (prior to 1970: 5 municipalities; from 1970 to 2011, 8 municipalities, including Artemisa city itself). Isla de Pinos ("Isle of Pines"), known as Isla de la Juventud ("Island of Youth") since the 1970s, was considered a "special municipality" in the Province of La Habana.
Matanzas
Las Villas (before 1940 named "Santa Clara"), contained the present-day provinces of Cienfuegos, Villa Clara, Sancti Spíritus, and Southern Matanzas Province.
Camagüey (before 1899 named "Puerto Príncipe"), contained the present-day provinces of Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila, as well as two municipalities of current Las Tunas Province (prior to 1970).
Oriente (before 1905 named "Santiago de Cuba"), contained the present-day provinces of Las Tunas, Granma, Holguín, Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo
Demographics
Pop. = Population. Source: Cuba census 2002
Presidents of the People's Power Provincial Councils
The following are the presidents of the Provincial People's Councils in each province in the country (local governments).
The Provincial People's Councils replaced the Provincial Assemblies in the 2019 Constitution and are made up of provincial representatives elected by the municipal assemblies or councils.
See also
Politics of Cuba
Demographics of Cuba
List of places in Cuba
Municipalities of Cuba
List of Caribbean First-level Subdivisions by Total Area
ISO 3166-2:CU
References
External links
Cuba at GeoHive
Subdivisions of Cuba
Cuba, Provinces
Cuba 1
Provinces, Cuba
Cuba geography-related lists | [
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239179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manor%2C%20Georgia | Manor, Georgia | Manor (pronounced with a long "a") is an unincorporated community in Ware County, Georgia, United States. It lies southwest of Waycross on U.S. Route 84. The community is part of the Waycross Micropolitan Statistical Area.
It is the former home of Ware Magnet, a Georgia School of Success. After a majority vote by school board members, the K-12 school was closed in May 2010 due to financial issues, despite its academic excellence.
Geography
Manor is located at .
References
Unincorporated communities in Georgia (U.S. state)
Unincorporated communities in Ware County, Georgia
Waycross, Georgia micropolitan area | [
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239182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirion | Sirion | Sirion could refer to:
Another name for Mount Hermon
Daihatsu Sirion, a car made by Daihatsu
River Sirion in the stories of J. R. R. Tolkien | [
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239183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20place%20names%20with%20royal%20patronage%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | List of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom | The following list of place names with royal patronage in the United Kingdom includes both those granted a royal title or status by express wish of a specific monarch, and those with prefixes or suffixes such as "King's" or "Regis" that relate to historic ownership of the area by the Crown.
England
Royal
The following places have been explicitly granted or confirmed the use of the title "royal" by royal charter, letters patent or similar instrument issued by the monarch. Since 1926 the entitlement to the title "royal borough" has been strictly enforced. Devizes in Wiltshire, which had previously used the title without authorisation, was forced to end the practice.
Former
Royal Liberty of Havering – abolished in 1892.
Regis
Regis, Latin for "of the king", occurs in numerous placenames. This usually recalls the historical ownership of lands or manors by the Crown. The "Regis" form was often used in the past as an alternative form to "King's", for instance at King's Bromley and King's Lynn.
Examples include Houghton Regis in Bedfordshire, Salcombe Regis in Devon, Bere Regis, Melcombe Regis and Lyme Regis in Dorset, Milton Regis in Kent, Beeston Regis in Norfolk, Grafton Regis in Northamptonshire, Brompton Regis in Somerset, Newton Regis in Warwickshire and Rowley Regis in the West Midlands.
There is one modern example of the granting of the suffix "regis". In 1929, George V, having spent several months recuperating from a serious illness in the seaside resort of Bognor, West Sussex, allowed it to be renamed as "Bognor Regis".
King's
Kingham
Kingsbury
Kingsclere
King's Cliffe
King's Cross
King's Heath
Kingskerswell
Kings Langley
King's Lynn
King's Norton
King's Sutton
Kings Tamerton
Kings Worthy
Kingstanding
Kingsteignton
Kingston by Ferring
Kingston upon Hull
Kingston upon Thames
Kingswear
Kingswinford
Kingswood, Surrey
Winterborne Kingston
Somerset
Kingsbridge
Kingsbury Episcopi
Kingsdon
Kingston Bridge
Kingston Seymour
Kingston St Mary
Kingstone
Kingweston
Kingswood
Queen's
Queen Adelaide, Cambridgeshire
Queenborough, Isle of Sheppey, Kent
Queen Camel
Queen Charlton
Queen's Park, London
Queensbury
Quendon
Prince's
Princes Risborough
Princetown
Scotland
King and Rìgh
Various places called Kingshouse
Kingdom of Fife
Dalrigh and possibly some of the places called Dalry
Portree (disputed)
Kingsburgh, Skye is a corruption of Cinnseaborgh, which is in turn a corruption of a Norse name.
In many places "Kin(g)" is a suffix meaning "head", an anglicisation of Ceann: Kinghorn and Kingussie, for example, are nothing to do with royal patronage.
Regis
Cramond, formerly referred to as Cramond Regis.
Queen
North and South Queensferry
Queen's Park, Edinburgh
Royal
"Royal" Deeside – location of Balmoral Castle
Former royal burghs
In Scotland a royal burgh was a burgh or incorporated town founded by, or subsequently granted, a royal charter. By 1707, when the Act of Union with England and Wales came into effect, there were 70 royal burghs. None were created after 1707, and they were formally abolished in 1975. Notwithstanding their abolition, the term is still used in many of the former burghs.
Wales
Royal
Royal Town of Caernarfon. The status of royal borough was granted to then municipal borough of Caernarvon in August 1963. The borough was abolished in 1974 and replaced by the community of Caernarfon, to which the status of royal town was granted. Caernarfon was the site of the investiture of Charles, Prince of Wales.
Northern Ireland
Royal
Royal Hillsborough, County Down: On 1 June 2021 Brandon Lewis, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, announced that the prefix "Royal" would be granted to the exurban village. The local Lisburn and Castlereagh District Council had requested this in recognition of Hillsborough Castle, the official royal residence for Northern Ireland, as well as to mark the centenary of the creation of Northern Ireland. Letters patent are to be issued later in the year to effect this. (Hillsborough borough, created in 1662, was abolished in 1840.)
See also
Borough status in the United Kingdom
Burgh
City status in the United Kingdom
References
Place names with royal patronage, List of UK
Place names with royal patronage
English royalty
Place names with royal patronage
UK place names with royal patronage
Royal patronage
Places
Place names with royal patronage
Scottish royalty
Place names with royal patronage
Place names with royal patronage, List of UK | [
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239187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Washington%20%28state%29 | Music of Washington (state) | The U.S. state of Washington has been home to many popular musicians and several major hotbeds of musical innovation throughout its history. The largest city in the state, Seattle, is best known for being the birthplace of grunge, a type of rock and roll, during the Early-1990s, as well as a major contributor to the evolution of punk rock, indie music, folk, and hip-hop. Nearby Tacoma and Olympia have also been centers of influence on popular music.
Several world-famous musicians have hailed from Washington. Bing Crosby, who was born in Tacoma in 1903 and raised in Spokane, had a number one hit in the U.S. in 1942 with "White Christmas". Jimi Hendrix, one of classic rock's most enduring guitar legends, was born in Seattle and buried in Renton; and folk rock singer/songwriter Kenny Loggins, who had a #1 Hot 100 hit in 1984 with "Footloose", is from Everett. Saxophonist Kenny G is from Seattle and attended the University of Washington.
Garage rock
In the mid-1950s, the Washington rock scene was kick-started by a Seattle group, The Frantics, led by guitarist Ron Peterson. The Frantics were the first rock group from Seattle to have songs in the national Top 40 charts. Later, several garage bands achieved regional and some national fame. Perhaps the most famous of these are The Wailers, whose regional fame was paramount for several years in the early 1960s. They are often considered the fathers of Seattle's rock scene. Their version of Richard Berry's "Louie, Louie" became the region's unofficial anthem.
An influential garage rock band called The Regents became local icons in the Tacoma area, but the original incarnation never signed to a record label. They are known for pioneering a distinct sound technology when they fed the rhythm guitar through a Leslie organ speaker during a concert at the University of Puget Sound; this gave them their original sound.
Another Tacoma band, The Sonics, also proved to be influential, and are still a cult favorite. Their name was inspired by one of Seattle's most important employers, Boeing, an aircraft manufacturer, and The Sonics' brand of aggressive guitar rock made them icons in the later development of music in and around Seattle.
Record producer Jerry Dennon of Jerdon Records was responsible for bringing The Kingsmen (of Portland, Oregon), best known for their national hit "Louie Louie", to the ears of northwest audiences. The Kingsmen soon found themselves embroiled in a rivalry with local favorite Paul Revere & the Raiders, who also released a version of "Louie, Louie". Local music fans were split between the two groups, and the city's music scene polarized as a result. The Kingsmen's version eventually caught on nationally after a Boston radio station picked up the song and Dennon negotiated distributing rights with Wand Records out of New York City. The song's supposedly suggestive lyrics led to it being banned in some localities, including Indiana.
Sisters Ann and Nancy Wilson found commercial success with hard rock group Heart in the 1970s. The band eventually scored two #1 Hot 100 hits, including "These Dreams" in 1986.
Heavy metal
Mondo Bando may be the earliest documented all out original Heavy Metal band in the Seattle area dating to early 1976 to 1977, Live Radio broadcast early 1976:, Rock Scene Magazine 1/77 Page 53: Members were: Electra Blue, Vocals; Mark Maye, Guitar; Carl Joseph Seltice, Bass Guitar; and Gary Herrman, Drums. Disco Music was certainly the music of choice at that time and Punk was on the rise in Seattle so Mondo Bando was in the musical wilderness but played around 25 shows during 1976-1977. Mark Maye, Joe Seltice and the original singer Warren Ferger migrated to Seattle in 1975 from Spokane, Washington and reformed Mondo Bando with Brad Butler on Drums and played High School Dances, self promoted shows and some parties playing very hard rock. Warren Ferger left the band very early and Roger Williams joined as lead vocalist. Mondo Bando disbanded in December 1975 and then reformed again in January 1976 when they added Electra Blue and Gary Herrman to their lineup. The newly revived band then began writing their own music and went extra hard in their delivery. "We didn't call ourselves Heavy Metal, it was what people were calling us". The band once again disbanded in 1977 and it was permanent. Mondo Bando has also made the Ranker list of most famous Seattle musical acts at the 111 spot. Electra Blue moved on to the Seattle Punk Scene and performed with Violent World for a while before relocating to San Francisco. In 1991 Mark Maye played guitar for the Spokane, Washington Christian Heavy Metal band Amethyst (band). With lead singer and founder Mark Fekete on lead vocals, Gary Rose on bass, and Charles Heinzerling on drums. Mark Fekete and Gary Rose started Amethyst (band) in Spokane, Washington in 1985, and are still recording new material to this very day. Their style and sound are similar to the styles of bands like Iron Maiden, Metal Church, Metallica, and Dokken.
Notable heavy metal bands that emerged in the Seattle area in the 1980s include Metal Church, Queensrÿche, The Mentors, TKO, Prowler, Q5, Forced Entry, Sanctuary, Culprit, Bloodgood, Myth, Heir Apparent, and Fifth Angel. Metal Church had initially acquired its name while Kurdt Vanderhoof started in the San Francisco scene, but moved back home to Seattle and changed the members of the band, and was one of the most well-known metal bands from the 1980s thanks to albums like Metal Church (1984), The Dark (1986), Blessing in Disguise (1989) and The Human Factor (1991); they resurfaced in 2004 with The Weight of the World. Queensrÿche is better known for falling somewhere between the heavy metal and glam metal scene, with strong influence from progressive rock, which can be seen in their albums Operation: Mindcrime (1987) and Empire (1991). Going to the mid-end of the '80s, Seattle featured successful thrash metal bands, such as The Accüsed (a crossover thrash band), Assault & Battery, Bitter End, Coven, Forced Entry, Terrorist, NME and R.I.P.
Also of particular note are Seattle's Slaughter Haus 5, Tacoma bands Sword of Judgement, Hammer Head, Kil-D-Kor, Koz of Konfuzion, Diamond Lie (featuring Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains), as well as Olympia bands Cyperus and Death Squad. Two West Seattle metal bands from the 1980s were Sanctuary and Rottweiller. Sanctuary, after two albums and some years revamping, reformed with two original members (bass and vocals) and a former short-term replacement guitarist (along with some new members) and became known as Nevermore. Rottweiller was an up-and-coming band which had a multi-album contract fall through prior to signing. The lead singer then joined Iron Cross, which had a local following. Heir Apparent came out of North Seattle in the mid-1980's, signed to the independent label Black Dragon Records of Paris, France in 1985, and released what remains the highest-rated album in the 40-year history of Germany's ROCK HARD magazine in January 1986. Heir Apparent performed with Sanctuary in 2012 at the Metal Assault Festival in Wurzburg, Germany. In 2019 at the Headbangers Open Air Festival in Germany, Queensrÿche, Sanctuary, and Heir Apparent each headlined an evening of the 3-day event.
More recent underground metal bands include Himsa, Harder You Fall, Aemaeth, Blood & Thunder, Beyond Mortis, Sword of Judgement, Midnight Idols, Fallen Angels, DEATHBEAT, H.M.P, Big Business, Drown Mary, Evilsmith, Vigilance, Skelator, Ceremonial Castings, Inquisition, Hoth, Torture Box, Infester, Dead Soul Funeral, Inquinok, Pure Hatred, Riot in Rhythm, Tasty Lixxx, Deathmocracy, Blood of Kings, Wolves in the Throne Room, Countless The Dead, Esoteria, Twisted Heroes, Ashes Of Existence, Transcribing The Necronomicon, Among The Mayans, Massacre At The Opera, Bleed The Stone, Casualty Of God, Mechanism, I Am Infamy, Devilation, Beyond Theory, Eternal Sedation, Hedon, The Vatican, Violent Hallucinations, Children of Seraph, Future Disorder, Edge of Oblivion, Last Bastion, Phalgeron, Bell Witch, and Bacon Grenade (Bacon Grenade Official).
Punk rock
Seattle's punk rock scene was always limited, but is important for its influence on the development of grunge as a distinct genre. In the 1970s, Ze Whiz Kidz made a unique and bizarre variety of confrontational music and helped launch a hardcore punk scene that included ZEKE, The Mentors, RPA, The Rejectors, The Lewd, Violent World w/ Electra Blue The Refuzors, Crunchbird, Pod Six, The Enemy and, most influentially, Solger and The Fartz, as well as new wave bands like The Heats, The Cowboys, The Meyce, The Telepaths, Visible Targets, Chinas Comidas, X-15 (band) and UC5. Hardcore skinhead bands like Extreme Hate, The Boot Boys and Firing Squad also gained a following. Green River, a punk rock band that splintered into Mudhoney and Mother Love Bone, was one of the first grunge bands. Also drawing on the punk rock scene were Melvins, Soundgarden, Nirvana, Fitz of Depression of Olympia and Vitimin C of Centralia. Musician Duff McKagan made his entry into the global rock scene in the punk rock scene of his hometown of Seattle. On the other side of the state, Spokane also contained an insular but vibrant punk and new wave scene in the 1980s, as chronicled in the documentary film SpokAnarchy!
In the early 2000s, Washington proved to be the breeding ground of a prominent experimental punk rock scene, with bands such as Botch, Pretty Girls Make Graves, These Arms Are Snakes, The Fall of Troy, Jaguar Love, and The Blood Brothers achieving dedicated cult followings.
Grunge
Grunge began as a mixture of heavy metal, punk rock and indie rock in the 1980s and gained mainstream prominence in the early 1990s. The earliest bands included Green River, Skin Yard, Screaming Trees ("Nearly Lost You"), and Soundgarden, among others, with most signed to legendary indie rock label Sub Pop. By the late 1980s, several future stars had begun performing, including Nirvana, Alice in Chains, and Mudhoney, while the death of Andrew Wood (d.1990, buried in Bremerton, WA) of Mother Love Bone led to that band's disintegration and subsequent reformation as Pearl Jam. In 1991 (see 1991 in music), Nirvana's Nevermind, along with Soundgarden's Badmotorfinger, Pearl Jam's Ten and Alice in Chains' Dirt, quickly brought the grunge scene to international attention and its music to the top of the national charts, where it stayed for many years and influenced a number of popular spin-off acts and subgenres across the world. Pearl Jam has recorded five #1 albums featured on the Billboard Top 200 between 1993 and 2013, including Vs. (1993), and also had a #2 Hot 100 hit with their cover of "Last Kiss" in 1999. Nirvana (Kurt Cobain died in 1994) had four #1 albums, Alice in Chains (Layne Staley died in 2002) had two, including Jar of Flies (1994), and Soundgarden (Chris Cornell died in 2017. Guitarist Kim Thayil graduated from the University of Washington in Seattle) had one, Superunknown (1994). Later successful grunge acts include Foo Fighters, which had a #1 album with Wasting Light (2011). Seattle is also home to newer alt-grunge-rock acts such as SixTwoSeven.
Riot grrrl
Riot grrrl is a form of punk rock which arose in Olympia in the 1990s and was led by all-female acts like Bikini Kill, known for their militant feminism and raw, uncompromising sound. The genre never achieved mainstream success due to their mission of creating an on-going media blackout along with their harsh criticism of society and grating musical tone and eventually died out, though stalwarts Sleater-Kinney did stick together and found themselves approaching mainstream audiences after the turn of the millennium. The movement did still spew a fairly long list of local bands, concentrated in the Olympia area such as Bratmobile, Heavens to Betsy, and Excuse-17, among others.
A new wave of the riot grrl movement began around 2010 with bands like NighTrain, The Gossip, The Black Tones and Thee Emergency, which feature soulful vocals, heavy drums, a driving, intense rhythm and blistering guitar. This revitalization of interest in the AfroPunk and girl group-inspired soul music was received well outside American borders, leading to the departure of some of these groups to European countries.
Twee pop
In the late 1980s, a form of alternative rock called twee pop was popular in the United Kingdom. A small cult following around bands like The Orchids and Heavenly formed in the U.S., centered on Olympia's K Records and the band Beat Happening.
Hip-hop
Arguably the most famous hip-hop star to come out of the state of Washington has been Sir Mix-a-Lot, best known for his songs "Posse On Broadway" and "Baby Got Back", an early nineties novelty hit. Also prominent in the Seattle rap scene at this time was Kid Sensation (Steve Spence), who got his start on Sir Mix-a-Lot's first album, Swass (1988). Later regional acts include Source of Labor, Oldominion and Blue Scholars. Underground hip-hop acts the Boom Bap Project, Thirstin Howl III, and Seaclipse also hail from Seattle. The Guinness World Records holder for Fastest Rap MC is the Seattle-based No Clue (Ricky Brown), breaking the record previously held by Chicago rapper Rebel XD. Brown rapped 723 syllables in 51.27 seconds on his track "No Clue" at B&G Studios, Seattle, on January 15, 2005. More recently, local indie rapper/DJ duo Macklemore and Ryan Lewis have achieved worldwide fame with The Heist (2012), scoring two #1 Hot 100 hits with "Thrift Shop" and "Can't Hold Us" in 2013. Also, teenage Rapper Lil Mosey has grown in popularity since his song "Pull Up," but most notably "Noticed" in 2018, and "Blueberry Faygo" in 2020.
Origins of notable artists
Aberdeen
Metal Church (originally from San Francisco, California)
Nirvana
Anacortes
Karl Blau
The Microphones
Mount Eerie
The Lonely Forest
Bellevue
Fifth Angel
Murder City Devils
Queensrÿche
Rail
OVERPAY (producer)
Bellingham
Death Cab for Cutie
Federation X
ODESZA
The Posies
X-15
Bothell
Bremerton
Kane Hodder
MxPx
Sango
Ellensburg
Screaming Trees
Everett
Kenny Loggins
The Moondoggies
Federal Way
Amber Pacific
Mondo Bando
Issaquah
Modest Mouse
Kelso
Rock n Roll Worship Circus
Montesano
Melvins
Mountlake Terrace
Lil Mosey
Mukilteo
The Fall of Troy
Olympia
Beat Happening
Bikini Kill
Earth
Fitz of Depression
LAKE
Old Time Relijun
RVIVR
Sleater-Kinney
The Fleetwoods
WINEHOUSE
Wolves in the Throne Room
Ravensdale
Brandi Carlile
Redmond
The Blood Brothers
Seattle
The Accüsed
Aiden
Alice in Chains
Allen Stone
Assemblage 23
Band of Horses
Barcelona
Bell Witch
Blenderhead
Blue Scholars
Patti Bown
Brite Futures
The Brothers Four
Burn Burn Burn
Candlebox
Circus of the Stars
The Classic Crime
Coffin Break
The Fartz
Fastbacks
Fleet Foxes
Foo Fighters
The Gits (originally from Yellow Springs, Ohio)
Grand Archives
Grieves
Hammerbox
Harvey Danger
The Head and the Heart
Heart
Heir Apparent
Jimi Hendrix
Hey Marseilles
Himsa
The Long Winters
Love Battery
Macklemore
Mad Season
The Mentors
Minus the Bear
Mother Love Bone
Mudhoney
Nevermore
No Clue (Ricky Brown)
Pearl Jam
Pedro the Lion
Pickwick
The Presidents of the United States of America
Quincy Jones
Sanctuary
7 Year Bitch
Shabazz Palaces
Sir Mix-a-Lot
Skerik
Skin Yard
Sky Cries Mary
Solger
Soundgarden
Source of Labor
Sunn O)))
Sunny Day Real Estate
Sweet Water
Tad
Temple of the Dog
These Arms are Snakes
Jennifer Thomas (pianist)
United State of Electronica
The Young Fresh Fellows
Spokane
Bing Crosby
The Makers
Enterprise Earth
Myles Kennedy
Tacoma
Botch
Girl Trouble
Junkyard Jane
Neko Case
He is We
The Sonics
The Ventures
The Wailers
Tumwater
Karp (band)
Unwound
See also
Hip-hop music in the Pacific Northwest
Indigenous music of North America#Northwest Coast
Museum of Pop Culture
Music of Seattle
List of songs about Seattle
References
Blush, Steven (2001). American Hardcore: A Tribal History. Los Angeles, CA: Feral House. .
Bush, James. "Encyclopedia of Northwest Music: From Classical Recordings to Classic Rock Performances, Your Guide to the Best of the Region". Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1999. 340p.
Washington
Washington (state) culture | [
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239192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribhuvan%20of%20Nepal | Tribhuvan of Nepal | Tribhuwan Bir Bikram Shah (; 30 June 1906 – 13 March 1955) was King of Nepal from 11 December 1911 until his death. Born in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, he ascended to the throne at the age of five, upon the death of his father, Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, and was crowned on 20 February 1913 at the Nasal Chowk, Hanuman Dhoka Palace in Kathmandu, with his mother acting as regent. At the time of his crowning, the position of monarch was largely ceremonial, with the real governing power residing with the Rana family.
Family
Tribhuvan was born on 30 June 1906 to Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah and Divyeshwari Lakshmi Devi Shah. After the death of his father, Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah ascended the throne on 11 December 1911, at the age of five. Queen Mother Divyeshwari Lakshmi Devi was appointed the regent until Tribhuvan would come to his age.
He married at age 12 in a double ceremony. He married first at the Narayanhity Royal Palace, Kathmandu, March 1919 to Kanti. The same day he also married her full sister Ishwari. He also had junior wives.
His first child and successor to the throne, Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, was born when both Tribhuvan and his wife, Queen Kanti Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah, were just 13 years old, on 11 June 1920.
Later life
Tensions between the royal family and the Ranas began during World War I. The Ranas wanted to join the war in support of Britain. The Shahs were reluctant. The then prime minister, Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, pressured the young king, who eventually ordered the troops to go to war.
By the mid-1930s, popular discontent with the Ranas led to the establishment of several movements, notably the Nepal Praja Parishad, to which Tribhuvan himself gave his explicit support, to overthrow the Ranas. In each instance, however, the Ranas responded harshly, banning the liberal movements and executing their leaders. Tribhuvan worked closely with the Praja Parishad to abolish the Rana regime.
In November 1950, King Tribhuvan took refuge at the Indian Embassy. He was accompanied by his son Mahendra and the eldest grandson Birendra, among others. The then prime minister, Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana became furious and responded to Tribhuvan's move by calling an emergency meeting of the cabinet on 7 November 1950 at Singha Durbar. In that meeting he announced Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah, the four-year-old grandson of Tribhuvan, the new King of Nepal. On 10 November, two Indian planes landed at Gauchar Airport (now called Tribhuvan International Airport) and the royal family fled to New Delhi excluding the infant King, Gyanendra. Tribhuvan was formally welcomed by the Indian prime minister Jawahar Lal Nehru and other high officials.
The removal of the king led to huge demonstrations in the country that compelled the Rana prime minister, Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana to negotiate with Tribhuvan and the Nepali Congress. On 22 November 1950, Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, officially announced that India was not going to recognize Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah as the legitimate King of Nepal.
When Mohan Shumsher saw that the situation was out of his control, he sent the king's brother-in-law, Sir Kaiser Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Bijaya Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana to New Delhi for peace talks. In New Delhi, King Tribhuvan, representatives of Nepali Congress and of the Rana Government all sat together to discuss the situation. At last an agreement was reached according in which King Tribhuvan was to form a new ministry, under his leadership, consisting of the Nepali Congress and the Ranas on an equal basis.
Tribhuvan then flew back to Nepal, along with the members of the Royal family and the leaders of the Congress Party on 15 February 1951. On 18 February 1951, Tribhuvan returned from India as the monarch. Three days after the return, Tribhuvan formally declared an end to Rana's family rule and established a democratic system, but Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana continued as the prime minister for a few more months.
Congress Rana Government
According to the New Delhi Agreement, Tribhuvan announced on 13 February 1951, a cabinet headed by Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana. The following were the members of the Cabinet.
From the Rana clan:
Sir Mohan Shamsher – Prime minister and Foreign Affairs.
Sir Baber Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana- (younger brother of Mohan Shamsher; was in line for the next premiership) – Defence.
Chudraj Shamsher – ("B" class Rana representative) – Forests.
Nripa Janga Rana – ("C" class Rana representative) – Education.
Yagya Bahadur Basnyat – (Rana Bhardar) – Health and Local self-government.
From the Nepali Congress side:
Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala – Home.
Subarna Shamsher Rana- (even though a Rana, he represented the Nepali Congress) – Finance.
Ganesh Man Singh – Commerce and Industry
Bharatmani Sharma – Food and Agriculture
Bhadrakali Mishra – Transport.
This cabinet was reshuffled on 10 June 1951 to replace Baber Shamsher by Shangha Shamsher and Bharatmani Sharma by Surya Prasad Upadhyaya. This cabinet was dissolved in November 1951 and MP Koirala became the new Prime Minister.
Death
Tribhuvan died in 1955 in Zürich, Switzerland. He was succeeded by his eldest legitimate son, Mahendra.
Condolence message by Indian Parliament
So, on the passing of His Majesty King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah, the late King, I am sure this House would like to express its sorrow and would like it to be conveyed to his family. Also, at the same time, I am sure this House would like to send its greetings to the new King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah and wish him all success in the difficult responsibilities and burdens that have come to him. Above all, we would send our good wishes to the people of Nepal in the great adventures in building up their country on a democratic and prosperous basis that they are indulging in. Thereafter. M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar. the Speaker observed: On behalf of the House, I associate myself with what the Honorable Leader of the House has said. We certainly send our greetings and all best wishes for the new King and for the people of Nepal. As a mark of respect and our sense of sorrow at the demise of the late King, the House will stand in silence for a minute.The international airport in Kathmandu, Tribhuvan International Airport, the oldest highway in Nepal Tribhuvan Highway, the 2nd oldest association football tournament in Nepal, Tribhuvan Challenge Shield, a city, Tribhuvannagar in Dang valley, and the country's largest university (Tribhuvan University) are named after him.
Honours
National
Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
Foreign
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Supreme Sun, 1 March 1950
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Italian Republic, 16 October 1954
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 1954
Ancestry
He is a descendant of popular personalities such as Maharaja Jang Bahadur Kunwar Ranaji, Kaji Tularam Pande, Sardar Ramakrishna Kunwar and Kaji General Amar Singh Thapa.
References
|-
Nepalese monarchs
Field marshals
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
World War II political leaders
Child rulers from Asia
1906 births
1955 deaths
National heroes of Nepal
Nepalese Hindus
Kingdom of Nepal
Shah dynasty
Hindu monarchs | [
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239193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordes%20of%20the%20Things | Hordes of the Things | Hordes of the Things may refer to:
Hordes of the Things (radio series), a BBC radio parody of The Lord of the Rings
Hordes of the Things (game), a miniature wargame | [
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239195 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzak | Muzak | Muzak is an American brand of background music played in retail stores and other public establishments. The name has been in use since 1934, and has been owned by a division or subsidiary of another company ever since. In 1981, Westinghouse bought the company and ran it until selling it to the Fields Company of Chicago, publishers of the Chicago Sun-Times, on September 8, 1986. Formerly owned by Muzak Holdings, the brand was purchased in 2011 by Mood Media in a deal worth US$345 million. Muzak was based in various Seattle, Washington locations from 1986 to 1999, after which it moved its headquarters to South Carolina in 2000.
The word Muzak has been a registered trademark since December 21, 1954, of Muzak LLC, although it dominated the market for so many years that the term is often used (especially when used with lowercase spelling) as a generic term for all background music. The term Muzak is – at least in the United States – often used for most forms of background music, regardless of its source. It may also be referred to as "elevator music" or "lift music". Though Muzak Holdings was for many years the best-known supplier of background music, and is commonly associated with elevator music, the company itself did not supply music to elevators. Since 1997, Muzak has used original artists for its music, except on its Environmental channel.
History
Inventor Major General George Owen Squier, credited with inventing telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910, developed the original technical basis for Muzak. He was granted several US patents in the 1920s related to transmission of information signals, among them a system for the transmission and distribution of signals over electrical lines.
Squier recognized the potential for this technology to be used to deliver music to listeners without the use of radio, which at the time was in early state and required fussy and expensive equipment. Early successful tests were performed, delivering music to customers on New York's Staten Island via their electrical wires.
In 1922, the rights to Squier's patents were acquired by the North American Company utility conglomerate, which created the firm Wired Radio, Inc. to deliver music to their customers, charging them for music on their electric bill. By the 1930s radio had made great advances, and households began listening to broadcasts received via the airwaves for free, supported by advertising.
Focus on mercantile environment (1935–1950)
Squier remained involved in the project, but as the home market became eclipsed by radio in 1934 he changed the company's focus to delivering music to commercial clients. Intrigued by the made-up word Kodak used as a trademark, he took the first syllable from "music" and added "ak" from "Kodak" to create Muzak, which became the company's new name.
In 1937, the Muzak division was purchased from the North American Company by Warner Bros., which expanded it into other cities. It was bought by entrepreneur William Benton who wanted to introduce Muzak into new markets like barbershops and doctors' offices. While Muzak had initially produced tens of thousands of original artist recordings by the top performers of the late 1930s and 1940s, their new strategy required a different sound.
Stimulus progression (1950–1960)
The company began customizing the pace and style of the music provided throughout the workday in an effort to maintain productivity. The music was programmed in 15-minute blocks, gradually getting faster in tempo and louder and brassier in instrumentation, to encourage workers to speed up their pace. Following the completion of a 15-minute segment, the music would fall silent for 15 minutes. This was partly done for technical reasons, but company-funded research also showed that alternating music with silence limited listener fatigue, and made the "stimulus" effect of Stimulus Progression more effective.
During this period, Muzak began recording their own "orchestra"actually a number of orchestras in studios around the country, sometimes in other countries as wellcomposed of top local studio musicians. This allowed them to control all aspects of the music for insertion into specific slots in the Stimulus Progression programs.
In the 1950s, it gradually became public knowledge that Muzak was using music to manipulate behavior. There were accusations of brainwashing, and court challenges. However, its popularity remained high through the mid-1960s. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was the first president to pump Muzak into the West Wing, and Lyndon B. Johnson owned the Muzak franchise in Austin, Texas. NASA reportedly used Muzak in many of its space missions to soothe astronauts and occupy periods of inactivity.
Original artist programming (1960–1980)
With the rise in youth culture and the growing influence of the baby boomer generation in the 1960s and 1970s, Muzak's popularity declined. It began losing market share to new "foreground music" companies, such as AEI Music Network Inc. and Yesco, that offered so-called "original artist music programming." Rather than using orchestral re-recordings as Muzak had for its Stimulus Progression program, they licensed original recordings, and included vocal music. They also differed many styles, from rock and pop to Spanish-language programming (for Mexican restaurants), jazz, blues and classical, as well as the traditional "easy listening." Foreground music markets included restaurants, fashion stores, retail outlets, malls, dental offices, airlines and public spaces.
Muzak merged with Yesco in September 1986. When Muzak began programming original artists in 1984, it was after merging with Yesco, and the programming was done by Yesco. This necessitated abandonment of the Stimulus Progression concept.
A small contingent of Muzak's business continued to provide their trademarked background music sound where it remained popular, particularly in Japan.
New business model
During this time Muzak became a franchise operation, with local offices each purchasing individual rights to the music, delivery technology, and brand name for their geographic areas. The company changed hands several times, becoming a division of the Field Corporation in the mid-1980s.
Through the 1980s and 1990s, Muzak moved away from the "elevator music" approach and instead began to offer multiple specialized channels of popular music. Muzak pioneered "audio architecture", a process of designing custom music playlists for specific customers.
Even with the changes in format, rocker Ted Nugent used Muzak as an icon of everything "uncool" about music. In 1986, he publicly made a $10 million bid to purchase the company with the stated intent of shutting it down. "Muzak is an evil force in today's society, causing people to lapse into uncontrollable fits of blandness," Nugent said. "It's been responsible for ruining some of the best minds of our generation." His bid was refused by Muzak's then-owner, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation.
By the late 1990s, the Muzak corporation had largely rebranded itself. As of 2010, Muzak distributed 3 million commercially available original artist songs. It offered almost 100 channels of music via satellite or IP delivery, in addition to completely custom music programs tailored to their customers' needs.
According to EchoStar, one of Muzak's distribution providers, Muzak's business music service was broadcast on rented bandwidth from EchoStar VII, in geostationary orbit at 119 degrees west longitude. Other rented bandwidth included an analog service on Galaxy 3C and a digital service on SES-3.
On April 12, 2007, Muzak Holdings, LLC announced to its employees that it might merge with DMX Music. This merger was approved by the Department of Justice Antitrust Division one year later. However, by April 2009, the deal appeared to have faltered.
On January 23, 2009, a spokesperson said Muzak was attempting to restructure its debt, and filing for bankruptcy was one of several options. The company had ample cash but had large amounts of debt coming due in the midst of a difficult economic climate.
Bankruptcy
On February 10, 2009, Muzak Holdings LLC filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Kirkland & Ellis was hired as the company's bankruptcy law firm. Moelis & Company served as the financial adviser.
On September 10, 2009, Muzak said it had filed a reorganization plan which would cut the company's debt by more than 50%. The plan would pay all banks everything they were owed in some form and would give high-ranking unsecured creditors ownership in the reorganized company. Other creditors would receive warrants to buy stock. The company said an "overwhelming majority" of unsecured creditors supported the plan.
History of Muzak Holdings LLC
On January 12, 2010, the U.S. Bankruptcy Court approved the plan to reduce Muzak's debt by more than half, allowing Muzak to officially emerge from bankruptcy.
Following bankruptcy, the company announced an initiative to realign its corporate structure into three specialized business units: Muzak Media; Touch, a Muzak Co.; and Muzak Systems. These units will focus on content acquisition, Sensory Branding, and new delivery platform technology.
In March 2011, Mood Media agreed to purchase Muzak Holdings for $345 million. On February 5, 2013, Mood Media announced it was retiring the name 'Muzak' as part of its integration plans.
Mood Media
Founded in 2004, Mood Media had a market capitalization of about $380 million as of 2011. In March 2011, Mood Media agreed to purchase Muzak Holdings for $345 million. Although Muzak first appeared in 1934, it had its largest impact in the 1960s and 1970s. In 2013, Mood Media announced it would be consolidating its services under the name Mood, ceasing to use the Muzak brand name. Muzak provided background music to over 300,000 US locations and made most of its money through multi-year contracts. In 2013, the company provided on-hold messaging and video programming, although piped music remained its forte. Mood hoped to use Muzak's US footprint to introduce more digital services. In May 2017, Mood Media filed for Chapter 15 bankruptcy protection in an attempt to restructure their debt. The following month the company was acquired by Apollo Global Management and GSO Capital Partners. In August 2017, Mood Media announced a new partnership with music licensing platform Songtradr.
See also
Applied Media Technologies Corporation
Associated-Rediffusion
3M Cantata 700
InStore Broadcasting Network
Music Choice
Seeburg 1000
Trusonic
References
External links
Lanza, Joseph . Elevator Music: A Surreal History of Muzak, University of Michigan Press,
Muzak Article about elevator music
The Soundtrack of Your Life New Yorker Article
Music, Muzak, Noise, Silence and Thought
Brands that became generic
Easy listening music
Industrial music services
Music companies of the United States
Recorded music | [
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239196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grocery%20store | Grocery store | A grocery store (North America), grocery or grocery shop (UK), is a store that primarily retails a general range of food products, which may be fresh or packaged. In everyday U.S. usage, however, "grocery store" is a synonym for supermarket, and is not used to refer to other types of stores that sell groceries. In the UK, shops that sell food are distinguished as grocers or grocery shops, though in everyday use, people usually use either the term "supermarket" or, for a smaller type of store that sells groceries, a "corner shop" or "convenience shop".
Larger types of stores that sell groceries, such as supermarkets and hypermarkets, usually stock significant amounts of non-food products, such as clothing and household items. Small grocery stores that sell mainly fruit and vegetables are known as greengrocers (Britain) or produce markets (U.S.), and small grocery stores that predominantly sell prepared food, such as candy and snacks, are known as convenience shops or delicatessens.
Some grocers specialize in the foods of certain countries or regions, such as Chinese, Italian, Middle Eastern, Indian, Russian, or Polish. These stores are known in the U.S. as ethnic markets and may also serve as gathering places for immigrants.
Definition
The definition of a "grocery store" varies, and U.S. and Canadian official definitions of "grocery store" exclude some businesses that sell groceries, such as convenience stores.
United States
In the United States,
the Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a grocery store as "a store that sells food and household supplies : supermarket". In other words, in common U.S. usage, "grocery store" is a synonym for supermarket. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that the term "grocery store" in American English is often used to mean ‘supermarket’".
the U.S. and Canadian governments have a wider definition of grocery stores, not limiting them to supermarkets. The category of business (NAICS code 4551) "Grocery stores" is defined as "primarily engaged in retailing a general line of food products", and the subcategory (NAICS code 455110), "Supermarkets and Other Grocery (except Convenience) Stores" is defined as "establishments generally known as supermarkets and grocery stores, primarily engaged in retailing a general line of food, such as canned and frozen foods; fresh fruits and vegetables; and fresh and prepared meats, fish, and poultry. Included in this industry are delicatessen-type establishments primarily engaged in retailing a general line of food.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, terms in common usage include "supermarket" for large format grocery stores, and "corner shop", "convenience shop", or "grocery" (meaning a grocery shop) for smaller formats. "Grocery store", being a North American term, is not. The Oxford English Dictionary states that a "grocery" is (especially in British English) a shop that sells food and other things used in the home.
The UK government does not define "grocery (shop)" or "supermarket" nor a distinction between them, but defines the types of store formats (whether they sell groceries, or otherwise):
"One-stop shops" as over 1,400 square metres (15,000 square feet)
"Mid-range stores": between 280 and 1,400 square metres (3,000 and 15,000 square feet), and
"Convenience stores": less than 280 square metres (3,000 square feet)
India
In stark contrast to the U.S., "grocery store" is far from a synonym for supermarket. 90% of the 810-billion-dollar Indian food and grocery market sales are at the 12 million small grocery stores, called kirana or mom-and-pop shops.
History
Early history
Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer (or "purveyor") was a dealer in comestible dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar, and (later) cocoa, tea, and coffee. Because these items were often bought in bulk, they were named after the French word for wholesaler, or "grossier". This, in turn, is derived from the Medieval Latin term "grossarius", from which the term "gross" (meaning a quantity of 12 dozen, or 144) is also derived.
As increasing numbers of staple food-stuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a wide range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as dairy products, meats, and produce. Such goods are, hence, called groceries.
Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from tobacco products to imported napkins. Traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold.
Modernization
The first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee, by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. Prior to this innovation, grocery stores operated "over the counter," with customers asking a grocer to retrieve items from inventory. Saunders' invention allowed a much smaller number of clerks to service the customers, proving successful (according to a 1929 issue of Time) "partly because of its novelty, partly because neat packages and large advertising appropriations have made retail grocery selling almost an automatic procedure."
The early supermarkets began as chains of grocer's shops. The development of supermarkets and other large grocery stores has meant that smaller grocery stores often must create a niche market by selling unique, premium quality, or ethnic foods that are not easily found in supermarkets. A small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers. Organic foods are also becoming a more popular niche market for smaller stores.
Grocery stores operate in many different styles ranging from rural family-owned operations, such as IGAs, to boutique chains, such as Whole Foods Market and Trader Joe's, to larger supermarket chain stores such as Walmart and Kroger Marketplace. In some places, food cooperatives, or "co-op" markets, owned by their own shoppers, have been popular. However, there has recently been a trend towards larger stores serving larger geographic areas. Very large "all-in-one" hypermarkets such as Walmart, Target, and Meijer have recently forced consolidation of the grocery businesses in some areas, and the entry of variety stores such as Dollar General into rural areas has undercut many traditional grocery stores. The global buying power of such very efficient companies has put an increased financial burden on traditional local grocery stores as well as the national supermarket chains, and many have been caught up in the retail apocalypse of the 2010s.
Many European cities (Rome, for example) are so dense in population and buildings that large supermarkets, in the American sense, cannot replace the neighbourhood grocer's shop. However, "Metro" shops have been appearing in town and city centres in many countries, leading to the decline of independent smaller shops. Large out-of-town supermarkets and hypermarkets, such as Tesco and Sainsbury's in the United Kingdom, have been steadily weakening trade from smaller shops. Many grocery chains like Spar or Mace are taking over the regular family business model.
Types
Grocery stores can be small or large physical stores or electronic (online) stores.
The U.S. FMI food industry association, drawing on research by Willard Bishop, defines the following formats (store types) that sell groceries:
Small format
Neighborhood/"mom-and-pop" grocery
In developing countries, often a significant portion of grocery shopping is done at so-called "mom-and-pop" (i.e. family-run), small grocery stores. 90% of the 810-billion-dollar Indian food and grocery market sales are at the 12 million small grocery stores, called kirana or mom-and-pop shops. Similarly, in Mexico, tiendas de la esquina (literally "corner stores") are still common places for people to buy groceries and sundries, even though they become less and less of the market over time.
Convenience store
A convenience shop is a small store that stocks a range of everyday items such as groceries, snack foods, candy, toiletries, soft drinks, tobacco products, and newspapers. They differ from general stores and village shops in that they are not in a rural location and are used as a convenient supplement to larger shops.
Although larger, newer convenience stores may have quite a broad range of items, the selection is still limited compared to supermarkets, and, in many stores, only 1 or 2 choices are available. Convenience stores usually charge significantly higher prices than ordinary grocery stores or supermarkets, which they make up for with convenience by serving more locations and having shorter cashier lines. Many convenience stores offer food ready to eat, such as breakfast sandwiches and other breakfast food.
Delicatessen
A delicatessen store is a type of food store where fine foods are sold. In this sense, the name is often abbreviated to deli. The term delicatessen means "delicacies" or "fine foods". In English, "delicatessen" originally meant only this specially prepared food.
Greengrocer
A greengrocer is a retail trader in fruit and vegetables; that is, in groceries that are mostly green in color. Greengrocer is primarily a British and Australian term, and greengrocers' shops were once common in cities, towns and villages.
Health food store
A health food store is a type of grocery store that primarily sells health foods, organic foods, local produce, and often nutritional supplements. Health food stores typically offer a wider or more specialized selection of foods than conventional grocery stores for their customers, such as people with special dietary needs.
Health food stores became much more common in the 1960s in connection to the newly emerging ecology movement and counterculture.
Milk bar
In Australia and New Zealand, a milk bar is a suburban local general store or café. Similar terms include tuck shops, delicatessens or "delis", and corner shops. The first business using the name "milk bar" was started in India in 1930. By the late 1940s, milk bars had evolved to include not only groceries, but also became places where young people could buy ready-made food and non-alcoholic drinks and could socialise.
Large format
Supermarket
A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products organized into aisles. The supermarket typically comprises meat, fresh produce, dairy, and baked goods aisles, along with shelf space reserved for canned and packaged goods as well as for various non-food items such as kitchenware, household cleaners, pharmacy products and pet supplies.
Other services offered at some supermarkets may include those of banks, cafés, childcare centres/creches, photo processing, video rentals, pharmacies and/or petrol stations.
Hypermarket
A hypermarket is a superstore combining a supermarket and a department store. The result is an expansive retail facility carrying a wide range of products under one roof, including a full groceries line and general merchandise. Another category of stores sometimes included in the hypermarket category is the membership-based wholesale warehouse clubs that are popular in North America.
Electronic
An online grocer is a recent phenomenon that has developed as a type of e-commerce. Several online grocery stores exist, one of the oldest available in the U.S. being Peapod. Nowadays, many online grocery stores such as Netgrocer, MyBrands, Efooddepot and many more that all aim to provide quality food products with timely delivery and convenience of ordering online. Other large retailers in the U.S. have started similar models, including AmazonFresh and Prime Pantry, both run by Amazon.com, Walmart's To-Go service, and smaller companies like Yummy.com and RelayFoods. In the U.S., sales from online grocers in 2013 were $15 billion. Online grocery stores are more popular in Europe, where sales from 2012 in Britain alone were €7.1 billion, and in certain markets are projected to double from 2012 to 2016.
Regional variations
Europe
Larger grocer complexes that include other facilities, such as petrol stations, are especially common in the United Kingdom, where major chains such as Sainsbury's and Tesco have many locations operating under this format. Traditional shops throughout Europe have been preserved because of their history and their classic appearance. They are sometimes still found in rural areas, although they are rapidly disappearing.
South America
Grocery stores in South America have been growing fast since the early 1980s. A large percentage of food sales and other articles take place in grocery stores today. Some examples are the Chilean chains Cencosud (Jumbo and Santa Isabel covering Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Peru), Walmart (Lider and Ekono) as well as Falabella (Tottus in Chile and Peru and Supermercados San Francisco in Chile). These three chains are subsidiaries of large retail companies which also have other kinds of business units, such as department stores and home improvement outlets. All three also operate their own credit cards, which are a key driver for sales, and they also sell insurance and operate travel agencies. These companies also run some malls in countries such as Argentina, Chile, Peru and Colombia.
Two other chains started in 2008: Unimarc, which bought several small local chains and has over 20% of the grocery segment in Chile; and Southern Cross, a Chilean Investment Fund that has around 8.6% of the supermarket segment, mainly oriented to the southern areas of the country. In Puerto Rico, popular grocery stores include Pueblo Supermarkets and Amigo.
North America
In some countries such as the United States, grocery stores descended from trading posts, which sold not only food but clothing, furniture, household items, tools, and other miscellaneous merchandise. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores. These facilities generally dealt only in "dry" goods such as baking soda, canned foods, dry beans, and flour. Perishable foods were obtained from specialty markets, such as fresh meat or sausages from a butcher and milk from a local dairy, while eggs and vegetables were either produced by families themselves, bartered for with neighbors, or purchased at a farmers' market or a local greengrocer.
In the US, there are many larger chain stores, but there are also many small chains and independent grocery stores. About 11% of groceries are sold by a grocery store that is either independent or in a chain of just one, two, or three stores, making the independent stores, taken collectively, bigger than the biggest chains.
Most food in the US is bought at traditional brick-and-mortar grocery stores. As of 2019, about 3% of food was bought from an online retailer such as Amazon.com.
The economic trends affecting grocery stores include:
In every decade since the 1960s, Americans have spent an increasing share of their money on eating at restaurants, which reduces their need to buy groceries.
Groceries are sold by many other stores, such as convenience stores, drug stores, and dollar stores. The result of retail channel blurring is that even when people are buying groceries, only about half of them are buying groceries from a grocery store.
Online sales of food are small but increasing. People who buy groceries from an internet retailer or a meal kit company have less need to buy groceries from a grocery store.
People want to buy foods that reflect local and regional specialties. Sales of national brands, such as Nabisco cookies and crackers, have declined, and the companies have responded by changing their marketing approach. The reduction in advertising has resulted in fewer sales at the grocery store.
Food marketing
Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate". The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, 56 companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors, but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans. The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers. With the onset of industrialization and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically, early grocery shops would be counter-based where purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted and the shop-keeper would get it for them.
In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations.
Prices
It was reported on March 24, 2008, that consumers worldwide faced rising food prices. Reasons for this development include changes in the weather and dramatic changes in the global economy including higher oil prices, lower food reserves, and growing consumer demand in China and India.
The US Labor Department has calculated that food purchased at home and in restaurants is 13% of household purchases, behind 32% for housing and 18% for transportation. The average US family spent $280 per month or $3,305 per year at grocery stores in 2004. The newsletter Dollar Stretcher survey estimated $149 a month for a single person, $257 for a couple and $396 for a family of four.
Food waste
As of 2011, 1.3 billion tons of food, about one third of the global food production, are lost or wasted annually. The USDA estimates that 27% of food is lost annually. In developing and developed countries which operate either commercial or industrial agriculture, food waste can occur at most stages of the food industry and in significant amounts.
Packaging protects food from damage during its transportation from farms and factories via warehouses to retailing, as well as preserving its freshness upon arrival. Although it avoids considerable food waste, packaging can compromise efforts to reduce food waste in other ways, such as by contaminating waste that could be used for animal feedstocks.
Retail stores can throw away large quantities of food. Usually, this consists of items that have reached either their best before, sell-by or use-by dates. Food that passed the best before, and sell-by date, and even some food that passed the use-by date is still edible at the time of disposal, but stores have widely varying policies to handle the excess food. Some stores put effort into preventing access to poor or homeless people while others work with charitable organizations to distribute food.
Retailers also contribute to waste as a result of their contractual arrangements with suppliers. Failure to supply agreed quantities renders farmers or processors liable to have their contracts cancelled. As a consequence, they plan to produce more than actually required to meet the contract, to have a margin of error. Surplus production is often simply disposed of. Some grocery stores donate leftover food (for example, deli foods and bread past their expiration date) to homeless shelters or charity kitchens.
The European Union claimed 2014 to be "Year Against Food Waste". The contracts that most retailers had signed required that food would be of a certain quality. With this recent socio-political change, food such as non-round tomatoes and apples with blemishes had a new market. Intermarche, France's third-largest supermarket launched its "inglorious fruits and vegetables" campaign in order to reduce waste. This, fruits and vegetables, waste reduction strategy has shown great promise towards this EU proposed campaign. These products are sold at a reduced price compared to the perfectionist campaign showing a 24% increase in sales. Fruta Feia a Portuguese retailer ran a similar business strategy with comparable success.
Notable grocers
Clarence Saunders, American grocer who first developed the modern retail sales model of self service
Sir John Cohen, founder of British supermarket Tesco
Sir Thomas Lipton
Horatio G. Loomis, one of the organizers of the Chicago Board of Trade
Hugh Mason, whose original shop in St. James's Market led directly to the founding of London's Fortnum & Mason
William Fortnum, whose enterprise as a footman in the household of Anne, Queen of Great Britain in recycling the stubs of the royal candles led to the partnership that became Fortnum & Mason
O.L. Rapson, the first manager at the Grand Rapids Hotel, and later a grocer in Marlin, Texas.
John James Sainsbury, English grocer and founder of what is now called the Sainsbury's supermarket chain
See also
Big-box store
Bulk foods
Food cooperative
General store
List of convenience stores
List of food cooperatives
List of grocers
List of hypermarkets
List of online grocers
List of supermarket chains
List of superstores
Self-service
Vegetable box scheme
Greengrocer
Notes
References
Further reading
Deutsch, Tracey. Building a Housewife's Paradise: Gender, Politics, and American Grocery Stores in the Twentieth Century (2010)
Nebraska Jewish Historical Society. Mom and Pop Grocery Stores (2011)
Spellman, Susan V. Cornering the market: Independent grocers and innovation in American small business, 1860--1940 (Oxford University press, 2015) online dissertation version 2009
External links
Food retailers
Retailers by type of merchandise sold
Supermarkets
Sales occupations | [
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239199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20organisations%20with%20a%20British%20royal%20charter | List of organisations with a British royal charter | This is a list of organisations with a British royal charter. It includes organisations in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, in chronological order, that have received a royal charter from an English, Scottish, or British monarch.
The list of organisations in the United Kingdom with a royal charter is an alphabetical list of organisations in the UK.
Table
Kingdom of England
13th and 14th century
see table above.
