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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clair%20Cameron%20Patterson
Clair Cameron Patterson
Clair Cameron Patterson (June 2, 1922 – December 5, 1995) was an American geochemist. Born in Mitchellville, Iowa, Patterson graduated from Grinnell College. He later received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and spent his entire professional career at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). In collaboration with George Tilton, Patterson developed the uranium–lead dating method into lead–lead dating. By using lead isotopic data from the Canyon Diablo meteorite, he calculated an age for the Earth of 4.55 billion years, which was a figure far more accurate than those that existed at the time, and one that has remained largely unchanged since 1956. Patterson had first encountered lead contamination in the late 1940s as a graduate student at the University of Chicago. His work on this subject led to a total re-evaluation of the growth in industrial lead concentrations in the atmosphere and the human body, and his subsequent campaigning was seminal in the banning of tetraethyllead in gasoline and lead solder in food cans. Early life Clair Cameron Patterson was born in Mitchellville, Iowa. His father was a mail carrier and his mother was a member of the school board; Patterson had one brother, Paul, and one sister, Patricia. From a young age he was encouraged by his family to pursue his intellectual curiosity. Patterson graduated from high school in 1939, at the age of 16. He attended Grinnell College—close enough that Patterson would hitchhike home to do laundry—and graduated with a degree in chemistry in 1943. There, he met his future wife, Lorna (Laurie) McCleary. For graduate school, they both attended the University of Iowa, where he was awarded an M.A. in molecular spectroscopy. Both were then sent to work on the Manhattan Project, first at the University of Chicago and then at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where he encountered mass spectrometry. After World War II, the Pattersons returned to Chicago, where Laurie took a research job as an infrared spectroscopist to support Patterson while he studied for his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago under Harrison Brown. While studying at an old laboratory, Patterson was able to make discoveries involving the lead that he ended up studying later in his life. He made several different experiments which led to shocking results for the time period involving the lead. After a postdoctoral year at Chicago, Patterson moved with Brown to the Division of Geology (later the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences) at the California Institute of Technology in 1952, as founding members of its geochemistry program. Patterson remained at Caltech for the rest of his life. He and Laurie had four children. Measurement of age of Earth When Patterson returned to the University of Chicago to work under his research adviser Harrison Brown, Brown, knowing about Patterson's experience with mass spectrometry, teamed him up with George Tilton to do geological aging on zircons. Zircons are extremely useful for dating since, when they are formed, they possess tiny imperfections of uranium, but no lead. Therefore, if any lead is present in the zircon, it must come from the decay of uranium. This process is known as U-Pb dating. The job of the team was to measure the concentration and isotopic compositions of the elements inside the zircon. Tilton was to measure the uranium and Patterson, the amount and type of lead. The goal for Patterson was to figure out the composition of the primordial lead in the Earth. In doing so, it would be possible to figure out the age of the solar system and, in turn, the Earth by using the same techniques on meteorites. As Patterson and Tilton began their work in 1948, Patterson quickly became aware that his lead samples were being contaminated. They knew the age of the igneous rock from which the zircon came, and Tilton's uranium measurements aligned with what should be in a zircon at that particular age, but Patterson's data always was skewed with too much lead. After six years the team did publish a paper on methods of determining the ages of zircon crystals and Patterson did achieve his Ph.D., but they were no closer in determining the age of the Earth. Brown was able to receive a grant from the United States Atomic Energy Commission to continue work on dating the Earth, but more importantly, to commission a new mass spectrometer in Pasadena, California at Caltech. In 1953, Brown brought Patterson along with him to Caltech, where Patterson was able to build his own lab from scratch. In it he secured all points of entry for air and other contaminants. Patterson also acid cleaned all apparatuses and even distilled all of his chemicals shipped to him. In essence, he created one of the first clean rooms ever, in order to prevent lead contamination of his data. He then was able to finish his work with the Canyon Diablo meteorite. He used the mass spectrometer at the Argonne National Laboratory on isolated iron-meteorite lead to collect data on the abundance of lead isotopes. With the new data, in 1956 he published “Age of Meteorites and the Earth”, the first paper containing the true age of the solar system's accretion, which was 4.550Gy ± 70My. Before the major discovery was made, it was believed to the public that the earth was around 3.3 billion years old. Many were very surprised to find that the actual age of the earth was much more than what they had expected. The publicity that came after the discovery was made was handled quite well by Patterson, who made the statement, "we did it" in several interviews, sharing the honor of the discovery with his fellow scientific minds behind the action. Tracing geochemical evolution of Earth Patterson's ability to isolate microgram quantities of lead from ordinary rocks and to determine their isotope composition led him to examining the lead in ocean sediment samples from the Atlantic and the Pacific. Deriving from the different ages at which the landmasses had drained into the ocean, he was able to show that the amount of anthropogenic lead presently dispersed into the environment was about 80 times the amount being deposited in the ocean sediments previously: the geochemical cycle for lead appeared to be badly out of balance. The limitations of the analytic procedures led to his use of other approaches. He found that deep ocean water contained up to 20 times less lead than surface water, in contrast to similar metals such as barium. That led him to doubt the commonly held view that lead concentrations had grown by only a factor of two over naturally occurring levels. Patterson returned to the problem of his initial experiment and the contamination he had found in the blanks used for sampling. He determined, through ice-core samples from Greenland taken in 1964 and from Antarctica in 1965, that atmospheric lead levels had begun to increase steadily and dangerously soon after tetraethyl lead began to see widespread use in fuel, when it was discovered to reduce engine knock in internal combustion engines. Patterson subsequently identified that, along with the various other uses of lead in manufacturing, as the cause of the contamination of his samples. Because of the significant public-health implications of his findings, he devoted the rest of his life to removing as much introduced lead from the environment as possible. Campaign against lead poisoning Beginning in 1965, with the publication of Contaminated and Natural Lead Environments of Man, Patterson tried to draw public attention to the problem of increased lead levels in the environment and the food chain from lead from industrial sources. Perhaps partly because he was criticizing the experimental methods of other scientists, he encountered strong opposition from those then recognized as experts, such as Robert A. Kehoe. In his effort to ensure that lead was removed from gasoline (petrol), Patterson fought against the lobbying power of the Ethyl Corporation (which employed Kehoe), against the legacy of Thomas Midgley, Jr. (which included tetraethyllead and chlorofluorocarbons), and against the lead additive industry as a whole. Following Patterson's criticism of the lead industry, he was refused contracts with many research organizations, including the supposedly-neutral United States Public Health Service. In 1971, he was excluded from a National Research Council (NRC) panel on atmospheric lead contamination, even though he was then the foremost expert on the subject. The United States mandated the use of unleaded gasoline to protect catalytic converters in all new cars starting with the 1975 model year, but Patterson's efforts accelerated the phaseout of lead from all standard, consumer automotive gasoline in the United States by 1986. Lead levels within the blood of Americans are reported to have dropped by up to 80% by the late 1990s. Most people, following Kehoe's arguments, referred to "normal levels" of lead in blood, soil, and air, meaning values near the average. They assumed that because these levels were common, they were harmless. "Normal" also carries some of the meaning "natural". Patterson argued that "normal" should be replaced by "typical" and that just because a certain level of lead was commonplace, it did not mean it was without harm. "Natural", he insisted, was limited to concentrations of lead that existed in the body or environment before contamination by humans, which has occurred frequently due to technological advancements and cultural traditions. Due to his ultraclean chamber, considered one of the first clean rooms, his measurements of isotopic ratios were free of the contamination that confounded the findings of Kehoe and others. Where Kehoe measured lead in "unexposed" workers in a TEL plant and Mexican farmers, Patterson studied mummies from before the Iron Age and tuna raised from pelagic waters. Kehoe claimed that humans had adapted to environmental lead. Patterson's precise point was that humans only recently had increased their concentration of lead and that the short span of exposure, a few thousand years, was an instant in the Darwinian time scale, nowhere near the time needed to develop adaptive responses. Patterson focused his attention to lead in food, for which similar experimental deficiencies also had masked increases. In one study, he showed an increase in lead levels from 0.3 to 1400 ng/g in certain canned fish compared with fresh, while the official laboratory had reported an increase of 400 ng/g to 700 ng/g. He compared the lead, barium, and calcium levels in 1600-year-old Peruvian skeletons and showed a 700- to 1200-fold increase in lead levels in modern human bones, with no comparable changes in the barium and calcium levels. In 1978, he was appointed to a National Research Council panel that acknowledged many of the increases and the need for reductions, but other members argued the need for more research before recommending action. His opinions were expressed in a 78-page minority report, which argued that control measures should start immediately, including gasoline, food containers, paint, glazes, and water distribution systems. Death Patterson died in his home in Sea Ranch, California, at the age of 73 on December 5, 1995. The reported cause of his death was a severe asthma attack. Awards and honors J. Lawrence Smith Medal, 1973 (National Academy of Sciences) V. M. Goldschmidt Award, 1980 (Geochemical Society) Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, 1995 (University of Southern California) Minor planet 2511 Patterson is named in his honor. Memorials Clair C. Patterson Award, awarded annually since 1998 by the Geochemical Society References Further reading Denworth, L. Toxic Truth: A Scientist, A Doctor, and the Battle over Lead, Beacon Press, 2009. External links 1922 births 1995 deaths American geochemists Grinnell College alumni Manhattan Project people People from Polk County, Iowa People from Sea Ranch, California American environmentalists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20patriarchs%20of%20Antioch
List of patriarchs of Antioch
The Patriarch of Antioch was the head of the Church of Antioch. According to tradition, the bishopric of Antioch was established by Saint Peter in the 1st century AD and was later elevated to the status of patriarchate by the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The church first underwent schism after the deposition of Eustathius in 330 over the issue of the Arian controversy and persisted until its resolution in 414. After the Council of Chalcedon of 451, the church suffered division until the deposition of Patriarch Severus of Antioch in 518 resulted in a permanent schism from which two separate lines of patriarchs emerged. The Non-Chalcedonian supporters of Severus went on to form what is now known as the Syriac Orthodox Church, whilst the Chalcedonians developed the church now known as the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch. List of patriarchs Bishops of Antioch to 324 Unless otherwise stated, all information is derived from Chronologies of the Ancient World: Names, Dates and Dynasties and The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, as noted in the bibliography below. Peter I (/47–/54) Evodius (/54–/83) Ignatius (– or –115) Heron I (/116–/128) Cornelius (/128–/154) Heron II (– or –) vacant (–) Theophilus (–182) Maximus I (182–190/191) Serapion (190/191–211/212) Asclepiades (211/212–217/218/220) Philetus (217/218/220–230/231) Zebinnus (230/231–237) Babylas (237–250/251) Fabius (250/251–253/256) Demetrius (253/256–260/261) Paul (260/261–268/272) Domnus I (268–273) Timaeus (273–279/280) Cyril (279/280–303) Tyrannion (304–314) Vitalis (314–320) Philogonius (320–324) Patriarchs of Antioch from 324 to 360 Eustathius (324–330) Paulinus I (330) Eulalius (331–332) Euphronius (332–333) Flacillus (333–342) Stephen I (342–344) Leontius (344–357) Eudoxius (358–359) Annanius (359) Patriarchs of Antioch from 360 to 414 Meletian line Meletius (360–381) Flavian I (381–404) Porphyrus (404–414) Arian line Euzoius (360/361–376) Dorotheus (376–381) Nicene line Paulinus II (362–388) Evagrius (388–392/393) Apollinarist line Vitalis (375) Patriarchs of Antioch from 414 to 518 Alexander (414–417) Theodotus (417–428) John I (429–441) Domnus II (441–449) Chalcedonian line Maximus II (450–455) Basil (456–458) Acacius (458–459) Martyrius (459–471) Peter II (471) Julian (471–475) Peter II (475–477) John II Codonatus (477) Stephen II (477–479) Stephen III (disputed) Calendion (479–484) Peter II (485–488) Palladius (488–498) Flavian II (498–512) Severus (512–518) Non-Chalcedonian line Maximus II (450–455) Basil (456–458) Acacius (458–459) Martyrius (459–471) Peter II (471) Julian (471–475) Peter II (475–477) John II Codonatus (477) Stephen II (477–479) Stephen III (disputed) Calendion (479–484) Peter II (485–488) Palladius (488–498) Flavian II (498–512) Severus (512–518) Patriarchs of Antioch from 518 to present List of Greek Orthodox patriarchs of Antioch List of Syriac Orthodox patriarchs of Antioch See also List of Maronite patriarchs of Antioch List of Syriac Catholic patriarchs of Antioch List of Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch References Notes Citations Bibliography Antioch Turkey religion-related lists Syria religion-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salammb%C3%B4%20%28disambiguation%29
Salammbô (disambiguation)
Salammbô may refer to: Salammbô (1862), the original novel by Gustave Flaubert (and name given by Flaubert to the character of the youngest daughter of Hamilcar Barca) Salammbô (Mussorgsky), an unfinished opera, based on Flaubert's novel, on which Modest Mussorgsky worked between 1863 and 1866 Salammbô (Reyer) (1890), an opera composed by Ernest Reyer based on Flaubert's novel Salammbô (Rachmaninoff) a projected opera by Sergei Rachmaninoff Salammbo, a 1925 film by Alexander Kolowrat Salammbo, a 1940 opera by Veselin Stoyanov The Loves of Salammbo, a film directed by Sergio Grieco Salammbo: Battle for Carthage, a video game
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239635
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roding%20Valley%20tube%20station
Roding Valley tube station
Roding Valley is a London Underground station situated in Buckhurst Hill in the Epping Forest district of Essex immediately to the north of the boundary with Greater London (the London Borough of Redbridge). The station is on the Hainault loop of the Central line between Chigwell and Woodford stations. However, geographically it is midway between Woodford and Buckhurst Hill stations. It is located between Station Way and Cherry Tree Rise (off Buckhurst Way). Since 2 January 2007, the station has been in Travelcard Zone 4. With around million passenger journeys recorded in , Roding Valley is the , and least used station on the entire Underground network. Location It was originally named Roding Valley Halt (though while the full name appeared on tickets and timetables, the suffix Halt appeared on only some of the station signage), and was opened to serve new housing developments between Buckhurst Hill and Woodford. It was named after the River Roding which is close by, to the east. The track rises towards Chigwell and crosses the Roding over an impressive viaduct. Woodford Junction, where the Hainault branch leaves the main Central line to Epping, is very close to the station — Roding Valley's platforms are visible from the train in either direction between Woodford and Buckhurst Hill (on the left of the train towards Woodford). Roding Valley station has a very small catchment area, which explains its low usage. To the east is an undeveloped flood plain of the river Roding. A short distance to the north is Buckhurst Hill station. To the north-west is open space, while the areas to the south are served by Woodford station, which has a better train service. History The tracks through Roding Valley were opened on 1 May 1903 by the Great Eastern Railway (GER) on its Woodford to Ilford line (the Fairlop Loop). The station was not opened until 3 February 1936 by the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER, successor to the GER). As part of the 1935–1940 New Works Programme of the London Passenger Transport Board the majority of the Woodford to Ilford loop was to be transferred to form the eastern extensions of the Central line. Although work started in 1938 it was suspended at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 and work was only resumed in 1946. In connection with the alterations required for the electrification of the line, the station was closed from 29 November 1947. It reopened, with its present name, and was first served by the Central line from 21 November 1948. The rather basic station buildings (all-wooden on the Woodford-bound side) were replaced by more substantial structures by 1949. From the mid-1960s until the early 1990s the Woodford-Hainault section was largely operated separately from the rest of the Central line, using four-car (later three-car) trains of 1960 Stock. The three car units had a 1938 tube stock middle carriage. These trains were adapted for Automatic Train Operation (ATO): the Woodford-Hainault section became the testing ground for ATO on the Victoria line. Some Victoria line (1967 Stock) trains were also used to operate this section and named FACT, "Fully Automatic Controlled Train". The separate operation has now been abolished, the 1960 Stock has been withdrawn and through trains to Central London now operate via Hainault. Because of this, it is normally quicker to travel to Woodford and change there, as trains to central London run frequently from that point. At the buildup to the peak periods, some trains starting from Hainault depot operate to central London via Grange Hill, Chigwell, Roding Valley and Woodford. This is done for operating convenience but passenger demand for these services is particularly high. The station today Roding Valley is the most lightly used station on the Underground. It is also one of the twelve tube stations not to have ticket barriers. The station underwent refurbishment in 2006 by Metronet. Before this, the ticket office was only staffed for a few hours every week to allow the sale of period Travelcards and other season tickets. In the 1980s the station had a foreman, a ticket office clerk, and two railmen, one of whom sold tickets on the Woodford bound (inner rail) platform using a Gibson machine, the other collecting tickets on the Chigwell bound (outer rail) platform. Services The train service (which used to end at 8pm each day) has been extended to midnight to take into account the rising passenger numbers. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is: 3 tph to Hainault 3 tph to Woodford At morning rush hour, there are three trains that run to West Ruislip. Connections London Buses route 549 serves the station. References External links London Transport Museum Photographic Archive Central line stations Tube stations in Essex Transport in Epping Forest District Former London and North Eastern Railway stations Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1936 1936 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterson
Patterson
Patterson may refer to: People Patterson (surname) Places Canada Pattersons Corners, Ontario Patterson Township, Ontario Patterson, Calgary a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta. United States of America Patterson, Arkansas Patterson, California Patterson, California, former name of Trigo, Madera County, California Patterson, California, former name of Cherokee, Nevada County, California Patterson, Georgia Patterson, Idaho Patterson, Iowa Patterson, Louisiana Patterson, Missouri Patterson, New Mexico Patterson, New York Patterson, Ohio Lake Patterson, a lake in Minnesota Patterson Springs, North Carolina Patterson Heights, Pennsylvania Patterson Tract, California Other uses Bob Patterson (TV series), American sitcom C.R. Patterson and Sons, American car manufacturer from 1915 until 1939. Patterson (radio series), British radio series by Malcolm Bradbury Patterson Companies, a medical supplies conglomerate based in Minnesota Patterson function, X-ray crystallography Patterson School of Diplomacy and International Commerce, at the University of Kentucky located in Lexington, Kentucky, USA Patterson & Sullivan, American art company in San Francisco Patterson syndrome, rare disease Patterson-UTI, onshore contract drilling services to exploration and production companies in North America Patterson Viaduct, spanned the Patapsco River at Ilchester, Maryland, USA Patterson–Gimlin film Patterson Plantation, a historic house in Durham, North Carolina See also Paterson (disambiguation) Pattersonville (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browning
Browning
Browning may refer to: Arts and entertainment The Browning, an American electronicore band Browning, a set of variations by the composer William Byrd Places Browning, Georgia, USA Browning, Illinois, USA Browning, Missouri, USA Browning, Montana, USA Browning, Texas, an unincorporated community in Smith County, Texas Browning, Wisconsin, USA Browning, Saskatchewan, Canada Rural Municipality of Browning No. 34, Saskatchewan, Canada, a rural municipality 25851 Browning, a minor planet People Browning (name) Science and technology Browning machine gun (disambiguation), a family of guns Browning Arms Company, initially marketing the sporting designs of John Browning , a coaster Food Browning (partial cooking), the cooking process that removes excessive fat from meat and changes its color to a light brown Gravy browning, a substance used to darken and flavour gravies, soups etc. Food browning, chemical reactions affecting foods such as apples Other uses Browning (steel), a surface finishing process to increase corrosion resistance Browning School, a private boys' school in New York City See also Browns (disambiguation) Brown (disambiguation) Justice Browning (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meletius%20of%20Antioch
Meletius of Antioch
Saint Meletius (Greek: Μελέτιος, Meletios) was a Christian bishop of Antioch from 360 until his death in 381. He was opposed by a rival bishop named Paulinus and his episcopate was dominated by the schism, usually called the Meletian schism. As a result, he was exiled from Antioch in 361–362, 365–366 and 371–378. One of his last acts was to preside over the First Council of Constantinople in 381. There are contrasting views about his theological position: on the one hand, he was exiled three times under Arian emperors; on the other, he was strongly opposed by those faithful to the memory of the staunchly pro-Nicene Eustathius of Antioch, whom the synod of Melitene deposed for his Homoousianism, which they considered a heresy, and by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, a firm opponent of Arianism. Meletius' asceticism was remarkable in view of his great private wealth. He is venerated as a saint and confessor in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. His feast day is 12 February. Bishop of Sebaste Meletius was born at Melitene in Lesser Armenia of wealthy and noble parents. He first appears around 357 as a supporter of Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, the leader of that local faction that supported the Homoean formula by which the emperor Constantius II sought for a compromise between the Homoiousians and the Homoousians. The Homoiousians held that God and Jesus Christ are of like essence, the Homoousians that they are, as stated in the Nicene Creed, of the same essence. Meletius thus first appears as an ecclesiastic of the court party, and as such became bishop of Sebaste in succession to Eustathius, an Arian. The appointment was resented by the Homoousian clergy, and Meletius resigned the see. Bishop of Antioch First period and exile According to Socrates Scholasticus, Meletius attended the synod of Seleucia in the autumn of 359, and then subscribed to the Acacian (Homoean) formula. Early in 360 he became bishop of Antioch, succeeding Eudoxius, who had been translated to the see of Constantinople. Early the following year (361), he was in exile. According to an old tradition, supported by evidence drawn from Epiphanius of Cyprus and John Chrysostom, this was due to a sermon preached before the emperor Constantius II, in which he revealed Homoousian views. This explanation, however, is rejected by G. F. Loofs on the grounds that the sermon contains nothing inconsistent with the Acacian position favoured by the court party; on the other hand, there is evidence of conflicts with the clergy, quite apart from any questions of orthodoxy, which may have led to the bishop's deposition. Meletius believed that truth lay in delicate distinctions, but his formula was so indefinite that it is difficult to grasp it with precision. He was neither a thorough Nicene nor a decided Arian. The successor of Meletius was Euzoeus, an Arian. In Antioch itself Meletius continued to have adherents, who held separate services in the apostolic church in the old town. The Meletian schism was complicated, moreover, by the presence in the city of another anti-Arian sect, stricter adherents of the Homoousian formula, maintaining the tradition of the deposed bishop Eustathius and governed at this time by the presbyter Paulinus. The synod of Alexandria (362) sent deputies to attempt an arrangement between the two anti-Arian churches; but before they arrived Paulinus had been consecrated bishop by Lucifer of Calaris. When in consequence of the emperor Julian's contemptuous policy Meletius returned, he found himself as one of three rival bishops. Second and third exiles Athanasius of Alexandria came to Antioch by order of the emperor, and expressed to Meletius his wish of entering into communion with him. Meletius, ill-advised, delayed answering him, and Athanasius went away having admitted Paulinus, whom he had not yet recognized as bishop, to his communion. The orthodox Nicene party, notably Athanasius himself, held communion with Paulinus only. Twice, in 365 and 371 or 372, Meletius was exiled by decree of the Arian emperor Valens. A further complication was added when, in 375, Vitalius, one of Meletius' presbyters, was consecrated bishop by the heretical bishop Apollinaris of Laodicea. After the death of Valens in 378, the Western emperor Gratian removed Euzoeus from Antioch, handing over the churches to Meletius. Theodosius I, the new emperor in the East, also favoured Meletius, who had been more and more approximating to the views of the Nicene Creed. Triumph Upon his return to Antioch, Meletius was hailed as the leader of orthodoxy. As such he presided in October 379 over the great synod of Antioch, in which the dogmatic agreement of East and West was established. He helped Gregory Nazianzus to the see of Constantinople and consecrated him and also presided over the First Council of Constantinople, the second ecumenical council, in 381. Paulinus, however, was the man favoured by Rome and Alexandria. Jerome accompanied Paulinus back to Rome in order to secure him more support. Meanwhile, Ambrose, bishop of Milan, was dealing with Arians in the West. He persuaded Gratian to call a church synod. The Council of Aquileia (381) deposed two bishops of the eastern province of Dacia, Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum, and requested the emperors Theodosius and Gratian to convene at Alexandria a general council of all bishops in order to put an end to the Meletian schism at Antioch. The two remaining factions which divided the Antiochene Church were orthodox, the supporters of Meletius and the adherents of Paulinus. Uniting them was a difficult move. A temporary pacification ensued, when six of the leading presbyters took an oath not to seek episcopal consecration themselves but to accept as bishop of Antioch whichever of the two rivals outlived the other. Schism after his death Meletius died soon after the opening of the First Council of Constantinople and the emperor Theodosius, who had received him with special distinction, ordered his body to be carried to Antioch and buried with the honours of a saint. The Meletian schism, however, did not end immediately with his death. In spite of the advice of Gregory Nazianzus, Paulinus was not recognized as the sole bishop and Flavian was consecrated as Meletius' successor. The Eustathians, on the other hand, elected Evagrius as bishop on Paulinus' death in 388. In 399, John Chrysostom, who had been ordained a deacon by Meletius, but later separated from his group and accepted ordination to the priesthood at the hands of Evagrius, secured reconciliation between Flavian and the sees of Alexandria and Rome. However, it would take the Eustathians at Antioch until 415 to accept Flavian. Notes Further reading Cavallera, F. Le Schisme de Mélèce. Paris: Picard, 1906. External links Saints.sqpn: Meletius of Antioch Catholic Online: Meletius of Antioch Santiebeati: Meletius of Antioch 381 deaths 4th-century births Armenian saints Patriarchs of Antioch Schisms in Christianity Syrian Christian saints 4th-century Romans 4th-century archbishops Ancient Christians involved in controversies 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Christian theologians Arianism John Chrysostom Syrian people of Armenian descent
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239642
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Western
Fort Western
Fort Western is a former British colonial outpost at the head of navigation on the Kennebec River at modern Augusta, Maine, United States. It was built in 1754 during the French and Indian War, and is now a National Historic Landmark and local historic site owned by the city. Its main building, the only original element of the fort to survive, was restored in 1920 and now depicts its original use as a trading post. French and Indian War Fort Western was built by a Boston land company (the Kennebec Proprietors) in 1754 as a fortified trading post, and to promote settlement in the area. The fort was a log palisade with blockhouses which protected a store and warehouse. It was never directly attacked. From a high elevation a large rectangular enclosure commanded the river for more than a mile. Blockhouses 24 feet square and watch-boxes 12 feet square guarded opposite corners, and within stood a two-story main house . After the war ended, James Howard, its last commander, purchased the fort and operated the trading post. American Revolution After 1769, Fort Western fell into decay. In 1775, Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec stopped at Fort Western long enough to repair bateaux. Arnold, Daniel Morgan, Roger Enos, and Aaron Burr stayed as guests in the garrison while their force camped outside. Fort Western was the starting point for the march through the wilderness to Quebec. Old Fort Western The main building of the fort eventually passed out of the Howard family, and was converted into a tenement house. It was repurchased in Howard family descendants in 1919, and restored the following year, which included the construction of two new blockhouses and a stockade. The stockade was again rebuilt in 1960. Today its main building is a little-altered example of an 18th-century trading post. The fort and store are maintained as a museum and are open to the public during the summer months. The fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973. See also Cushnoc Archeological Site, adjacent to the fort List of National Historic Landmarks in Maine National Register of Historic Places listings in Kennebec County, Maine References External links The Old Fort Western web site Buildings and structures in Augusta, Maine Western National Historic Landmarks in Maine Infrastructure completed in 1754 Western Museums in Kennebec County, Maine Military and war museums in Maine History museums in Maine Living museums in Maine Tourist attractions in Augusta, Maine Western 1754 establishments in Massachusetts National Register of Historic Places in Augusta, Maine Log buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iago
Iago
Iago () is a fictional character in Shakespeare's Othello (c. 1601–1604). Iago is the play's main antagonist, and Othello's standard-bearer. He is the husband of Emilia, who is in turn the attendant of Othello's wife Desdemona. Iago hates Othello and devises a plan to destroy him by making him believe that Desdemona is having an affair with his lieutenant, Michael Cassio. The role is thought to have been first played by Robert Armin, who typically played intelligent clown roles like Touchstone in As You Like It and Feste in Twelfth Night. The character's source is traced to Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio's tale "Un Capitano Moro" in Gli Hecatommithi (1565). There, the character is simply "the ensign". Origin While no English translation of Cinthio was available in Shakespeare's lifetime, it is possible Shakespeare knew the Italian original, Gabriel Chappuy's 1584 French translation, or an English translation in manuscript. Cinthio's tale may have been based on an actual incident occurring in Venice about 1508. While Shakespeare closely followed Cinthio's tale in composing Othello, he departed from it in some details. In Cinthio's tale, for example, the ensign suffers an unrequited lust for the Moor's wife, Desdemona, which then drives his vengeance. Desdemona dies in an entirely different manner in Cinthio's tale; the Moor commissions his ensign to bludgeon her to death with a sand-filled stocking. In gruesome detail, Cinthio follows each blow, and, when she is dead, the Moor and his ensign place her lifeless body upon her bed, smash her skull, and then cause the cracked ceiling above the bed to collapse upon her, giving the impression the falling rafters caused her death. The two murderers escape detection. The Moor misses his wife greatly, however, and comes to loathe the sight of his ensign. He demotes him, and refuses to have him in his company. The ensign then seeks revenge by disclosing to "the squadron leader" (the tale's Cassio counterpart) the Moor's involvement in Desdemona's death. The two men denounce the Moor to the Venetian Seignory. The Moor is arrested, transported from Cyprus to Venice, and tortured, but refuses to admit his guilt. He is condemned to exile; Desdemona's relatives eventually execute him. The ensign escapes any prosecution in Desdemona's death, but engages in other crimes and dies after being tortured. Role in the play Iago is a soldier who has fought beside Othello for several years, and has become his trusted advisor. At the beginning of the play, Iago claims to have been unfairly passed over for promotion to the rank of Othello's lieutenant in favour of Michael Cassio. Iago plots to manipulate Othello into demoting Cassio, and thereafter to bring about the downfall of Othello himself. He has an ally, Roderigo, who assists him in his plans in the mistaken belief that after Othello is gone, Iago will help Roderigo earn the affection of Othello's wife, Desdemona. After Iago engineers a drunken brawl to ensure Cassio's demotion (in Act 2), he sets to work on his second scheme: leading Othello to believe that Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio. This plan occupies the final three acts of the play. He manipulates his wife Emilia, Desdemona's lady-in-waiting, into taking from Desdemona a handkerchief that Othello had given her; he then tells Othello that he had seen it in Cassio's possession. Once Othello flies into a jealous rage, Iago tells him to hide and look on while he (Iago) talks to Cassio. Iago then leads Othello to believe that a bawdy conversation about Cassio's mistress, Bianca, is in fact about Desdemona. Mad with jealousy, Othello orders Iago to kill Cassio, promising to make him lieutenant in return. Iago then engineers a fight between Cassio and Roderigo in which the latter is killed (by Iago himself, double-crossing his ally), but the former merely wounded. Iago's plan appears to succeed when Othello kills Desdemona, who is innocent of Iago's charges. Soon afterwards, however, Emilia brings Iago's treachery to light, and Iago kills her in a fit of rage before being arrested. He remains famously reticent when pressed for an explanation of his actions before he is arrested: "Demand me nothing. What you know, you know. From this time forth I never will speak word." Following Othello's suicide, Cassio, now in charge, condemns Iago to be imprisoned and tortured as punishment for his crimes. Description of character Iago is one of Shakespeare's most sinister villains, often considered such because of the unique trust that Othello places in him, which he betrays while maintaining his reputation for honesty and dedication. Shakespeare contrasts Iago with Othello's nobility and integrity. With 1,097 lines, Iago has more lines in the play than Othello himself. Iago is a Machiavellian schemer and manipulator, as he is often referred to as "honest Iago", displaying his skill at deceiving other characters so that not only do they not suspect him, but they count on him as the person most likely to be truthful. Shakespearean critic A. C. Bradley said that "evil has nowhere else been portrayed with such mastery as in the evil character of Iago", and also states that he "stands supreme among Shakespeare's evil characters because the greatest intensity and subtlety of imagination have gone into his making." The mystery surrounding Iago's actual motives continues to intrigue readers and fuel scholarly debate. Critical discussion In discussing The Tragedy of Othello, scholars have long debated Iago's role—highlighting the complexity of his character and manipulativeness. Fred West contends that Shakespeare was not content with simply portraying another "stock" morality figure, and that he, like many dramatists, was particularly interested in the workings of the human mind. Thus, according to West, Iago, who sees nothing wrong with his own behaviour, is "an accurate portrait of a psychopath", who is "devoid of conscience, with no remorse". West believes that "Shakespeare had observed that there exist perfectly sane people in whom fellow-feeling of any kind is extremely weak while egoism is virtually absolute, and thus he made Iago". Bradley writes that Iago "illustrates in the most perfect combination the two facts concerning evil, which seem to have impressed Shakespeare the most", the first being that "the fact that perfectly sane people exist in whom fellow-feeling of any kind is so weak that an almost absolute egoism becomes possible to them", with the second being "that such evil is compatible, and even appears to ally itself easily, with exceptional powers of will and intellect". The same critic also famously said that "to compare Iago with the Satan of Paradise Lost seems almost absurd, so immensely does Shakespeare's man exceed Milton's Fiend in evil". Weston Babcock, however, would have readers see Iago as "an human being, shrewdly intelligent, suffering from and striking against a constant fear of social snobbery". According to Babcock, it is not malice, but fear, that drives Iago. For, "Iago dates his maturity, as he considers it, his ability to understand the world, from the age at which he recognized every remark to be personally pointed. One only who lacks inner assurance and is so constantly on guard against any hint of his inferiority could so confess himself". John Draper, on the other hand, postulates that Iago is simply "an opportunist who cleverly grasps occasion" (726), spurred on by "the keenest of professional and personal motives". Draper argues that Iago "seized occasions rather than made them". According to his theory, Iago "is the first cause, but events, once under way, pass out of his control". Following this logic, Draper concludes that Iago "is neither as clever nor as wicked as some would think; and the problem of his character largely resolves itself into the question: was he justified in embarking upon the initial stages of his revenge?" Motives Iago has been described as a "motiveless malignity" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. This reading would seem to suggest that Iago, much like Don John in Much Ado About Nothing or Aaron in Titus Andronicus, wreaks havoc on the other characters' lives for no ulterior purpose. Léone Teyssandier writes that a possible motive for Iago's actions is envy towards Desdemona, Cassio and Othello; Iago sees them as more noble, generous and, in the case of Cassio, more handsome than he is. In particular, he sees the death of Cassio as a necessity, saying of him that "He hath a daily beauty in his life that makes me ugly". Andy Serkis, who in 2002 portrayed Iago at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester, wrote in his memoir Gollum: How We Made Movie Magic, that: Iago reveals his true nature only in his soliloquies, and in occasional asides. Elsewhere, he is charismatic and friendly, and the advice he offers to both Cassio and Othello is superficially sound; as Iago himself remarks: "And what's he then, that says I play the villain, when this advice is free I give, and honest...?" It is this dramatic irony that drives the play. References External links The Romantic Iago Literary characters introduced in 1603 Fictional Italian people in literature Fictional murderers Fictional soldiers Fictional uxoricides Male characters in film Male film villains Male literary villains Male Shakespearean characters Othello Psychopathy in fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Russia
President of Russia