15th century
4 December 1416 Cutlers' Company
16 February 1428 Grocers' Company
22 February 1437 Brewers' Company
23 August 1437 Vintners' Company
26 April 1439 Cordwainers' Company
1441 King's College, Cambridge
1444 Leathersellers' Company
8 May 1453 Armourers' and Brasiers' Company
13 October 1457 Magdalen College, Oxford
8 March 1462 Tallow Chandlers' Company
1462 Barbers' Company
20 March 1463 Ironmongers' Company
16 February 1471 Dyers' Company
20 January 1473 Pewterers' Company
1474 Corporation of Blacksmith's of Dublin
16 August 1475 St. Catharine's College, Cambridge
7 July 1477 Carpenters' Company
16 February 1483 Wax Chandlers' Company
1496 Jesus College, Cambridge
16th century
1500-1549
10 March 1501 Plaisterers' Company
29 April 1501 Coopers' Company
23 February 1504 Poulters' Company
1 July 1505 Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
2 July 1509 Bakers' Company
9 April 1511 St John's College, Cambridge
15 January 1512 Brasenose College, Oxford
1513 Nottingham High School
1517 Corpus Christi College, Oxford
23 September 1518 Royal College of Physicians of London
18 January 1528 Clothworkers' Company
1532 Bristol Grammar School
25 August 1537 Honourable Artillery Company
1539 Colchester Royal Grammar School (granted a second charter by Elizabeth I, see below)
1541 King's School, Ely
1542 Magdalene College, Cambridge
23 July 1545 King Henry VIII School, Coventry
1545 Warwick School
1547 Trinity College, Cambridge
1547 Norwich School
13 January 1547 Bethlem Hospital
13 January 1547 Saint Bartholomew's Hospital
1549 Pembroke College, Cambridge
1550-1599
13 May 1550 Sherborne School
1550 French Protestant Church of London
14 May 1552 Sedbergh School
17 June 1552 King Edward VI Grammar School, Stourbridge
12 July 1552 King Edward's School, Bath
18 December 1552 Society of Merchant Venturers of Bristol
1552 Bedford School
1552 King Edward's School, Birmingham
1552 The King's School, Macclesfield
26 May 1553 Giggleswick School
26 June 1553 Bridewell Hospital
26 June 1553 Christ's Hospital
1553 King Edward VI Grammar School, Southampton
1553 Tonbridge School
6 January 1554 Boston Grammar School, Lincolnshire
1554 Clitheroe Royal Grammar School
1554 Queen Mary's Grammar School, Walsall
15 July 1555 College of Arms
1555 St. John's College, Oxford
7 July 1556 Charity of the Priest and Poor of Ginge Petre in the County of Essex
4 May 1557 Stationers' Company
5 July 1558 Brentwood School
21 May 1560 Dean and Chapter of the Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster
28 February 1561 Royal Grammar School Worcester
1561 Kingston Grammar School, Kingston upon Thames
25 October 1561 Broderers' Company
1562 St. Olave's and St. Saviour's Grammar School
15 June 1563 Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Darlington
1565 Exeter College, Oxford
1565 Highgate School
1567 Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Blackburn
3 August 1568 Tylers' and Bricklayers' Company
12 October 1568 Girdlers' Company
14 April 1570 Joiners' Company
1571 Blacksmiths' Company
1571 Harrow School
27 June 1571 Jesus College, Oxford
9 February 1573 University College, Oxford
1574 Cranbrook School, Kent
1576 Sutton Valence School
19 June 1578 Haberdashers' Company
19 July 1581 Painter-Stainers' Company
1584 Colchester Royal Grammar School
1584 Uppingham School
1585 Queen's College, Oxford
1591 Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield
1592 Queen Elizabeth's Hospital, Bristol
1594 Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
3 May 1597 Hospital of St. John the Evangelist and St. Anne in Oakham
17th century
1600s
22 March 1600 Royal Grammar School, Newcastle
1603 Oriel College, Oxford
1603 Hostmen Company of Freemen of Newcastle upon Tyne
30 August 1603 Fishmongers' Company
17 December 1603 Bishop Auckland Grammar School
2 August 1604 Feltmakers' Company
16 September 1605 Butchers' Company
18 September 1605 Gardeners' Company
9 January 1606 Fruiterers' Company
19 January 1606 Drapers Company
30 April 1606 Curriers' Company
30 April 1607 Prince Henry's Grammar School, Otley
15 May 1607 Salters' Company
24 November 1609 King James School, Almondbury
1610s
12 April 1611 Plumbers' Company
22 June 1611 Sutton's Hospital in Charterhouse
20 December 1611 Wadham College, Oxford
13 September 1612 Don Baudains (Jersey)
1613 Honourable Irish Society
18 September 1614 Founders' Company
1615 Wilson's Grammar School
28 January 1617 Scriveners' Company
6 December 1617 Society of Apothecaries of London
21 June 1619 Dulwich College
1620s
1621 Bowyers' Company
1624 Pembroke College, Oxford
14 June 1626 Upholders' Company
22 October 1628 Playing Card Makers' Company
16 May 1629 Spectacle Makers' Company
1630s
3 July 1630 Sion College
8 July 1631 Sackville College, East Grinstead
22 August 1631 Clockmakers' Company
14 March 1637 Gunmakers' Company
12 January 1638 Horners' Company
9 August 1638 Distillers' Company
6 November 1638 Glaziers' Company
10 September 1639 The Company of Glovers of the City of London
27 February 1639 Worshipful Company of Parish Clerks
1650s
10 November 1656 Needlemakers' Company
13 June 1657 Framework Knitters' Company
1660s
28 November 1661 Glass Sellers' Company
7 February 1662 New England Company
15 July 1662 Royal Society
1662 Bradford Grammar School
16 February 1663 Cooks' Company
21 December 1663 Innholders' Company
30 June 1664 Royal Scottish Corporation
18 May 1666 Broadweavers and Clothiers Company of Coventry
1670s
3 February 1670 Wheelwrights' Company
2 May 1670 Hudson's Bay Company
2 August 1670 Pattenmakers' Company
29 December 1670 Tin Plate Workers' Company
18 November 1672 Trinity House in Kingston-upon-Hull
17 January 1674 Farriers' Company
31 May 1677 Coachmakers' Company
17 December 1677 Masons' Company
1 July 1678 Corporation of the Sons of the Clergy
1680s
19 October 1681 Company of Merchants of the City of Edinburgh
8 July 1685 Corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford Strond
1690s
8 February 1693 The College of William & Mary
16 June 1693 Gold and Silver Wyre Drawers' Company
27 July 1694 Bank of England
25 October 1694 The Royal Hospital, Greenwich
18th century
1700s
16 June 1701 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
19 April 1706 Grey Coat Hospital in Tothill Fields of the Foundation of Queen Anne
Kingdom of Scotland
16th century
1582 University of Edinburgh
Kingdom of Great Britain
18th century
1700s
15 July 1704 Bermondsey tanners Surrey/ Greater London
1710s
23 May 1711 Blanket Weavers in Witney, Oxfordshire
3 December 1711 Loriners' Company
29 July 1714 Worcester College, Oxford
24 July 1718 French Protestant Hospital
27 July 1719 Music Society for Carrying on Operas and other entertainments
1720s
22 June 1720 London Assurance Corporation
22 June 1720 Royal Exchange Assurance
1727 The Royal Bank of Scotland
31 July 1729 Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Halifax
1730s
17 October 1739 Foundling Hospital
1740s
28 April 1741 Charity for the Relief of the Widows and Children of the Clergy of Norwich and Norfolk
13 April 1742 Charity for the Relief of the Widows and Children of the Clergy of Suffolk
5 July 11 October British Linen Bank
29 April 1747 Governors of the Charity for the relief of the poor Widows and Orphans of Beneficed Clergymen or having Curacys in the County of Essex the Deanery of Braughing and Archdeaconry of St. Albans, County of Hertford and Diocese of London
1750s
2 November 1751 Society of Antiquaries of London
9 December 1758 London Hospital
1760s
8 June 1765 Bethel Hospital, Norwich
1770s
19 June 1773 Carron Company
1773 Royal Medical Society
27 January 1774 Society of Advocates in Aberdeen
1780s
24 March 1781 Governors of the possessions etc. of the Free Chapel of Hindon within the parish of East Knoyle, Wiltshire
29 March 1783 Royal Society of Edinburgh
6 May 1783 Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
9 June 1783 Glasgow Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures
10 July 1786 Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures
17 May 1787 Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland
1790s
26 August 1790 Royal Society of Musicians of Great Britain
21 December 1791 Glasgow Royal Infirmary
9 January 1792 Society for the Benefit of Sons and Daughters of the Clergy of the Church of Scotland
30 October 1794 Christian Faith Society
6 June 1796 Royal Faculty of Procurators in Glasgow
24 January 1797 Society of Solicitors in the Supreme Courts of Scotland
28 June 1798 Ayr Academy
19th century
1800s
13 January 1800 Royal Institution of Great Britain
22 March 1800 Royal College of Surgeons of England
22 September 1800 Downing College, Cambridge
United Kingdom
19th century
1800s
19 April 1801 James Gillespie's Hospital and Free School
26 March 1802 Linnean Society of London
12 May 1802 University of King's College, Halifax, Nova Scotia
7 April 1807 Dumfries and Galloway Royal Infirmary
17 April 1809 Royal Horticultural Society
1810s
23 May 1817 National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church throughout England and Wales
13 January 1818 Royal Edinburgh Public Dispensary
19 May 1818 Royal Literary Fund
8 May 1819 Dundee Royal Infirmary
1820s
1820 Faculty of Procurators and Solicitors in Dundee
31 March 1821 McGill University, Montreal
6 February 1824 Edinburgh Academy
11 August 1824 Royal Asiatic Society
14 October 1824 Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society
1 November 1824 Australian Agricultural Company
9 December 1824 Glasgow Royal Mental Hospital
23 April 1825 Geological Society of London
15 September 1825 Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom
10 November 1825 Van Diemen's Land Company
28 June 1826 University Life Assurance Society
19 August 1826 Canada Company
15 March 1827 University of Toronto
2 August 1827 Society for the management and distribution of the Artists Fund
6 February 1828 St David's College, Lampeter
3 June 1828 Institution of Civil Engineers
27 March 1829 Zoological Society of London
14 August 1829 King's College London
1830s
18 January 1830 General Lying-in Hospital
23 June 1830 Royal Academy of Music
7 March 1831 Royal Astronomical Society
6 August 1832 Cambridge Philosophical Society
20 March 1834 British American Land Company
30 September 1834 Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London
3 May 1836 Society of Licensed Victuallers
28 November 1836 University of London
11 January 1837 Royal Institute of British Architects
1 June 1837 University of Durham
7 June 1837 Company of Stationers of Glasgow
26 April 1838 Royal Naval Benevolent Society
13 August 1838 Royal Scottish Academy of Painting, Sculpture & Architecture
26 August 1839 Mauritius Commercial Bank
1840s
26 March 1840 Royal Agricultural Society of England
29 January 1840 Pacific Steam Navigation Company
1 August 1840 Society of Solicitors of Banffshire
10 November 1840 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company
16 March 1841 Bank of Australasia
16 October 1841 Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario
16 March 1842 McLachlan's Free School
30 June 1842 Artists General Benevolent Institution
15 December 1842 Licensed Victuallers Asylum
18 February 1843 Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain
3 April 1843 Royal Grammar School Worcester
27 April 1843 Queen Elizabeth's Almshouses Worcester
18 January 1844 Ionian Bank
8 March 1844 Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
26 February 1845 The Law Society
21 August 1845 Marlborough College
13 January 1845 Trust and Loan Company of Upper Canada
30 June 1845 Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes
1845 Queen's College of Belfast (now Queen's University Belfast)
1846 Royal Bermuda Yacht Club
3 February 1847 Royal Society of British Artists
20 May 1847 Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. (Royal Society of Arts)
17 July 1847 Eastern Archipelago Company
8 May 1848 Governesses Benevolent Institution
27 June 1848 Missionary College of Saint Augustine Canterbury
4 September 1848 Chemical Society
16 December 1848 College of Preceptors
1 March 1849 Warneford Lunatic Asylum (Oxford)
30 July 1849 Royal British Bank
1850s
14 August 1850 Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851
12 December 1850 Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
5 May 1851 Educational Institute of Scotland
23 October 1851 Falkland Islands Company
23 October 1851 Leith Chamber of Commerce
16 July 1852 University of Trinity College, Toronto
8 December 1852 Université Laval, Quebec
5 April 1852 General Theatrical Fund Association
28 January 1853 Bishops University, Lennoxville, Quebec
13 December 1853 Wellington College
13 June 1853 Council and Committee of Queen's College
19 August 1853 Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China
7 April 1854 Marylebone Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes
7 April 1854 City of Worcester Association for Building Dwellings for the Labouring Classess
13 September 1854 Society of Accountants in Edinburgh
18 October 1854 London and Eastern Banking Corporation
7 February 1857 Society of Procurators and Solicitors in the City and Country of Perth
12 July 1857 Hospital for Women
3 February 1858 University of Sydney
11 January 1859 Royal Geographical Society
6 July 1859 Benevolent Institution for the Relief of Aged and Infirm Journeymen Tailors
23 September 1859 National Benevolent Institution, founded by the late Peter Herve
22 October 1859 High School of Dundee
1860s
23 January 1860 Royal United Service Institution
7 March 1860 Royal National Lifeboat Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck
5 August 1861 Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
20 November 1861 Glasgow Art Union
19 July 1862 Salisbury Infirmary
1 November 1862 Asylum for Idiots
1 November 1862 Saint Andrew's College, Bradfield
3 February 1864 Dundee Chamber of Commerce
3 February 1864 Royal Orthopaedic Hospital
3 February 1864 Society for Relief of Widows and Orphans of Medical Men
7 April 1864 Natal Native Trust
9 July 1864 Friend of the Clergy
9 July 1864 Albert Middle Class College in Suffolk
28 July 1864 Haileybury College
1 November 1864 Printers' Pension, Almshouse and Orphan Asylum Corporation
5 December 1865 Meteorological Society
9 May 1866 Corporation for Middle Class Education in the Metropolis and the Suburbs thereof
26 July 1866 Microscopical Society
28 December 1866 Corporation of the Hall of Arts and Sciences (Royal Albert Hall)
26 February 1867 Preceptor, Patrons and Directors of Baillie's Institution in Glasgow
4 November 1867 Association for the Protection of Commercial Interests as respects Wrecked and Damaged Property
30 July 1868 Crossley Orphan Home and School
14 September 1868 Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland
1870s
4 June 1870 Keble College, Oxford
6 July 1871 Incorporated Lay Body of the Church of England in Jamaica
17 March 1875 Royal Veterinary College
13 May 1875 Dundee Royal Lunatic Asylum
23 October 1876 North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers
7 February 1877 Clifton College
11 July 1877 University of the Cape of Good Hope
1880s
18 March 1880 Victoria University (UK)
24 March 1880 Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales
2 March 1881 University of Adelaide
15 July 1881 Surveyors' Institution
31 July 1881 Royal College Colombo, Sri Lanka
26 August 1881 South Wales Institute of Engineers
18 August 1882 Selwyn College, Cambridge
18 August 1882 Royal Colonial Institute
20 April 1883 Royal College of Music
23 August 1883 Charing Cross Hospital
12 December 1883 Incorporated Society of Law Agents in Scotland
26 June 1884 St. Paul's Hostel, Cambridge
29 July 1884 Institute of Actuaries
11 August 1884 University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire
29 November 1884 Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford
30 December 1884 Royal National Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest on the separate or Cottage principle
26 March 1885 University College of North Wales
19 May 1885 Queen Charlotte's Lying in Hospital
19 May 1885 Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland
24 June 1885 Entomological Society of London
8 March 1886 Princess Helena College
14 January 1887 Royal Statistical Society
27 November 1887Belfast Royal Academy
7 February 1888 Trustees of the Buchanan Bequest
7 February 1888 Corporation of the Church House
3 May 1888 Grand Priory of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem in England
5 July 1889 Royal Historical Society
23 July 1889 University College of Wales, Aberystwyth (now the University of Wales, Aberystwyth)
19 August 1889 Queen Victoria's Jubilee Institute for Nurses
19 August 1889 Imperial Bank of Persia
15 October 1889 British South Africa Company
1890s
8 February 1890 Institute of Journalists
21 October 1890 National Rifle Association
21 October 1890 Rossall School
21 October 1890 St. Peter's College, Radley
22 November 1890 Newspaper Press Fund
9 May 1891 Royal Provident Fund for Sea Fishermen
30 July 1891 Chartered Institute of Patent Agents (now the Chartered Institute of Patent Attorneys)
5 August 1892 Governors of the Buchanan Retreat
16 May 1893 Royal British Nurses' Association
23 November 1893 University of Wales
23 November 1893 Royal College of Organists
1894 West London Hospital
11 May 1895 National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children
26 November 1897 Queen Victoria Clergy Fund
17 February 1898 Library Association
19 May 1898 Corporation of the Cranleigh and Bramley Schools
19 May 1898 Victorian Order of Nurses for Canada
9 August 1898 Royal Blind Asylum and School, Edinburgh
7 March 1899 St. Andrew's Ambulance Association
14 July 1899 Grand Antiquity Society of Glasgow
7 October 1899 British Home and Hospital for Incurables
20th century
1900s
3 March 1900 University of Birmingham
17 September 1900 City and Guilds of London Institute
17 September 1900 Great Northern Central Hospital
27 March 1901 Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow
26 July 1902 British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies
21 August 1902 Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland (revised 1978)
15 September 1902 Weavers Society of Anderston
20 October 1902 Chartered Institute of Secretaries of Joint Stock Companies and other Public Bodies
19 November 1902 Royal Economic Society
16 February 1903 Royal Edinburgh Hospital for Incurables
16 February 1903 Royal Society for Home Relief to Incurables, Edinburgh
9 July 1903 Victoria University of Manchester
9 July 1903 University of Liverpool
9 July 1903 Chartered Society of Queen Square
10 August 1903 University College of Nottingham
11 February 1904 Royal Numismatic Society
21 April 1904 University of Leeds
15 July 1904 West India Committee
10 August 1904 British Cotton Growing Association
24 October 1904 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
29 May 1905 University of Sheffield
11 July 1905 Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital
11 May 1906 British and Foreign School Society
30 June 1906 Institute of Directors
1 December 1906 Hull Royal Infirmary
11 February 1907 Royal Warrant Holders Association
1 March 1907 National Museum of Wales
1 March 1907 National Library of Wales
1 June 1907 Society of Chemical Industry
6 July 1907 Imperial College of Science and Technology
2 November 1907 Royal Society of South Africa
21 December 1908 Bedford College for Women
1 August 1908 British Red Cross Society
17 May 1909 University of Bristol
10 August 1909 Royal British Colonial Society of Artists
1910s
22 April 1910 Cancer Hospital (Free)
13 October 1910 Association of Deacons of the Fourteen Incorporated Trades of Glasgow
28 November 1910 Institution of Naval Architects
23 January 1911 Royal United Kingdom Beneficent Association
25 May 1911 Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers
16 December 1911 Scout Association
17 January 1912 Chartered Insurance Institute
14 May 1912 King Edward the Seventh Welsh National Memorial Association
14 June 1912 British School at Rome
16 December 1912 King Edward VII Sanatorium
11 February 1913 Paton Trust
24 June 1913 Zoological Society of Scotland
7 October 1913 Royal West of England Academy
14 October 1913 Royal Asylum of Montrose
14 October 1913 Montrose Royal Infirmary
30 March 1914 Liverpool Merchants Guild
7 January 1915 Institution of Mining Engineers
7 January 1915 Institution of Mining and Metallurgy
2 June 1915 University of Tasmania
23 May 1916 School of Oriental Studies, London Institution
7 September 1916 Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves
30 March 1917 Newnham College, Cambridge
10 May 1917 Imperial War Graves Commission (now Commonwealth War Graves Commission)
19 May 1917 Carnegie United Kingdom Trust
27 November 1917 Queen Mary's Hospital for the East End
14 January 1919 Carnegie Dunfermline and Hero Fund Trustees
24 February 1919 Incorporation of Cordiners in Glasgow
15 April 1919 Representative Body of the Church in Wales
30 May 1919 Royal Hospital and Home for Incurables, Putney
9 December 1919 Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers
9 December 1919 University College of Swansea (now Swansea University)
20 December 1919 King George's Fund for Sailors
20 December 1919 Lord Kitchener National Memorial Fund
1920s
11 March 1920 Leicester Royal Infirmary
25 March 1920 Medical Research Council
25 March 1920 Forestry Commissioners
17 May 1920 Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom
17 May 1920 Chartered Society of Massage and Medical Gymnastics
28 June 1920 Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
13 October 1920 St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington
10 June 1921 Officers' Association
14 July 1921 Medical College of St. Bartholomew's Hospital in the City of London
10 August 1921 Institution of Electrical Engineers
11 October 1921 Empire Forestry Association
11 October 1921 Empire Cotton Growing Corporation
7 November 1921 Institute of British Foundrymen
13 December 1921 Royal Liverpool Seamen's Orphan Institution
6 February 1922 Royal Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children
3 March 1922 Royal Victoria College, Montreal
3 March 1922 Over-Seas League
1 April 1922 Royal Naval Benevolent Trust (Grand Fleet and Kindred Funds)
5 May 1922 Incorporation of Architects in Scotland
20 June 1922 St. John's Foundation School
10 August 1922 College of Estate Management
6 December 1922 Toc H (Incorporated)
6 December 1922 Girl Guides Association
29 January 1923 Institution of Royal Engineers
12 March 1923 British Institute of Florence
4 May 1923 Confederation of British Industry
4 May 1923 Wolverhampton and Staffordshire Hospital
26 June 1923 Cardiff Royal Infirmary
11 October 1923 Dover College
21 March 1924 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
25 June 1924 Royal Life Saving Society
25 July 1924 Girton College, Cambridge
6 February 1925 The Textile Institute
17 March 1925 British Legion
12 October 1925 London Playing Fields Society
12 October 1925 Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon
16 December 1925 Soldiers', Sailors' and Airmen's Families Association
1 February 1926 University of Reading
25 February 1926 Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
25 February 1926 St. Hilda's College, Oxford
25 February 1926 Birkbeck College
25 February 1926 Royal Medico Psychological Association
30 April 1926 Somerville College, Oxford
1 June 1926 Royal Masonic Institution for Boys
1 June 1926 The Mothers' Union
28 June 1926 Royal Institute of International Affairs
28 June 1926 St. Hugh's College, Oxford
5 November 1926 Institute of Transport
20 November 1926 British Broadcasting Corporation
14 December 1926 National Police Fund
22 March 1928 British Association for the Advancement of Science
22 March 1928 Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia
13 July 1928 College of Nursing
14 August 1928 Royal Victoria Hospital, Dundee
20 November 1928 London Homeopathic Hospital (now the Royal London Hospital for Integrated Medicine)
20 November 1928 National Art Collection Fund
21 December 1928 Malvern College
29 January 1929 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital
1 March 1929 Howard Leopold Davis Scholarships Trust
21 March 1929 British Engineering Standards Association
10 May 1929 Indian Church Trustees
10 May 1929 Institution of Gas Engineers
5 July 1929 Institute of Hygiene
17 December 1929 King George Hospital at Ilford
1930s
20 January 1930 Royal Society for the Relief of Indigent Gentlewomen of Scotland
28 March 1930 Institution of Mechanical Engineers
28 July 1930 King Edward VII's Hospital for Officers, Sister Agnes Founder
28 July 1930 Honourable Company of Master Mariners
28 July 1930 Oundle School
28 July 1930 East Ham Memorial Hospital
18 December 1930 Welsh National School of Medicine
29 June 1931 British Postgraduate Medical School
1 October 1931 Glasgow Fishmongers Company
7 October 1931 Australian Chemical Institute
7 October 1931 Royal Seamen's Pension Fund
11 February 1932 Universities China Committee in London
15 December 1932 National Playing Fields Association
16 March 1933 Institute of Marine Engineers
25 May 1933 London Library
26 June 1933 Westfield College, London
22 March 1934 Institution of Structural Engineers
9 November 1934 Queen Mary College
20 December 1934 City of London Maternity Hospital
21 February 1935 Cheltenham Ladies' College
6 June 1935 Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution
13 August 1935 Institution of Engineers (India)
20 December 1935 Royal Academy of Dancing
13 April 1937 Worshipful Company of Basketmakers
29 July 1937 General Infirmary at Leeds
24 February 1938 Institution of Engineers Australia
25 November 1938 Roedean School
25 May 1939 National Association of Boy's Clubs
25 July 1939 Imperial Cancer Research Fund
1940s
19 September 1940 British Council
30 May 1941 Australian Red Cross Society
26 June 1946 King's School, Canterbury
26 June 1946 Worshipful Company of Carmen
10 July 1946 Arts Council of Great Britain
10 July 1946 Institute of Fuel
29 January 1947 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists
10 March 1947 British Postgraduate Medical Federation
28 October 1947 Scottish National War Memorial Trustees
28 October 1947 Officers Families Fund
9 July 1948 University of Nottingham
13 September 1948 Wye College
13 September 1948 Institution of Municipal Engineers
25 October 1948 British and Foreign Bible Society
22 December 1948 Royal Aeronautical Society
22 December 1948 University College of the West Indies
4 March 1949 National Institute for the Blind
30 June 1949 University College of North Staffordshire
25 November 1949 Railway Benevolent Institution
1950s
31 March 1950 Royal Alfred Merchant Seamen's Society
25 April 1950 Women's Royal Naval Service Benevolent Trust
25 April 1950 Standards Association of Australia
9 October 1950 University College of Leicester
8 December 1950 Worshipful Company of Musicians
21 December 1950 Campbell College, Belfast
1 November 1951 Ceylon Red Cross Society
14 November 1951 Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion
24 March 1952 University of Southampton
9 April 1952 School of Pharmacy, University of London
29 April 1952 St Anne's College, Oxford
29 July 1952 Royal Masonic Institution for Girls
25 November 1952 Principal and Governors of Queen Elizabeth College
4 December 1952 Royal Air Forces Association
1 April 1953 St Antony's College, Oxford
30 April 1953 Faculty of Radiologists
20 January 1954 Australian Academy of Science
13 May 1954 University of Hull
15 July 1954 Royal Naval Association
21 December 1954 Queen Elizabeth House, Oxford
10 February 1955 University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
7 April 1955 Cuddesdon Theological College
7 April 1955 Seafarers Education Service
29 July 1955 Manchester College of Science and Technology
29 July 1955 Company of Farmers of the City of London
29 July 1955 Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
28 October 1955 University of Exeter
9 October 1956 Royal Ballet
15 February 1957 St. Edmund Hall, Oxford
22 February 1957 Institution of Chemical Engineers
15 March 1957 University of Leicester
17 May 1957 City of London Solicitors' Company
23 August 1957 English-Speaking Union of the Commonwealth
19 February 1958 British Institute of Radiology
14 March 1958 Nuffield College, Oxford
21 November 1958 Institute of Municipal Treasurers and Accountants
19 December 1958 Royal Humane Society
15 June 1959 Town Planning Institute
21 December 1959 Fourah Bay College - The University College of Sierra Leone
1960s
8 April 1960 National Army Museum
3 August 1960 Churchill College, Cambridge
26 October 1960 Westcott House, Cambridge
2 August 1961 University of Sussex
24 October 1961 Royal Archaeological Institute
24 October 1961 St. Peter's College, Oxford
6 December 1961 University of Keele
21 December 1961 Chartered Institute of Loss Adjusters
26 February 1962 University of the West Indies
2 October 1962 Magistrates' Association
28 November 1962 Library Association of Australia
26 March 1963 Society of Dyers and Colourists
2 May 1963 Royal Society of St. George
30 May 1963 Association of Commonwealth Universities
29 July 1963 University of York
29 July 1963 St. Catherine's College, Oxford
29 July 1963 Animal Health Trust
27 November 1963 University of East Anglia
27 November 1963 University of Basutoland, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland
26 March 1964 Institution of Production Engineers
23 June 1964 University of Strathclyde
23 June 1964 Liverpool Medical Institution
27 July 1964 University of Lancaster
20 November 1964 University of Kent at Canterbury
20 November 1964 University of Essex
29 January 1965 University of Warwick
26 February 1965 Science Research Council
26 February 1965 British Psychological Society
4 May 1965 Natural Environment Research Council
3 August 1965 London Mathematical Society
29 October 1965 Social Science Research Council
31 January 1966 Heriot-Watt University
24 February 1966 Loughborough University of Technology
10 March 1966 University of Aston in Birmingham
6 April 1966 City University, London
9 June 1966 Brunel University
28 July 1966 University of Surrey
28 July 1966 Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
20 September 1966 University of Bradford
20 September 1966 Bath University of Technology
10 February 1967 University of Salford
28 June 1967 University of Dundee
28 July 1967 Royal College of Art
23 August 1967 Australian Boy Scouts Association
10 October 1967 Institution of Radio and Electronic Engineers, Australia
13 November 1967 University of Stirling
13 November 1967 University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology
22 March 1968 Royal African Society
1969 Royal Hong Kong Police, reverted to Hong Kong Police after Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong
23 April 1969 The Open University
25 June 1969 Australian Academy of the Humanities for the Advancement of Scholarship in Language, Literature, History, Philosophy and the Fine Arts
-July 1969 Australian Institute of Building
28 November 1969 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
28 November 1969 Cranfield Institute of Technology
19 December 1969 Royal College of Pathologists
1970s
4 February 1970 Jockey Club (incorporating the National Hunt Committee)
4 February 1970 University of the South Pacific
28 July 1970 New University of Ulster
30 September 1970 Institute of Physics
11 March 1971 Heythrop College
22 December 1971 Chelsea College, University of London
22 December 1971 Sports Council
22 December 1971 Scottish Sports Council
22 December 1971 Sports Council for Wales
28 June 1972 New Hall, Cambridge
23 October 1972 Royal College of General Practitioners
24 October 1973 Anglo-German Foundation for the study of Industrial Society
16 October 1974 Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA)
12 February 1975 Institute of Cost and Management Accountants
12 February 1975 Institution of Metallurgists
18 March 1975 Institute of Measurement and Control
12 November 1975 College of Law
17 March 1976 Institution of Heating and Ventilating Engineers under title of "Chartered Institution of Building Services"
19 May 1976 Design Council
19 May 1976 Society of Industrial Artists and Designers
9 June 1976 Darwin College, Cambridge
15 September 1976 Institute of Bankers in Scotland
27 October 1976 Wolfson College, Cambridge
15 November 1977 University College London
25 April 1978 Carnegie Trustees for the Universities of Scotland (new)
6 February 1979 Institute of Arbitrators
14 March 1979 Building Societies Institute
14 March 1979 Institute of Biology
1980s
13 February 1980 King's College London
19 March 1980 Royal Society of Chemistry (amalgamation between Royal Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Society)
28 July 1980 Chartered Institute of Building
18 February 1981 Wolfson College, Oxford
28 October 1981 Engineering Council
10 February 1982 Institute of Foresters
11 February 1983 University of Buckingham
22 June 1983 British Film Institute
18 May 1983 Crafts Council
20 April 1984 Fellowship of Engineering
11 April 1984 Industrial Society
25 June 1984 Institute of Housing
25 June 1984 Institution of Environmental Health Officers
31 July 1984 University of Ulster
31 July 1984 British Computer Society
12 September 1984 Clare Hall, Cambridge
30 October 1984 Robinson College, Cambridge
5 June 1986 Linacre College, Oxford
8 July 1986 London Graduate School of Business Studies
10 February 1987 Institute of Bankers
10 June 1987 University of London Institute of Education
23 March 1988 College of Ophthalmologists
27 April 1988 Motability
7 February 1989 The Chartered Institute of Marketing
2 August 1989 Queen Mary and Westfield College
19 December 1989 Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind
1 November 1989 Goldsmiths College, University of London
1990s
7 June 1990 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications
26 June 1990 Royal Star and Garter Home
21 May 1991 The Henley Management College
11 February 1992 Royal College of Anaesthetists
15 July 1992 Chartered Institute of Purchasing & Supply
16 December 1993 Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council
16 December 1993 Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
16 December 1993 Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council
8 February 1994 Arts Council of England
8 February 1994 Scottish Arts Council
8 February 1994 Arts Council of Wales
15 March 1994 The Chartered Institute of Taxation
14 December 1994 Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
14 December 1994 Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils
11 April 1995 Mansfield College, Oxford
11 April 1995 Templeton College, Oxford
28 June 1995 The College of Optometrists
23 November 1995 Manchester College, Oxford
13 March 1996 York Borough Council
13 March 1996 Cardiff County Council (?)
26 June 1996 Sedgefield Borough Council
23 July 1996 North East Lincolnshire Borough Council
23 July 1996 Sport England
23 July 1996 UK Sport
23 July 1996 College Paediatrics and Child Health
26 June 1997 Landscape Institute
22 July 1997 Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge
22 July 1997 Brighton and Hove Borough Council
11 February 1998 Medway Borough Council
11 February 1998 Historic Royal Palaces
22 April 1998 St Edmund's College, Cambridge
15 October 1998 North Lincolnshire Borough Council
12 October 1999 The Prince's Trust
24 November 1999 Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund
21st century
8 February 2000 Institute of Personnel and Development
12 July 2000 The Royal Environmental Health Institute of Scotland
11 April 2001 Institution of Incorporated Engineers
11 December 2001 Chartered Institute of Wastes Management
12 February 2002 Chartered Management Institute
12 February 2002 Telford and the Wrekin Borough Council
26 June 2002 Institution of Occupational Safety and Health
12 June 2003 The Science Council
15 December 2003 Thames Valley University
11 February 2004 The Worshipful Company of Engineers
11 February 2004 The Worshipful Company of Paviors
8 May 2004 Society for the Environment
27 July 2004 The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain
13 October 2004 Association for Science Education
22 July 2005 Chartered Institute of Architectural Technologists
10 December 2007 Society for Radiological Protection
11 March 2010 Homerton College, University of Cambridge
15 May 2013 The Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom
15 May 2013 Welsh Livery Guild
17 January 2014 The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences
1 April 2015 Chartered Trading Standards Institute
22 March 2018 Police Roll of Honour Trust
1 December 2018 National Citizen Service
See also
List of Canadian organizations with royal patronage
Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council
References
Organisations
Charter | [
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239200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Jones | William Jones | William Jones may refer to:
Academics
William Jones (college principal) (1676–1725), Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, 1720–1725
William Jones (philologist) (1746–1794), English philologist who proposed a relationship among Indo-European languages
William Jones (anthropologist) (1871–1909), Native American specialist in Algonquian languages
William Henry Samuel Jones (1876–1963), American author, translator and academic
Arts and entertainment
William Ifor Jones (1900–1988), Welsh conductor and organist
William Andrew Jones (1907–1974), actor, better known as Billy De Wolfe
W. S. Jones (William Samuel Jones, 1920–2007), Welsh playwright and script writer
Wil Jones (artist) (1960–2020), Welsh portrait painter
William James Jones (born 1975), American actor
William Jones (game designer), American horror fiction writer and game designer
Business and industry
William Jones (haberdasher) (died 1615), haberdasher, philanthropist and founder of Monmouth School, Wales
William Highfield Jones (1829–1903), industrialist, local politician, author and benefactor in Wolverhampton
W. Alton Jones (1891–1962), American industrialist and philanthropist
Ernest Jones (trade unionist) (William Ernest Jones, 1895–1973), British trade union leader
Criminals
William Jones (Australian convict) (1827–1871), Australian colony ex-convict schoolteacher
William Jones (gangster) (fl. 1911), New York City criminal
W. D. Jones (1916–1974), criminal who travelled with Bonnie and Clyde
William Jones, the perpetrator of the murder of Jared Plesec
Military
William Jones (1803–1864), Union Army lieutenant colonel, politician and owner of the Colonel William Jones House in Indiana
William Jones (British Army officer) (1808–1890), British Army general
William E. Jones (general) (1824–1864), Confederate cavalry general
William Gore Jones (1826–1888), British admiral
William Jones (sailor) (1831–?), American Union Navy sailor
William Jones (VC) (1839–1913), British soldier
William H. Jones (Medal of Honor) (1842–1911), American cavalry private and Medal of Honor recipient
William M. Jones (1895–1969), Canadian Army officer
William K. Jones (1916–1998), American Marine Corps lieutenant general
William A. Jones III (1922–1969), US Air Force colonel and Medal of Honor recipient
Politics and law
U.K.
William Jones (judge) (1566–1640), Welsh judge and English Member of Parliament
William Jones (of Treowen) (died 1640), English politician who sat in the House of Commons in 1614
William Jones (Parliamentarian) (fl. 1640s), Welsh lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons
William Jones (law officer) (1631–1682), English lawyer and politician
William Nathaniel Jones (1858–1934), Welsh Liberal politician, businessman and soldier
William Jones (Arfon MP) (1859–1915), British Liberal politician
Kennedy Jones (journalist) (William Kennedy Jones, 1865–1921), British journalist and Member of Parliament
William Henry Hyndman Jones, British colonial judge and administrator
Sir William Hollingworth Quayle Jones, British judge in Sierra Leone and acting governor
U.S.
William Jones (deputy governor) (1624–1706), Deputy Governor of the Colony of Connecticut
William Jones (governor) (1753–1822), Governor of Rhode Island, 1811–1817
William Jones (statesman) (1760–1831), fourth United States Secretary of the Navy and US congressman from Pennsylvania
William Giles Jones (1808–1883), American federal judge
William E. Jones (politician) (1808 or 1810–1871), Justice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Texas
William J. Jones (1810–1897), Justice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Texas
William Hemphill Jones (1811–1880), American politician
William F. Jones (1813–1890), American politician in Indiana
William C. Jones (New York politician) (1822–1877), American politician from New York
William D. Jones (1830–1905), American politician in the Wisconsin State Assembly
William W. Jones, mayor of Toledo, Ohio (1871–1875 and 1877–1879)
William Theopilus Jones (1842–1882), delegate to the US Congress from the Territory of Wyoming
William A. Jones (politician) (1844–?), American politician in the Wisconsin State Assembly
William Atkinson Jones (1849–1918), US congressman from Virginia
William Carey Jones (1855–1927), US congressman from Washington
William Jones (Wisconsin politician) (1894–1977)
William Moseley Jones (1905–1988), American politician in the California State Assembly
William Blakely Jones (1907–1979), American federal judge
William H. Jones (South Carolina politician), state legislator in South Carolina
William Stafford Jones, political consultant in Florida
Elsewhere
William Jones (Welsh radical) (1726–1795), Welsh political radical
William Jones (Chartist) (1809–1873), Welsh political radical and Chartist
William Jones (New Zealand politician) (1868–1953), member of parliament in New Zealand
William Jones (Newfoundland politician) (1873–1930), physician and politician in Newfoundland
Religion
William Jones of Nayland (1726–1800), British Anglican priest and author
William Jones (Welsh priest) (1755–1821), Welsh Anglican priest
William Jones (Welsh Baptist writer) (1762–1846)
William Henry Jones (1817–1885), English Anglican priest and antiquarian
William Basil Jones (1822–1897), Welsh Anglican bishop of St David's
J. William Jones (1836–1909), American Baptist minister and Lost Cause advocate
William Jones (bishop of Puerto Rico) (1865–1921), American Catholic bishop of Puerto Rico
William Jones (dean of Brecon) (1897–1974), British Anglican priest
William A. Jones (bishop of Missouri) (1927–2020), Bishop of Missouri
William Augustus Jones Jr. (1934–2006), American Baptist minister and civil rights movement leader
Science and medicine
William Jones (mathematician) (1675–1749), Welsh mathematician who proposed the use of the symbol π
William Jones (naturalist) (1745–1818), English naturalist and entomologist
William Jones (optician) (1763–1831), English optician and scientific instrument maker
William Allen Jones (1831–1897), Canadian dentist and miner
William Eifion Jones (1925–2004), Welsh marine botanist
William Paul Jones (born 1952), cognitive scientist
Sports
Association football (soccer)
William P. Jones (1870–1953), Druids F.C. and Wales international footballer
William Roberts Jones (1870–1938), Aberystwyth F.C. and Wales international footballer
William Jones (English footballer, born 1876) (1876–1959), Bristol City F.C., Tottenham Hotspur F.C. and England international footballer
William Jones (Welsh footballer, born 1876) (1876–1918), West Ham United F.C. and Wales international footballer
William Lot Jones (bap. 1882–1941), Manchester City F.C. and Wales international footballer
William Jones (Port Vale footballer) (fl. 1905)
William Jones (English footballer, fl. 1930s), English footballer with Gillingham F.C.
Morris Jones (footballer) (William Morris Jones, 1919–1993), English footballer with Port Vale F.C., Swindon Town F.C. and others
Basketball
Renato William Jones (1906–1981), popularizer of basketball in Europe & Asia and a founding father of FIBA
Wil Jones (basketball coach) (1938–2014), American basketball point guard and coach
Wil Jones (basketball) (born 1947), American basketball power forward
Combat sports
William Jones (British wrestler), British Olympic wrestler in 1908
Gorilla Jones (William Landon Jones, 1906–1982), American boxer, world Middleweight champion
William Jones (wrestler) (born 1969), American professional wrestler, best known under the ring name "Chilly Willy"
Cricket
William Jones (South Australia cricketer) (1864–1924), Australian cricketer
William Jones (cricketer, born 1911) (1911–1941), Welsh cricketer
William Jones (cricketer, born 1990), Australian-born English cricketer
Water sports
William Jones (rower) (1925–2014), Uruguayan rower who competed in the 1948 Summer Olympics
William Jones (canoeist) (born 1931), Australian sprint canoer
William Jones (Canadian sailor) (born 1995), Canadian sailor
Other sports
Bert Jones (rugby) (William Herbert Jones, 1906–1982), rugby union and rugby league football for Wales, Llanelli, and St. Helens
Brer Jones (William Jones, fl. 1932), American baseball player
Dub Jones (American football) (William Augustus Jones, born 1924), American football player
William Jones (sport shooter) (1928–2017), Canadian Olympic shooter
Others
William Bence Jones (1812–1882), Anglo-Irish agriculturist
William Ebeneezer Jones Jr. (born 1959), missing child in New Jersey
William A. Jones (writer), British author of MindWealth: building Personal Wealth from Intellectual Property Right
Other uses
William Jones (novel), a 1944 Welsh-language novel by T. Rowland Hughes
See also
Bill Jones (disambiguation)
Billy Jones (disambiguation)
Will Jones (disambiguation)
Willie Jones (disambiguation)
William Corbett-Jones, American pianist
William Stanton Jones (1866–1951), Anglican bishop
William Todd-Jones (born 1973), British puppet designer and performer
William West Jones (1838–1908), second Bishop and first Archbishop of Cape Town | [
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239205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum%20tree | Gum tree | Gum tree is a common name for smooth-barked trees and shrubs in several genera:
Eucalypteae, particularly:
Eucalyptus, which includes the majority of species of gum trees.
Corymbia, which includes the ghost gums and spotted gums.
Angophora, which includes the Sydney red gum (Angophora costata)
Black gum, Nyssa sylvatica
Sweetgum, Liquidambar spp.
Water gum, Tristaniopsis laurina
See also
Gum Tree, Arkansas | [
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239210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Waikato | University of Waikato | The University of Waikato (), is a comprehensive university. The university's main campus is in Hamilton, New Zealand and was established in 1964. An additional campus is located in Tauranga.
The university provides a strong, research-led global contribution in the disciplines of education, social sciences, and management and is an innovator in environmental science, marine and freshwater ecology, engineering and computer science.
It offers degrees in Health, Engineering, computer science, management, Māori and Indigenous Studies, the Arts, Psychology, Social Sciences and Education.
History
In the mid 1950s, regional and national leaders recognised the need for a new university and urged the then University of New Zealand (UNZ) and the Government to establish one in Hamilton. Their campaign coincided with a shortage of school teachers, and after years of lobbying, then Minister of Education Phil Skoglun agreed to open a teachers’ college in the region.
In 1960, the newly established Hamilton Teachers’ College, joined by a fledgling university (initially a branch of the University of Auckland), opened a joint campus at Ruakura
In 1964, the two institutions moved to their new home, and the following year the University of Waikato was officially opened by then Governor-General Sir Bernard Fergusson.
At that time, the university comprised a School of Humanities and a School of Social Sciences. In 1969 a School of Science was established. This was followed by the creation of the Waikato Management School in 1972, Computer Science and Computing Services in 1973, and the School of Law in 1990.
From the beginning, it was envisaged that Māori studies should be a key feature of the new university, and the Centre for Māori Studies and Research was established in the School of Social Sciences in 1972. A separate School of Māori and Pacific Development was formally established in 1996 and in 2016, became Te Pua Wānanga ki te Ao, Faculty of Māori and Indigenous Studies. In 1999, the original Schools of Humanities and Social Sciences were merged to form the School of Arts and Social Sciences.
In 2018 the University was reorganised under a divisional structure which resulted in its Schools and Faculties being brought under four Divisions and a School; Division of Arts, Law, Psychology and Social Sciences, Division of Education, Division of Health, Engineering and Computer Sciences, Waikato Management School and the Faculty of Māori and Indigenous Studies. Although the University has had a presence in Tauranga since the 1990s, it officially opened its dedicated Tauranga campus in 2019 located in Tauranga’s CBD. This added to the University’s presence in the Bay of Plenty with the Adams Centre for High Performance in Mount Maunganui and the Coastal Marine Field Station in Sulphur Point on the Tauranga Harbour. In November 2020, the University also opened a new algal research and aquaculture facility in Sulphur Point.
The Kīngitanga, Waikato-Tainui and the University
Born in the 1840s and 1850s, the establishment of the Kīngitanga was a united national response of Māori chiefs to the effects of the signing of Te Tiriti o Waitangi/The Treaty of Waitangi, and the establishment of the settler Government. From its inception, the Kīngitanga has had the role of leading, governing and representing Māori, as the rafters on one side of the house of Aotearoa, with the Queen and her subjects as the rafters on the other.
In relation to the University, the Kīngitanga has played a pivotal role, with King Koroki giving his personal support to the establishment of a university in Kirikiriroa/Hamilton, which led to the project gaining the support of Waikato iwi. This is notable as, when the University of Waikato was set up in 1964, it was on a site that had been part of lands confiscated from Waikato-Tainui by the Crown in 1865, only returned later, in 1995.
The University and the Kīngitanga have had an active relationship over the course of the University’s history, including the establishment of the new campus in Tauranga, and the awarding of honorary doctorates to a number of tribal members. Most recently, doctoral honours were awarded to Kīngi Tūheitia in 2016.
General information
Divisions, faculties, schools and research institutes
Structure and governance
The chief executive of the University of Waikato is the vice-chancellor, currently Professor Neil Quigley. The university is governed by a council, headed by the university's chancellor, who is currently former New Zealand governor-general Sir Anand Satyanand.
Te Rōpū Manukura was formed in 1991 as a consultative body to the university council. Te Rōpū Manukura is currently made up of members from over 20 different iwi within the catchment area of the university.
The following list shows the university's chancellors:
Campuses
The University of Waikato operates from two campuses, Hamilton, and Tauranga. Undergraduate degrees are also offered through a joint-institute on a satellite campus at Zhejiang University City College in Hangzhou.
Hamilton
The main Hamilton campus is spread over 64 hectares of landscaped gardens and lakes, and includes extensive sporting and recreational areas. Originally farmland, the campus was designed by architect John Blake-Kelly in 1964. The open space landscaping contains extensive native plantings, including a fernery, centred around three lakes.
Tauranga
The University of Waikato previously shared campuses with Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology in Tauranga at Windmere in the central city. In March 2019, the University opened a stand-alone campus in the central city.
The Student Centre officially opened in 2011 by Waikato alumnus Governor-General Jerry Mateparae.
Rankings
In the latest 2021 QS rankings, The University of Waikato is ranked at 373 out of the world’s top 1,000 universities. Additionally, the university has been ranked between 501-600 for the Times Higher (THE) World University Rankings and between 101-200 in the THE Impact Rankings.
Alumni
Waikato Management School
Rt Hon Jacinda Ardern, 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand
Jan Zijderveld, former CEO of Avon Products and Europe President at Unilever
Vittoria Shortt, CEO ASB Bank
Kevin Bowler, CEO My Food Bag
Division of Arts, Law and Social Sciences
Judge Craig Coxhead, Māori Land Court Judge and Chief Justice of Niue
Tania Te Rangingangana Simpson, Deputy Chair and Director Reserve Bank of New Zealand
The Honourable Dame Annette King, Former Member of Parliament
Wayne Smith, CNZM previous All Blacks player and 2011 All Blacks coach
Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Mathematical Sciences and Science
Dr Shane Legg, Co-founder and Chief Scientist Google DeepMind
Dr Craig Nevill-Manning, Founder and Director of Google’s first remote engineering centre, key developer of Google Maps and Froogle
Dr Andrew Smith, CEO Profile Foods
Professor Tom Higham, Professor of Archaeological Science, Deputy Director of the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit
Division of Education
Professor Fui Le’api Tu’ua ‘Īlaoa Asofou So’o, Vice-Chancellor and President of the National University of Samoa
Warren Gatland OBE, Head Coach, Chiefs, British and Irish Lions
Alyn Ware, International Representative of the Peace Foundation, International Coordinator for the Parliamentary Network for Nuclear Disarmament and Consultant for the International Association of Lawyers Against Nuclear Arms
Honourable Dr Derek Sikua, ninth Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands
Faculty of Maori and Indigenous Studies
Hinewehi Mohi MNZM, Managing Director, Raukatauri Productions Ltd, singer and songwriter, co-founder and trustee of the Raukatauri Music Therapy Centre
Tania Te Rangingangana Simpson, Deputy Chair and Director Reserve Bank of New Zealand
Turanga Hoturoa Barclay-Kerr CNZM, master voyager and co-chair of the national coordinating committee for the Tuia 250 - Encounters programme
Willow-Jean Prime, Member of Parliament
The University of Waikato's official website lists other notable alumni, referred as "Distinguished Alumni" by the university.
Staff
See also
List of honorary doctors of the University of Waikato
References
External links
Waikato
Public universities
Educational institutions established in 1964
1964 establishments in New Zealand | [
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239213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madge%20Oberholtzer | Madge Oberholtzer | Madge Augustine Oberholtzer (November 10, 1896 – April 14, 1925) was a white American woman whose rape and murder played a critical role in the demise of the second incarnation of the Ku Klux Klan. In March 1925, while working for the state of Indiana on an adult literacy campaign, Oberholtzer was abducted by D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan. Holding her captive in his private train car, Stephenson raped and tortured her. Oberholtzer died from a combination of a staphylococcal infection from her injuries and kidney failure from mercury chloride poisoning, which she took while held captive in an attempt to commit suicide.
Following the suicide attempt, Stephenson's men returned Oberholtzer to her home, assuming her injuries would soon prove fatal and believing their influential leader was immune to any prosecution. However, Oberholtzer regained consciousness long enough to give a signed statement to police. She described Stephenson's assaults which led to his conviction at trial and led to the rapid decline of KKK membership in Indiana.
Early life
Born to German-American parents, Madge Oberholtzer grew up in Indianapolis, where her father worked as a postal clerk and her family belonged to the Irvington Methodist Church. Oberholtzer studied English, mathematics, zoology and logic at Butler College in Irvington, but she dropped out at the end of her junior year without saying why. Through her life, she lived with her parents in Irvington. By the time she met Stephenson, Oberholtzer was the manager of the Indiana Young People's Reading Circle, a special section of the Indiana Department of Public Instruction. However, she heard rumors that her job and the Reading Circle program were about to be eliminated due to budget cuts.
Chronology of the murder
Oberholtzer met Stephenson while attending Governor Edward L. Jackson's inauguration party at the Athletic Club in Indianapolis on January 12, 1925. In her dying statement, Oberholtzer claimed he asked her for a date several times after the banquet, but she refused; she eventually agreed, though, and they had dinner together. Following that date, Stephenson called Oberholtzer on the phone several times. She finally agreed to meet him for dinner at the Washington Hotel.
The two began seeing each other more frequently, and Oberholtzer acted as Stephenson's aide during the 1925 session of the Indiana General Assembly, carrying messages from his office to his friends. She also helped him write a nutrition book, One Hundred Years of Health. Using her Reading Circle connections, Oberholtzer intended to help Stephenson sell the book to school libraries throughout the state. She ended their relationship after attending a party at his mansion. They did not meet again until Sunday, March 15.
About 10:00 pm on March 15, Oberholtzer returned home after an evening with a friend. Her mother told her that Stephenson's secretary had called and said he was leaving for Chicago, leaving a message to call him before he left. Oberholtzer called Stephenson, who told her he would try to protect the Reading Circle program and her job if she agreed to see him. She changed into a black velvet dress, and a bodyguard she identified as "Mr. Gentry" arrived and escorted her to Stephenson's mansion a few blocks away. When she arrived, Stephenson, Gentry, and another bodyguard Oberholtzer identified as "Clenck" took her into the kitchen and forced her to drink whiskey until she became sick. The four men then took her upstairs, and Stephenson took a revolver from a dresser drawer and forced her to approach him at gunpoint.
Oberholtzer said the men took her to the garage and forced her into Stephenson's car. Before they left, Stephenson told Clenck to stay behind and tell his associate, Claude Worley, that he was going to Chicago for a business meeting. When they reached the railroad station, Stephenson and Gentry forced Oberholtzer onto Stephenson's private train to Chicago. No sooner had they entered the train's compartment coach than Stephenson grabbed the bottom of her dress and pulled it over her head. He then grabbed her hands, tore off the rest of her clothes, pushed her into the lower bed, and raped her repeatedly. He also bit her all over her body; an examination later revealed deep bite wounds on her face, neck, breasts, back, legs, ankles, and tongue. Oberholtzer, still intoxicated and unable to resist, eventually passed out.
Upon waking, Oberholtzer confronted Stephenson and said, "The law will get their hands on you!" Because Stephenson's connections to the Indiana Klan gave him tremendous political power, he laughed and replied, "I am the law in Indiana." Gentry and Stephenson dressed Oberholtzer and told her they would be stopping in Hammond, where the three checked into the Indiana Hotel. Stephenson forced Oberholtzer to say that she was his wife so they could share the same room. He forced her to write a telegram to her mother, saying she had decided to go to Chicago with him. While Stephenson was sleeping, Oberholtzer grabbed his revolver to kill herself but changed her mind, fearing it would dishonor her mother. Instead, she decided to commit suicide by taking poison. The next morning, Oberholtzer convinced Stephenson to contact another chauffeur, whom Stephenson nicknamed "Shorty", and tell him to come to the hotel so she could purchase a black silk hat.
Upon purchasing the hat, Oberholtzer asked Shorty to drive her to a druggist to buy some rouge. She bought an entire box of mercuric chloride tablets. Oberholtzer returned to her room but, still weakened from the wounds Stephenson had inflicted on her, only managed to swallow three tablets. She vomited blood throughout the remainder of the day. Stephenson insisted that he would not take her to a hospital unless she agreed to go to a nearby chapel and marry him; however, he panicked and ordered Shorty to drive them back to Indianapolis. When he was asked what had happened, a bodyguard said she had been in a car accident.
Oberholtzer's parents immediately called a doctor, but nothing could be done to save her. On March 28, Oberholtzer explained what had happened to her in a signed statement. She died on April 14, 1925, from a staph infection from the bites, plus kidney failure from the mercury poisoning. She was buried at Memorial Park Cemetery in Indianapolis.
Trial
Stephenson was indicted on charges of rape and second-degree murder. The doctor who had examined Oberholtzer testified that the injuries she received were sufficient to have killed her, as her wounds developed an infection that reached her lungs and kidneys.
Stephenson's attorney claimed Oberholtzer had committed suicide, saying the rapist could not have anticipated her behavior. The prosecution countered to the effect that, based on medical testimony, prompt medical attention might have saved her life. During closing statements, the prosecutor decried Stephenson as a "destroyer of virtue and womanhood". The jury found him guilty of second-degree murder, rape, and kidnapping, and the court sentenced him to life in prison. The Indiana Supreme Court rejected his appeal. This case is still taught in law schools as showing an enlargement of the causal relationships that define homicide.
Aftermath
The brutal attack on Oberholtzer so outraged most members of the Indiana Klan that entire lodges quit en masse, and membership dropped by the tens of thousands. The scandal destroyed the Klan in Indiana, and in the following two years, the KKK lost more than 178,000 members, nearly disappearing.
Denied a pardon in 1926, Stephenson started talking to the Indianapolis Times, giving the names of officials who had accepted bribes and payments from the Klan, prompting an investigation by the newspaper. The state of Indiana finally indicted several high-ranking officials, including Governor Jackson and the head of the Republican Party in Marion County. Other local officials resigned when facing charges. The Times investigation revealed widespread political corruption, which helped destroy the Klan in Indiana and nationwide. By February 1928, Indiana Klan rosters had dropped to just 4,000, from a peak of more than 250,000 members in 1925.
Stephenson was paroled on March 23, 1950, but he violated the conditions of his parole by disappearing around September 25 of that year. He was captured in Minneapolis on December 15, and was ordered by the court in 1951 to serve another ten years. He was paroled on December 22, 1956, on the condition that he leave Indiana and never return.
In 1961, Stephenson was arrested in Tennessee at age 70 on charges of sexually assaulting a 16-year-old girl, but the charges were dropped on grounds of insufficient evidence. He died five years later.
Representation in other media
Actress Mel Harris portrayed Oberholtzer in the TV miniseries Cross of Fire (1989).
See also
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing person cases
References
Further reading
Ottinger, Charlotte Halsema; "Madge, The Life and Times of Madge Oberholtzer: the Young Irvington Woman Who Took Down D. C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan," Irvington Historical Society, 2021.
Lutholtz, M. William; Grand Dragon: D.C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana.
Newton, Michael, and Judy Ann Newton; The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia, New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1991.
"Ku Klux Klan Resources", Indiana State Library
"STEPHENSON v. STATE - Supreme Court of Indiana", State University of New York at Buffalo
External links
1896 births
1920s missing person cases
1925 crimes
1925 deaths
1925 murders in the United States
20th-century American educators
20th-century American women
20th-century American women educators
American murder victims
American people of German descent
Deaths from staphylococcal infection
Deaths from kidney failure
Deaths by poisoning
Female murder victims
Formerly missing people
History of women in Indiana
Incidents of violence against women
Kidnapped American people
Ku Klux Klan crimes
Missing person cases in Indiana
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Schoolteachers from Indiana | [
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239214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Boog%20Leishman | William Boog Leishman | Lieutenant-General Sir William Boog Leishman, (, 6 November 1865 – 2 June 1926) was a Scottish pathologist and British Army medical officer. He was Director-General of Army Medical Services from 1923 to 1926.
Biography
Leishman was born in Glasgow and attended Westminster School and the University of Glasgow and entered the Royal Army Medical Corps. He served in India, where he did research on enteric fever and kala-azar. He returned to the United Kingdom and was stationed at the Victoria Hospital in Netley in 1897. In 1900 he was made Assistant Professor of Pathology in the Army Medical School, and described a method of staining blood for malaria and other parasites—a modification and simplification of the existing Romanowsky method using a compound of methylene blue and eosin, which became known as Leishman's stain.
In 1901, while examining pathologic specimens of a spleen from a patient who had died of kala azar (now called "visceral leishmaniasis"), he observed oval bodies and published his account of them in 1903. Charles Donovan of the Indian Medical Service independently found such bodies in other kala azar patients, and they are now known as Leishman–Donovan bodies (not to be confused with Donovan bodies, which are found in Granuloma inguinale, which is caused by Klebsiella granulomatis) and recognized as the protozoan that causes kala azar, Leishmania donovani.
Leishman's name was engraved into the history of parasitology by Sir Ronald Ross, who was impressed by Leishman's work and classified the etiologic agent of kala azar into the separate genus Leishmania. The parasitic organisms from this genus were described earlier by Peter Borovsky in 1892.
Leishman also helped elucidate the life cycle of Spirochaeta duttoni, which causes African tick fever, and, with Almroth Wright, helped develop an effective anti-typhoid inoculation.
He was president of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in 1911–1912 and Director General of the Army Medical Services from 1923 to 1926.
He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery.
Recognition
Leishman's name features on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the School building in Keppel Street when it was constructed in 1926.
A memorial fund was instituted by subscriptions raised in memory of him and the Leishman Memorial Prize is now awarded annually for work in any branch of medicine, surgery, allied sciences or general duties of the RAMC or RADC.
See also
Leishman stain
Leishmaniasis
Romanowsky stain
References
1865 births
1926 deaths
Medical doctors from Glasgow
Scottish parasitologists
Scottish military medical officers
Scottish inventors
Scottish pathologists
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
People educated at Westminster School, London
British Army generals
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Bachelor
Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Military personnel from Glasgow | [
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239216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Nevada%2C%20Las%20Vegas | University of Nevada, Las Vegas | The University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) is a public land-grant research university in Paradise, Nevada. The campus is about east of the Las Vegas Strip. It was formerly part of the University of Nevada from 1957 to 1969. It includes the Shadow Lane Campus, just east of the University Medical Center of Southern Nevada, which houses both School of Medicine and School of Dental Medicine. UNLV's law school, the William S. Boyd School of Law, is the only law school in the state.
It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". According to the National Science Foundation, UNLV spent $83 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 165th in the nation.
History
The first college classes, which eventually became the classes of UNLV, were offered as the southern regional extension division of the University of Nevada, in 1959 in a classroom at Las Vegas High School. In 1955, State Senator Mahlon Brown "sponsored the legislation to provide $200,000 to construct the campus's first building" – Frazier Hall. Groundbreaking on the original site was in April 1956, and the university purchased a site in North Las Vegas for future expansion. UNLV was officially founded by the Nevada Board of Regents as the Southern Division of the University of Nevada on September 10, 1957. The first classes were held on the current campus in the post and beam Mid Century Modern Maude Frazier Hall designed by the local architectural firm, Zick & Sharp. Twenty-nine students graduated in the first commencement ceremonies in 1964.
In 1965, the Nevada Legislature named the school Nevada Southern University, and the Board of Regents hired the campus's first president, Donald C. Moyer, who died in 2008 at the age of 88.
In 1968, Nevada Southern was given equal status with its parent institution in Reno, and the present name was approved by the regents in January 1969, during a winter session and without the need of input from representatives from the University of Nevada, Reno. During this time, Nevada Southern University also adopted the southern "Rebel" athletics moniker and a mascot dressed in a southern Confederate uniform named Beauregard. The popular reasoning behind such a controversial moniker and mascot is that they did it to oppose the northern Union traditions and symbols of their northern rival, the University of Nevada. Soon, protests from NSU/UNLV students forced a slight change to their Confederate mascot, but the "Rebels" moniker remains to this day. Since its founding, the university has grown rapidly, expanding both its academic programs and campus facilities.
In 1969, the board of regents approved the name University of Nevada, Las Vegas and the abbreviation UNLV.
In 1973, Jerry Tarkanian was hired as the men's basketball coach by UNLV's second president, Roman Zorn.
The Center for Business and Economic Research was established in 1975 for research projects that assist in the development of the Nevada economy and assist state and local agencies and private-sector enterprises in the collection and analysis of economic and market data.
In 1981, Claes Oldenburg's Flashlight sculpture was installed on the plaza between Artemus Ham Hall and Judy Bayley Theatre.
The Lied Institute for Real Estate Studies was established in 1989.
In 2001, Lied Library officially opened to the public on January 8, at a final cost of $55.3 million.
In 2002, the School of Dental Medicine opened to train students, and to offer low-cost dental care to residents.
In 2003, the Institute for Security Studies was established to address homeland security concerns. The Lynn Bennett Childhood Development Center opened.
In 2004, UNLV opened its first regional campus on Shadow Lane, near the University Medical Center. The School of Dental Medicine is located on the Shadow Lane Campus. Also, the School of Public Health was established in the Division of Health Sciences to address new and emerging public-health issues.
In 2005, construction began on the $113 million science and engineering building, which has 200,000 square feet of teaching space, laboratories, and high-tech conference rooms. The building, completed in 2008, was designed to support interdisciplinary research; draw students to high-demand fields such as electrical engineering, computer science, and environmental science; and attract national and international researchers. UNLV launched its first comprehensive campaign, Invent the Future, with the goal of raising $500 million by December 2008. Also, the Air Force ROTC program was established on campus.
In 2006, The Nevada System of Higher Education Board of Regents raised the minimum GPA to 3.0 for admittance to UNLV. UNLV opened its first international campus in Singapore, where the William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration offered a bachelor's degree program in hospitality management. UNLV planned to end its partnership with the Singapore Institute of Technology by 2015, due to economic issues such as rising tuition in Las Vegas and the falling value of the U.S. dollar in Singapore.
In 2007, an expanded student union (with study and social lounges, eateries, a new ballroom and a 300-seat theater) and a new student recreation center (with high-tech weight and fitness rooms, swimming pools, and a juice bar) opened in the fall. These facilities reflected UNLV's goal of becoming more student-centered. The Greenspun College of Urban Affairs broke ground for the $94 million Greenspun Hall, which showcased the latest environmental and technological advancements and served as an anchor for "Midtown UNLV."
In 2011, UNLV's business college was formally renamed after a $15 million donation from the Ted and Doris Lee family, the Las Vegas real estate, hotel, restaurant, and casino investors.
In 2016, UNLV hosted the final presidential debate between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. The Hank Greenspun School of Journalism and Media Studies covered the debate on their local station UNLV-TV. This featured a three-hour-live broadcast of round-table student commentary, interviews, and coverage from the spin room inside the Thomas and Mack Center.
In 2017, the Dean of UNLV School of Community Health Sciences Shawn Gerstenberger shut down the only HIV clinic for children and pregnant women in Southern Nevada region for ethical violations. Gerstenberger was accused by multiple women of harassment and discrimination.
In 2018, UNLV President Len Jessup had received unfavorable performance reviews from the system chancellor. Ethical concerns were raised when a $14 million donation was conditioned on his continual employment, but the UNLV Foundation Board of Trustees conducted an ethics investigation that uncovered no self-dealings by Jessup and the donor.
In 2019, UNLV renamed the School of Community Health Sciences as the School of Public Health.
Organization
UNLV offers more than 350 bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in varying fields, which are taught by 850 faculty members.
Academic schools, colleges and divisions:
Black Mountain Institute
The Black Mountain Institute (BMI) is a literary center at the university. It focuses on "live experiences, fellowships, innovative media, and literary activism".
Research
UNLV research and economic development activities increased for the fourth consecutive year, according to the fiscal-year-end report from the Division of Research and Economic Development. Research awards rose by 7.5 percent to nearly $34.5 million, and proposals increased by two percent. Research expenditures in FY18 totaled $37 million.
The College of Sciences received the largest amount of award funding among the colleges once again this fiscal year: nearly $15 million through more than 100 awards. Engineering followed with roughly $7.6 million in awards. The College of Education posted the largest percentage gain in award funding in FY16 with a nearly 47% increase from $1,776,332 in FY15 to $2,609,366 in FY16.
UNLV's economic development activities continue to grow. Sixty-one patents were filed in FY16, an increase of 17% over FY15, and licensing revenue doubled from $126,242 in FY15 to $252,309 in FY16.
Another measure of university research activity is the number of doctoral degrees conferred, as doctoral programs require a strong research component culminating in the doctoral dissertation. UNLV doctoral conferrals increased nearly 13% in FY16 to 166 degrees conferred. For the 2017–2018 school year, 163 doctoral degrees were conferred.
Academics
Undergraduate admissions
UNLV's admissions process is considered "selective" according to U.S. News & World Report. For freshmen entering fall 2018, 9,527 were accepted out of 11,613 applicants, and 3,947 enrolled. Women constituted 57.9% of the incoming class; men were 42.1%.
Among freshman students who enrolled in fall 2016, SAT scores for the middle 50% ranged from 450 to 560 for critical reading, 450–570 for math, and 430–540 for writing. ACT composite scores for the middle 50% ranged from 19 to 24. In terms of class rank, 20% of enrolled freshmen were in the top 10% of their high school classes; 52% ranked in the top quarter, and 82% ranked in the top half. The average high school grade point average was 3.31.
Rankings
According to the QS World University Rankings, William F. Harrah College of Hospitality's Hotel Administration program is ranked No. 2 in the world in 2020.
Lee Business School's part-time MBA program is ranked in the top 28% in U.S. News & World Report's 2014 ranking of best business graduate programs.
The Atlantic recognized UNLV's English department as having one of the nation's most innovative master of fine arts programs and one of the top-five doctoral programs in creative writing.
Down Beat magazine, the internationally recognized industry standard trade publication for jazz music, recognized the work of the 2010 UNLV Jazz Ensemble as "Outstanding Large Jazz Ensemble Performance" among graduate college-level jazz bands in their annual Student Music Award issue of that year.
In 2018, UNLV surpassed New York University as the most diverse university for undergraduates according to U.S. News & World Report.
Student life
Much of the student life at UNLV revolves around its Student Union, which houses the offices for its student government and student organizations on its third floor.
Student government
The Consolidated Students of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (CSUN) is the undergraduate student government at UNLV. This body consists of an executive board, a senate of 25 members from all of the colleges at UNLV, a judicial council, and directors who plan and organize events and marketing. CSUN currently has an annual budget of about $1 million, funded through student fees. The senate ways and means committee determines how the CSUN budget will be divided or set aside for items such as student organization funding and scholarships. The final say on spending in CSUN is the senate.
Together with UNLV, CSUN founded an on-campus preschool in 1974 as part of the College of Education. Both students and staff can use this accredited preschool.
The graduate student government at UNLV, called The Graduate and Professional Student Association, is separate from the undergraduate student government.
Student organizations
UNLV has over 350 student organizations. To become official, the organization must become recognized by UNLV's Involvement Center.
Newspaper
The Scarlet and Gray Free Press is the student newspaper on campus. It covers many topics about higher education in UNLV and the state. The paper extensively covers CSUN senate meetings and elections. It is printed twice weekly and posts its articles online. Recently, the newspaper's name was changed from Rebel Yell to its current iteration, as the former title was criticized for its reference to Confederate culture.
Greek life
Campus
The main campus of UNLV is on 332-acres in centrally located Paradise, Nevada.
Midtown UNLV is an ongoing private-public development along Maryland Parkway, a border street to the school. Development began in 2002 and its purpose is to expand the university to meet the demands of a major university in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The project to improve the "front door" of the university by improving amenities for students and businesses along Maryland Parkway. The goals are to reduce vacant spaces, lower business turnover rates, and create space for the university to expand. Additionally, the project aims to create new housing developments close to campus. Major funding is through state funding sources along with private donations.
Sustainability
The University of Nevada, Las Vegas has created an Urban Sustainability Initiative that strives to implement sustainable practices on campus and in the larger Las Vegas community. In addition to having two campus buildings in the process of LEED Silver Certification and one building in the process of LEED Gold Certification, UNLV has reduced its use of electricity and natural gas by 38% per square foot since 2001 by retrofitting older campus buildings. In the 2009 edition of the Sustainable Endowment Institute's College Sustainability Report Card, University of Nevada-Las Vegas received a grade of "C".
The Science and Engineering building received a LEED Silver rating in March 2009. SEB achieved this rating by using recycled glass, steel, concrete, and wood. More than 60% of the leftover construction materials were recycled. The roof of SEB was made to reflect 92% of sunlight. This reduces the amount of heat absorbed into the building, so reduces energy needed to cool the building. Incoming air to SEB is also cooled through evaporation so the need for air conditioning is reduced. High-performance window glazing also allows light to come in while keeping the building insulated. Occupancy sensors allow lights to automatically turn off when a room is not occupied, saving electricity. Low-flow sinks, toilets, and showers, as well as a drip irrigation system for the native desert landscape, reduce water usage by 42%. SEB also uses a reclaimed water system that captures wastewater, providing 750 gallons of water a day that are used to flush toilets.
The Greenspun College of Urban Affairs building of UNLV received a LEED Gold rating in April 2010.
In 2009, UNLV received the Cashman Good Government Award for the campus' sustainability measures for "maintaining consistent energy costs despite substantial campus growth," saving nearly $11 million from 2001 to 2009. UNLV was also recognized for managing the xeric demonstration garden and for its recycling efforts.
Recent efforts by the university to improve sustainability practices include participation in the Solar Decathlon and creation of a Sustainability Coordinator position to investigate methods for improving sustainability of residence halls.
Residence halls
Four residence-hall complexes are on the campus: Dayton Complex, Tonopah Complex, South Residential Complex, and Upper Class Complex.
Libraries
UNLV has several libraries on the main campus. The biggest is the Lied Library in the center of campus. Opened in 2001, the , $58 million facility is named for real estate entrepreneur Ernst W. Lied.
Many colleges also have their individual libraries that hold materials more closely related to the college:
The Architecture Studies Library in the UNLV School of Architecture
The Teacher Development & Resources Library in the College of Education
The Music Library in the Lee & Thomas Beam Music Center
The Wiener-Rogers Law Library in the William S. Boyd School of Law
Athletic facilities
UNLV's main athletic facilities include Thomas & Mack Center (1983), Cox Pavilion, Buchanan Natatorium, Earl Wilson Stadium, and Allegiant Stadium. These facilities hold home games for UNLV sports programs and have hosted events such as the Mountain West Conference Basketball Tournament and the National Finals Rodeo.
In 2007, the recreation center was completed. It caters to the needs of UNLV students' physical and mental health.
The Mendenhall Center, a training center dedicated for the UNLV basketball program, opened in 2012. The Fertitta Football Complex for UNLV Football opened in 2019.
Other notable buildings
Performing arts facilities include the Judy Bayley Theatre (1972), the Artemus W. Ham Concert Hall (1976), the Black Box Theatre, the Alta Ham Fine Arts Complex (1982), and the Lee and Thomas Beam Music Center (2001).
In 1997, the Paul B. Sogg Architecture Building opened.
In 2007, a new student union was opened. This building offers many amenities for students including a social atmosphere, a diverse food court, conference rooms, a game room, student government offices, and student organization offices.
One of the newer buildings on campus, the Greenspun Hall, opened its doors in 2008. Home to the Greenspun College of Urban Affairs and the Brookings Mountain West Institute, this five-story, 120,000-square-foot building is home to state-of-the art media facilities. It also houses the campus radio station KUNV-FM, student-run HD2 radio station, and the television production organization UNLV-TV. Certified under the LEEDrating system, the building was named after Las Vegas Sun founder and publisher Hank Greenspun. The Greenspun family also donated $37 million to the total cost of the building.
In 2008, the Science and Engineering Building opened. It was created to serve both the College of Sciences and the Howard R. Hughes College of Engineering in an environmentally friendly manner.
Athletics
UNLV supports varsity teams in 16 different sports. The men's basketball team is referred to as the Runnin' Rebels and the men's baseball team is referred to as the Hustlin' Rebels. The Rebels are a founding member of the Mountain West Conference, in the NCAA's Division I. The only exceptions are the UNLV men's soccer team and swim and dive team, which compete in the Western Athletic Conference.
The school's official colors of scarlet and gray can be traced to 1958, when UNLV adopted as mascot a wolf wearing a Confederate uniform. Scarlet and gray were traditional colors of the Confederacy with its gray uniforms and red-based flag. UNLV's mascot is Hey Reb!, the toned-down version of the original mascot named Beauregard, which was a wolf character dressed in Confederate hat and uniform. UNLV's Hey Reb mascot made his debut in 1983. He received his first makeover in 1997 and second in 2009. Named one of 12 All-American Mascots, he competed for the title of 2004 Capital One Mascot of the Year and made a strong showing by coming in second in online voting. No stranger to national television, Hey Reb has also appeared in two memorable ESPN SportsCenter commercials.
UNLV's mascot is based on the university's split from their literal Northern rival, University of Nevada (Reno) and not on any direct reference to the actual Confederacy. As UNLV was once a Southern campus of the University of Nevada (Reno) when it became its own university, UNLV was seen as literally the South splitting from the North. UNLV had been seen as the little brother to UNR for quite some time even though Las Vegas has always been the more densely populated city of the two. Thus, the University of Nevada (Reno) Wolf mascot was dressed as a confederate soldier in UNLV colors and made the UNLV mascot as a Rebel to the UNR Wolf Pack which became the main rival of UNLV. The original basketball center court with the wolf mascot is still at the center of campus today. This story is relayed to incoming Freshman during Freshman orientation.
On June 16, 2020, amid protests of racial inequality related to the murder of George Floyd, UNLV announced removed the Hey Reb! statue in front of the Tam Alumni Center, stating: "In recent conversations with the donor we mutually agreed it was best to remove the statue and return it." The university's president Marta Meana clarified the decision: "Over the past few months, I have had discussions with multiple individuals and stakeholder groups from campus and the community on how best the university can move forward given recent events throughout our nation".
UNLV has many traditions in its athletic programs. Each year, the men's football team plays the Nevada Wolf Pack in a football game called the Battle for Nevada. The trophy for that game is the Fremont Cannon. Built by the Kennecott Copper Corp., Nevada Mines Division, the cannon is valued at more than $10,000 and is considered one of the best and loudest, symbols of rivalry in college football. The cannon was permanently silenced in 2000, when Rebel players and fans accidentally dropped the trophy during a victory celebration. Since then, the teams continue the tradition with the victor painting the Fremont Cannon with the inscription of "University of Notta Lotta Victories" or "University of Northern Rejects". UNLV trails Nevada in the series 28–18 after losing the 2020 game at Allegiant Stadium with a score of 31–19.
UNLV is most known for its men's basketball program. Made famous by Coach Jerry Tarkanian in the 1970s–1990s, the Runnin' Rebels are the third-most winning team in Division I basketball history by percentage, only behind Kentucky and North Carolina (.713, 1037–418 through 2008). The UNLV team is well known for their 1990 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship by defeating Duke University 103–73, which was and still is the largest margin of victory in a championship game. In that same game, UNLV became the first team to break 100 points in a championship game.
UNLV is also known for its golf program. Led by coach Dwaine Knight, the UNLV golf program has turned out PGA Tour pros such as Adam Scott, Chris Riley, Chad Campbell, Ryan Moore, Skip Kendall, Charlie Hoffman, Bill Lunde and Andres Gonzales. They won the NCAA Division I Men's National Golf Championship in 1998.
In February 2011, the Rebel men's swimming and diving team won their seventh-straight Mountain West Conference titles. Three Rebel swimmers competed in the 2008 Beijing Olympics; Joe Bartoch and Richard Hortness represented Canada and Jonas Anderson represented Sweden.
Notable people
Faculty
Notable faculty include:
David B. Ashley (b. 1951)
John Boehner (b. 1949)
Shani Boianjiu (b. 1987)
Felicia F. Campbell (1931–2020)
Maile Chapman
Clarence Gilyard (b. 1955)
Kenny Guinn (1936–2010)
Carol Harter (b. 1941)
Hans-Hermann Hoppe (b. 1949)
Michel Hugo (1930–2010)
Len Jessup
Claudia Keelan
Lawrence L. Larmore
Robert Maxson (b. 1936)
Harry Reid (b. 1939)
Donald Revell (b. 1954)
Murray Rothbard (1926–1995)
Brian Sandoval (b. 1963)
Cathy Scott (c. 1950)
Neal Smatresk (b. 1951)
Wole Soyinka (b. 1934)
Randall Stout (1958–2014)
Dina Titus (b. 1950)
Michael Tylo (1948–2021)
Douglas A. Unger (b. 1952)
Richard Wiley (b. 1944)
Alumni
UNLV has seen many of its former students go on to local and national prominence. This includes many athletes who have excelled at the collegiate and professional levels.
Greg Anthony (b. 1967)
Joel Anthony (b. 1982)
Stacey Augmon (b. 1968)
Anthony Bennett (b. 1993)
Brian Boehringer (b. 1969), pitcher for the New York Yankees
Chad Campbell (b. 1974)
Ben Carter (b. 1994)
Randall Cunningham (b. 1963)
Cecil Fielder (b. 1963)
Joe Hawley (b. 1988)
Larry Johnson (b. 1969)
Ryan Ludwick (b. 1978)
Shawn Marion (b. 1978)
Keenan McCardell (b. 1970)
Efren Navarro (b. 1986)
Ryan Reeves (b. 1981)
Adam Scott (b. 1980)
Reggie Theus (b. 1957)
Matt Williams (b. 1965)
Ickey Woods (b. 1966)
Shaquille Murray-Lawrence (b. 1993)
Former Rebels in the entertainment world include:
Chris Cox, Grammy Award nominated record producer and DJ
Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo, Emmy Award-winning choreographers
Guy Fieri (b. 1968), chef, restaurateur, and Food Network star
Ginger Fish (b. 1965), band member of Marilyn Manson
Brian Garth (b. 1979), sound engineer, producer, songwriter and guitarist for American rock band Black Camaro
Ryan Higa (b. 1990), YouTube personality
Jimmy Kimmel (b. 1967), actor, comedian and late-night talk show host of Jimmy Kimmel Live!