The president of the Russian Federation (), is the head of state of the Russian Federation, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Russian Armed Forces. It is the highest office in Russia. In 1991, the office was briefly known as the president of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic until 25 December 1991. According to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the president of Russia was head of the executive branch and headed the Council of Ministers of Russia. According to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the president of Russia is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power. In all cases where the president of the Russian Federation is unable to fulfill their duties, they shall be temporarily delegated to the prime minister of Russia, who becomes acting president of Russia. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal ministers, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the State Duma and the Federation Council. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn the Federal Assembly under extraordinary circumstances. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation. The president is elected directly through a popular vote to a six-year term. The law prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third consecutive term. In all, three individuals have served four presidencies spanning six full terms. In May 2012, Vladimir Putin became the fourth president; he was re-elected in March 2018 and inaugurated in May to a six-year term. History After the fall of monarchy in 1917, the All-Russian Constituent Assembly, elected later that year, planned on establishing a democratic presidential or semi-presidential federal republic, proclaiming the Russian Democratic Federal Republic in January 1918. The President of the RDFR would have been the head of state, elected for a one-year term by a majority vote in parliament involving the deputies of both chambers. Due to the dissolution of the Assembly by the Bolsheviks and establishment of their one-party dictatorship, no person was ever elected to this office. Boris Yeltsin came to power with a wave of high expectations not long before the Soviet Union's collapse. In May 1990, he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet (Parliament) of the Russian SFSR - the highest state office and thus became the head of state. As a result of the creation of the post of President of the Soviet Union, the Union republics also began to introduce the post of President. To do this, a referendum was held in the Russian SFSR, in which 71% of voters voted for the creation of the post of President, elected in direct elections. On 12 June 1991 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after a series of economic and political crises in Russia in the 1990s. The Yeltsin era was marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. By the time he left office, Yeltsin had an approval rating of two percent by some estimates. Throughout his presidential terms and into his second term as the Prime Minister, Putin has enjoyed high approval ratings amongst the Russian public. During his eight years in office, the economy bounced back from crisis, seeing GDP increase sixfold (72% in PPP), poverty cut more than half and average monthly salaries increase from $80 to $640, or by 150% in real rates. At the same time, his conduct in office has been questioned by domestic dissenters, as well as foreign governments and human rights organizations, for his handling of internal conflicts in Chechnya and Dagestan, his record on internal human rights and freedoms, his relations with former Soviet Republics, and his relations with the so-called oligarchs: Russian businessmen with a high degree of power and influence within both the Russian Government and economy. This was seen by the Kremlin as a series of anti-Russian propaganda attacks orchestrated by western opponents and exiled oligarchs. Medvedev was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister on 14 November 2005. Formerly Vladimir Putin's chief of staff, he was also the Chairman of Gazprom's board of directors, a post he had held, for the second time, since 2000. On 10 December 2007, he was informally endorsed as a candidate for the forthcoming presidential elections by the largest Russian political party, United Russia, and officially endorsed on 17 December 2007. Medvedev's candidacy was supported by former President Vladimir Putin and pro-presidential parties. As technocrat and political appointee, Medvedev - Putin's former Chief of Staff and one-time rival to Sergey Ivanov - had never held elective office before 2009. Medvedev chose Putin as his Prime Minister; in 2012, Putin ran for the Presidency, won, and appointed Medvedev as Prime Minister. Selection process Eligibility A presidential candidate must be a citizen of the Russian Federation who is at least 35 years old, has permanently resided in Russia for at least 25 years and does not have and has never previously had foreign citizenship or a foreign residence permit. Following constitutional amendments in 2020, the requirement of permanent residence in Russia increased from 10 years to 25 years and a new requirement preventing a presidential candidate from ever having foreign citizenship or a foreign residence permit was introduced. The Russian constitution limits the number of terms a president can serve to two terms. Previously, the constitution only limited the president to two consecutive terms, allowing a former president to seek re-election after sitting out one complete term. Following constitutional changes in 2020, this was changed to two terms overall, however allowing the incumbent president and former presidents to serve two more terms. Election The election of the President is mainly regulated by the Presidential Election Law (PEL) and the Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights (BGL). The Federation Council calls the presidential elections. If it does not call a presidential election that is due, the Central Election Commission will call the presidential election. The Election Day is the second Sunday of the month and the presidential electoral constituency is the territory of the Russian Federation as a whole. Each faction in the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament has the right to nominate a candidate for the presidential elections. The minimum number of signatures for a presidential candidate fielded by a political party with no parliamentary representation is 100,000, down from 2 million before amendments to the law. Terms were extended from four to six years in 2008, during Dmitry Medvedev's administration. The President is elected in a two-round system every six years, with a two consecutive term limitation. If no candidate wins by an absolute majority in the first round, a second election round is held between two candidates with the most votes. The last presidential election was in 2018, and the next is in 2024. Inauguration Inauguration of the President of Russia is conducted six years after the previous inauguration (since 2000, this 7 May). If the President was elected in early elections, he takes the oath, thirty days after the announcement of the results. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath: Vacancy or disability Vacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office. In all cases when the President is unable to perform his duties, his powers are temporarily transferred to the Prime Minister until the new president takes office. Insignia After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, these following insignia are handed over to the president. These devices are used to display the rank of his office and are used on special occasions. Chain of office The first insignia that is issued is the chain of office with an emblem. The central emblem is the red cross of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", with arms in equal size, charged with the Russian coat of arms. On the reverse of the cross, the words "Benefit, Honor and Glory" appear in the form of a circle. A golden wreath is used to connect the cross with the rest of the chain. There are 17 "links" in the emblem, with nine consisting of the Russian coat of arms. The other eight consist of a rosette, also bearing the motto "Benefit, Honor and Glory." At the inauguration of Vladimir Putin, the emblem was placed on a red pillow, positioned on the left side of the podium. According to the Presidential website, the emblem is placed inside the Kremlin and is used only on certain occasions. Standard (flag) The standard is a square version of the Russian flag, charged in the center with the Russian coat of arms. Golden fringe is added to the standard. Copies of the standard are used inside his office, at the Kremlin, other state agencies, and while the president is traveling in a vehicle inside Russia. A 2:3 ratio version of the flag is used when the President is at sea. This is the most used symbol to denote the presence of the Russian President. Special copy of the Constitution The President also has a special copy of the Russian Constitution that is used during the inauguration. This copy has a hard, red cover with gold lettering. An image of the Russian coat of arms appears in silver. The special copy is kept in the Presidential Library. Legal basis of the insignia These insignia and the procedure were established by the presidential decree 1138 from 5 August 1996, and modified by decree 832 from 6 May 2000. In the new decree the special copy of the Constitution was removed as the third symbol of the Russian Presidency; the other two symbols remained intact because they were and are regulated by separate decrees. Nonetheless, the special copy of the Constitution still exists and serves for inauguration purposes only without being officially presented as a symbol of the Russian Presidency. Powers and duties Guarantor of the Constitution As the guarantor of the Constitution and the entire system of constitutional law, the President ensures that the constitutions, laws and regulations of the constituent territories of the Russian Federation be in full compliance with the country's Constitution and federal laws. Nominations The President is highly active in appointing top officials in the country. He nominates candidates for official state positions, who must ultimately be appointed based on parliamentary vote. The President submits nominations to the Federation Council, the upper house of the parliament, for judges of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Arbitration Court, as well as for Prosecutor General of Russia. A proposal to relieve the Prosecutor General of his duties must also be submitted to the Federation Council. The President submits to the State Duma, the lower house of parliament, nominations for appointment to the office of the Chairman of the Central Bank, and likewise submits to the State Duma any proposal to relieve the Chairman of the Central Bank of his duties. Legislation Under the procedure stipulated by the Constitution, the President exercises his right to submit draft legislation, as well as the right to sign bills into law or to veto them. The President has the right to suspend laws and regulations issued by executive bodies of Russia's constituent territories if such laws and regulations contravene the Constitution, federal laws or international obligations of the Russian Federation, or violate human and civil rights and liberties, pending the resolution of the issue in an appropriate court. The President can issue by-laws by decree, so long as such decrees are not in contradiction with existing laws (both local and federal), Russia's international agreements or the Russian Constitution. The President is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of the Federal Assembly under extraordinary circumstances. Other powers of the President in the sphere of legal activities and in his interaction with the Parliament include calling elections to the State Duma, dissolving the State Duma in certain cases, and calling referendum. Domestic policy Under the Constitution, the President is not empowered to determine the full range of short-, middle-, and long-term objectives and targets of domestic policy, but only its basic guidelines. In practice, he determines it with the Prime Minister and the Government of the Federation. They are to be implemented both by the President himself and by the Government of Russia within the bounds of their authority. The President’ fundamental positions on domestic policy issues are expressed in his written decisions regarding draft federal constitutional laws and draft federal laws, as well as his letters explaining the reasons for rejecting draft federal laws. Within the bounds of the authority granted to the head of state by the Constitution and other laws, the President also shapes the basic domestic policy guidelines by issuing legal regulations and through organizational and regulatory activity, such as issuing decrees and executive orders. Each year the President is required to make an Address to the Federal Assembly regarding the situation in the country and the internal and foreign policy of the state. Foreign policy The President is invested with extensive rights to implement the state's foreign policy. The President determines Russia's position in international affairs, along with the Prime Minister and the Government of the Federation, and represents the state in international relations, conducts negotiations and signs ratification documents. The President appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of Russia to foreign states and international organizations. These appointments are preceded by consultations with the respective committees or commissions of the two houses of the Federal Assembly. The President signs international treaties. Ceremonial duties An important ceremonial role of the President is awarding state awards. State Awards of the Russian Federation are the highest form of official recognition given to individuals for service to the nation in the fields of defense, state-building, economics, science, culture, art, education, health care, public safety, rights advocacy and charity. The state awards of the Russian Federation include the title of Hero of the Russian Federation, Hero of Labour of the Russian Federation as well as orders, medals, emblems and honorary titles. New state honors and awards can be established by the President, who also presents these honors to the recipients in an official ceremony. A Commission for State Honors, which works on a voluntary basis, helps the President to objectively assess potential recipients. Residences The primary working President's residence is the Senate building (also known as 1st building) in the Moscow Kremlin complex. Also the President can use the Grand Kremlin Palace (used for official ceremonies and meetings). Earlier, the President also could use the so-called 14th Administrative Corpus Building (the reserve residence), but in 2016 it was demolished. Since 2000 the current home residence of the President is Novo-Ogaryovo (). It was planned that it would remain at the disposal of Vladimir Putin after his term ended, as Gorki-9 () (also called Barvikha (), but actually near it) had remained at the disposal of Boris Yeltsin after his retirement. Also, the President has several vacation residences outside of Moscow. Rus''' (), Zavidovo, Tver Oblast Congress Palace or Constantine Palace complex (), Strelna, Saint Petersburg, reconstructed for 300th Saint Petersburg anniversary Bocharov Ruchey (, lit. Bocharov creek), Sochi Shuyskaya Chupa () at a distance of 25 km from Petrozavodsk, Karelia Dolgiye Borody () (also known as Uzhin ) at a distance of 20 km from Valday, Novgorod Oblast Volzhskiy Utyos sanatorium (, lit. Cliff-upon-Volga) on Kuybyshev Reservoir shore Tantal tourist centre (, lit. Tantalum) on Volga bank, at a distance of 25 km from Saratov Sosny (, lit. pines) on Yenisei bank, near Krasnoyarsk Angarskie hutora (, lit. Steadings of Angarsk) at a distance of 47 km from Irkutsk Maly istok'' (, lit. The small headspring) inside Ekaterineburg forestry Political affiliation None of the Russian presidents to date have ever been a member of a political party while in office. In 2012, commenting on stepping down from the post of United Russia party leader, Vladimir Putin said "The constitution doesn’t forbid the president to be a member of any party, but in the spirit of how our political life has evolved, a president is first and foremost a consolidating figure for all the political forces of the country, for all citizens". Transport National transport services for the Russian President and the Presidential state car are provided by the Special Purpose Garage (SPG). The SPG is a unit within the Federal Protective Service. Limousines Aurus Senat – main car Mercedes-Benz S600 Pullman Guard Escort cars Mercedes-Benz (including G-Class) Chevrolet Honorary escort (motorcycles) BMW Air transport services for the President are provided by the airline company Rossiya Airlines. Airplanes for long-distance travel Ilyushin Il-96-300PU (long-range) – main aircraft Ilyushin Il-62M (long-range) Dassault Falcon 900 (long-range) Tupolev Tu-154 (medium-range) Yakovlev Yak-40 (short-range) Tupolev Tu-214PU Helicopters Mil Mi-8 The presidential aircraft uses the same colour scheme as standard Rossiya aircraft, except for the use of the Russian coat of arms or the Presidential Standard on the empennage instead of the flag of Russia. In the spring of 2013 a helipad was constructed in the Moscow Kremlin. According to the Chief of the Kremlin Property Agency construction of a helicopter pad for the President cost 200 million rubles (about $6.4 mln). The helipad is located in the Kremlin's Tainitsky Garden close to exterior walls. Post-presidency On 16 August 1995, President Boris Yeltsin signed a decree "On some social guarantees of persons holding public positions of the Russian Federation and the position of federal public servants." 15 June 1999 went to President Yeltsin's decree on amendments and additions to the previous decree. On 11 November 1999 Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed a decree on the implementation of the amended decree of 15 June 1999. On 31 December 1999, the day of the resignation of Boris Yeltsin, the president issued a decree "On guarantees of the Russian Federation President, stop exercising his powers, and his family," and the eponymous federal law was adopted by 25 January 2001. This law establishes the legal, social and other guarantees of the Russian Federation President, stops the execution of its powers in connection with the expiration of his term of office or in advance in the event of his resignation or permanent incapacity for health reasons to exercise the powers belonging to him and his family: President of Russia, ceased to carry out its mandate, regardless of age, is entitled to a monthly lifetime pay of 75% of the monthly remuneration of the President of Russia. In the case of the President's death his family members are entitled to a monthly allowance in the amount equal to six times the minimum old-age pension, established by the federal law on the day of his death. President of Russia, ceased to carry out its mandate, has immunity. He can not be held criminally or administratively liable for acts committed by them during the execution of the President's powers, as well as arrested, detained, interrogated and subjected to a personal search, if these actions are carried out in the course of proceedings relating to the execution of his powers as president. Beginning in 1999, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times. Retired presidents receive a pension based on the salary of the government. All former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 are protected by the Federal Protective Service until the president's death. A spouse who remarries or divorced from president is no longer eligible for Federal Protective Service protection. In 2020, the Constitution was amended to grant the former president immunity (except if he was removed from office by impeachment). This immunity may be lifted in the same manner as the impeachment procedure. Also, in accordance with the amendments, former presidents (except if he was removed from office by impeachment) were granted the right to become senators for life. In May 2008, the Federal law №68, "On centers of historical heritage of presidents of the Russian Federation ceased to carry out its powers", was adopted. According to this law, the objectives of the centers are the study and public presentation of historical heritage of presidents of Russia as an integral part of the modern history of Russia, the development of democratic institutions and the rule of law. The centers will be built for each former president of Russia. The first such center dedicated to Boris Yeltsin was opened in 2015 in Yekaterinburg. In the future the creation of presidential centers for Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev is also planned. List of presidents Presidential administrations Presidency of Boris Yeltsin Presidency of Vladimir Putin Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev See also List of presidents of Russia List of Russian presidential candidates List of heads of state of Russia List of leaders of Russia Lifespan timeline of presidents of Russia First Lady of Russia Prime Minister of Russia President of the Soviet Union General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Russian presidential administration References Attribution note: Material from the powers and duties section of this article was originally published by the website of the Office of the President of Russia. External links Official site of the President of Russia ´Vladimir Putin will once again become Russia’s president´ – The Economist, 3 March 2012 Government of Russia 1991 establishments in Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavian%20II%20of%20Antioch
Flavian II of Antioch