Suge Knight (b. 1965), entrepreneur and CEO of Death Row Records, also played football at UNLV
Tomi Lahren (b. 1992), American conservative political commentator and former host of the show "Tomi" for TheBlaze
Bryan Le (b. 1996), YouTube personality
Kenny Mayne (b. 1959), ESPN sports journalist
Tom Miller (b. 1976), artist, singer, and songwriter for American rock band Black Camaro
Ronnie Vannucci (b. 1976), drummer for the American rock band The Killers
Eric Whitacre (b. 1970), Grammy Award-winning composer and conductor
Anthony E. Zuiker (b. 1968), creator and executive producer of the CSI television series franchise
Dan "Tito" Davis (b. 1953), international fugitive and author
UNLV has also produced politicians, including:
Irene Bustamante Adams (b. 1968), former Nevada State Assemblywoman
Nelson Araujo (b. 1987), former Nevada State Assemblyman
Bob Beers (b. 1959), former Las Vegas City Councilman, former Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblyman
Shelley Berkley (b. 1951), former U.S. Representative
James Bilbray (1938–2021), former U.S. Representative
Nicole Cannizzaro (b. 1983), Nevada State Senator
Zach Conine (b. 1981), Nevada State Treasurer
John Ensign (b. 1958), former U.S. Senator and former U.S. Representative
Edgar Flores (b. 1986), Nevada State Assemblyman
Lucy Flores (b. 1979), former Nevada State Assemblywoman
Jason Frierson (b. 1970), Nevada State Assemblyman
Chris Giunchigliani (b. 1954), former Vice Chair of the Clark County Commission and former Nevada State Assemblywoman
Carolyn Goodman (b. 1939), Mayor of Las Vegas
Gregory Hafen II, Nevada State Assemblyman
Scott Hammond (b. 1966), Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblyman
Mark Hutchison (b. 1963), former Lieutenant Governor of Nevada and former Nevada State Senator
Sandra Jauregui (b. 1983), Nevada State Assemblywoman
Ruben Kihuen (b. 1980), former U.S. Representative, former Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblyman
Joe Lombardo (b. 1962), Sheriff of Clark County
Marilyn Dondero Loop (b. 1951), Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblywoman
James Ohrenschall (b. 1972), Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblyman
David Parks (b. 1943), Nevada State Senator and former Nevada State Assemblyman
Keith Pickard (b. 1962), Nevada State Senator
David Roger (b. 1961), former Clark County District Attorney
Steve Sisolak (b. 1953), Governor of Nevada and former Chair of the Clark County Commission
Kim Wallin (b. 1956), former Nevada State Controller
Joyce Woodhouse (b. 1944), Nevada State Senator
Bill Young (b. 1956), former Sheriff of Clark County
Other notable alumni include:
Francis J. Beckwith (b. 1960), Christian philosopher
George J. Maloof, Jr. (b. 1964), President of Maloof Hotels and former owner of the Sacramento Kings
Danny Tarkanian (b. 1961), attorney, businessman, perennial candidate and son of former basketball head coach Jerry Tarkanian
Justin Favela (b. 1986), Mixed-Media Artist
Gallery
References
External links
Notes
1957 establishments in Nevada
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Educational institutions established in 1957
Nevada System of Higher Education
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Schools of informatics
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Universities and colleges in Clark County, Nevada
University of Nevada, Las Vegas | [
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239217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healing | Healing | With physical damage or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repair of living tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. Medicine includes the process by which the cell(s) in the body regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a damaged or necrotic area and replace it with new living tissue. The replacement can happen in two ways: by regeneration in which the necrotic cells are replaced by new cells that form "like" tissue as was originally there; or by repair in which injured tissue is replaced with scar tissue. Most organs will heal using a mixture of both mechanisms.
Within surgery healing is more often referred to as recovery, and postoperative recovery has historically been viewed simply as restitution of function and readiness for discharge. More recently, postoperative recovery has been described as an energy‐requiring process to decrease physical symptoms, reach a level of emotional well‐being, regain functions, and re‐establish activities
Healing is also referred to in the context of the grieving process.
In psychiatry and psychology, healing is the process by which neuroses and psychoses are resolved to the degree that the client is able to lead a normal or fulfilling existence without being overwhelmed by psychopathological phenomena. This process may involve psychotherapy, pharmaceutical treatment or alternative approaches such as traditional spiritual healing.
Regeneration
In order for an injury to be healed by regeneration, the cell type that was destroyed must be able to replicate. Cells also need a collagen framework along which to grow. Alongside most cells there is either a basement membrane or a collagenous network made by fibroblasts that will guide the cells' growth. Since ischaemia and most toxins do not destroy collagen, it will continue to exist even when the cells around it are dead.
Example
Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) in the kidney is a case in which cells heal completely by regeneration. ATN occurs when the epithelial cells that line the kidney are destroyed by either a lack of oxygen (such as in hypovolemic shock, when blood supply to the kidneys is dramatically reduced), or by toxins (such as some antibiotics, heavy metals or carbon tetrachloride).
Although many of these epithelial cells are dead, there is typically patchy necrosis, meaning that there are patches of epithelial cells still alive. In addition, the collagen framework of the tubules remains completely intact.
The existing epithelial cells can replicate, and, using the basement membrane as a guide, eventually bring the kidney back to normal. After regeneration is complete, the damage is undetectable, even microscopically.
Healing must happen by repair in the case of injury to cells that are unable to regenerate (e.g. neurons). Also, damage to the collagen network (e.g. by enzymes or physical destruction), or its total collapse (as can happen in an infarct) cause healing to take place by repair.
Genetics
Many genes play a role in healing. For instance, in wound healing, P21 has been found to allow mammals to heal spontaneously. It even allows some mammals (like mice) to heal wounds without scars. The LIN28 gene also plays a role in wound healing. It is dormant in most mammals. Also, the proteins MG53 and TGF beta 1 play important roles in wound healing.
Wound healing
In response to an incision or wound, a wound healing cascade is unleashed. This cascade takes place in four phases: clot formation, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation.
Clotting phase
Healing of a wound begins with clot formation to stop bleeding and to reduce infection by bacteria, viruses and fungi. Clotting is followed by neutrophil invasion three to 24 hours after the wound has been incurred, with mitoses beginning in epithelial cells after 24 to 48 hours.
Inflammation phase
In the inflammatory phase, macrophages and other phagocytic cells kill bacteria, debride damaged tissue and release chemical factors such as growth hormones that encourage fibroblasts, epithelial cells and endothelial cells which make new capillaries to migrate to the area and divide.
Proliferative phase
In the proliferative phase, immature granulation tissue containing plump, active fibroblasts forms. Fibroblasts quickly produce abundant type III collagen, which fills the defect left by an open wound. Granulation tissue moves, as a wave, from the border of the injury towards the center.
As granulation tissue matures, the fibroblasts produce less collagen and become more spindly in appearance. They begin to produce the much stronger type I collagen. Some of the fibroblasts mature into myofibroblasts which contain the same type of actin found in smooth muscle, which enables them to contract and reduce the size of the wound.
Maturation phase
During the maturation phase of wound healing, unnecessary vessels formed in granulation tissue are removed by apoptosis, and type III collagen is largely replaced by type I. Collagen which was originally disorganized is cross-linked and aligned along tension lines. This phase can last a year or longer. Ultimately a scar made of collagen, containing a small number of fibroblasts is left.
Tissue damaged by inflammation
After inflammation has damaged tissue (when combatting bacterial infection for example) and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids have completed their function, healing proceeds in 4 phases.
Recall phase
In the recall phase the adrenal glands increase production of cortisol which shuts down eicosanoid production and inflammation.
Resolution phase
In the Resolution phase, pathogens and damaged tissue are removed by macrophages (white blood cells). Red blood cells are also removed from the damaged tissue by macrophages. Failure to remove all of the damaged cells and pathogens may retrigger inflammation. The two subsets of macrophage M1 & M2 plays a crucial role in this phase, M1 macrophage being a pro inflammatory while as M2 is a regenerative and the plasticity between the two subsets determine the tissue inflammation or repair.
Regeneration phase
In the Regeneration phase, blood vessels are repaired and new cells form in the damaged site similar to the cells that were damaged and removed. Some cells such as neurons and muscle cells (especially in the heart) are slow to recover.
Repair phase
In the Repair phase, new tissue is generated which requires a balance of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Anti-inflammatory eicosanoids include lipoxins, epi-lipoxins, and resolvins, which cause release of growth hormones.
See also
Wound healing
Scar free healing
Health
References
External links
How wounds heal and tumors form With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston.
Wound Healing and Repair
Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management. Stanford University Medical Center.
Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. Wound Healing, Skin. Emedicine.com.
Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. Wound Healing, Growth Factors. Emedicine.com.
After the Injury- Children's Hospital Of Philadelphia
Injuries
Medical phenomena
Physiology
Therapy | [
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239218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalom%20Dovber | Shalom Dovber | Shalom Dovber is a Jewish name.
Two well-known personalities carry this name:
Shalom Dovber Schneersohn, fifth Lubavitcher Rebbe
Shalom Dovber Wolpo, a Chabad Rabbi from the Land of Israel | [
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239229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath%20against%20modernism | Oath against modernism | The oath against modernism was required of "all clergy, pastors, confessors, preachers, religious superiors, and professors in philosophical-theological seminaries" of the Catholic Church from 1910 until 1967. It was instituted on 1 September 1910 by Pope Pius X in his motu proprio Sacrorum antistitum and rescinded on 17 July 1967 by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith with the approval of Paul VI.
The oath marked the culmination of Pius X's campaign against the theological movement of modernism, which he extensively analyzed and denounced as heretical in his encyclicals Pascendi Dominici gregis and Lamentabili sane exitu, both of 1907. Thomas Pègues, O.P. was also influential in the anti-modernist movement within the Church.
The oath against modernism is still pronounced by clergy who are members of traditionalist Catholic movements, such as the Society of Saint Pius X.
Excerpts from the text in English
I profess that God, the origin and end of all things, can be known with certainty by the natural light of reason from the created world....
...sincerely hold that the doctrine of faith was handed down to us from the apostles through the orthodox Fathers in exactly the same meaning and always in the same purport ... [not] a philosophical figment or product of a human conscience that has gradually been developed by human effort and will continue to develop indefinitely.
...reject the error of those who say that the faith held by the Church can contradict history...[and] that method of judging and interpreting Sacred Scripture which, departing from the tradition of the Church, the analogy of faith, and the norms of the Apostolic See, embraces the misrepresentations of the rationalists...
...declare that I am completely opposed to the error of the modernists who hold that there is nothing divine in sacred tradition...''''...firmly hold, then, and shall hold to my dying breath the belief of the Fathers in the charism of truth, which certainly is, was, and always will be in the succession of the episcopacy from the apostles. The purpose of this is, then, not that dogma may be tailored according to what seems better and more suited to the culture of each age; rather, that the absolute and immutable truth preached by the apostles from the beginning may never be believed to be different, may never be understood in any other way......promise that I shall keep all these articles faithfully, entirely, and sincerely, and guard them inviolate, in no way deviating from them in teaching or in any way in word or in writing... Thus I promise, this I swear, so help me God...See alsoAd tuendam fidemHumani generisProvidentissimus Deus''
References
External links
The original Latin text of Sacrorum antistitum
The oath against modernism in English, excerpted from Sacrorum antistitum
Religious oaths
Modernism in the Catholic Church | [
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239230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonds%E2%80%93Karp%20algorithm | Edmonds–Karp algorithm | In computer science, the Edmonds–Karp algorithm is an implementation of the Ford–Fulkerson method for computing the maximum flow in a flow network in time. The algorithm was first published by Yefim Dinitz (whose name is also transliterated "E. A. Dinic", notably as author of his early papers) in 1970 and independently published by Jack Edmonds and Richard Karp in 1972. Dinic's algorithm includes additional techniques that reduce the running time to .
Algorithm
The algorithm is identical to the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm, except that the search order when finding the augmenting path is defined. The path found must be a shortest path that has available capacity. This can be found by a breadth-first search, where we apply a weight of 1 to each edge. The running time of is found by showing that each augmenting path can be found in time, that every time at least one of the edges becomes saturated (an edge which has the maximum possible flow), that the distance from the saturated edge to the source along the augmenting path must be longer than last time it was saturated, and that the length is at most . Another property of this algorithm is that the length of the shortest augmenting path increases monotonically. There is an accessible proof in Introduction to Algorithms.
Pseudocode
algorithm EdmondsKarp is
input:
graph (graph[v] should be the list of edges coming out of vertex v in the
original graph and their corresponding constructed reverse edges
which are used for push-back flow.
Each edge should have a capacity, flow, source and sink as parameters,
as well as a pointer to the reverse edge.)
s (Source vertex)
t (Sink vertex)
output:
flow (Value of maximum flow)
flow := 0 (Initialize flow to zero)
repeat
(Run a breadth-first search (bfs) to find the shortest s-t path.
We use 'pred' to store the edge taken to get to each vertex,
so we can recover the path afterwards)
q := queue()
q.push(s)
pred := array(graph.length)
while not empty(q)
cur := q.pull()
for Edge e in graph[cur] do
if pred[e.t] = null and e.t ≠ s and e.cap > e.flow then
pred[e.t] := e
q.push(e.t)
if not (pred[t] = null) then
(We found an augmenting path.
See how much flow we can send)
df := ∞
for (e := pred[t]; e ≠ null; e := pred[e.s]) do
df := min(df, e.cap - e.flow)
(And update edges by that amount)
for (e := pred[t]; e ≠ null; e := pred[e.s]) do
e.flow := e.flow + df
e.rev.flow := e.rev.flow - df
flow := flow + df
until pred[t] = null (i.e., until no augmenting path was found)
return flow
Example
Given a network of seven nodes, source A, sink G, and capacities as shown below:
In the pairs written on the edges, is the current flow, and is the capacity. The residual capacity from to is , the total capacity, minus the flow that is already used. If the net flow from to is negative, it contributes to the residual capacity.
Notice how the length of the augmenting path found by the algorithm (in red) never decreases. The paths found are the shortest possible. The flow found is equal to the capacity across the minimum cut in the graph separating the source and the sink. There is only one minimal cut in this graph, partitioning the nodes into the sets and , with the capacity
Notes
References
Algorithms and Complexity (see pages 63–69). https://web.archive.org/web/20061005083406/http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~wilf/AlgComp3.html
Network flow problem
Graph algorithms | [
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239232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone%20healing | Bone healing | Bone healing, or fracture healing, is a proliferative physiological process in which the body facilitates the repair of a bone fracture.
Generally bone fracture treatment consists of a doctor reducing (pushing) displaced bones back into place via relocation with or without anaesthetic, stabilizing their position to aid union, and then waiting for the bone's natural healing process to occur.
Adequate nutrient intake has been found to significantly affect the integrity of the fracture repair. Age, bone type, drug therapy and pre existing bone pathology are factors which affect healing. The role of bone healing is to produce new bone without a scar as seen in other tissues which would be a structural weakness or deformity.
The process of the entire regeneration of the bone can depend on the angle of dislocation or fracture. While the bone formation usually spans the entire duration of the healing process, in some instances, bone marrow within the fracture has healed two or fewer weeks before the final remodeling phase.
While immobilization and surgery may facilitate healing, a fracture ultimately heals through physiological processes. The healing process is mainly determined by the periosteum (the connective tissue membrane covering the bone). The periosteum is one source of precursor cells which develop into chondroblasts and osteoblasts that are essential to the healing of bone. Other sources of precursor cells are the bone marrow (when present), endosteum, small blood vessels, and fibroblasts.
Primary healing
Primary healing (also known as direct healing) requires a correct anatomical reduction which is stable, without any gap formation. Such healing requires only the remodeling of lamellar bone, the Haversian canals and the blood vessels without callus formation. This process may take a few months to a few years.
Contact healing
When the gap between the bone ends is less than 0.01 mm, and interfragmentary strain is less than 2%, contact healing can occur. In this case, cutting cones, which consists of osteoclasts, form across the fracture lines, generating cavities at a rate of 50–100 μm/day. Osteoblasts fill up the cavities with the Haversian system. This causes the formation of lamellar bone that orients longitudinally along the long axis of the bone. Blood vessels form that penetrate the Haversian system. Remodelling of lamellar bone results in healing without callus formation.
Gap healing
If the fracture gap is 800 μm to 1 mm, the fracture is filled by osteoblasts and then by lamellar bone oriented perpendicular to the axis of the bone. This initial process takes three to eight weeks. Perpendicular orientation of lamellar bone is weak, thus a secondary osteonal reconstruction is required to re-orient the lamellar bone longitudinally.
Secondary healing
Secondary healing (also known as indirect fracture healing) is the most common form of bone healing. It usually consists of only endochondral ossification. Sometimes, intramembranous ossification occurs together with endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification, mediated by the periosteal layer of bone, occurs with the formation of callus. For endochondral ossification, deposition of bone only occurs after the mineralised cartilage. This process of healing occurs when the fracture is treated conservatively using orthopaedic cast or immobilisation, external fixation, or internal fixation.
Reaction
After bone fracture, blood cells accumulate adjacent to the injury site. Soon after fracture, blood vessels constrict, stopping further bleeding. Within a few hours, the extravascular blood cells form a clot called a hematoma that acts as a template for callus formation. These cells, including macrophages, release inflammatory mediators such as cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-1 family (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), 11 (IL-11), and 18 (IL-18)) and increase blood capillary permeability. Inflammation peaks by 24 hours and completes by seven days. Through tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 2, TNFα mediates the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cell (originated from the bone marrow) into osteoblast and chondrocytes. Stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) and CXCR4 mediate recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells. IL-1 and IL-6 are the most important cytokines for bone healing. IL-1 promotes formation of callus and of blood vessels. IL-6 promotes differentiation of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. All cells within the blood clot degenerate and die. Within this area, the fibroblasts replicate. Within 7–14 days, they form a loose aggregate of cells, interspersed with small blood vessels, known as granulation tissue. Osteoclasts move in to reabsorb dead bone ends, and other necrotic tissue is removed.
Repair
Seven to nine days after fracture, the cells of the periosteum replicate and transform. The periosteal cells proximal to (on the near side of) the fracture gap develop into chondroblasts, which form hyaline cartilage. The periosteal cells distal to (at the far end of) the fracture gap develop into osteoblasts, which form woven bone through bone resorption of calcified cartilage and recruitment of bone cells and osteoclasts. The fibroblasts within the granulation tissue develop into chondroblasts which also form hyaline cartilage. These two new tissues grow in size until they unite with each other. These processes culminate in a new mass of heterogeneous tissue known as a fracture callus Callus formation peaks at day 14 of fracture. Eventually, the fracture gap is bridged
The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with lamellar bone. The replacement process is known as endochondral ossification with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of woven bone happens before substitution of hyaline cartilage. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized At this stage, the process is induced by IL-1 and TNFα. The mineralized matrix is penetrated by microvessel and numerous osteoblasts. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of trabecular bone. Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength
Remodelling
Remodeling begins as early as three to four weeks after fracture and may take 3 to 5 years to complete. The process substitutes the trabecular bone with compact bone. The trabecular bone is first resorbed by osteoclasts, creating a shallow resorption pit known as a "Howship's lacuna". Then osteoblasts deposit compact bone within the resorption pit. Eventually, the fracture callus is remodelled into a new shape which closely duplicates the bone's original shape and strength. This process can be achieved by the formation of electrical polarity during partial weight bearing a long bone; where electropositive convex surface and electronegative concave surface activates osteoclasts and osteoblasts respectively. This process can be enhanced by certain synthetic injectable biomaterials, such as Cerament, which are osteoconductive and promote bone healing
Obstructions
Poor blood supply which leads to the death of the osteocytes. Bone cell death also depends on degree of fracture and disruption to the Haversian system.
Condition of the soft tissues. Soft tissue between bone ends restricts healing.
Nutrition and drug therapy. Poor general health reduces healing rate. Drugs that impair the inflammatory response impede healing also.
Infection. Diverts the inflammatory response away from healing towards fighting off the infection.
Age. Young bone unites more rapidly than adult bone.
Pre-existing bone malignancy.
Mechanical factors such as the bone not being aligned, and too much or too little movement. Excess mobility can disrupt the bridging callus, interfering with union; but slight biomechanical motion is seen to improve callus formation.
Complications
Complications of fracture healing include:
Infection: this is the most common complication of fractures and predominantly occurs in open fractures. Post-traumatic wound infection is the most common cause of chronic osteomyelitis in patients. Osteomyelitis can also occur following surgical fixation of a fracture.
Non-union: no progression of healing within six months of a fracture occurring. The fracture pieces remain separated and can be caused by infection and/or lack of blood supply (Ischaemia) to the bone. There are two types of non-union, atrophic and hypertrophic. Hypertrophic involves the formation of excess callus leading to bone ends appearing sclerotic causing a radiological "Elephants Foot" appearance due to excessive fracture ends mobility but adequate blood supply. Atrophic non-union results in re-absorption and rounding of bone ends due to inadequate blood supply and excessive mobility of the bone ends.
Mal-union: healing occurs but the healed bone has 'angular deformity, translation, or rotational alignment that requires surgical correction'. This is most common in long bones such as the femur.
Delayed union: healing times vary depending on the location of a fracture and the age of a patient. Delayed union is characterised by 'persistence of the fracture line and a scarcity or absence of callus formation' on x-ray. Healing is still occurring but at a much slower rate than normal.
Gallery
Radiologic timeline in young children
On medical imaging, secondary bone healing displays the following features over time in young children:
Footnotes
References
Brighton, Carl T. and Robert M. Hunt (1986), "Histochemical localization of calcium in the fracture callus with potassium pyroantimonate: possible role of chondrocyte mitochondrial calcium in callus calcification", Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 68-A (5): 703-715
Brighton, Carl T. and Robert M. Hunt (1991), "Early histologic and ultrastructural changes in medullary fracture callus", Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 73-A (6): 832-847
Brighton, Carl T. and Robert M. Hunt (1997), "Early histologic and ultrastructural changes in microvessels of periosteal callus", Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 11 (4): 244-253
Ham, Arthur W. and William R. Harris (1972), "Repair and transplantation of bone", The biochemistry and physiology of bone, New York: Academic Press, p. 337-399
healing
Physiology
Anatomical pathology | [
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239235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Bisbal | David Bisbal | David Bisbal Ferre (born 5 June 1979) is a Spanish singer, songwriter, and actor. He gained his initial fame as a runner-up on the interactive reality television show Operación Triunfo.
He has since released five studio albums, all of which topped the Spanish Albums Chart, in addition to recording a number of live albums. He has toured throughout Europe and Latin America and is now considered to be a crossover international artist.
As of 2019, David Bisbal has sold more than six million records in Spain and America, getting 69 platinum albums, 20 gold and two diamond. Corazón Latino and Bulería have each received an IFPI Platinum Award, the official certification of having sold over one million copies across Europe.
Early life
David Bisbal was born on 7 June 1979 in Almería, Spain. His parents are José Bisbal, a professional boxer who was Spanish national Bantamweight and Featherweight champion and part of a trio of flamenco musicians, and Maria Ferre Montoya. He is the youngest of three siblings, a brother named José María and a sister named María del Mar. As a child, Bisbal showed a talent for performing, but was always very shy about doing so in public.
Bisbal attended the secondary school IES Al-Andalus in Almería, but dropped out in his second to last year at around age 15. After dropping out, his father took him to work in a greenhouse in Almería, which was his first known job. A few years later he met the producer of Orchestra Expressions, a popular band in Almería. After listening to and discovering his vocal quality, the producer offered him employment as the main singer of the group.
Through his work in Orchestra Expressions, he gradually began to develop as a singer, and to discover his passion for music. David went on to audition for 'Pop Idol,' in Barcelona, Spain. In 2001, he was one of 16 contestants in the first Spanish edition of 'Idol' designed to choose the representative for the 'Eurovision' festival of that year. He came in second place to Rosa López. Bisbal then performed at Eurovision with Rosa López, David Bustamante, Chenoa, Gisela and Geno, in the chorus.
Beginnings: Operación Triunfo
In October 2001 he auditioned for the first ever edition of Operación Triunfo (the Spanish version of Star Academy) where he was accepted and was one of the 16 contestants. He reached the final, where he placed as the runner-up to Rosa López. The top three contestants qualified for a secondary phase of the contest, where the prize was the chance of representing Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest. He came second in the Eurovision phase with the song "Corazón Latino", losing to Rosa López. She went on to sing "Europe's Living a Celebration" for Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 2002 competition in Tallinn. Bisbal accompanied her there as a backing vocalist.
Career
Bisbal signed a contract with Vale Music Record label and released his first album, recorded in Miami under the title Corazón Latino with producer and songwriter Kike Santander. The album went platinum 7 times by summer 2002, after having topped the Spanish charts. The first single from the album, called Ave María, had a phenomenal success. After winning a Latin Grammy, the album went platinum (over 1 million in sales).
On 10 February 2004, he released his second album entitled Bulería, again produced by his friend Kike Santander. It found similar success in Spain and throughout Latin America, hitting the diamond level with more than 1 million albums sold in Spain alone, and becoming the best Spanish seller of 2004.
In March 2005, he also released a DVD Todo Por Ustedes that contained live recordings of some of his concerts in the United States, Latin America and Spain.
Premonición was the third studio album by David Bisbal released on 3 October 2006. By the end of its first week of release, it had achieved enough sales to be certified as 5 times platinum with sales of over 400,000 copies in Spain alone.
On 20 October 2009, Bisbal released Sin Mirar Atrás, receiving positive reviews David worked with writer/producer DJ Sammy on the track "Aqui Ahora", which is featured on the album Premonición.
2002–2003: International launch debut album
After achieving fame as Operación Triunfo finalist, he signed a contract with label Vale Music, offering him the opportunity to record his first solo debut album. The album, entitled Corazón Latino, was released in Summer 2002, recorded in Miami and produced by Kike Santander. The album reached number one in its debut week selling over 600,000 copies, breaking sales records; the album stayed for seven consecutive weeks at number one on the Spanish Albums Chart.
With more than 1,300,000 copies sold in Spain, Bisbal was launched to the rest of the Spanish-speaking world; his debut album would be released on 15 October. In January 2003, Bisbal received an Amigo award in Madrid's Palacio de Cristal de la Arganzuela.
On 31 October he began his first tour of Latin America in Argentina; he visited 12 countries and performed 17 live concerts. In November, a special issue of Corazón Latino was released in Mexico.
2004–2005: Bulería, the second million record sales
The first single from Bisbal's second album, "Bulería", premiered on 15 December 2003. It reached number 1 on the charts and radio stations of both Spain and Latin America. On 11 February, the eponymous album was released. The album debuted on the charts in Spain, where more than 300,000 copies were sold in a week. It also reached gold certification in Colombia and Venezuela within two weeks.
He first set foot in Germany in November in order to promote his duet with singer Joana Zimmer. The duet's theme was "Let's make history". Several days after presenting the video with Joana Zimmer, David performed at the Tribute to Rocío Jurado Gala.
2006–2008: Premonición and promotion in Europe and Japan
The first single of his third studio album Premonición, "Quién me iba a decir" was released in August 2006. The album was released on 3 October 2006. It sold more than 900,000 copies.
On 24 October he performed at the seat of European Parliament in Strasbourg in an exclusive concert in which he performed the songs from his album to representatives of 25 member countries. The album stayed for a month at number one on the Spanish chart. The singer won an Ondas Award in a ceremony held at the Barcelona Teatre Musical, and a Micrófono de Oro award. In January 2007, the second single from the album "Silencio" stayed for eight weeks at number one in Los 40 Principales, Spain's Top 40 Chart.
In 2008, Bisbal performed a duet with Rihanna, "Hate That I Love You", which was included in the re-issue of Good Girl Gone Bad.
2009–2010: Sin Mirar Atrás
His fourth studio album Sin Mirar Atrás was released on 20 October 2009 in Spain, Latin America and the United States. The first single from the album was "Esclavo de tus Besos", under the production of Mexican-born Armando Ávila. Its world premiere was on 24 August and the video came out on 7 September. It was one of the most successful singles of the Spanish singer in his career, reaching number 1 on sales and radio charts in Spain, Latin America and the United States. On 9 January 2010 Promusicae announced that "Esclavo de Tus Besos" had earned a double platinum certification for its more than 80,000 copies sold in Spain, and it also earned a platinum certification in Argentina for more than 20,000 copies sold. The second single from the album was "Mi Princesa". The song "24 Horas" made with Mexican singer Espinoza Paz, was the third single in the U.S. and Latin America and was presented at the 2010 Billboard Awards, while in Spain the single was "Sin Mirar Atrás", a song that gave title to the album. Bisbal also won his first Latin Grammy in 2009. On 14 November 2010 he was presented the Gold Record for the sales of the album in USA and Puerto Rico.
2011–2013: Herederos
David Bisbal sang the theme song for the soap opera "Herederos de una venganza". It is one of the highest rated telenovelas in Argentina, which starred Romina Gaetani, Luciano Castro and Federico Amador, where all romantic moments are set to music by the song sung by David Bisbal. The songwriters of this release were Bisbal himself, Sebastian Bazan, and Karen Oliver.
On 5 November 2011 he released his first acoustic performance, a DVD/CD pack entitled "Una noche en el Teatro Real", recorded in the Madrid's main opera house, the Teatro Real (Royal Theatre), four days earlier. In its first week on sale, it set a record: the first time a DVD/CD set surpassed sales of CDs on the Spanish charts, selling more than 50,000 copies in seven days, and obtaining double platinum status. On 18 January, sales reached triple platinum, with more than 75,000 copies sold. In 2012, his CD "Live at the Royal Albert Hall" was certified platinum in Spain.
During the tour of "Una noche en el Teatro Real", Bisbal played in some of the most iconic theatres and auditoriums in Spain, North America, Latin America, and major European capitals. He played a total of 128 concerts in such unique venues as the Royal Albert Hall in London, Carnegie Hall in New York, and Luna Park in Buenos Aires. Writing about Bisbal's Albert Hall concert in September 2012, Boris Izaguirre described him as "the voice of Spanish emigrants" and "The Julio Iglesias of the lost generation", noting that many Spaniards in their twenties who had been forced by the financial crisis to emigrate had grown up during Bisbal's rise to fame in the previous decade's economic boom. On 15 November 2012, in Las Vegas, David Bisbal won his third Latin Grammy, this time in the category "Best Traditional Pop Album".
Bisbal's career took a turn towards its beginnings when he joined the Spanish reality talent show La Voz as a judge, acting as coach to eventual winner Rafa Blas in the first series. In addition he was a judge on La Voz... México on the third series of the show. However, in January 2014 after appearing on two seasons of the Spanish show and one of the Mexican edition, Bisbal announced he would leave these roles due to a heavy schedule of live and promotional work for his new album Tú y Yo. In mid-2016, he was a mentor on the show La Apuesta in which he was the winner with his fellow contestant Héctor Osobampo.
In 2017 Bisbal released the album Hijos del mar. Four singles were released: "Antes que no", "Duele demasiado", "Lo tenga o no" and "Fiebre". For the latter, Bisbal recorded a video clip in Los Angeles with Mexican vlogger Caeli and Spanish model Silvia Kal.
In June 2018 Aitana was invited by David Bisbal to sing at the Palau Sant Jordi. Both sang Mi princesa, a song by Bisbal.
In 2020, Carrie Underwood teamed up with David Bisbal for a new single, “Tears of Gold.” The song marks Underwood's first-ever bilingual single, with both vocalists singing in English and in Spanish.
International appeal
Internationally, Bisbal enjoys popularity in a great number of countries.
On 3 September 2003, he won the Latin Grammy for "Best New Artist". During the event, He sang Angels, with Jessica Simpson. He also launched a big promotional tour in Latin America with sold-out concerts in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and others.
In 2008, he recorded Hate That I Love You (Odio Amarte), a Spanglish version with Rihanna. He achieved European success in England, Germany, Belgium, Russia and Romania in addition to great success in Japan.
In 2009, he recorded "Sufriras" a Spanglish duet with singer Pixie Lott, eventually released as a platinum bonus track on the Deluxe Edition of his fourth studio album, Sin Mirar Atrás.
In 2010 David was featured in the Spanish version of the FIFA 2010 Official World Cup song Waving Flag with Somali-Canadian Musician K'naan who is the original artist of the song.
In 2010, A remix version of Miley Cyrus's When I Look At You, titled "Te miro a ti", was released on one of his albums in order to promote the release of The Last Song in Spain; in it, Cyrus sings her lines in English, while Bisbal's are mingled in both English and Spanish.
In 2011 David recorded a song for the TV series "Herederos" in Argentina. The song is called "Herederos" and David has sold over 300,000 copies of the cd "Sin Mirar Atrás Tour" in Argentina.
On 15 November 2012, he won the Latin Grammy held in Las Vegas from the category "Best Traditional Pop Album" for "Una Noche en el Teatro Real".
In 2013, Bisbal acted as himself in the TV series Jane the Virgin where he sang "Esclavo de sus besos" he appeared one episode.
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Other appearances
References
External links
Universal Music Latin Entertainment | Davis Bisbal
Comunidad Gyggs
Concerts, News and Videoclips of Bisbal
Interview with David Bisbal about his new album Premonición
David Bisbal at Acceso Total Show
1979 births
Living people
Latin pop singers
People from Almería
Singers from Andalusia
Spanish pop singers
Star Academy participants
Latin Grammy Award for Best New Artist
World Music Awards winners
Latin Grammy Award winners
Universal Music Latin Entertainment artists
Operación Triunfo contestants
21st-century Spanish singers
21st-century Spanish male singers | [
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239237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester%20R.%20Ford | Lester R. Ford | This is about early- and mid-20th-century mathematician. For his mathematician son, active from the mid-20th century, see L. R. Ford Jr.
Lester Randolph Ford Sr. (October 25, 1886 – November 11, 1967) was an American mathematician, editor of the American Mathematical Monthly from 1942 to 1946, and President of the Mathematical Association of America from 1947 to 1948.
Ford circles are named after him. He is the father of L. R. Ford Jr.
Ford's first degree, Bachelor of Pedagogy, was from a normal school in Missouri. He then attended the University of Missouri in Columbia, graduating with a B. A. in 1911. For graduate work he went to Harvard University in 1912 and 13. Ford was then called to Scotland, where in 1914 he was instructor of mathematics at University of Edinburgh. Games of chess on campus gave Ford some social contact and reputation. In 1915 Ford published An Introduction to the Theory of Automorphic Functions as Edinburgh Mathematical Tract # 6.
Returning to Harvard in 1917, Ford was awarded his Ph.D. for the thesis Rational Approximations to an Irrational Complex Number, under the supervision of Maxime Bôcher.
Later Ford joined the faculty of Rice Institute in Houston, Texas. There he married Marguerite Eleanor John on 15 June 1924.
Moving north to Chicago, Ford taught at Armour Institute, soon to become Illinois Institute of Technology. From there he went to the editorship of The American Mathematical Monthly during World War II. Ford was president of the Mathematical Association of America for 1947,8.
In 1964, the MAA recognised his contribution to mathematics by establishing the Lester R. Ford Awards for authors of articles of expository excellence published in The American Mathematical Monthly or Mathematics Magazine. (The prize is now known as the Paul R. Halmos – Lester R. Ford Award.) His doctoral students include Edwin Beckenbach.
Publications
1915: An Introduction to the Theory of Automorphic Functions via Internet Archive
1919: Elementary Mathematics for Field Artillery
1929:
1928: Introduction to Differential Equations via HathiTrust
1933: Differential Equations, second edition 1955
1963: (with his son) Calculus, McGraw-Hill via HathiTrust
References
External links
20th-century American mathematicians
Presidents of the Mathematical Association of America
1886 births
1967 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Rice University faculty
University of Missouri alumni
American textbook writers
The American Mathematical Monthly editors | [
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239238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.%20R.%20Fulkerson | D. R. Fulkerson | Delbert Ray Fulkerson (; August 14, 1924 – January 10, 1976) was an American mathematician who co-developed the FordFulkerson algorithm, one of the most well-known algorithms to solve the maximum flow problem in networks.
Early life and education
D. R. Fulkerson was born in Tamms, Illinois, the third of six children of Elbert and Emma Fulkerson. Fulkerson became an undergraduate at Southern Illinois University. His academic career was interrupted by military service during World War II. Having returned to complete his degree after the war, he went on to do a Ph.D. in mathematics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under the supervision of Cyrus MacDuffee, who was a student of L. E. Dickson. Fulkerson received his Ph.D. in 1951.
Career
After graduation, Fulkerson joined the mathematics department at the RAND Corporation. In 1956, he and L. R. Ford Jr. described the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm. In 1962 they produced a book-length description of their method.
In 1971 he moved to Cornell University as the Maxwell Upson Professor of Engineering. He was diagnosed with Crohn's disease and was limited in his teaching. In despair, he committed suicide in 1976.
Fulkerson was the supervisor of Jon Folkman at RAND and Tatsuo Oyama at GRIPS. After Folkman committed suicide in 1969, Fulkerson blamed himself for failing to notice Folkman's suicidal behaviors.
In 1979, the renowned Fulkerson Prize was established which is now awarded every three years for outstanding papers in discrete mathematics jointly by the Mathematical Programming Society and the American Mathematical Society.
See also
Out-of-kilter algorithm
List of people diagnosed with Crohn's disease
References
External links
Delbert Ray Fulkerson prize
Fulkerson biography at Cornell
Biography of D. R. Fulkerson from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences
20th-century American mathematicians
Combinatorialists
1924 births
1976 suicides
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
RAND Corporation people
People from Alexander County, Illinois
Mathematicians from Illinois
1976 deaths | [
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239246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.%20C.%20Stephenson | D. C. Stephenson | David Curtis "Steve" Stephenson (August 21, 1891 – June 28, 1966) was an American Ku Klux Klan (KKK) leader, convicted rapist and murderer. In 1923 he was appointed Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan and head of Klan recruiting for seven other states. Later that year, he led those groups to independence from the national KKK organization. Amassing wealth and political power in Indiana politics, he was one of the most prominent national Klan leaders. "He was viewed as responsible for reviving the Klan and widening its base, and considered the most powerful man in Indiana". He had close relationships with numerous Indiana politicians, especially Governor Edward L. Jackson.
In Stephenson v. State (1925) Stephenson was tried for and convicted of the abduction, rape, and murder of a young white woman, Madge Oberholtzer, a state education official. His trial, conviction and imprisonment ended the portrayal of Klan leaders as law abiding. The case destroyed the Klan as a political force in Indiana, and significantly damaged its standing nationally. Denied a pardon by Governor Jackson, in 1927 he started talking with reporters for the Indianapolis Times and released a list of elected and other officials who had been in the pay of the Klan. This led to a wave of indictments in Indiana, more national scandals, the rapid loss of tens of thousands of members, and the end of the second wave of Klan activity in the late 1920s.
Stephenson's burial in USVA Mountain Home National Cemetery in Johnson City, Tennessee also led to Congress passing restrictions barring serious sex offenders or those convicted of capital crimes from burial in veterans' cemeteries.
Early life and education
Stephenson was born in Houston, Texas on August 21, 1891, and moved as a child with his family to Maysville, Oklahoma. After some public schooling, he started work as a printer's apprentice.
During World War I, he enlisted in the Army and completed officers' training. He never served overseas, but his training proved useful when he organized and led groups.
Klansman
In 1920 at the age of 29, he moved to Evansville, Indiana, where he worked for a retail coal company. He joined the Democratic Party and in 1922, ran unsuccessfully for a Democratic Congressional nomination. He was said to have already "married and abandoned two wives" before settling in Evansville.
Joseph M. Huffington, whom the Ku Klux Klan had sent from Texas as an agent for organizing in Evansville, recruited Stephenson to the group's inner circle. The historian Leonard Moore characterized them as both young men on the make. The Evansville Klavern became the most powerful in the state, and Stephenson soon contributed to attracting numerous new members. More than 5,400 men, or 23 percent of the native-born white men in Vanderburgh County, ultimately joined the Klan.
Building on the momentum, Stephenson set up a base in Indianapolis, where he helped create the Klan's state newspaper, Fiery Cross. He quickly recruited new agents and organizers, building on news about the organization. Protestant ministers were offered free membership. From July 1922 to July 1923, nearly 2,000 new members joined the Klan each week in Indiana. Hiram Wesley Evans, who led recruiting for the national organization, maintained close ties to state leaders throughout 1921–1922 and he was especially close to Stephenson, because by then, Indiana had the largest state Klan organization. Stephenson backed Evans in November 1922 when he unseated William J. Simmons as Imperial Wizard of the national KKK. Evans had ambitions to make the Klan a political force in the country.
After Evans won, he officially appointed Stephenson as Grand Dragon of Indiana. Privately he made him head of recruiting for seven other states north of Mississippi. In the 1920s, Klan membership grew dramatically in these states. In Indiana, membership grew to nearly 250,000 or about one third of all white males in the state. Stephenson acquired great wealth and political power by leading the Klan; agents received a portion of fees paid by new recruits, and he began to wield other powers. Evans, who had a monopoly on the sale of Klan uniforms and paraphernalia, appointed Stephenson as Grand Dragon of the Indiana Klan at a 1923 Fourth of July gathering of the Klan in Kokomo, Indiana, with more than 100,000 members and their families in attendance. Stephenson said,
My worthy subjects, citizens of the Invisible Empire, Klansmen all, greetings. It grieves me to be late. The President of the United States kept me unduly long counseling on matters of state. Only my plea that this is the time and the place of my coronation obtained for me surcease from his prayers for guidance.
Encouraged by his success, in September 1923, Stephenson severed his ties with the existing national organization of the KKK, and formed a rival KKK that was made up of the chapters which he led. That year Stephenson changed his affiliation from the Democratic to the Republican Party, which was predominant in Indiana and much of the Midwest. He supported Republican Edward L. Jackson, who was rumored to be a Klan member, when Jackson ran successfully for governor in 1924. Stephenson once claimed, "I am the law in Indiana."
Shortly after, on May 12, 1924, at an assembly in the Cadle Tabernacle in Indianapolis, he said:"God help the man who issues a proclamation of war against the Klan in Indiana now ... We are going to Klux Indiana as she has never been Kluxed before ... I'll appeal to the ministers of Indiana to do the praying for the Ku Klux Klan and I'll do the scrapping for it ... And the fiery cross is going to burn at every crossroads in Indiana, as long as there is a white man left in the state."
Convicted of murder
Publicly a Prohibitionist and a defender of "Protestant womanhood," Stephenson was tried in 1925 for the rape and murder of Madge Oberholtzer, a young state employee who ran a state program to combat adult illiteracy. During the trial, the Klan's image as upholders of law and morality was gravely weakened as it was proven that Stephenson and many of his associates were in private womanizers and alcoholics. The scandal of the charges and trial led to the rapid decline in the "Second Wave" of Klan activity. Stephenson was convicted of the abduction, forced intoxication, and rape of Oberholtzer. His abuse led to her suicide attempt while she was still in his captivity. Because the suicide attempt eventually caused Oberholtzer's death, Stephenson was also charged with murder.
Stephenson had bitten her many times during his attack. The attending doctor described her condition as consisting of a significant bite on her breast. He later testified that the bite wounds that Stephenson inflicted on her were a leading contributor to her death due to a staph infection that eventually reached her lungs. The doctor also testified that she could have been saved if she had been given medical attention sooner. In her dying declaration, Oberholtzer claimed that Stephenson had refused to give her medical attention unless she agreed to marry him first. The jury convicted Stephenson of second-degree murder on November 14, 1925, on its first ballot. Stephenson was sentenced to life in prison on November 16, 1925.
After his conviction, Governor Edward L. Jackson refused to grant Stephenson clemency or commute his sentence. On September 9, 1927, Stephenson released lists of public officials who were or had been on the Klan payroll. The Indianapolis Times interviewed Stephenson and proceeded with an extended investigation of the Klan's political ties. (The Times won a Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its investigative reporting.) This publicity and the state's crackdown on Klan activity sped up the decline of the organization by the end of the 1920s. The KKK suffered a dramatic nationwide loss of reputation and its membership rapidly fell from 5 million in 1925; few Klan members were counted in the organization's former Midwestern stronghold soon after.
The state filed indictments against Governor Jackson; George V. "Cap" Coffin, chairman of the Marion County Republican Party; and attorney Robert I. Marsh, charging them with conspiring to bribe former Governor Warren McCray. The mayor of Indianapolis, John Duvall, was convicted and sentenced to jail for 30 days (and barred from political service for four years). Some Republican commissioners of Marion County resigned from their posts after being charged with accepting bribes from the Klan and Stephenson.
Later years
On January 7, 1941, the Valparaiso Vidette-Messenger reported that Governor M. Clifford Townsend, a Democrat, was considering granting an early parole to Stephenson. No parole was approved that year. Stephenson was paroled on March 23, 1950, by a Democratic administration, but violated parole by disappearing on or before September 25, 1950. On December 15, 1950, he was captured in Minneapolis, Minnesota and returned to custody. He was sentenced in 1951 to serve 10 years in prison. In 1953, he pleaded for release, denying that he had been a leader of the Klan. On December 22, 1956, the state paroled him on condition that he leave Indiana and never return. Stephenson moved to Seymour, Indiana, where he soon married Martha Dickinson. They were separated in 1962 when he left and never returned. Martha petitioned for and was granted a divorce in Jackson County Circuit Court in Brownstown in 1971, not knowing that he had remarried and died in 1966.
Stephenson then moved to Jonesborough, Tennessee (briefly spelled as Jonesboro during this time), where he was employed at the Herald & Tribune newspaper, and where he married Martha Murray Sutton without having been divorced from Dickinson.
In 1961, at the age of 70, Stephenson was arrested in Independence, Missouri on charges of attempting to sexually assault a 16-year-old girl but he was released after paying a $300 fine because the charges were dropped on grounds of insufficient evidence. He was ordered to leave Missouri immediately. A few years later, in 1966, Stephenson died at his home in Jonesborough, Tennessee, and as an honorably discharged veteran was buried at the USVA Mountain Home National Cemetery in Johnson City, Tennessee. Congress later passed restrictions barring serious sex offenders or those convicted of capital crimes from burial in veterans' cemeteries.
Cultural references
John Heard portrayed Stephenson in the television miniseries Cross of Fire (1989).
In Daniel Easterman's alternate history novel K is for Killing (1997), Stephenson is featured as the sinister power behind the throne after the isolationist Senator Charles Lindbergh is elected President of the United States. Easterman reflected the documented predatory sexual behavior of Stephenson in the novel. He was portrayed as a politically savvy but unstable ally of Adolf Hitler.
See also
Indiana Klan
References
Further reading
Lutholtz, M. William. Grand Dragon: DC Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana (Purdue University Press, 1991).
Moore, Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921-1928 (University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
Smith, Ron F. "The Klan's Retribution Against an Indiana Editor: A Reconsideration." Indiana Magazine of History 106#4 (2010): 381–400.
Leibowitz, Irving. "My Indiana" (Prentice Hall Inc., 1964)
External links
"Indiana and the Ku Klux Klan", Center for History
Lindsay Dunn, The Stephenson Trial: Internal Klan Conflicts Linked to Downfall of Second Klan in Indiana, Columbia University
"D.C. Stephenson Collection, 1922-1978" Collection Guide, Indiana Historical Society, accessed 2012-10-19.
"D. C. Stephenson Trial (1925)" Doug Linder, 2010. University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC) School of Law.
""Murder Wasn’t Very Pretty": The Rise and Fall of D.C. Stephenson" Karen Abbott. smithsonian.com, August 30, 2012. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
1891 births
1966 deaths
American people convicted of kidnapping
American people convicted of murder
American people convicted of rape
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Crimes in Indiana
Indiana Democrats
Indiana politicians convicted of crimes
Ku Klux Klan Grand Dragons
People convicted of murder by Indiana
People from Houston
People from Maysville, Oklahoma
People paroled from life sentence
Politicians convicted of murder
Politicians convicted of sex offences
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Indiana
Indiana Republicans
People from Jonesborough, Tennessee
Child sexual abuse in the United States
1925 murders in the United States
State and local political sex scandals in the United States | [
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239249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%20Saigon | Miss Saigon | Miss Saigon is a coming-of-age stage musical by Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, with lyrics by Boublil and Richard Maltby Jr. It is based on Giacomo Puccini's 1904 opera Madame Butterfly, and similarly tells the tragic tale of a doomed romance involving an Asian woman abandoned by her American lover. The setting of the plot is relocated to 1970s Saigon during the Vietnam War, and Madame Butterfly'''s story of marriage between an American lieutenant and a geisha is replaced by a romance between a United States Marine and a seventeen-year-old South Vietnamese bargirl.
The musical was premièred at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, on 20 September 1989, closing after 4,092 performances on 30 October 1999. It opened on Broadway at the Broadway Theatre on April 11, 1991 with a record advance of over $39 million, and subsequently played in many other cities and embarked on tours. Prior to the opening of the 2014 London revival, it was said that Miss Saigon had set a world record for opening day ticket sales, with sales in excess of £4m reported.Miss Saigon posts £4m first day sales – but is it a record? whatsonstage.com, Retrieved 24 January 2014
The musical represented Schönberg and Boublil's second major success, following Les Misérables in 1985. As of July 2019, Miss Saigon remains Broadway's thirteenth longest-running show.
Background
The musical was inspired by a photograph, which Schönberg found inadvertently in a magazine. It showed a Vietnamese mother leaving her child at a departure gate at Tan Son Nhut Air Base to board an airplane headed for the United States where the child's father, an ex-GI, would be in a position to provide a much better life for the child. Schönberg considered this mother's actions for her child to be "The Ultimate Sacrifice," an idea central to the plot of Miss Saigon.
Highlights of the show include the evacuation of the last Americans in Saigon from the Embassy roof by helicopter while a crowd of abandoned Vietnamese people scream in despair, the victory parade of the new communist regime, and the frenzied night club scene at the time of defeat.
Cast of principal characters
Synopsis
Act 1
In April 1975 at "Dreamland," a Saigon bar and brothel, shortly before the end of the Vietnam War, it is Kim's first day as a bargirl. The seventeen-year-old peasant girl is hauled in by the Engineer, a French-Vietnamese hustler who owns the joint. Backstage, the girls ready themselves for the night's show, jeering at Kim's inexperience ("Overture / Backstage Dreamland"). The U.S. Marines, aware that they will soon be leaving Vietnam, party with the Vietnamese sex workers ("The Heat Is on in Saigon"). Chris Scott, a sergeant disenchanted by the club scene, is encouraged by his friend John Thomas to go with a girl. The girls compete for the title of "Miss Saigon," and the winner is raffled to a Marine. Kim's guilelessness strikes Chris. Gigi Van Tranh wins the crown for the evening and begs the marine who won the raffle to take her back to America, annoying him. The showgirls reflect on their dreams of a better life ("Movie in My Mind"). John buys a room for Chris and the virgin Kim ("The Transaction"). Kim is reluctant and shy, but dances with Chris, who tries to pay her to leave the nightclub. When the Engineer interferes, thinking that Chris does not like Kim, Chris allows himself to be led to her room ("The Dance").
Chris, watching Kim sleep, asks God why he met her just as he was about to leave Vietnam ("Why, God, Why?"). When Kim wakes up, Chris tries to give her money, but she refuses, saying that it is her first time sleeping with a man ("This Money's Yours"). Touched to learn that Kim is an orphan, Chris offers to take her to America with him, and the two fall in love ("Sun and Moon"). Chris tells John that he is taking leave to spend time with Kim. John warns him that the Viet Cong will soon take Saigon, but then reluctantly agrees to cover for Chris ("The Telephone Song"). Chris meets with the Engineer to trade for Kim, but the Engineer tries to include an American visa in the deal. Threatening the Engineer with his gun, Chris forces him to honor the original arrangement for Kim ("The Deal").
The bargirls hold a "wedding ceremony" for Chris and Kim ("Dju Vui Vai"), with Gigi toasting Kim as the "real" Miss Saigon. Thuy, Kim's cousin, to whom she was betrothed at thirteen, arrives to take her home. He has since become an officer in the North Vietnamese Army and is disgusted to find her with a white man ("Thuy's Arrival"). The two men confront each other, drawing their firearms. Kim tells Thuy that their arranged marriage is now nullified because her parents are dead, and she no longer harbors any feelings for him because of his betrayal. Thuy curses them all and storms out ("What's This I Find"). Chris promises to take Kim with him when he leaves Vietnam. Chris and Kim dance to the same song as on their first night ("Last Night of The World").
Three years later, in 1978, a street parade is taking place in Saigon (since renamed Ho Chi Minh City) to celebrate the third anniversary of the reunification of Vietnam and the defeat of the Americans ("The Morning of The Dragon"). Thuy, now a commissar in the new Communist government, has ordered his soldiers to look for the still-corrupt Engineer. For the Communist Party, he goes by the name "Tran Van Dinh" and has spent the past three years working in the rice fields as part of a re-education program. Thuy orders the Engineer to find Kim and bring her to him. Although the intervening period is not shown, it is apparent that Kim and Chris have become separated in the three years separating the two acts. Kim has been hiding in an impoverished area, still in love with Chris and steadfastly believing that Chris will return to Vietnam and rescue her. Meanwhile, Chris is in bed with his new American wife, Ellen, when he wakes from a dream shouting Kim's name. Ellen and Kim both swear their devotion to Chris from opposite ends of the world ("I Still Believe").
The Engineer takes Thuy to where Kim has been hiding. Kim refuses Thuy's renewed offer of marriage, unaware that his men are waiting outside the door. Furious, Thuy calls them in and they begin tying up Kim and the Engineer, threatening to put them into a re-education camp. Again, Kim refuses to go with Thuy and shocks him by introducing Thuy to Tam, her three-year-old son from Chris ("Coo-Coo Princess"). Thuy calls Kim a traitor and Tam an enemy, and tries to kill Tam with a knife, but Kim is forced to shoot Thuy dead to protect Tam ("You Will Not Touch Him"). A horrified and heartbroken Kim flees with Tam ("This Is the Hour") and the Engineer laments being born Vietnamese and wishes to go to the USA ("If You Want to Die in Bed"). Kim tells the Engineer what she has done, and he learns that Tam's father is American ("Let Me See His Western Nose") – thinking the boy is his chance to emigrate to the United States. He tells Kim that now he is the boy's uncle, and he will lead them to Bangkok. As Kim swears to Tam that she would do anything to give him a better life, the three set out on a ship with other refugees ("I'd Give My Life for You").
Act 2
In Atlanta, Georgia, John now works for an aid organization whose mission is to connect Bui-Doi (from Vietnamese trẻ bụi đời "street children," meaning children conceived during the war) with their American fathers ("Bui Doi"). John tells Chris that Kim is still alive, which Chris is relieved to hear after years of having nightmares of her dying. He also tells Chris about Tam and urges Chris to go to Bangkok with Ellen, and Chris then finally tells Ellen about Kim and Tam ("The Revelation"). In Bangkok, the Engineer is hawking a sleazy club where Kim works as a dancer ("What A Waste"). Chris, Ellen, and John arrive in search of Kim. John finds Kim dancing at the club, and tells her that Chris is also in Bangkok. He then tries to tell her that Chris is remarried, but Kim interrupts. She is thrilled about the news and tells Tam that his father has arrived, believing that they are to go to America with Chris. Seeing Kim happy, John cannot bring himself to break the news to her, but promises to bring Chris to her ("Please").
The Engineer tells Kim to find Chris herself, because he doubts that Chris will come ("Chris Is Here"). Kim is haunted by the ghost of Thuy, who taunts Kim, claiming that Chris will betray her as he did the night Saigon fell. Kim suffers a horrible flashback to that night ("Kim's Nightmare").
In the nightmare and flashback to 1975, Kim remembers the Viet Cong approaching Saigon. As the city becomes increasingly chaotic, Chris is called to the embassy and leaves his gun with Kim, telling her to pack. When Chris enters the embassy, the gates close, as orders arrive from Washington for an immediate evacuation of the remaining Americans. The Ambassador orders that no more Vietnamese be allowed into the Embassy. Kim reaches the gates of the Embassy, one of a mob of terrified Vietnamese trying to enter. Chris calls to Kim and is about to go into the crowd to look for her. John is eventually forced to punch Chris in the face to stop him from leaving. Chris is put into the last helicopter leaving Saigon as Kim watches from outside, still pledging her love to him ("The Fall of Saigon").
Back in 1978 Bangkok, Kim joyfully dresses in her wedding clothes ("Sun and Moon [Reprise]") and leaves the Engineer to watch Tam while she is gone. She goes to Chris's hotel room, where she finds Ellen. Ellen reveals that she is Chris's wife. Kim is heartbroken and refuses to believe Ellen, but the truth soon sinks in. Ellen asks Kim if Chris is the father of Tam, and Kim confirms that he is. Kim says that she does not want her son to continue living on the streets and pleads that they take Tam with them back to America, but Ellen refuses, saying that Tam needs his real mother, and Ellen wants her own children with Chris. Kim angrily demands that Chris tell her these things in person, and runs out of the room ("Room 317"). Ellen feels bad for Kim, but is determined to keep Chris ("Now That I've Seen Her").
Chris and John return, having failed to find Kim. Ellen tells them both that Kim arrived and that she had to tell Kim everything. Chris and John blame themselves, realizing that they were gone too long. Ellen also tells them that Kim wants to see Chris at her place, and that she tried to give away her son to them. John realizes that Kim wants Tam to be "an American boy." Ellen then issues an ultimatum to Chris: Kim or her. Chris reassures Ellen, and they pledge their love for each other. Chris and Ellen agree to leave Tam and Kim in Bangkok but offer them monetary support from America, while John decries their decision as selfish ("The Confrontation"). Back at the club, Kim tells the Engineer that they are still going to America ("Paper Dragons"). The Engineer imagines the extravagant new life that he will lead in America ("The American Dream"). Chris, John, and Ellen find the Engineer and he takes them to see Kim and Tam.
In her room, Kim tells Tam that he should be happy because he now has a father. She tells him that she cannot go with him but will be watching over him ("This Is the Hour [Reprise]"). Chris, Ellen, John, and the Engineer arrive just outside her room. The Engineer comes in to take Tam outside to introduce him to his father. While this is happening, Kim steps behind a curtain and shoots herself. As she falls to the floor, Chris rushes into the room at the sound of the gunshot and finds Kim mortally wounded. He picks up Kim and asks what she has done. Replying that the gods guided him to his son, Kim asks Chris to hold her once more and they share one last kiss. Kim then repeats something that he said to her on the first night they met: "How in one night have we come so far?", and dies in Chris's arms as everyone watches ("Finale").
Musical numbers
Act I
"Overture" / "Backstage Dreamland" – Gigi, Kim, The Engineer and Bar Girls
"The Heat is On in Saigon" – Soldiers, Bar Girls, The Engineer, Kim, John, Chris and Gigi
"The Movie in My Mind" – Gigi, Kim and Bar Girls
"The Transaction" – The Engineer, John, Soldiers, Chris, and Kim
"The Dance" – Kim, Chris and The Engineer
"Why, God, Why?" – Chris
"This Money's Yours" – Chris and Kim
"Sun and Moon" – Chris and Kim
"The Telephone Song" / "Asking For Leave" – Chris and John
"The Deal" – The Engineer and Chris
"The Wedding Ceremony" – Gigi, Kim, Bar Girls and Chris
"Thuy's Arrival" / "Thuy's Intervention" – Thuy, Chris, and Kim
"Last Night of the World" – Chris and Kim
"The Morning of the Dragon" – Soldiers, The Engineer, Two Guards and Thuy
"I Still Believe" – Kim and Ellen
"Back in Town" / "Coo-Coo Princess" – The Engineer, Kim, Thuy and Soldiers
"Thuy's Death" / "You Will Not Touch Him" – Thuy and Kim
"This is the Hour" – Chorus
"If You Want to Die in Bed" – The Engineer
"Let Me See His Western Nose" / "Kim & Engineer"– Kim and The Engineer
"I'd Give My Life for You" – Kim
"Exodus" – Chorus
Act II
"Entr'acte"
"Bui Doi" – John and Chorus
"The Revelation" – Chris and John
"What a Waste" – The Engineer, Hustlers, Tourists, John and Kim
"Please" (Original Production) / "Too Much For One Heart" – John and Kim (2014 London / 2017 Broadway productions)
"Chris is Here" – The Engineer, Kim, Club Owner and John
"Kim's Nightmare" – Thuy
"Fall of Saigon" – Soldiers, Chris, Kim, John and Citizens
"Sun and Moon" (Reprise) – Kim
"Room 317" – Kim and Ellen
"Now That I've Seen Her" (Original production "Her or Me") / "Maybe" – Ellen (2011 Holland / 2014 London / 2014 Japan / 2017 Broadway productions)
"The Confrontation" – Chris, Ellen, John and Kim
"Paper Dragons" – The Engineer and Kim
"The American Dream" – The Engineer
"This is the Hour" / "Little God of My Heart" (Reprise) – Kim
"Finale" – Chris and Kim
Production history
West End (1989–1999)Miss Saigon premiered in the West End at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane on 20 September 1989 and closed after 4,264 performances on 30 October 1999. The director was Nicholas Hytner with musical staging by Bob Avian and scenic design by John Napier. In December 1994 the London production became the Theatre Royal's (Drury Lane) longest running musical, eclipsing the record set by My Fair Lady.
Lea Salonga played the part of Kim, winning the Laurence Olivier Award and Tony Award. The Engineer was portrayed by Jonathan Pryce, who also won the Laurence Olivier Award and Tony Award for the role. The part of Chris was originally played by Simon Bowman.
Broadway (1991–2001)
The musical débuted on Broadway at the Broadway Theatre on 11 April 1991 and closed on 28 January 2001 after 4,092 performances. Directed again by Nicholas Hytner with musical staging by Bob Avian, scenic design was by John Napier, costume design was by Andreane Neofitou and Suzy Benzinger and lighting design was by David Hersey. As of September 2017, Miss Saigon is still the 13th longest-running Broadway musical in musical theatre history.
West End revival (2014–2016)
Preview performances for the anticipated West End revival in the show's 25th year began in early May 2014 at the Prince Edward Theatre.BREAKING NEWS: It's Finally Official! MISS SAIGON to Return to West End in May 2014 at Prince Edward Theatre! broadwayworld.com Retrieved June 19, 2013 It was produced by Cameron Mackintosh and directed by Laurence Connor. Auditions for the role of Kim were held from November 19–22, 2012 in Manila, Philippines. On November 21, 2013, it was announced 17-year-old Eva Noblezada was cast as Kim. Other cast members included Kwang-Ho Hong as Thuy, Jon Jon Briones as the Engineer, Alistair Brammer as Chris, Hugh Maynard as John, Tamsin Carroll as Ellen and Rachelle Ann Go as Gigi. The official opening night was 21 May.
On the 22nd September 2014, a special 25th anniversary gala performance was held. After a full performance of the current show, Lea Salonga, Simon Bowman, Jonathan Pryce and many of the original 1989 cast joined with the current cast for a special finale. The finale started with Lea Salonga leading the ensemble with "This is the Hour", Salonga and Rachelle Ann Go performed "The Movie in My Mind". Salonga, Simon Bowman, Alistair Brammer and Eva Noblezada performed "Last Night of the World" before Jonathan Pryce took to the stage for "The American Dream" and was later joined by Jon Jon Briones. The West End production closed on 27 February 2016 after 760 performances. The cast also performed a "Muck-Up Matinee" on the day of closing, where many understudies came to the stage for one final bow, including Tanya Manalang (Alternate Kim), Christian Rey Marbella (Understudy Engineer), before the main cast in the evening. Cameron Mackintosh announced a cinema screening of the 25th Anniversary Gala along with a movie at a later date, a brand new UK Tour, and plans to transfer to Australia, Germany, and Broadway in the next two years.
The revival closed to make way for the London transfer of the Broadway best-selling show Aladdin in May 2016, with former understudy for Thuy, Ethan Le Phong, understudying the lead role of Aladdin.
Broadway revival (2017–2018)
It was announced on November 19, 2015 that the West End production of the show would transfer to Broadway in March 2017 for a limited engagement through January 15, 2018. The production starred Eva Noblezada as Kim, Jon Jon Briones as The Engineer, Alistair Brammer as Chris, and Rachelle Ann Go as Gigi, all reprising their roles from the 2014 West End revival. Other cast members included Katie Rose Clarke as Ellen, Nicholas Christopher as John, and Devin Ilaw as Thuy. A U.S. national tour is planned thereafter. The revival played at the Broadway Theatre, the same venue the show played at for its Broadway debut. Preview performances began on March 1, 2017, with an official opening on March 23."Read Reviews for the Broadway Revival of 'Miss Saigon' " Playbill, March 23, 2017 The final performance was on January 14, 2018.
Other productions
Since its opening in London Miss Saigon was produced in many cities around the world including Tokyo, Stuttgart, The Hague, and Toronto, where new theatres were designed specifically to house the show.Miss Saigon opened in Australia at the Capitol Theatre Sydney on 29 July 1995, starring Joanna Ampil as Kim, Peter Cousens as Chris, Cocoy Laurel as the Engineer, Milton Craig Nealy as John, Darren Yap as Thuy, and Silvie Paladino as Ellen.
In the small island community of Bømlo, Norway with only around eleven thousand inhabitants, the show was set up in the outdoor amphitheatre by the local musical fellowship and ran from 5 August to 16 August 2009. The local musical fellowship brought in a Bell Helicopter for the show.Miss Saigon has been performed by twenty-seven companies in twenty-five countries and 246 cities, and it has been translated into twelve different languages. Arlington Virginia's Signature Theatre 2013's production was the US debut with the inclusion of the new song 'Maybe' (which replaced the prior song 'Now That I've Seen Her') which would be integrated into the West End's 2014 revival.
Tours
The first US tour started in Chicago, Illinois in October 1992 and was then expected to travel to those cities that could accommodate the large production. The tour also played venues such as the Wang Center in Boston from 14 July to 12 September 1993, the Broward Center for the Performing Arts, Florida in the Spring 1994, and the Kennedy Center, Washington, DC in June 1994. Cameron Mackintosh said: "Corners haven't been cut. They've been added. There are only a dozen theaters in America where we can do this."
A second National US tour launched in Seattle in early 1995 and would close very successfully in August 2000 in Buffalo NY after playing engagements in most major US and Canadian markets, including Honolulu HI, San Francisco, Toronto, and return engagements in Boston (twice), Chicago and West Palm Beach. The tour originally starred DeeDee Magno as Kim (later Kristine Remigio, Kym Hoy, and Mika Nishida), Thom Sesma as The Engineer (later Joseph Anthony Foronda), and Matt Bogart as Chris (replaced by Will Chase, Steven Pasquale, Greg Stone and Will Swenson). This production boasted all the original design and creative elements of Broadway, but on a scale that most major market road houses could accommodate.
After the London production closed in 1999 and also following the closure of the Broadway production in 2001, the show in its original London staging embarked on a long tour of the six largest venues in Britain and Ireland, stopping off in each city for several months. The tour starring Joanna Ampil, Niklas Andersson and Leo Valdez opened at the Palace Theatre, Manchester and also played in the Birmingham Hippodrome, the Mayflower Theatre in Southampton, the Edinburgh Playhouse, the Bristol Hippodrome and The Point Theatre in Dublin. This successful tour drew to a close in 2003 and a brand new production was developed by original producer Cameron Mackintosh on a smaller scale so that the show could be accommodated in smaller theatres. This tour started in July 2004 and ended in June 2006.
A non-Equity North American tour began in summer 2002 to spring 2005, playing such venues as the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark, New Jersey in November 2003, Raleigh, North Carolina in February 2005, and Gainesville, Florida in November 2003.Rendell, Bob."Miss Saigon Lands at NJPAC" talkinbroadway.com, Nov 6, 2003
A third UK tour for 2017/2018 opened at the Curve in Leicester, and also toured to the Birmingham Hippodrome, the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre in Dublin, the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff, the Edinburgh Festival Theatre, the Mayflower Theatre in Southampton and the Palace Theatre in Manchester.
Another US tour began at Providence Performing Arts Center in September 2018. The tour closed early on March 15, 2020 in Fort Myers, Florida due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Casts
Controversies
Hubert van Es, a Dutch photojournalist who recorded the most famous image of the fall of Saigon in 1975 (a group of people scaling a ladder to a CIA helicopter on a rooftop), considered legal action when his photograph was used in Miss Saigon.
Casting controversiesMiss Saigon has received criticism for what some have perceived as its racist or sexist overtones, including protests regarding its portrayal of Asians and women in general. Originally, Pryce and Burns, white actors playing Eurasian/Asian characters, wore eye prostheses and bronzing cream to make themselves look more Asian, which outraged some who drew comparisons to a "minstrel show". The American scholar Yutian Wong noted when Miss Saigon premiered on the West End in 1989, reviews in British newspapers such as The Daily Mail, The Times, and The Evening Standard were uniformly positive as British theater critics did not find anything objectionable about the opera, and the controversy about Miss Saigon only began in 1990 with the prospect of it appearing on Broadway, which Wong argued was because the United States has a much larger Asian population than does the United Kingdom.
In the London production of Miss Saigon, Lea Salonga originally starred as Kim, with Jonathan Pryce as the Engineer. When the production transferred from London to New York City, the Actors' Equity Association (AEA) refused to allow Pryce, a white actor, to portray the role of the Engineer, a Eurasian pimp, in the United States. The playwright David Henry Hwang and the actor B.D Wong wrote public letters of protest against Pryce's casting. Both Hwang and Wong had seen Miss Saigon on the West End of London, and felt Pryce's performance as the Engineer was demeaning to Asian people. As Alan Eisenberg, executive secretary of Actors' Equity explained: "The casting of a Caucasian actor made up to appear Asian is an affront to the Asian community. The casting choice is especially disturbing when the casting of an Asian actor, in the role, would be an important and significant opportunity to break the usual pattern of casting Asians in minor roles." This ruling on 7 August 1990 led to criticism from many, including the British Actors' Equity Association, citing violations of the principles of artistic integrity and freedom. Producer Cameron Mackintosh threatened to cancel the show, despite massive advance ticket sales.
Though there had been a large, well-publicised international search among Asian actresses to play Kim, there had been no equivalent search for Asian actors to play the major Asian male roles—specifically, those of the Engineer (Pryce) and Thuy (Keith Burns). The American scholar Angelica Pao noted that in the first production of Miss Saigon on the West End, Macintosh went out of his way to cast Asian actresses to play the Vietnamese women, arguing that this was necessary to provide authenticity, but he was content to cast white actors as Vietnamese men. However, others pointed out that since the Engineer's character was Eurasian (French-Vietnamese), they argued that Pryce was being discriminated against on the basis that he was Caucasian. Also, Pryce was considered by many in Europe to have "star status," a clause that allows a well-known foreign actor to recreate a role on Broadway without an American casting call. After pressure from Mackintosh, the general public, and many of its own members, Actors' Equity reversed its decision. Pryce starred alongside Salonga and Willy Falk (as Chris) when the show opened on Broadway.Bright Lights Film Journal – Hollywood Yellowface Retrieved on 2007 – December 15.
During the production transfer from West End to Broadway, a lesser controversy erupted over Salonga's citizenship, as she was Filipina, and the AEA wanted to give priority to its own members, initially preventing her from reprising her role. However, Mackintosh was unable to find a satisfactory replacement for Salonga despite the extensive auditions that he conducted in several American and Canadian cities. An arbitrator reversed the AEA ruling a month later to allow Salonga to star.
Revived productions of Miss Saigon have been subjects to boycotts from Asian actors.
Orientalism, racism, and misogyny
Community members have organized against the play in many different cities over the years, citing that the production is racist and misogynistic. 2010 Fulbright Hayes Scholar D Hideo Maruyama states, "it's time to see the real Vietnam, not the Miss Saigon version. Whether or not America is ready to see the real one is up to question." American artist and activist Mai Neng Moua states, "I protested Miss Saigon back in 1994 when the Ordway first brought it to town. I was a college student at St. Olaf and had never protested anything before. I didn't know what to say or do. I was scared people would yell or throw things at me. Then I met Esther Suzuki, a Japanese American woman whose family survived the racist U.S. policy of internment camps. Esther was about my size – which is small – but she was fearless. Esther protested Miss Saigon because, she better than anyone, understood Dr. King's "No one is free until we all are free." I stood with Esther, protesting Miss Saigon, and drew strength from her. We protested Miss Saigon because it was racist, sexist, and offensive to us as Asian Americans. Nineteen years later, this hasn't changed." Vietnamese American activist Denise Huynh recounts her experience attending the production and the stereotypes making her feel physically ill.
Sarah Bellamy, co-artistic director of the Penumbra Theatre, dedicated to African American theater, states "It gets a lot easier to wrap your head around all of this for folks of color when we remember a key point: this work is not for us. It is by, for, and about white people, using people of color, tropical climes, pseudo-cultural costumes and props, violence, tragedy, and the commodification of people and cultures, to reinforce and re-inscribe a narrative about white supremacy and authority."
The American scholar Wong Yutian described Miss Saigon as promoting the image of "...an effeminzed and infantized Asia serving as a low-budget whorehouse for the West". The fact that the Vietnam war impoverished many Vietnamese people, and forced many women to turn to prostitution in order to survive is not mentioned in Miss Saigon, and establishments such as the fictional Dreamland brothel are portrayed as the norm in Vietnam. In 1999, when Miss Saigon was closing in London, a new advertising campaign was launched on the Tube featuring posters reading "You'll miss Saigon" that showed an Asian woman wearing a military jacket that barely covered her breasts, which Wong felt sent the message that "Asia equals prostitution"..
American scholar Karen Shimakawa argued that the romance between the Marine Chris with Kim was intended as a message by Boublil and Schönberg about the legitimacy and justice of the Vietnam war with the submissive Kim looking up to Chris to protect and save her from her own people. Notably, the wedding between Chris and Kim is seen by the former as a mere spectacle for him to enjoy rather representing a binding commitment on his part to Kim, and he is very surprised to learn later on that Kim considers him to be her husband, an aspect of his character that he is not criticized for. Instead, Ellen explains to Kim that under American law she is Chris's wife, and Kim just merely accepts the supremacy of American law over Vietnamese law, which Shimakawa argued represents the viewpoint that Vietnam is merely just a place that provides exotic spectacles for Chris and other Americans to enjoy.
The Trinidadian-Canadian critic Richard Fung wrote in 1994: "If Miss Saigon were the only show about sexually available Asian women and money-grubbing Asian men, it wouldn't be a stereotype and there would be no protest-negative portrayals per se are not a problem". Fung argued that the way in which films, television and plays repeated such stereotypes ad nauseam had a damaging effect on the self-esteem of Asian-Americans, especially Asian-American women.
The Overture Center for the Arts planned to host a touring production of Miss Saigon in April 2019 and had scheduled a panel discussion to showcase Asian-American perspectives on the musical's treatment of Asian characters. The Center then postponed the panel discussion indefinitely, prompting a teach-in by the panel's organizers and scheduled speakers. “Shame on Overture for making a profit off the bodies of Asian bodies and Asian lives,” said Nancy Vue of Freedom Inc. “If you are a white woman, you should be outraged because this play pits white woman against Asian women. You should be outraged that it does that because we ought to be working together.”
Recordings
Response
Though the show has received awards and acclaim, it lost the Best Musical Award at the 1989/1990 Laurence Olivier Awards to Return to the Forbidden Planet in London.
Upon its Broadway opening in 1991 the musical was massively hyped as the best musical of the year, both critically and commercially. It broke several Broadway records, including a record advance-ticket sales at $24 million, highest priced ticket at $100, and repaying investors in fewer than 39 weeks.Miss Saigon and The Will Rogers Follies led the 1991 Tony Award nominations with eleven nominations. According to The New York Times, "Will Rogers and Miss Saigon had both earned 11 nominations and were considered the front-runners for the Tony as best musical. But many theatre people predicted that Miss Saigon, an import from London, would be the victim of a backlash. There is lingering bitterness against both the huge amount of publicity Miss Saigon has received and the battle by its producer, Cameron Mackintosh, to permit its two foreign stars, Mr. Pryce and the Filipina actress Lea Salonga, to re-create on Broadway their number one award-winning roles."
The show lost to The Will Rogers Follies for nearly every major award, though Lea Salonga, Jonathan Pryce and Hinton Battle all won awards.
Awards and nominations
Original West End production
Original Broadway production
2014 West End revival
2017 Broadway revival
Film adaptation
On 21 October 2009, a film version of the musical was reported to be in "early stages of development". Producer Paula Wagner was reported to be teaming with the original musical producer Cameron Mackintosh to create a film version of the musical. Filming locations are said to be Cambodia and quite possibly Ho Chi Minh City (the former Saigon).
Cameron Mackintosh reported that the film version of Miss Saigon depended on whether the Les Misérables film was a success. In August 2013, director Lee Daniels announced hopes to get a film adaptation off the ground.
On 27 February 2016 at the closing night of the Miss Saigon London Revival, Mackintosh hinted that the film adaptation was close to being produced when he said, "Sooner rather than later, the movie won't just be in my mind". As well as this, the 2014 "25th anniversary" performance of Miss Saigon'' in London was filmed for an Autumn cinema broadcast. In March 2016, it was reported that Danny Boyle was in talks to direct the film for a 2018 release.
See also
Tears of Heaven – Another Vietnam-set musical, from 2011 by composer Frank Wildhorn, set in the lead up to and during the Tet Offensive.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official UK website
Musical Cyberspace: Miss Saigon
On the Scene: Miss Saigon Celebrates 4,000 Performances
Time review, noting changes from West End to Broadway
Plot summary and character descriptions
Miss Saigon at the Music Theatre International website
Miss Saigon – School Edition at the Music Theatre International website
New Zealand Premiere Photos
New Zealand Premiere Cast
Musicals by Claude-Michel Schönberg
1989 musicals
West End musicals
Broadway musicals
Musicals based on operas
Sung-through musicals
Fiction about interracial romance
Suicide in fiction
Plays set in the 1970s
Vietnam War in popular culture
Saigon in fiction
Tony Award-winning musicals
Race-related controversies in theatre | [
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239252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernie%20Alpine%20Resort | Fernie Alpine Resort | Fernie Alpine Resort is a ski resort, located on Lizard Range, near the town of Fernie, British Columbia in Canada. It is known particularly for its high annual snowfall, reportedly the highest of any resort in the Canadian Rockies, and for its powder skiing. The resort also operates a mountain bike park, hiking, guided hikes, and sightseeing in the summer months.
The resort has 10 lifts servicing 142 named runs plus 5 alpine bowls and tree skiing with a vertical drop of . The resort has over of skiable terrain. The average annual snowfall is .
Fernie Alpine Resort is owned by Resorts of the Canadian Rockies which also owns ski areas, Kimberley Alpine Resort, Kicking Horse Resort, Nakiska, Mont Sainte-Anne, and Stoneham.
History
Fernie Alpine Resort was originally called "Fernie Snow Valley" before being sold in 1997 to RCR (Resort of the Canadian Rockies). RCR saw some financial trouble under owner Charlie Locke, and after a period in bankruptcy protection, was bailed out by Alberta billionaire N. Murray Edwards.
During spring 2009, Fernie Alpine Resort was transformed into the fictional Kodiak Valley ski resort, ca. 1986, for exterior location shots of the Hollywood film Hot Tub Time Machine. The film was released in March 2010.
Bowls
Fernie Alpine Resort has five Legendary Bowls along the Lizard Range. Siberia Bowl, Cedar Bowl, Timber Bowl, Currie Bowl, and the Lizard bowl.
References
External links
Fernie Alpine Resort
RCR corporate website
Elk Valley (British Columbia)
Ski areas and resorts in British Columbia
Tourism in British Columbia | [
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239253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution%20by%20elephant | Execution by elephant | Execution by elephant was a common method of capital punishment in South and Southeast Asia, particularly in India, where Asian elephants were used to crush, dismember or torture captives in public executions. The animals were trained and versatile, able to kill victims immediately or to torture them slowly over a prolonged period. Most commonly employed by royalty, the elephants were used to signify both the ruler's absolute power and his ability to control wild animals.
The sight of elephants executing captives both horrified and attracted the interest of European travellers and was recorded in numerous contemporary journals and accounts of life in Asia. The practice was eventually suppressed by the European colonial powers that colonised the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. While primarily confined to Asia, the practice was occasionally used by Western powers, such as Ancient Rome and Carthage, particularly to deal with mutinous soldiers.
Cultural aspects
The intelligence, domesticability, and versatility of the elephant gave it considerable advantages over other wild animals such as lions and bears used as executioners by the Romans. Elephants can be trained to execute prisoners in a variety of ways, and can be taught to prolong the agony of the victim by inflicting a slow death by torture or to kill the condemned quickly by stepping on the head.
Historically, the elephants were under the constant control of a driver or mahout, thus enabling a ruler to grant a last-minute reprieve and display merciful qualities. Several such exercises of mercy are recorded in various Asian kingdoms. The kings of Siam trained their elephants to roll the convicted person "about the ground rather slowly so that he is not badly hurt". The Mughal Emperor Akbar is said to have "used this technique to chastise 'rebels' and then in the end the prisoners, presumably much chastened, were given their lives". On one occasion, Akbar was recorded to have had a man thrown to the elephants to suffer five days of such treatment before pardoning him. Elephants were occasionally used in trial by ordeal in which the condemned prisoner was released if he managed to fend off the elephant.
The use of elephants in such fashion went beyond the common royal power to dispense life and death. Elephants have long been used as symbols of royal authority (and still are in some places, such as Thailand, where white elephants are held in reverence). Their use as instruments of state power sent the message that the ruler was able to preside over very powerful creatures who were under total command. The ruler was thus seen as maintaining a moral and spiritual domination over wild beasts, adding to their authority and mystique among subjects.
Geographical scope
Execution by elephant has been done in many parts of the world, by both Western and Eastern empires. The earliest records of such executions date back to the classical period. However, the practice was already well established by that time and continued well into the 19th century. While African elephants are significantly larger than Asian elephants, African powers were not known to make as much use of the animals in warfare or ceremonial affairs compared to their Asian counterparts.
Asian powers
Southeast Asia
Elephants are widely reported to have been used to carry out executions in Southeast Asia, and were used in Burma and Malaysia from the earliest historical times as well as in the kingdom of Champa on the other side of the Indochinese Peninsula. In Siam, elephants were trained to throw the condemned into the air before trampling them to death. Alexander Hamilton provides the following account from Siam:
The journal of John Crawfurd records another method of execution by elephant in the kingdom of Cochinchina (modern south Vietnam), where he served as a British envoy in 1821. Crawfurd recalls an event where "the criminal is tied to a stake, and [Excellency's favourite] elephant runs down upon him and crushes him to death."
South Asia
India
Elephants were used as executioners of choice in India for many centuries. Hindu and Muslim rulers executed tax evaders, rebels and enemy soldiers alike "under the feet of elephants". The Hindu Manu Smriti or Laws of Manu, written sometime between 200 BCE and 200 CE, prescribed execution by elephants for a number of offences. If property was stolen, for instance, "the king should have any thieves caught in connection with its disappearance executed by an elephant." For example, in 1305, the sultan of Delhi turned the deaths of Mongol prisoners into public entertainment by having them crushed by elephants.
During the Mughal era, "it was a common mode of execution in those days to have the offender trampled underfoot by an elephant." Captain Alexander Hamilton, writing in 1727, described how the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan ordered an offending military commander to be carried "to the Elephant Garden, and there to be executed by an Elephant, which is reckoned to be a shameful and terrible Death". The Mughal Emperor Humayun ordered the crushing by elephant of an imam he mistakenly believed to be critical of his reign. Some monarchs also adopted this form of execution for their own entertainment. Another Mughal ruler, the emperor Jahangir, is said to have ordered a huge number of criminals to be crushed for his amusement. The French traveler François Bernier, who witnessed such executions, recorded his dismay at the pleasure that the emperor derived from this cruel punishment. Nor was crushing the only method used by the Mughals' execution elephants; in the Mughal sultanate of Delhi, elephants were trained to slice prisoners to pieces "with pointed blades fitted to their tusks".
The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta, visiting Delhi in the 1330s, has left the following eyewitness account of this particular type of execution by elephants:
Other Indian polities also carried out executions by elephant. The Maratha Chatrapati Sambhaji ordered this form of death for a number of conspirators, including the Maratha official Anaji Datto in the late seventeenth century. Another Maratha leader, the general Santaji, inflicted the punishment for breaches in military discipline. The contemporary historian Khafi Khan reported that "for a trifling offense he [Santaji] would cast a man under the feet of an elephant."
The early-19th-century writer Robert Kerr relates how the king of Goa "keeps certain elephants for the execution of malefactors. When one of these is brought forth to dispatch a criminal, if his keeper desires that the offender be destroyed speedily, this vast creature will instantly crush him to atoms under his foot; but if desired to torture him, will break his limbs successively, as men are broken on the wheel." The naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon cited this flexibility of purpose as evidence that elephants were capable of "human reasoning, [rather] than a simple, natural instinct".
Such executions were often held in public as a warning to any who may transgress. To that end, many of the elephants were especially large, often weighing in excess of nine tons. The executions were intended to be gruesome and often were. They were sometimes preceded by torture publicly inflicted by the same elephant used for the execution. An account of one such torture-and-execution at Baroda in 1814 has been preserved in The Percy Anecdotes:
The use of elephants as executioners continued well into the latter half of the 19th century. During an expedition to central India in 1868, Louis Rousselet described the execution of a criminal by an elephant. A sketch depicting the execution showed the condemned being forced to place his head upon a pedestal, and then being held there while an elephant crushed his head underfoot. The sketch was made into a woodcut and printed in "Le Tour du Monde", a widely circulated French journal of travel and adventure, as well as foreign journals such as Harper's Weekly.
The growing power of the British Empire led to the decline and eventual end of elephant executions in India. Writing in 1914, Eleanor Maddock noted that in Kashmir, since the arrival of Europeans, "many of the old customs are disappearing – and one of these is the dreadful custom of the execution of criminals by an elephant trained for the purpose and which was known by the hereditary name of 'Gunga Rao'."
Sri Lanka
Elephants were widely used across the Indian subcontinent and South Asia as a method of execution. The English sailor Robert Knox, writing in 1681, described a method of execution by elephant which he had witnessed while being held captive in Sri Lanka. Knox says the elephants he witnessed had their tusks fitted with "sharp Iron with a socket with three edges". After impaling the victim's body with its tusks, the elephant would "then tear it in pieces, and throw it limb from limb".
The 19th-century traveler James Emerson Tennent comments that "a Kandyan [Sri Lankan] chief, who was witness to such scenes, has assured us that the elephant never once applied his tusks, but, placing his foot on the prostrate victim, plucked off his limbs in succession by a sudden movement of his trunk." Knox's book depicts exactly this method of execution in a famous drawing, An Execution by an Eliphant.
Writing in 1850, the British diplomat Henry Charles Sirr described a visit to one of the elephants that had been used by Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last king of Kandy, to execute criminals. Crushing by elephant had been abolished by the British after they annexed the Kingdom of Kandy in 1815 but the king's execution elephant was still alive and evidently remembered its former duties. Sirr comments:
West Asia
During the medieval period, executions by elephants were used by several West Asian imperial powers, including the Byzantine, Sassanid, Seljuq and Timurid empires. When the Sassanid king Khosrau II, who had a harem of 3,000 wives and 12,000 female slaves, demanded as a wife Hadiqah, the daughter of the Christian Arab Na'aman, Na'aman refused to permit his Christian daughter to enter the harem of a Zoroastrian; for this refusal, he was trampled to death by an elephant.
The practice appears to have been adopted in parts of the Muslim Middle East. Rabbi Petachiah of Ratisbon, a twelfth-century Jewish traveler, reported an execution by this means during his stay in Seljuk-ruled northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq):
Western empires
The Romans, Carthaginians and ancient Macedonians occasionally used elephants for executions while also making use of war elephants for military purposes, most famously in the case of Hannibal. Deserters, prisoners of war and military criminals are recorded by ancient chroniclers to have been put to death under the foot of an elephant. Perdiccas, who became regent of Macedon on the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, had mutineers from the faction of Meleager thrown to the elephants to be crushed in the city of Babylon. The Roman writer Quintus Curtius Rufus relates the story in his Historiae Alexandri Magni:
Similarly, the Roman writer Valerius Maximus records how the general Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus "after King Perseus was vanquished [in 167 BC], for the same fault (desertion) threw men under elephants to be trampled ... And indeed military discipline needs this kind of severe and abrupt punishment, because this is how strength of arms stands firm, which, when it falls away from the right course, will be subverted."
Africa
In 240 BC a Carthaginian army army led by Hamilcar Barca was fighting a coalition of mutinous soldiers and rebellious African cities led by Spendius. After losing a battle when a force of Numidian cavalry deserted to the Carthaginians Spendius had 700 Carthaginian prisoners tortured to death. From this point, prisoners taken by the Carthaginians were trampled to death by their war elephants. This unusual ferocity caused the conflict to be termed the "Truceless War".
There are fewer records of elephants being used as straightforward executioners for the civil population. One such example is mentioned by Josephus and the deuterocanonical book of 3 Maccabees in connection with the Egyptian Jews, though the story is likely apocryphal. 3 Maccabees describes an attempt by Ptolemy IV Philopator (ruled 221–204 BC) to enslave and brand Egypt's Jews with the symbol of Dionysus. When the majority of the Jews resisted, the king is said to have rounded them up and ordered them to be trampled on by elephants. The mass execution was ultimately thwarted, supposedly by the intervention of angels, following which Ptolemy took an altogether more forgiving attitude towards his Jewish subjects.
References
Sources
Allsen, Thomas T. "The Royal Hunt in Eurasian History". University of Pennsylvania Press, May 2006.
Chevers, Norman. "A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence for Bengal and the Northwestern Provinces". Carbery, 1856.
Collins, John Joseph. "Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora". Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, October 1999.
Eraly, Abraham. "Mughal Throne: The Saga of India's Great Emperors", Phoenix House, 2005.
Hamilton, Alexander. "A New Account of the East Indies: Being the Observations and Remarks of Capt. Alexander Hamilton, from the Year 1688 to 1723". C. Hitch and A. Millar, 1744.
Kerr, Robert. "A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels". W. Blackwood, 1811.
Lee, Samuel (trans). "The Travels of Ibn Batuta". Oriental Translation Committee, 1829.
Olivelle, Patrick (trans). "The Law Code of Manu". Oxford University Press, 2004.
Schimmel, Annemarie. "The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture". Reaktion Books, February 2004.
Tennent, Emerson James. "Ceylon: An Account of the Island Physical, Historical and Topographical". Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860.
Elephants in Indian culture
Execution methods
Social history of India
History of South Asia
History of Southeast Asia
Torture
Deaths due to elephant attacks
Animal training
Naravas
Naravas
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239255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20History%20of%20The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings | The History of The Lord of the Rings | The History of The Lord of the Rings is a four-volume work by Christopher Tolkien published between 1988 and 1992 that documents the process of J. R. R. Tolkien's writing of The Lord of the Rings. The History is also numbered as volumes six to nine of The History of Middle-earth ("HoME").
Contents
The volumes are:
(HoME 6) The Return of the Shadow (1988)
(HoME 7) The Treason of Isengard (1989)
(HoME 8) The War of the Ring (1990)
(HoME 9) Sauron Defeated (1992)
The first volume of The History encompasses three initial stages of composition or, as Christopher Tolkien calls them, "phases", including what Tolkien later called "the crucial chapter" which sets up the central plot, "The Shadow of the Past". It finishes with the Fellowship of the Ring entering the Mines of Moria.
The second volume continues to the meeting with Théoden king of Rohan, and includes the invention and evolution of Lothlórien and Galadriel; plans for Frodo and Sam's progress to Mordor; the invention and evolution of Treebeard, the Ents, and Fangorn; discussions of the original map of Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age; and of the evolution of Cirth in an appendix.
The third volume, The War of the Ring continues to the opening of the Black Gate.
The last volume finishes the story and features the rejected Epilogue, in which Sam answers his children's questions. It also includes The Notion Club Papers (a time-travel story related to Númenor), a draft of the Drowning of Anadûnê, and the only extant account of Tolkien's fictional language Adûnaic.
Some paperback editions of the fourth volume, retitled The End of the Third Age, include only the materials for The Lord of the Rings.
The original idea was to release The History of The Lord of the Rings in three volumes, not four. When The Treason of Isengard was first published in paperback Volume 8 was to be called Sauron Defeated and was to be the last volume.
Some information concerning the appendices and a soon-abandoned sequel to the novel can also be found in volume 12, The Peoples of Middle-earth.
Titles
The titles of the volumes derive from discarded titles for the separate books of The Lord of the Rings. J. R. R. Tolkien conceived the latter as a single volume comprising six "books" plus extensive appendices, but the original publisher split the work into three, publishing two books per volume with the appendices included in the third. The titles proposed by Tolkien for the six books were: Book 1, The First Journey or The Ring Sets Out; Book 2, The Journey of the Nine Companions or The Ring Goes South; Book 3, The Treason of Isengard; Book 4, The Journey of the Ring-Bearers or The Ring Goes East; Book 5, The War of the Ring; and Book 6, The End of the Third Age. The title The Return of the Shadow was a discarded title for Volume 1.
Three of the titles of the volumes of The History of The Lord of the Rings were also used as book titles for the seven-volume edition of The Lord of the Rings: The Treason of Isengard for Book 3, The War of the Ring for Book 5, and The End of the Third Age for Book 6.
Tengwar inscriptions
There is an inscription in Fëanorian characters (Tengwar, an alphabet Tolkien devised for the High-Elves) on the title page of each of the volumes of History of Middle-earth, written by Christopher Tolkien and describing the contents of the book.
Tolkien's creativity
The History of The Lord of the Rings reveals much of the slow, aggregative nature of Tolkien's creativity. As Christopher Tolkien noted of the first two volumes, Tolkien had eventually brought the story up to Rivendell, but still "without any clear conception of what lay before him". He also noted how, on the way, his father could get caught up in a "spider's web of argumentation" – what Tom Shippey described as getting "bogged down in sometimes strikingly unnecessary webs of minor causation". Thus (for example) the character eventually known as Pippin Took was, in a series of rewriting and of deleted adventures, variously known as Odo, Frodo, Folco, Faramond, Peregrin, Hamilcar, Fredegar, and Olo – the figures also being Boffins and Bolgers, as well as Tooks.
Only with the Breaking of the Fellowship did fluency finally arrive for Tolkien, his son recording how chapters were suddenly "achieved with far greater facility than any previous part of the story". Thereafter Tolkien's problem was rather one of selecting between alternative accounts, so as to produce the best effect – two episodes in the "fascinating study" Sauron Defeated that were eventually deleted being the pardoning of Saruman, and an awards ceremony at the book's close.
Notes
References
Primary
Secondary
Sources
External links
More in-depth information on the individual books in The History of The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien
Middle-earth books
Lord of the Rings, History of
The Lord of the Rings
1988 books
1989 books
1990 books
1992 books
de:The History of The Lord of the Rings | [
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239257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonport%2C%20Tasmania | Devonport, Tasmania | Devonport is a city in northern Tasmania, Australia, located on the lands of the Pannilerpanner clan of the Palawa nation. It is situated at the mouth of the Mersey River. Devonport had an urban population of 23,046 at the 2016 Australian census. When counting the larger urban area, including Latrobe, the population total was 30,297 at June 2018. The area has grown at an average annual rate of 0.17% year-on-year over the preceding five years.
History
The first European settlement before 1850 was on a block of land at Frogmore, near present-day Latrobe. In 1850, a settler named Oldaker occupied land at present-day Devonport. Saw milling and coal mining developed with settlers arriving from England in 1854 on board the sailing ship 'Balmoral'. During the 1850s the twin settlements of Formby and Torquay were established on opposite banks at the mouth of the Mersey River. Torquay on the eastern shore was the larger community with police, post, magistrate, at least three hotels, shipyards and stores. A river ferry service connected the two communities. Between 1870 and 1880 the shipping industry grew and work was undertaken to deepen the mouth of the river. When the mouth of the river could support a shipping industry the first regular steamer services commenced, operating directly between the Mersey and Melbourne.
In 1882 the Marine Board building was built and remains one of the oldest standing buildings in Devonport.
In 1889 the Bluff lighthouse was completed. The turn of the century saw the railway make a significant difference to the Formby community. It combined a railhead and port facilities in the one place. A wharf was created on the west bank, close to the railway and warehouses. The railway brought a building boom to Formby. In 1890 a public vote united Torquay and Formby, and the settlements became the town of Devonport.
The Victoria bridge was opened in 1902 which enabled a land transport link between Devonport and East Devonport.
Devonport was proclaimed a city by Prince Charles of Wales on 21 April 1981 in a ceremony conducted on the Devonport Oval.
The cross river ferry service was discontinued in 2014 after 160 years of continuous service when the "Torquay" ferry was taken out of service. It has since resumed operating.
In December 2021, a jumping castle and two zorbs were lifted into the air by a gust of a wind at Hillcrest primary school, located in the south-west Devonport, killing six children.
Suburbs
Areas within Devonport as a suburb include Highfield
Areas within East Devonport as a suburb includes Pardoe Downs, Rannoch, Panorama Heights
The full list of Suburbs of the City of Devonport are:
List of suburbs
Facilities and the arts
The main Central business district (CBD) is on the west side of the Mersey River and includes a pedestrian mall, cinema, specialty stores, chain stores, hotels, local restaurants, and cafes. Stores in Devonport include Coles, Woolworths, Kmart, Harvey Norman, Bunnings Warehouse, The Reject Shop, Best & Less, Cotton On and Kathmandu. As part of nationwide restructuring, Target closed its department store on Rooke Street on 27 March 2021, being the only closure of a Tasmanian Target store.
Local theatre and conventions are held at the Devonport Entertainment and Convention Centre in the city's CBD.
The Devonport Regional Gallery evolved from the inception of The Little Gallery, which was founded by Jean Thomas as a private enterprise in 1966. The Gallery presents an annual program of exhibitions, education and public programs including events and workshops. A broad range of selected local artisan works are displayed at the North West Regional Craft Centre and gift store in the CBD.
Tiagarra Aboriginal Culture Centre and Museum displays petroglyphs, designs in rock and exhibits that depict the traditional lifestyle of Tasmanian Aboriginal people.
The Bass Strait Maritime Centre housed in the former Harbour Master's House has objects, models and photographs that tell the stories of Bass Strait and Devonport.
A volunteer-run vintage railway and museum, the Don River Railway, is situated at Don, a suburb of Devonport.
The former Devonport Maternity Hospital was recently demolished and the land repurposed into a gated community.
The Mersey Community Hospital at Latrobe serves the Devonport community for their health needs.
Devonport's night club was known as "City Limits" in the 1980s, "The Warehouse" from 1991, and then re-branded as "House" in 2014.
Kokoda Barracks is an army barracks in Devonport.
Government
Annette Rockliff was elected mayor of the City of Devonport in 2018. There are 9 aldermen that govern the Devonport City Council.
Transport
Devonport Airport
Devonport Airport is located at Pardoe Downs approximately 7 km to the east of the city of Devonport, about a 15 min drive by car. The airport is serviced by Bombardier Dash 8 turboprop aircraft, operated by QantasLink, with four daily services to Melbourne, Victoria.
There are several bus companies serving Devonport including Merseylink, Redline Coaches and Phoenix Coaches. Metropolitan Devonport bus services are limited on Saturdays and there are no services on Sundays or Public holidays.
Freight (Shipping)
Searoad Road Shipping operate two roll on roll off vessel of general freight between Devonport, Melbourne and King Island. These vessels include MV Searoad Mersey, MV Searoad Mersey II (2016- ) and MV Searoad Tamar.
Cement Australia has exported cement products produced from Railton to Melbourne since 1926. Other exports via ships include tallow.
Historically, coal was an export product.
Imports include petroleum, bunker fuel, fertiliser and caustic soda.
Rail
A rail line still services the ports area of Devonport.
Devonport once had a roundhouse and railway maintenance yards on the foreshore of the Mersey River. A park exists there today.
Passenger Ferry Terminal
Devonport is the southern terminus for the Spirit of Tasmania ferries – Spirit I and II travel the 11 hours to Melbourne. Beginning in 2022, travel will be from Devonport to Geelong.
Melbourne – Devonport Passenger Ferry History
Agriculture
The Devonport area has rich red soils that are ideal for producing vegetable crops (beans, onions, peas, potatoes etc.) and very significant values of cereals, oil poppies, pyrethrum and other crops.
Education
Primary schools
Hillcrest Primary School
Devonport Primary School
Miandetta Primary School
East Devonport Primary School
Nixon Street Primary School
Spreyton Primary School
Devonport Christian School
Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic Primary School
Secondary schools (Years 7-12)
Devonport High School
Reece High School
St Brendan-Shaw College
Senior secondary education (Years 11–12)
Don College
St Brendan-Shaw College
A TasTAFE campus, an adult training institution, is situated in Valley Road.
Geography
Climate
Devonport has an warm-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb), bordering on an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with mild to warm summers, cool and moist winters and high humidity (about 70%) all year round. Most days from January to March are pleasantly warm, averaging with frequent sunshine. The warmest and driest days can occasionally reach up to . Unlike the south and east coasts of Tasmania, humid northerly winds prevent heatwaves and temperatures rarely if ever reach above . Winters are cool and cloudy with frequent light rain; July and August are the wettest months of the year. Due to almost constant cloud cover and coastal influence, winter temperatures rarely drop below or rise above . September to December usually features mild and windy weather with frequent showers, and occasional warm, sunny breaks.
Sport
Australian rules football
The Devonport Football Club, Magpies, is an Australian rules football team competing in the North West Football League with their home base being the Devonport Oval. 2020 NWFL Grand finalist.
The East Devonport Football Club an Australian Rules Football Club, the Swans play in the North West Football League alongside teams like Ulverstone and Penguin, to name but two.
Netball
Devon Netball is located just outside Devonport in Spreyton, and is the main centre for netball within the Devonport area. The club participates within state wide netball events and tournaments, with some of their best players playing within the State League roster.
Rugby union
The Devonport Rugby Club is a Rugby Union team competing in the Tasmanian Rugby Union Statewide League.
Soccer
Devonport City Football Club an Association Football club that competes in the statewide National Premier Leagues Tasmania, as well as fielding a reserve team in the Northern Championship.
Touch football
The Devonport Touch Football Association is located at Meercroft Park and play touch football
Athletics, cycling and woodchopping
The Devonport Athletic Club, a professional athletic club, hosts a leg of the Tasmanian Cycling Christmas Carnival Series each year in December attended by local and international cyclists, other sports at the carnivals include athletics and woodchopping.
The Devon Amateur Athletics Club compete at the Dial Ranges Sports Centre at Penguin, Tasmania.
The Mersey Valley Devonport Cycling Club host track cycling, the Mersey Valley Tour, Devon 80 Road Race and the Ulverstone Criterium.
Cricket
Devonport Cricket Club is a cricket team which represents Devonport in the North Western Tasmanian Cricket Association grade cricket competition.
Hockey
Devonport Hockey teams compete in the North and North West Hockey roster of Hockey Tasmania.
Basketball
Devonport Warriors are a Devonport-based basketball team that compete in the North West Basketball Union.
Golf
The Devonport Golf Club is located at Woodrising Avenue, Tasmania and has been home to the Tasmanian Open and Tasmanian Seniors Open.
Power boats
Power Boat racing has been a feature at the Devonport Annual Regatta held each March long weekend. The Regatta commenced in 1958.
Racing
The Devonport Harness Racing Club conduct harness racing events at the Devonport Showgrounds. Inside the harness track is a greyhound racing track used on a weekly basis on Tuesday afternoons by the North West Greyhound Racing Club.
The Devonport Cup a horse race is held annually in January at the Spreyton racecourse. There is a gazetted local holiday for the event.
Swimming and aquatic sports
The Splash Devonport Aquatic and Leisure Centre has a world class gym and indoor swimming pool and is based within the Don Reserve.
Tennis
The Devonport Tennis Club and East Devonport Tennis Club compete in the Tennis North West Association rosters.
Triathlon
The Devonport triathlon held annually in February is the continental championship for Oceania.
Notable sportspeople
David Foster (woodchopper)
Nita Burke (basketball)
Corey Cadby (darts player)
Owen Kelly (NASCAR and V8 Supercar driver)
John Bowe (V8 Supercar driver)
VFL/AFL players
Notable players that went on the play in the VFL/AFL:
Darrel Baldock ()
Graham Wright ()
Grant Birchall ()
Brady Rawlings ()
Jade Rawlings (, , )
Matthew Richardson ()
Ben Harrison (, , )
Dion Scott (, Brisbane Bears, )
Matthew Febey ()
Steven Febey ()
Notable people
Joseph Lyons – Prime Minister of Australia 1932–1939 Premier of Tasmania 1923–1928
Dame Enid Lyons
Sister cities
The city of Devonport has a formal sister city agreement with Minamata City in Japan. This was ratified in 1996. Both cities share a similar setting and area.
Minamata, Japan (1996)
City of Port Phillip, Victoria, Australia (current destination for "Spirit of Tasmania" ferries from Devonport, future destination as of 2022 will be Geelong.)
See also
The Tasmanian Arboretum
References
1890 establishments in Australia
Populated places established in 1890
Cities in Tasmania
Coastal cities in Australia
Bass Strait ferries
Port towns of Tasmania | [
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239259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby%20boom | Baby boom | A baby boom is a period marked by a significant increase of birth rate. This demographic phenomenon is usually ascribed within certain geographical bounds of defined national and cultural populations. People born during these periods are often called baby boomers. The cause of baby booms involves various fertility factors. The best-known baby boom occurred in the mid-twentieth century, sometimes considered to have started after the end of the Second World War, sometimes from the late 1930s, and ending in the 1960s.
Africa
"According to the new UNICEF report, almost 2 billion babies will be born in Africa between 2015 and 2050 and the 2 main driving forces behind this surge in births and children are continued high fertility rates and rising numbers of women able to have children of their own."
By 2050, Africa is predicted to account for about 41% of all births in the world, 40% of all children under the age of five, and 37% of all children worldwide (under 18). Africa will become more crowded as its population continues to grow, considering the continent is predicted to grow from 8 people per square kilometer in 1950 to 39 in 2015, and to around 80 by the middle of the century.
The HIV/AIDS crisis in Africa has contributed to a population boom. Aid money used for contraception has been diverted since the start of the AIDS crisis in Africa into fighting HIV, which led to far more births, than deaths from AIDS.
Africa accounted for one out of every nine births in the world in 1950. It is predicted that they will account for approximately one in every three global births by the year 2030. Africa would account for almost half of all births by the end of the century.
Canada
Indigenous people in Canada
Until the 1960s, the Aboriginal population rose steadily. The child mortality rate started to decline steadily in the 1960s, due to the increased access to health care. Throughout the 1960s, the fertility rate remained high, resulting in the Aboriginal baby boom peak in 1967 - about ten years after the postwar baby boom in Canada.
While Aboriginal fertility has remained higher than the overall Canadian birth rate, it has decreased from four times in the 1960s to one-and-a-half times today. However, demographic change was just a part of the reason for the increase in Aboriginal population in the last half of the century.
Appearance of Generation "X," "Y," and "Z" in Canada
Generation X refers to the birth rate decline after the mid-20th century baby boom. Author Douglas Coupland, who coined the term Generation X, defined it as children born 1960 and after. High unemployment and uneven income distribution welcomed Generation X, giving them little opportunity to produce the next baby boom.
In 2011, the children of baby boomers made up 27% of the total population; this category was called Generation Y, or the "baby boom echo." The fertility rate of the generations after the baby boomers dropped as a result of demographic changes such as increasing divorce and separation rates, female labour force participation, and rapid technological change.
The echo generation's children, known as Generation Z, are people born after 1993, or after the invention of the Internet, making up over 7.3 million people in Canada born between 1993 and 2011.
Israel
Israel has been in a constant baby boom since independence, with the highest fertility rate in the OECD at 3.1 children per woman. In addition to having the highest fertility rate among developed nations, it is the only developed country to have never had a sub-replacement fertility rate. Israel's baby boom began in 1947, a year before independence, when the fertility rate among the Yishuv, or Jewish population of what was then Mandatory Palestine, began to rise dramatically as a result of the aftereffects of the Holocaust and expectations of Jewish independence.
Japan
The First Baby Boom
In Japan, the first baby boom occurred between 1947 and 1949. The number of births in this period exceeded 2.5 million every year, bringing the total number of births to about 8 million. The 2.69 million births in 1949 are the most ever in postwar statistics. The cohort born in this period is called the "baby boom generation" (団塊の世代, dankai no sedai, means "the generation of nodule").
The Second Baby Boom
A period of more than 2 million annual births from 1971 to 1974, with the number of births in 1973 peaking at 2.09 million, is referred to as the second baby boom. However, unlike the first boom, this increase in the number of births is an increase in the number of births not accompanied by an increase in the total fertility rate. The people born during this period is often called "baby boom junior" (団塊ジュニア, dankai junia, means "the juniors of the generation of nodule").
The rate of births has been declining since the second baby boom.
Romania
Decreței: (1967–1989), A ban on abortion and contraception caused a baby boom in Romania, leading to overcrowded hospitals. According to an article in the Chicago Tribune on December 26, 1967, a doctor had to beg a woman to give birth at home due to overcrowding at the hospital. The article also said that "pregnant women were having to share hospital beds, and sickly babies were being put into oxygen tents in groups." The baby boom in Romania caused problems that began affecting the health of the nation. Before its ban in 1967, abortion was the only form of birth control. The ethno-nationalistic policies of Romania's leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, further contributed to the baby boom. To encourage people in dominant ethnic groups to have more children, the Romanian Government established financial incentives to have children, including a tax for anyone over 25 without a child. This motivated many people to have children at a younger age, and with ethnic Romanian partners, leading to a surge in births, which later dropped to 14.3 births per 1000 individuals by the 1980s. In an effort to increase birth rates, Ceaușescu changed the legal age to marry to 15, launched media campaigns, and mandated monthly gynecological examinations of all women of childbearing age. This caused a near-fivefold increase in spending on incentives, but the birth rate decreased by 40%.
United States
The term "baby boom" is often used to refer specifically to the post–World War II (1946–1964) baby boom in the United States and Europe. In the US the number of annual births exceeded 2 per 100 women (or approximately 1% of the total population size). An estimated 78.3 million Americans were born during this period.
Since the beginning of the 20th century there were several baby booms:
Post–World War I baby boom: (1918–1929)
Mid-twentieth century baby boom, commonly called post-World War II baby boom: Years of duration vary, depending on the source.
Echo Boomers (Millennials): (researchers and commentators use birth years typically ranging from the early 1980s to the mid 1990s) are mostly the children of baby boomers and a few members of the Silent Generation and Gen X.
See also
Agequake
American social policy during the Second Red Scare
Death rates in the 20th century
Generation
Population bottleneck
Population growth
Strauss–Howe generational theory
Notes for Japan
References
Further reading
THE NEXT FOUR DECADES – The Older Population in the United States: 2010 to 2050 U.S. Census Bureau
Population growth statistics from the Commission on Population Growth and the American Future (1972)
External links
Birth and other medical data from CDC
Births per year from the CDC
Demographic economics
Natalism
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239266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahamudra | Mahamudra | Mahāmudrā (Sanskrit; , contraction of ) literally means "great seal" or "great imprint" and refers to the fact that "all phenomena inevitably are stamped by the fact of wisdom and emptiness inseparable". Mahāmudrā is a multivalent term of great importance in later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism which "also occurs occasionally in Hindu and East Asian Buddhist esotericism."
The name also refers to a body of teachings representing the culmination of all the practices of the Sarma schools of Tibetan Buddhism, who believe it to be the quintessential message of all of their sacred texts. The mudra portion denotes that in an adept's experience of reality, each phenomenon appears vividly, and the maha portion refers to the fact that it is beyond concept, imagination, and projection. The practice of Mahāmudrā is also known as the teaching called "Sahajayoga" or "Co-emergence Yoga". In Tibetan Buddhism, particularly the Kagyu school, this is sometimes seen as a different Buddhist vehicle (yana), the "Sahajayana" (Tibetan: lhen chig kye pa), also known as the vehicle of self-liberation.
History
The usage and meaning of the term mahāmudrā evolved over the course of hundreds of years of Indian and Tibetan history, and as a result, the term may refer variously to "a ritual hand-gesture, one of a sequence of 'seals' in Tantric practice, the nature of reality as emptiness, a meditation procedure focusing on the nature of Mind, an innate blissful gnosis cognizing emptiness nondually, or the supreme attainment of buddhahood at the culmination of the Tantric path."
According to Jamgon Kongtrul, the Indian theoretical sources of the mahāmudrā tradition are Yogacara Tathagatagarbha (Buddha-nature) texts such as the Samdhinirmocana sutra and the Uttaratantra. The actual practice and lineage of mahāmudrā can be traced back to wandering mahasiddhas or great adepts during the Indian Pala Dynasty (760-1142), beginning with the 8th century siddha Saraha.
Saraha's Dohas (songs or poems in rhyming couplets) are the earliest mahamudra literature extant, and promote some of the unique features of mahamudra such as the importance of Pointing-out instruction by a guru, the non-dual nature of mind, and the negation of conventional means of achieving enlightenment such as samatha-vipasyana meditation, monasticism, rituals, tantric practices and doctrinal study in favor of mahamudra 'non-meditation' and 'non-action'. Later Indian and Tibetan masters such as Padmavajra, Tilopa, and Gampopa incorporated mahamudra into tantric, monastic and traditional meditative frameworks.
Etymology in the tantras
It has been speculated that the first use of the term was in the c. 7th century Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, in which it refers to a hand gesture. The term is mentioned with increasing frequency as Buddhist tantra developed further, particularly in the Yogatantras, where it appears in Tattvasaṁgraha and the Vajraśekhara-tantra. Here it also denotes a hand gesture, now linked to three other hand mudrās—the action (karma), pledge (samaya), and dharma mudrās—but also involves "mantra recitations and visualizations that symbolize and help to effect one's complete identification with a deity's divine form or awakening Mind (bodhicitta)." In Mahāyoga tantras such as the Guhyasamāja tantra, it "has multiple meanings, including a contemplation-recitation conducive to the adamantine body, speech, and Mind of the tathāgatas; and the object-—emptiness-—through realization of which 'all is accomplished,'" and it is also used as a synonym for awakened Mind, which is said to be "primordially unborn, empty, unarisen, nonexistent, devoid of self, naturally luminous, and immaculate like the sky."
In the Yoginī or Anuttarayoga Tantras, mahāmudrā "emerges as a major Buddhist concept." As scholar Roger Jackson explains,
Thubten Yeshe explains: "Mahāmudrā means absolute seal, totality, unchangeability. Sealing something implies that you cannot destroy it. Mahāmudrā was not created or invented by anybody; therefore it cannot be destroyed. It is absolute reality".
Aryadeva summarises: "The discussion of how to attain mahāmudrā entails methods for meditating on Mind itself as something having voidness as its nature".
Indian sources
All of the various Tibetan mahāmudrā lineages originated with the Mahasiddhas of the Pala Empire of 8-12th century India. The earliest figure is the tenth century poet yogi Saraha, and his student Nagarjuna (not to be confused with the earlier philosopher). Saraha's collections of poems and songs, mostly composed in the apabhramsa language are the earliest Indian sources for mahāmudrā teachings, aside from the Buddhist tantras.
Other influential Indian mahasiddhas include Tilopa, his student Naropa and Naropa's consort Niguma. Tilopa's "Ganges Mahāmudrā" song is a widely taught short mahāmudrā text. Niguma is an important source for the Shangpa Kagyu lineage.
Tilopa's pupil Maitripa became the principal master of mahāmudrā in India during his time and most lineages of mahāmudrā are traced from Maitripa. Maitripa was a very influential figure of the eleventh century, a scholar and tantrika who widely taught the Ratnagotravibhaga, a text which is widely seen as bridging the sutric Mahayana and Anuttarayogatantra views. He composed commentaries on the buddhist dohas, and his works include a collection of 26 texts on "non-conceptual realization" (amanasikara), which are a key Indian source of mahāmudrā teachings that blend sutra and tantra and teach an instantaneous approach to awakening.
Maitripa described mahāmudrā as follows:Mahāmudrā, that which is unified and beyond the mind, is clear yet thoughtless, pervasive, and vast like space. Its aspect of great compassion is apparent yet devoid of any nature. Manifesting clearly like the moon in water; It is beyond all terms, boundaries or center. Polluted by nothing, it is stainless and beyond hope and fear. It cannot be described, like the dream of a mute.One of Maitripa's students was the Kadam scholar Atisha, who taught mahāmudrā to his pupil Dromtönpa (1004-63) who decided not to make mahāmudrā a part of the Kadam tradition. Another pupil of Maitripa, Marpa Lotsawa, also introduced mahāmudrā to Tibet and his disciple Milarepa is also a central figure of this lineage. Another important figure in the introduction of mahāmudrā to the area is Vajrapani, yet another student of Maitripa. His student, Asu, also was a teacher of Rechungpa (1084-1161), one of Milarepa's pupils.
Gampopa, a key figure of the Kagyu school, refers to three important cycles of Indian texts which discuss Mahāmudrā as his main sources:
"The Seven [or eight] Siddhiḥ Texts" (Saptasiddhiḥ, Tib. Grub pa sde bdun), which include Padmavajra's Guhyasiddhi and Indrabhuti's Jñanasiddhi.
"The Cycle of Six Heart Texts" or "Six works on essential meaning" (Snying po skor drug), including Saraha's Dohakosha and Nagarjunagarbha's Caturmudraniscaya.
Maitripa's "Cycle of Teachings on Non-Cognition" (Yid la mi byed pa 'i chos skor).
This classification existed since the time of Bu ston Rin chen grub (1290-1364).
Indian sources of mahāmudrā were later compiled by the seventh Karmapa Chos grags rgya mtsho (1454- 1506) into a three-volume compilation entitled "The Indian Mahāmudrā Treatises" (Tib. Phyag rgya chen po 'i rgya gzhung). This compilation includes the above three collections, along with the Anavilatantra and texts that teach a non-tantric "instantaneous"approach to the practice by an Indian master named Sakyasribhadra.
Tibetan traditions
Mahāmudrā is most well known as a teaching within the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. However the Gelug and Sakya schools also practice mahāmudrā. The Nyingma school and Bon practise Dzogchen, a cognate but distinct method of direct introduction to the principle of śūnyatā. Nyingma students may also receive supplemental training in mahāmudrā, and the Palyul Nyingma lineage preserves a lineage of the "Union of Mahāmudrā and Ati Yoga" originated by Karma Chagme.
Kagyu tradition
Gampopa Sönam Rinchen (1079-1153), a Kadam monk who was a student of the lay tantric yogi Milarepa, is a key figure in the Kagyu tradition. He is responsible for much of the development of Kagyu monastic institutions and for recording the teachings of the lineage in writing. He synthesized the Mahayana Kadam teachings with the tantric teachings he received from Milarepa and developed a unique system of mahāmudrā which he often taught without tantric empowerment, relying instead on guru yoga.
Mahamudra is defined by Gampopa as "the realization of the natural state as awareness-emptiness, absolutely clear and transparent, without root". Gampopa also states that mahamudra is "the paramita of wisdom, beyond thought and expression." Gampopa taught mahamudra in a five part system to his disciples, one of his most well known disciples, Phagmo Drupa (1110-1170) became a very successful teacher who continued to teach this five part system and eight "junior" kagyu lineages are traced to him. This "Five-Part Mahāmudrā" system became one of the main ways that Mahāmudrā was transmitted in Kagyu lineages after Gampopa.
The tradition which follows Gampopa is called Dakpo Kagyu. A key Mahāmudrā author of this tradition is Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, well known for his Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight. Karma Kagyu Karmapas like the ninth Karmapa Wangchuk Dorje also composed important Mahāmudrā texts. A development of these later mahāmudrā writers is the integration of the common Mahayana teachings on samatha and vipasyana as preliminaries to the practice of mahāmudrā.
Three types of teaching
The Kagyu lineage divides the mahāmudrā teachings into three types, "sutra mahāmudrā," "tantra mahāmudrā," and "essence mahāmudrā," in a formulation that appears to originate with Jamgon Kongtrul. Sutra mahāmudrā, as the name suggests, draws its philosophical view and meditation techniques from the sutrayana tradition. Tantric mahāmudrā employs such tantric techniques as tummo, dream yoga, and ösel, three of the Six Yogas of Naropa. Essence mahāmudrā is based on the direct instruction of a qualified lama, known as pointing-out instruction.
As a path beyond sutra and tantra
Kagyu lineage figures such as Gampopa presented a form of mahāmudrā that was said to transcend the vehicles of sutrayana and vajrayana. According to Karl Brunnholzl, Gampopa saw mahāmudrā as a third path that was neither sutra nor tantra which he called "the path of prajña" and "the path of suchness," and which "relies on blessing and is for those who are intelligent and of sharp faculties." Brunnholzl adds that for Gampopa, the mahāmudrā path of "taking direct perceptions as the path" relies on introduction by a genuine guru to the luminous dharmakaya and thus:Through having been taught an unmistaken instruction of definitive meaning like that, one then takes native mind as the path, without separating the triad of view, conduct, and meditation in terms of this connate mind about which one has gained certainty within oneself. Gampopa also stated that mahāmudrā was "the highest path that actually transcends both sutra and tantra." Brunnholzl further states that "In practice, most of Gampopa's preserved teachings consist primarily of sutra-based instructions and then conclude with Mahāmudrā, either not teaching the path of mantra at all or mentioning it only in passing."
The Kagyu tradition bases their mahāmudrā teachings on the works of Indian mahasiddhas like Saraha and Maitripa. According to Klaus-Dieter Mathes,
Dr. Mathes investigated the practice described in these mahāmudrā works and found that it is not necessarily Tantric. In Saraha's dohās, it is simply the realization of Mind's co-emergent nature with the help of a genuine guru. Maitrīpa (ca. 1007– 085) uses the term mahāmudrā for precisely such an approach, thus employing an originally Tantric term for something that is not a specifically Tantric practice. It is thus legitimate for later Kagyupas to speak of Saraha's mahāmudrā tradition as being originally independent of the Sūtras and the Tantras. For Maitrīpa, the direct realization of emptiness (or the co-emergent) is the bridging link between the Sūtras and the Tantras, and it is thanks to this bridge that mahāmudrā can be linked to the Sūtras and the Tantras. In the Sūtras it takes the form of the practice of non-abiding and becoming mentally disengaged, while in the Tantras it occupies a special position among the four mudrās.
The Kagyu teachings of mahāmudrā became a point of controversy. The possibility of sudden liberating realization and the practice of mahāmudrā without the need for tantric initiation was seen as contrary to the teachings of the Buddhist tantras and as being just a form of Chinese Chan (Zen) by certain critics.
Kagyu mahāmudrā lineages
Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama identified a number of mahāmudrā lineages, according to their main practices for achieving mahāmudrā. In his teachings on the First Panchen Lama's root text and auto-commentary the 14th Dalai Lama delineated the Kagyu practice lineages as follows:
The Karma Kagyu "Simultaneously Arising as Merged" tradition - This is the tradition introduced by Gampopa with a main practice of the Six Yogas of Naropa.
The Shangpa Kagyu "Amulet Box" tradition - This tradition came from Khyungpo Naljor and its main practice is the Six yogas of Niguma.
The Drikung Kagyu "Possessing Five" tradition - Jigten Gonpo founded the school and mahāmudrā lineage whose main practice is known as the fivefold mahāmudrā consisting of refuge and bodhicitta, deity yoga, guru yoga, mahamudra meditation, and dedication of merit.
The Drukpa lineage "Six Spheres of Equal Taste" tradition - Tsangpa Gyare founded this tradition which encompasses a range of practices, including the Six Yogas of Naropa.
The Dagpo Kagyu "Four Syllables" tradition - This is the tradition that derives from Maitripa. The four syllables are a-ma-na-si which make up the Sanskrit word meaning 'not to take to mind' and passed through the Dagpo Kagyu branches, i.e. any that descend from the teachings of Tilopa rather than those of Niguma, which in practice means all but the Shangpa Kagyu.
Sakya mahāmudrā
Following the great Sakya exegete and philosopher Sakya pandita (1182-1251), mahāmudrā in the Sakya school is seen as the highest tantric realization, which means that mahāmudrā practice is only taken on after having been initiated into tantric practice and practicing the creation and completion stages of deity yoga. In his "A Clear Differentiation of the Three Codes" (Sdom gsum rab dbye), Sakya Pandita criticized the non-tantric "sutra" mahamudra approaches of the Kagyu teachers such as Gampopa who taught mahāmudrā to those who had not received tantric initiations and based themselves on the Uttaratantrasastra. He argued that the term mahāmudrā does not occur in the sutras, only in the highest class of tantras and that only through tantric initiation does mahāmudrā arise: "Our own Great Seal consists of Gnosis risen from initiation." According to Sakya Pandita, through the four empowerments or initiations given by a qualified guru, most practitioners will experience a likeness of true mahāmudrā, though a few rare individuals experience true mahāmudrā. Through the practice of the creation and completion stages of tantra, the tantrika develops this partial understanding of bliss and emptiness into a completely non-dual gnosis, the real Mahamudra, which corresponds to the attainment of the Path of Seeing, the first Bodhisattva bhumi.
In Sakya, this insight known as mahāmudrā is described variously as "the unity of lucidity and emptiness, the unity of awareness and emptiness, the unity of bliss and emptiness" and also "the natural reality (chos nyid gnyug ma) which is emptiness possessing the excellence of all aspects."
Gelug tradition
The Gelug school's mahamudra tradition is traditionally traced back to the school's founder Je Tsongkhapa (1357- 1419), who was said to have received oral transmission from Manjushri, and it is also traced to the Indian masters like Saraha through the Drikung Kagyu master Chennga Chokyi Gyalpo who transmitted Kagyu Mahamudra teachings (probably the five-fold Mahamudra) to Tsongkhapa. Jagchen Jampa Pal (1310-1391), a prominent holder of the 'jag pa tradition of the Shangpa teachings, was also one of the teachers of Tsongkhapa.
However, a specifically "Gelug" Mahamudra system was only recorded at the time of Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama (sometimes named the "1st Panchen Lama", 1570-1662), who wrote a root Mahamudra text on the "Highway of the Conquerors: Root Verses for the Precious Geden [Gelug] Kagyu [Oral] Transmission of Mahāmudrā" (dGe-ldan bka'-brgyud rin-po-che'i phyag-chen rtsa-ba rgyal-ba'i gzhung-lam) and its auto commentary (the Yang gsal sgron me, "Lamp re-illuminating Mahamudra"), which is still widely taught and commented upon. Before this work, Gelug writings on Mahamudra tended to follow orthodox Kagyu teachings. This text and its auto commentary have become a central work on Mahamudra in the Gelug school. The current 14th Dalai Lama and Lama Yeshe are some of the modern Gelug figures which have written commentaries on this key Gelug Mahamudra text.
The Panchen Lama Chökyi Gyaltsen, himself was influenced by Kagyu teachings, and wished to imitate great siddhas like Milarepa and Sabaripa. He names various Mahamudra and Dzogchen lineages in his text, and comes to the conclusion that "their definitive meanings are all seen to come to the same intended point." Chökyi Gyaltsen also sides with the Kagyu school against Sakya, arguing that there is a sutra level of Mahamudra. However, in his account, sutra Mahamudra is particularly associated with a gradual path and his presentation of insight practice (vipasyana) is uniquely Gelug.
Yongdzin Yeshe Gyaltsen (also known as Khachen Yeshe Gyaltsen, tutor of the 8th Dalai Lama, 1713–93) composed a commentary on Chökyi Gyaltsen's Mahamudra text, entitled "The Lamp of the Clear and Excellent Path of the Oral Tradition Lineage" (Yongs-'dzin ye shes rgyal mtshan). He also comments on Mahamudra in the context of Lama Chopa Guru Yoga.
Practices and methods
A common schema used in the Kagyu school is that of Ground (buddha-nature, emptiness), Path (practice) and Fruition mahāmudrā (Buddhahood). The advice and guidance of a qualified teacher is considered to be very important in developing faith and interest in the dharma as well as in learning and practicing mahāmudrā meditation. Most often mahāmudrā (particularly essence mahāmudrā) is preceded by meeting with a lama and receiving pointing-out instruction. Some parts of the transmission are done verbally and through empowerments and "reading transmissions." A student typically goes through various tantric practices before undertaking the "formless" practices described below; the latter are classified as part of "essence mahāmudrā." Ngondro are the preliminary practices common to both Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen traditions and include practices such as contemplating the "four thoughts that turn the mind", prostrations, and guru yoga. According to one scholar, most people have difficulty beginning directly with formless practices and lose enthusiasm doing so, so the tantric practices work as a complement to the formless ones.
Another way to divide the practice of mahāmudrā is between the tantric mahāmudrā practices and the sutra practices. Tantric mahāmudrā practices involves practicing deity yoga with a yidam as well as subtle body practices like the six yogas of Naropa and can only be done after empowerment. After the preliminary practices, the Kagyu school's sutra mahāmudrā practice is often divided into the ordinary or essential meditation practices and the extraordinary meditation practices. The ordinary practices are samatha (calming) and vipasyana (special insight). The extraordinary practices include "formless" practices like 'one taste yoga' and 'non-meditation'. The tradition also culminates with certain special enlightenment and post-enlightenment practices. According to Reginald Ray, the "formless" practices, also called "Essence mahamudra," is when "one engages directly in practices of abandoning discursive thinking and resting the mind in the clear, luminous awareness that is mahamudra." The reason that preparatory practices and "form" practices like deity yoga and vipasyana are needed is because formless practices are quite difficult and subtle, and most practitioners are not able to enter into the simple essence of mind successfully without considerable mental preparation.
Four yogas and five paths
In the Dagpo Kagyu tradition as presented by Dagpo Tashi Namgyal, Mahāmudrā is divided into four distinct phases known as the four yogas of mahāmudrā (S. catvāri mahāmudrā yoga, ). They are as follows:
one-pointedness (S. ekāgra, T. རྩེ་གཅིག་ rtse gcig);
simplicity (S. niṣprapānca, T. སྤྲོས་བྲལ་ spros bral), "free from complexity" or "not elaborate;"
one taste (S. samarasa, T. རོ་གཅིག་ ro gcig);
non-meditation (S. abhāvanā, T. སྒོམ་མེད་ sgom med), the state of not holding to either an object of meditation nor to a meditator. Nothing further needs to be 'meditated upon' or 'cultivated' at this stage.
These stages parallel the four yogas of Dzogchen semde. The four yogas of mahāmudrā have been correlated with the Mahāyāna five paths (S. pañcamārga), according to Tsele Natsok Rangdrol (Lamp of Mahāmudrā):
Outer and inner preliminary practices: the path of accumulation
One-pointedness: the path of application
Simplicity: the path of seeing and most of the path of meditation (bhūmis one through six)
One taste: the last part of the path of meditation, most of the path of no-more-learning (bhūmis seven through nine)
Nonmeditation: the last part of the path of no-more learning (tenth bhūmi) and buddhahood (bhūmis eleven through thirteen)
Dakpo Tashi Namgyal meanwhile in his Moonlight of Mahāmudrā correlates them as follows:
Outer and inner preliminary practices and one-pointedness: the path of accumulation
Simplicity: the path of application
One taste: the paths of meditation & no-more-learning
Nonmeditation: the path of no more learning & buddhahood.
According to Je Gyare as reported by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal (Moonlight of Mahāmudrā):
One-pointedness: paths of accumulation and application
Simplicity: path of seeing (first bhūmi)
One taste: paths of meditation and part of the path no-more-learning (bhūmis two through eight)
Nonmeditation: rest of path of no-more-learning, buddhahood (bhūmis nine through thirteen)
According to Drelpa Dönsal as reported by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal (Moonlight of Mahāmudrā):
One-pointedness: paths of accumulation and application
Simplicity: path of seeing (first bhūmi)
One taste: paths of meditation and no-more-learning (bhūmis two through ten)
Nonmeditation: buddhahood (bhūmis eleven through thirteen)
Ordinary meditation practices
As in most Buddhist schools of meditation, the basic meditative practice of mahāmudrā is divided into two approaches: śamatha ("tranquility","calm abiding") and vipaśyanā ("special insight"). This division is contained in the instructions given by Wangchuk Dorje, the ninth Karmapa, in a series of texts he composed; these epitomize teachings given on mahāmudrā practice.
Śamatha
Often associated with the yoga of one-pointedness, mahāmudrā śamatha contains instructions on ways to sit with proper posture, called the seven point posture of Vairocana. The mahāmudrā shamatha teachings also include instructions on how to work with a mind that is beset with various impediments to focusing, such as raising the gaze when one feels dull or sleepy, and lowering it again when one feels overly excited. Two types of mahāmudrā śamatha are generally taught: śamatha with support and śamatha without support.
Mahāmudrā śamatha with support involves the use of an object of attention to which the meditator continually returns his or her attention. Wangchuk Dorje mentions that one can use a wide variety of supports, visual objects like a candle flame, but also sounds, a smell, etc.
One of the main techniques involved in Mahāmudrā śamatha with support is mindfulness of breathing (Sanskrit: ānāpānasmṛti; Pali: ānāpānasati). Mindfulness of breathing practice is considered to be a profound means of calming the mind to prepare it for the stages that follow. For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, mindfulness of breathing is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating vipaśyanā on that basis. The prominent contemporary Kagyu/Nyingma master Chogyam Trungpa, expressing the Kagyu Mahāmudrā view, wrote, "your breathing is the closest you can come to a picture of your mind. It is the portrait of your mind in some sense... The traditional recommendation in the lineage of meditators that developed in the Kagyu-Nyingma tradition is based on the idea of mixing mind and breath."
Śamatha without support or objectless meditation refers to resting the mind without the use of a specific focal point or object of concentration. According to Reginald Ray, in this practice "the eyes are open and one gazes straight ahead into space, directing one's mind to nothing at all."
In Gelug sutra mahāmudrā, the śamatha techniques are similar to the Kagyu presentation.
Vipaśyanā
The detailed instructions for the insight practices are what make Mahāmudrā (and Dzogchen) unique in Tibetan Buddhism. In Mahāmudrā vipaśyanā, Wangchuck Dorje gives ten separate contemplations that are used to disclose the essential mind within; five practices of "looking at" and five of "pointing out" the nature of mind. They all presume some level of stillness cultivated by mahāmudrā shamatha. In retreat, each contemplation would typically be assigned specific time periods.
The five practices for "looking at" the nature of the mind are as follows:
Looking at the settled mind. One repeatedly looks at the mind's still state, possibly posing questions to arouse awareness, such as "what is its nature? It is perfectly still?"
Looking at the moving or thinking mind. One tries to closely examine the arising, existence, and ceasing of thoughts, possibly posing oneself questions so as to better understand this process, such as "how does it arise? What is its nature?"
Looking at the mind reflecting appearances. One looks at the way in which phenomena of the external senses occur in experience. Usually, a visual object is taken as the subject. One repeatedly looks at the object, trying to see just how that appearance arises in the mind, and understand the nature of this process. One possibly asks questions such as "what is their nature? How do they arise, dwell, and disappear? Is their initial appearance different from how they eventually understood?"