St. Flavian II of Antioch (; , Phlabianós II Antiokheías) was the Patriarch of Antioch from 498 until his deposition in 512. Biography Flavian was a Monk under the Rule of St Basil at the Monastery of Tilmognon and later became an apocrisiarius. After the death of Palladius in 498, Flavian was appointed by Emperor Anastasius I as Patriarch of Antioch on the condition that he accepted the Henotikon. However, during his reign as patriarch, Flavian did not show any opposition to Chalcedonianism. As patriarch, Flavian and Patriarch Elias of Jerusalem, resisted the attempts to abolish the Council of Chalcedon. However, due to the conflict between Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians in Antioch, Flavian endeavoured to please both parties by steering a middle course in reference to the Chalcedonian decrees, yet was forced by Anastasius to sign the Henotikon in 508/509. Furthermore, Flavian was accused of Nestorianism by Philoxenus, Bishop of Hierapolis. In 511, Philoxenus convinced Monophysites of the surrounding Syrian countryside to storm Antioch and force Flavian to condemn the Council of Chalcedon but was met by fierce Chalcedonians who slaughtered the attackers and dumped their bodies into the River Orontes. The monks of Flavian's former monastery journeyed to Antioch to defend Flavian against the anti-Chalcedonians. These events drove Anastasius to adopt a Miaphysite ecclesiastical programme and thus Flavian and Elias lost imperial support. A synod was convened in Sidon in 512 by Philoxenus and eighty other non-Chalcedonian bishops, with the support of Anastasius, to condemn Flavian and Elias and as a result he was deposed and banished to Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian's deposition and subsequent resentment towards Anastasius caused Vitalian's rebellion in 513. Flavian was soon posthumously enrolled among the saints of the Eastern Church, and after some opposition, in the Western Church as well. References Sources 5th-century births 518 deaths Patriarchs of Antioch Syrian Christian saints Syrian archbishops 5th-century archbishops 6th-century archbishops 5th-century Christian saints 6th-century Christian saints
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extradition
Extradition
Extradition is an action wherein one jurisdiction delivers a person accused or convicted of committing a crime in another jurisdiction, over to the other's law enforcement. It is a cooperative law enforcement procedure between the two jurisdictions and depends on the arrangements made between them. In addition to legal aspects of the process, extradition also involves the physical transfer of custody of the person being extradited to the legal authority of the requesting jurisdiction. In an extradition process, one sovereign jurisdiction typically makes a formal request to another sovereign jurisdiction ("the requested state"). If the fugitive is found within the territory of the requested state, then the requested state may arrest the fugitive and subject him or her to its extradition process. The extradition procedures to which the fugitive will be subjected are dependent on the law and practice of the requested state. Between countries, extradition is normally regulated by treaties. Where extradition is compelled by laws, such as among sub-national jurisdictions, the concept may be known more generally as rendition. It is an ancient mechanism, dating back to at least the 13th century BCE, when an Egyptian pharaoh, Ramesses II, negotiated an extradition treaty with a Hittite king, Hattusili III. Extradition treaties or agreements The consensus in international law is that a state does not have any obligation to surrender an alleged criminal to a foreign state, because one principle of sovereignty is that every state has legal authority over the people within its borders. Such absence of international obligation, and the desire for the right to demand such criminals from other countries, have caused a web of extradition treaties or agreements to evolve. When no applicable extradition agreement is in place, a sovereign may still request the expulsion or lawful return of an individual pursuant to the requested state's domestic law. This can be accomplished through the immigration laws of the requested state or other facets of the requested state's domestic law. Similarly, the codes of penal procedure in many countries contain provisions allowing for extradition to take place in the absence of an extradition agreement. Sovereigns may, therefore, still request the expulsion or lawful return of a fugitive from the territory of a requested state in the absence of an extradition treaty. No country in the world has an extradition treaty with all other countries; for example, the United States lacks extradition treaties with China, Russia, Namibia, the United Arab Emirates, North Korea, Bahrain, and many other countries. There are two types of extradition treaties: list and dual criminality treaties. The most common and traditional is the list treaty, which contains a list of crimes for which a suspect will be extradited. Dual criminality treaties generally allow for extradition of a criminal suspect if the punishment is more than one year imprisonment in both countries. Occasionally the amount of the time of the sentence agreed upon between the two countries is varied. Under both types of treaties, if the conduct is not a crime in both countries then it will not be an extraditable offense. Generally, an extradition treaty requires that a country seeking extradition be able to show that: The relevant crime is sufficiently serious. There exists a prima facie case against the individual sought. The event in question qualifies as a crime in both countries. The extradited person can reasonably expect a fair trial in the recipient country. The likely penalty will be proportionate to the crime. Restrictions Most countries require themselves to deny extradition requests if, in the government's opinion, the suspect is sought for a political crime. Many countries, such as Mexico, Canada and most European nations, will not allow extradition if the death penalty may be imposed on the suspect unless they are assured that the death sentence will not be passed or carried out. In the case of Soering v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights held that it would violate Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights to extradite a person to the United States from the United Kingdom in a capital case. This was due to the harsh conditions on death row and the uncertain timescale within which the sentence would be executed. Parties to the European Convention also cannot extradite people where they would be at significant risk of being tortured inhumanely or degradingly treated or punished. These restrictions are normally clearly spelled out in the extradition treaties that a government has agreed upon. They are, however, controversial in the United States, where the death penalty is practiced in some U.S. states, as it is seen by many as an attempt by foreign nations to interfere with the U.S. criminal justice system. In contrast, pressures by the U.S. government on these countries to change their laws, or even sometimes to ignore their laws, is perceived by many in those nations as an attempt by the United States to interfere in their sovereign right to manage justice within their own borders. Famous examples include the extradition dispute with Canada on Charles Ng. Countries with a rule of law typically make extradition subject to review by that country's courts. These courts may impose certain restrictions on extradition, or prevent it altogether, if for instance they deem the accusations to be based on dubious evidence, or evidence obtained from torture, or if they believe that the defendant will not be granted a fair trial on arrival, or will be subject to cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment if extradited. Several countries, such as France, Russian Federation, Austria, China and Japan, have laws against extraditing their respective citizens. Others, such as Germany and Israel, do not allow for extradition of their own citizens in their constitutions. Some others stipulate such prohibition on extradition agreements rather than their laws. Such restrictions are occasionally controversial in other countries when, for example, a French citizen commits a crime abroad and then returns to their home country, perceived as to avoid prosecution. These countries, however, make their criminal laws applicable to citizens abroad, and they try citizens suspected of crimes committed abroad under their own laws. Such suspects are typically prosecuted as if the crime had occurred within the country's borders. Exemptions in the European Union The usual extradition agreement safeguards relating to dual-criminality, the presence of prima facie evidence and the possibility of a fair trial have been waived by many European nations for a list of specified offences under the terms of the European Arrest Warrant. The warrant entered into force in eight European Union (EU) member-states on 1 January 2004, and is in force in all member-states since 22 April 2005. Defenders of the warrant argue that the usual safeguards are not necessary because every EU nation is committed by treaty, and often by legal and constitutional provisions, to the right to a fair trial, and because every EU member-state is subject to the European Convention on Human Rights. Extradition to federations The federal structure of some nations, such as the United States, can pose particular problems with respect to extraditions when the police power and the power of foreign relations are held at different levels of the federal hierarchy. For instance, in the United States, most criminal prosecutions occur at the state level, and most foreign relations occurs on the federal level. In fact, under the United States Constitution, foreign countries may not have official treaty relations with sub-national units such as the individual states; rather, they may have treaty relations only with the federal government. As a result, a state that wishes to prosecute an individual located in foreign territory must direct its extradition request through the federal government, which will negotiate the extradition with the requested state. However, due to the constraints of federalism, any conditions on the extradition accepted by the federal government – such as not to impose the death penalty – are not binding on the states. In the case of Soering v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the United Kingdom was not permitted under its treaty obligations to extradite an individual to the United States, because the United States' federal government was constitutionally unable to offer binding assurances that the death penalty would not be sought in Virginia courts. Ultimately, the Commonwealth of Virginia itself had to offer assurances to the federal government, which passed those assurances on to the United Kingdom, which extradited the individual to the United States. Less important problems can arise due to differing qualifications for crimes. For instance, in the United States, crossing state lines is a prerequisite for certain federal crimes (otherwise crimes such as murder, etc. are handled by state governments except in certain circumstances such as the killing of a federal official). This transportation clause is, understandably, absent from the laws of many countries. Extradition treaties or subsequent diplomatic correspondence often include language providing that such criteria should not be taken into account when checking if the crime is one in the country from which extradition should apply. Bars to extradition By enacting laws or in concluding treaties or agreements, countries determine the conditions under which they may entertain or deny extradition requests. Observing fundamental human rights is also an important reason for denying some extradition requests. It is common for human rights exceptions to be specifically incorporated in bilateral treaties. Such bars can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence. These bars may also extend to take account of the effect on family of the individual if extradition proceeds. Therefore, human rights recognised by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests. However, cases where extradition is denied should be treated as independent exceptions and will only occur in exceptional circumstances. Common bars to extradition include: Failure to fulfill dual criminality Generally the act for which extradition is sought must constitute a crime punishable by some minimum penalty in both the requesting and the requested states. This requirement has been abolished for broad categories of crimes in some jurisdictions, notably within the European Union. Political nature of the alleged crime Many countries refuse to extradite suspects of political crimes. See political offence exception. Possibility of certain forms of punishment Some countries refuse extradition on grounds that the person, if extradited, may receive capital punishment or face torture. A few go as far as to cover all punishments that they themselves would not administer. Death penalty: Many jurisdictions, such as Australia, Canada, Macao, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom and most European nations except Belarus, will not allow extradition if the death penalty may be imposed on the suspect unless they are assured that the death sentence will not be passed or carried out. The United Nations Human Rights Committee considered the case of Joseph Kindler, following the Canadian Supreme Court's decision in Kindler v Canada to extradite Kindler who faced the death penalty in the United States. This decision was given despite the fact that it was expressly provided in the extradition treaty between these two states that extradition may be refused, unless assurances were given that the death penalty shall not be imposed or executed, as well as arguably being a violation of the individual's rights under the Canadian Charter of Human Rights. The decision by the Committee considered Article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the "inherent right to life" and whether this right prohibited Canada from extraditing the individual to the United States where he faced the death penalty. The Committee decided that there was nothing contained in the terms of Article 6 which required Canada to seek assurance that the individual would not face the death penalty if extradited. However, the Committee noted that if Canada had extradited without due process it would have breached its obligation under the Convention in this case. Torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment: Many countries will not extradite if there is a risk that a requested person will be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In regard to torture the European Court of Human Rights has in the past not accepted assurances that torture will not occur when given by a state where torture is systematic or endemic. Although in the more recent case before the same court Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom the court retreated from this firm refusal and instead took a more subjective approach for assessing state assurances. Unlike capital punishment it is often more difficult to prove the existence of torture within a state and considerations often depend on the assessment of quality and validity of assurances given by the requesting state. In the deportation case of Othman (Abu Qatada) the court provided 11 factors the court will assess in determining the validity of these assurances. While torture is provided for as a bar to extradition by the European Convention on Human Rights and more universally by the Convention Against Torture, it is also a jus cogens norm under international law and can therefore be invoked as a bar even if it is not provided for in an extradition agreement. In the case of Soering v United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights held that it would violate Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights to extradite a person to the United States from the United Kingdom in a capital punishment case. This was due to the harsh conditions on death row and the uncertain timescale within which the sentence would be executed, but not the death penalty sentence itself. The Court in Soering stressed however that the personal circumstances of the individual, including age and mental state (the individual in this case was 18 years old) were relevant in assessing whether their extradition would give rise to a real risk of treatment exceeding the threshold in Article 3. Jurisdiction Jurisdiction over a crime can be invoked to refuse extradition. Own citizens Several countries, such as Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Japan, Morocco, Norway, the People's Republic of China (Mainland China), Taiwan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Syria, and Vietnam have laws against extraditing their own citizens. Instead, they often have special laws in place that give them jurisdiction over crimes committed abroad by or against citizens. By virtue of such jurisdiction, they can locally prosecute and try citizens accused of crimes committed abroad as if the crime had occurred within the country's borders (see, e.g., trial of Xiao Zhen). Right to private and family life In a limited number of cases Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights has been invoked to stop extradition from proceeding. Article 8 states that everyone has the right to the respect of their private and family life. This is achieved by way of balancing the potential harm to private life against the public interest in upholding the extradition arrangement. While this article is useful as it provide for a prohibition to extradition, the threshold required to meet this prohibition is high. Article 8 does explicitly provide that this right is subject to limits in the interests of national security and public safety, so these limits must be weighed in a balancing of priority against this right. Cases where extradition is sought usually involve serious crimes so while these limits are often justified there have been cases where extradition could not be justified in light of the individual's family life. Cases to date have mostly involved dependant children where the extradition would be counter to the best interests of this child. In the case of FK v. Polish Judicial Authority the court held that it would violate article 8 for a mother of five young children to be extradited amidst charges of minor fraud which were committed number of years ago. This case is an example of how the gravity of the crime for which extradition was sought was not proportionate to protecting the interests of the individual's family. However the court in this case noted that even in circumstances where extradition is refused a custodial sentence will be given to comply with the principles of international comity. In contrast the case of HH v Deputy Prosecutor of the Italian Republic, Genoa is an example of when the public interest for allowing extradition outweighed the best interests of the children. In this case both parents were being extradited to Italy for serious drug importation crimes. Article 8 does not only address the needs of children, but also all family members, yet the high threshold required to satisfy Article 8 means that the vulnerability of children is the most likely circumstance to meet this threshold. In the case of Norris v US (No 2) a man sought to argue that if extradited his health would be undermined and it would cause his wife depression. This claim was rejected by the Court which stated that a successful claim under Article 8 would require "exceptional" circumstances. Suicide Risk: Cases where there is risk of the individual committing suicide have also invoked article 8 as the public interest of extraditing must be considered in light of the risk of suicide by the individual if extradited. In the case of Jason's v Latvia extradition was refused on these grounds, as the crime for which the individual was sought was not enough of a threat to public interest to outweigh the high risk of suicide which had been assessed to exist for the individual if extradited. Fair trial standards Consideration of the right to a fair trial is particularly complex in extradition cases. Its complexity arises from the fact that while the court deciding whether to surrender the individual must uphold these rights this same court must also be satisfied that any trial undertaken by the requesting state after extradition is granted also respects these rights. Article 14 of the ICCPR provides a number of criteria for fair trial standards. These standards have been reflected in courts who have shown that subjective considerations should be made in determining whether such trials would be ‘unjust’ or ‘oppressive’ by taking into account factors such as the duration of time since the alleged offences occurred, health of the individual, prison conditions in the requesting state and likelihood of conviction among other considerations. Yet exactly how the standards provided for in ICCPR are incorporated or recognised by domestic courts and decision makers is still unclear although it seems that these standards can at a minimum be used to inform the notions of such decision makers. If it is found that fair trial standards will not be satisfied in the requesting country this may be a sufficient bar to extradition. Article 6 of the ECHR also provides for fair trial standards, which must be observed by European countries when making an extradition request. This court in the Othman case, whom if extradited would face trial where evidence against him had been obtained by way of torture. This was held to be a violation of Article 6 ECHR as it presented a real risk of a ‘flagrant denial of justice’. The court in Othman stressed that for a breach of Article 6 to occur the trial in the requesting country must constitute a flagrant denial of justice, going beyond merely an unfair trial. Evidence obtained by way of torture has been sufficient to satisfy the threshold of a flagrant denial of justice in a number of case. This is in part because torture evidence threatens the "integrity of the trial process and the rule of law itself." Human rights and extradition Human rights as a bar to extradition can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence as well as the effect on family of the individual if extradition is granted. The repressive nature and the limitations of freedoms imposed on an individual is part of the extradition process and is the reason for these exceptions and the importance that human rights are observed in the extradition process. Therefore, human rights protected by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests, but only as independent exceptions. While human rights concerns can add to the complexity of extradition cases it is positive as it adds to the legitimacy and institutionalisation of the extradition system. Determining whether to allow extradition by the requested state is, among other considerations, a balancing exercise between the interests of the requesting state's pursuit of justice over the accused individuals, the requested state's interests in holding dominion over those presently in its territory, and the rights of the extraditable persons. Extradition raises human rights concerns in determining this balance in relation to the extraditable person. States make provision to recognise these rights both expressing in bilateral treaty agreements and also, potentially by way of state's obligations under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is particularly relevant to extradition. Although regional, the European Convention of Human Rights has also been invoked as a bar to extradition in a number of cases falling within its jurisdiction and decisions from the European Court of Human Rights have been a useful source of development in this area. Aut dedere aut judicare A concept related to extradition that has significant implications in transnational criminal law is that of aut dedere aut judicare. This maxim represents the principle that states must either surrender a criminal within their jurisdiction to a state that wishes to prosecute the criminal or prosecute the offender in its own courts. Many international agreements contain provisions for aut dedere aut judicare. These include all four 1949 Geneva Conventions, the U.N. Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, the U.N. Convention Against Corruption, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of an Armed Conflict, and the International Convention for the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. Some contemporary scholars hold the opinion that aut dedere aut judicare is not an obligation under customary international law but rather "a specific conventional clause relating to specific crimes" and, accordingly, an obligation that only exists when a state has voluntarily assumed the obligation. Cherif Bassiouni, however, has posited that, at least with regard to international crimes, it is not only a rule of customary international law but a jus cogens principle. Professor Michael Kelly, citing Israeli and Austrian judicial decisions, has noted that "there is some supporting anecdotal evidence that judges within national systems are beginning to apply the doctrine on their own". Controversies International tensions The refusal of a country to extradite suspects or criminals to another may lead to international relations being strained. Often, the country to which extradition is refused will accuse the other country of refusing extradition for political reasons (regardless of whether or not this is justified). A case in point is that of Ira Einhorn, in which some US commentators pressured President Jacques Chirac of France, who does not intervene in legal cases, to permit extradition when the case was held up due to differences between French and American human rights law. Another long-standing example is Roman Polanski whose extradition was pursued by California for over 20 years. For a brief period he was placed under arrest in Switzerland, however subsequent legal appeals there prevented extradition. The questions involved are often complex when the country from which suspects are to be extradited is a democratic country with a rule of law. Typically, in such countries, the final decision to extradite lies with the national executive (prime minister, president or equivalent). However, such countries typically allow extradition defendants recourse to the law, with multiple appeals. These may significantly slow down procedures. On the one hand, this may lead to unwarranted international difficulties, as the public, politicians and journalists from the requesting country will ask their executive to put pressure on the executive of the country from which extradition is to take place, while that executive may not in fact have the authority to deport the suspect or criminal on their own. On the other hand, certain delays, or the unwillingness of the local prosecution authorities to present a good extradition case before the court on behalf of the requesting state, may possibly result from the unwillingness of the country's executive to extradite. Even though the United States has an extradition treaty with Japan, most extraditions are not successful due to Japan's domestic laws. For the United States to be successful, they must present their case for extradition to the Japanese authorities. However, certain evidence is barred from being in these proceedings such as the use of confessions, searches or electronic surveillance. In most cases involving international drug trafficking, this kind of evidence constitutes the bulk of evidence gathered in the investigation on a suspect for a drug-related charge. Therefore, this usually hinders the United States from moving forward with the extradition of a suspect. There is at present controversy in the United Kingdom about the Extradition Act 2003, which dispenses with the need for a prima facie case for extradition. This came to a head over the extradition of the Natwest Three from the UK to the U.S., for their alleged fraudulent conduct related to Enron. Several British political leaders were heavily critical of the British government's handling of the issue. In 2013, the United States submitted extradition requests to many nations for former National Security Agency employee Edward Snowden. It criticized Hong Kong for allowing him to leave despite an extradition request. Extradition case of Huawei CFO Meng Wanzhou It is a part of the China-US trade war, which is political in nature. 2019 Hong Kong extradition law protests A proposed Hong Kong extradition law tabled in April 2019 led to one of the biggest protests in the city's history, with 1 million demonstrators joining the protests on 9 June 2019. They took place three days before the Hong Kong government planned to bypass the committee process and bring the contentious bill straight to the full legislature to hasten its approval. The bill, which would ease extradition to Mainland China, includes 37 types of crimes. While the Beijing-friendly ruling party maintains that the proposal contains protections of the dual criminality requirement and human rights, its opponents allege that after people are surrendered to the mainland, it could charge them with some other crime and impose the death penalty (which has been abolished in Hong Kong) for that other crime. There are also concerns about the retroactive effect of the new law. The government's proposal was amended to remove some categories after complaints from the business sector, such as "the unlawful use of computers". Experts have noted that the legal systems of mainland China and Hong Kong follow 'different protocols' with regard to the important conditions of double criminality and non-refoulement, as well as on the matter of executive vs. judicial oversight on any extradition request. Abductions In some cases a state has abducted an alleged criminal from the territory of another state either after normal extradition procedures failed, or without attempting to use them. Notable cases are listed below: "Extraordinary rendition" "Extraordinary rendition" is an extrajudicial procedure in which criminal suspects, generally suspected terrorists or supporters of terrorist organisations, are transferred from one country to another. The procedure differs from extradition as the purpose of the rendition is to extract information from suspects, while extradition is used to return fugitives so that they can stand trial or fulfill their sentence. The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) allegedly operates a global extraordinary rendition programme, which from 2001 to 2005 captured an estimated 150 people and transported them around the world. The alleged US programme prompted several official investigations in Europe into alleged secret detentions and illegal international transfers involving Council of Europe member states. A June 2006 report from the Council of Europe estimated 100 people had been kidnapped by the CIA on EU territory (with the cooperation of Council of Europe members), and rendered to other countries, often after having transited through secret detention centres ("black sites") used by the CIA, some of which could be located in Europe. According to the separate European Parliament report of February 2007, the CIA has conducted 1,245 flights, many of them to destinations where suspects could face torture, in violation of article 3 of the United Nations Convention Against Torture. A large majority of the European Union Parliament endorsed the report's conclusion that many member states tolerated illegal actions by the CIA, and criticised such actions. Within days of his inauguration, President Obama signed an Executive Order opposing rendition torture and established a task force to provide recommendations about processes to prevent rendition torture. Uyghur Muslim extradition In June 2021, CNN reported testimonies of several Uyghur Muslims accounting for the detention and extradition of people they knew or were related to, from the United Arab Emirates. Documents issued by the Dubai public prosecutor and viewed by CNN, showed the confirmation of China’s request for the extradition of a detained Uyghur Muslim man, Ahmad Talip, despite insufficient proof of reasons for extradition. In 2019, UAE, along with several other Muslim nations publicly endorsed China’s Xinjiang policies, despite Beijing being accused of “genocide” by the US State Department. Neither Dubai authorities nor the foreign ministry of UAE respond to the several requests for comment made by CNN on the detention and extradition of Uyghur Muslims. See also Deportation Extraterritorial jurisdiction Extraterritoriality Immunity from prosecution Right of asylum Universal jurisdiction Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain International: European Arrest Warrant European Convention on Extradition Extradition law in Australia Extradition law in the United States (including inter-state extradition) Extradition law in the Philippines Individuals: Luis Posada Carriles, anti-Castrist detained in the U.S. and wanted by Cuba and Venezuela Brian O'Rourke (1540?–1591), first man to be extradited within Britain Ramil Safarov, Azerbaijani officer extradited from Hungary to Azerbaijan Protest: 2019–20 Hong Kong protests Footnotes External links What Is Extradition?—A primer from the Council on Foreign Relations. Jonathan Masters, 2019. A Brief Primer on International Law—with cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007. Extraditions Cut Short—Extraditions between Colombia and United States Chiquita Board Members: Total Identification—Extradition of Chiquita board members Expulsions and extraditions, fact sheet of the ECtHR case law Deflem, Mathieu, and Kyle Irwin. 2017. "Extradition, International." pp. 340–342 in Encyclopedia of American Civil Rights and Liberties: Revised and Expanded, edited by Kara E. Stooksbury, John M. Scheb II, and Otis H. Stephens Jr.. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Court orders Criminal law International law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandava
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, IAST: pāṇḍava) refers to the five brothers of Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva, who are the five acknowledged sons of Pandu and central to the epic of Mahabharata. The Pandavas waged a civil war against their extended family consisting of their cousins Kauravas led by Duryodhana and his brothers, as well as their preceptor and gurus Bhishma and Drona respectively. This conflict was known as the Kurukshetra War. The Pandavas eventually won the war with the death of the Kauravas, albeit at great cost as well as breaking contracts. Historical Records refers Pandu Putra as Rajputra. The Pandavas were regarded as the sons of the Kuru King Pandu and Kunti, however were fathered by different deities due to Pandu's inability of naturally conceiving children. Pandu could not conceive children due to a curse placed by a rishi. Therefore, the Pandavas were born using a mantra given to Kunti as a boon. Yudhishthira was sired by Yama, the God of dharma and death, Bhima by Vayu, the god of wind and strength, Arjuna by Indra, the god of lighting and king of deities, while Nakula and Sahadeva were fathered by the divine twins Ashvins. In the past, Kunti had given birth to Karna as her first born child fathered by Surya (Sun God). Kunti conceived Karna before her marriage while testing the validity of the boon, and abandoned Karna due to his being born out of wedlock. This created a further rift during the Kurukshetra War, as Karna would later lead the army of the Kauravas against his half-brothers. Due to a decree issued by their uncle Dhritrashtra, the Pandava brothers were forced into exile. They were driven to a barren land, which they transformed into the magnificent city of Indraprastha. A spiteful Duryodhana invited Yudhishthira to gamble their possessions in a game of dice, which was among the turning points of the epic. Yudhishthira gambled and lost his wealth, kingdom, and possessions due to his gambling, which was also attributed to Shakuni rigging the dice game. Therefore, the Pandavas were sent into exile for thirteen years. After spending twelve years of forest exile, they lived in disguise in the Matsya Kingdom for one year. The Pandavas would amass an army as well as obtain the guidance of Krishna to confront and ultimately defeat the Kauravas. Yudhishthira would then reclaim his status as King of Hastinapur and the Kuru Kingdom. To redeem themselves for their actions during the Kurukshetra War, the Pandavas carried out their final penance by scaling and eventually succumbing in the Himalayas. Yudhishthira, as the sole survivor to reach the summit, witnessed the karmic faiths of all those that passed before him and eventually ascended to the afterlife. Etymology The word Pandava (, ) is derived from their father's name, Pandu (, ) and means "descendants of Pandu". Other epithets given to the Pandavas are: Pāṇḍuputra (Sanskrit: पाण्डुपुत्र) - sons of Pandu Pāṇḍavakumāra (Sanskrit: पाण्डवकुमार) - young Pandavas Kaunteya (Sanskrit: कौन्तेय) - sons of Kunti (Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna). Mādreya (Sanskrit: माद्रेय) - sons of Madri (Nakula and Sahadeva) The Pandava Yudhishthira Bhima Arjuna Nakula Sahadeva Story The story begins with the introduction of the brothers' parents. The primary antagonist of the saga was Duryodhana (the meaning of the name is "unconquerable"), cousin to the Pandavas. He was the eldest of 100 brothers known as the Kauravas, who were born to Dhritarashtra, the king of Hastinapura, and his queen Gandhari, princess of Gandhara. The Pandavas were born to Pandu and his wives, Kunti and Madri by the boon given to Kunti by Durvasa, that she could have a son by any god whom she respects without having any marital affair. After Madri's marriage, Pandu voluntarily renounced royal life as penance for having accidentally killed the sage Rishi Kindama and his wife. At his death, Rishi Kindama cursed Pandu that he would surely die if he attempted to have sexual relationships with his wives. Because of this curse, Kunti had to use her boon to get sons. She bore him three sons: Yudhishthira by the god of Dharma, Bhima by Vayu, and Arjuna by Indra. At the request of Pandu, she shared this boon with Madri to get her sons, the twins Nakula and Sahadeva from the divine Ashvini twins. After the death of Pandu and Madri, Kunti brought the Pandavas back to Hastinapur. As children, the Pandavas and Kauravas often played together. However, Bhima (2nd of the Pandavas) was always at odds with the Kauravas, particularly with Duryodhana, who refused to accept the Pandavas as his cousins. This usually led to much tension between the cousins. Insecure and jealous, Duryodhana harboured an intense hatred for the five brothers throughout his childhood and youth and following the advice of his maternal uncle Shakuni, often plotted to get rid of them to clear his path to the lordship of the Kuru Dynasty. This plotting took a grave turn when Dhritarashtra had to relent to the will of the masses and rightfully appointed his nephew Yudhishthira as crown prince. This went against the personal ambitions of both father and son (Dhritarashtra and Duryodhana) and drove Duryodhana into such a rage that he enthusiastically agreed to an evil ploy by Shakuni to murder Yudhishthira. Shakuni commissioned the construction of a palace in Varnavart, secretly built by incorporating flammable materials like oil, ghee etc. into the structure, most notably the lacquer known as lac. This palace was known as Lakshagraha. Duryodhana then successfully lobbied Dhritarashtra to send Yudhishthira to represent the royal household in Varnavarta during the celebrations of Shiva Mahotsava. The plan was to set the palace on fire during the night while Yudhishthira would likely be asleep. Yudhishthira left for Varnavrata, accompanied by his four brothers and their mother Kunti. The plan was discovered by their paternal uncle Vidura, who was very loyal to them and an extraordinarily wise man. In addition, Yudhishthira had been forewarned about this plot by a hermit who came to him and spoke of an imminent disaster. Vidura arranged for a tunnel to be secretly built for the Pandavs to safely escape the palace as it was set afire. After their flight from the palace, the five brothers lived in the forests for some time disguised as Brahmins. They heard from a group of travelling sages about a contest (Swayamvara) being held in the Kingdom of Panchala that offered the princess Draupadi's hand in marriage to the winner. The Swayamvara turned out to rely on the skills of archery, and Arjuna, who was a peerless archer, entered the competition and won. When the brothers took Draupadi to introduce her to their mother, they announced to Kunti that they had arrived with excellent alms. Kunti was busy with some work and replied without turning to look at Draupadi (who the alms referred to) ordering the brothers to share the alms equally amongst the five of them. Even when uttered erroneously, their mother's word was supreme for the Pandavas, and they agreed to share the princess, who was subsequently married to all five brothers. When Dhritarashtra heard that the five brothers were alive, he invited them back to the kingdom. However, in their absence, Duryodhana had succeeded in being made the crown prince. Upon the return of the Pandavas, the issue of returning Yudhishthira's crown to him was raised. Dhritarashtra led the subsequent discussions into ambiguity and agreed to a partition of the kingdom "to do justice to both crown princes". He retained the developed Hastinapur for himself and Duryodhana and gave the barren, arid and hostile lands of Khandavaprastha to the Pandavas. The Pandavas successfully developed their land and built a great and lavish city, which was considered comparable to the heavens, and thus came to be known as Indraprastha. Reeling under the loss of half the lands of his future kingdom, Duryodhana's jealousy and rage were further fuelled by the Pandavas' success and prosperity. Eventually Shakuni sired yet another plot and got Duryodhana to invite the Pandavas over to his court for a game of dice (gambling). Shakuni was a master at gambling and owned a pair of dice which magically did his bidding. Owing to this, bet after bet, Yudhishthira lost all of his wealth, and eventually his kingdom, in the game. He was then enticed by Duryodhana and Shakuni to place his brothers as bets. Yudhishthira fell for it and put his brothers at stake, losing them too. He then placed himself as a bet and lost again. Duryodhana now played another trick and told Yudhishthira that he still had his wife Draupadi to place as a bet and if Yudhishthira won, he would return everything to the Pandavas. Yudhishthira fell for the ruse and bet Draupadi, losing her too. At this point, Duryodhana ordered that Draupadi, who was now a slave to him, be brought to the court. None of the Pandavas fought for their wife's honour. Duryodhana's younger brother Dushasana dragged Draupadi to the royal court, pulling her by her hair, insulting her dignity and asserting that she, like the Pandava brothers, was now their servant. This caused immense anguish to all the great warriors seated in the court, but each of them, namely, Bhishma (grandsire of the clan), Dronacharya (teacher/guru of Kauravas and Pandavas) and Kripacharya except Vidura remained silent. Duryodhana then ordered Dushasana to disrobe Draupadi before everyone, as a slave girl has no rights. The elders and warriors in the audience were shocked but did not intervene. As Dushasana began to disrobe her, she prayed to Krishna to protect her honour. Krishna, using his divine powers, protected her by providing her garments with an unending length. Dushasana, shocked and tired, gave up on disrobing Draupadi. Finally, as the blind king Dhritarashtra realized that this humiliation could prompt Draupadi to curse his sons, he intervened, apologizing to Draupadi for the behaviour of his sons, and turned the winnings of the dice game back over to the Pandava brothers, releasing them from the bondage of slavery. Incensed at the loss of all that he had won, Duryodhana threatened suicide and coerced his father into inviting the Pandavas for one last round of gambling, the terms of which were that the loser would be condemned to 12 years of exile into forests and a 13th year to be spent incognito, and if the cover is blown during the 13th year, another cycle of 13 years would ensue. Obeying their uncle's orders, the Pandavas played the round and again lost to Shakuni's cheating. However, this time, their patience had been nearly pushed to its edge. During the 12 years of exile in the forest, they prepared for war. Arjuna performed penance and won the entire gamut of celestial weapons (Divyastras) as boons from the Gods. They spent the 13th year masquerading as peasants in the service of the royal family of Virata, the king of Matsya. Upon completion of the terms of the last bet, the Pandavas returned and demanded that their kingdom be rightfully returned to them. Duryodhana refused to yield Indraprastha. For the sake of peace and to avert a disastrous war, Krishna proposed that if Hastinapur agrees to give the Pandavas only five villages named Indraprastha (Delhi), Swarnprastha (Sonipat), Panprastha (Panipat), Vyaghrprastha (Baghpat) and Tilprastha (Tilpat) if these five villages given they would be satisfied and would make no more demands. Duryodhana vehemently refused, commenting that he would not part even with land as much as the point of a needle. Thus the stage was set for the great war, for which the epic of Mahabharata is known most of all. The war was intense and lasted 18 days, over the course of which both parties worked around, bent and even broke rules of warfare. In the end, all 100 Kaurava brothers and their entire army was slain, with only three surviving on their side. The Pandavas too lost several allies but the five brothers survived. After having won the war, Yudhishthira was crowned the king. At the end of the war, only 10 survived the war on both sides, namely Ashwatthama, Kripacharya and Kritverma on the Kaurava side and the five Pandavas, Krishna and Saatyakee on the Pandava side. The Pandavas ruled Hastinapur for 36 years and established a righteous kingdom. Shortly after Krishna left the Earth, they all decided that the time had come for them to renounce the world, as the age of Kali Yuga had started. So the five Pandavas and Draupadi left to the path of liberation. For this purpose, they all climbed Mount Kailash, which leads to the Swarga Loka. On their way, all except Yudhisthira slipped and died one by one. Yudhisthira was accompanied by a dog who was none other than God Yama himself. The first to die was Draupadi; she was imperfect because she loved Arjuna more than her other husbands. Then it was Sahadeva, imperfect because he was overconfident about his knowledge in science. He was followed by Nakula, imperfect because he was over-enthusiastic about his good looks. Then fell Arjuna, imperfect because he was proud of his skills- he challenged Hanuman and Shiva. Next was Bhima, imperfect because he killed his enemies brutally- thus enjoyed their sufferings. Only the eldest Pandava, Yudhisthira, reached the door of Swarga Loka (heaven), carried on Indra's chariot. On reaching Heaven, he did not find either his virtuous brothers or his wife Draupadi. Instead, he finds Duryodhana sitting on a divine throne. He wanted an explanation from Yama, the lord of death. Yama explained that the Kauravas had been allowed into heaven because they died as warriors on the battlefield. This earned them so much merit and credit that it wiped out all their debts. Yudhisthira demanded to know where his brothers and his wife were. He was then taken to hell. Yama explained that they were experiencing the reactions of their actions but it was temporary. Once the debt had been repaid, they would join them in Swarga. Yudhisthira loyally met his brothers, but the sight and sound of gore and blood horrified him. Though initially he was tempted to flee, he mastered himself and remained after hearing the voices of his beloved brothers and Draupadi calling out to him, asking him to stay with them in their misery. Yudhisthira decided to remain, ordering the divine charioteer to return. He preferred to live in hell with good people than in the heaven of his enemies. Eventually, this turned out to be another illusion to test him. Yama explained to Yudhishtira that it was all illusion created by Yama himself. It was a punishment to Yudhishtira to feel sad and soak tears on seeing his beloved ones being punished. It was because Drona felt sad on hearing fake news that his son was dead. Yudhishtira told the message incompletely due to which Drona felt sad and cried in grief. Because of this, Yudhishtira had to feel sad in a similar manner. Hence Yama created this illusion. In reality, Pandavas and Draupadi reached heaven just after their deaths. Yama explained everything and Yudhishtira reached heaven with his mortal body.Pandavas were the incarnation of previous Indra's. After the Duration, the lifespan of Indra, is completed Krishna assures Pandavas of offering them Moksha for their Devotion and purity. Krishna's help to Pandavas Krishna, being a well-wisher of the Pandavas, helped them in various ways during the time of their ordeals. When the Kurukshetra war was going to be held, both Arjuna on behalf of the Pandavas, and Duryodhan on behalf of the Kauravas, went to Krishna to seek help. Duryodhan reached first and Arjuna was just behind him. They entered Krishna's room and found him sleeping. Duryodhan sat on a raised chair near Krishna's head and Arjuna sat near Krishna's feet closing his hands. When Krishna woke up, he saw Arjuna first and asked him about the purpose of his visit. Then he found Duryodhan sitting next to him, and asked him the same question. Krishna was then told that war was going to be held and Arjuna and Duryodhan had come to him seeking his military help. To this Krishna replied that he had seen Arjuna first and so he would give him priority, and asked what he needed. He gave Arjuna two options - either his one lakh fit and healthy army or Krishna himself who shall not fight in the war. To this Arjuna immediately opted for Krishna for his help and thus Duryodhan was given Krishna's one lakh army. Duryodhan was very satisfied to have received a huge army. Parents of Pandavas The first three of the Pandavas were the sons of Kunti (a Yadu descend) and Pandu's first wife. The younger two were the sons of Madri, Pandu's second wife. Since Pandu had been cursed to die if ever he had intercourse with a woman, the actual fatherhood of the children is traditionally attributed to various gods, in virtue of a boon that Kunti had received from the sage Durvasa and had transferred to Madri. Thus- Yudhishthira - son of Yama, the god of death Bhima - son of Vayu, the god of wind Arjuna - son of Indra, the god of rain and war Nakula - son of Ashwini Kumara Nasatya (god of health) Sahadeva - son of Ashwini Kumara Darsa (god of medicines) They were of Chandravansh Kshatriya lineage and we're referred as Rajputra. Description by Draupadi of Pandavas The Pandava brothers were collectively married to Draupadi. On one occasion, Draupadi was kidnapped and abducted from a hermitage in the forest by the wicked king Jayadratha. When her husbands learned of the crime, they came in hot pursuit. Seeing them approach, Jayadratha asked Draupadi to describe them. Angrily, Draupadi told the king his time was up and that the knowledge would do him no good. She then proceeded to give the description. (Mahabharat, Book III: Varna Parva, Section 268.) According to Draupadi, Yudhishthira possessed a "complexion like that of pure gold, possessed of a prominent nose and large eyes and endued with a slender make." Master of the spear. He was just, had a correct sense of morality and was merciful to surrendering foes. Draupadi counselled Jayadratha to run to Yudhishthira and to beg for forgiveness. Draupadi described Bhima as tall and long-armed. In a display of ferocity, he was "biting his lips and contracting his forehead so as to bring the two eyebrows together." The master of the mace, his superhuman feats had earned him great renown. "They that offend him are never suffered to live. He never forgets a foe. On some pretext or other, he wreaks his vengeance." Arjuna she praised as the greatest of archers, intelligent, second to none "with senses under complete control." Neither lust nor fear nor anger could make him forsake virtue. Though capable of withstanding any foe, he would never commit an act of cruelty. Nakula, said Draupadi, was "the most handsome person in the whole world." An accomplished master swordsman, he was also "versed in every question of morality and profit" and "endued with high wisdom." He was unflinchingly devoted to his brothers, who in turn regarded him as more valuable than their own lives. The name Nakula generally means full of love and the male characteristics implied by the name are Intelligence, Focus, Hard-Work, Handsomeness, Health, Attractiveness, Success, Popularity, Respect and unconditional Love. Finally, Sahadeva was the youngest of the brothers and like the others formidable in war and observant of morality. Master of the swords "Heroic, intelligent, wise and ever wrathful, there is not another man equal unto him in intelligence or in eloquence amid assemblies of the wise. In arts Harivamsa Purana (8th century CE) narrates the Jain version of their story. In the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, there has been a long tradition of villagers performing the Pandav Lila, a ritual re-enactment of episodes from the Mahabharata through singing, dancing and recitation. In the performance, the actors spontaneously break into a dance when, it is believed, they become "possessed" by the spirits of their characters. See also Upapandavas Kurukshetra War Mahabharata Notes References Chakravarti V. Narasimhan; The Mahabharata. Columbia University Press, 1965. External links The Mahābhārata of Vyasa, translated from Sanskrit into English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli and published online at sacred-texts.com Characters in the Mahabharata Characters in the Bhagavata Purana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodag
Hodag
In American folklore, the hodag is a fearsome critter resembling a large bull-horned carnivore with a row of thick curved spines down its back. The hodag was said to be born from the ashes of cremated oxen, as the incarnation of the accumulation of abuse the animals had suffered at the hands of their masters. The history of the hodag is strongly tied to the City of Rhinelander where it was claimed to have been discovered. The hodag has figured prominently in early Paul Bunyan stories. Origins In 1893, newspapers reported the discovery of a hodag in Rhinelander, Wisconsin. The articles claimed the hodag had "the head of a frog, the grinning face of a giant elephant, thick short legs set off by huge claws, the back of a dinosaur, and a long tail with spears at the end". The reports were instigated by well-known Wisconsin land surveyor, timber cruiser and prankster Eugene Shepard, who rounded up a group of local people to capture the animal. The group reported that they needed to use dynamite to kill the beast. A photograph of the remains of the charred beast was released to the media. It was "the fiercest, strangest, most frightening monster ever to set razor sharp claws on the earth. It became extinct after its main food source, all white bulldogs, became scarce in the area." Hoax Shepard claimed to have captured another hodag in 1896, and this one was captured alive. According to Shepard's reports, he and several bear wrestlers placed chloroform on the end of a long pole, which they worked into the cave of the creature where it was overcome. He displayed this hodag at the first Oneida County fair. Thousands of people came to see the hodag at the fair or at Shepard's display in a shanty at his house. Having connected wires to it, Shepard would occasionally move the creature, which would typically send the already-skittish viewers fleeing the display. As newspapers locally, statewide, and then nationally began picking up the story of the apparently remarkable living creature, a small group of scientists from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. announced they would be traveling to Rhinelander to inspect the apparent discovery. Their mere announcement spelled the end, as Shepard was then forced to admit that the hodag was a hoax. Aftermath The hodag became the official symbol of Rhinelander, Wisconsin. It is the mascot of Rhinelander High School, and lends its name to numerous Rhinelander area businesses and organizations, including the annual music festival, Hodag Country Festival. The city of Rhinelander's web site calls Rhinelander "The Home of the Hodag". A larger-than-life fiberglass sculpture of a hodag, created by a local artist, resides on the grounds of the Rhinelander Area Chamber of Commerce where it draws thousands of visitors each year. Rhinelander Ice Arena houses two hodags, one a full body creature just inside the entrance, and the other one an oversized head that blows smoke and has red eyes that light up, located in the corner just off the ice and which was created by the same artist who designed and built the Chamber Hodag. References External links Hodag History Video produced by Wisconsin Public Television JFK's Hodag - newspaper article about Hodag given to John F. Kennedy on his trip to Rhinelander in 1960 "The Hodag and Other Tales of the Logging Camps" by Lakeshore Kearney The Hodag from "Fearsome Critters" by Henry H. Tryon What is the Hodag? Fearsome critters Wisconsin culture Wisconsin folklore Oneida County, Wisconsin Rhinelander, Wisconsin American legendary creatures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Union%20Intellectual%20Property%20Office
European Union Intellectual Property Office
The European Union Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO, ), founded in 1994, is the European Union Agency responsible for the registration of the European Union trade mark (EUTM) (formerly known as "community trade mark") and the registered Community design (RCD), two unitary intellectual property rights valid across the 27 Member States of the EU. Every year, it registers an average of 135 000 EU trade marks and close to 100 000 designs. The EUIPO is also responsible for maintaining an Orphan Works Registry. Registered works have certain permitted acts under the Orphan Works Directive. The EUIPO is based in Alicante, on the south-east coast of Spain, and there are five working languages at the Office – English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. The office also processes trade mark and design applications in 23 official languages of the EU. EUIPO was formerly known as the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM). The OHIM underwent some reforms and the Office as well as several positions and the governing board were renamed to mirror these changes. Since March 2016, OHIM has been known by its current name. The head of the agency was changed from President to Executive Director. Functions The Office is in charge of managing the registration of the EU trade mark and the registered Community design and offers businesses and citizens exclusive rights for trade mark and design protection throughout the European Union (EU), with a single application. The work of this EU agency extends beyond registration to cover the harmonisation of registration practices for trade marks and designs and the development of common IP management tools. This work is carried out in cooperation with the national and regional IP offices throughout the EU-27, user associations and other institutional partners with the objective of offering users of the trade mark and design system a similar registration experience, be it at national or at EU level. Since 2012, the EUIPO has hosted the European Observatory on Infringements of Intellectual Property Rights, which brings public and private stakeholders together in the fight against piracy and counterfeiting. Legal background The regulation establishing the EUIPO was adopted by the Council of the European Union in December 1993 and revised on two occasions, in 2009 and in 2015. It created the European Union trade mark (formerly known as the Community trade mark) as a legal instrument in European Union law and established the EUIPO (formerly known as Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market or OHIM) as an EU agency with legal, administrative and financial autonomy. Council Regulation (EC) No 6/2002 of 12 December 2001 created the registered Community design. On 23 March 2016, the Office changed its name to the European Union Intellectual Property Office upon the entry into force of Regulation 2015/2424. Amending Regulation 2015/2424 On 23 March 2016, the Office changed its name to the European Union Intellectual Property Office upon the entry into force of Regulation 2015/2424. The Regulation brought about changes in three different areas: trade mark fees, technical changes and institutional changes. The fee system changed from a basic fee that covered up to three classes of goods and services to a ‘pay-per-class' system, with an online fee of EUR 850 for one class, EUR 50 for the second class, and EUR 150 each for three or more classes. From the technical point of view, the Regulation brought about a number of changes in the areas of graphic representation of the mark, examination proceedings, absolute grounds of refusal, relative grounds of refusal, goods and services, opposition and cancellation proceedings and appeals. It also created the certification mark, a new type of trade mark at EU level that allows a certifying institution to permit adherents to the certification system to use the mark as a sign for goods or services complying with the certification requirements. Apart from the name changes, institutionally the Regulation defined clearly all EUIPO's tasks, including the framework for cooperation and convergence of practices between the Office and the EU national and regional IP offices. Governance The governance structure of the EUIPO consists of a management board and a Budget Committee, each composed of one representative from each Member State, two representatives from the European Commission and one representative from the European Parliament. The Council of the European Union decides on the appointment of the Executive Director, the Deputy Executive Director, and the President and Chairpersons of the Boards of Appeal. The OHIM Board of Appeal is an administrative law body of the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM), which is responsible for deciding on appeals in trade mark and design matters registered in the European Union. They are able to make decisions both on points of law and points of fact. Boards of Appeal The Boards of Appeal are headed by the President of the Boards of Appeal, appointed by the Council of Ministers from a list prepared by the Administrative Board of OHIM. The individual Boards are chaired by members appointed by the Council of Ministers. Other members of individual Boards are appointed by the Administrative Board of OHIM. Boards are allowed to hear new evidence at their discretion, although not obligated to do so. The Boards of Appeal are made up of four Boards for Trade Mark cases and one for design. There is an additional Grand Board which may hear any cases appealed through OHIM. A case which is heard by a Board of Appeal is made up of three members. This includes the Chairperson, who must sit on every case. Two members of the Board must be legally qualified, though in some instances cases can be decided by the Grand Board or a single member. The Grand Board is made up of nine members. It includes the presidents and chairpersons of the Boards, as well as some ordinary board members. The Board was set up by Council Regulation 422/2004. Cases are referred to the Grand Board based on legal difficulty, importance, or under special circumstances. In some cases, the Presidium may refer a case to the Grand Board. The Presidium oversees the rules and organisation of the Boards of Appeal. It consists of the President of the Boards of Appeal, the Chairpersons of the Boards, and three board members elected for a calendar year. The European Union trade mark and the registered Community design The European Union trade mark (EUTM) grants exclusive rights in all current and future Member States of the European Union through a single registration, filed online. The basic registration fee is EUR 850 and it covers one class of goods and services. An EU trade mark registration lasts for 10 years but can be renewed indefinitely in blocks of 10 years. The registered Community design (RCD) also grants exclusive rights throughout the European Union and future Member States. The fee for registering and publishing one design is EUR 350. A registered Community design is initially valid for five years from the date of filing and can be renewed in blocks of five years up to a maximum of 25 years. The DesignEuropa Awards The DesignEuropa Awards are organised by the EUIPO every two years to celebrate excellence in design and design management among registered Community design (RCD) holders, whether they are individual rights holders, small businesses or large enterprises. The first edition of the awards took place in Milan in 2016. See also Benelux Office for Intellectual Property Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO) Intellectual property organisation Trade Mark eXtended Markup Language Standard References External links New EU trade mark regulation European Observatory on Infringements of Intellectual Property Rights Transparency Portal EU Agencies Network DesignEuropa Awards 1994 in the European Union European Union trademark law Intellectual property organizations Agencies of the European Union Trademark law organizations Alicante Government agencies established in 1994 International organisations based in Spain Intellectual property law of the European Union
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanus%20I%20of%20Constantinople