Looking at the mind in relation to the body. One investigates questions such as "what is the mind? What is the body? Is the body our sensations? What is the relation of our sensations to our mental image of our body?"
Looking at the settled and moving minds together. When the mind is still, one looks at that, and when the mind is in motion, one looks at that. One investigates whether these two stages are the same or different, asking questions such as "if they are the same, what is the commonality? If different, what is the difference?"
The practices for "pointing out the nature of mind" build on these. One now looks again at each of the five, but this time repeatedly asks oneself "What is it?" In these practices, one attempts to recognize and realize the exact nature of, respectively:
The settled mind,
The moving or thinking mind,
The mind reflecting appearances,
The relation of mind and body,
The settled and thinking mind together.
The above practices do not have specific "answers"; they serve to provoke one to scrutinize experience more and more closely over time, seeking to understand what is really there.
Gelug sutra Mahāmudrā, as presented by Chökyi Gyaltsen, practices a unique Gelug style of doing vipaśyanā, based primarily on Gelug Madhyamaka. According to Roger Jackson:
In an actual meditation session, this involves, first of all, analyzing whether the meditator who has achieved tranquil equipoise actually can be found in an ultimate sense. Seeking the meditator both within and apart from the various elements, one encounters the meditator nowhere; seeking ultimacy in phenomena (dharmas), one encounters it nowhere. Thus, one comes to abide in a space-like awareness of the void nature of both the person and dharmas. Next (or, alternatively) one examines more carefully whether the mind itself can be found in an ultimate sense: it is discovered to have the conventional nature of a flow of awareness and clarity, but no ultimacy, no true existence. In short, one should recognize that any existent that arises, whether an object of the mind or the mind itself, is merely conceptual, is void and—as Chos rgyan quotes his guru, Sangs rgyas ye shes, as saying—"When . . . you are equipoised one-pointedly on that, marvelous!" (GBZL: 4a; trans. Dalai Lama and Berzin: 100; YSGM: 30b). In the period between meditation sessions (rjes thob), one should see all appearances as deceptive (sgyu ma), as existing differently than they appear, but one must at the same time recognize that their ultimate voidness does not preclude their conventional functioning, any more than conventional functioning gives them true existence.
Extraordinary meditation practices
The practice of ordinary meditation eventually leads one to the yoga of simplicity, which according to Gampopa, is "understanding the essential state of that awareness [of one-pointedness] as nonarising [emptiness], which transcends conceptual modes of reality and unreality." One sees all phenomena just as they are, non-conceptually, beyond extremes of existence and non-existence.
One taste
According to Gampopa the yoga of one taste is "understanding diverse appearances as being one, from the standpoint of their intrinsic nature."
Phagmo Drupa says: By meditating on the one taste of all things, the meditator will cognize the one taste of all these things. The diversity of appearances and nonappearances, mind and emptiness, emptiness and non-emptiness, Are all of one taste, undifferentiable in their intrinsic emptiness. Understanding and lack of understanding are of one taste; Meditation and nonmeditation are nondifferentiable; Meditation and absence of meditation are unified into one taste; Discrimination and lack of discrimination are one taste In the expanse of reality.
Non-meditation
Gampopa states that non-meditation is "an unceasing realization of the union of appearance and its intrinsic emptiness."
Phagmo Drupa says: By perfecting this [nonmeditation] stage the meditator attains naked, unsupported awareness. This nondiscriminatory awareness is the meditation! By transcending the duality of meditation and meditator, external and internal realities, the meditating awareness dissolves itself into its luminous clarity. Transcending the intellect, it is without the duality of meditation and post-meditation. Such is the quintessence of mind.
Main source texts
The major source texts for the Indo-Tibetan Mahamudra tradition include:
Indian works
Asanga's Ratnagotravibhaga.
Saraha's Dohas and other poetry (circa 8th century CE).
Tilopa (988–1069) – Ganges Mahamudra and Treasury of Songs.
"The Seven [or eight] Siddhiḥ Texts" (Saptasiddhiḥ, Tib. Grub pa sde bdun):
Padmavajra's Guhyasiddhi (Q306 1, D2217);
Anangavajra's Prajñopayaviniscayasiddhi (Q3062, D22 l 8);
Indrabhuti's Jñanasiddhi (Q3063 , D22 1 9);
Laksmi's Advayasiddhi (Q3064, D2220);
Ulavajra's Vyaktabhavasiddhi;
Darika's Mahaguhyatattvopadesa (Q3065, D222 1);
Sahajayogini Cinta's Vyaktabhavanugatatattvasiddhi (Q3066, D2222);
Dombhi Heruka's Sahajasiddhi (Q3067, D2223).
"The Cycle of Six Heart Texts" or "Six works on essential meaning" (Snying po skor drug):
Saraha's Dohakosagiti (D 2224, p 3068)
Nagarjuna's Caturmudranvaya (D 2225, P 3069)
Aryadeva's Cittavaranavisodhana (D 1 804, P 2669)
Divakaracandra's Prajñajñanaprakasa (D 2226, P 3070)
Sahajavajra's Sthitisamasa (D 2227, P 307 1)
Kotali's Acintyakramopadesa (D 2228, P 3072).
Maitripa's cycle of [26] texts on non-conceptual realization (amanasikara).
Tibetan works
Milarepa's The Hundred Thousand Songs
Gampopa (1079–1153) – Numerous texts of the Dags po 'i bka ' 'bum, "the Manifold Sayings of Dags po"
Phagmo Drupa (1110–1170) – Verses on the Fivefold Path.
Jigten Sumgon (1143–1217) –The Source of the Jewels of Experience and Realization, The Ocean-Like Instruction on the Five Parts and Song of the Five Profound Paths of Mahamudra.
Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama (1284–1339) – Aspiration Prayer of Mahāmudrā.
Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama (1385–1438 CE) – A Root Text for the Precious Gelug/Kagyü Tradition of Mahamudra
Gyalwang Kunga Rinchen (1475–1527) – Clarifying the Jewel Rosary of the Fivefold Profound Path.
Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama (1570–1662) – Highway of the Conquerors
Wangchuk Dorje, 9th Karmapa Lama (1556–1603) – Pointing Out the Dharmakaya (); An Ocean of the Definite Meaning () and Eliminating the Darkness of Ignorance.
Tsele Natsok Rangdröl - Lamp of Mahāmudrā
Kunkhyen Pema Karpo (1527–1592 CE) – Practice Guidelines of the Simultaneous School of Mahamudra , The Oral transmission of the Six Cycles of Same Taste: Rolled into a ball [Path walking] instructions and "Mind Harvest", An instruction on the Five-Part Mahamudra.
Dagpo Tashi Namgyal (16th century) – Clarifying the Natural State and Moonlight of Mahāmudrā.
Karma Chagme (1613–1678) – Meaningful to Behold
Situ Panchen (1700–1774) – Commentary on the Third Karmapa's Mahamudra Prayer.
Jamgon Kongtrul (1813–1899) – A Treasury of Instructions and Techniques for Spiritual Realization and Torch of certainty
Six Words of Advice
Tilopa was a Bengali mahasiddha who developed the mahāmudrā method around 1,000 C.E. Tilopa gave Naropa, his successor, a teaching on mahāmudrā meditation called the Six Words of Advice.
In the following chart a translation is given of the Tilopa's Six Words of Advice.
See also
Body of light
Buddhist meditation
Chöd
Dhyāna in Buddhism
Mysticism
Notes
References
Further reading
Chagmé, Karma (2009). a Spacious Path to Freedom: Practical Instructions on Union of Mahamudra and Atiyoga. Commentary by Gyatrul Rinpoche. Translated by A. Wallace. Ithaca: Snow Lion.
Ray, Reginald (2000). Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambhala. ,
Namgyal, Dakpo Tashi (2004). Clarifying the Natural State. North Atlantic Books. ,
Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche, "Three Classifications of Mahamudra" https://web.archive.org/web/20110721195342/http://dpr.info/media/www.DPR.info-ThreeClassificationsOfMahamudra.pdf
Wangchug Dorje, "Mahamudra: The Ocean of True Meaning", transl. Henrik Havlat.
Traleg Kyabgon (2003), Mind at Ease: Self-Liberation through Mahamudra Meditation, Shambhala.
External links
A Guide To Shamatha Meditation
Dhagpo Kagyu index of teachings
Mahamudra Meditation Guide
Mahamudra on Study Buddhism
Diamond Way Articles on Mahamudra
Teachings related to the Mahamudra Curriculum (By Kunzig Shamar Rinpoche)
Buddhist philosophical concepts
Tibetan Buddhist practices
Tantric practices
Nondualism | [
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239268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LotusScript | LotusScript | LotusScript is an object oriented programming language used by Lotus Notes (since version 4.0) and other IBM Lotus Software products.
LotusScript is similar to Visual Basic. Developers familiar with one can easily understand the syntax and structure of code in the other. The major differences between the two are in their respective Integrated Development Environments and in the product-specific object classes provided in each language that are included. VB includes a richer set of classes for UI manipulation, whereas LotusScript includes a richer set of application-specific classes for Lotus Notes, Lotus Word Pro and Lotus 1-2-3. In the case of Lotus Notes, there are classes to work with Notes databases, documents (records) in those databases, etc. These classes can also be used as OLE Automation objects outside the Lotus Notes environment, from Visual Basic.
LotusScript also allows the definition of user-defined types and classes, although it is not possible to inherit from the product-specific classes. LotusScript programs can access Microsoft Office documents by using the OLE automation in libraries from MS Office.
See also
Visual Basic for Applications
Microsoft Power Fx
References
External links
IBM Notes Domino Overview
Lotus Domino Designer documentation
IBM Redbook - "LotusScript for VisualBasic Programmers"
Integrating IBM Lotus Notes with Microsoft Office using LotusScript
BASIC programming language family
Lotus Software software
Scripting languages | [
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239274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Nevada%2C%20Reno | University of Nevada, Reno | The University of Nevada, Reno (Nevada, the University of Nevada, or UNR) is a public land-grant research university in Reno, Nevada. It is the state's flagship public university and primary land grant institution. It was founded on October 12, 1874, in Elko, Nevada.
Founded as Nevada's land-grant university, the University of Nevada, Reno is built on the belief that access to education and knowledge is essential to human progress. Part of the Nevada System of Higher Education, the university has more than 21,000 students and is home to the University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Cooperative Extension and NCAA Division I Wolf Pack Athletics. Through its commitment to student success, world improving research, and outreach benefiting the communities and businesses of Nevada, the university delivers on its land-grant mission across the state and around the world.
The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. According to the National Science Foundation, the university spent $144 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 139th in the nation.
The campus is home to the large-scale structures laboratory in the College of Engineering, which has put Nevada researchers at the forefront nationally in a wide range of civil engineering, earthquake and large-scale structures testing and modeling.
The state's first medical school, the University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, is on the campus in Nevada's major urban center in Reno and a health network that extends to much of rural Nevada. The medical school includes 16 clinical departments and five nationally recognized basic science departments. The university is also home to the Donald W. Reynolds School of Journalism, which has produced six Pulitzer Prize winners.
History
The Nevada State Constitution established the State University of Nevada in Elko on October 12, 1874. In 1881, it became Nevada State University. In 1885, the Nevada State University moved from Elko to Reno. In 1906, it was renamed the University of Nevada and finally, University of Nevada, Reno in 1969 soon after University of Nevada, Las Vegas was granted full autonomy.
The University of Nevada remained the only four-year academic institution in the state of Nevada until 1965, when the Nevada Southern campus (now the University of Nevada, Las Vegas) separated into its own university.
Academics
Bachelor's, master's and doctoral programs are offered through:
Centers
Nevada sponsors a center dedicated to Basque studies (Including Basque language) due to the large Basque population in Northern Nevada.
In addition, the university maintains and sponsors many centers, institutes & facilities.
Libraries
The university and surrounding community is served by several campus libraries. The libraries are:
Mathewson-IGT Knowledge Center (main library). Opened on August 11, 2008, it was a $75.3 million project which began in September 2005. It replaced the Getchell library.
Basque Library (housed in separate section of the Knowledge Center)
Special Collections and University Archives (3rd floor of the Matthewson IGT-Knowledge Center)
DeLaMare Library (engineering, physical sciences, computer science, mining, and geology)
Mary B. Ansari Map Library (housed in basement of DeLaMare)
Savitt Medical Library
Nell J. Redfield Learning and Resource Center (education library and resources)
Rankings and reputation
For 2021, University of Nevada, Reno was ranked tied for 227th overall among national universities and tied for 113th among public universities in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report.
In 2019, Forbes rated the university 119th among public universities and 349th overall in its America's Top Colleges ranking of 650 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges.
For 2020, Washington Monthly ranked UNR 138th among 389 national universities in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
Campus
The University of Nevada, Reno is the flagship institution of Nevada. The campus is located just north of downtown Reno overlooking Truckee Meadows and the downtown casinos.
Early construction
The university's first building, Morrill Hall, was completed in 1887 and still stands on the historic quad at the campus' southern end. The hall is named after U.S. Senator Justin Morrill, author of the 1862 Land-Grant College Act.
Lincoln Hall (all-male residence) and Manzanita Hall (all-female residence) were both opened in 1896. While Lincoln was under construction, boys were housed in the building which had previously held the now-defunct Bishop Whitaker's School for Girls, which had shuttered in 1894.
The Quad
The tree-lined Quad is located in the southern part of the campus, surrounded by Morrill Hall and the Mackay School of Mines. This quadrangle is modeled after Thomas Jefferson's at the University of Virginia. The northern end of the Quad contains a statue of John William Mackay, the namesake of Nevada's Mackay School of Mines, later renamed the Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering. The Quad and the original campus buildings surrounding it have a listing on the National Register of Historic Places along with several other early campus buildings.
Arboretum
Across the campus of the university exists the University of Nevada, Reno Arboretum, which was established in 1985, contains a collection of trees, shrubs, flowers, ornamentals and native flora, including over 60 genera and about 200 species of trees, many with several cultivars present. Thirty-six mature elm trees line the Quad.
Herbarium
The herbarium at the University of Nevada, Reno is made up of the herbarium of the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station (College of Agriculture) and the herbarium of the Biology Department. They have operated as one unit since 1978. Among those who worked at the herbarium were Patrick Beveridge Kennedy and Amos Arthur Heller at the experiment station and Philip Augustus Lehenbauer, Dwight Billings, Hugh Nelson Mozingo, Ira La Rivers and William Andrew Archer at the biology department.
Mackay Stadium
The football team plays at Mackay Stadium, The modern Mackay Stadium was completed in 1966 with a seating capacity of 7,500. The facility has been expanded several times in the last 15 years and now seats 27,000.
E.L. Wiegand Fitness Center
The University of Nevada began construction of a new 108,000 square foot fitness center in June 2015. Named the E.L. Wiegand Fitness Center, it opened in February 2017. Students' use of the fitness center is included in annual tuition and fees. The fitness center has four floors and includes a gym with three basketball courts, areas for weightlifting, cardio training, fitness classes, stadium stairs and an indoor running track. The project had a $46 million cost.
Residential life
The University of Nevada offers a variety of options to students who choose to stay on campus. There are eight different residence halls, seven of which house primarily freshman students. Options include an all upper-class residence hall, and a living learning community building in which freshman students of similar academic interests are housed on the same floor.
Sustainability
Since its creation in the fall of 2008, the University of Nevada, Reno's Sustainability Committee has been gathering information on various aspects of campus sustainability and beginning the development of a plan for creating a more sustainable campus.
Significant efforts are made towards recycling and keeping the campus green. Many university buses run on bio-diesel fuels. The bicycle program has seen a significant increase in the number of bicycle users. The university's Food Services has made a commitment of 1% of the meal plan revenue to go towards funding sustainable initiatives on campus. In order to reduce energy use, UNR has installed solar panels on the Joe Crowley Student Union and built its first LEED accredited building.
The University of Nevada has been ranked among the nation's most sustainable colleges, receiving an overall grade of "B+" on the Sustainable Endowment Institute's College Sustainability Report Card 2010.
Athletics
The university is simply called Nevada for athletics purposes. Its sports teams are nicknamed the Wolf Pack (always two words). They participate in the NCAA's Division I (FBS for football) and in the Mountain West Conference.
Men's basketball
In March 2004, the Wolf Pack Men's basketball team qualified for the NCAA tournament and advanced to the Sweet Sixteen for the first time in school history. The team earned a repeat trip in 2005 and beat Texas in the first round before falling to eventual national runner-up Illinois. The team returned for 2006 as a No. 5 seed but was upset in the first round by former Big Sky Conference rival Montana. They began the 2006–07 season ranked #24. The Pack's major star during this recent period of success was Nick Fazekas. In 2007, Nevada was ranked No. 9 in men's basketball, which is the highest ranking that Nevada has ever held. Coach Mark Fox took over after Trent Johnson left in 2004 to coach at Stanford University. On April 3, 2009, it was announced that David Carter would replace Fox who decided to leave Nevada for the same position at the University of Georgia.
On March 1, 2012, the Wolf Pack basketball team won against New Mexico State University for the WAC title.
In 2014 the school hired former Golden State Warriors Head Coach Eric Musselman. Under Musselmen the Pack has had massive success. In his first year they won the CBI invitational tournament. In Musselmen's 2nd season they won the Mountain West regular season and tournament title and received a #12 seed in the NCAA tournament where the Pack lost to Iowa State, 74–63. In his third season (2017–18), the Pack won the Mountain West regular season and received a #7 seed in the NCAA tournament where they beat #10 Texas, 87–83, in the first round. In the second round, they defeated #2 Cincinnati, 75–73, after trailing by 22 points. They fell to Loyola Chicago, 69–68, in the Sweet Sixteen.
Football
The football team, currently coached by Ken Wilson, plays at Mackay Stadium. The modern Mackay Stadium replaced its predecessor and was completed in 1966 with a seating capacity of 7,500. The facility has been expanded several times in its history and now seats 30,000. In 2005, Nevada won a share of the WAC Title. The 2010 season saw Nevada at its best finishing the season ranked No. 11 in the AP and No. 13 in the BCS, stunning Boise State, 34–31, and costing the Broncos a possible shot at the BCS title, to win another share of the WAC Title.
Rivalries
Annually, Nevada's football team plays its primary rival, UNLV, for the Fremont Cannon in the Battle for Nevada. Nevada currently leads the all-time series 27–18. Nevada also plays UNLV twice a year in basketball. Nevada's two out-of-state rivals, particularly in football, are Boise State and Fresno State. In 2012, Nevada joined its rivals Boise State, Fresno State and UNLV in the Mountain West Conference.
Mascot
The Wolf Pack's mascot is an anthropomorphized wolf named Alphie, who took over the duties of cheering from his father, Wolfie, in 1999. In 2007, Alphie was joined by his younger brother, Wolfie Jr. In 2012, Wolfie was named Mascot of the Year. Rounding off the wolf pack family, Luna was introduced in 2013 as the sister to Wolfie Jr. and Alphie
Conference affiliations
Nevada joined the Mountain West Conference in 2012.
Previous conference memberships include:
1954–1968 – Northern California Athletic Conference
1969–1978 – West Coast Conference – (Independent for football)
1979–1991 – Big Sky (swapped conference affiliations with Gonzaga University, which has been without football since 1941)
1992–1998 – Big West
1999–2012 – WAC
Student media
Nevada's editorially independent, weekly student newspaper is The Nevada Sagebrush. It comes out every Tuesday afternoon, and employs more than 40 people, 25 full-time. Prior to 2004, the newspaper called itself simply the Sagebrush.
The newspaper won the Associated Collegiate Press Pacemaker award in 2008 and 2009. It was also a finalist for a Pacemaker at the 2006 and 2007 ACP student journalism awards. It has won the best of show award at the fall 2005, 2006 and 2007 ACP national conferences in its category (weekly broadsheet at a four-year university). It was also nominated for an online ACP Pacemaker in 2008. Its website, www.nevadasagebrush.com, which launched in the fall of 2007, has also been recognized by the Center for Innovation in College Media for it breaking news packages, podcasts, videos and general innovation and web presence. Many of The Nevada Sagebrushs former editors have gone on to work and take internships at newspapers and news organizations such as The Washington Post, The Oregonian, USA Today, The Miami Herald, The Arizona Republic and the Associated Press, as well as dozens of local newspapers around the country.
Insight Magazine is the only student-run magazine at the University of Nevada. Formerly Nevada's yearbook for nearly 100 years, Insight Magazine has evolved into the second major publication circulating at the university. Its first edition was published in September 2008. It presents itself as a theme-based monthly magazine, providing photography, stories and graphics, in contrast to the weekly, newspaper-style of The Sagebrush. It is put out both in print and online. The online version, UNRINSIGHT.com, provides both support for the published stories and independent content.
In its sophomore year, Insight Magazine received national attention from major college media organizations, such as the Associated College Press and the College Media Advisers. Insight placed fifth for headline presentation in Best of Collegiate Design 2009 by the "College Media Advisers". At the 2009 ACP Conference in Austin, Texas, Insight placed fifth in Best of Show for an audio podcast.
Nevada's literary arts journal Brushfire was created by a group of students in 1950. It is released once a semester and publishes original poetry, literature, and art by students and some faculty and community members.
The university is also home to a student-run radio station, Wolf Pack Radio. The station broadcasts primarily through its website, although it comes through at 1700 AM. Starting in the fall 2010 semester, Nevada broadcast journalism students started "Wolf Pack Week," a 30-minute television newscast that is shown around campus. Future episodes will air on PBS in Reno and Las Vegas.
There are other independent student publications on campus (although they have stopped publishing regularly since 2006), including The Nevada Blue and the Pack Patriot.
Greek life
Professional fraternities
Alpha Kappa Psi (ΑΚΨ)
Alpha Phi Omega (ΑΦΩ)
Delta Sigma Pi (ΔΣΠ)
Theta Tau (ΘΤ)
Phi Alpha Delta (ΦΑΔ)
Phi Delta Epsilon (ΦΔΕ)
Tau Beta Pi (ΤΒΠ)
Notable alumni and faculty
Film history
The University of Nevada's classically styled campus has served as the setting for many movies, including:
Andy Hardy's Blonde Trouble (1944)
Margie (1946)
Apartment for Peggy (1948)
Mother Is a Freshman (1949)
Mr. Belvedere Goes to College (1949)
5 Against the House (1955)
Hilda Crane (1956)
References
External links
University of Nevada Athletics website
1874 establishments in Nevada
Buildings and structures in Reno, Nevada
Education in Washoe County, Nevada
Educational institutions established in 1874
Flagship universities in the United States
Historic American Buildings Survey in Nevada
Land-grant universities and colleges
Nevada System of Higher Education
Tourist attractions in Reno, Nevada
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
University of Nevada, Reno | [
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239275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WEF%20%28disambiguation%29 | WEF (disambiguation) | WEF stands for the World Economic Forum, a Geneva-based foundation that holds meetings of world economic leaders.
WEF may also refer to:
WEF, IATA code for Weifang Airport, Shandong, China
Water Environment Federation, an organization of engineers and industry related to water use
World Education Forum | [
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239277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer%20Instinct%20%281994%20video%20game%29 | Killer Instinct (1994 video game) | Killer Instinct is a fighting video game developed by Rare and published by Midway. It was released as an arcade game in the fall of 1994 and, the following year, ported to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) and the Game Boy. The game's plot involves an all-powerful corporation organizing a fighting tournament. The story was adapted in a limited comic book series published under the short-lived Acclaim Comics imprint.
According to Ken Lobb, the groundwork for Killer Instinct started as a Namco fighting game project in the early planning stages titled "Melee" (which itself later became Weaponlord) during his time at Namco. Aspects of Killer Instinct's core gameplay were influenced from SNK fighting games, namely both the World Heroes series and the Fatal Fury series.
Despite a generic storyline, Killer Instinct featured more detailed graphics and more diverse characters than other games of its genre as well as some gameplay elements unique to fighting games of the time. Instead of fighting enemies in best-of-three-rounds bouts, each player has two life bars. The player that depletes the other player's life bars first wins the match. The game also introduced "auto-doubles", a feature which allows players to press a certain sequence of buttons to make characters automatically perform combos on opponents. Also featured in the game are "combo breakers", special defensive moves that can interrupt combos.
A critical and commercial success, Killer Instinct was followed by a sequel, the 1996 arcade game Killer Instinct 2, later ported to the Nintendo 64 as Killer Instinct Gold, as well as a new 2013 game rebooting the franchise, serving as a launch title for Xbox One. A port of the original game is included with the 2013 game under the title Killer Instinct Classic. Retrospective lists by various publications included it among the best fighting games of all time.
Gameplay
Killer Instinct plays like many other fighting games, in which the player controls a character to beat an opponent in a one-on-one encounter. The game borrows the attack set of Street Fighter and is also inspired by the finishing moves from Mortal Kombat. There are also several features that distinguish it from other franchises:
A double health bar: instead of winning two rounds, each player has two bars of health. The player who depletes the opponent's health bar wins the bout, and a player does not recover health upon draining their opponent's first health bar.
Automatic combos: Many combos are automated, after an initial button press sequence.
Finishing moves: Bearing resemblance to (but being less graphic than) Mortal Kombats Fatalities, each character has at least two moves known as No Mercy (Danger Move in later revisions) to finish the opponent. Another finisher is the Humiliation, that forces the opponent to dance.
Ultra Combo: Another finisher, it operates like an Ultimate Combo, though this one allows the character to deliver a long string of hits as the combo finisher instead, usually surpassing 20 hits, and can sometimes reach upwards of 80 hits.
Combo Breaker: The player who is being caught in a combo may break out of it by performing a combo breaker move. A combo can be broken at either the auto-double or linker stage. After performing a combo breaker, a white starburst will appear at the tip of the breaker's current health bar, enabling advanced versions of some special moves that require a different command.
Plot
Ultratech is a very powerful megacorporation which organizes a tournament called Killer Instinct. Along with regular participants, experimental creatures created by Ultratech also fight in the tournament so their strength can be tested. Ultratech also discovers a technology to make bridges between dimensions, and releases a two-headed cyclops, satyr-like monster called Eyedol from his dimensional prison in Limbo.
Characters
In addition to the boss Eyedol, the game offers a roster of 10 playable characters: Black Orchid, an agent working to stop Ultratech, Chief Thunder, a Native American chief sent to look for his brother, Cinder, an escaped convict who—due to a failed chemical test—garners a body composed of flame, Fulgore, a cyborg created by Ultratech to stop Jago, Glacius, an alien abducted by Ultratech, Jago, a Tibetan warrior monk guided by the Tiger Spirit, Riptor, a velociraptor cloned by Ultratech, Sabrewulf, a man afflicted by lycanthropy, Spinal, the skeleton of an undead warrior, and T.J. Combo, a heavyweight champion boxer stripped of his title due to methods of brutally finishing his opponents.
According to GamePro in 2010, Killer Instinct is "remembered for its colorful cast of combatants [including] a velociraptor, a sword-wielding skeleton, a creature made out of ice, and a host of other memorable characters". In 2012, Topless Robot wrote that it features "one of the most amazing and varied cast of characters ever to grace a fighting game".
Development
The concept of Killer Instinct dates back to early 1993 when game designer Ken Lobb sketched his concept during his time at Namco, dubbing it “Melee”. He sent his pitch to Namco, but it disapproved of the concept and instead made Weaponlord in its place. Lobb took the concept with him to Nintendo of America, where he became head developer. He flew to England and joined Rare, which was planning to rival the success of Mortal Kombat. Rare founders Tim and Chris Stamper approved of his pitch. In early 1994, Nintendo signed a licensing agreement with WMS Industries, Midway's parent company, which enabled Midway to develop and market games using the early arcade-based version of the Ultra 64 platform (later to become a home console and then be renamed to Nintendo 64) and formed a joint venture company called Williams/Nintendo to market Nintendo-exclusive home conversions of these games. Killer Instinct was announced as the first of these games. The announcement came at a time when Nintendo was still known for its stance against violent video games. To avert speculation that Killer Instinct would not be as violent as the title suggests, Nintendo's director of marketing George Harrison stated that "Williams would not have entered into this deal if they thought their hands would be tied. We won't restrict them in any way." He added that Nintendo believed that an industry-standard ratings system, which was expected to be in place by the time the home version was released, would make their stance against violent games no longer necessary.
The music was composed by Graeme Norgate and Robin Beanland, their first works for Rare. Beanland and Norgate will later go on to compose the music of GoldenEye 007 (1997). Initially released in 1994, Killer Instincts arcade based Ultra 64 hardware is different than the home console version which would be renamed to Nintendo 64 in 1996. The Ultra 64 arcade is a proprietary hardware platform co-developed by Rare and Midway, and created by Chris Stamper and Pete Cox. This hardware uses a 64-bit MIPS CPU and the Nintendo 64 file format for data structure, but not the Nintendo 64 memory media or graphics technology. The game's attract mode advertises plans to be "available for your home in 1995 only on Nintendo Ultra 64". The game was slated to be part of the North American launch lineup for the system. However, the Nintendo 64's release was delayed to December 1996 and the game was converted to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Game Boy for 1995 release.
Killer Instinct is the first arcade game to use an internal hard disk drive in addition to the game's ROMs. This allows it to store massive amounts of data thereby giving it the ability to have more detailed graphics than other games of this genre. The game uses pre-rendered sprites and backgrounds, created with Silicon Graphics computers. The backgrounds are stored as a "movie" which adjusts frames based on the players' movements. Killer Instincts R4600 processor is clocked at 100 MHz. Unlike most arcade games of the time, Killer Instinct does not display which version number of the game is being played.
In the SNES port, many of the features found in the arcade version were altered, downgraded, or removed to fit the standard 16 bit format. The graphic detail was vastly reduced and the character sprites are smaller. The stages with a 3D panning camera were simplified into a 2D panning view using parallax scrolling for the background and a raster effect for the ground or arena, thus simulating a pseudo-3D effect. Zooming and scaling were removed. Some of the stages were redesigned. The full motion videos that show the characters after a victory were mostly replaced by still images. Voice samples and sound effects were shortened or removed, and the music's quality is lower. Most of the characters' special moves and danger moves were retained, but some of the special graphical effects were removed. Some other modes were added, including a training mode and a tournament mode (used for multi-player purposes).
According to Peter Main, Nintendo's vice president of marketing at the time, the game had a marketing budget of $20 million.
Release
The Europe, Australia, Canada, and US releases of the SNES game have black cartridge casing, instead of the standard grey shell. Nintendo made a large-scale advertising campaign.
A Game Boy port was also made, but cuts were necessary due to the system's limitations. As a result, neither Cinder nor Riptor are featured and the moves were severely altered due to the more limited controls of the portable. Unlike the original, the Game Boy version received poorer reviews. The game's support for Super Game Boy adds some coloring, and a two player versus match by inserting a second controller.
Killer Cuts, an arranged soundtrack CD featuring original music from Killer Instinct was released as a pack-in for the SNES release of the game, included with the first 100,000 copies sold in the US and the first 20,000 copies sold in Canada. The soundtrack was digitally re-released as part of a double-album set with the Killer Instinct: Season One soundtrack on October 14, 2014.
A digital port of the game's arcade version, titled Killer Instinct Classic, is available as part of the "Season One Ultra Edition" of Killer Instinct for the Xbox One. This port was developed by Code Mystics and includes a number of additional features, such as a new training mode, unlockable character sprite galleries and cutscenes, several visual filters, and the ability to play the game in both its original 1.4 revision and its later 1.5D revision. An update in late December 2014 added online multiplayer functionality.
Reception
Arcade
Killer Instinct was a commercial hit. In the United States, RePlay reported it to be one of the most-popular arcade games in January 1995. By May 1995, the arcade game had received about plays. It went on to be one of America's top five highest-grossing dedicated arcade games of 1995. , the game sold 17,000 arcade units.
Killer Instinct gained critical acclaim. An early 1995 article on the fighting game industry in Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that "for now, the undisputed king at the arcades is Killer Instinct". Next Generation reviewed the arcade version of the game and wrote that "it's not the breakthrough title we're all waiting for — and sooner a new genre has to explode. But for the moment at least, Nintendo's plans for Ultra 64 seem to be progressing smoothly". Entertainment Weekly gave the arcade version of the game an A+ rating.
Super NES
The SNES version of the game was also met with positive reviews upon its release and was commercially successful, selling 3.2 million units, with more than 150,000 copies sold in the US on its release day alone and more than one million copies sold by November 23, 1995.
The game's use of 3D-rendered models attracted acclaim. VideoGames reviewer Tyrone Rodriguez gave the game a score of 8 (Great), preferring it over Mortal Kombat 3 (the other editors' additional scores being 8–6–6). Entertainment Weekly gave the SNES version of the game an A and praised the quality of the port. Also, the game was also praised for its combo system, soundtrack and controls. GamePro criticized that the SNES version suffers from a lower frame rate than the arcade version and is also missing some of its best sounds and graphical effects, and complained that the combo system makes it too easy for experienced players to defeat newcomers with a single chain of hits. They concluded that "this version of Killer isn't flawless, but it is surprisingly addictive and fun to play". The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly were divided, with Andrew Baran commenting that "while it's a nice attempt on the Super NES, it wasn't the same" as the arcade version, whereas the other three declared it "a superb translation" which has lower quality graphics and sound than the arcade version but retains its content, playability, and overall feel. They scored it a 7.75 out of 10. Computer and Video Games gave the game a review score of 93%, adding: "Rare weren't lying when they said the home version would play better than the coin-op: no-one realised they were talking about the SNES!" Next Generation reviewed the Super NES version of the game: "Nintendo and Rare have managed one very impressive trick: getting the 16-bit Super NES to display 512 colors at once, twice the usual number, which gives the graphics an extra gloss".
The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly panned the Game Boy version, unanimously concluding it to be "an arcade translation that should never have been attempted on the Game Boy". They particularly complained of the difficulty in executing moves using only two buttons, the pixelated graphics, and the poor sound. They scored it a 2.5 out of 10. GamePro, in contrast, declared it to be second only to the Game Boy version of Street Fighter II among portable fighting games, arguing that the two-button control is "a little awkward but still masterable" and that the graphics are less than outstanding only when unfairly compared to the SNES version.
Retrospective
Retrospectively, Killer Instinct was ranked as the 148th best game made on any Nintendo system by Nintendo Power in 2006, as well as the 95th on a similar list by Official Nintendo Magazine in 2009. In platform-specific retro lists, it was also ranked as the 19th and 38th best SNES game of all time by ScrewAttack and GamesRadar respectively, and as the 13th best arcade game of the 1990s by Complex.
Killer Instinct was included on several lists of top fighting games of all time, including by ScrewAttack in 2008 (ranked fifth best), GamePro that same year (ranked 18th best), and UGO in 2010 (ranked tenth best). In 2004, GamesTM called it possibly "the best combo-heavy fighter ever". In 2009, Virgin Media ranked it as the eighth top fighting game of all time, stating that it was "most famous for having the longest combos in the business". In 2007, it was voted the sixth top 2D fighting game of all time by Crave Online users, and ranked the sixth best 2D fighting game of all time by Complex in 2013. IGN listed the game at #82nd on their "Top 100 SNES Games of All Time". In 2018, Complex rated Killer Instinct 53rd in their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time." Retro Sanctuary placed Killer Instinct 49th on it’s "Top 100 Best SNES Games."
Legacy
A sequel titled Killer Instinct 2 was released in 1996. Like the first game, it was ported to a home console, this time to the Nintendo 64 as Killer Instinct Gold.
A new Killer Instinct, published by Microsoft and developed by Double Helix Games and Iron Galaxy Studios with input from Rare, was released as a launch title for the Xbox One in 2013. Certain releases of the game include the Killer Instinct Classic port of the original arcade game and its sequel.
References
External links
1994 video games
Arcade video games
Cancelled Nintendo 64 games
Dinosaurs in video games
Game Boy games
Video games about genetic engineering
Killer Instinct games
Midway video games
Mortal Kombat clones
Rare (company) games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games scored by Robin Beanland
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games with pre-rendered 3D graphics
Xbox One games
Video games scored by Graeme Norgate
Fighting games
2.5D fighting games | [
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239286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist%20terrorism | Nationalist terrorism | Nationalist terrorism is a form of terrorism motivated by nationalism. Nationalist terrorists seek to form self-determination in some form, which may range from gaining greater autonomy to establishing a completely independent, sovereign state (separatism). Nationalist terrorists often oppose what they consider to be occupying, imperial, or otherwise illegitimate powers.
Nationalist terrorism is linked to a national, ethnic, religious, or other identifying group, and the feeling among members of that group that they are oppressed or denied rights, especially rights accorded to others.
As with the concept of terrorism itself, the term "nationalist terrorism" and its application are highly contentious issues. What constitutes an illegitimate regime and what types of violence and war are acceptable against such a state are subjects of debate. Groups described by some as "nationalist terrorists" tend to consider themselves "freedom fighters," engaged in valid but asymmetric warfare.
Other nationalistic terrorism can include violence against immigrants in a country. Nationalists in many countries see immigration as a threat to the prosperity of the local or native population of that country.
List
The following are nationalist groups, which in some circles have been deemed "terrorist":
Grey Wolves
Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA)
ETA
EOKA
Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK)
Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA)
Front de libération du Québec (FLQ)
Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA)
People's Mujahedin of Iran (MKO)
Tamil Tigers (LTTE)
Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA)
Wawelberg Group
Lehi
Irgun
Chetniks
Ustashe
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
National Bolshevik Front (NBF)
Kosovo Liberation Army (UÇK)
The label of a group as carrying out "nationalist terrorism" does not preclude it being described in other terms:
Nationalist terrorism may overlap with religiously-motivated terrorism, so Palestinian nationalist militant/terrorist groups are also sometimes Islamic (Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad), and Zionist groups are also sometimes Jewish (Kach and Kahane Chai, Gush Emunim Underground).
Nationalist terrorism may also be identified with the left wing (for example, Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, ETA, Shining Path) or the right wing (AUC, Sombra Negra)
Northern Ireland
The "Troubles" in Northern Ireland (1968-) is characterised by the competing nationalist claims of the two communities there:
The mainly Roman Catholic Irish republicans or nationalists community, mainly descended from the native Irish inhabitants, identify as Irish and want the six counties of Northern Ireland, currently part of the United Kingdom to leave the UK and unite with the Republic of Ireland. Paramilitary groups associated with this ideology include:
Irish Republican Army (1922–62) A split from the "old" IRA that opposed the Anglo-Irish Treaty that solidified the partition of Ireland following the Irish War of Independence. Largely ineffective, petered out in the late 1950s and was officially ended in February 1962.
Official IRA (1969–72) Although formally on ceasefire, except for "defensive actions," since 1972. The Official IRA continued some attacks on British forces up to mid 1973, killing seven British soldiers in what it termed "retaliatory attacks". No longer an active organization.
Irish National Liberation Army (1972–1998). Small Marxist group - a split from the Official IRA. The INLA declared a ceasefire on August 22, 1998.
Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) (1969–2005). It is currently on ceasefire and has destroyed most of its weaponry. Ihe Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC), in its latest report, dated April 2006, points out that it has no reason to disbelieve the PIRA or information to suspect that the group has not fully decommissioned. Rather it indicated that any weaponry that had not been handed in had been retained by individuals outside the PIRA's control. It was a splinter group of the Official IRA. Supporters of the PIRA split from Official Sinn Féin to form Provisional Sinn Féin. Provisional Sinn Féin was later known simply as Sinn Féin while 'Official' Sinn Féin eventually became the Democratic Left.
Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) (1986–present). Also known as the "Continuity Army Council" and "Óglaigh na hÉireann (Irish for 'Volunteers of Ireland'). It is not on ceasefire.
Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA) (1997–present). Also known as the True IRA and Óglaigh na hÉireann (Irish for Volunteers of Ireland.) It is not on ceasefire.
The other community is overwhelmingly Protestant and are known as unionists or loyalists and are largely descended from Scottish and English settlers who arrived in Ulster during the Plantations of Ireland. This community, which forms a slight majority in Northern Ireland, regards itself as essentially British. Paramilitary groups associated with this ideology have received clandestine assistance from the British security forces in the past. Many of their victims have been civilian Catholics with no political connections. These paramilitary groups include:
Ulster Volunteer Force (1966–present). Officially on ceasefire, although the Northern Ireland Secretary Peter Hain announced that the British government no longer recognized the UVF ceasefire after serious loyalist rioting in 2005. UVF renounced "violence" and declared it was putting its arms "beyond reach" on 3 May 2007. The Red Hand Commando is a cover name for UVF.
Loyalist Volunteer Force (1996–2005). The LVF announced in October 2005 that it was standing down following the IRA's previous standing down and disarmament. The Independent Monitoring Commission confirms that the LVF is keeping its paramilitary ceasefire, is heavily involved in organized crime and drug trafficking.
Ulster Defence Association (UDA) (1971–present). Formed as an umbrella organisation of loyalist groups. Legal in the United Kingdom until 1992. Often used the name "Ulster Freedom Fighters" (UFF) when it wished to claim responsibility for attacks. On February 22, 2003, they announced a "complete and utter cessation" of all acts of violence for one year. It said it will review its ceasefire every three months, in February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission reported that the UDA continued its paramilitary activities, as well as involvement in organized crime, drug trafficking, counterfeiting, extortion, money laundering and robbery. On 11 November 2007, the UDA formally renounced violence, but a commander said the group would not surrender its weapons to international disarmament officials.
Red Hand Defenders (1998–present). Opposes ceasefire.
Orange Volunteers (1998–present) The group has not been active since 2000, when they declared a ceasefire. However, in February 2001, the group called off its ceasefire with a "Back to War" statement, but has not been thought to be active since then.
References
Terrorism
Chauvinism | [
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239287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious%20terrorism | Religious terrorism | Religious terrorism is a type of religious violence where terrorism is used as a tactic to achieve religious goals or which are influenced by religious beliefs and/or identity.
In the modern age, after the decline of ideas such as the divine right of kings and with the rise of nationalism, terrorism has more often been based on anarchism, and revolutionary politics. Since 1980, however, there has been an increase in terrorist activity motivated by religion.
Former United States Secretary of State Warren Christopher said that terrorist acts in the name of religion and ethnic identity have become "one of the most important security challenges we face in the wake of the Cold War." However, political scientists Robert Pape and Terry Nardin, social psychologist Brooke Rogers, and sociologist and religious studies scholar Mark Juergensmeyer have all argued that religion should only be considered one incidental factor and that such terrorism is primarily geopolitical.
Definition
According to Juergensmeyer, religion and violence have had a symbiotic relationship since before the Crusades and even since before the Bible. He defines religious terrorism as consisting of acts that terrify, the definition of which is provided by the witnesses – the ones terrified – and not by the party committing the act; accompanied by either a religious motivation, justification, organization, or world view. Religion is sometimes used in combination with other factors, and sometimes as the primary motivation. Religious terrorism is intimately connected to current forces of geopolitics.
Bruce Hoffman has characterized modern religious terrorism as having three traits:
The perpetrators must use religious scriptures to justify or explain their violent acts or to gain recruits.
Clerical figures must be involved in leadership roles.
Perpetrators use apocalyptic images of destruction to justify the acts.
Martyrdom and suicide terrorism
Important symbolic acts such as the blood sacrifice link acts of violence to religion and terrorism. Suicide terrorism, self-sacrifice, or martyrdom has throughout history been organized and perpetrated by groups with both political and religious motivations. The Christian tradition has a long history of heterodoxical and heretical groups which stressed self-immolative acts and scholarship has to some degree linked this to modern political groups such as the Irish Republican Army. Suicide terrorism or martyrdom is efficient, inexpensive, easily organized, and extremely difficult to counter, delivering maximum damage for little cost. The shocking nature of a suicide attack also attracts public attention. Glorifying the culture of martyrdom benefits the terrorist organization and inspires more people to join the group. According to one commentator, retaliation against suicide attacks increases the group's sense of victimization and commitment to adhere to doctrine and policy. This process serves to encourage martyrdom, and so suicide terrorism, self-sacrifice, or martyrdom represent "value for money". Robert Pape, a political scientist who specializes in suicide terrorism, has made a case for secular motivations and reasons as being the foundations of most suicide attacks, which are often labelled as "religious".
Financing
Terrorism activities worldwide are supported through not only the organized systems that teach holy war as the highest calling, but also through the legal, illegal, and often indirect methods financing these systems; these sometimes use organizations, including charities, as fronts to mobilize or channel sources and funds. Charities can involve the provision of aid to those in need, and oblations or charitable offerings are fundamental to nearly all religious systems, with sacrifice as a furtherance of the custom.
Criticism of the concept
Robert Pape compiled the first complete database of every documented suicide bombing from 1980 to 2003. He argues that the news reports about suicide attacks are profoundly misleading – "There is little connection between suicide terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism, or any one of the world's religions". After studying 315 suicide attacks carried out over the last two decades, he concludes that suicide bombers' actions stem from political conflict, not religion.
Michael A. Sheehan stated in 2000, "A number of terrorist groups have portrayed their causes in religious and cultural terms. This is often a transparent tactic designed to conceal political goals, generate popular support and silence opposition."
Terry Nardin wrote,
"A basic problem is whether religious terrorism really differs, in its character and causes, from political terrorism... defenders of religious terrorism typically reason by applying commonly acknowledged moral principles... But the use (or misuse) of moral arguments does not in fact distinguish religious from nonreligious terrorists, for the latter also rely upon such arguments to justify their acts... political terrorism can also be symbolic... alienation and dispossession... are important in other kinds of violence as well. In short, one wonders whether the expression 'religious terrorism' is more than a journalistic convenience".
Professor Mark Juergensmeyer wrote,
"...religion is not innocent. But it does not ordinarily lead to violence. That happens only with the coalescence of a peculiar set of circumstances – political, social, and ideological – when religion becomes fused with violent expressions of social aspirations, personal pride, and movements for political change."
and
"Whether or not one uses 'terrorist' to describe violent acts depends on whether one thinks that the acts are warranted. To a large extent the use of the term depends on one's world view: if the world is perceived as peaceful, violent acts appear to be terrorism. If the world is thought to be at war, violent acts may be regarded as legitimate. They may be seen as preemptive strikes, as defensive tactics in an ongoing battles, or as symbols indicating to the world that it is indeed in a state of grave and ultimate conflict."
David Kupelian wrote, "Genocidal madness can't be blamed on a particular philosophy or religion."
Riaz Hassan wrote, "It is politics more than religious fanaticism that has led terrorists to blow themselves up."
On July 2, 2013, in Lahore, 50 Muslim scholars of the Sunni Ittehad Council (SIC) issued a collective fatwa against suicide bombings, the killing of innocent people, bomb attacks, and targeted killings declaring them as Haraam or forbidden.
See also
Anti-abortion violence
Aum Shinrikyo
Buddhism and violence
Christian terrorism
Destructive cult
Fundamentalism
Indoctrination
Islamic terrorism
Jewish terrorism
List of designated terrorist organizations
Religious war
Saffron terrorism
Violent extremism
References
External links
Mark Juergensmeyer. From Bhindranwale to Bin Laden: The Rise of Religious Violence. Presentation at Arizona State University/National Bureau of Asian Research Conference, October 14–15, 2004 "Religion and Conflict in Asia: Disrupting Violence".
Robert A. Pape. It's the Occupation Stupid. Foreign Policy magazine, October 18, 2010
Booknotes interview with Jessica Stern on Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. October 12, 2003
Religion and violence | [
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239290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wallis | John Wallis | John Wallis (; ; ) was an English clergyman and mathematician who is given partial credit for the development of infinitesimal calculus. Between 1643 and 1689 he served as chief cryptographer for Parliament and, later, the royal court. He is credited with introducing the symbol ∞ to represent the concept of infinity. He similarly used 1/∞ for an infinitesimal. John Wallis was a contemporary of Newton and one of the greatest intellectuals of the early renaissance of mathematics.
Biography
Educational background
Cambridge, M.A., Oxford, D.D.
Grammar School at Tenterden, Kent, 1625–31.
School of Martin Holbeach at Felsted, Essex, 1631–2.
Cambridge University, Emmanuel College, 1632–40; B.A., 1637; M.A., 1640.
D.D. at Oxford in 1654
Family
On 14 March 1645 he married Susanna Glynde ( – 16 March 1687). They had three children:
Anne Blencoe (4 June 1656 – 5 April 1718), married Sir John Blencowe (30 November 1642 – 6 May 1726) in 1675, with issue
John Wallis (26 December 1650 – 14 March 1717), MP for Wallingford 1690–1695, married Elizabeth Harris (d. 1693) on 1 February 1682, with issue: one son and two daughters
Elizabeth Wallis (1658–1703), married William Benson (1649–1691) of Towcester, died with no issue
Life
John Wallis was born in Ashford, Kent. He was the third of five children of Reverend John Wallis and Joanna Chapman. He was initially educated at a school in Ashford but moved to James Movat's school in Tenterden in 1625 following an outbreak of plague. Wallis was first exposed to mathematics in 1631, at Felsted School (then known as Martin Holbeach's school in Felsted); he enjoyed maths, but his study was erratic, since "mathematics, at that time with us, were scarce looked on as academical studies, but rather mechanical" (Scriba 1970). At the school in Felsted, Wallis learned how to speak and write Latin. By this time, he also was proficient in French, Greek, and Hebrew. As it was intended he should be a doctor, he was sent in 1632 to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. While there, he kept an act on the doctrine of the circulation of the blood; that was said to have been the first occasion in Europe on which this theory was publicly maintained in a disputation. His interests, however, centred on mathematics. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1637 and a Master's in 1640, afterwards entering the priesthood. From 1643 to 1649, he served as a nonvoting scribe at the Westminster Assembly. He was elected to a fellowship at Queens' College, Cambridge in 1644, from which he had to resign following his marriage.
Throughout this time, Wallis had been close to the Parliamentarian party, perhaps as a result of his exposure to Holbeach at Felsted School. He rendered them great practical assistance in deciphering Royalist dispatches. The quality of cryptography at that time was mixed; despite the individual successes of mathematicians such as François Viète, the principles underlying cipher design and analysis were very poorly understood. Most ciphers were ad hoc methods relying on a secret algorithm, as opposed to systems based on a variable key. Wallis realised that the latter were far more secure – even describing them as "unbreakable", though he was not confident enough in this assertion to encourage revealing cryptographic algorithms. He was also concerned about the use of ciphers by foreign powers, refusing, for example, Gottfried Leibniz's request of 1697 to teach Hanoverian students about cryptography.
Returning to London – he had been made chaplain at St Gabriel Fenchurch in 1643 – Wallis joined the group of scientists that was later to evolve into the Royal Society. He was finally able to indulge his mathematical interests, mastering William Oughtred's Clavis Mathematicae in a few weeks in 1647. He soon began to write his own treatises, dealing with a wide range of topics, which he continued for the rest of his life. Wallis wrote the first survey about mathematical concepts in England where he discussed the Hindu-Arabic system.
Wallis joined the moderate Presbyterians in signing the remonstrance against the execution of Charles I, by which he incurred the lasting hostility of the Independents. In spite of their opposition he was appointed in 1649 to the Savilian Chair of Geometry at Oxford University, where he lived until his death on . In 1650, Wallis was ordained as a minister. After, he spent two years with Sir Richard Darley and Lady Vere as a private chaplain. In 1661, he was one of twelve Presbyterian representatives at the Savoy Conference.
Besides his mathematical works he wrote on theology, logic, English grammar and philosophy, and he was involved in devising a system for teaching a deaf boy to speak at Littlecote House. William Holder had earlier taught a deaf man, Alexander Popham, to speak "plainly and distinctly, and with a good and graceful tone". Wallis later claimed credit for this, leading Holder to accuse Wallis of "rifling his Neighbours, and adorning himself with their spoyls".
Wallis' appointment as Savilian Professor of Geometry at the Oxford University
The Parliamentary visitation of Oxford that began in 1647 removed many senior academics from their positions, including (in November 1648) the Savilian Professors of Geometry and Astronomy. In 1649 Wallis was appointed as Savilian Professor of Geometry. Wallis seems to have been chosen largely on political grounds (as perhaps had been his Royalist predecessor Peter Turner, who despite his appointment to two professorships never published any mathematical works); while Wallis was perhaps the nation's leading cryptographer and was part of an informal group of scientists that would later become the Royal Society, he had no particular reputation as a mathematician. Nonetheless, Wallis' appointment proved richly justified by his subsequent work during the 54 years he served as Savilian Professor.
Contributions to mathematics
Wallis made significant contributions to trigonometry, calculus, geometry, and the analysis of infinite series. In his Opera Mathematica I (1695) he introduced the term "continued fraction".
Wallis rejected as absurd the now usual idea of a negative number as being less than nothing, but accepted the view that it is something greater than infinity. (The argument that negative numbers are greater than infinity involves the quotient and considering what happens as approaches and then crosses the point from the positive side.) Despite this he is generally credited as the originator of the idea of the number line, in which numbers are represented geometrically in a line with the negative numbers represented by lengths opposite in direction to lengths of positive numbers.
Analytic geometry
In 1655, Wallis published a treatise on conic sections in which they were defined analytically. This was the earliest book in which these curves are considered and defined as curves of the second degree. It helped to remove some of the perceived difficulty and obscurity of René Descartes' work on analytic geometry.
In the Treatise on the Conic Sections Wallis popularised the symbol ∞ for infinity. He wrote, "I suppose any plane (following the Geometry of Indivisibles of Cavalieri) to be made up of an infinite number of parallel lines, or as I would prefer, of an infinite number of parallelograms of the same altitude; (let the altitude of each one of these be an infinitely small part 1/∞ of the whole altitude, and let the symbol ∞ denote Infinity) and the altitude of all to make up the altitude of the figure."
Integral calculus
Arithmetica Infinitorum, the most important of Wallis's works, was published in 1656. In this treatise the methods of analysis of Descartes and Cavalieri were systematised and extended, but some ideas were open to criticism. He began, after a short tract on conic sections, by developing the standard notation for powers, extending them from positive integers to rational numbers:
Leaving the numerous algebraic applications of this discovery, he next proceeded to find, by integration, the area enclosed between the curve y = xm, x-axis, and any ordinate x = h, and he proved that the ratio of this area to that of the parallelogram on the same base and of the same height is 1/(m + 1), extending Cavalieri's quadrature formula. He apparently assumed that the same result would be true also for the curve y = axm, where a is any constant, and m any number positive or negative, but he discussed only the case of the parabola in which m = 2 and the hyperbola in which m = −1. In the latter case, his interpretation of the result is incorrect. He then showed that similar results may be written down for any curve of the form
and hence that, if the ordinate y of a curve can be expanded in powers of x, its area can be determined: thus he says that if the equation of the curve is y = x0 + x1 + x2 + ..., its area would be x + x2/2 + x3/3 + ... . He then applied this to the quadrature of the curves , , , etc., taken between the limits x = 0 and x = 1. He shows that the areas are, respectively, 1, 1/6, 1/30, 1/140, etc. He next considered curves of the form and established the theorem that the area bounded by this curve and the lines x = 0 and x = 1 is equal to the area of the rectangle on the same base and of the same altitude as m : m + 1. This is equivalent to computing
He illustrated this by the parabola, in which case m = 2. He stated, but did not prove, the corresponding result for a curve of the form y = xp/q.
Wallis showed considerable ingenuity in reducing the equations of curves to the forms given above, but, as he was unacquainted with the binomial theorem, he could not effect the quadrature of the circle, whose equation is , since he was unable to expand this in powers of x. He laid down, however, the principle of interpolation. Thus, as the ordinate of the circle is the geometrical mean of the ordinates of the curves and , it might be supposed that, as an approximation, the area of the semicircle which is might be taken as the geometrical mean of the values of
that is, and ; this is equivalent to taking or 3.26... as the value of π. But, Wallis argued, we have in fact a series ... and therefore the term interpolated between and ought to be chosen so as to obey the law of this series. This, by an elaborate method that is not described here in detail, leads to a value for the interpolated term which is equivalent to taking
(which is now known as the Wallis product).
In this work also the formation and properties of continued fractions are discussed, the subject having been brought into prominence by Brouncker's use of these fractions.
A few years later, in 1659, Wallis published a tract containing the solution of the problems on the cycloid which had been proposed by Blaise Pascal. In this he incidentally explained how the principles laid down in his Arithmetica Infinitorum could be used for the rectification of algebraic curves and gave a solution of the problem to rectify (i.e., find the length of) the semicubical parabola x3 = ay2, which had been discovered in 1657 by his pupil William Neile. Since all attempts to rectify the ellipse and hyperbola had been (necessarily) ineffectual, it had been supposed that no curves could be rectified, as indeed Descartes had definitely asserted to be the case. The logarithmic spiral had been rectified by Evangelista Torricelli and was the first curved line (other than the circle) whose length was determined, but the extension by Neile and Wallis to an algebraic curve was novel. The cycloid was the next curve rectified; this was done by Christopher Wren in 1658.
Early in 1658 a similar discovery, independent of that of Neile, was made by van Heuraët, and this was published by van Schooten in his edition of Descartes's Geometria in 1659. Van Heuraët's method is as follows. He supposes the curve to be referred to rectangular axes; if this is so, and if (x, y) are the coordinates of any point on it, and n is the length of the normal, and if another point whose coordinates are (x, η) is taken such that η : h = n : y, where h is a constant; then, if ds is the element of the length of the required curve, we have by similar triangles ds : dx = n : y. Therefore, h ds = η dx. Hence, if the area of the locus of the point (x, η) can be found, the first curve can be rectified. In this way van Heuraët effected the rectification of the curve y3 = ax2 but added that the rectification of the parabola y2 = ax is impossible since it requires the quadrature of the hyperbola. The solutions given by Neile and Wallis are somewhat similar to that given by van Heuraët, though no general rule is enunciated, and the analysis is clumsy. A third method was suggested by Fermat in 1660, but it is inelegant and laborious.
Collision of bodies
The theory of the collision of bodies was propounded by the Royal Society in 1668 for the consideration of mathematicians. Wallis, Christopher Wren, and Christiaan Huygens sent correct and similar solutions, all depending on what is now called the conservation of momentum; but, while Wren and Huygens confined their theory to perfectly elastic bodies (elastic collision), Wallis considered also imperfectly elastic bodies (inelastic collision). This was followed in 1669 by a work on statics (centres of gravity), and in 1670 by one on dynamics: these provide a convenient synopsis of what was then known on the subject.
Algebra
In 1685 Wallis published Algebra, preceded by a historical account of the development of the subject, which contains a great deal of valuable information. The second edition, issued in 1693 and forming the second volume of his Opera, was considerably enlarged. This algebra is noteworthy as containing the first systematic use of formulae. A given magnitude is here represented by the numerical ratio which it bears to the unit of the same kind of magnitude: thus, when Wallis wants to compare two lengths he regards each as containing so many units of length. This perhaps will be made clearer by noting that the relation between the space described in any time by a particle moving with a uniform velocity is denoted by Wallis by the formula
s = vt,
where s is the number representing the ratio of the space described to the unit of length; while the previous writers would have denoted the same relation by stating what is equivalent to the proposition
s1 : s2 = v1t1 : v2t2.
Geometry
He is usually credited with the proof of the Pythagorean theorem using similar triangles. However, Thabit Ibn Qurra (AD 901), an Arab mathematician, had produced a generalisation of the Pythagorean theorem applicable to all triangles six centuries earlier. It is a reasonable conjecture that Wallis was aware of Thabit's work.
Wallis was also inspired by the works of Islamic mathematician Sadr al-Tusi, the son of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, particularly by al-Tusi's book written in 1298 on the parallel postulate. The book was based on his father's thoughts and presented one of the earliest arguments for a non-Euclidean hypothesis equivalent to the parallel postulate. After reading this, Wallis then wrote about his ideas as he developed his own thoughts about the postulate, trying to prove it also with similar triangles.
He found that Euclid's fifth postulate is equivalent to the one currently named "Wallis postulate" after him. This postulate states that "On a given finite straight line it is always possible to construct a triangle similar to a given triangle". This result was encompassed in a trend trying to deduce Euclid's fifth from the other four postulates which today is known to be impossible. Unlike other authors, he realised that the unbounded growth of a triangle was not guaranteed by the four first postulates.
Calculator
Another aspect of Wallis's mathematical skills was his ability to do mental calculations. He slept badly and often did mental calculations as he lay awake in his bed. One night he calculated in his head the square root of a number with 53 digits. In the morning he dictated the 27-digit square root of the number, still entirely from memory. It was a feat that was considered remarkable, and Henry Oldenburg, the Secretary of the Royal Society, sent a colleague to investigate how Wallis did it. It was considered important enough to merit discussion in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of 1685.
Musical theory
Wallis translated into Latin works of Ptolemy and Bryennius, and Porphyrius's commentary on Ptolemy. He also published three letters to Henry Oldenburg concerning tuning. He approved of equal temperament, which was being used in England's organs.
Other works
His Institutio logicae, published in 1687, was very popular. The Grammatica linguae Anglicanae was a work on English grammar, that remained in print well into the eighteenth century. He also published on theology.
See also
31982 Johnwallis, an asteroid that was named after him
Invisible College
John Wallis Academy – former ChristChurch school in Ashford renamed in 2010
Wallis's conical edge
Wallis' integrals
Footnotes
References
The initial text of this article was taken from the public domain resource:
W. W. Rouse Ball (1908) A Short Account of the History of Mathematics, 4th ed.
Stedall, Jacqueline, 2005, "Arithmetica Infinitorum" in Ivor Grattan-Guinness, ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 23–32.
Guicciardini, Niccolò (2012) "John Wallis as editor of Newton's Mathematical Work", Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 66(1): 3–17. Jstor link
Stedall, Jacqueline A. (2001) "Of Our Own Nation: John Wallis's Account of Mathematical Learning in Medieval England", Historia Mathematica 28: 73.
Wallis, J. (1691). A seventh letter, concerning the sacred Trinity occasioned by a second letter from W.J. / by John Wallis ... (Early English books online). London: Printed for Tho. Parkhurst ...
External links
The Correspondence of John Wallis in EMLO
Galileo Project page
John Wallis (1685) A treatise of algebra - digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library
1616 births
1703 deaths
17th-century English mathematicians
Fellows of Queens' College, Cambridge
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
British cryptographers
English Protestants
English logicians
English Presbyterian ministers of the Interregnum (England)
Participants in the Savoy Conference
English mathematicians
Original Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Felsted School
People from Ashford, Kent
Savilian Professors of Geometry
Linguists of English
English music theorists
Historians of mathematics
Keepers of the Archives of the University of Oxford
English male non-fiction writers
Calculus
History of calculus
Infinity
History of mathematics
Mathematics of infinitesimals
Westminster Divines
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239292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Switzerland | Social Democratic Party of Switzerland | The Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (, SP; ), also rendered as the Swiss Socialist Party (, PS; ), is a political party in Switzerland. The SP has had two representatives on the Swiss Federal Council since 1960 and received the second highest total number of votes in the 2019 Swiss federal election.
The SP was founded on 21 October 1888 and is currently the second largest of the four leading coalition political parties in Switzerland. It is the only party on the left with representatives on the Swiss Federal Council, currently Alain Berset and Simonetta Sommaruga. As of September 2019, the SP is the second largest political party in the Swiss parliament.
Unlike most other Swiss parties, the SP is the largest pro-European party in Switzerland and supports Swiss membership of the European Union. Additionally, it is strongly opposed to capitalism and maintains a long-term goal of "overcoming capitalism". The party is a member of the Progressive Alliance and an associate member of the Party of European Socialists.
History
Before the establishment of the national SP, there were various 19th-century labour movements in Switzerland such as the Grütli Union, the Swiss Federation of Trade Unions and several local social-democratic parties. Most of these labour parties only lasted a short time, until the foundation of the Social Democratic Party on 21 October 1888 (the Swiss Labour Day). Albert Steck of Bern composed the party's platform which emphasised democracy, rejected revolutionary aspirations and mandated a democratic solution to the social question. The first party president was Alexander Reichel of Bern.
Two years after the party's foundation, Jakob Vogelsanger was the first Social Democrat to be elected to the National Council. In 1904, the moderate party platform was replaced at a party conference in Aarau with a Marxist program written by Otto Lang. The first-past-the-post voting system for elections to the National Council and the borders of the electorates initially prevented the party from achieving serious political power on the national level, despite growing numbers of supporters. Two popular initiatives for the introduction of a proportional voting system were rejected.
The party's historical archives are hosted today by the Swiss Social Archives which was in 1906 by Paul Pflüger. At a 1912 party conference in Neuenburg, the question of women's suffrage was debated for the first time. The SP accepted a proposal which committed the party to take any opportunity to "agitate for the introduction of women's suffrage."
Interwar period
Although Switzerland remained neutral in the First World War, it did not avoid the spiralling economic crisis that accompanied it. The resulting social tension was unleashed in 1918 by the labour unions and the SP who organised the Landesstreik. The goal of the strike was a fundamental reorganisation of society. The Federal Council issued an ultimatum to the strikers and allowed the military occupation of central points. In this way the strike was ended after four days. Political action was quickly taken to conciliate the strikers with the introduction of a 48-hour working week and a popular initiative on proportional elections to the National Council in the 1918 Swiss referendums which passed on 13 October 1918. In the 1919 Swiss federal election, the SP doubled its mandate from 20 to 41 members.
With the third party platform, which was adopted in 1920, disagreement within the party grew ever greater. In particular the fact that the platform called for the foundation of a dictatorship of the proletariat during the transitional phase from a capitalist class-based society to a socialist commune sparked violent dispute within the party. In 1921, the party decided not to join the Communist International. The left-wing of the party then split from the SP and founded the Communist Party of Switzerland. In 1926, the SP joined the Labour and Socialist International and continued to be a member of until 1940.
With increasing power in parliament, the party now also demanded membership of the government, but their candidate in 1929 was not elected to the Federal Council. On the other hand, the party managed to enter the executive at a cantonal level in 1933. Geneva was the first canton to have a socialist government, with Léon Nicole as president. In the fourth party platform, promulgated in 1935, the SP rejected the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat, but supporting the creation of a socialist society on "free and consensual foundations" remained the party's goal.
In government
In the 1943 Swiss federal election, the SP achieved the greatest electoral success in its history and became the largest parliamentary group. Ernst Nobs was the first member of SP to be elected to the Federal Council. With introduction of the , a further demand dating back to the time of the Landesstreik was achieved. After the failure of an SP referendum on economic reforms in 1953, the SP member of the Federal Council, Max Weber and the General secretary David Farbstein resigned. The SP remained in opposition until the introduction of the "Magic formula" in 1959, which gave it two seats on the Federal Council. Since that time the SP has been a member of the grand coalition which governs Switzerland. In 1959, the fifth party platform was also agreed in which the party committed itself to reformist socialism on "democratic foundations".
In the 1970s and 1980s, the SP gained new followers from the new social movements that arose from the protests of 1968, but lost part of their traditional voter base in the working class. This change led to fierce internal disputes and led to a decline in electoral success. After serious losses in the 1987 Swiss federal election, the SP was only the third-largest party in the National Council. This resulted in the foundation of a breakaway Democratic-Social Party, which was not a success.
The sixth party platform was promulgated in 1982. This presented the party as a modern people's party that supported democratic socialism and had social justice as its highest goal. In 1983, the SP nominated Lilian Uchtenhagen as their candidate for the Federal Council, the first time that a woman had been a candidate. The parliamentary majority elected Otto Stich instead. Part of the party demanded that the SP withdraw from the governing coalition as a result of this, but this was rejected by a party conference. Ten years later in March 1993, Ruth Dreifuss was elected as the first SD woman to serve in the Federal Council. On that occasion too, the United Federal Assembly did not choose the official candidate of the SP (Christiane Brunner), but the unofficial candidate Dreifuss (the ).
In 1990, the SP party conference accepted Switzerland's accession to the International Monetary Fund with clear conditions and elected the Valais canton councillor, Peter Bodenmann, as party president. At the 1992 party conference in Genf, the SP decided to support accession to the European Economic Area as a first step towards membership of the European Economic Community and endorsed a drug policy involving the decriminalisation of drug consumption, controlled sale of drugs for medicinal purposes, and eventual legalisation of drugs. The following year, the SP supported the national people's initiative "for a reasonable drug policy" which envisioned the legalisation of cannabis. The SP supported the 1994 national initiative "for the protection of the Alps" which sought a substantial shift of transport of goods through the Alps from road to rail. After Otto Stich's resignation from the Federal Council in 1995, the Federal Councillor Moritz Leuenberger was elected as his successor. In the 1995 Swiss federal election, the SP made a substantial recovery and was once again the largest party in the Federal Council.
In June 1997, the party conference chose Zurich city councillor, Ursula Koch as party president (the first woman to hold the role), rather than the favourite . In the 1999 Swiss federal election, Koch was also elected to the Federal Council. She resigned as party president and Federal councillor in 2000, due to internal party pressure. Her successor was Christiane Brunner, who led the party until 2004.
In the 2007 Swiss federal election, the SP suffered massive losses, falling to 19.5% of the vote, with only 43 seats in the National Council. In the following federal elections (2011 and 2015), their electoral support remained at the same level. In the Council of States, where the SP traditionally have had only a few seats, the party was able to increase its representation over the 2000s and now hold 12 out of 46 seats. In 2017, the party withdrew from the Socialist International and joined the Progressive Alliance.
Structure
The SP is composed of around 900 sections across Switzerland, which exists at cantonal and municipal levels. Each of the 32,000 party members are registered in a local section and thus are members of both the cantonal and national parties. Local sections elect delegates to attend the regular party members' conferences; these delegates are entitled to vote in cantonal party conferences.
Each of the 26 cantonal sections (Valais is divided into two sections, namely Oberwallis and Valais Romand) elect delegates for national party conferences. The number of delegates for each canton is equivalent to the number of seats that the canton has in the National Assembly.
The SP has a youth party called the Young Socialists Switzerland (JUSO/JS). The JS are independent of the SP in political terms but are supported by it financially and institutionally. Within the SP, the JS are seen as equivalent to a cantonal section and so they are entitled to send some delegates to party conferences. The current president of the JS is Tamara Funiciello, who is simultaneously Deputy President of the SP. There is also a separate, smaller SP youth party called Junge SP in the Olten region.
Ideology
The SP supports classical social-democratic policies, as well as some democratic socialist ones. To that rule, the SP stands for a government offering strong public services. The SP is against far-reaching economic liberalism and is in favor of social progressivism, environmental policy with climate change mitigation, for an open foreign policy and a national security policy based on pacifism.
In economic, financial, and social welfare policy, the SP rejects policies of economic liberalisation such as deregulation, lowering taxes for high-income citizens, and decreases in government spending on social insurance. The SP also opposes raising the retirement age. In addition, the SP is a proponent of increasing welfare spending in some areas such as for a publicly financed maternity leave, universal health care and a flexible retirement age. In tax policy the SP opposes the notion of lowering taxes for high-income citizens. By campaigning for the harmonisation of all tax rates in Switzerland, the SP seeks more redistribution. The SP is skeptical toward the privatization of state enterprises. Nonetheless, the SP also promotes more competition in the areas of agriculture and parallel imports.
In social policy, the SP is committed to social equity and an open society. The SP aims at making working conditions for women in families easier by promoting more external childcare centers and more opportunities for part-time jobs. It also aims at reinforcing sexual equality in terms of eliminating wage differences based on gender, supports civil union for homosexuals and takes an easier stance toward abortions. The SP also rejects strengthening restrictions on asylum seekers and immigrants. The party supports the integration of immigrants by which the immigrants are assigned to immigration procedures immediately after entering the country. The SP has a liberal stance toward drugs and is in favor of publicly regulated heroin consumption and the legalization of cannabis. Nevertheless, the SP supports the smoking ban in restaurants and bars.
In foreign policy, the SP promotes further participation by Switzerland in international organizations. It supports immediate entry of Switzerland into the European Union. The SP also stands for a less strict neutrality of Switzerland, and supports increased international efforts on the part of Switzerland in the areas of peace and human rights. However, the SP supports keeping the military neutrality and opposes entry into NATO. Its pacifist stance is also reflected in its military policy as the SP supports reducing the number of Swiss militia while making the military apparatus more professional and scrapping conscription. Another demand of the SP is to end the tradition of gun ownership, using severe and recent examples of abuse in terms of murder as proof.
The SP has common environmentalist policies with the Green Party of Switzerland which are reflected in the expansion of ecotax reforms and increased state support for energy saving measures and renewable energies. The SP is against the construction of new roads where possible and instead proposes to shift the transportation of goods from the roads to the railways and the introduction of a cap and trade and traffic management system when it comes to transportation across the Swiss Alps. Furthermore, the SP stands for an expansion of the public transportation system network and opposes nuclear power.
Electoral performance
In 2003, it held 52 mandates out of 200 in the Swiss National Council (first chamber of the Swiss parliament); 9 out of 46 in the second chamber and 2 out of 7 mandates in the Swiss Federal Council (executive body). By 2005, it held 23.8% of the seats in the Swiss Cantonal governments and 23.2% in the Swiss Cantonal parliaments (index BADAC, weighted with the population and number of seats). At the 2015 Swiss federal election, the party won 18.8% of the popular vote and 43 out of 200 seats.
National Council
Party strength over time
1.* indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
2.It was part of the Canton of Bern until 1979.
Presidents
Members of the Swiss Federal Council
References
External links
www.sp-ps.ch Official website in French and German
www.ps-ticino.ch Official website in Italian
Social Democratic Party at the History of Social Security in Switzerland
Political parties established in 1888
1888 establishments in Switzerland
Full member parties of the Socialist International
Members of the Labour and Socialist International
Non-interventionist parties
Parties related to the Party of European Socialists
Pro-European political parties in Switzerland
Progressive Alliance
Social democratic parties
Socialist parties in Switzerland
Swiss Climate Alliance | [
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239295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luisito%20Vigoreaux | Luisito Vigoreaux | Luis Vigoreaux Lorenzana (born July 1, 1951) is a Puerto Rican actor and producer. He is the son of Luis Vigoreaux, a Puerto Rican media personality and Rosaura Lorenzana Vilches. He is the brother of Roberto Vigoreaux, local senator, television producer, actor, singer, marketing executive, telecommunications technician and entrepreneur.
Personal life
Vigoreaux enjoys a close friendship with José Carlos Agrelot, the elder son of Puerto Rican comedian José Miguel Agrelot. Their fathers were best friends and working together at a show the day Luisito and José Jr. were born. Vigoreaux and Jose Jr. were born in the same hospital on the same day. Both of their fathers were eventually buried at the same cemetery after their deaths, just metres from each other.
Vigoreaux and his brother Roberto were deeply impacted by the premature death of their mother, Rosaura, due to cancer when they were young. Their father, Luis Vigoreaux, began a relationship with actress Lydia Echevarria while he and his first wife, Rosaura, were still married. Their father eventually left their mother for Echevarria, a fact that caused much friction in the Vigoreaux home. Through his father, Vigoreaux has two other siblings; sisters Vanessa Vigoreaux, an occasional theatrical actress, and Glendalys Vigoreaux.
Vigoreaux followed his younger brother, who began acting as a child for Disney, into acting. As they came of age, both Vigoreaux brothers, Luisito particularly, worked closely with their father on his TV productions.
Luis Vigoreaux Sr.'s Death
In January 1983 Vigoreaux's father was found murdered, burned to death inside the trunk of his car. At the time, Vigoreaux had been working with his father on a new TV show named A Millón, for WAPA-TV. Aspiring to become a producer, Vigoreaux was to assist his father with production for the show; however, with his father's death, he became the show's main producer. Under Vigoreaux, A Millón, became the #1 game show for several years, hosted by Hector Marcano, Sonia Noemí, and Rafael Jose.
In 1984, Vigoreaux's stepmother Echevarría was accused of the murder of Luis Vigoreaux as a conspirator. Vigoreaux and his brother's contempt for their step-mother became obvious when they opposed the commutation of her sentence. Governor Pedro Rossello eventually commuted her 208-year sentence, after serving 13 years.
Puerto Rican tabloids have speculated about the relationship between Vigoreaux, Roberto, and their sisters. Many believed due to their extensive history, there was friction, which Vigoreaux denied. Vigoreaux and his sisters have appeared together on public outings on several occasions. On July 15, 2008, Vigoreaux's sister Glendalys committed suicide in Glendale, Arizona .
Relationships
Long after his divorce from second wife, Marisol Gallisá, Vigoreaux married Dana Miró, also a show host and daughter of Telemundo Puerto Rico's show host Eddie Miró.
Role as a media producer
It wasn't until 1984 that Vigoreaux stepped into the public light when he co-hosted a daily game show with his brother Roberto called Parejo, Doble y Triple (Square, Double and Triple), at WAPA-TV. Vigoreaux's appearance on this show dramatically increased his popularity within Puerto Rico.
In 1986, both Luisito and his brother Roberto appeared in a Burger King commercial for the Puerto Rican market, where they acted and sang.
Vigoreaux went on to host other shows such as Sabado en Grande (Big Saturday, also with Roberto), El Show del Mediodía (The Midday Show) and De Magazin, one of several successful media partnerships with talent agent and former beauty queen Desiree Lowry. He has since hosted, co-hosted and/or produced several other shows since then, both on television and radio. His most controversial show has been Sunshine's Café, a comedy show starring Sunshine Logroño that aired in the mid-1980s.
Vigoreaux co-hosted a TV show named Ruben & Co. along with Millie Cangiano.
, he is a co-host of a cooking show named "Conecta'os por la Cocina" along with Bizcocho, another legendary Puerto Rican television personality.
The "Vigoreaux Trademark"
Vigoreaux is famous for his sometimes self-deprecating sense of humor and blatant frankness. After being convicted once of a DUI charge in 1989, he was parodied by fellow actors, who even played Pedro Flores' "Borracho No Vale" ("Being Drunk Doesn't Count") as a theme song for Luisito. Not only did he play along with the joke, he refers humorously to the conviction to this day.
Vigoreaux is also known for using profanity occasionally in public. This, plus his uncompromising attitude, has earned him the reputation of being Puerto Rican television's enfant terrible; a title which he is reportedly proud of. Because both Vigoreaux and his brother have humorous tendencies to be foul-mouthed they've earned the "El Vigoreaux Trademark" designation by fellow entertainers. Sunshine Logroño jokingly refers to Vigoreaux as "Luisito 'Satanás' (Satan) Vigoreaux".
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
French immigration to Puerto Rico
List of television presenters/Puerto Rico
References
1951 births
Living people
Puerto Rican male actors
Puerto Rican comedians
Puerto Rican people of French descent
Puerto Rican television hosts
Vigoreaux, Lusisito
Puerto Rican television producers | [
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239297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida%20State%20University | Florida State University | Florida State University (Florida State or FSU) is a public research university in Tallahassee, Florida. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida. Founded in 1851, it is located on the oldest continuous site of higher education in the state of Florida.
The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The university comprises 16 separate colleges and more than 110 centers, facilities, labs and institutes that offer more than 360 programs of study, including professional school programs. The university has an annual budget of over $1.7 billion and an annual economic impact of over $10 billion. Florida State is home to Florida's only national laboratory, the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, and is the birthplace of the commercially viable anti-cancer drug Taxol. Florida State University also operates the John & Mable Ringling Museum of Art, the State Art Museum of Florida and one of the largest museum/university complexes in the nation. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS).
For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Florida State tied for the 19th best public university in the United States in the national university category.
FSU's intercollegiate sports teams, commonly known by their "Florida State Seminoles" nickname, compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). In their 113-year history, Florida State's varsity sports teams have won 20 national athletic championships and Seminole athletes have won 78 individual NCAA national championships.
History
In 1819 the Florida Territory was ceded to the United States by Spain as an element of the Adams–Onís Treaty. The Territory was conventionally split by the Appalachicola or later the Suwannee rivers into East and West areas. Florida State University is traceable to a plan set by the 1823 U.S. Congress to create a system of higher education. The 1838 Florida Constitution codified the basic system by providing for land allocated for the schools. In 1845 Florida became the 27th State of the United States, which permitted the resources and intent of the 1823 Congress regarding education in Florida to be implemented.
The Legislature of the State of Florida, in a Legislative Act of January 24, 1851, provided for the establishment of the two institutions of learning on opposite sides of the Suwannee River. The Legislature declared the purpose of these institutions to be "the instruction of persons, both male and female, in the art of teaching all the various branches that pertain to a good common school education; and next to give instruction in the mechanic arts, in husbandry, in agricultural chemistry, in the fundamental laws, and in what regards the rights and duties of citizens." By 1854 the City of Tallahassee had established a school for boys called the Florida Institute, with the hope that the State could be induced to take it over as one of the seminaries. In 1856, Tallahassee Mayor Francis W. Eppes again offered the Institute's land and building to the Legislature. The bill to locate the Seminary in Tallahassee passed both houses and was signed by the Governor on January 1, 1857. On February 7, 1857, the first meeting of the Board of Education of the State Seminary West of the Suwannee River was held, and the institution began offering post-secondary instruction to male students. Francis Eppes served as President of the Seminary's Board of Education for eight years. In 1858 the seminary absorbed the Tallahassee Female Academy, established in 1843, and became coeducational.
The West Florida Seminary was located on the former Florida Institute property, a hill where the historic Westcott Building now stands. The location is the oldest continuously used site of higher education in Florida. The area, slightly west of the state Capitol, was formerly and ominously known as Gallows Hill, a place for public executions in early Tallahassee.
Civil War and Reconstruction
In 1860–1861 the legislature started formal military training at the school with a law amending the original 1851 statute. During the Civil War, the seminary became The Florida Military and Collegiate Institute. Enrollment at the school increased to around 250 students with the school establishing itself as perhaps the largest and most respected educational institution in the state. Cadets from the school defeated Union forces at the Battle of Natural Bridge in 1865, leaving Tallahassee as the only Confederate capital east of the Mississippi River not to fall to Union forces. The students were trained by Valentine Mason Johnson, a graduate of Virginia Military Institute, who was a professor of mathematics and the chief administrator of the college. After the fall of the Confederacy, campus buildings were occupied by Union military forces for approximately four months and the West Florida Seminary reverted to its former academic purpose.
In recognition of the cadets, and their pivotal role in the battle, the Florida State University Army ROTC cadet corps displays a battle streamer bearing the words "NATURAL BRIDGE 1865" with its flag. The FSU Army ROTC is one of only four collegiate military units in the United States with permission to display such a pennant.
First state university
In 1883 the institution, now long officially known as the West Florida Seminary, was organized by the Board of Education as The Literary College of the University of Florida. (In the terminology of the time, schools were divided into seminaries and literary institutions; the name does not imply a focus on literature.) Under the new university charter, the seminary became the institution's Literary College, and was to contain several "schools" or departments in different disciplines. However, in the new university association the seminary's "separate Charter and special organization" were maintained. Florida University also incorporated the Tallahassee College of Medicine and Surgery, and recognized three more colleges to be established at a later date. The Florida Legislature recognized the university under the title "University of Florida" in Spring 1885, but committed no additional financing or support. Without legislative support, the university project struggled. The institution never assumed the "university" title, and the association dissolved when the medical college relocated to Jacksonville later that year.
The West Florida Seminary, as it was still generally called, continued to expand and thrive. It shifted its focus towards modern-style post-secondary education, awarding "Licentiates of Instruction", its first diplomas, in 1884, and became Florida's first liberal arts college in 1897. and by 1891 the Institute had begun to focus on modern post-secondary education; seven Bachelor of Arts degrees were awarded that year.
However, according to Dr. Doak Campbell, Florida State University's first president, "During the first 50 years...its activities were limited to courses of secondary-school grade. Progress was slow. Indeed, it was not until the turn of the [twentieth] century that it could properly qualify as a collegiate institution."
In 1901 it became Florida State College, a four-year institution organized in four departments: the College, the School for Teachers, the School of Music, and the College Academy. Florida State College was empowered to award the degree of Master of Arts, and the first master's degree was offered in 1902. That year the student body numbered 252 men and women, and degrees were available in classical, literary and scientific studies. In 1903 the first university library was begun.
Buckman Act
The 1905 Florida Legislature passed the Buckman Act, which reorganized the Florida college system into a school for white males (University of the State of Florida), a school for white females (Florida Female College later changed to Florida State College for Women), and a school for African Americans (State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students). The Buckman Act was controversial, as it changed the character of a historic coeducational state school into a school for women. An early and major benefactor of the school, James Westcott III (1839–1887), willed substantial monies to the school to support continued operations. In 1911 his estate sued the state educational board contending the estate was not intended to support a single-sex school. The Florida Supreme Court decided the issue in favor of the State of Florida stating the change in character (existing from 1905 to 1947) was within the intent of the Westcott will. By 1933 the Florida State College for Women had grown to be the third largest women's college in the United States and was the first state women's college in the South to be awarded a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa, as well as the first university in Florida so honored. Florida State was the largest of the original two state universities in Florida until 1919.
"Florida State University"
Returning soldiers using the G.I. Bill after World War II stressed the state university system to the point that a Tallahassee Branch of the University of Florida (TBUF) was opened on the campus of the Florida State College for Women with the men housed in barracks on nearby Dale Mabry Field. By 1947 the Florida Legislature returned the FSCW to coeducational status and designated it Florida State University. The FSU West Campus land and barracks plus other areas continually used as an airport later became the location of the Tallahassee Community College. The post-war years brought substantial growth and development to the university as many departments and colleges were added including Business, Journalism (discontinued in 1959), Library Science, Nursing and Social Welfare. Strozier Library, Tully Gymnasium and the original parts of the Business building were also built at this time.
Student activism and racial integration
During the 1960s and 1970s Florida State University became a center for student activism especially in the areas of racial integration, women's rights, and opposition to the Vietnam War. In 1972 Margaret Menzel, a professor in the biology department, led a class action lawsuit charging discrimination against women in pay and promotion. The case was settled in 1975 with an agreement that the university would establish a task force to investigate bias against women at the university and to revise its anti-nepotism policy so as to not discriminate against the wives of university employees.
The school acquired the nickname "Berkeley of the South" during this period, in reference to similar student activities at the University of California, Berkeley. The school is also said to have originated the 1970s fad of "streaking", said to have been first observed on Landis Green.
After many years as a whites-only university, in 1962 Maxwell Courtney became the first African-American undergraduate student admitted to Florida State. In 1968 Calvin Patterson became the first African-American player for the Florida State University football team. Florida State today has the highest graduation rate for African-American students of all universities in Florida.
On March 4, 1969 the FSU chapter of Students for a Democratic Society, an unregistered university student organization, sought to use university facilities for meetings. The FSU administration, under President Stanley Marshall, subsequently decided not to allow the SDS the use of university property and obtained a court injunction to bar the group. The result was a protest and mass arrest at bayonet point of some 58 students in an incident later called the Night of the Bayonets. The university Faculty Senate later criticized the administration's response as provoking as an artificial crisis. Another notable event occurred when FSU students massed in protest of student deaths at Kent State University causing classes to be canceled. Approximately 1000 students marched to the ROTC building where they were confronted by police armed with shotguns and carbines. Joining the all-night vigil, Governor Claude Kirk appeared unexpectedly with a wicker chair and spent hours, with little escort or fanfare, on Landis Green discussing politics with protesting students.
LGBTQ activism at FSU is unusual in that it was actually a fight against the school itself. The Pride Student Union (PSU), originally LGBSU, was founded in 1969 to represent LGBTQ students. In 1980 a gay male named William Wade won the title of Homecoming Princess under the pseudonym "Billy Dahling" causing controversy. In 2006 the Union Board added sexual orientation to its nondiscrimination policy causing several student organizations to be zero-funded for noncompliance. Christian Legal Society had the student senate reverse the freezing after threatening a lawsuit which resulted in the founding of The Coalition for an Equitable Community (CFEC) to advocate for an inclusive nondiscrimination policy. In 2008 CFEC filed suit with the FSU Student Supreme Court against the Union Board for failing to uphold the policy though they ruled they lacked jurisdiction after hearing the case. In November 2009 CFEC placed an editorial in the FSView to provide perspective on the issue. In June 2010 the University Board of Trustees passed a resolution protecting students based on sexual orientation, gender identity and gender expression.
In March 2002, FSU students pitched "Tent City" on Landis Green for 114 days to compel the university to join the fledgling Worker's Rights Consortium (WRC). The Worker Rights Consortium (WRC) is an independent watchdog group that monitors labor rights worldwide. At the time, FSU earned $2 million a year from merchandising rights. FSU administration initially refused to meet with the WRC, reportedly for fear of harming its relationship with Nike. At the outset of the protest 12 activists were arrested for setting up their tents outside the "free speech zone." The protest ended in July, when administration met student demands and met with the WRC.
21st century
The Florida State University College of Medicine was created in June 2000. It received provisional accreditation by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education on October 17, 2002, and full accreditation on February 3, 2005. The King Life Sciences Building, which sits next to the College of Medicine, was completed in June 2008, bringing all the biological sciences departments under one roof.
Following the creation of performance standards by the Florida Legislature in 2013, Florida Governor Rick Scott and the Florida Board of Governors designated Florida State University and the University of Florida as the two "preeminent universities" among the twelve universities of the State University System of Florida. Florida State's new preeminent status calls for an increased state commitment of $75 million divided into $15 million increments from 2013 to 2018.
Campus
Tallahassee
The main campus covers of land including Heritage Grove and contains over of buildings. Florida State University owns more than 1,600 acres (6 km2). The campus is bordered by Stadium Drive to the west, Tennessee Street (U.S. Route 90) to the north, Macomb Street to the east, and Gaines Street to the south. Located at the intersection of College Avenue and S. Copeland Street, the Westcott building is perhaps the school's most prominent structure. The Westcott location is the oldest site of higher education in Florida and is the home of Ruby Diamond Auditorium which serves as the university's premier performance venue. Dodd Hall, the campus' original library was ranked as 10th on AIA's Florida Chapter list of Florida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places.
The historic student housing residence halls include Broward, Bryan, Cawthon, Gilchrist, Jennie Murphree, Landis and Reynolds, and are located on the eastern half of campus. There are three new residence hall complexes, Ragans and Wildwood, located near the athletic quadrant; and DeGraff Hall, located on Tennessee Street. Being a major university campus, the Florida State University campus is also home to Heritage Grove, Florida State's Greek community, located a short walk up the St. Marks Trail.
On and around the Florida State University campus are eight libraries; Robert Manning Strozier Library, Dirac Science Library named after the Nobel Prize-winning physicist and Florida State University professor Paul Dirac, Claude Pepper Library, College of Music Allen Music Library, Innovation Hub, College of Law Research Center, College of Medicine Maguire Medical Library, and the FAMU/FSU Engineering Library. Strozier Library is the main library of the campus and is the only library in Florida that is open 24 hours Sunday-Thursday throughout the Fall and Spring semesters.
Right next to the Donald L. Tucker Center, the College of Law is located between Jefferson Street and Pensacola Street. The College of Business sits in the heart of campus near the Oglesby Student Union and across from the new Huge Classroom Building (HCB). The science and research quad is located in the northwest quadrant of campus. The College of Medicine, King Life Science buildings (biology) as well as the Department of Psychology are located on the west end of campus on Call Street and Stadium Drive.
Located off Stadium Drive in the southwest quadrant are Doak Campbell Stadium which encloses Bobby Bowden Field. The arena seats approximately 84,000 spectators, the University Center Buildings, Dick Howser Stadium as well as other athletic buildings. Doak Campbell Stadium, the University Center Buildings, Dick Howser Stadium as well as other athletic buildings and fields are located off Stadium Drive in the southwest quadrant. Doak Campbell Stadium is a unique venue in collegiate athletics. It is contained within the brick facade walls of University Center, the largest continuous brick structure in the world. The vast complex houses the offices of the university, the registrar, the Dedman School of Hospitality, and other offices and classrooms.
Additional to the main campus, the FSU Southwest Campus encompasses another of land off Orange Drive. The southwest campus currently houses the Florida A&M University – Florida State University College of Engineering, which is housed in a two-building joint facility with Florida A&M University. In addition to the College of Engineering, The Don Veller Seminole Golf Course and Club are located here and the Morcorm Aquatics Center. The FSU Research Foundation buildings as well as the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory are located in Innovation Park and the Alumni Village, family style student housing are located off Levy. Flastacowo Road Leads to the Florida State University Reservation, a student lakeside retreat on Lake Bradford.
In August a new RecSports Plex opened located on Tyson Road. This intramural sports complex will become the largest in the collegiate world with twelve football fields, five softball fields, four club (soccer) fields as well as basketball and volleyball courts. The addition of the Southwest Tallahassee campus in recent years has expanded campus space to over .
Florida State University has seen considerable expansion and construction since T. K. Wetherell came into office in 2003. Numerous renovations as well as new constructions have been completed or are in the process of completion. These projects include student athletic fields, dormitories, new classroom space as well as research space. Currently the campus is undergoing a revival and beautification of the campus' main spaces.
Panama City
Florida State University Panama City is located from the main campus, beginning in the early 1980s. Since that time the campus has grown to almost 1,500 students supported by 15 bachelor's and 19 graduate degree programs.
FSU Panama City began offering full-time daytime programs in fall 2000. This scheduling, coupled with programs offered in the evenings, serves to accommodate the needs of its diverse student population. Over 30 resident faculty were hired to help staff the programs. Nestled among oaks along the waters of North Bay and only three miles from the Gulf of Mexico, the Florida State University Panama City campus offers upper-division undergraduate courses as well as some graduate and specialist degree programs.
Since opening in 1982, over 4,000 students have graduated from FSU Panama City with degrees ranging from elementary education to engineering. All courses are taught by faculty members from the main FSU campus. The satellite institution currently has a ratio of 25 students to each faculty member.
Organization and administration
As a part of the State University System of Florida, Florida State University falls under the purview of the Florida Board of Governors. However, a 13-member Board of trustees is "vested with the authority to govern and set policy for Florida State University as necessary to provide proper governance and improvement of the University in accordance with law and rules of the Florida Board of Governors".
Sally McRorie became the provost of FSU in November 2015, and is responsible for day-to-day operation and administration of the university.
Florida State University is divided into 16 colleges and more than 110 centers, facilities, labs and institutes offering more than 300 degree programs. Florida State University offers Associate, Bachelor, Masters, Specialist, Doctoral, and Professional degree programs. The most popular Colleges by enrollment are Arts and Sciences, Business, Social Sciences, Education, and Human Science.
The Florida State University College of Medicine operates using diversified hospital and community-based clinical education medical training for medical students. Founded on the mission to provide care to medically under served populations, the Florida State University College of Medicine for patient-centered care. The students spend their first two years taking basic science courses on the FSU campus in Tallahassee and are then assigned to one of the regional medical school campuses for their third- and fourth-year clinical training. Rotations can be done at one of the six regional campuses in Daytona Beach, Fort Pierce, Orlando, Pensacola, Sarasota or stay in Tallahassee if they so choose.
Endowment
, FSU's university-wide total financial endowment was valued at $681.4 million. Florida State University receives, in addition to state funding, financial support from the Florida State University Foundation, which had a financial endowment valued at $500.9 million as of June 30, 2018. The endowment helps provide scholarships to students, support teaching and research, and fund other specific purposes designated by donors.
Seminole Boosters
Seminole Boosters, Inc., is designated as the Direct Support Organization for Florida State University athletics. Contributors account for more than $14 million in annual funds, plus at least $15 million per year in capital gifts. The Seminole Boosters Scholarship Endowment has nearly $66 million under management, and the Boosters are involved with a wide range of enterprises including affinity programs, logos and licensing, game-day parking, concessions, the University Center Club, skybox management, and the construction of athletic facilities.
Student government
The Florida State University Student Government Association is the governing body of students who attend Florida State University, representing the university's nearly 43,000 undergraduate, graduate and professional students. The university's student government currently operates on a yearly $13.79 million budget, one of the largest student government budgets in the United States.
The student government was established in 1935 and consists of executive, judicial, and legislative branches. The student government executive branch is led by the student body president and includes the student body vice President, student body treasurer, six agencies, seven bureaus, and executive secretaries within the Executive Office of the President.
The Student Senate is the legislative branch, and is composed of 80 senators who serve one-year terms. The student body elects the first half during each spring semester and the remaining half during the fall semester. The senators elect a senate president and senate president pro tempore once a year, after the fall election, to lead the Student Senate.
The student government judicial branch has two major components: the Supreme Court of the Student Body (headed by a chief justice) and all elections related officials such as the supervisor of elections and the Elections Commission. The Supreme Court consists of seven second or third-year students at the FSU College of Law nominated by the student body president and confirmed by the Student Senate. Each justice serves a "life-time" term, which extends through the individual justice's graduation and insulates the court from the politics of student government. The chief justice may appoint a marshal and clerk. The election commission is also composed of Florida State University College of Law students and it adjudicates all student government election complaints. The commission has five members, one of whom also serves as the commission chairman.
Academics
Florida State University aspires to become a top twenty-five public research university with at least one-third of its PhD programs ranked in the top 15 nationally. The university owns more than 1,600 acres (6.4 km2) and is the home of the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory among other advanced research facilities. The university continues to develop in its capacity as a leader in Florida graduate research. Other milestones at the university include the first ETA10-G/8 supercomputer, capable of 10.8 GFLOPS in 1989, remarkable for the time in that it exceeded the existing speed record of the Cray-2/8, located at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory by a substantial leap and the development of the anti-cancer drug Taxol.
Florida State University is divided into 16 colleges and schools including the Colleges of Applied Studies, Arts & Sciences, Business, Communication & Information, Criminology & Criminal Justice, Education, Engineering, Fine Arts, Human Sciences, Law, Medicine, Motion Picture Arts, Music, Nursing, Social Sciences & Public Policy, and Social Work, plus the Graduate School, Dedman School of Hospitality, and the Jim Moran School of Entrepreneurship. Florida State offers 104 baccalaureate degree programs, 112 master's degree programs, an advanced master's degree program, 12 specialist degree programs, 70 doctorate degree programs, and 3 professional degree programs. The most popular Colleges by enrollment are Arts and Sciences, Business, Social Sciences, Education, and Human Science.
A number of undergraduate academic programs at Florida State University are termed "Limited Access Programs". Limited Access Programs are programs where student demand exceeds available resources. Admission is thus restricted and sometimes extremely competitive. Examples of limited access programs include The Florida State University Film School, the College of Communication and Information, the College of Nursing, Computer Science, most of the majors in the College of Education, several majors in the College of Visual Arts, Theatre and Dance and all majors in the College of Business.
Tuition
For the 2018–2019 academic year, tuition costs were:
Undergraduate $215.55 per credit hour for in-state students, and $721.10 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Total tuition/fees :$5,616 for in-state and $18,746 for out of state.
Graduate $479.32 per credit hour for in-state students, and $1,110.72 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Total tuition/fees :$9,580 for in-state and $22,220 for out of state.
Law School $688.11 per credit hour for in-state students, and $1,355.18 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Total tuition/fees :$20,644 for in-state and $40,656 for out of state.
Medical School $479.32 per credit hour for in-state students, and $1,110.72 per credit hour for out-of-state students. Total tuition/fees per term :$8,536.86 (Cohort 1), $12,805.30 (Cohort 2), $8,492.86 (Cohort 3 & 4) for in-state students and $20,053.93 (Cohort 1), $30,080.90 (Cohort 2), $19,987.93 (Cohort 3 & 4) for out-of-state students.
Admissions
The middle 50% of the Fall 2019 freshmen class had a GPA range from 4.1 – 4.4; a SAT total range from 1250 to 1360 and an ACT range from 28 – 31. The acceptance rates for admission in 2019 were 33.3% and 27.9% respectively for 47,565 freshman applicants and nearly 20,000 graduate school applicants.
FSU's freshman retention rate for the class of 2023 is 93.1%. In 2019, the university achieved a four-year graduation rate of 72%, the highest rate in the State University System of Florida and among the top 10 nationally. The university has over an 80.0% six-year graduation rate compared to the national average six-year graduation rate of 59%.
Enrollment
Florida State University students, numbering 41,551 in Fall 2019, come from more than 130 countries, and all 50 U.S. states. The ratio of women to men is 57:43, and 22.6 percent are graduate and professional students. Professional degree programs include Law, Medicine, Business Administration, Social Work, and Nursing.
In 2017, 7.1% of FSU students were international students. Of those, the most popular countries of origin were: China (20%), Panama 10.5%, India (6%), South Korea (5.4%), Colombia (5.1%), and Brazil (3.7%). In total, 2,974 international students enrolled at Florida State University.
Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Hillsborough, and Leon County make up the largest Florida counties for in-state students. The Miami metropolitan area accounts for the largest geographic origin of students and makes up 23.41% of the student body. Students from Georgia, Virginia, New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Maryland make up the largest states for out-of-state students.
Rankings
For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Florida State University as tied for the 19th best public university in the United States, and 58th overall among all national universities, public and private.
For 2019, the FSU College of Business was ranked 27th undergraduate program among all public universities and 44th among all national universities.
Florida State is ranked the 16th best doctorate-granting university in the US for the highest amount of African American doctorate recipients by the National Science Foundation.
The FSU College of Medicine has been ranked among the nation's top 10 for Hispanic and Latino American students. In 2014, Hispanic Business ranked the med school eighth, the same as last year. The college was ranked seventh in 2012, seventh in 2009 and ninth in 2007. The magazine annually ranks colleges of business, engineering, law and medicine. Rankings are based on percentage of Hispanic student enrollment; percentage of Hispanic faculty members; percentage of degrees conferred upon Hispanics; and progressive programs aimed at increasing enrollment of Hispanic students.
In 2012, the Princeton Review and USA Today ranked Florida State the 4th "Best Value" public university in the nation. In 2012, Florida State was ranked among universities as having the most financial resources per student. Florida State is ranked the 29th top college in the United States by Payscale and CollegeNet's Social Mobility Index college rankings(2014).
Florida State University is one of the two original state-designated "preeminent" universities in Florida.
Florida State University receives the highest National Science Foundation research and development award in the state.
Honors Program
Florida State University has a nationally recognized honors program. The University Honors Office supports the university's long tradition of academic excellence by offering two programs, the University Honors Program and the Honors in the Major Program, which highlight the institution's strengths in teaching, research, and community service. The Honors Program also offers special scholarships, internships, research, and study abroad opportunities.
Admission into the University Honors Program is by invitation only. The average academic profile of students that were offered honors invitations in 2015 was as follows: 4.2 weighted GPA; 32 ACT composite; 2080 SAT total. For the Honors in the Major Program students, the University Honors Office requires that prospective students have at least sixty semester hours and at least a 3.2 cumulative FSU GPA. The Honors program offers students housing in Landis Hall and Gilchrist Hall. Landis Hall is the traditional home of Honors students since 1955, which is situated on Landis Green at the heart of FSU's main campus. Gilchrist Hall also houses Honors students and is located adjacent to Landis Hall.
Honors scholarships
The Presidential Scholars Program is the premier undergraduate scholarship program at Florida State University. The program provides four years of support and is open to high school seniors who are admitted into Florida State University's Honors Program. The total award package for Presidential Scholars is $31,200, plus an out-of-state tuition waiver. This includes the $9,600 Presidential Scholarship distributed over four years and a $9,600 Admissions Scholarship distributed over four years. It also includes $12,000 for educational enrichment opportunities including international experiences such as Study Abroad and Global Scholars, research and creative projects, service learning projects or public service, internships, and entrepreneurial development. Support and guidance is offered through the Honors Program, Center for Undergraduate Research and Academic Engagement and the Office of National Fellows.
International Programs
Florida State University's International Programs (FSU IP) is ranked 11th in the nation among university study abroad programs. Every year Florida State consistently sends over 2,379 students across the world to study in multiple locations. As a student of IP, students are able to take classes that meet their major and/or minor requirements, study with experts in their field, and earn FSU credit.
Florida State has four permanent study centers providing residential and academic facilities in London; Florence, Italy; Valencia, Spain; and Panama City, Panama.
Florida State University is well known for its undergraduate and graduate study abroad options: according to Uni in the USA, "the large numbers of students that study abroad nicely complement the students that study here from abroad."
Career placement
The Florida State University Career Center is located in the Dunlap Success Center. Its mission is to provide comprehensive career services to students, alumni, employers, faculty/staff and other members of the FSU community. These services involve on and off-campus job interviews, career planning, assistance in applying to graduate and professional schools, internships, fellowships, co-op placements, research, and career portfolio resources. The Career Center offers workshops, information sessions, and career fairs. Staff at the FSU Career Center advise students and alumni regarding resumes and portfolios, tactics for job interviews, cover letters, job strategies and other potential leads for finding employment in the corporate, academic, and government sectors.
The ProfessioNole program offers students the chance to reach out to professionals throughout the community, country, and world and learn more about their field's industry demands, career expectations, job outlook, and employment opportunities. Both alumni and friends of the university participate in ProfessioNole, making themselves available for student inquiries. SeminoleLink is The Career Center's registration system linking students and alumni directly with employers. SeminoleLink is part of the NACElink Network, the largest network of career services and recruiting professionals in the world.
Center for Academic Retention & Enhancement
The FSU Center for Academic Retention and Enhancement (CARE) is a multifaceted center that provides preparation, orientation, and academic support programming for first-generation college students who are disadvantaged by economical and educational circumstances. CARE provides academic support services such as a dedicated tutoring and computer lab as well as advising and life coaching. It was created in 2000 after combining various minority academic programs, services, and scholarships into one entity which has enrolled over 5,500 students as of 2017.
As of 2017, CARE had a first-year retention rate of 97 percent and had an 81 percent six-year graduation rate. The average first term college GPA of CARE students throughout the inception of the program is 3.1.
The Summer Bridge Program (SBP) is an alternative admission program for disadvantaged first generation students. The seven-week program helps students transition from high school by providing an early move-in date for easier acclimation, along with group activities managed by peer ambassadors who have already gone through the program.
The Unconquered Scholars Program provides additional support services for students who previously classified and experienced foster care, homelessness, relative care, or ward status.
Florida State University Libraries
The Florida State University Libraries house one of the largest collections of documents in the state of Florida. The Libraries' collections include over 3.75 million volumes, with a website offering access to more than 400 databases, 200,000 e-journals, and over 1.9 million e-books. In total, Florida State has fifteen libraries and millions of books and journals to choose from. Eight libraries are located on the main Tallahassee campus, with the other seven located all over the world. The collection covers virtually all disciplines and includes a wide array of formats – from books and journals to manuscripts, maps, and recorded music. Increasingly collections are digital and are accessible on the Internet via the library web page or the library catalog. The FSU Library System also maintains subscriptions to a vast number of online databases which can be accessed from any student account on or off campus. The current dean of the Library System is Gale Etschmaier, who oversees a $19.9 million annual budget recorded in 2017.
Libraries
The Robert M. Strozier Library is Florida State's main library. It is located in the historic central area of the campus adjacent to Landis Green and occupies seven floors. Strozier's collections focus on Humanities, Social Sciences, Business, and Education. There has been a library at FSU since the 1880s, and the Main Library has been housed in several buildings. From 1911-24, the Main Library was located in the Main Building, which is now Westcott. Dodd Hall was built as the first dedicated library building for the university, and the Main Library was housed there until the current building was built in 1956. The facility has been renovated several times. When opened, it consisted off three floors; an expansion in 1967 added five floors plus two subground floors to the rear of the original building. In 2008, the lower floor reopened as the graduate- and faculty-focused Scholars Commons. In 2010, the main floor was transformed into an undergraduate-focused Learning Commons. The most recent renovation added smart study rooms, an enlarged computer area, new circulation areas, a tutoring center, and the nation's first double-sided Starbucks. Strozier also houses the Special Collections and Archives division and Heritage Protocol. Strozier Library is open 24-hours on weekdays during the fall and spring semesters. The library closes early on Friday and Saturday nights and maintains decreased hours during the summer semester.
The Paul A. M. Dirac Science Library is the main science library for Florida State University and houses over 500,000 books. Located on FSU's Legacy Walk farther west on campus, Dirac Library is smaller than Strozier at three stories. Dirac offers nearly 800 seats and provides 80 desktop computers (PC and Mac) and 80 laptop computers(PC and Mac) for use by students. Dirac also offers 8 wireless Air Media Displays and 2 innovative MondoPad displays. There are over 35 individual and group study rooms that can be reserved online. The library building is also home to the FSU School of Computational Science and Information Technology. The library also houses a collection of materials principally related to Dirac's times at FSU and Cambridge University. Dirac has been renovated in 2015 with new and improved amenities, technology, and seating.
The Claude Pepper Center on campus is home to a think tank devoted to intercultural dialogue and the Mildred and Claude Pepper Library. It is located in what was originally the Florida State College for Women Library, which served as studios for WFSU-TV prior to construction of its current facility. The library contains a wide collection of documents, books, photographs, and recordings formerly belonging to Claude Pepper which are available to researchers. The Center is also home to a collection of former Florida Governor Rubin Askew. The Center is headed by FSU alumnus Larry Polivka, PhD. The goal of the Claude Pepper Center is to further the needs of elderly Americans and has worked towards this goal since it opened in 1998.
The Warren D. Allen Music Library occupies 18,000 square feet of space within the Housewright Music Building in the Florida State University College of Music and serves as a repository for over 150,000 scores, sound recordings (17,000 albums and over 17,000 CDs), video recordings, books, periodicals, and microforms. The library was founded in 1911.
The Harold Goldstein Library was a library on the main campus that housed a collection of approximately 82,000 books, videos and CDs relating to library and information science, information technology, and juvenile literature.
The largest part of the collection consisted of professional and reference materials as well as juvenile and easy books. In 2018, the Goldstein Library was replaced with the Innovation Hub, a technology hub, makerspace, and design-thinking center. When the Goldstein Library closed, its collections were split and moved. The juvenile and library information titles were placed in the main library, Strozier, while the IT materials were moved to Dirac. While Goldstein Library was a valuable library for FSU, its lack of a program-specific collection seems to have created an aimless library; its legacy for some, was a place to take great naps.
The Florida State University College of Law Research Center houses the official library of the Florida State University College of Law. Located in B. K. Roberts Hall, the library has holdings consisting of over 500,000 volumes of which contain the basics of US law, English Common Law, and International Law. The library also maintains subscriptions to several law-specific databases which can be accessed by students.
In addition to the libraries located on the Tallahassee campus, FSU has five other libraries, museums, and research centers. These include the FSU Panama City, Florida Library and Learning Center, the FSU Panama, Republic of Panama Library, the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art, the FSU Florence, Italy Study Center, and the FSU London Study Center.
Museums
The Ringling, the State Art Museum of Florida, is located in Sarasota, Florida and is Administered by Florida State University It was established in 1927 as the legacy of Mable and John Ringling for the people of Florida. The institution offers twenty-one galleries of European paintings as well as Cypriot antiquities and Asian, American, and contemporary art. The museum's art collection currently consists of more than 10,000 objects that include a wide variety of paintings, sculpture, drawings, prints, photographs, and decorative arts from ancient through contemporary periods and from around the world. The most celebrated items in the museum are 16th-, 17th-, and 18th-century European paintings, including a world-renowned collection of Peter Paul Rubens paintings. The Ringling Museum collections constitute the largest university museum complex in the United States. In 2014 the Ringling was selected as the second most popular attraction in Florida by the readers of USAToday Travel.
In all, more than have been added to the campus, which includes the art museum, circus museum, and Cà d'Zan, the Ringlings' mansion, which has been restored, along with the historic Asolo Theater. New additions to the campus include the Visitor's Pavilion, the Education, Library, and Conservation Complex, the Tibbals Learning Center complete with a miniature circus, and the Searing Wing, a gallery for special exhibitions attached to the art museum.
Florida State University also maintains the FSU Museum of Fine Arts (MoFA) in Tallahassee. The MoFA permanent collection consists of over 4000 items in 18 sub-collections ranging from pre-Columbian pottery to contemporary art. The museum has a significant number of works of art on paper, including prints of artists as well known as Rembrandt and Pablo Picasso.
Research
As one of the two primary research universities in Florida, Florida State University has long been associated with basic and advanced scientific research. Today the university engages in many areas of academic inquiry at the undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral levels.
Florida State University was awarded $268.5 million in annual research expenditures, in sponsored research in fiscal year 2016. FSU is one of the top 15 universities nationally receiving physical sciences funding from the National Science Foundation.
Florida State currently has 19 graduate degree programs in interdisciplinary research fields. Interdisciplinary programs merge disciplines into common areas where discoveries may be exploited by more than one method. Interdisciplinary research at FSU covers traditional subjects like chemistry, physics and engineering to social sciences.
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) or "Mag Lab" at Florida State develops and operates high magnetic field facilities that scientists use for research in physics, biology, bioengineering, chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, materials science, and engineering. It is the only facility of its kind in the United States and one of only nine in the world. Fourteen world records have been set at the Mag Lab to date. The Magnetic Field Laboratory is a 440,000 sq. ft (40,877 square meter) complex employing 507 faculty, staff, graduate, and postdoctoral students. This facility is the largest and highest powered laboratory of its kind in the world and produces the highest continuous magnetic fields.
MIT Contest of lab award
In 1990 the National Science Foundation awarded Florida State University the right to host the new National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. Rather than improve the existing Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory controlled by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) together with a consortium of other universities, the NSF elected to move the Lab mainly to Florida State University, with a smaller facility at the University of Florida. The award of the laboratory was contested by MIT in an unprecedented request to the NSF for a review of the award. The NSF denied the appeal, explaining that the superior enthusiasm for and commitment to the project demonstrated by Florida State led to the decision to relocate the lab.
Large Hadron Collider
After decades of planning and construction the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) is a next generation detector for the new proton-proton collider (7 TeV + 7 TeV) called the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) which is now operational in the existing 17 mi (27 km) circular tunnel near Geneva, Switzerland at CERN, the European Laboratory for Particle Physics. Florida State University faculty members collaborated in the design, construction and operation of the LHC, with some components assembled at Florida State and shipped to CERN for installation. Florida State faculty contributed to several areas of the CMS, especially the electromagnetic calorimeter and the hadron calorimeter.
High-Performance Materials Institute
The High-Performance Materials Institute (HPMI) is a multidisciplinary research institute at Florida State University. Currently, HPMI is involved in four primary technology areas: High-Performance Composite and Nanomaterials, Structural Health Monitoring, Multifunctional Nanomaterials Advanced Manufacturing and Process Modeling.
Over the last several years, HPMI has proven a number of technology concepts that have the potential to narrow the gap between research and practical applications of nanotube-based materials. These technologies include magnetic alignment of nanotubes, fabrication of nanotube membranes or buckypapers, production of nanotube composites, modeling of nanotube-epoxy interaction at the molecular level, and characterization of SWNT nanocomposites for mechanical properties, electrical conductivity, thermal management, radiation shielding and EMI attenuation. HPMI personnel also established Florida's first National Science Foundation (NSF) Industry/University Cooperative Research Center (IUCRC).
In 2006, the Florida Board of Governors designated HPMI as a Center of Excellence in Advanced Materials and awarded $4 million to further HPMI's efforts in technology transfer, economic development and work force training. Under its cluster hiring program, FSU has awarded the HPMI team with an additional $4 million to recruit and hire some of the nation's top researchers in Materials. HPMI personnel moved into the new $20 million, 45,000 square foot Materials Research Building, which houses the latest state-of-the art equipment and facilities for materials research, especially designed for research in nanomaterials.
The Center for Advanced Power Systems
Florida State University's Center for Advanced Power Systems (CAPS) has become the first university test site accredited by the U.S. Navy to perform high-powered simulations as the center develops next-generation shipboard power technology.
The Center for Advanced Power Systems is a multidisciplinary research center organized to perform basic and applied research to advance the field of power systems technology. CAPS' emphasis is on application to electric utility, defense, and transportation, as well as, developing an education program to train the next generation of power systems engineers. The research focuses on electric power systems modeling and simulation, power electronics and machines, control systems, thermal management, cyber-security for power systems, high temperature superconductor characterization and electrical insulation research.
With support from the U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research (ONR) and the U.S. Department of Energy, CAPS has established a unique test and demonstration facility with one of the largest real-time digital power systems simulators along with 5 MW AC and DC test beds for hardware in the loop simulation. The center is supported by a research team composed of dedicated and highly skilled researchers, scientists, faculty, engineers, and students, recruited from across the globe, with strong representation from both the academic/research community and industry.
In January 2015, Florida State University's Center for Advanced Power Systems has unveiled a new 24,000-volt direct current power test system, the most powerful of its kind available at a university research center throughout the world. The new test facility is the latest piece of the center's PHIL testing program. It has a 24,000-volt direct current with a capacity of 5 megawatts, making it the most powerful PHIL system of its kind at a university research center worldwide. To create the new system, the center put together four individual 6 kilovolt, 1.25 megawatt converters that can be arranged in any combination, in series or parallel connection, to form an extremely flexible test bed for medium voltage direct current (MVDC) system investigations.
CAPS researchers are also collaborating with Virginia Tech on a project for the U.S. Office of Naval Research to evaluate the performance of an electrical impedance measurement unit (IMU) developed by Virginia Tech and to be shipped to CAPS for testing. The purpose of an IMU is to probe a power system for its impedance characteristics to establish criteria for stable operation of the system.
CAPS is a long-term contractor with the U.S. Navy, which is working to develop an all-electric ship. The Navy has also committed funding to study design and performance of fault current limited MVDC systems and other operational aspects of MVDC systems.
Coastal and Marine Laboratory
The FSU Coastal and Marine Laboratory is located about from the main campus in Tallahassee. It is on the coast of St. Teresa, Florida, between Panacea and Carrabelle, on Apalachee Bay, of which is right on the water and the remaining of which is directly across the road. The mission of the FSUCML is to conduct innovative, interdisciplinary research focused on the coastal and marine ecosystems of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, with a focus on solving the ecological problems faced by the region by providing the scientific underpinnings for informed policy decisions. Research is conducted by faculty in residence and by those from the main campus, as well as by faculty, postdoctoral, graduate, and undergraduate investigators from FSU and other universities throughout the world.
Florida State University established its first marine laboratory, the Oceanographic Institute, in 1949, on on the harbor side of the peninsula that forms Alligator Harbor, which maintained a substantial research effort throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Other marine stations maintained by Florida State University until 1954 included one at Mayport, on the St. Johns River near Jacksonville, which conducted research related to the menhaden and shrimp fisheries and oceanographic problems of the Gulf Stream and the mouth of the St. John's River, and one on Mullet Key at the mouth of Tampa Bay, which studied red tide.
In the late 1960s, FSU moved the lab to its current location west of Turkey Point, on land donated by Edward Ball, the founder of the St. Joe Paper Company, and changed its name to The Edward Ball Marine Laboratory. In 2006, the lab became known as The Florida State University Coastal and Marine Laboratory (FSUCML), a name that better reflects the expanded programmatic base of its research, education, and outreach missions.
Student life
Traditions
The university's colors are garnet and gold. The colors of garnet and gold represent a merging of the university's past. While the school fielded a football team as early, or earlier than 1899, in 1902, 1903 and 1905 the team won football championships wearing purple and gold uniforms. The following year, the college student body selected crimson as the official school color. The administration in 1905 took crimson and combined it with the recognizable purple of the championship football teams to achieve the color garnet. After World War II the garnet and gold colors were first worn by a renewed football team in a 14–6 loss to Stetson University on October 18, 1947. Florida State University's marching band is the Marching Chiefs.
Alma mater
The alma mater for Florida State University was composed by Charlie Carter in 1956.
The most popular songs of Florida State University include:
Alma Mater – "High O'er Towering Pines"
Hymn – "Hymn To the Garnet and Gold"
Fight Song – "FSU Fight Song"
Residential life
Florida State University provides 6,733 undergraduate and graduate students with housing as well as living–Learning Communities (LLC) on the main campus. This number will soon be expanded to 7,283 with new housing projects. Florida State University is a traditional residential university wherein most students live on campus in university residence halls or nearby in privately owned residence halls, apartments and residences. Florida State currently has 18 residence halls on campus, housing undergraduate, graduate and international students. FSU offers suite-style and apartment-style residence halls. Students who are active members of the FSU Greek System may live in chapter housing near campus. There is also a vast amount of off-campus housing options throughout Tallahassee for students to choose from.
Renovated historic student housing residence halls located on the eastern half of campus include Broward, Bryan, Cawthon, Gilchrist, Jennie Murphree, Landis and Reynolds. Deviney, Dorman, Magnolia, and Azalea Halls are the newest residence halls, also located on the Easter half of campus. There are three new residence hall complexes, Ragans and Wildwood, located near the athletic quadrant; and Degraff Hall, located right across West Tennessee Street. Smith, McCollum and Salley Halls are located in the northwestern quadrant. On-campus housing for single graduate students includes Rogers Hall, Ragans Hall, Traditions Hall, and McCollum Hall.
Student clubs and activities
Florida State University has more than 700 organizations and clubs for students to join. They range from cultural and athletic to philanthropy, including Phi Beta Kappa, AcaBelles, Garnet and Gold Scholar Society, Marching Chiefs, Garnet Girls Competitive Cheerleading, Florida State Golden Girls, FSU Pow Wow, FSU Majorettes, Hillel at FSU, Seminole Flying Club, No Bears Allowed, FSU Student Foundation, InternatioNole, Student Alumni Association, Hispanic/Latino Student Union, Relay For Life, The Big Event at FSU, Por Colombia, Quidditch at FSU, and the Men's Soccer Club. All organizations are funded through the SGA and many put on events throughout the year. Students may create their own registered student organization if the current interest or concern is not addressed by the previously established entities.
Fitness & Intramural Sports
The Bobby E. Leach Student Recreation Center is a 120,000 square foot fitness facility located right in the heart of campus. Construction on the Center was completed in 1991. The Leach Center has three regulation-size basketball courts on the upper level with the third court being designated for other sports such as volleyball, table tennis, and badminton. It also has five racquetball & squash courts for recreational matches and an indoor track overlooking the pool on the third level of the facility.
The Leach Pool is a 16-lane by 25-yard indoor swimming facility with two 1-meter and two 3-meter diving boards. A complete spa area is located just off the pool deck and is equipped with two whirlpools, two steam rooms, and a sauna. The leach center provides over 100 free group fitness classes offered weekly along with personal training provided by NSCA-certified personal trainers.
Florida State University also has an intramural sports program. Sports clubs include equestrian and water sailing. The clubs compete against other Intercollegiate club teams around the country. Intramural sports include flag football, basketball, recreational soccer, volleyball, sand volleyball, softball, swimming, kickball, mini golf, team bowling, tennis, ultimate frisbee, wiffle ball, dodge ball, battleship, college pick em, innertube water polo, kan jam, spikeball, and wallyball.
A new area of intramural sports fields, named the RecSports Plex, was opened in September 2007. This intramural sports complex is the largest in the nation with twelve football fields, five softball fields, four soccer fields, and basketball and volleyball courts.
Entertainment
A large amount of student life is centered around the Oglesby Union, located on the North side of campus. The Union was originally constructed in 1952 and expanded in 1964. In 2018, renovations of the Oglesby Union began. The old Union building was demolished in the summer of 2018 and buildings for the renovated Union are currently being constructed. Current construction estimates expect the renovated Union to be completed in the Fall of 2021. During construction, the services that were housed in the Union have moved to temporary locations around campus.
Crenshaw Lanes is a twelve lane bowling alley located in the Oglesby Student Union and it includes ten full sized billiard tables. It has been at FSU since 1964. The interior has been completely renovated for spring 2015. The Crenshaw Lanes have been temporarily closed since construction of the renovated Union began.
Club Downunder hosts entertainment acts such as bands and comedians. Past bands that have come through Club Downunder include The White Stripes, Modest Mouse, The National, Girl Talk, Spoon, Soundgarden, She Wants Revenge, Cold War Kids, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and Death Cab for Cutie. All shows that take place at Club Downunder are free for FSU students.
The Askew Student Life Center is home to the Student Life Cinema. It features five to six nights a week playing movies, documentaries, indies, foreign films, and restored cinema movies. Movies are selected by an all-student committee and are free to all currently enrolled FSU students.
The Student Life Center offers a cybercafe with computers for Internet surfing and computer games, as well as board games. A coffee shop called the Grindhouse Cafe sells snacks and drinks in the cybercafe. The cybercafe hosts Super Smash Bros. tournaments and other gaming tournaments.
Florida State's Reservation is a lakeside recreational area located off campus. This university retreat on Lake Bradford was founded in 1920 as a retreat for students when FSU was the state college for women between 1905 and 1947. The original name for the retreat was Camp Flastacowo.
Florida State University is one of two collegiate schools in the country to have a circus. The FSU Flying High Circus is a three-ring circus that has performances during the Fall semester (for Parents' Weekend) and Spring semester (their annual homeshow). The circus, founded in 1947 by Jack Haskin, in an extracurricular activity under the Division of Student Affairs that any FSU student may join. Student performers in the circus practice daily, much like any other school sport. The performers help rig their equipment and sew their own costumes. Performances occur in April under the Big Top circus tent.
A Cappella Groups
Florida State University is home to five student-run a cappella groups: Acaphiliacs (mixed), All-Night Yahtzee (mixed), Vox (mixed), AcaBelles (treble), and Reverb (tenor/bass). All five groups regularly compete in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA). All-Night Yahtzee is one of only three groups in the world to compete at ICCA finals in New York City five times, and they placed 2nd at the competition in 2008. The AcaBelles competed at ICCA finals in 2009 and 2011, and Reverb placed 4th in their only bid to ICCA finals in 2013. In 2020, The A Cappella Archive ranked All-Night Yahtzee at #4 among all ICCA-competing groups.
Greek life
About 14% of undergraduate men are in a fraternity and 23% of undergraduate women are in a sorority. The Office of Greek Life at Florida State University encompasses the Interfraternity Council (IFC), Panhellenic Council (NPC), Multicultural Greek Council (MGC), and the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). The Order of Omega and Rho Lambda Honor Societies also have chapters at Florida State.
The Interfraternity Council (IFC) comprises 22 fraternities. The Panhellenic Association is made up of 17 sororities and over 4,000 women.
The Multicultural Greek Council consists of 11 cultural organizations (Latino, Asian, South Asian, etc.). The National Pan-Hellenic Council comprises 8 historically black organizations.
In 2017, university president John E. Thrasher suspended activities at all of the university's 55 fraternities and sororities, days after two unrelated incidents in which a 20-year-old fraternity pledge died following a party at an off-campus house and a 20-year-old fraternity member was arrested on charges of cocaine trafficking. Thrasher said that Greek activities would be permitted to resume after the university developed new policies, saying "The message is not getting through" and calling for a major culture shift.
Reserve Officer Training Corps
Florida State University's Reserve Officer Training Corps is the official officer training and commissioning program at Florida State University. Dating back to Civil War days, the ROTC unit at Florida State University is one of four collegiate military units with permission to display a battle streamer, in recognition of the military service of student cadets during the Battle of Natural Bridge in 1865.
The Reserve Officer Training Corps offers commissions for the United States Army and the United States Air Force. The Reserve Officer Training Corps at Florida State is currently located at the Harpe-Johnson Building.
The Reserve Officer Training Corps at Florida State University offers training in the military and aerospace sciences to students who desire to perform military service after they graduate. The Departments of the Army and Air Force each maintain a Reserve Officers Training Corps and each individual department (Department of Military Studies for the Army; Department of Aerospace Studies for the Air Force) has a full staff of active duty military personnel serving as instructor cadre or administrative support staff. Florida State University is also a cross-town affiliate with Florida A&M University's Navy ROTC Battalion, allowing FSU students to pursue training in the naval sciences for subsequent commissioning as officers in the Navy or Marine Corps.
Campus and area transportation
The FSU campus is served by eight bus routes of the Seminole Express Bus Service. The Seminole Express Bus Service provides transportation to, around, and from campus to the surrounding Tallahassee areas for Faculty, Staff, Students and Visitors. All students, faculty and staff can also ride any StarMetro bus throughout the City of Tallahassee for free by swiping a valid FSUCard. FSU also provides other campus services, including Spirit Shuttle (during football games), Nole Cab, S.A.F.E. Connection, and Night Nole nighttime service.
Florida State University is also served by the Tallahassee International Airport, which is located in the Southwest portion of Tallahassee and has daily services to Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando, Tampa, Atlanta, Charlotte, and Dallas–Fort Worth.
Student media
The campus newspaper, the FSView & Florida Flambeau, is 100 years old now and publishes weekly during the summer and semiweekly on Mondays and Thursdays during the school year following the academic calendar. After changing hands three times in 13 years, the FSView was sold to the Tallahassee Democrat in late July 2006, making it part of the Gannett chain. This exchange was allowed because the FSView had been for a long time a for-profit business that was not legally associated with Florida State University. Since most collegiate newspapers are supported by their colleges, this was also among the first times that a major corporation had acquired a college newspaper.
FSU operates two television stations, WFSU and WFSG, and three radio stations, WFSU-FM, WFSQ-FM and WFSW-FM.
FSU operates a fourth radio station, WVFS (V89, "The Voice", or "The Voice of Florida State"), as an on-campus instructional radio station staffed by student and community volunteers. WVFS broadcasts primarily independent music as an alternative to regular radio.
The English Department publishes a literary journal, The Southeast Review, founded in 1979 as Sundog.
Athletics
The school's athletic teams are called the Seminoles, derived from the Seminole people. The name was chosen by students in 1947 and is officially sanctioned by the Seminole Tribe of Florida; the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma has taken no official position regarding the university's use of the name. Florida State's athletes participate in the NCAA's Division I (Bowl Subdivision for football) and in the Atlantic Coast Conference.
For the 2017–2018 school year, the Florida State Athletics Department budgeted $103.2 million for its sports teams and facilities and currently brings in over $121.3 million in revenues. Florida State University is known for its competitive athletics in both men's and women's sports competitions. The men's program consists of baseball, basketball, cross country running, football, golf, swimming, tennis, and track & field. The women's program consists of basketball, cross country running, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track & field, and volleyball. FSU's Intercollegiate Club sports include bowling, crew, rugby, soccer and lacrosse. Harkins Field is an artificial turf field that is home to the lacrosse team as well as serving as the practice field for the Marching Chiefs of the College of Music and the football team. In 2019, football generated 46.7% of the revenue, basketball, almost 10%, the remainder by the other 16 sports. 22% of football income is from the media.
There are two major stadiums and an arena within FSU's main campus: Doak Campbell Stadium for football, Dick Howser Stadium for men's baseball, and the Donald L. Tucker Center for men's and women's basketball. The Mike Long Track is the home of the national champion men's outdoor track and field team. H. Donald Loucks courts at the Speicher Tennis Center is the home of the FSU tennis team. By presidential directive the complex was named in honor of Lieutenant Commander Michael Scott Speicher, a graduate of Florida State University and the first American casualty during Operation Desert Storm. The Seminole Soccer Complex is home to women's soccer. It normally holds a capacity of 1,600 people but has seen crowds in excess of 4,500 for certain games. The home record is 4,582 for the 2006 game versus the University of Florida. The FSU women's softball team plays at the Seminole Softball Complex; the field is named for JoAnne Graf, the winningest coach in softball history.
Florida State's traditional rivals in all sports include the University of Florida Gators, the University of Miami Hurricanes and the University of Virginia Cavaliers with a battle for the Jefferson–Eppes Trophy. The Jefferson–Eppes Trophy is exchanged between the University of Virginia and Florida State University after each football competition in recognition of the common roots shared by the two schools. Rivalries in some other sports also exist, including the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets in baseball and the Duke University Blue Devils in basketball.
Florida State University has been penalized seven times by the NCAA for major infractions for the period 1968 through 2009. These infractions range from improper recruiting of student-athletes, failure to investigate adequately to academic fraud. FSU has been penalized by the NCAA according to each violation of rules.
Seminole baseball
Seminole baseball is one of the most successful collegiate baseball programs in the United States having been to 20 College World Series', and having appeared in the national championship final on three occasions (falling to the University of Southern California Trojans in 1970, the University of Arizona Wildcats in 1986, and the University of Miami Hurricanes in 1999). Under the direction of Head Coach No. 11 Mike Martin (FSU 1966), Florida State is the second-winningest program in the history of college baseball. Since 1990, FSU has had more 50 win seasons, headed to more NCAA Tournaments (19 Regional Tournaments in 20 years), and finished in the top 10 more than any team in the United States. Since 2000, FSU is the winningest program in college baseball with more victories and a higher winning percentage in the regular season than any other school.
Seminole football
The Florida State Seminoles football program has played in 49 bowl games, won three consensus national championships, eighteen Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) championships, six ACC division titles, produced 218 All-Americans, 47 National Football League (NFL) first-round draft choices, and three Heisman Trophy winners. The Seminoles have achieved three undefeated seasons and finished ranked in the top five of the AP Poll for 14 straight years from 1987 through 2000. The Florida State Seminoles are one of the 120 NCAA Division I FBS collegiate football teams in America.
The Seminoles' home field is Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium, which has a capacity of 79,560. The stadium first opened in 1950 with a capacity of 15,000. In 2015, construction began on a project to completely renovate Doak Campbell Stadium as part of the $250 million Florida State Seminoles Champions Campaign to improve all aspects of athletics. The project added new premium outdoor seating sections, structural repairs, a repainting of the stadium, and updated sky box suites. The most recent addition of the stadium was completed in 2016 which replaced two video boards. The 9,368 square feet north video board is the largest video board in the state of Florida and the second largest in the nation. The stadium is popularly known as "Doak."
Florida State University fielded its first official varsity football team in the fall of 1902 until 1904, which were then known as "The Eleven". The team went (7–6–1) over the 1902–1904 seasons posting a record of (3–1) against their rivals from the Florida Agricultural College in Lake City. In 1904 the Florida State football team became the first ever state champions of Florida after beating both the Florida Agricultural College and Stetson University. The football team and all male students subsequently moved to the newly opened University of Florida in Gainesville in 1906 as a result of the 1905 Buckman Act. Football returned to Florida State after World War II in 1947.
Under head coach Bobby Bowden, the Seminole football team became one of the nation's most competitive college football teams. The Seminoles played in five national championship games between 1993 and 2001 and won the championship in 1993 and 1999. The FSU football team was the most successful team in college football during the 1990s, boasting an 89% winning percentage. Bobby Bowden would retire with the record for most all-time career wins in Division I football. Jimbo Fisher succeeded Bowden as head coach in 2010. FSU football has introduced a number of players into the NFL.
Seminole track and field
The FSU men's Track & Field team won the Atlantic Coast Conference championship four times running, in addition to winning the NCAA National Championship three consecutive years. In 2006 Head Coach Bob Braman and Associate Head Coach Harlis Meaders helped lead individual champions in the 200 m (Walter Dix), the triple jump (Raqeef Curry), and the shot put (Garrett Johnson). Individual runners-up were Walter Dix in the 100 m, Ricardo Chambers in the 400 m, and Tom Lancashire in the 1500 m. Others scoring points in the National Championship were Michael Ray Garvin in the 200 m (8th), Andrew Lemoncello in the 3000 m steeplechase (4th), Raqeef Curry in the long jump (6th), and Garrett Johnson in the discus (5th). In 2007, FSU won its second straight men's Track & Field NCAA National Championship when Dix became the first person to hold the individual title in the 100 m, 200 m, and 400 m at the same time.
Florida State has had 34 athletes compete at the Olympics in their respective events, most recently having ten athletes compete in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Those athletes included Gonzalo Barroilhet (Chile), Ricardo Chambers (Jamaica), Refeeq Curry (USA), Walter Dix (USA), Brian Dzingai (Zimbabwe), Tom Lancashire (England), Andrew Lemoncello, (England), Ngoni Makusha (Zimbabwe), Barbara Parker (England), and Dorian Scott (Jamaica). Walter Dix earned two bronze medals (100 m & 200m) at the Olympic Games.
Faculty
Florida State University currently employs 2,548 faculty members and over 8,133 staff. Florida State's more than 41,900 students have the opportunity to work and study among faculty that includes a Nobel Laureate, three active members of the National Academy of Sciences, two active members of the National Academy of Engineering, two active members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, two Pulitzer Prize winners, 11 active Guggenheim Fellowship recipients, and over 30 Fulbright Scholars. Florida State faculty members lead several scholarly fields in citations to published work and hold multiple honors in the arts, including the Academy Award, Kennedy Center Honors, the Grammy Award, and the Capezio and BESSIE Dance Awards. Florida State is represented by faculty serving in a number of renowned Academies, Voluntary Associations and Societies. Florida State was home to the first ETA10-G/8 supercomputer. Professor E. Imre Friedmann and researcher Dr. Roseli Friedmann demonstrated primitive life could survive in rocks, establishing the potential for life on other planets.
Robert A. Holton, a professor of chemistry at Florida State, developed the first total synthesis of the anti-cancer drug paclitaxel, which had previously been obtainable only from the bark of the Pacific yew tree. Florida State University signed a deal with Bristol-Myers Squibb to license this and future patents. In 1992, Holton patented an improved process with an 80% yield.
Florida State's Department of Art includes many distinguished faculty. Mark Messersmith, Lillian Garcia-Roig, and Emeritus Professor Ray Burggraf are renowned for environmentally-focused paintings and "color constructions" that continue to inspire debate among scholars. Together, Messersmith, Garcia-Roig, and Burggraf created an exhibition called, A Mysterious Clarity. It debuted at the 621 Gallery in 2004 (Tallahassee, Florida), and by popular demand, quickly evolved into a traveling show. To date, A Mysterious Clarity has been featured in at least nine museums and galleries including the Albany Museum of Art, the Gulf Coast Museum, and the Brevard Art Museum.
Alumni
Florida State University currently has 372,025 alumni . Florida State alumni can be found in all 50 states and many countries all over the world. FSU has almost thirty college and university presidents who are alumni. This institution has produced over fifteen members of the United States Congress, Florida Legislature, numerous U.S. ambassadors, four governors, and over twenty generals and admirals for the United States Armed Forces.
Florida State University has been home to five Rhodes Scholarship recipients. These include the state of Florida's first-ever Rhodes Scholar in 1905 and the state's first female Rhodes Scholar in 1977. Garrett Johnson, a Florida State student athlete, and Joe O'Shea, Florida State Student Body President, were recipients of Rhodes scholarships in 2005 and 2007, respectively. Florida State football player Myron Rolle earned the award in 2008. Only thirty-two students in the United States earn the award each year.
At least 15 FSU graduates have served in the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives, including senators Thomas Gallen, Mel Martinez and Kay Hagan in addition to representatives Jason Altmire, Kathy Castor, Matt Gaetz and Allen Boyd. FSU has 4 alumni that have been governors including Governors of Florida Charlie Crist and Reubin Askew and Governors of Maryland Parris Glendening and Larry Hogan. Over 12 alumni have been mayors, including Teresa Jacobs, Art Agnos and John Marks. Several have been congressional chiefs of staff, including Benjamin McKay and B. Dan Berger. Foreign FSU politicians include Mokgweetsi Masisi, the current President of Botswana, Briton Mo Mowlam, and Vietnamese dissident Doan Viet Hoat. Among the many notable lawyers and jurists that have attended FSU are judges Susan Black and Ricky Polston, along with lawyer Bruce Jacob. Notable military alumni include generals Frank Hagenbeck and Kenneth Minihan and U.S. Army officer Col. William Wood, the highest ranking United States military casualty in Iraq combat as well as administrator and former POW Orson Swindle.
Among notable figures in arts and entertainment who have attended or graduated from Florida State University are: musicians Ellen Taaffe Zwillich, Marcus Roberts, Rita Coolidge, Sarah Hutchings, Jim Morrison, Scott Stapp, Luis Fonsi, and Mark Tremonti; directors Barry Jenkins, Colleen Clinkenbeard and Greg Marcks; television director Chip Chalmers; television writer/producer Steven L. Sears; playwright and television writer/producer Alan Ball; actors Burt Reynolds, Paul Gleason, Cheryl Hines, Traylor Howard, Faye Dunaway and Robert Urich. WWE superstars Michelle McCool and Ron Simmons attended the university. Alumni also include cartoonists Bud Grace and Doug Marlette.
Other notables include: astronauts Norman Thagard and Winston Scott; scientists Sylvia Earle, Anne Rudloe and Eric J. Barron; inventor Robert Holton; ecologist Thomas Ray; Toni-Ann Singh, crowned Miss World and Miss Jamaica World in 2019; fitness guru Richard Simmons; and model Jenn Sterger. In 1996, Carla Gopher, daughter of FSU's Westcott award winner Louise Gopher, became the first Seminole tribe member to graduate as a Seminole. Writers and journalists have included authors Charles Ghigna, Sharon Lechter and Dorothy Allison, reporters Stephanie Abrams and Jamie Dukes, sportscaster Lee Corso, novelist Gwyn Hyman Rubio, and historian Tameka Bradley Hobbs.
As a major competitor in college athletics, Florida State University has many notable alumni in related fields. Many notable members are listed in FSU's Hall of Fame and represent all major collegiate sports. A number of FSU alumni have found success in professional sports, with 123 active alumni competing in sports including basketball, football, baseball and golf. In addition, FSU has produced three Heisman Trophy winners in Chris Weinke, Charlie Ward, and Jameis Winston. Notable Seminoles in professional golf include Brooks Koepka, back to back U.S. Open champion (2017, 2018), Jeff Sluman, and Hubert Green, and Paul Azinger, PGA Championship(1993) and Ryder Cup Captain(2008).
See also
Burning Spear Society
Florida State University School
Florida State University Police Department
List of colleges and universities in Florida
Marching Chiefs
Master Craftsman Studio
National Center for Choreography
The War Chant
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Florida State University Athletics website
Florida State University News
Florida State University Libraries
Public universities and colleges in Florida
Universities and colleges in Leon County, Florida
Education in Tallahassee, Florida
State University System of Florida
Educational institutions established in 1851
1851 establishments in Florida
Tourist attractions in Tallahassee, Florida
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Atlantic Coast Conference schools | [
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239299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational | Multinational | Multinational may refer to:
Multinational corporation, a corporate organization operating in multiple countries
Multinational force, a military body from multiple countries
Multinational state, a sovereign state that comprises two or more nations
See also
International (disambiguation)
Transnational (disambiguation)
Supranational (disambiguation)
Subnational (disambiguation) | [
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239309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle%20Risk | Castle Risk | Castle Risk is a version of the board game Risk that is played on a map of Europe. It was first released as a stand-alone game by Parker Brothers in 1986 and later appeared on the reverse side of the board in an early 1990s version of the standard Risk game.
Map
The map is divided into six empires and three neutral areas. A player receives four troops per turn for each empire the player controls and six troops for controlling all the neutral areas. A common variation in play is to have each of the neutral regions worth two troops a turn.
Empires:
French Empire (Paris, Gascony, Netherlands, Brittany, Marseille, Burgundy)
British Empire (London, Wales, Ireland, Yorkshire, Scotland)
Russian Empire (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Livonia, Smolensk, Ukraine, Poland)
German Empire (Prussia, Berlin, Saxony, Rhine, Bavaria)
Ottoman Empire (Turkey, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece)
Austrian Empire (Trieste, Galicia, Vienna, Bohemia, Hungary)
Neutral territories:
Italy (Switzerland, Venice, Rome, Naples)
Spain (Barcelona, Madrid, Portugal)
Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland)
Rules
The rules of Castle Risk differ from original Risk in several respects. Each empire has a capital city (of the player's choosing) and once the capital is lost that player is out of the game. In addition, reinforcements are granted at the end of a turn instead of at the beginning (except in the case of the Reinforcements card). This makes fortifying the territory a player has just conquered much easier, but denies that player the opportunity to place the new troops in the best strategic position for the turn about to begin.
Castle Risk introduces specific person cards. The cards allow players to modify dice rolls (General and Marshall), to attack by sea instead of land (Admiral), place extra armies at the start of a turn (Reinforcements), force temporary non-aggression pacts (Diplomats), or to look at another player's cards, discarding one in the process (Spy).
Another new rule is the addition of "hidden armies", which are reinforcements that a player hides in a location of their choosing at the beginning of the game. They can be in any location, including an opponent's territory (except their own or an opponent's capital), which makes them very useful for launching a surprise attack. Hidden armies can only be withdrawn at the beginning of a players' turn and the player must have control of the territory at the start of their turn. Their power, when revealed, is based on the number of reinforcements cards that have already been played.
External links
Official rules of Castle Risk (PDF file)
References
Board games introduced in 1986
Risk (game)
Parker Brothers games | [
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239311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Thompson%20%28luthier%29 | Carl Thompson (luthier) | Carl Thompson (born February 5 1939) is a luthier and musician specializing in the construction of high-quality custom bass guitars. He is based in Brooklyn, New York.
Born in Pitcairn, Pennsylvania to a large musical family, Thompson moved to New York City in 1967 to pursue a career as a jazz guitarist. After working in a guitar shop to supplement his income, he started his own guitar repair business. He made his first instrument in 1974 and quickly gained renown in the craft.
Carl Thompson has invented several important designs for modern basses. The most important advances in design attributed to Carl are his invention of Neck-thru instruments using a single piece heel block, as well as lengthening the electric bass from a 34" scale to a 36" and 38", which extends the harmonic overtones producing a richer timbre that is more consistent with the traditional acoustic bass. The piccolo bass, a guitar of the same dimensions as a normal bass but tuned an octave higher, was envisioned by Stanley Clarke and first built for him by Carl. Carl also constructed the first six string contrabass guitar envisioned by Anthony Jackson.
Carl's most popular endorsee is Les Claypool of the band Primus, who plays and owns seven Carl Thompson basses, his most famous being the Rainbow Bass, a six-string fretless bass made of several different woods. He has made at least four basses for Stanley Clarke. Clarke honored Thompson at one of his concerts and invited him on stage, calling him "a very great bass maker" and stating "(Carl) made one of my first piccolo basses. In fact, he made the first piccolo bass." Carl has also built guitars for Lou Reed and Hank Williams III.
Thompson basses are sought after, and he maintains a two-year waiting list, though some orders can take well over three years to complete. The cost for a basic four-string bass made by Thompson is about $5,500. Basses such as the "Rainbow Bass" can cost well over $10,000, although Carl will not make copies of the bass for his clients despite being asked to do so in the past. He maintains that all his basses are one-of-a-kind.
Thompson continues to be an active musician, practicing several hours a day, and performing once a week at a local Brooklyn restaurant. He has a fascination with jazz singers, and is a respected vocal coach of young singers.
References
https://web.archive.org/web/20130117213431/http://www.lucaspickford.net/transajgrooves.htm
https://ctbasses.com
https://ctbasses.com/guitar-player-magazine-march-1985 (Guitar Player Magazine, 1985)
External links
Carl Thompson Basses web site
.
.
Charles Farnsworth's (brother in law to Stanley Clarke) fretless all-cherry bass.
The Rainbow Bass; made for Les Claypool.
The "$10 Million Bass" in Black Ebony.
Les Claypool playing one of his seven Carl Thompson basses.
The world's first six string bass by Carl Thompson; made for Anthony Jackson.
Lou Reed on stage with a one-of-a-kind Carl Thompson Guitar.
1939 births
Living people
People from Pitcairn, Pennsylvania
American luthiers
Guitar makers
Businesspeople from New York City | [
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239313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elendor | Elendor | Elendor is a free online text-based multi-user game that simulates the environment of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. Users create characters by determining species, sex, culture, description, history (and sometimes persona) and then role-playing with other users within the setting and atmosphere of Tolkien's world. For the purposes of consistency, the game accepts The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit and The Silmarillion and to a lesser extent the other works of Tolkien as canonical materials. The time frame is shortly before the onset of the main events of The Lord of the Rings with Bilbo having gone to Rivendell. The game is run on a MUSH server using a variant of PennMUSH.
The game was established in October 1991 and has been called "the original Tolkien Middle-Earth MUSH". It has been noted for its large player population, and at its height during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the time of the production and release of Peter Jackson's film trilogy, Elendor was regarded as one of the most popular text-based worlds on the Internet. It was chosen as "Best Tolkien Community Site" by Yahoo! Internet Life magazine.
Game play and mechanics
Elendor comprises twenty-one factions known within the game as cultures. Each covers a different group or geographic area of Middle-earth. As in The Lord of the Rings, action is confined to the northwest of Middle-earth. Users may play an Orc from Moria, an Elf from Mirkwood, a mortal Man from Dunland or a Hobbit from the Shire and other creatures and species. Some cultures and species are restricted and require approval by the game administration. These include the Ents, Trolls and Dúnedain as well as other special or powerful species. "Feature" Characters (FC) and "Book Feature" Characters (BFC) are granted to users as rewards for their dedicated work for a culture, good roleplaying ability and seniority.
The cultures are each governed by a "+ruler" (an out of character position) and a council of "Local Admins" or "LAs" who assist the +ruler. These users are responsible for the theme and day-to-day operation of their respective cultures. Above the +rulers is a council of "royals", and then "wizards", who are MUSH-wide administrators who have wide-ranging responsibilities that range from code and server maintenance to user arbitration and game theme oversight.
References
Further reading
External links
1991 video games
MU* games
Role-playing games based on Middle-earth
Role-playing games introduced in 1991
Video games based on Middle-earth
Video games developed in the United States | [
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239314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex%20shop | Sex shop | A sex shop (also called adult shop, erotic shop or adult book store) is a retailer that sells products related to adult sexual or erotic entertainment, such as sex toys, lingerie, clothing, pornography, and other related products.
Arguably the grandmother of the modern sex shop was a chain of stores set up in the 1920s by Léon Vidal of Diana Slip fame, in Paris. His shops sold erotic books, photographs and lingerie.
Supposedly the world's first "official" sex shop was opened in 1962 by Beate Uhse AG in Flensburg, West Germany, and sex shops can now be found in many countries and online. Sex shops are part of the sex industry. In most jurisdictions, sex shops are regulated by law, with access not legally permitted to minors, the age depending on local law. Some jurisdictions prohibit sex shops and the merchandise they sell. In some jurisdictions that permit it, they may also show pornographic movies in private video booths, or have private striptease or peep shows. Also an adult movie theater may be attached. There are also many online sex shops selling a variety of adult content such as sex toys, pornographic magazines, pornographic films and fetish wear etc. These types of shop are often favoured by the consumer as they have less overheads and can be perused within the comfort of the home. Their discreetness is also appealing to some.
History
Australia
Sex shops have operated in Australia since the 1960s, first in the urban areas of Sydney, notably Kings Cross. The development of sex shops in the country was assisted by the legalisation of the import of pornographic magazines in 1971, the appearance of mass-produced battery-powered vibrators in the 1970s and the arrival of X-rated videos in the 1980s. The popularity of Internet pornography in the 2000s resulted in a drop in sex shop sales, some store closures and diversification into non-sex-related adult goods.
Sex shops in Australia are regulated by state laws and are subject to local planning controls. While laws differ between states, licensees must abide by strict conditions that commonly require premises to be at least 200 metres from schools and churches. Windows are often required to be blacked out and admission restricted to over 18s, with offences prosecuted by police under section 578E of the Crimes Act.
In the state of New South Wales (NSW) sex shops cannot trade at street level and are required to trade either above or below ground. Under NSW law, non-contraceptive sex products can be sold only in shops that have been granted a restricted premise licence by local councils. Nevertheless, by 2013 a number of NSW lingerie stores had begun selling adult toys and books in shopping malls without being granted a licence.
China
In 2013 there were over 2,000 sex shops in Beijing. Most of their products were made in China.
Canada
The first sex shop in North America was called The Garden. It was opened in October 1971 by Ivor Sargent on Crescent Street in downtown Montreal, Quebec. The Garden combined the concepts used by Beate Uhse in Germany and Ann Summers in the UK. The store's opening attracted long lines of shoppers. The Palm Beach Post commented: "Like the chicken or the egg controversy, no one is really sure which came first-the sex boutique or the so-called sexual revolution".
There are no specific laws against using or buying sex toys at any particular age, but there are laws restricting the purchase of pornography. Although the age of consent is 16 in Canada, an age of 18+ is required to purchase or view pornography. Most sex shops sell adult videos, which means that most sex toys remain strictly in the hands of adults.
Italy
The first sex shop in Italy was opened in 1972 in Milan by Angela Masia and her husband Ercole Sabbatini. This was the first "official" sex shop. Since then more sex shops have opened, mostly in Rome. In 2018 the city of Pistoia in Tuscany banned the opening of new sex shops in the city's history centre.
Japan
In Japan, sex shops contain hentai magazines, adult videos and DVDs.
The Netherlands
The first sex shops in the Netherlands were opened in the early 1970s, by entrepreneurs like Beate Uhse and Lasse Braun. The world's first Muslim-aimed online sex shop called El Asira opened in the Netherlands in 2010. It had 70,000 hits to the website in the first four days of operation.
Singapore
Sex shops are extremely rare in Singapore. A few had been opened by 2005, but only about 1–2 currently exist. These shops mainly sell lingerie and various sex toys. Their goods can be seen through a store window.
South Africa
After Nelson Mandela backed the anti-discrimination law that legalised sex toys, "Adult World" was established in 1994 as South Africa's first sex shop. Adult World came to operate a total of 52 shops within South Africa and 15 shops in Australia. Many religious Christian communities believed that the use of these adult lifestyle centres would lead to higher crime rates and attempted to organise mass demonstrations at their opening to force the closure of Adult World.
In July 1998, Adult World opened their largest adult lifestyle shop in Parow, Cape Town which they named "Adult World Warehouse". The adult movie star Christi Lake attended the opening of the shop, where a protest march of over 500 people brought traffic to a standstill. During the next couple of days the protesters held placards which proclaimed "Real men don't need pornography" and "Protect our people from banned pornography". When the shop was opened, it was found that 70% of the customer base were women who wished to learn more about adult lifestyle products.
As Adult World grew more popular, a focus on the development of adult shops within Australia took place.
United Kingdom
Almost all licensed adult stores in the UK are forbidden from having their wares in open shop windows under the Indecent Displays Act 1981, which means often the shop fronts are boarded up or covered in posters. A warning sign must be clearly shown at the entrance to the store, and no sex articles (for example, pornography or sex toys) should be visible from the street. However, lingerie, non-offensive covers of adult material, etc. may be shown depending on the licence conditions of the local authority. The Video Recordings Act 1984 introduced the R18-rated classification for videos that are only available in licensed sex shops. No customer can be under 18 years old.
In London, few boroughs that have licensed sex shops. In the district of Soho within the City of Westminster a handful of sex shops were opened by Carl Slack in the early 1960s, and by the mid-1970s the number had grown to 59. Some had nominally "secret" backrooms selling hardcore photographs and novels, including Olympia Press editions.
By the 1980s, purges of corrupt police officers, along with new and tighter licensing controls by the City of Westminster, led to a crackdown on illegal premises in Soho. In the early 1990s, London's Hackney council sought to shut down Sh! Women's Erotic Emporium, because they did not have a licence. Sh! took the council to court and consequently won the right to remain open, as there were no sufficient reasons for the closure. In 2003, the Ann Summers chain of lingerie and sex toy shops won the right to advertise for shop assistants in Job Centres, which was originally banned under restrictions on what advertising could be carried out by the sex industry. In 2007, a Northern Ireland sex shop was denied a licence by the Belfast City Council. The shop appealed and won, but this was overturned by the House of Lords.
The licensing or closing of unlicensed sex shops, along with cultural changes such as the substantial relaxation of general censorship and the ready availability of non-commercial sex, and the availability of sexual material online, have reduced the red-light district of Soho to just a small area. The borough has 15 licensed sex shops and several remaining unlicensed ones. Islington and Camden each have multiple sex shops; the former also has three pornographic cinemas.
Sex shops in Scotland are regulated under the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.
United States
In the United States, a series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s (based on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution) generally legalized sex shops, while still allowing states and local jurisdictions to limit them through zoning. Zoning regulations often caused shops to be located either on the outskirts of town, or clumped into a single area, creating a type of red light district of adult stores and businesses. Into the 1980s, nearly all American sex shops were oriented to an almost entirely male clientele. Many included adult video arcades, and nearly all were designed so that their customers could not be seen from the street: they lacked windows, and the doors often involved an L-shaped turn so that people on the street could not see in. In addition, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, stores that also had theaters or arcades were sometimes closed by government order, citing the spread of AIDS as the motive.
On the one hand, there are stores resembling the UK's Ann Summers, tending toward "softer" product lines. On the other hand, there are stores that evolved specifically out of a sex-positive culture, such as San Francisco's Good Vibrations and Xandria. The latter class of stores tend to be very consciously community-oriented businesses, sponsoring lecture series and being actively involved in sex-related health issues, etc.
See also
Sex machine
Erotic furniture
Sex toy
References
Retailers by type of merchandise sold
Pornography | [
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239318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baji%20Rao%20I | Baji Rao I | Baji Rao I (18 August 1700 – 28 April 1740), born as Visaji, also known as Bajirao Ballal, was the 7th Peshwa (Prime Minister) of the Maratha Empire. His achievements are establishing Maratha supremacy in southern India and political hegemony in northern India. During his 20-year career as Peshwa, he defeated Mughals and as well as their vassal Nizam-ul-Mulk at several battles like Battle of Palkhed and Battle of Bhopal . He was responsible for the establishment of Maratha power in Malwa, Bundelkhand, Gujarat, as redeemer of Konkan from Siddis of Janjira and liberator of the western coast from the rule of the Portuguese.
His relationship with his Muslim wife, a subject of controversy, has been adapted in Indian novels and cinema.
Early life
Baji Rao was born into a Marathi Hindu Bhat family in Sinnar, near Nashik. His father, Balaji Vishwanath, was a Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu I and his mother was Radhabai Barve. Baji Rao had a younger brother, Chimaji Appa, and two younger sisters, Anubai and Bhiubai. Anubai was married to Venkatrao Ghorpade of Ichalkaranji and Bhiubai was married to Abaji Naik Joshi of Baramati.
Baji Rao spent his childhood in his father's newly acquired fiefdom of Saswad. He and Chimaji were very close. Baji Rao was inspired by the lives of Shivaji, Ramchandra Pant Amatya and Santaji Ghorpade.
He was trained as a diplomat and a warrior under his father. Being born in a Marathi Brahmin family, his education included reading, writing and learning Sanskrit however, he did not remain confined to his books. Baji Rao displayed a passion for the military at an early age and often accompanied his father on military campaigns. He was with his father when his father was imprisoned by Damaji Thorat before being released for a ransom. Baji Rao had been on the expedition to Delhi in 1719 with his father and was convinced that the Mughal Empire was disintegrating and unable to resist northward Maratha expansion. When Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu appointed the 20-year-old Baji Rao as Peshwa despite opposition from other chieftains.
Appointment as Peshwa
Baji Rao was appointed Peshwa, succeeding his father, by Shahu on 17 April 1720. By the time of his appointment, the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had upheld Maratha claims to the territories held by Shivaji at his death. A treaty gave the Marathas the right to collect taxes (chauth) in the Deccan's six provinces. Baji Rao convinced Shahu that the Maratha Empire had to go on the offensive against its enemies to defend itself. He believed that the Mughal Empire was in decline, and wanted to take advantage of the situation with aggressive expansion into North India. Baji Rao compared the Mughals' declining fortune to a tree which, if attacked at its roots, would collapse. He is reported to have said:
As a new Peshwa, however, he faced several challenges. His appointment at a young age had evoked jealousy from senior officials such as Naro Ram Mantri, Anant Ram Sumant, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, Khanderao Dabhade and Kanhoji Bhosle. Baji Rao promoted young men like himself, such as Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, the Pawar brothers and Fateh Singh Bhosle, as commanders; these men did not belong to families who were hereditary Deshmukhs in the Deccan sultanates. Also the Purandare family who were the close associates of the Bhat Peshwa family, largely contributed in Baji Rao's success.
The Mughal viceroy of the Deccan, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, had created a de facto autonomous kingdom in the region. He challenged Shahu's right to collect taxes on the pretext that he did not know whether Shahu or his cousin, Sambhaji II of Kolhapur, was the rightful heir to the Maratha throne. The Marathas needed to assert their rights over the nobles of newly acquired territories in Malwa and Gujarat. Several nominally-Maratha areas were not actually under the Peshwa's control; for example, the Siddis controlled the Janjira fort.
Military conquests
The Nizam
On 4 January 1721, Baji Rao met Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I at Chikhalthana to resolve their disputes. However, the Nizam refused to recognize the Maratha right to collect taxes from the Deccan provinces. He was made vizier of the Mughal Empire in 1721 by emperor Muhammad Shah, alarmed at his increasing power, transferred him from the Deccan to Awadh in 1723. The Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as vizier and marched towards the Deccan. The emperor sent an army against him, which the Nizam defeated at the Battle of Sakhar-kheda; this forced the emperor to recognise him as viceroy of the Deccan. The Marathas, led by Baji Rao, helped the Nizam win this battle. For his valor, Baji Rao was honored with a robe, a 7,000-man mansabdari, an elephant, and a jewel. After the battle, the Nizam tried to appease the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu and the Mughal emperor; in reality, however, he wanted to carve out a sovereign kingdom and considered the Marathas his rivals in the Deccan.
In 1725, the Nizam sent an army to clear Maratha revenue collectors from the Carnatic region. The Marathas dispatched a force under Fateh Singh Bhosle to counter him; Baji Rao accompanied Bhosle, but did not command the army. The Marathas were forced to retreat; they launched a second campaign after the monsoon season, but again were unable to prevent the Nizam from ousting the Maratha collectors.
In the Deccan, Sambhaji II of Kolhapur State had become a rival claimant to the title of Maratha King. The Nizam took advantage of the internal dispute, refusing to pay the chauth because it was unclear who was the real Chhatrapati (Shahu or Sambhaji II) and offering to arbitrate. Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi advised Shahu to begin negotiations and agree to arbitration. Sambhaji II was supported by Chandrasen Jadhav, who had fought Baji Rao's father a decade earlier. Baji Rao convinced Shahu to refuse the Nizam's offer and launch an assault.
The Nizam invaded Pune, where he installed Sambhaji II as the King. He then marched out of the city, leaving behind a contingent headed by Fazal Beg. The Nizam plundered Loni, Pargaon, Patas, Supa and Baramati, using his artillery. On 27 August 1727, Baji Rao began a retaliatory guerilla attack on the Nizam with his trusted lieutenants Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde and the Pawar brothers. He began to destroy the towns held by the Nizam; leaving Pune, he crossed the Godavari River near Puntamba and plundered Jalna and Sindkhed. Baji Rao destroyed Berar, Mahur, Mangrulpir and Washim before turning north-west to Khandesh. He crossed the Tapi River at Kokarmunda and entered eastern Gujarat, reaching Chota Udaipur in January 1728. After hearing that the Nizam had returned to Pune, Baji Rao feinted toward Burhanpur; he thought that after hearing about the threat to the strategically-important Burhanpur, the Nizam would try to save it. Baji Rao did not enter Burhanpur, however, arriving at Betawad in Khandesh on 14 February 1728. When the Nizam heard that his northern territories had been devastated by Baji Rao, he left Pune and marched towards the Godavari to meet Baji Rao on an open plain where his artillery would be effective. The Nizam went on ahead of his artillery; on 25 February 1728, the armies of Baji Rao and the Nizam faced each other at Palkhed, a town about west of Aurangabad. The Nizam was quickly surrounded by Maratha forces and trapped, his lines of supply and communication were cut. He was forced to make peace; he signed the Treaty of Mungi Shevgaon on 6 March, recognising Shahu as the King and the Maratha right to collect taxes in the Deccan.
This battle is considered as an example of brilliant execution of military strategy.
In his Military History of India, Jadunath Sarkar wrote:
"This campaign gives a classic example of what the predatory horse, when led by a genius, could achieve in the age of light artillery."
Malwa
In 1723, Baji Rao organised an expedition to southern Malwa. Maratha chiefs, including Ranoji Shinde, Malhar Rao Holkar, Udaji Rao Pawar, Tukoji Rao Pawar and Jivaji Rao Pawar, had collected chauth from several parts of the province. (Later, these chiefs carved out their own kingdoms: Gwalior, Indore, Dhar and Dewas State – Junior and Senior, respectively). To counter Maratha influence, the Mughal emperor had appointed Girdhar Bahadur governor of Malwa.
After defeating the Nizam, Baji Rao again turned his attention to Malwa. He consigned a large army in October 1728 to his younger brother, Chimaji Appa, and aided by his trusted generals Udaji Pawar and Malhar Rao Holkar. The Maratha force reached the southern bank of the Narmada River on 24 November 1728. The following day, they crossed the river and encamped near Dharampuri. Marching rapidly northwards, they crossed the ghat near Mandu and halted at Nalchha on 27 November. The Mughal forces, led by Girdhar Bahadur and his cousin Daya Bahadur, hastily prepared to oppose them on hearing that the Maratha army had begun to climb the ghats. Girdhar Bahadur believed that the Marathas, thinking that the pass near the Mandu fort was well guarded, would climb the ghat near Amjhera; he and his army marched to Amjhera and took up a strong position there. Since the Marathas did not appear there, he suspected that they climbed near the Mandu fort and set out for Dhar on 29 November 1728. Girdhar Bahadur found Maratha horsemen coming towards him. In the 29 November Battle of Amjhera, Chimaji's army defeated the Mughals; Girdhar Bahadur and Daya Bahadur were killed. The Mughal forces fled, and their camp was plundered; eighteen elephants, horses, drums and other loot were taken by the Marathas. News of the victory reached the ears of Peshwa, who was visiting Chhatrasal. Chimaji marched towards Ujjain, but had to retreat due to lack of supplies. By February 1729, Maratha forces had reached present-day Rajasthan.
Bundelkhand
In Bundelkhand, Chhatrasal rebelled against the Mughal Empire and established an independent kingdom. In December 1728, a Mughal force led by Muhammad Khan Bangash attacked him and besieged his fort and family. Although Chhatrasal repeatedly sought Baji Rao's assistance, he was busy in Malwa at the time. He compared his dire situation to that of Gajendra Moksha. In his letter to Baji Rao, Chhatrasal wrote the following words:
In March 1729, the Peshwa responded to Chhatrasal's request and marched towards Bundelkhand with 25,000 horsemen and his lieutenants Pilaji Jadhav, Tukoji Pawar, Naro Shankar, and Davalji Somwanshi. Chhatrasal escaped capture and joined the Maratha force, increasing it to 70,000 men. After marching to Jaitpur, Baji Rao's forces surrounded Bangash and cut his supply and communication lines. Bangash launched a counterattack against Baji Rao, but could not pierce his defences. Qaim Khan, son of Muhammad Khan Bangash, learned of his father's predicament and approached with fresh troops. His army was attacked by Baji Rao's forces, and he was defeated. Bangash was later forced to leave, signing an agreement that "he would never attack Bundelkhand again". Chhatrasal's position as ruler of Bundelkhand was restored. He granted a large jagir to Baji Rao, and gave him his daughter Mastani. Before Chhatrasal's death in December 1731, he ceded one-third of his territories to the Marathas.
Gujarat
After consolidating Maratha influence in central India, Baji Rao decided to assert the Maratha right to collect taxes from the wealthy province of Gujarat and sent a Maratha force under Chimaji Appa there in 1730. Sarbuland Khan, the province's Mughal governor, ceded the right to collect chauth to the Marathas. He was soon replaced by Abhay Singh, who also recognized the Maratha right to collect taxes. This irked Shahu's senapati (commander-in-chief), Trimbak Rao Dabhade, whose ancestors had raided Gujarat several times and asserted their right to collect taxes from the province. Annoyed at Baji Rao's control of what he considered his family's sphere of influence, he rebelled against the Peshwa. Two other Maratha nobles from Gujarat, Damaji Rao Gaekwad and Kadam Bande, also sided with Dabhade.
After Girdhar Bahadur's defeat in 1728, the Mughal emperor had appointed Jai Singh II to subdue the Marathas. Jai Singh recommended a peaceful agreement; the emperor disagreed, replacing him with Muhammad Khan Bangash. Bangash formed an alliance with the Nizam, Trimbak Rao and Sambhaji II. Baji Rao learned that Dabhade and Gaikwad had made preparations for an open fight on the plain of Dabhoi with a force of 40 thousand, while Baji Rao's numbers hardly reached 25 thousand in all. Baji Rao repeatedly sent messages to Dabhade to solve the dispute amicably in the presence of Chatrapati Shahu. But Dabhade was stiff and stubborn, disagreeing Baji Rao's proposition, therefore on 1 April 1731, Baji Rao struck at the allied forces of Dabhade, Gaekwad and Kadam Bande. The Dabhade was seated on elephant and Baji Rao was on horseback. But during the battle, a bullet pierced Trimbakrao's head and he died on the spot. Later it was discovered that the shot that killed Dabhade was fired by Dabhade's maternal uncle Bhau Singh Thoke. Baji Rao resolved the dispute with Sambhaji II on 13 April by signing the Treaty of Warna, which demarcated the territories of Shahu and Sambhaji II. The Nizam met Baji Rao at Rohe-Rameshwar on 27 December 1732, and promised not to interfere with Maratha expeditions.
Shahu and Baji Rao avoided a rivalry with the powerful Dabhade clan after subduing Trimbak Rao; Trimbak's son, Yashwant Rao, was appointed as Shahu's senapati. The Dabhade clan were allowed to continue collecting chauth from Gujarat if they deposited half the revenue in Shahu's treasury.
Siddis
The Siddis of Janjira controlled a small, strategically-important territory on India's west coast. Although they originally held only the Janjira fort, after Shivaji's death they expanded their rule to a large part of central and northern Konkan. After the death of Siddi chief Yakut Khan in 1733, a war of succession broke out among his sons; one, Abdul Rehman, asked Baji Rao for help. Baji Rao sent a Maratha force led by Sekhoji Angre, son of Kanhoji Angre. The Marathas regained control of several portions of Konkan, and besieged Janjira. Their strength was diverted after Peshwa's rival, Pant Pratinidhi, occupied Raigad Fort (near Janjira) in June 1733. Sekhoji Angre died in August (further weakening the Maratha position), and Baji Rao signed a peace treaty with the Siddis. He allowed the Siddis to retain control of Janjira if they accepted Abdul Rehman as the ruler; they were also allowed to retain control of Anjanvel, Gowalkot and Underi. The Marathas retained Raigad, Rewas, Thal and Chaul.
The Siddis launched an offensive to regain their lost territories soon after the Peshwa returned to Satara, and Baji Rao dispatched a force to prevent them from taking over Raigad Fort in June 1734. Chimnaji made a surprise attack on a Siddi camp near Rewas on 19 April 1736, killing about 1,500 (including their leader, Siddi Sat). On 25 September of that year, the Siddis signed a peace treaty which confined them to Janjira, Gowalkot and Anjanvel.
Rajputana
With Shahu's consent, Baji Rao began a northward journey on 9 October 1735. Accompanied by his wife, Kashibai, he intended to visit Rajput courts and persuade them to pay chauth. Baji Rao arrived at Mewar's southern frontier in January 1736, where Rana Jagat Singh had made arrangements for his visit.
Diplomatic talks got underway. Baji Rao also visited Jagmandir Palace, in the centre of Pichola Lake (at Rana Jagat Singh's invitation), and Nath-Dwara. After resolving matters in Mewar, Baji Rao advanced towards Jaipur. Jai Singh hastened south with his forces, and they met in Bhambholao (near Kishangarh).
Their meeting lasted for several days, with talks about chauth and the cession of Malwa from the Mughal Emperor. Baji Rao then returned to the Deccan. The emperor did not agree to his demands, however, and he planned to march on Delhi to force him to agree.
March to Delhi
After the death of Trimbak Rao, Bangash's alliance against the Marathas fell apart. The Mughal emperor recalled him from Malwa, and re-appointed Jai Singh II as governor of Malwa. However, the Maratha chief Holkar defeated Jai Singh in the 1733 Battle of Mandsaur. After two more battles, the Mughals decided to offer the Marathas the right to collect the equivalent of 22 lakh in chauth from Malwa. On 4 March 1736, Baji Rao and Jai Singh reached an agreement at Kishangad. Jai Singh convinced the emperor to agree to the plan, and Baji Rao was appointed deputy governor of the region. Jai Singh is believed to have secretly informed Baji Rao that it was a good time to subdue the weakening Mughal emperor.
The Peshwa began to march on the Mughal capital, Delhi, from Pune on 12 November 1736 with a force of 50,000 cavalry troops. Learning of the advancing Maratha army, the Mughal emperor asked Saadat Ali Khan I to march from Agra and check the advance. The Maratha chiefs Malhar Rao Holkar, Vithoji Bule and Pilaji Jadhav crossed Yamuna and plundered the Mughal territories in the Doab. Saadat Khan led a force of 150,000, defeated them, and retired to Mathura. Malhar Rao Holkar rejoined Baji Rao's army near Gwalior. Samsam-ud-Daulah, Mir Bakshi and Muhammad Khan Bangash invited Saadat Ali Khan to a banquet in Samsam-ud-Daulah's tent in Mathura, thinking that the Marathas had retreated to the Deccan. During the feast, they learnt that Baji Rao had slipped along the Jat and Mewati hill route (avoiding the direct Agra-Delhi route) and was at Delhi. The Mughal commanders left the feast and began a hasty return to capital. The Mughal emperor dispatched a force, led by Mir Hasan Khan Koka, to check Baji Rao's advance. The Marathas defeated his force in the 28 March 1737 Battle of Delhi. Baji Rao then retreated from the capital, concerned about the approach of a larger Mughal force from Mathura.
Baji Rao's dash on Delhi was executed with such daring and audacity that neither the Mughal generals nor the Mughal intelligence could comprehend or predict his moves.
Battle of Bhopal
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah sought help from the Nizam after Baji Rao's march to Delhi; the Nizam set out from the Deccan, met Baji Rao's returning force at Sironj, and told the Peshwa that he was going to Delhi to repair his relationship with the Mughal emperor. The Nizam was joined by other Mughal chiefs, and a 30,000-man Mughal army (reinforced by artillery), was dispatched against Baji Rao. The Peshwa assembled an 80,000-man force. To counter aid to the Nizam from the Deccan, Baji Rao stationed a force of 10,000 (under Chimaji Appa) on the Tapti River with instructions to prevent Nasir Jung from advancing beyond Burhanpur. He and his forces crossed the Narmada in early December 1737, communicating with agents and spies posted to observe enemy moves. The Nizam sheltered in Bhopal, a fortified town with a lake at his rear, to keep his army and artillery secure.
Baji Rao besieged the Nizam, cutting off outside provisions. Because of the Nizam's artillery, the Marathas kept their distance and harassed their lines; no food could come in from outside, and the men and their animals were starving. The Nizam, unable to hold out any longer, signed a peace agreement at Doraha on 7 January 1738. Malwa was ceded to the Marathas; the Mughals agreed to pay the equivalent of 5,000,000 in reparations, with the Nizam swearing on the Quran to abide by the treaty.
The Portuguese
The Portuguese had colonised several regions of India's west coast. They violated an agreement to give the Marathas a site on Salsette Island for a factory, and were intolerant of Hindus in their territory. In March 1737, the Peshwa dispatched a Maratha force (led by Chimaji) against them. Although the Marathas captured Ghodbunder Fort and nearly all of Vasai in the Battle of Vasai and gained control of Salsette on 16 May 1739 after a long siege, Nader Shah's invasion of India then diverted their attention from the Portuguese. The war trophies from Vasai included several Church bells which are found in many prominent Hindu temples in Maharashtra.
Battle tactics and character
Baji Rao was known for rapid tactical movements in battle, using cavalry inherited from Maratha generals such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav. Two examples are the Battle of Palkhed in 1728, when he outmaneuvered the Mughal governor of the Deccan, and in the battle against Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah at Delhi in 1737. His skill was in moving large numbers of cavalry at a great speed. British field marshal Bernard Montgomery studied Baji Rao's tactics in the Palkhed campaign, particularly his rapid movements and his troops' ability to live off the land (with little concern about supply and communication lines) while conducting "maneuver warfare" against the enemy. In his book, A Concise History of Warfare, Montgomery wrote the following about Baji Rao's victory at Palkhed:
Montgomery also wrote,
Jadunath Sarkar called Baji Rao, "a heavenly-born cavalry leader". Also describing his twenty years military career, Jadunath Sarkar wrote:
In V.G.Dighe's opinion, Baji Rao is the most celebrated personality after Shivaji in the history of Maratha Empire.
Baji Rao used local terrain to cut enemy supply lines. Leading from the front, he used the traditional Maratha tactics of encircling the enemy quickly, appearing from the rear, attacking from an unexpected direction, distracting the enemy's attention, keeping them off-balance, and defining the battlefield on his own terms. Baji Rao kept detailed information about enemy forces to himself, attacking where least expected and thus inspiring fear.
Baji Rao is considered as the most charismatic and dynamic leader in the Maratha history after Shivaji. He is also considered to be one of the greatest military generals of his time.
In his introduction to Baji Rao I: The Great Peshwa, K. M. Panikkar wrote:
Chatrapati Shahu also had an implicit faith on Baji Rao. He had issued orders that, "all should obey Baji Rao faithfully and should do nothing to offend his temper". On the other occasion he has called Baji Rao as "the man with iron nerves".
Personal life
Baji Rao's first wife was Kashibai, the daughter of Mahadji Krishna Joshi and Bhawanibai of Chas (a wealthy banking family). Baji Rao always treated his wife Kashibai with love and respect. Their relationship was a happy one. They had four sons Balaji Baji Rao (also called Nanasaheb), Ramchandra Rao, Raghunath Rao and Janardhan Rao, who died at an early age. Nanasaheb was appointed Peshwa by Shahu in 1740, succeeding his father.
Baji Rao took Mastani as his wife, the daughter of Rajput king Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand and his Muslim concubine. The relationship was a political one, arranged to please Chhatrasal. Mastani had a son, Krishna Rao, in 1734. Since his mother was Muslim, the Hindu priests refused to conduct upanayana ceremony and he became known as Shamsher Bahadur. After the deaths of Baji Rao and Mastani in 1740, Kashibai raised six-year-old Shamsher Bahadur as her own. Shamsher received a portion of his father's dominion of Banda and Kalpi. In 1761, he and his army fought alongside the Peshwa in the Third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and the Afghans. Wounded in the battle, Shamsher died several days later in Deeg.
Baji Rao moved his base of operations from Saswad to Pune in 1728, laying the foundation for the transformation of a kasba into a large city. He began the construction of Shaniwar Wada in 1730. It was completed in 1732, beginning the era of Peshwa control of the city.
Death
Baji Rao's body was exhausted due to ceaseless wars and military campaigns. He caught a virulent fever while being encamped in Raverkhedi and died on 28 April 1740. He was cremated the same day on the bank of Narmada River. Balaji Baji Rao ordered Ranoji Shinde to build a chhatri as a memorial. The memorial is enclosed by a dharmashala. The compound has two temples, dedicated to Nilkantheshwar Mahadev (Shiva) and Rameshwar (Rama).
In popular culture
Bajirao Mastani, a 1925 Indian silent film about the Peshwa directed by Nanubhai B. Desai and Bhalji Pendharkar.
Rau, a 1972 fictional Marathi novel by Nagnath S. Inamdar, featured a love story of Baji Rao I and Mastani.
Mastani, 1955 film directed by Dhirubhai Desai. It starred Nigar Sultana, Manher Desai, Shahu Modak and Agha.
The 2015 historical drama film Bajirao Mastani, directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali, starred Ranveer Singh as Baji Rao I.
Shrimant Peshwa Bajirao Mastani, another Indian TV series broadcast on ETV Marathi in 2015.
Peshwa Bajirao, a 2017 TV series starring Rudra Soni as young Baji Rao and Karan Suchak as the adult Baji Rao, aired on Sony TV.
See also
Maratha rulers
References
Further reading
External links
Shaniwar Wada – the Peshwa palace at Pune
Peshwa dynasty
Marathi people
1700 births
1740 deaths
Hindu monarchs
Indian generals | [
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239320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius%20L.%20Donnelly | Ignatius L. Donnelly | Ignatius Loyola Donnelly (November 3, 1831 – January 1, 1901) was an American Congressman, populist writer, and fringe scientist. He is known primarily now for his fringe theories concerning Atlantis, Catastrophism (especially the idea of an ancient impact event affecting ancient civilizations), and Shakespearean authorship, which many modern historians consider to be pseudoscience and pseudohistory. Donnelly's work corresponds to the writings of late-19th and early-20th century figures such as Helena Blavatsky, Rudolf Steiner, and James Churchward.
Life and career
Donnelly was the son of Philip Carrol Donnelly, an Irish Catholic immigrant who had settled in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His sister was the writer Eleanor C. Donnelly. On June 29, 1826, Philip had married Catherine Gavin, a second-generation American of Irish ancestry.
After starting as a peddler, Philip studied medicine at the Philadelphia College of Medicine. He later contracted typhus from a patient and died at age 31, leaving his wife with five children.
Catherine provided for her children by operating a pawn shop. Ignatius, her youngest son, was admitted to the prestigious Central High School, the second oldest public high school in the United States. There he studied under the presidency of John S. Hart, excelling primarily in literature.
Donnelly decided to become a lawyer and became a clerk for Benjamin Brewster, who later became Attorney General of the United States. Donnelly was admitted to the bar in 1852. In 1855, he married Katherine McCaffrey, with whom he had three children. In 1855, he resigned his clerkship, entered politic with campaign speeches for Democratic candidates, and participated in communal home building schemes. He quit the Catholic Church sometime in the 1850s and thereafter was never active in any religious group.
Donnelly moved to the Minnesota Territory in 1857 amidst rumors of a financial scandal, and there he settled in Dakota County. He initiated a utopian community called Nininger City, together with several partners. However, the Panic of 1857 doomed the attempt at a cooperative farm and community and left Donnelly deeply in debt.
His wife Katherine died in 1894. In 1898, he married his secretary, Marian Hanson.
Donnelly died on January 1, 1901, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, age 69 years. He is buried at Calvary Cemetery in St. Paul, Minnesota. His personal papers are archived at the Minnesota Historical Society.
Political and literary career
Donnelly entered politics, this time as a Republican, with two unsuccessful campaigns for the state legislature (1857, 1858). Though he was not elected, Donnelly was recognized as a highly effective political speaker, which led to a successful campaign for lieutenant governor, which he held from 1860 to 1863. He was a Radical Republican Congressman from Minnesota in the 38th, 39th, and 40th congresses, (1863–1869), a state senator from 1874–1878 and 1891–1894 and a state representative from 1887–1888 and 1897–1898. As a legislator, he advocated extending the powers of the Freedmen's Bureau to provide education for freedmen so that they could protect themselves once the bureau was withdrawn. Donnelly was also an early supporter of women's suffrage. After leaving the Minnesota State Senate in 1878, he returned to his law practice and writing.
In 1877, Donnelly spoke at a meeting of 10,000 people where he read his preamble to the conference platform. The document of 12 short paragraphs, as altered slightly for the party's first nominating convention in Omaha that July, was the pithiest and soon became the most widely-circulated statement of the Populist credo. Donnelly talked about the corruption of politics and voting, newspapers giving out false and biased material, and how the Populists needed to take back the country that was their own.
In 1882, he published Atlantis: The Antediluvian World, his best-known work. It details theories concerning the mythical lost continent of Atlantis. The book sold well and is widely credited with initiating the theme of Atlantis as an antediluvian civilization that became such a feature of popular literature during the 20th century and contributed to the emergence of Mayanism. Donnelly suggested that Atlantis, whose story was told by Plato in the dialogues of Timaeus and Critias, had been destroyed during the same event remembered in the Bible as the Great Flood. He cited research on the ancient Maya civilization by Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg and Augustus Le Plongeon, claiming that it had been the place of a common origin of ancient civilizations in Africa, especially ancient Egypt), Europe, and the Americas. He also thought that it had been the original home of an Aryan race whose red-haired, blue-eyed descendants could be found in Ireland. It is believed that Ireland was the ''Garden of Phoebus'' (Hyperborea) of the Western mythologists.
A year after Atlantis, he published Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel, in which he expounded his belief that the Flood, as well as the destruction of Atlantis and the extinction of the mammoth, had been brought about by the near-collision of the earth with a massive comet. This book also sold well, and both books seem to have had an important influence on the development of Immanuel Velikovsky's controversial ideas half a century later.
In 1888, he published The Great Cryptogram in which he proposed that Shakespeare's plays had been written by Francis Bacon, an idea that was popular during the late 19th and early 20th century. He then traveled to England to arrange the English publication of his book by Sampson Low, speaking at the Oxford (and Cambridge) Union in which his thesis "Resolved, that the works of William Shakespeare were composed by Francis Bacon" was put to an unsuccessful vote. The book was a complete failure, and Donnelly was discredited.
Donnelly also made several other campaigns for public office during the 1880s. He made a losing campaign for Congress, this time as a Democrat, in 1884. In 1887, he successfully campaigned for a seat in the Minnesota State Legislature as an independent. During this period, he was also an organizer of the Minnesota Farmers' Alliance.
In 1892, Donnelly wrote the preamble of the People's Party's Omaha Platform for the presidential campaign of that year. He was nominated for Vice President of the United States in 1900 by the People's Party, also known as the Populist Party. The People's Party was a development of the National Farmers' Alliance, and had a platform that demanded the abandonment of the gold standard and later for the adoption of free silver), the abolition of national banks, a graduated income tax, a direct election of senators, civil service reform, and an eight-hour day. That year, Donnelly also campaigned for governor of Minnesota but was defeated.
The People's Party protested the railroad companies corrupting government and advocated government regulation of the railroads. Donnelly had a key leadership role in this party, yet he received $10,000 from the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad Company.
State park
During the 1930s, an organization was formed to lobby for the creation of a state park at Donnelly's home at Nininger near Hastings, Minnesota. The house was still standing in 1939, but the effort failed and the house has since been demolished.
Reception
Donnelly's writings on Atlantis have been rejected by scholars and scientists. He has been described as a crank and pseudoscience promoter.
Gordon Stein has noted that "most of what Donnelly said was highly questionable or downright wrong."
Works
His books include:
The Mourner's Vision: A Poem (1850), a long poem he wrote at the age of 18.
Atlantis: The Antediluvian World (1882), in which he attempted to establish that all known ancient civilizations were descended from its high-Neolithic culture.
Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel (1883), in which he proposed that a comet hit the earth in prehistoric times and destroyed a high civilization.
The Shakespeare Myth (1887)
Essay on the Sonnets of Shakespeare
The Great Cryptogram: Francis Bacon's Cipher in Shakespeare's Plays (1888), in which he maintained he had discovered codes in the works of Shakespeare indicating that their true author was Francis Bacon.
Caesar's Column (1890), a science fiction novel set during 1988 about a worker revolt against a global oligarchy. (Published under the pseudonym of Edmund Boisgilbert.)
Doctor Huguet: A Novel (1891) (Published under the pseudonym of Edmund Boisgilbert.)
The Golden Bottle or the Story of Ephraim Benezet of Kansas (1892)
The Bryan Campaign for the American People's Money (1896)
The Cipher in the Plays, and on the Tombstone (1899)
References
Sources
Bovee, John (1969). 'Doctor Huguet: Donnelly on Being Black', Minnesota History, vol. 41 (no. 6), pp. 286–94.
William Friedman and Elizebeth Friedman, The Shakespearean ciphers examined, Cambridge University Press, 1957. Chapter III.
Hicks, JD (1921). 'The Political Career of Ignatius Donnelly', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 8, pp. 80–132.
Ridge, M (1962). Ignatius Donnelly: The Portrait of a Politician, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, reprinted 1991 by Minnesota Historical Society Press.
in the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
External links
Ignatius Donnelly: Paranoid progressive in the Gilded Age
Ignatius Donnelly in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
The Ignatius Donnelly and Family Papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society
Donnelly's influence on 19th-Century Australia
1831 births
1901 deaths
1900 United States vice-presidential candidates
19th-century American novelists
19th-century American politicians
American male novelists
American people of Irish descent
American science fiction writers
American suffragists
American former Christians
Atlantis proponents
Baconian theory of Shakespeare authorship
Former Roman Catholics
Lieutenant Governors of Minnesota
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Minnesota Populists
Minnesota Republicans
Minnesota state senators
People from Dakota County, Minnesota
Politicians from Philadelphia
Pseudoarchaeologists
Pseudohistorians
Pseudoastronomers
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Shakespeare authorship theorists | [
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] |
239324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmines | Carmines | Carmines is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Al Carmines (1936–2005), American theatre composer
Edward Carmines (born 1946), American political scientist
See also
Carmine (disambiguation) | [
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239327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake%20Forest%20University | Wake Forest University | Wake Forest University is a private research university in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Founded in 1834, the university received its name from its original location in Wake Forest, north of Raleigh, North Carolina. The Reynolda Campus, the university's main campus, has been located north of downtown Winston-Salem since the university moved there in 1956. The Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist medical campus has two locations, the older one located near the Ardmore neighborhood in central Winston-Salem, and the newer campus at Wake Forest Innovation Quarter downtown. The university also occupies lab space at Biotech Plaza at Innovation Quarter, and at the Center for Nanotechnology and Molecular Materials. The university's Graduate School of Management maintains a presence on the main campus in Winston-Salem and in Charlotte, North Carolina.
WFU's undergraduate and graduate colleges and schools include Wake Forest University School of Law, Wake Forest University School of Divinity, Wake Forest University School of Business, Wake Forest Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, and Wake Forest University School of Medicine. Wake Forest students can participate in over 250 student clubs and organizations including fraternities and sororities, intramural sports, a student newspaper and a radio station. Wake Forest is designated "R-2: Doctoral Universities – High Research Activity" with the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education in 2019 update.
Wake Forest alumni include 15 Rhodes Scholars, including 13 since 1986, four Marshall Scholars, 15 Truman Scholars and 92 Fulbright recipients since 1993. WFU is a top 5 major employer in Forsyth County in the Piedmont Triad region.
Notable people of Wake Forest University include author Maya Angelou, mathematician Phillip Griffiths, Senators Richard Burr and Kay Hagan, former sportscaster and athlete Billy Packer, athletes Chris Paul, Tim Duncan, Muggsy Bogues, Brian Piccolo and Arnold Palmer, and CEO Charlie Ergen.
Wake Forest University Athletic teams are known as the Demon Deacons and compete in 16 NCAA Division I intercollegiate sports. Wake Forest is also a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC).
History
During the Baptist State Convention of 1833 at Cartledge Creek Baptist Church in Rockingham, North Carolina, establishment of Wake Forest Institute was ratified. The school was founded after the North Carolina Baptist State Convention purchased a plantation from Calvin Jones in an area north of Raleigh (Wake County) called the "Forest of Wake". The new school, designed to teach both Baptist ministers and laymen, opened on February 3, 1834, as the Wake Forest Manual Labor Institute. Students and staff were required to spend half of each day doing manual labor on its plantation. Samuel Wait, a Baptist minister, was selected as the principal, later president, of the institute.
Wake Forest College
In 1838, the school was renamed Wake Forest College, and the manual labor system was abandoned. The town that grew up around the college came to be called the town of Wake Forest. In 1862, during the American Civil War, the school closed due to the loss of most students and some faculty to service in the Confederate States Army. The college re-opened in 1866 and prospered over the next four decades under the leadership of presidents Washington Manly Wingate, Thomas H. Pritchard, and Charles Taylor. In 1894, the School of Law was established, followed by the School of Medicine in 1902. In 1911 Louise Heims Beck became the university's first librarian, later going on to become a vaudeville performer and the recipient of a Tony Award. The university held its first summer session in 1921. Lea Laboratory was built in 1887–1888, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.
The leading college figure in the early 20th century was William L. Poteat, a gifted biologist and the first layman to be elected president in the college's history. "Dr. Billy" continued to promote growth, hired many outstanding professors, and expanded the science curriculum. He also stirred upheaval among North Carolina Baptists with his strong support of teaching the theory of evolution but eventually won formal support from the Baptist State Convention for academic freedom at the college.
Move to Winston-Salem
The School of Medicine moved to Winston-Salem (then North Carolina's second-largest city) in 1941 under the supervision of Dean Coy Cornelius Carpenter, who guided the school through the transition from a two-year to a four-year program. The school then became the Bowman Gray School of Medicine. The following year, 1942, Wake Forest admitted its first female undergraduate students, after World War II dramatically depleted the pool of male students.
In 1946, as a result of large gifts from the Z. Smith Reynolds Foundation, the entire college agreed to move to Winston-Salem, a move that was completed for the beginning of the fall 1956 term, under the leadership of Harold W. Tribble. Charles and Mary Reynolds Babcock (daughter of R. J. Reynolds) donated to the college about of fields and woods at "Reynolda", their estate. From 1952 to 1956, fourteen new buildings were constructed on the new campus. These buildings were constructed in Georgian style. The old campus in Wake Forest was sold to the Baptist State Convention to establish the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Desegregation
On April 27, 1962, Wake Forest's board of trustees voted to accept Edward Reynolds, a native of the African nation of Ghana, as the first black full-time undergraduate at the school. This made Wake Forest the first major private university in the South to desegregate. Reynolds, a transfer student from Shaw University, later became the first black graduate of the university in 1964, when he earned a bachelor's degree in history. Later, he went on to earn master's degrees at Ohio University and Yale Divinity School, and a PhD in African history from the University of London. He became a professor of history at the University of California, San Diego, and author of several history books.
Recent history
A graduate studies program was inaugurated in 1961, and in 1967 the school became the fully accredited Wake Forest University. The Babcock Graduate School of Management, now known as the School of Business, was established in 1969. The James R. Scales Fine Arts Center opened in 1979. In 1986, Wake Forest gained autonomy from the Baptist State Convention of North Carolina and established a fraternal relationship with it. The Middleton House and its surrounding was deeded by gift to Wake Forest by Philip Hanes and his wife Charlotte in 1992. The donation was completed in 2011.
The thirteenth president of Wake Forest is Nathan O. Hatch, former provost at the University of Notre Dame. Hatch was officially installed as president on October 20, 2005. He assumed office on July 1, 2005, succeeding Thomas K. Hearn, Jr., who had retired after 22 years in office. In 2020, Hatch would announce his retirement as president of Wake Forest. On January 29, 2021, the Wake Forest University Board of Trustees named Susan Rae Wente as the university's 14th president and first female president of Wake Forest, replacing outgoing president Nathan Hatch.
On September 16, 2015, Wake Forest announced plans to offer undergraduate classes downtown in Innovation Quarter in Winston-Salem. On March 18, 2016, Wake Forest announced programs in biomedical sciences and engineering at its new Wake Downtown campus, opening in January 2017. Wake Downtown is in a former R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company plant, next to the second campus of the school of medicine which opened in July 2016.
On February 21, 2020, Wake Forest would apologize for the institution's role in profiting and benefiting from enslaved people during slavery.
Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center and Atrium Health announced a partnership in 2019 with the goal of a Charlotte, North Carolina campus for the Wake Forest School of Medicine. More specific details were revealed in February 2021 including a seven-story tower, and on March 24, 2021, Atrium Health announced a 20-acre site at Baxter and McDowell Streets. Also, School of Medicine dean Dr. Julie Ann Freischlag said construction would start in 2022 with the first students attending in 2024. Hatch, who was leaving as president June 30, said Wake Forest would have a School of Professional Studies at the Charlotte location in 2022.
Presidential activities
On March 17, 1978, President Jimmy Carter made a major National Security address in Wait Chapel. The school has hosted presidential debates on two occasions. The first was between then-Vice President George H.W. Bush and Governor Michael Dukakis on September 25, 1988. The second matched then-Governor George W. Bush against Vice President Al Gore on October 11, 2000. Both debates were hosted in Wait Chapel.
Admissions
Profile
Admission to Wake Forest is rated as "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report.
Admission statistics for the class of 2021 are as follows: 13,000 applications were received. Representing 55 percent of the incoming class of 1350 freshmen, 750 members of the new class were enrolled through the early decision process – a 15 percent rise in applications than the previous year. Acceptance to Wake Forest has been offered to 25 percent of those who applied through the regular decision process. 54 percent of the class is composed of women. 34 percent are students of color. 22 percent come from North Carolina while 7 percent are international applicants. In order, the top eight states represented in the admitted class are North Carolina, Florida, New Jersey, Georgia, New York, California, and Virginia (with at least one person admitted from each of the fifty states). Students residing in 48 different countries have been offered admission. 61 percent of admitted applicants who attend schools that calculate class rank are in the top 5 percent of their class, with 87 percent within the top 10 percent.
Test-optional policy
In May 2008, Wake Forest made college entrance exams optional for undergraduate admissions, becoming the first national university ranked in the top 30 by the U.S. News & World Report to adopt a test-optional policy. Being test-optional means Wake Forest's admissions process does not require applicants to submit their SAT or ACT scores, and students can decide if they want their standardized test scores to be considered.
Scholarships
In addition to need-based financial aid programs, Wake Forest offers more than 50 merit-based scholarships, including the following full-tuition scholarships: Reynolds, Carswell, Stamps, and Gordon. These scholarships are highly competitive and are awarded on the basis of academic distinction, leadership, community service, artistic talent, and a variety of other unique contributions and characteristics.
Academics
Wake Forest has produced 15 Rhodes Scholars, including 13 since 1986, four Marshall Scholars, 15 Truman Scholars and 62 Fulbright recipients since 1993. According to the National Science Foundation, Wake Forest spent $191 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 117th in the nation.
Undergraduate
Wake Forest's undergraduate education consists of a liberal arts curriculum in Wake Forest College and classes in the School of Business. The university offers 40 majors and 57 interdisciplinary minors across various fields of study. Students initially declare a major the second semester of their sophomore year.
In order to graduate, a Wake Forest student must finish three requirements for 120 hours of credit: a core set of classes, a course of study related to a major, and electives. The core set of classes includes basic requirements (a first-year seminar, a writing seminar, health and PE classes, and foreign language literature) and divisional requirements (at least two classes in each of the humanities, social sciences and math/natural sciences and at least one in the fine arts and literatures).
Wake Forest also offers an "Open Curriculum" option, in which a small number of students, approved by a committee, may design a course of study with an adviser that follows a liberal arts framework but does not necessarily fulfill all the core degree requirements.
In order to attend the School of Business, students must make a special application to its program, which offers an accountancy program whereby a student earns a BS and an MS in Accountancy and qualifies to sit for the CPA exam after five years of combined undergraduate and graduate study. The School of Business also offers undergraduate programs leading to degrees in business and enterprise management, finance and mathematical business.
Wake Forest supports a number of centers and institutes, which are designed to encourage interdisciplinary curriculum and programming. Currently, there are three institutes (Humanities, Pro Humanitate, and Eudaimonia) and eleven centers (including Nanotechnology and Molecular Materials; Enterprise Research and Education; Translational Science; Bioethics, Health and Society; BB&T Center for the Study of Capitalism; Energy, Environment and Sustainability; Molecular Communication and Signaling; and Interdisciplinary Performance and the Liberal Arts).
Faculty
Including the professional schools, the university has 1,996 faculty members, of whom 84.5 percent are full-time employees.
Ninety-three percent of undergraduate faculty have doctorates or other terminal degrees in their field. Wake Forest ranked tied for 10th best undergraduate teaching in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report in its 2016 report, and the school maintains a faculty-to-student ratio of 1 to 11.
Notable faculty include:
Anthony Atala, the director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, is considered a national pioneer in organ growth. His work has been lauded as the No. 1 Science Story of the Year by Discover Magazine in 2007 and the fifth-biggest breakthrough in medicine for 2011 by Time.
David Carroll, professor of physics and director of the Center for Nanotechnology and Molecular Materials, is known for his research in nanoengineered cancer therapies, green technology, photovoltaics and lighting innovations.
Melissa Harris-Perry, Presidential Endowed Professor of Politics and International Affairs, former host of the eponymous MSNBC current affairs and political commentary television program and current host of The Takeaway and Editor-at-Large of ELLE.com.
President Nathan O. Hatch is a nationally known religious historian. His book, The Democratization of American Christianity, was named one of the "Five Best: Books on Religion in Politics" by the Wall Street Journal. He also serves as the chair of the NCAA Division I Board.
David Faber, professor of art and printmaking, is a nationally recognized printmaker whose works are housed permanently at five of the country's leading museums.
Author and civil rights activist Maya Angelou, Reynolds Professor of American Studies, taught at the university from 1982 until her death in 2014. Among her many awards, she was honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2010.
Psychologist Linda Nielsen, researcher on the effects of shared parenting and on father–daughter relationships.
Study abroad
According to the Institute of International Education's 2012 Open Doors Report, Wake Forest ranked third in the country for undergraduate participation in study-abroad programs among doctoral research universities. According to the IIE's methodology, 72 percent of Wake Forest undergraduates received credit for studying abroad in the 2010–2011 academic year, with students spending anywhere from a few weeks to a summer to a full academic year visiting countries around the world. In January 2013, the university received the IIE's Heiskell Award for Study Abroad for its emphasis on providing foreign-based educational opportunities to first-generation college students.
Wake Forest offers more than 400 semester-, summer- and year-long study abroad programs in 200 cities in more than 70 countries worldwide through Wake Forest-sponsored programs and through Affiliate programs (approved non-Wake Forest programs).
Wake Forest programs options include:
University-owned houses: Each semester or summer session, a resident professor leads a group of students to one of three University-owned study abroad houses and offers two courses in his or her respective disciplines. Resident professors are chosen from a wide variety of academic departments. The university houses are: Casa Artom in Venice, Italy; Flow House in Vienna, Austria; and Worrell House in London, England.
Other University-sponsored semester study abroad programs take place in Santiago, Chile; Dijon, France; Cambridge, England; Salamanca, Spain; and Hirakata, Japan.
Graduate and professional schools
In addition to the Undergraduate College, Wake Forest University is home to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and four professional schools.
Wake Forest Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences offers 25 programs of graduate-level study as well as 11 certificates. Degree programs include 11 areas of PhD study in the sciences, as well as 24 master's degrees in the arts and sciences. The school also offers nine joint degree programs in conjunction with the other professional schools and the undergraduate college.
Wake Forest School of Law
The Wake Forest University School of Law is a private American Bar Association (ABA) accredited law school and is a member of the Association of American Law Schools (AALS). The school was established in 1894. U.S. News & World Report consistently ranks the school among the Top Tier Law Schools in the nation. The current dean is Jane Aiken, who replaced former Dean Suzanne Reynolds following her retirement. Wake Forest University School of Law has a faculty of 52 Resident Faculty Members and 40 Extended Faculty Members.
Wake Forest Law offers the following degrees: the JD, the JD/M.Div., the JD/MA in Religion, the JD/MA in Bioethics, the Master of Studies in Law, the Master of Laws in American Law, the SJD and the JD/MBA in conjunction with the university's Schools of Business. Class sizes are limited to sections of 40 in the first year, with legal writing classes limited to sections of 20.
Wake Forest School of Medicine
The Wake Forest School of Medicine has one campus on the Bowman Gray Campus in the Ardmore neighborhood of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and a second campus downtown which opened in July 2016. Founded in 1902, the School of Medicine directs the education of about 1,800 students and fellows, including physicians, basic scientists and allied clinical professionals each year. It is clinically affiliated with Wake Forest Baptist Health and Wake Forest Community Physicians and, with its research program, forms the integrated academic medical center, Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center.
In addition to MD, PhD and MS degrees (including an MS for physician assistants), the School of Medicine has five joint-degree programs, nurse anesthesia and medical technology teaching programs, and is the clinical site for 10 Forsyth Technical Community College programs.
In its 2016 edition, U.S. News & World Report ranked it tied for 52nd best in research and tied for 74th in primary care. The nurse anesthesia program is ranked 10th nationally.
The School of Medicine ranks among the top third of American medical schools in total funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). In the 2012 fiscal year, the school was awarded nearly $185 million in research funding from federal and state agencies, industry and other sources.
School of Business
The Wake Forest School of Business was founded in 1969 as the Babcock School of Management, and the school now houses both graduate and undergraduate programs in the new Farrell Hall facility on the main Wake Forest campus. The school also maintains a campus in Charlotte, N.C., which houses an MBA program for working professionals.
The School of Business offers seven Master programs and four joint-degree programs, including full-time and part-time Master of Business Administration, Master of Science in Accountancy, Master of Science in Business Analytics, and Master of Science in management. The school offers a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree program for undergraduates. This is a four-year degree with majors in accountancy, business and enterprise management, finance, and mathematical business.
Wake Forest School of Divinity
The School of Divinity, accredited by the Association of Theological Schools, offers a Master of Divinity degree as well as dual-degree programs in bioethics, counseling and law. The school also offers a certificate in Spirituality and Health in association with the Wake Forest School of Medicine.
Gail O'Day was appointed in 2010 as dean of the school and professor of New Testament and preaching. The school has 18 faculty members, five adjunct faculty and 12 associated faculty from other university departments. According to its mission statement, the school is "Christian by tradition, Baptist in heritage, and ecumenical in outlook." In April 2019, Jonathan L. Walton was appointed as the new dean of the divinity school.
Planning for the school began in April 1989. In May 1996, Bill J. Leonard was appointed the school's first dean, and in March 1998, the school selected its 14-member board of visitors. The first faculty members were named in April 1998, and additional faculty were hired that October. In August 1999, the first 24 students enrolled in the program. The university's first Master of Divinity degrees were conferred May 20, 2002.
In 2012, the school established the Food, Faith, and Religious Leadership Initiative to equip religious leaders with the knowledge, skills, and pastoral habits necessary to guide congregations and other faith-based organizations around food issues.
Rankings
In the 2021 U.S. News & World Report America's Best Colleges report, Wake Forest ranked tied for 44th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", 24th for "Best Value", and tied for 28th overall among national universities in the U.S. Forbes ranked Wake Forest as 33rd in Research Universities and 46th in Private Colleges. U.S. News & World Report also ranked Wake Forest tied for 2nd among best national universities in North Carolina.
In the 2014 BusinessWeek Undergraduate Business Schools Rankings, the School of Business ranked 11th overall and achieved the No. 1 rank for the sixth consecutive year in Academic Quality. In 2012, students in the MSA program achieved the No. 1 pass rate and the highest average score in the nation on the Certified Public Accountant Exam among candidates from nearly 800 colleges and universities. Wake Forest MSA students have earned the No. 1 CPA pass rate ranking ten times since 1997.
According to the Institute of International Education's 2012 Open Doors Report, Wake Forest ranked third in the country for undergraduate participation in study-abroad programs among doctoral research universities.
Student life
Fraternities and sororities
With 25 chapters, fraternity and sorority membership consists of around 45 percent of the student population. Wake Forest requires that all new members of fraternities and sororities complete at least one semester of full-time studies, so the primary recruiting time is during the spring semester.
Most fraternities and sororities have lounges in campus residence halls, with surrounding rooms being reserved for the chapter. One fraternity, Delta Kappa Epsilon, has a residence off campus.
All fraternities and sororities at Wake Forest belong to one of three councils – the Interfraternity Council, the National Pan-Hellenic Council and the Panhellenic Council. Each of these councils has an executive board that provides resources and programming to its member organizations.
Fraternities on campus: Alpha Epsilon Pi, Alpha Phi Alpha, Alpha Sigma Phi, Chi Psi, Kappa Alpha Order, Kappa Alpha Psi, Lambda Chi Alpha, Omega Psi Phi, Pi Kappa Alpha, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi, Sigma Pi, and Theta Chi.
Sororities on campus: Alpha Delta Pi, Alpha Kappa Alpha, Chi Omega, Delta Delta Delta, Delta Sigma Theta, Delta Xi Phi, Delta Zeta, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Beta Gamma, Kappa Delta, and Kappa Kappa Gamma.
Professional or Academic Fraternities and Sororities on campus: Alpha Kappa Psi, Alpha Phi Omega, and Kappa Kappa Psi.
Wake Forest is also home to the Sigma Delta chapter of Order of Omega, an honor society for members of Greek organizations. Members are selected from the top three percent of Greeks on campus based on high standards in the areas of scholarship, leadership, and involvement within their respective organization and within the fraternity/sorority, campus and local communities.
In the mid-2010s, fraternities at Wake Forest have come under scrutiny for claims of sexual assault, racism, and violence.
Athletic activities
Wake Forest offers classes in yoga, Pilates, High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), Zumba, BodyPump, and indoor cycling. Wake Forest students field 36 club sport teams that compete against other colleges and universities at the regional and national level. Over half of the student body participates in 18 different intramural sports. The university's fitness and recreation center, Reynolds Gym, is the oldest gym in the ACC. It was renovated in March 2018 and renamed the Wake Forest Wellbeing Center. The project includes the addition of the Sutton Center which opened in January 2016.
Dining facilities
Wake Forest undergraduate students living on campus are required to sign up for a meal plan in coordination with the Office of Residence Life and Housing and Aramark. Meal Plans consist of Meal Swipes and Food Dollars. Meal Swipes are accepted in the Fresh Food Company (also known as "The Pit") and the Magnolia Room. Students may purchase food and snacks at all other on-campus retail locations using their Food Dollars, Deacon Dollars, and other methods of payment.
The Fresh Food Company (The Pit) – Renovated in 2005, it is known as "The Pit" because of its location in the basement of Reynolda Hall. Students have access to all-you-care-to-eat dining for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. A take-out dining option also exists.
The Magnolia Room – Open Monday through Friday for lunch. Every Thursday evening, it offers a "Premium Dinner" with two seatings.
Hilltop Market (North Pit) – Located in the North Campus Apartments area with similar offerings to its counterpart, the Fresh Food Company.
Benson Food Court – Features national and local venues, including Chick-fil-A and Moe's Southwest Grill.
Shorty's Restaurant & Bar – Located adjacent to the Food Court, it is open for lunch, dinner and late night and offers Americana cuisine.
Camino Bakery – Newly opened in the Fall of 2020 in Z. Smith Reynolds Library, offering coffee and pastry selections from the local Winston-Salem eatery.
Starbucks – Located in the North Campus Apartments area below the Hilltop Market.
Subway and Provisions on Demand convenience store – Located on Hearn Plaza in Davis Hall.
Convenience Stores – In addition to the Benson Center Sundry and the P.O.D., stores are located in Worrell Hall and in the North Campus Apartments area.
Student media
WAKE Radio was founded by a student group in 1985 after WFDD terminated a long-standing position of student broadcast assistants. The organization currently maintains an Internet radio station that broadcasts shows ranging from political and sports talk to indie music.
The Student was founded in 2004 and is a website created and run by students to help integrate the student body with academic activities and social events around campus and the Winston-Salem area.
The Old Gold & Black (OGB) is Wake Forest University's weekly school newspaper. The paper takes its name from the university's official colors. It was established in 1916 and has been produced by a group of student editors, reporters and photographers every year since then. Notable alumni include Al Hunt, current managing editor for Bloomberg News in Washington DC, W. J. Cash who authored The Mind of the South, and Wayne King who won a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of The 12th Street Riot in Detroit in 1967.
Wake Forest Review is an independent student newspaper providing news and commentary "from a libertarian and conservative perspective."
Wake TV is the university television channel. It features weekly television content like Wake TV News and Entertainment Wakely. Past students have also collaborated with ESPNU to create media packages featuring Wake Forest athletes.
The Howler is the annual yearbook.
3 to 4 Ounces is the official literary magazine on campus, publishing a collection of student prose, poetry and art through a blind application process each semester. It is also the longest-running media outlet on campus, as it began in 1882 as The Student when the school was still known as Wake Forest College.
Undergraduate student housing
Students are guaranteed housing for four years. , students were required to live on campus for their first three years as a full-time enrolled student.
The three main community areas for the 2013–2014 academic year are:
South Campus (First Year Student Housing): Babcock Hall, Bostwick Hall, Johnson Hall, Luter Hall, Collins Hall, South Hall, Angelou Hall
Quad Area (Upperclass Student Housing): Kitchin Hall, Davis Hall, Poteat/Huffman Halls, Taylor/Efird Halls
North Area (Upperclass Student Housing): Magnolia Hall, Dogwood Hall, Polo Hall, Martin Hall, Palmer Hall, Piccolo Hall, North Campus Apartments, Student Apartments, Polo Road houses area.
Student Union
The event-planning arm of Wake Forest is undergraduate student-run organization known as Student Union. Student Union events include Homecoming, Family Weekend, Special Lectures, Concerts, the Coffeehouse music series and other weekly events such as movie screenings and Tuesday Trivia nights. Its signature event is the annual "Shag on the Mag" where a big tent covers Manchester Quad (formerly the Magnolia Quad) during Springfest and students shag dance to a live band. It started in 2005 under then Springfest chairman Joseph Bumgarner.
Student government
Founded in 1923, Wake Forest Student Government (known as SG) works under a semi-Presidential system. Four executive officers (Student Body President, Speaker of the House, Secretary and Treasurer) are elected each spring. The President appoints a Chief of Staff. The Executive Officers coordinate with the Cabinet, formed by the Co-Chairs of the seven standing committees. The seven committees are Academic, Campus Life, Diversity & Inclusion, Judiciary, Public Relations, Physical Planning, and The Student Organizations Council (SOC). The executive committee and Cabinet work with members of the Senate to pass legislation and advocate on behalf of students.
The Senate, which acts as a student legislature, is made up of about 60 senators, chosen in fall and spring elections each year. The legislators are assigned to one of seven committees focused on an area of student needs. The student trustee is an ex-officio member of Student Government and acts as a liaison between the board of trustees and Student Government.
Personal and career development
In 2009, President Nathan Hatch outlined in his strategic plan a campus culture in which personal and career development would become an integral component of the undergraduate student experience. Later that year, he created a cabinet-level position and appointed Andy Chan as the vice president for personal and career development.
Chan's work has included hosting a national conference in 2012 ("Rethinking Success: From the Liberal Arts to Careers in the 21st Century") featuring Condoleezza Rice, and issuing "A Roadmap for Transforming the College-To-Career Experience" in 2013. Wake Forest quadrupled the size of the staff, integrated personal and career development into freshman orientation, and added "College to Career" courses.
Arts
Every student takes at least one course in the arts (art history, studio art, theatre, dance, music performance and music in liberal arts) before graduating. In 2011–2012, more than 500 Wake Forest students were directly involved in performances on campus, and 110 public exhibitions in theatre, music dance and visual arts held in Scales Fine Arts Center in 2012–2013. The university's home, Winston-Salem, calls itself the "City of Arts & Innovation".
Students also can take advantage of a number of other art-related opportunities:
The WFU Art Collections consist of nine independent collections with more than 1,600 works located in 35 on- and off-campus locations. Every four years, selected students make an art-buying trip to New York City to add to the collections.
Students are within walking distance of the Reynolda House Museum of American Art, the Wake Forest Museum of Anthropology, the Charlotte and Philip Hanes Art Gallery and START, the student art gallery.
The Theatre Department, which allows students to participate from their first year, supports interdisciplinary exploration of its plays through the Interdisciplinary Performance and the Liberal Arts Center (IPLACe), which connects the performing arts and other academic departments.
The student-run Reynolda Film Festival is a free weeklong series of film screenings and workshops featuring a keynote address by a well-known and respected representative of the film industry.
The Secrest Artists Series offers the Wake Forest community several free opportunities each year to hear world-class concerts.
Athletics
Originally, Wake Forest's athletic teams were known as The Old Gold and Black or the Baptists, due to its association with the Baptist Convention (from which it later separated itself). However, in 1923, after a particularly impressive win against the Duke Blue Devils, a newspaper reporter wrote that the Deacons "fought like Demons", giving rise to the current team name, the "Demon Deacons".
Wake Forest's Athletic teams has won a total of nine NCAA team national championships in five different sports. The women's field hockey team has won three (2002, 2003, 2004), the men's golf team has won three (1974, 1975, 1986), the men's soccer team (2007), the baseball team (1955), and men's tennis (2018) have won one each. Wake Forest is sometimes referred to as being a part of "Tobacco Road" or "The Big Four", terms that refer to the four North Carolina schools that compete heatedly against each other within the ACC; these include Duke, North Carolina, and North Carolina State, as well as Wake Forest.
The Wake Forest Demon Deacons participate in the NCAA's Division I (in the Bowl Subdivision for football) and in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, tennis, and track & field; women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, soccer, tennis, track & field, and volleyball.
Football
Wake Forest plays its home football games at Truist Field (formerly Groves Stadium). The Demon Deacons have won two ACC Football Championships. The program also have had four players named as ACC Player of the Year, three consensus All-Americans, including 15 bowl appearances.
Men's basketball
Wake Forest is generally regarded as a competitive program in men's basketball, frequently qualifying for the NCAA tournament (23 times in the school's history). They reached the Final Four once, in 1962.
The school's famous basketball alumni include Billy Packer, a guard on the 1962 Final Four team who became far more famous as a basketball broadcaster; Tyrone Curtis "Muggsy" Bogues, the shortest player ever to play in the NBA; Randolph Childress, for his MVP performance in the 1995 ACC Tournament; Washington Wizards swingman Josh Howard; Dallas Mavericks forward James Johnson; Chris Paul of the Phoenix Suns, 2006 NBA Rookie of the Year Award,9-time NBA All-star; and two-time league MVP, Five-time NBA Champion and three-time NBA Finals MVP Tim Duncan, John Collins of the Atlanta Hawks, and Milwaukee Bucks starting point guard and 2015 NBA all-star Jeff Teague. Lawrence Joel Veterans Memorial Coliseum is the home venue for the Demon Deacons basketball team.
Women's basketball
In 2012, Jen Hoover took over as coach from Mike Petersen, the program's all-time winningest coach. Hoover (then Jenny Mitchell) is the program's all-time leading scorer and rebounder, was a three-time All-ACC selection and was a member of the ACC's 50th Anniversary Team in 2002. Hoover was part of the program's only NCAA Tournament appearance in 1988, when Wake Forest beat Villanova and lost to Tennessee. Wake Forest has appeared in the Women's NIT four times, all under Petersen. In 2015, Dearica Hamby was drafted 6th overall in the WNBA Draft by the San Antonio Stars (now Las Vegas Aces).
Women's field hockey
Recent athletic honors include three consecutive NCAA Field Hockey national championships in 2002, 2003, and 2004 under Head Coach Jennifer Averill. In 2005, the Deacs were defeated in the semifinal round by Duke University, and in the 2006 championship game by the University of Maryland.
Golf
Wake Forest has had several successful golf teams, winning national championships in 1974, 1975, and 1986. Several well-known players include Jay Haas, Billy Andrade, Gary Hallberg, Robert Wrenn, Scott Hoch, Bill Haas, Will Zalatoris, and majors champions Arnold Palmer, Lanny Wadkins, Darren Clarke, Curtis Strange, and Webb Simpson.
Soccer
Wake Forest is a consistent national title contender in men's soccer. In recent years several players from the program have played professionally in Major League Soccer, including Brian Carroll, Will Hesmer, Justin Moose, Michael Parkhurst, Pat Phelan, James Riley, Scott Sealy, Matt Taylor, and Wells Thompson. In 2006 the team advanced to the final four of the NCAA tournament where they were defeated in a penalty kick shootout by UC Santa Barbara. They captured the 2007 NCAA Men's Soccer Championship defeating Ohio State 2–1, with the winning goal scored by Zack Schilawski. The Demon Deacons returned to the final four of the 2009 Division I Men's College Cup, losing to Virginia 2–1 in overtime in the semifinals. The Demon Deacons reached the NCAA Championship game again in 2016, losing to Stanford in the College Cup Championship.
Baseball
Wake Forest won the 1955 College World Series in baseball.
In 2009, the team began playing at David F. Couch Ballpark, in Winston-Salem, NC, moving to this field from their former home at Gene Hooks Stadium on campus. In 2017, eight players were selected in the 2017 MLB Draft, the most in the Wake Forest Baseball history.
Tennis
Noah Rubin played for Wake Forest; he had won the 2014 boys singles championship at Wimbledon, and the US 2014 boys' national championships in singles and doubles. In 2014–2015 for Wake Forest he was an All-American and the runner-up in the 2015 NCAA singles championship.
On May 22, 2018, the Wake Forest Men's Tennis team won its first ever NCAA National Championship. This feat was accomplished on their home courts, as they defeated the Ohio State Men's Tennis team 4–2.
Wake Forest had been ranked as the number one team for most of the season leading up to the tournament.
Screamin' Demons
Student attendance of Wake Forest Football and Basketball games is high, in part due to the program known as "Screamin' Demons". At the beginning of each respective athletic season students on the Reynolda Campus can sign up for the program whereby they pay $40 for each year; in addition to the best seats at the games, this gets students a football shirt in the fall and a tie-dye T-shirt in the spring along with a card that serves as an automatic pass to the sporting events. They lose this privilege if they miss two of the games. Through the planning of Sports Marketing and the Screamin' Demons program, basketball game seats in the students section are difficult to attain without participating in the Screamin' Demons program. The arena can seat only 2,250 of the 4,500 undergraduate students at Wake Forest. At least 150 seats are always set aside for non-Screamin Demons, who sit behind the 2,100 member group.
Student organizations
There are over 225 chartered student organizations of all sorts. Student sports organizations are highly visible on campus. Special interest organizations range from the academic, such the Model United Nations team, to the artistic, such as the handbell choir. In spring of 2006, the Mock Trial team was notable in qualifying for the national tournament while only in its 2nd year in operation. Religious organizations are also numerous. Both the College Republicans and College Democrats have active chapters at the university. Historic student organizations such as the Philomathesians, an artistic literary magazine, are also present. Students are entertained by numerous performing groups, including The Lilting Banshees Comedy Troupe, The Living Parables Christian Drama Troupe, and The Anthony Aston Players.
The Office of Student Engagement, oversees all student organizations and fraternities and sororities. Student Engagement also organizes leadership oriented student activities such as CHARGE (Formerly called LEAD), a semester long course in campus leadership.
Debate team
The Wake Forest Debate team has won the National Debate Tournament in 1997 and 2008, made the finals in 2006 and 2009 and has had six semifinal teams: 1955, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2017 and 2019. Wake Forest has had two winners of the "National Coach of the Year" award: Ross Smith (1997) and Al Louden (1988). The award is named for Smith.
Notable Debate alumni include: Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, the director of the Center for the Study of Terrorist Radicalization at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies; Larry Penley, the former president of Colorado State University; John Graham, the former regulatory czar for George W. Bush; and Franklin Shirley and Martha Swain Wood, both former mayors of Winston-Salem, N.C.
In 2010, Wake Forest became the first top-tier debate team in the country to go "open source" and share all its evidence and arguments online through a wiki accessible to other debaters.
Volunteer Service Corps
The Volunteer Service Corps (VSC) is one of the most popular student organizations. It coordinates volunteering in both the local and international/national setting via service projects and trips. The organization has annual service trips to Russia, Vietnam, and Latin America. In light of the disaster caused by Hurricane Katrina, VSC sent 30 Wake Students on a Wake Alternative Spring Break in the Spring of 2006.
Army ROTC
Wake Forest University offers an Army ROTC program. In 2006 the Army ROTC program was awarded the MacArthur Award by the United States Army for having the best medium-sized ROTC battalion in the nation. There are about sixty cadets in the program, and about half of each military science class finishes Leadership Development Advanced Camp (LDAC) as a "Distinguished Military Graduate", the top 20 percent of ROTC graduates.
The minimum service commitment of a contracted cadet who graduates from ROTC is four years active duty and four years of inactive reserve duty after that. Alternatively, a cadet can choose to forgo active duty service and serve eight straight years in the active Reserve or National Guard. Other alternative service plans are available for those who intend to be an army doctor, lawyer, or chaplain with source of commissioning via ROTC.
At Wake Forest contracted ROTC cadets are given full scholarship, a monthly stipend, and book money by the US Army. The university extends the scholarship with free room and board.
The program also serves students from Winston-Salem State University and Salem College.
Diversity and inclusion
On April 27, 1962, the board of trustees voted to end racial segregation at Wake Forest, which became the South's first major private university to integrate. In the fall of 1962, Ghana native Ed Reynolds became the first full-time black undergraduate student to enroll. In 2012–2013, Wake Forest's celebration, "Faces of Courage", marked the 50th anniversary of Wake Forest's decision to integrate and how it shaped the university.
Wake Forest's undergraduate minority enrollment in 2014–2015 was 25 percent. The university has an official "Statement of Principle on Diversity".
Other diversity milestones:
Japanese student Konsukie Akiyama became the first Asian graduate in 1909.
The first women undergraduates were admitted in 1942.
James G. Jones became the first American Indian graduate in 1958.
On Feb. 23, 1960, ten Wake Forest students joined eleven students from Winston-Salem State Teachers College (present-day Winston-Salem State University) for a sit-in at Woolworth's lunch counter in downtown Winston-Salem. The students' non-violent protest, along with other protests in Winston-Salem, led to the desegregation of the city's restaurants and lunch counters on May 23 of that year.
Martin Luther King Jr. spoke in Wait Chapel on the Wake Forest campus on Oct. 11, 1962.
Herman Eure (biology) and Dolly McPherson (English) became the first black tenure-track professors in 1974.
The Office of Minority Affairs was formed in 1978 and later became the Office of Multicultural Affairs. Wake Forest also added an Office of Diversity & Inclusion, an LGBTQ Center, and a Women's Center.
In 1982, poet/actress/author Maya Angelou was hired as Reynolds Professor of American Studies.
In 2002, Wake Forest added a cultural diversity requirement to its curriculum, mandating all undergraduates take one of 74 courses to educate them on cultural diversity.
Wake Forest appointed its first (part-time) Muslim chaplain in 2010. In 2011, the first associate chaplain for Jewish Life was named.
Recognition
Wake Forest's Associate Provost for Diversity and Inclusion Barbee Oakes was named one of the "25 Women Making a Difference" in 2012 Diverse Issues in Higher Education, recognizing her for commitment to initiatives that promote pluralism and foster community. Wake Forest was among 40 schools across the country awarded the 2012 Higher Education Excellence in Diversity Award by Insight into Diversity magazine.
Technology
Wake Forest has received praise for its efforts in the field of technology. In 2003, The Princeton Review listed it as the number-two "Most Connected Campus" in the United States. The university's Information Systems (IS) department offers a program that issues new Lenovo ThinkPad laptop computers to all undergraduate students and faculty. High speed wireless (and wired) Internet access is provided across campus.
Campus-wide access is provided for a variety of collaborative tools, including WebEx, Google Apps for Higher Education (used for WFU email, calendaring and documents) and Sakai.
Wake Forest is a founding member of WinstonNet, a non-profit organization of educational and municipal institutions in Winston-Salem that, among other things, provides a gigabit ethernet based regional point of presence (or, rPOP) for the North Carolina Research and Education Network. The university is a member of the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR), providing access to a large library of data files, and of EDUCAUSE, a national consortium of colleges and universities concerned with computing issues.
Campuses
Reynolda campus
The Reynolda Campus is the main campus for Wake Forest University, housing the undergraduate colleges, three of the four graduate schools, and half the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. The core of Reynolda campus is the two interlinked quads, separated by the main administrative building/main dining facility, Reynolda Hall, into North and South Campus.
North Campus consists of the T.K. Hearn Plaza, better known as "the quad", which holds six upperclassmen residential buildings, Subway restaurant, a book/office supply store, a clothing/athletic store, and Wait Chapel. Wait Chapel serves multiple functions. Its auditorium serves as an area for prayer, ceremonies, concerts, and certain guest speakers. The classrooms at Wait Chapel house the offices and classrooms for the Divinity School and the Religion Department.
South Campus is the home of Manchester Quad (formerly known as the Magnolia Quad or Mag quad). It holds freshman housing, most of the classroom buildings, the Benson Center, and the Z. Smith Reynolds Library.
Bowman Gray campus
Located in the Ardmore neighborhood near downtown Winston-Salem, the Bowman Gray Campus is home to Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, which includes its teaching and research arm, Wake Forest School of Medicine, and its clinical enterprise, Wake Forest Baptist Health. With about 13,000 employees, the Medical Center is the largest employer in the Piedmont Triad Region, operating as an integrated health care system.
Wake Downtown campus
275 students attended classes on January 10, 2017, the first day of 18 undergraduate classes in such areas as engineering and biomedical sciences at Wake Downtown in Wake Forest Innovation Quarter.
Charlotte campus
The School of Business established a satellite campus in Charlotte, North Carolina, in 1995; in January 2001, it moved into a , award-winning facility on North College Street in Uptown.
The Charlotte Center is home to U.S. News & World Report 's No. 1 ranked part-time MBA program for working professionals in North Carolina. It offers two part-time MBA programs (Evening and Saturday), continuing legal education courses, continuing professional education courses, executive education, Lunch & Learn and speaker events. Certificate programs offered at the Charlotte Center include business management for nonprofits, sustainability, financial planning and negotiations. The center also hosts corporate retreats and serves as an educational and gathering space for students and alumni in the greater Charlotte area.
The university began offering a small set of general summer school classes at the Charlotte campus in the summer of 2014.
Affiliated properties
Lawrence Joel Veterans Memorial Coliseum
Wake Forest purchased the Coliseum and 33 surrounding acres from the City of Winston-Salem on Aug. 1, 2013. The Coliseum, which seats 14,407, has been the home of Wake Forest's men's and women's basketball teams since it opened in 1989.
Overseas
The university owns international properties in Italy, Austria, England, and Nicaragua.
Casa Artom in Venice
In 1974, Wake Forest purchased the building that formerly housed the American Consulate in Venice and named it Casa Artom in honor of Camillo Artom, a professor at the Baptist Medical Center until 1969. Casa Artom is a two-story building facing the Grand Canal. It is flanked by the Palazzo Venier dei Leoni, which houses the Peggy Guggenheim art collection, and the 15th century home Ca'Dario. Each fall and spring semester, a group of Wake Forest students and a resident professor live and study together here.
Flow House in Vienna
In 1998, Wake Forest purchased a three-story villa in Vienna. The acquisition was made possible through the donation of Vic and Roddy Flow of Winston-Salem, and the house was named in their honor. Built in 1898, the house was formerly the office of the U.S. Consulate. Flow House is situated in a northwest section of Vienna that is known for its embassies, diplomatic residences, and distinguished private homes. Each fall and spring semester, a group of Wake Forest students and a resident professor live and study together here.
Worrell House in London
In 1977, Wake Forest acquired a large, brick home in Hampstead for its London program. The house, a gift from Eugene and Ann Worrell, was named in their honor. Formerly known as Morven House, the building served as the home and studio of landscape painter Charles Edward Johnson. Hampstead is primarily a residential neighborhood and home to Hampstead Heath, Regent's Park, Primrose Hill and the Keats House. Each fall and spring semester, a group of Wake Forest undergraduate students and a resident professor live and study together here. Wake Forest law students also spend a summer session here along with a resident law professor.
Casa Dingledine Conference Center in Managua, Nicaragua
In 2008, Karyn and Tom Dingledine provided a donation that enabled Wake Forest to purchase Casa Dingledine, a conference center on of land with a view of Lake Managua. The facility provides a venue for the exchange of ideas between and among not only Wake Forest constituents, but also the university's Nicaraguan partners, other academic institutions and corporate entities. The center is critical to the mission of the Nicaragua Nexus, which is to accomplish the Wake Forest motto of Pro Humanitate by working with Nicaraguans to enhance their quality of life through collaborative partnerships with local and international organizations in Nicaragua, while providing transformational experiences for students and faculty. Casa Dingledine was dedicated in February 2011.
Reynolda House Museum of American Art
Reynolda House Museum of American Art is the centerpiece of the Reynolda Estate, from which the university's Reynolda Campus takes its name. The residence was constructed in 1917 by Katharine Smith Reynolds and her husband, Richard Joshua Reynolds, founder of the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company. It was converted to an art museum in 1967 and has been affiliated with Wake Forest University since 2002.
Reynolda House displays American art ranging from the colonial period to the present, including well-known artists such as Mary Cassatt, Frederic Church, Jacob Lawrence, Georgia O'Keeffe, and Gilbert Stuart.
Wake Forest students regularly get involved at Reynolda House through internships, volunteer opportunities, and academic research. In 2010, Reynolda House and Wake Forest partnered on a first-year student orientation project that uses the museum's masterpiece by Frederic Church, The Andes of Ecuador, as the focal point of the summer academic experience. General admission to the museum is free to students and university employees.
Reynolda Gardens
The property that comprise Reynolda Gardens of Wake Forest University was once at the center of Reynolda, the early 20th-century estate of Mr. and Mrs. R. J. Reynolds, and included a lake, golf course, formal gardens, greenhouses, and woods. Although many changes have occurred to the landscape over the past century, this preserve serves as a learning center for topics related to horticulture, environmental sciences, and landscape history. Wake Forest students and faculty engage in research throughout the preserve. The public is invited to participate in a wide variety of learning experiences, including classes, workshops, summer camps, and special events.
Reynolda Village
Adjacent to the Wake Forest campus, Reynolda Village is home to stores, restaurants, services and offices. Now owned and operated by Wake Forest University, the buildings were originally part of the estate of the R.J. Reynolds family. These buildings were modeled after an English Village and included dairy barns, a cattle shed, school, post office, smokehouse, blacksmith shop, carriage house, central power and heating plant, as well as cottages to house the family's chauffeur and stenographer, the village's school master, and the farm's head dairyman and horticulturist. The present-day village has a wide range of shops specializing in home furnishings and designer fashions, as well as art galleries, fitness studios, and a full-service day spa. The Reynolda historical district, including Reynolda Village, serves as an educational, cultural, and community complex for the Winston-Salem community.
Graylyn International Conference Center
Wake Forest University owns and manages one of the premier meeting destinations in the southeast. Graylyn was built as a private estate for Bowman Gray, Sr., and his family in 1932. The Gray family lived in the home until 1946 when it was donated to the Bowman Gray School of Medicine. In 1972, it was donated to Wake Forest University where it was used for many things over the years, including graduate student housing.
University Corporate Center
Built as the world headquarters for Reynolds Tobacco Company, RJR Nabisco donated the more than building to Wake Forest University in 1987. Now known as the University Corporate Center, the building is located off Reynolds Boulevard, near campus, and houses the following University offices: Information Systems, Finance Systems, Procurement Services, and Financial and Accounting Services. Aon Consulting, BB&T, and Pepsi are also tenants.
WFDD
WFDD is an NPR-affiliate which was founded in 1946. The station has a signal strength of 36,000 watts and broadcasts to 32 counties in North Carolina and Virginia. The station has been broadcast on 88.5 FM since 1967.
Wake Forest Innovation Quarter
The opening of Wake Forest Biotech Place in February 2012 marked a milestone in
development of Wake Forest Innovation Quarter, based in downtown Winston-Salem and formerly known as Piedmont Triad Research Park. Operated by Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Wake Forest Biotech Place is a multipurpose biotechnology research and innovation center space that is the present-day home of several School of Medicine departments doing pioneering research, as well as private companies.
In December 2012 the Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center formally launched its new commercialization enterprise, Wake Forest Innovations. Located in the Innovation Quarter, Wake Forest Innovations brings together technology asset management functions with resources to support scholarship, invest in the innovative potential of its academic and clinical communities and help translate ideas and discoveries into commercial products and services for both the Medical Center and Wake Forest University.
In January 2017, undergraduate programs began at Wake Downtown.
Wake Forest University Press
Wake Forest is the home of Wake Forest University Press. Established in 1976 by Irish scholar Dillon Johnston, with the support of Provost Edwin Wilson and President James Ralph Scales, the press is the premier publisher of Irish poetry in North America. Among the poets published are Ciaran Carson, Thomas Kinsella, Michael Longley, Medbh McGuckian, John Montague, Eilean Ni Chuilleanain and Irish language poet Nuala Ni Dhomhnaill.
Alumni
Wake Forest has over 72,000 living alumni, with 39% living in North Carolina and others residing in 97 foreign countries.
Marc Blucas, actor.
Muggsy Bogues, NBA basketball player (ret.)
Richard Burr, United States Senator
David Chase, creator of The Sopranos
Mary P. Easley, First Lady of North Carolina
Carroll O'Connor, actor
J.P. Carter, mayor of Madison, NC and Lieutenant-Colonel in the United States Army
Charlie Crist, US House of Representatives of the State of Florida's 13th district
James DuBose, award-winning television producer, entertainment industry executive and Rising Star Award receipint
Tim Duncan, NBA Player, 5–time NBA Champion, 15–time NBA All-star (ret.)
Bob Ehrlich, former governor, Maryland (Wake Forest law school graduate, Princeton alumnus)
Charlie Ergen, co-founder and chairman of EchoStar and Dish Network
Kay Hagan, former US Senator, D-NC (a graduate of Florida State University and Wake Forest Law School)
Melissa Harris-Perry
Jesse Helms, U.S. senator
Cheslie Kryst, (Wake Forest Law School graduate), Miss USA 2019
Michael Maxey, president of Roanoke College. Undergraduate degree in history and master's degree in counselor education from WFU.
Arnold Palmer, professional golf player
Chris Paul, NBA basketball player
Brian Piccolo, American football player, Chicago Bears 1965–1970 at death.
Aravind Swamy, Indian actor and businessman
Robert Wilkie, current United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs
Movies or documentaries filmed at the university
A Union In Wait
The 5th Quarter
The Longest Ride
References
External links
Wake Forest Athletics website
Educational institutions established in 1834
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Private universities and colleges in North Carolina
Universities and colleges in Winston-Salem, North Carolina
1834 establishments in North Carolina | [
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239332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20patents%20under%20the%20European%20Patent%20Convention | Software patents under the European Patent Convention | The patentability of software, computer programs and computer-implemented inventions under the European Patent Convention (EPC) is the extent to which subject matter in these fields is patentable under the Convention on the Grant of European Patents of October 5, 1973. The subject also includes the question of whether European patents granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) in these fields (sometimes called "software patents") are regarded as valid by national courts.
Under the EPC, and in particular its Article 52, "programs for computers" are not regarded as inventions for the purpose of granting European patents, but this exclusion from patentability only applies to the extent to which a European patent application or European patent relates to a computer program as such. As a result of this partial exclusion, and despite the fact that the EPO subjects patent applications in this field to a much stricter scrutiny when compared to their American counterpart, that does not mean that all inventions including some software are de jure not patentable.
Article 52 of the European Patent Convention
The European Patent Convention (EPC), Article 52, paragraph 2, excludes from patentability, in particular
discoveries, scientific theories and mathematical methods;
aesthetic creations;
schemes, rules and methods for performing mental acts, playing games or doing business, and programs for computers; [emphasis added]
presentations of information."
Paragraph 3 then says:
The provisions of paragraph 2 shall exclude patentability of the subject-matter or activities referred to in that provision only to the extent to which a European patent application or European patent relates to such subject-matter or activities as such." (emphasis added)
The words "as such" have caused patent applicants, attorneys, examiners, and judges a great deal of difficulty since the EPC came into force in 1978. The Convention, as with all international conventions, should be construed using a purposive approach. However, the purpose behind the words and the exclusions themselves is far from clear.
One interpretation, which is followed by the Boards of Appeal of the EPO, is that an invention is patentable if it provides a new and non-obvious "technical" solution to a technical problem. The problem, and the solution, may be entirely resident within a computer such as a way of making a computer run faster or more efficiently in a novel and inventive way. Alternatively, the problem may be how to make the computer easier to use, such as in T 928/03.
Patentability under European Patent Office case law
Like the other parts of the paragraph 2, computer programs are open to patenting to the extent that they provide a technical contribution to the prior art. In the case of computer programs and according to the case law of the Boards of Appeal, a technical contribution typically means a further technical effect that goes beyond the normal physical interaction between the program and the computer.
Though many argue that there is an inconsistency on how the EPO now applies Article 52, the practice of the EPO is fairly consistent regarding the treatment of the different elements of Article 52(2). A mathematical method is not patentable, but an electrical filter designed according to this method would not be excluded from patentability by Article 52(2) and (3).
According to the jurisprudence of the Boards of Appeal of the EPO, a technical effect provided by a computer program can be, for example, a reduced memory access time, a better control of a robotic arm or an improved reception and/or decoding of a radio signal. It does not have to be external to the computer on which the program is run; reduced hard disk access time or an enhanced user interface could also be a technical effect.
First hurdle: patentable subject-matter requirement
As of 2013, the criterion used for distinguishing "inventions" from "non-inventions" at the EPO, i.e. the patent eligibility requirement at the EPO, is that the subject-matter must have a technical character. Whether the subject-matter has a technical character is assessed without reference to the prior art. According to Stefan Steinbrener, former chairman of an EPO Technical Board of Appeal, this means that:
Any of the subject-matter listed in Article 52(2) EPC may comprise an invention if it has technical character or contributes to it (in particular because a technical problem is solved by using technical means or a technical effect is achieved, technical interactions occur or technical adaptations are effected, in other words: if such subject-matter lends itself to a technical application)."
Some ten years before 2006, a shift occurs in the case law. The "contribution approach" or "technical effect approach", used to assess what was regarded as an invention within the meaning of Art. 52(1) and (2), was abandoned. According to the "contribution approach" (see for instance T 52/85), the claimed subject-matter did not concern an invention within the meaning of Article 52(1) EPC when no contribution was made in a field not excluded from patentability. The "contribution approach" was a disguised inventive step assessment.
Decisions such as T 258/03 and T 154/04 have made it clear that the contribution approach was no longer applicable. Indeed
The structure of the EPC (...) suggests that it should be possible to determine whether subject-matter is excluded under Article 52(2) EPC without any knowledge of the state of the art (including common general knowledge). (T 258/03, Reasons 3.1).
It now suffices that a physical entity or activity involves technical means to be considered as an invention within the meaning of Article 52(1) EPC. Having technical character is an implicit requisite of an "invention" within the meaning of Article 52(1) EPC (requirement of "technicality").
But the patentable subject matter test of Article 52(2) and (3) is only the first step towards patentability, the first hurdle. Computer programs can also be refused and are often refused on the ground of lack of inventive step. This is the second hurdle, which should not mixed up with the first hurdle. As a Board of appeal put it in T 258/03 (Reasons 4.6) in relation to the fact that the "contribution approach" was no longer applicable,
[we are] aware that [our] comparatively broad interpretation of the term "invention" in Article 52(1) EPC will include activities which are so familiar that their technical character tends to be overlooked, such as the act of writing using pen and paper. Needless to say, however, this does not imply that all methods involving the use of technical means are patentable. They still have to be new, represent a non-obvious technical solution to a technical problem, and be susceptible of industrial application.
The technical character requirements relating to the first hurdle is now a formal requirement. In other words, it is a simple test that is related to the language used in the patent claim. Acceptable software patent claims can meet the first hurdle by starting with "computer-implemented method for..." or "system configured to...".
Second hurdle: inventive step requirement
The interpretation of the term "invention" in the patentable subject-matter test, as used by the Boards of Appeal, has come with an adjustment of the case law relating to the inventive step requirement.
Any non-technical feature, i.e. a feature from a field excluded from patentability under , cannot be taken into account for the assessment of inventive step, unless they (the non-technical features) do interact with the technical subject-matter to solve a technical problem. Assessing whether or not a feature contributes to the technical character of a claim has been viewed as difficult.
Furthermore, the "state of the art" (used as the starting point for the inventive step assessment) should be construed as meaning the "state of technology", the person skilled in the art is the person skilled in the relevant field of technology, and "for the purpose of the problem-and-solution approach, the problem must be a technical problem which the skilled person in the particular technical field might be asked to solve at the relevant priority date". Fields excluded under Art. 52(2) are not considered part of the technology for the assessment of inventive step.
Thus an expert in marketing or insurance policies for instance cannot be chosen as the fictional person skilled in the art, while a computer hardware or memory management expert may be chosen as the reference fictional person. This means that the mere implementation of a business method on a computer or computer network rarely involves an inventive step, while improving a computer-assisted industrial process or providing a more efficient memory management within a computer may involve an inventive step.
The case law of the EPO Boards of Appeal is not binding on the first instance departments of the EPO (i.e. the Examining Divisions), and different Examining Divisions of the EPO may assess patentability differently. Likewise, during an opposition procedure before the EPO, where the grant of a recently granted European patent may be opposed by a third party (opponent), the patent may be revoked if the Opposition Division form a different view on whether or not the invention in question was patentable.
The practice for assessing the technical character for the second hurdle in the EPO is described in the Guidelines for Examination, which provides specific examples in the field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. To meet the second hurdle, a software invention needs to present a "technical application". This application is the purpose of the invention as defined in the patent claim, establishing a connection between a technical limitation of the patent claim and the technical purpose of the invention.
Enforceability before national courts
The case law of the EPO Boards of Appeal is not binding on the EPO member states and different national courts acting on different cases may take a different view of patentability under Art. 52(2) EPC. The decision of EPO (directly or in appeal proceedings) not to a grant a European patent can however not be challenged in national courts. Any European patent issued by the EPO may be revoked in a patent infringement lawsuit or revocation proceedings before a national court if for instance the court judges the invention as non-patentable in view of new prior art evidence or in view of a reconsideration of the available prior art. Furthermore, member states have certain degree of freedom regarding exceptions: the extent to which another party may use a patent, for example to decompile software that would otherwise infringe a European patent.
UK
Peter Prescott QC, while sitting as a Deputy Judge in the UK High Court, and in consideration of CFPH's applications noted that the EPO decisions are prescriptive, but not binding on the UK courts, but also recalled the judgement of the Court of Appeal in Fujitsu's application which stated that it would be disastrous if there was any substantial divergence between the interpretations given by the UK courts and the EPO to Article 52(2) EPC.
The judgement in CFPH's applications was the first in a flurry of UK court cases since 2005 involving re-consideration by the High Court of patent applications refused by the UK Patent Office.
The two patent applications in question both involved networked interactive wagering on the outcomes of events. Each application was refused as relating to a method of doing business as such. The applications were not refused as relating to a computer program as such, because the computer program was simply a tool that was being used to implement a new set of business rules and the invention was not really about the computer program. Although the judgement stressed that the reasoning used was quite different from the type that would have been applied by the EPO, the judge was satisfied that the EPO would have come to the same conclusion using their own reasoning.
The decision criticises the EPO's reliance on insisting that an invention must provide a technical contribution, and not merely a business based contribution. As evidenced by the judgment in Dyson v Hoover the commercial background to an invention may help to show that a certain technical advance was or was not obvious.
In Research In Motion UK Ltd. v Inpro Licensing SARL, the UK High Court had the opportunity to consider a patent that had been granted by the EPO. The patent involved the 'pretreating' of web pages before they were downloaded to machines of modest processing capacity. Mr Justice Pumfrey came to the conclusion that the claimed invention was obvious, but specifically rejected the allegation that it was excluded from patent protection as a computer program as such. He noted that "all modern industry depends upon programmed computers, and one must be astute not to defeat patents on the ground that the subject matter is excluded under Article 52 unless the invention lies in excluded subject matter as such" (emphasis added).
The UK Court of Appeal judgment in Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's Application criticised EPO practice to deem non-technical subject matter, such as new music or a story, as part of the prior art as not being intellectually honest. The EPO Boards of Appeal have since responded by saying that the technical effect approach (with the rider) applied in the Aerotel/Macrossan judgement is irreconcilable with the European Patent Convention.
Germany
In Germany, in the case Logikverifikation (13 December 1999), the German Federal Court (German: Bundesgerichtshof or BGH) ruled on a case involving a national patent application claiming a computer-implemented invention, namely a "method for hierarchical logic verification of highly-integrated circuits". Going against the run of previous case law, it overruled the German Federal Patent Court (German: Bundespatentgericht or BPatG), and came to the conclusion that the claimed subject-matter did properly meet the 'technical' requirement, can not be excluded from patentability for that reason and that the court has to go into substantial examination. The question about the exclusion of "computer programs as such"(sic) was mentioned the first time, but set aside as the court did not see the need to determine that question.
BPatG objections were also overruled in the decisions Sprachanalyseeinrichtung (German BGH, 11 May 2000) and Suche fehlerhafter Zeichenketten (German BGH, 17 October 2001). In the civil law tradition of mainland Europe however, legal precedent does not necessarily acquire the same formally binding character that it assumes in the common law traditions typical of most English-speaking countries.
In fact, more recently the same court has repeatedly upheld the rejection of patent claims to computers and programs operating thereon, as in Rentabilitätsermittlung as well as in Informationsübermittlungsverfahren.
France
France was the first European nation that excluded «les programmes ou séries d'instructions pour le déroulement des opérations d'une machine calculatrice» ("programs or series of instructions for the procession of operations of a calculating machine", i.e. computer programs) from being an industrial invention in 1968 in Loi n°68-1 Article 7. Two relevant decisions, namely Mobil Oil Corp., and SA SAGEM, rejected the patentability for the reason of missing a technical character. In Schlumberger, it was decided that not any use of a computer program disallows patentability. In Infomil, the court declared that a claim for an information system always has technical character and is therefore protectible.
Unified Patent Court
The Unified Patent Court is a proposed court, common to several member states of the European Union, including Germany, France and Italy. Once it enters into force it will have jurisdiction regarding European patents as any national court would do. With the entry into force of the Unified Patent Court Agreement, patent proprietors will also have the possibility to request unitary effect for European patents: which means that the European patent after grant will be regarded a single undividable patent for those EU countries that participate. For the latter patents, the Unified Patent Court will generally have exclusive competence. Regarding software, Article 27k of the Unified Patent Court Agreement allows decompiling of software, even without the consent of the patent owner.
Groups opposed to software patents have argued that the proposed Unified Patent Court court to be run by patent judges, and may have strong ties to the patent industry. They assume therefore it allows software patents to be enforced despite rules that forbid them -such as explicitly allowing decompiling of software protected by patents in the Unified Patent Court Agreement- and failed attempts by the European Parliament to bring those provisions under EU law rather than under Unified Patent Court law.
Referral to the Enlarged Board of Appeal
Under , the President of the EPO has the power to refer a point of law to an Enlarged Board where two Boards of Appeal have given different decisions on that question.
On 27 October 2006, in its judgment in Aerotel v Telco and Macrossan's Application, the Court of Appeal of England and Wales said (at para. 25) that "The decisions of the EPO Boards of Appeal [in this software patentability area] are mutually contradictory" and (also at para. 25) that "surely the time has come for matters to be clarified by an Enlarged Board of Appeal". And even though the English Court of Appeal went on to say (at para. 25) that it "is formally no business of ours to define questions to be asked of an Enlarged Board of Appeal", it went on to suggest (at para. 76) questions which it thought that the President of the EPO may refer to an EPO Enlarged Board of Appeal.
In response, Alain Pompidou, then president of the EPO, is reported to have said that the EPO was very interested in developments in the case law of national courts and that he had "taken note of the UK decision, but a decision on whether or not it would be opportune to follow the suggestions for a referral has not yet been taken." Subsequently, however, it appears that Alain Pompidou has written a letter dated 22 February 2007 to Lord Justice Jacob of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales (with a copy to the United Kingdom Patent Office) advising that he has "decided that at the moment there is an insufficient legal basis for a referral under Article 112(1)(b)", and that "the appropriate moment for a referral would be where the approach taken by one Board of Appeal would lead to the grant of a patent whereas the approach taken by another Board would not".
Subsequently, the Board in decision T 154/04 refused to refer questions "explicitly taken from the questions proposed for referral to the Enlarged Board of Appeal in the "Aerotel/Macrossan" judgement" to the Enlarged Board of Appeal.
Eventually, on 22 October 2008, the then President of the EPO, Alison Brimelow, referred a point of law to the Enlarged Board of Appeal. The questions which were the subject of the referral related to the patentability of programs for computers under the European Patent Convention (EPC) and were, according to the President of the EPO, of fundamental importance as they related to the definition of "the limits of patentability in the field of computing." The referral had been quoted as relating to the "deeply contentious question about how to assess the patentability of software-related inventions". In May 2010 however, the Enlarged Board of Appeal considered the referral to be inadmissible because, in their opinion, no divergent decisions had been identified in the referral.
Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions
Proposed in 2002, one motivation at least for the controversial draft EU Directive on the Patentability of Computer-Implemented Inventions was to have been to establish common practice for the national courts; and, in cases of doubt as to its interpretation, to have created a requirement for national courts of last instance to seek a ruling from the European Court of Justice. Even though Switzerland for instance is a member of the European Patent Organisation but not a member of the European Union, the EPO also signalled that it would have been likely to adjust its practice, if necessary, to conform with whatever text had finally emerged from the EU legislative procedure,
However, the directive became highly controversial, drawing increasing legislative notoriety to this area of European law. Proponents of the Directive claimed its purpose was to clarify the meaning of Article 52, by consolidating existing EPO practice. Opponents claimed the Directive would dismantle perceived more stringent restrictions against software patenting employed or employable by national courts, and lead to an increased assertion of patents on software Union-wide across the EU. After a history of procedural wrangling, and sustained lobbying and publicity efforts from both sides, the Directive, which had largely been supported by the European Commission and most member-state governments in contrast with their national parliaments, was overwhelmingly rejected by the European Parliament on 6 July 2005, terminating the legislative procedure.
This failure to reform the exclusion of software followed the failed attempt to delete programs for computers from Art. 52(2)(c) of the convention in 2000 at the diplomatic conference in Munich. At the time the reform was explicitly derogated in order to await the outcome of the consultation process for this EU Directive.
Final interpretation of the law in this area thus continues to be the responsibility of national courts, following national case-law (except when a European patent application is refused or when a European patent is revoked in opposition proceedings before the EPO, in which case the EPO has the final say regarding the interpretation of the EPC). A decisive supra-national authority for European patent law cases could be created under either proposals for the European Union patent or the Unified Patent Court.
Statistics
According to a European Commission press release of 2002, "since the EPC came into force in 1978, at least 30,000 patents for computer-implemented inventions have already been issued [by the EPO]".
See also
G 1/19, pending referral dealing with the patentability of computer-implemented simulations
References
Further reading
Keith Beresford, Patenting Software Under the European Patent Convention, Sweet & Maxwell, 2000. .
: "Computer-implemented inventions"
European Patent Office, Examination of computer-implemented inventions at the European Patent Office with particular attention to computer-implemented business methods, Official Journal EPO, 11/2007, pp 594–600.
Philip Leith, Software and Patents in Europe, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2007, , pp. 212
External links
For more external links, including links to lobbying organizations, see Software patent debate.
, the central legal provision on patentability under the European Patent Convention
Patents for software? European law and practice at the European Patent Office (EPO)
Old brochure edited by the EPO: "Computer-implemented Inventions and Patents, Law and Practice at the European Patent Office" (on the Internet Archive, pdf document, 400KB)
E-learning modules on the "Patentability of computer-implemented inventions at the EPO": Module 1 (15 min) and Module 2 (20 min)
"Programs for computers"
Prof. Lenz: Interpretation of Art 52 of the European Patent Convention regarding the question to what extent software is patentable (translation from German)
European Patent Convention
European Patent Organisation | [
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239336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Patent%20Office | European Patent Office | The European Patent Office (EPO) is one of the two organs of the European Patent Organisation (EPOrg), the other being the Administrative Council. The EPO acts as executive body for the organisation while the Administrative Council acts as its supervisory body as well as, to a limited extent, its legislative body. The actual legislative power to revise the European Patent Convention lies with the Contracting States themselves when meeting at a Conference of the Contracting States.
Within the European Patent Office, examiners are notably in charge of studying European patent applications, filed by applicants, in order to decide whether to grant a patent for an invention. The patents granted by the European Patent Office are called European patents.
Function
The European Patent Office (EPO) grants European patents covering the Contracting States to the European Patent Convention and several other states that have concluded extension and validation agreements with the EPO. The EPO provides a single patent grant procedure, but not a single patent from the point of view of enforcement. Hence a patent granted by the EPO is not a single or unitary European Union patent or uniformly recognised Europe-wide patent, but a bundle of national patents. Patents granted by the EPO can, however, be challenged centrally at the EPO via opposition proceedings. Besides granting European patents, the EPO is also in charge of establishing patentability search reports for national patent applications on behalf of the patent offices of France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, San Marino, Lithuania, Latvia and Monaco.
Role in the envisaged unitary patent
If the European patent with unitary effect (also called "unitary patent") is adopted, some administrative tasks relating thereto would be performed by the EPO. Those tasks include the collection of renewal fees and registration of unitary effect upon grant, exclusive licenses and statements that licenses are available to any person. Decisions of the EPO regarding the unitary patent would be open to appeal to the Unified Patent Court, rather than to the EPO Boards of Appeal.
Legal status
The European Patent Office is not a legal entity as such, but an organ of the European Patent Organisation, which has a legal personality.
Location and staff
The EPO headquarters are located in Munich, Germany. The EPO has also a branch in Rijswijk, Netherlands, near The Hague, sub-offices in Berlin, Germany, and Vienna, Austria, and an office for liaison with the EU institutions in Brussels, Belgium. At the end of 2019, the European Patent Office had a staff of 6 608 (with 3 675 based in Munich, 2 624 in Rijswijk, 227 in Berlin, 87 in Vienna and 3 in Brussels). The EPO comprised staff from 35 different nationalities, with 74% having a nationality different from that of the country they work in. In terms of gender diversity, 34% of all staff members were women. One quarter of managers were women, a slight increase on previous years. In 2019, the EPO spent over EUR 5 million on , with 94% of staff receiving at least one training activity during the year.
The premises of the European Patent Office enjoy a form of extraterritoriality. In accordance with the Protocol on Privileges and Immunities, which forms an integral part of the European Patent Convention under , the premises of the European Patent Organisation, and therefore those of the European Patent Office, are inviolable. The authorities of the States in which the Organisation has its premises are not authorized to enter those premises, except with the consent of the President of the European Patent Office. Such consent is however "assumed in case of fire or other disaster requiring prompt protective action".
Management
The European Patent Office is directed by a president, who is responsible for its activities to the Administrative Council. The president also represents the European Patent Organisation. The president has therefore a dual role: representative of the European Patent Organisation and head of the European Patent Office. The President of the European Patent Office is appointed by the Administrative Council. A majority of three-quarters of the votes of the Contracting States represented and voting in the Administrative Council is required for the appointment of the President.
The President is assisted by a collective body known as the Management Advisory Committee (MAC). Currently, the MAC comprises the President, three Vice-Presidents and several Principal Directors and Directors. Each MAC member is responsible for a specific business area and reports to the President. The MAC is expected to implement initiatives in alignment with general policy and propose initiatives or policy changes that could impact the activities of the EPO.
More generally, the "management of the EPO is dominated by the delegates of the contracting States in the Administrative Council," these delegates being, according to Otto Bossung, primarily guided by their national interests rather than by supranational interests such as for instance the implementation of the EU internal market.
Languages
The three official languages of the European Patent Office are English, French and German and publications including the European Patent Bulletin and Official Journal of the European Patent Office are published in all three of those languages.
European patent applications may be filed in any language provided that a translation into one of the official languages is submitted within two months if the language of filing is not an EPO official language. The official language in which the application is filed or into which it is translated is taken to be the language of the proceedings and the application is published in that language. Documentary evidence may also be submitted in any language, although the EPO may require a translation.
Some Contracting States to the European Patent Convention have an official language which is not an official language of the EPO, such as Dutch, Italian or Spanish. These languages are referred to as "admissible non-EPO languages". Residents or nationals of such States may submit any documents subject to a time limit in an official language of that State and there is a period of one month for filing a translation into an official language or the document is deemed not to have been filed. The filing fee and examination fee are reduced by 30% for certain categories of applicants, namely for small and medium-sized enterprises, natural persons, and "non-profit organisations, universities or public research organisations", when filing a patent application or an examination request in an admissible non-EPO language and subsequently, or at the earliest simultaneously, file the necessary translation.
Departments and directorates-general
The European Patent Office includes the following departments to carry out the procedures laid down in the EPC:
a Receiving Section, responsible for the examination on filing and the examination as to formal requirements of European patent applications;
Search Divisions, "responsible for drawing up European search reports";
Examining Divisions, responsible for prior art searches and the examination of European patent applications;
Opposition Divisions, responsible for the examination of oppositions against any European patent;
a Legal Division, "responsible for decisions in respect of entries in the Register of European Patents and in respect of registration on, and deletion from, the list of professional representatives";
Boards of Appeal, "responsible for the examination of appeals from decisions of the Receiving Section, the Examining Divisions and Opposition Divisions, and the Legal Division"; and
an Enlarged Board of Appeal to notably ensure uniform application of patent law.
The above departments of European Patent Office are organized into three "Directorates-General" (DG), each being directed by a Vice-President, the DG Patent Granting Process, the DG Corporate Services, and the DG Legal and International Affairs, and a Boards of Appeal Unit, acting as the EPO’s judiciary. According to Sir Robin Jacob, the members of the EPO Boards of Appeal are "judges in all but name".
The European Patent Office does not make decisions on infringement matters. National courts have jurisdiction over infringement matters regarding European patents. Regarding the validity of European patents however, both the European Patent Office during opposition proceedings () and national courts during nullity proceedings () may decide to revoke a European patent.
Activities under the Patent Cooperation Treaty
In the international procedure according to the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), the European Patent Office acts as a Receiving Office, an International Searching Authority (ISA), an International Preliminary Examining Authority (IPEA) and, with effect from 1 July 2010, as a so-called Supplementary International Searching Authority (SISA). The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) provides an international procedure for handling patent applications, called international applications, during the first 30 months after their first filing in any country party to the PCT. The European Patent Office does not grant "international patents," as such patents do not exist. After 30 months (or, for a few countries, after 20 months) an international application must be converted into national or regional patent applications, and then are subject to national/regional grant procedures.
As Supplementary International Searching Authority (SISA), the European Patent Office has announced that it will conduct no more than 700 supplementary international searches per year.
Online services
The EPO offers on its web site several free services, including Espacenet and Open Patent Services (OPS) for searching within its collection of patent documents, the legal texts published in its Official Journal, the European Patent Register containing legal information relating to published European patent applications and European patents (the European Patent Register also allowing the inspection of files under ), and a publication server of the European patent applications and patents. There is also the CMS software for filing European patent applications online.
International cooperation
The EPO engages in several forms of international co-operation within and outside of Europe, with other intellectual property offices, as well as with international organisations that are outside of the patent system. The EPO cooperates with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and the Japan Patent Office (JPO) as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. It also works with the Japan Patent Office (JPO), the Korean Intellectual Property Office (KIPO), China's National Intellectual Property Administration (CNIPA) and the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in a co-operation known as the "five IP offices" or IP5.
On 27 April 2017, the EPO and the Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO) signed a program enabling increased work-sharing and accelerated treatment of patent applications between both patent offices. The agreement, known as the Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH), was signed by the presidents of the EPO and EAPO in Munich. The EAPO president Saule Tlevlessova stated, "The signing of this bilateral PPH agreement opens a new page in the history of EAPO-EPO co-operation, and will serve to benefit applicants and our offices."
Currently, the EPO offers three types of cooperation agreements with non-member states :
Technical co-operation aims to align national or regional patent systems in emerging economies with the European patent system. It enables partners to access the EPO's tools or participate in pilot programmes such as the Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH) which offers a fast-track procedure.
Reinforced partnerships build on technical co-operation and develop strategic ties in technical areas of mutual interest. Partner offices can avoid duplication of work through the re-use of EPO results.
In the validation system, inventors and businesses filing for a European patent can extend the scope of protection to a validation state. This scheme enables long-term technical cooperation that can be customised according to partner requirements.
Employees' representation and labour relations
The main staff union active within the EPO is the "Staff Union of the European Patent Office" (SUEPO).
As an international organization, EPO enjoys immunity and national courts have -- in principle -- no jurisdiction regarding disputes in which EPO is a party. Labour disputes can be submitted by employees to the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization (ILOAT). Courts in the Netherlands have however on occasion taken jurisdiction when it found a breach of fundamental principles of human rights, based on European Court of Human Rights case law. Jurisdiction was assumed for example because the ILOAT procedure (of over 3 years) was too lengthy for a process involving health issues or regarding a conflict with labour unions, as no appeal to ILOAT or any other judicial organization was possible. The background to the latter judgment was the ongoing conflict between EPO staff and management, in particular the refusal of EPO to recognise the staff unions, blocking of e-mail communication between the unions and their members and restriction of the right to strike. Opstelten's intervention was criticised by a number of Dutch legal experts including Cedric Ryngaert, Professor of International Law in Utrecht, who considered the Minister's intervention to be unusual: "Basically he erodes the power of the Court. International organisations are going to increasingly put themselves above the law, which is already a problem now. Opstelten relies on an Act from the seventies, which must be applied dynamically. Instead he takes a very conservative view."
Labour relations at the EPO during the presidency of Benoît Battistelli have been strained and marked by conflict with a noticeable escalation during 2014. Staff discontent has been attributed to Battistelli's style of management which, according to reports in the German newspapers Die Zeit and Die Welt, was perceived by staff as being unduly autocratic and unsuited to a European intergovernmental body such as the EPO.
Concern has been expressed regarding the high number of suicides of EPO employees, five in over three years. The EPO President Battistelli dismissed the suggestions -by EPO staff union SUEPO- of a possible link between the suicide and working conditions at the EPO as "totally inappropriate" and accused the staff union of "abusing a personal tragedy and inciting controversy". The EPO staff union SUEPO said that a direct link between the suicide and the working conditions had not been demonstrated but that the Dutch Labour Inspectorate should be given the opportunity of investigating the matter.
Controversial investment fund
In June 2018, the German Federal Court of Auditors () and financial experts criticized the planned establishment by the EPO of a fund, called "EPO Treasury Investment Fund" (EPOTIF), to manage 2.3 billion euros of its assets, the fund including risky financial products such as asset-backed securities, mortgage-backed securities, and credit default swaps.
Notes
References
External links
Institute of Professional Representatives before the EPO or "European Patent Institute (epi)"
Staff Union of the European Patent Office (SUEPO)
FFPE-EPO another staff union of the European Patent Office
European Patent Organisation
Patent offices
International Searching and Preliminary Examining Authorities
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239340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensor%20carpi%20radialis%20longus%20muscle | Extensor carpi radialis longus muscle | The extensor carpi radialis longus is one of the five main muscles that control movements at the wrist. This muscle is quite long, starting on the lateral side of the humerus, and attaching to the base of the second metacarpal bone (metacarpal of the index finger).
Structure
It originates from the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus, from the lateral intermuscular septum, and by a few fibers from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus.
The fibers end at the upper third of the forearm in a flat tendon, which runs along the lateral border of the radius, beneath the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis; it then passes beneath the dorsal carpal ligament, where it lies in a groove on the back of the radius common to it and the extensor carpi radialis brevis, immediately behind the styloid process.
One of the three muscles of the radial forearm group, it initially lies beside the brachioradialis, but becomes mostly tendon early on. Passing between the brachioradialis and the extensor carpi radialis brevis, this tendon continues into the second tendon compartment together with the latter muscle.
It is inserted into the dorsal surface of the base of the second metacarpal bone, on its radial side.
Innervation
The extensor carpi radialis longus is a wrist extensor that is innervated by the radial nerve, from spinal roots C6 and C7. All other major extensor muscles in the superficial layer of the posterior compartment (the extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi ulnaris, and extensor digiti minimi) are innervated by the posterior interosseous branch of the radial nerve.
Function
As the name suggests, this muscle is an extensor at the wrist joint and travels along the radial side of the arm, so it will also abduct (radial abduction) the hand at the wrist. That is, it manipulates the wrist so as to move the hand towards the thumb (i.e. abduction—away from the mid-position of the hand) and away from the palmar side (i.e. extension—increased angle between the palm and the front of the forearm).
Society and culture
Exercises
The muscle, like all extensors of the forearm, can be strengthened by exercise that resist its extension; Reverse wrist curls with dumbbells can be performed.
Additional images
Notes
References
Muscles of the upper limb | [
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239342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensor%20carpi%20radialis%20brevis%20muscle | Extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle | In human anatomy, extensor carpi radialis brevis is a muscle in the forearm that acts to extend and abduct the wrist. It is shorter and thicker than its namesake extensor carpi radialis longus which can be found above the proximal end of the extensor carpi radialis brevis.
Origin and insertion
It arises from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, by the common extensor tendon; from the radial collateral ligament of the elbow-joint; from a strong aponeurosis which covers its surface; and from the intermuscular septa between it and the adjacent muscles.
The fibres end approximately at the middle of the forearm in the form of a flat tendon, which is closely connected with that of the extensor carpi radialis longus, and accompanies it to the wrist; it passes beneath the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis, beneath the extensor retinaculum, and inserts into the lateral dorsal surface of the base of the third metacarpal bone, with a few fibres inserting into the medial dorsal surface of the second metacarpal bone.
Relations
Under the extensor retinaculum the tendon lies on the back of the radius in a shallow groove, to the ulnar side of that which lodges the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis longus, and separated from it by a faint ridge.
Innervation
Like all the muscles in the posterior forearm, ECR brevis is supplied by a branch of the radial nerve.
Function
It is an extensor, and an abductor of the hand at the wrist joint. That is, it serves to manipulate the wrist so that the fingers moves away from the palm.
The muscle, like all extensors of the forearm, can be strengthened by exercise that resist its extension; Reverse wrist curls with dumbbells can be performed.
Additional images
References
Muscles of the upper limb | [
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