Germanus I of Constantinople
Germanus I (c. 634 – 733 or 740) was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 715 to 730. He is regarded as a saint, by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, with a feast day of 12 May. He had been ecumenically preceded by Patriarch John VI of Constantinople, and was succeeded in Orthodox rite by patriarch Constantine II of Constantinople. Life According to Theophanes the Confessor, Germanus was a son of patrician Justinian, who was executed in 668. Justinian was reportedly involved in the murder of Constans II and usurpation of the throne by Mezezius. Constantine IV, son of Constans II, defeated his rival and punished the supporters of Mezezius. Germanus survived the persecutions, but was made a eunuch by the victors. Germanus was sent to a monastery. He resurfaces as Bishop of Cyzicus. He took part in the 712 Council of Constantinople where decisions favored Monothelitism, abolishing the canons of the Third Council of Constantinople (680-681). The Council followed the religious preferences of Philippikos Bardanes. In 713, Philippikos Bardanes was deposed by Anastasios II. Anastasios soon reversed all religious decisions of his predecessor. Patriarch John VI, strongly associated with Monothelitism, was eventually dismissed. On 11 August 714/715, Germanus was elected Patriarch of Constantinople. Germanus later helped negotiate Anastasius' surrender terms to Theodosios III. In 715, Germanus organized a new council propagating Dyothelitism and anathematizing various leaders of the opposing faction. He attempted to improve relations with the Armenian Apostolic Church with a view towards reconciliation. The major issue of his term would, however, be the emerging Byzantine Iconoclasm, propagated by Leo III the Isaurian. Germanus was an iconodule, and played an important role in defending the use of sacred images during the iconoclastic crisis of his day, suffering exile for his opposition to the emperor, who considered reverence for these images a form of idolatry. After an apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and Montanists in the empire (722), Leo issued a series of edicts against the worship of images (726–729). A letter by the patriarch Germanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishops says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter" but we have very little evidence as to the growth of the debate. Germanus either resigned or was deposed following the ban. Surviving letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanus was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims. Tradition depicts Germanus as much more determined in his position, even winning a debate on the matter with Constantine, Bishop of Nacoleia, a leading Iconoclast. Pope Gregory II (term 715–731), a fellow iconodule, praised Germanus' "zeal and steadfastness". Germanus was replaced by Anastasios, more willing to obey the emperor. Germanus retired to the residence of his family. He died a few years at an advanced age in 740. He was buried at the Chora Church. The Second Council of Nicaea (787) included Germanus in the diptychs of the saints. He has since been regarded a saint by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. Several of his writings have been preserved. His Historia Ecclesiastica was a popular work in Greek and Latin translations for many centuries, and remains often quoted by scholars. Parts of it were published in English in 1985 as On the Divine Liturgy, described by its publishers as "for centuries the quasi-official explanation of the Divine Liturgy for the Byzantine Christian world". However the Johann Peter Kirsch is dubious that the work is actually by Germanus. Influence Pope Pius XII included one of his texts in the apostolic constitution proclaiming Mary's assumption into heaven a dogma of the Church. Among his writings was the hymn "Μέγα καί παράδοξον θαῦμα" translated by John Mason Neale as "A Great and Mighty Wonder", although Neale misattributed this to Anatolius of Constantinople. See also References Sources Gross, Ernie. This Day in Religion. New York: Neil-Schuman Publishers, 1990. . Mango, Cyril, "Historical Introduction," in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2–3., 1977, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, GERMANO DI COSTANTINOPOLI, Storia ecclesiastica e contemplazione mistica. Traduzione, introduzione e note a cura di Antonio Calisi, Independently published, 2020. External links On the Divine Liturgy, Online text (English and Greek) Pope Benedict XVI. "On St. Germanus of Constantinople", General Audience, 29 April 2009 740 deaths 8th-century patriarchs of Constantinople 8th-century Christian saints Byzantine hymnographers Byzantine eunuchs Byzantine Iconoclasm Year of birth unknown Bishops of Cyzicus Leo III the Isaurian Year of birth uncertain 8th-century Byzantine writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane%20Ladd
Diane Ladd
Diane Ladd (born Rose Diane Ladner, November 29, 1935) is an American actress, film director, producer, and author. She has appeared in over 120 film and television roles. For the 1974 film Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television for Alice (1980–81), and to receive Academy Award nominations for Wild at Heart (1990) and Rambling Rose (1991). Her other film appearances include Chinatown (1974), National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation (1989), Ghosts of Mississippi (1996), Primary Colors (1998), 28 Days (2000), and American Cowslip (2008). Ladd is the mother of actress Laura Dern, with her ex-husband, actor Bruce Dern. Personal life Ladd was born Rose Diane Ladner, the only child of Mary Bernadette (née Anderson), a housewife and actress, and Preston Paul Ladner, a veterinarian who sold products for poultry and livestock. She was born in Laurel, Mississippi, while the family were visiting relatives for Thanksgiving, though they lived in Meridian, Mississippi. Ladd is related to playwright Tennessee Williams and poet Sidney Lanier. Ladd was raised in her mother's Catholic Christian faith. Ladd was married to actor and one-time co-star Bruce Dern from 1960 to 1969, and had two daughters; Diane Elizabeth Dern, who died at 18 months, and Laura Dern, who became an actress. Ladd and Laura Dern co-starred in the films Wild at Heart, Rambling Rose and Inland Empire and in the HBO series Enlightened. Ladd is currently married to Robert Charles Hunter. Career In 1971, Ladd joined the cast of the CBS soap opera The Secret Storm. She was the second actress to play the role of Kitty Styles on the long-running daytime serial. She later had a supporting role in Roman Polanski's 1974 film Chinatown, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her role as Flo in the film Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore. That film inspired the television series Alice, in which Flo was portrayed by Polly Holliday. When Holliday left the TV series, Ladd succeeded her as waitress Isabelle "Belle" Dupree. She appeared in the independent screwball comedy Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me in 1992, where she played a flirty, aging Southern belle alongside her real mother, actress Mary Lanier. In 1993, Ladd appeared in the episode "Guess Who's Coming to Chow?" of the CBS comedy/western series Harts of the West in the role of the mother of co-star Harley Jane Kozak. The 15-episode program, set on a dude ranch in Nevada, starred Beau Bridges and Lloyd Bridges. In 2004, Ladd played psychic Mrs. Druse in the television miniseries of Stephen King's Kingdom Hospital. In April 2006, Ladd released her first book, Spiraling Through The School of Life: A Mental, Physical, and Spiritual Discovery. In 2007, she co-starred in the Lifetime Television film Montana Sky. In addition to her Academy Award nomination for Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore, she was also nominated (again in the Best Actress in a Supporting Role category) for both Wild at Heart and Rambling Rose, both of which she starred alongside her daughter Laura Dern. Dern received a nomination for Best Actress for Rambling Rose. The dual mother and daughter nominations for Ladd and Dern in Rambling Rose marked the first time in Academy Awards history that such an event had occurred. They were also nominated for dual Golden Globe Awards in the same year. Ladd has also worked in theatre. She made her Broadway debut in Carry Me Back to Morningside Heights in 1968. In 1976, she starred in A Texas Trilogy: Lu Ann Hampton Laverty Oberlander, for which she received a Drama Desk Award nomination. On November 1, 2010, Ladd, Laura Dern, and Bruce Dern received adjoining stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; this is the first time family members have been given such consideration on the Walk. Ladd's star is the 2,421st. She currently stars in the Hallmark Channel series Chesapeake Shores. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations References External links Diane Ladd profile at Allmovie.com; accessed May 9, 2014. Diane Ladd biodata (with wrong year of birth), alicehyatt.com; accessed May 9, 2014. 1935 births 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Living people Actresses from Mississippi American film actresses American memoirists American people of German descent American stage actresses American television actresses American women film directors American women memoirists Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (television) winners Catholics from Mississippi Dern family Film directors from Mississippi Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female winners People from Laurel, Mississippi People from Meridian, Mississippi Writers from Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodarion%20vicinum
Zodarion vicinum
Zodarion vicinum is a spider species found in England and Italy. See also List of Zodariidae species References External links vicinum Spiders of Europe Spiders described in 1935
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution
Substitution
Substitution may refer to: Arts and media Chord substitution, in music, swapping one chord for a related one within a chord progression Substitution (poetry), a variation in poetic scansion "Substitution" (song), a 2009 song by Silversun Pickups Substitution (theatre), an acting methodology Tritone substitution, in music, reinterpreting a chord via a new root note located an augmented fourth or diminished fifth distant from the root of the original interpretation Science and mathematics Biology and chemistry Base-pair substitution or point mutation, a type of mutation Substitution reaction, where a functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another group Substitution, a process in which an allele arises and undergoes fixation Mathematics and computing Substitution (algebra), replacing occurrences of some symbol by a given value Substitution (logic), a syntactic transformation on strings of symbols of a formal language String substitution, a mapping of letters in an alphabet to languages Substitution cipher, a method of encryption Integration by substitution, a method for finding antiderivatives and integrals Other uses in science Substitution (economics), switching between alternative consumable goods as their relative prices change Attribute substitution, a psychological process thought to underlie a number of cognitive biases and perceptual illusions Substitution method, a method of measuring the transmission loss of an optical fiber Other uses Substitution (law), the replacement of a judge Substitution (sport), where a sports team is able to change one player for another during a match Within Wikipedia Help:Substitution, help performing substitution on Wikipedia pages Special:ExpandTemplates, page that shows what will result from substitution Wikipedia:Substitution, where, when, how, and what about using substitution on Wikipedia See also Import substitution industrialization, a trade and economic policy Penal substitution, a theory of the atonement within Christian theology Simultaneous substitution, a practice requiring Canadian television distribution companies to substitute a non-local station signal with the local signal Substituent, an atom or group of atoms Substitute (disambiguation) Substitution therapy or opiate replacement therapy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolius%20of%20Constantinople
Anatolius of Constantinople
Anatolius (? – 3 July 458) was a Patriarch of Constantinople (451 – 3 July 458). He is regarded as a saint, by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. Life Anatolius was born at Alexandria. He was ordained a deacon by Cyril of Alexandria, and was present at the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus in the year 431. He became Patriarch through the influence of Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria with Emperor Theodosius II, after the deposition of Flavian by the Second Council of Ephesus, having previously been the apocrisiarius or representative of Dioscorus with the emperor at Constantinople. After his consecration, being under suspicion of Eutychianism, Anatolius publicly condemned the teachings not only of Eutyches, but also those of Nestorius, subscribing to the letters of Cyril against Nestorius and of Pope Leo I against Eutyches. In conjunction with Pope Leo, according to Zonaras (Annals iii), he requested that the Emperor Marcian summon a general council against Dioscorus and the Eutychians, but the Imperial letter instructing Anatolius in the preparations for the Council of Chalcedon only mentions Pope Leo (Philippe Labbe, Conc. Max. Tom. iv.). In this council Anatolius presided in conjunction with the Roman legates (Labbe, Conc. Max. iv.; Evagr. H. E. ii. 4, 18; Niceph. H. E. xv. 18). By the famous 28th canon, passed at the conclusion of the council, Constantinople was made equal in dignity with Rome, "second in eminence and power to the Bishop of Rome." This displaced the traditional order of authority of the much older sees of Antioch and Alexandria. Hence arose the controversy between Anatolius and the Roman pontiff. However, the third canon of the earlier First Council of Constantinople of 381 stated that "The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have the prerogative of honour after the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is New Rome." The Eastern position could be characterized as being political in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. Leo complained to Marcian (Ep. 54) and to Pulcheria (Ep. 55) that Anatolius had outstepped his jurisdiction by consecrating Maximinus II as Patriarch of Antioch, as well as protesting to Anatolius (Ep. 53). Following the council of Chalcedon, Anatolius received a letter signed by several Egyptian bishops, asking his assistance against Timothy, who was usurping the Patriarch of Alexandria (Labbe, Conc. Max. iv. iii. 23, p. 897), as a result Anatolius wrote to the emperor Leo against Timothy (Labbe, iii. 26, p. 905). The circular of the emperor requesting the advice of Anatolius on the turbulent state of Alexandria is given by Evagrius (H. E. ii. 9), and by Nicephorus (H. E. xv. 18). Edward Gibbon states that the crowning of Leo on his accession by Anatolius is the first instance of the kind on record (Theophanes, Chronicle p. 95). When he was in danger of death he was restored to health by Daniel the Stylite, who came to Constantinople to see him. The followers of Dioscorus are said to have killed him in 458. Anatolius was credited with composing a few hymns. References Attribution Bibliography "Lives of the Saints," Omer Englebert, New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1994, pp 532, (casebound) External links St Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople Orthodox icon and synaxarion Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies 4th-century births 458 deaths 5th-century Egyptian people 5th-century patriarchs of Constantinople Byzantine hymnographers 5th-century Archbishops of Constantinople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulla
Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italic tribes during the Social War. He was awarded the Grass Crown for his command in the latter war. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. He was a leader of the former, which sought to maintain senatorial supremacy against the populist reforms advocated by the latter, headed by Marius. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Sulla's military coup was ironically enabled by Marius' military reforms that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the republic and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. Early years Sulla, the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the grandson of Publius Cornelius Sulla, was born into a branch of the patrician gens Cornelia, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at the time of his birth. The reason behind this was because an ancestor, Publius Cornelius Rufinius, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. As a result of this, Sulla's branch of the gens lost public standing and never retained the position of consul or dictator until Sulla arrived. A story says that when he was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, "Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix." This can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state." Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Rome’s comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. During these times on the stage, after initially only singing, he started writing plays, Atellan farces, a kind of crude comedy. Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria, he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day." Sulla almost certainly received a good education. Sallust declares him well-read and intelligent, and he was fluent in Greek, which was a sign of education in Rome. The means by which Sulla attained the fortune, which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics, the cursus honorum, are not clear, although Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly, as if he were her own son) and the other from Nicopolis, a (possibly Greek) low-born woman who became rich. Capture of Jugurtha The Jugurthine War had started in 112 BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. Rome declared war on Jugurtha in 111 BC, but the Roman legions were unsuccessful for five years. Several Roman commanders were bribed (Bestia and Spurius), and one (Aulus Postumius Albinus) was defeated. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, saw an opportunity to usurp his commander and fed rumors of incompetence and delay to the publicani (tax gatherers) in the region. These machinations generated calls for Metellus' removal. Despite delaying tactics by Metellus, Marius returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107 BC. Marius was elected consul and took over the campaign, while Sulla was nominated as quaestor to him. Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus to ultimately defeat the Numidians in 106 BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. He had persuaded Jugurtha's father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom), to betray Jugurtha, who had fled to Mauretania for refuge. It was a dangerous operation, with King Bocchus weighing up the advantages of handing Jugurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jugurtha. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. A gilded equestrian statue of Sulla donated by King Bocchus was erected in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment. Although Sulla had engineered this move, as Sulla was serving under Marius at the time, Marius took credit for this feat. The Cimbri and the Teutones In 104 BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to be heading for Italy. As Marius, fresh from his victory over Jugurtha, was considered to be Rome's best military commander at that particular time, the Senate allowed him to lead the campaign against the northern invaders. Sulla, who had served under Marius during the Jugurthine War, joined his old commander as tribunus militum (military tribune). First, he helped Marius in recruiting and training legionaries; then, he led troops to subdue the Volcae Tectosages, and succeeded in capturing their leader Copillus. In 103, Sulla succeeded in persuading the Germanic Marsi tribe to become friends and allies of Rome; they detached themselves from the Germanic confederation and went back to Germania. In 102, when Marius became consul for the fourth time, an unusual separation occurred between Marius and Sulla. For reasons unknown, Sulla requested a transfer to the army of Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Marius' consular partner. While Marius marched against the Teutones and Ambrones in Gaul, Catulus was tasked with keeping the Cimbri out of Italy. Catulus tasked Sulla with subduing the tribes in the north of Cisalpine Gaul to keep them from joining the Cimbri. Overconfident, Catulus tried to stop the Cimbri, but he was severely outnumbered and his army suffered some losses. Meanwhile, Marius had completely defeated the Ambrones and the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae. In 101, the armies of Marius and Catulus joined forces and faced the enemy tribes at the Battle of Vercellae. During the battle, Sulla commanded the cavalry on the right and was instrumental in achieving victory. Sulla and his cavalry routed the barbarian cavalry and drove them into the main body of the Cimbri, causing chaos. Catulus, seeing an opportunity, threw his men forward and followed up on Sulla's successful action. By noon, the warriors of the Cimbri were defeated. Victorious at Vercellae, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the co-commanding generals. Sulla's role in the Vercellae victory was also hard to ignore, and formed the launchpad for his political career. Cilician governorship Returning to Rome, Sulla was elected praetor urbanus for 97 BC. In 96 BC, he was appointed propraetor of the province of Cilicia in Asia Minor. A serious problem had arisen with pirates there, and he was commonly assumed to have been sent there to deal with them. While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore King Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla succeeded in restoring Ariobarzanes to the throne. The Romans among his troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator on the field. Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and King Ariobarzanes, hereby, perhaps unintentionally, slighting the Parthian king by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals and himself and Rome as superior. The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation. At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his lifetime. In 94 BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. In 93 BC, Sulla left the east and returned to Rome, where he aligned himself with the optimates, in opposition to Gaius Marius. Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east - restoring Ariobarzanes to the throne, being hailed imperator on the field by his men, and being the first Roman to make a treaty with the Parthians. Social War The Social War resulted from Rome's intransigence regarding the civil liberties of the Socii, Rome's Italian allies. The Socii (such as the Samnites) had been enemies of Rome, but had eventually submitted, whereas the Latins were confederates of longer standing. As a result, the Latins were given more respect and better treatment. Subjects of the Roman Republic, these Italian provincials could be called to arms in its defense or could be subjected to extraordinary taxes, but they had no say in the expenditure of these taxes or in the uses of the armies that might be raised in their territories. The Social War was, in part, caused by the continued rebuttal of those who sought to extend Roman citizenship to the Socii. The Gracchi, Tiberius and Gaius, were successively killed by optimate supporters who sought to maintain the status quo. The assassination of Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger, a tribune, whose reforms were intended not only to strengthen the position of the Senate, but also to grant Roman citizenship to the allies, greatly angered the Socii. In consequence, most allied against Rome, leading to the outbreak of the Social War. At the beginning of the Social War, the Roman aristocracy and Senate were beginning to fear Gaius Marius' ambition, which had already given him six consulships (including five in a row, from 104 to 100 BC). They were determined that he should not have overall command of the war in Italy. In this last rebellion of the Italian allies, Sulla outshone both Marius and the consul Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey). Serving under Lucius Caesar (90 BC) Sulla first served under the consul of 90, Lucius Julius Caesar, and fought against the southern group of the Italian rebels (the Samnites) and their allies. Sulla and Caesar defeated Gaius Papius Mutilus, one of the leaders of the Samnites, at Acerrae. Then, commanding one of Caesar's divisions and working in tandem with his old commander Marius, Sulla defeated an army of the Marsi and the Marruncini. Together, they killed 6,000 rebels, as well as the Marruncini general Herius Asinus. When Lucius Caesar returned to Rome, he ordered Sulla to reorganize the legions for deployment next year. In sole command (89 BC) In 89 BC, now a praetor, Sulla served under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato Licinianus. Cato got himself killed early on while storming a rebel camp. Sulla, being an experienced military man, took command of Rome's southern army, and continued the fight against the Samnites and their allies. He besieged the rebel cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The admiral in command of the fleet blockading Pompeii, Aulus Postumius Albinus, offended his troops, which caused them to stone him to death. When news of this reached Sulla, he declined to punish the murderers, because he needed the men and he figured Albinus had brought it on himself. During the siege of Pompeii, rebel reinforcements under the command of a general called Lucius Cleuntius arrived. Sulla drove off Cleuntius and his men, and pursued them all the way to the city of Nola, a town to the northeast of Pompeii. At Nola, a terrible battle ensued; Cleuntius' troops were desperate and fought savagely, but Sulla's army killed them almost to the last man, with 20,000 rebels dying in front of the city walls. Sulla is said to have killed Cleuntius with his own hands. The men who had fought with Sulla at the battle before the walls of Nola hailed him imperator on the field, and also awarded him the Grass Crown, or Corona Graminea. This was the highest Roman military honor, awarded for personal bravery to a commander who saves a Roman legion or army in the field. Unlike other Roman military honors, it was awarded by acclamation of the soldiers of the rescued army, and consequently, very few were ever awarded. The crown, by tradition, was woven from grasses and other plants taken from the actual battlefield. Sulla then returned to the siege of Pompeii. After taking Pompeii and Herculaneum, Sulla captured Aeclanum, the chief town of the Hirpini (he did this by setting the wooden breastworks on fire). After forcing the capitulation of all the rebel-held cities in Campania, with the exception of Nola, Sulla launched a dagger thrust into the heartland of the Samnites. He was able to ambush a Samnite army in a mountain pass (in a reversal of the Battle of the Caudine Forks) and then, having routed them, he marched on the rebel capital, storming it in a brutal, three-hour assault. Although Nola remained defiant, along with a few other pockets of resistance, Sulla had effectively finished the rebellion in the south for good. Consul of Rome (88 BC) As a result of his success in bringing the Social War to a successful conclusion, he was elected consul for the first time in 88 BC, with Quintus Pompeius Rufus (soon his daughter's father-in-law) as his colleague. Sulla was 50 years old by then (most Roman consuls being in their early 40s), and only then had he finally achieved his rise into Rome's ruling class. He also married his third wife, Caecilia Metella, which connected him to the mighty Caecilii Metelli family. Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase. The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Sulla's law waived the sponsio, allowing such cases to be heard without it. This, of course, made him very popular with the poorer citizens. After passing his laws, Sulla temporarily left Rome to attend to the cleaning-up of the Italian allies, especially Nola, which was still holding out. While Sulla was besieging Nola, his political opponents were moving against him in Rome. First march on Rome As senior consul, Sulla had been allocated the command of the First Mithridatic War against King Mithridates VI of Pontus. This war against Mithridates promised to be a very prestigious and also a very lucrative affair. Marius, Sulla's old commander, also ran for the command, but Sulla was fresh from his victories in Campania and Samnium, and almost 20 years younger (50 vs. Marius' 69), so Sulla was confirmed in the command against the Pontic king. Before he left Rome, Sulla passed two laws (the first of the leges Corneliae) and then went south, into Campania, to take care of the last Italian rebels. Before leaving, Sulla and his consular colleague Quintus Pompeius Rufus blocked the legislation of the tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus, meant to ensure the rapid organization of the Italian allies into Roman citizenship. Sulpicius found an ally in Marius, who said he would support the bill, at which point Sulpicius felt confident enough to tell his supporters to start a riot. Sulla was besieging Nola when he heard that rioting had broken out in Rome. He quickly returned to Rome to meet with Pompeius Rufus; however, Sulpicius' followers attacked the meeting, forcing Sulla to take refuge in Marius' house, who in turn forced him to support Sulpicius' pro-Italian legislation in exchange for protection from the mob. Sulla's son-in-law (Pompeius Rufus' son) was killed in the midst of these violent riots. After leaving Rome again for Nola, Sulpicius (who was given a promise from Marius to wipe out his enormous debts) called an assembly of the people to reverse the Senate's previous decision to grant Sulla military command, and instead transfer it to Marius. Sulpicius also used the assembly to forcefully eject senators from the Senate until not enough of them were present to form a quorum. Violence in the Forum ensued, and some nobles tried to lynch Sulpicius (as had been done to the brothers Gracchi, and to Saturninus), but failed in the face of his bodyguard of gladiators. Sulla received news of this new turmoil while at his camp at Nola, surrounded by his Social War veterans, the men whom he had personally led to victory, who had hailed him imperator and who had awarded him the Grass Crown. His soldiers stoned envoys of the assemblies who came to announce that the command of the Mithridatic War had been transferred to Marius. Sulla then took five of the six legions stationed at Nola and marched on Rome. This was an unprecedented event, as no general before him had ever crossed the city limits, the pomerium, with his army. Most of his commanders (with the exception of his kinsman through marriage, Lucullus), though, refused to accompany him. Sulla justified his actions on the grounds that the Senate had been neutered; the mos maiorum ("the way of the elders"/"the traditional way", which amounted to a Roman constitution, though none of it was codified as such) had been offended by the Senate's negation of the rights of the year's consuls to fight the year's wars. Even the armed gladiators were unable to resist the organized Roman soldiers, and although Marius offered freedom to any slave who would fight with him against Sulla (an offer which Plutarch says only three slaves accepted), he and his followers were forced to flee the city. Sulla consolidated his position, declared Marius and his allies hostes (enemies of the state), and addressed the Senate in a harsh tone, portraying himself as a victim, presumably to justify his violent entrance into the city. After restructuring the city's politics and strengthening the Senate's power, Sulla once more returned to his military camp and proceeded with the original plan of fighting Mithridates in Pontus. Sulpicius was later betrayed and killed by one of his slaves, whom Sulla subsequently freed and then executed (being freed for giving the information leading to Sulpicius, but sentenced to death for betraying his master). Marius, however, fled to safety in Africa until he heard Sulla was once again out of Rome, when he began plotting his return. During his period of exile, Marius became determined that he would hold a seventh consulship, as foretold by the Sibyl decades earlier. By the end of 87 BC, Marius returned to Rome with the support of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, and in Sulla's absence, took control of the city. Marius declared Sulla's reforms and laws invalid, and officially exiled him. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls for the year 86 BC, but Marius died a fortnight later, thus Cinna was left in sole control of Rome. First Mithridatic War In the spring of 87 BC, Sulla landed at Dyrrhachium, in Illyria, at the head of five veteran legions. Asia was occupied by the forces of Mithridates under the command of Archelaus. Sulla’s first target was Athens, ruled by a Mithridatic puppet, the tyrant Aristion. Sulla moved southeast, picking up supplies and reinforcements as he went. Sulla's chief of staff was Lucullus, who went ahead of him to scout the way and negotiate with Bruttius Sura, the existing Roman commander in Greece. After speaking with Lucullus, Sura handed over the command of his troops to Sulla. At Chaeronea, ambassadors from all the major cities of Greece (except Athens) met with Sulla, who impressed on them Rome's determination to drive Mithridates from Greece and the province of Asia. Sulla then advanced on Athens. Sack of Athens On arrival, Sulla threw up siegeworks encompassing not only Athens, but also the port of Piraeus. At the time, Archelaus had command of the sea, so Sulla sent Lucullus to raise a fleet from the remaining Roman allies in the eastern Mediterranean. His first objective was Piraeus, as Athens could not be resupplied without it. Huge earthworks were raised, isolating Athens and its port from the landside. Sulla needed wood, so he cut down everything, including the sacred groves of Greece, up to 100 miles from Athens. When more money was needed, he took from temples and sibyls alike. The currency minted from this treasure was to remain in circulation for centuries and was prized for its quality. Despite the complete encirclement of Athens and its port, and several attempts by Archelaus to raise the siege, a stalemate seemed to have developed. Sulla, however, patiently bided his time. Soon, Sulla's camp was to fill with refugees from Rome, fleeing the massacres of Marius and Cinna. These also included his wife and children, as well as those of the optimate faction who had not been killed. Athens by now was starving, and grain was at famine levels in price. Inside the city, the population was reduced to eating shoe leather and grass. A delegation from Athens was sent to treat with Sulla, but instead of serious negotiations, they expounded on the glory of their city. Sulla sent them away, saying, "I was sent to Athens not to take lessons, but to reduce rebels to obedience." His spies then informed him that Aristion was neglecting the Heptachalcum (part of the city wall), and Sulla immediately sent sappers to undermine the wall. About 900 feet of wall were brought down between the Sacred and Piraeic gates on the southwest side of the city. A midnight sack of Athens began, and after the taunts of Aristion, Sulla was not in a mood to be magnanimous. Blood was said to have literally flowed in the streets; only after the entreaties of a few of his Greek friends (Midias and Calliphon) and the pleas of the Roman senators in his camp did Sulla decide enough was enough. He then concentrated his forces on the port of Piraeus, and Archelaus, seeing his hopeless situation, withdrew to the citadel and then abandoned the port to join up with his forces under the command of Taxiles. Sulla, as of yet not having a fleet, was powerless to prevent Archelaus' escape. Before leaving Athens, he burned the port to the ground. Sulla then advanced into Boeotia to take on Archelaus' armies and remove them from Greece. Battle of Chaeronea Sulla lost no time in intercepting the Pontic army, occupying a hill called Philoboetus that branched off mount Parnassus, overlooking the Elatean plain, with plentiful supplies of wood and water. The army of Archelaus, presently commanded by Taxiles, had to approach from the north and proceed along the valley towards Chaeronea. Over 120,000 men strong, it outnumbered Sulla's forces by at least three to one. Archelaus was in favor of a policy of attrition with the Roman forces, but Taxiles had orders from Mithridates to attack at once. Sulla got his men digging and occupied the ruined city of Parapotamii, which was impregnable and commanded the fords on the road to Chaeronea. He then made a move that looked to Archelaus like a retreat, abandoning the fords and moving in behind an entrenched palisade. Behind the palisade was the field artillery from the siege of Athens. Archelaus advanced across the fords and tried to outflank Sulla’s men, only to have his right wing hurled back, causing great confusion in the Pontic army. Archelaus’ chariots then charged the Roman center, only to be destroyed on the palisades. Next came the phalanges, but they too found the palisades impassable, and received withering fire from the Roman field artillery. Then, Archelaus flung his right wing at the Roman left; Sulla, seeing the danger of this maneuver, raced over from the Roman right wing to help. Sulla stabilized the situation, at which point Archelaus flung in more troops from his right flank. This destabilized the Pontic army, slewing it towards its right flank. Sulla dashed back to his own right wing and ordered the general advance. The legions, supported by cavalry, dashed forward, and Archelaus’ army folded in on itself, like closing a pack of cards. The slaughter was terrible, and some reports estimate that only 10,000 men of Mithridates' original army survived. Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers. Battle of Orchomenus The government of Rome (under the de facto rule of Cinna) then sent out Valerius Flaccus with an army to relieve Sulla of command in the east; Flaccus' second in command was Flavius Fimbria, who had few virtues. The two Roman armies camped next to each other, and Sulla, not for the first time, encouraged his soldiers to spread dissention among Flaccus' army. Many deserted to Sulla before Flaccus packed up and moved on north to threaten Mithridates' northern dominions. Meanwhile, Archelaus had been reinforced by 80,000 men brought over from Asia Minor by Dorylaeus, another of Mithridates' generals, and was embarking his army from his base on Euboea. The return of a large Mithridatic army caused a revolt of Boeotians against the Romans, and Sulla immediately marched his army back south. He chose the site of the battle to come — Orchomenus, a town in Boeotia that allowed a smaller army to meet a much larger one, due to its natural defenses, and was ideal terrain for Sulla's innovative use of entrenchment. This time, the Pontic army was in excess of 150,000, and it encamped itself in front of the busy Roman army, next to a large lake. It soon dawned on Archelaus what Sulla was up to; Sulla had not only been digging trenches, but also dikes, and he had the Pontic army in deep trouble before long. Desperate sallies by the Pontic forces were repulsed by the Romans, and the dikes moved onward. On the second day, Archelaus made a determined effort to escape Sulla’s web of dikes; the entire Pontic army was hurled at the Romans, but the Roman legionaries were pressed together so tightly that their short swords were like an impenetrable barrier, through which the enemy could not escape. The battle turned into a rout, with slaughter on an immense scale. Plutarch notes that, 200 years later, armor and weapons from the battle were still being found. The battle of Orchomenus was another of the world's decisive battles, determining that the fate of Asia Minor would lay with Rome and its successors for the next millennium. Sulla's victory and settlement In 86 BC, after Sulla's victory in Orchomenos, he initially spent some time re-establishing Roman authority. His legatus soon arrived with the fleet he was sent to gather, and Sulla was ready to recapture lost Greek islands before crossing into Asia Minor. The second Roman army under the command of Flaccus, meanwhile, moved through Macedonia and into Asia Minor. After the capture of Philippi, the remaining Mithridatic forces crossed the Hellespont to get away from the Romans. Fimbria encouraged his forces to loot and create general havoc as they went. Flaccus was a fairly strict disciplinarian, and the behavior of his lieutenant led to discord between the two. At some point, as this army crossed the Hellespont to pursue Mithridates' forces, Fimbria seems to have started a rebellion against Flaccus. While seemingly minor enough to not cause immediate repercussions in the field, Fimbria was relieved of his duty and ordered back to Rome. The return trip included a stop at the port city of Byzantium, though, and here, rather than continuing towards home, Fimbria took command of the garrison. Flaccus, hearing of this, marched his army to Byzantium to put a stop to the rebellion, but walked right into his own undoing. The army preferred Fimbria (not surprisingly, considering his leniency in regard to plundering) and a general revolt ensued. Flaccus attempted to flee, but was captured and executed shortly afterwards. With Flaccus out of the way, Fimbria took complete command. The following year (85 BC), Fimbria took the fight to Mithridates, while Sulla continued to operate in the Aegean. Fimbria quickly won a decisive victory over the remaining Mithridatic forces and moved on the capital of Pergamum. With all vestige of hope crumbling for Mithridates, he fled Pergamum to the coastal city of Pitane. Fimbria, in pursuit, laid siege to the town, but had no fleet to prevent Mithridates' escape by sea. Fimbria called upon Sulla's legate, Lucullus, to bring his fleet around to blockade Mithridates, but Sulla seemingly had other plans. Sulla apparently had been in private negotiation with Mithridates to end the war. He wanted to develop easy terms and get the ordeal over as quickly as possible. The quicker it was dealt with, the faster he would be able to settle political matters in Rome. With this in mind, Lucullus and his navy refused to help Fimbria, and Mithridates "escaped" to Lesbos. Later, at Dardanus, Sulla and Mithridates met personally to negotiate terms. With Fimbria re-establishing Roman hegemony over the cities of Asia Minor, Mithridates' position was completely untenable, yet Sulla, with his eyes on Rome, offered uncharacteristically mild terms. Mithridates was forced to give up all his conquests (which Sulla and Fimbria had already managed to take back by force), surrender any Roman prisoners, provide a 70-ship fleet to Sulla along with supplies, and pay a tribute of 2,000 to 3,000 gold talents. In exchange, Mithridates was able to keep his original kingdom and territory and regain his title of "friend of the Roman people". Things in the east, though, were not settled yet. Fimbria was enjoying free rein in the province of Asia, and led a cruel oppression of both those who were involved against the Romans and those who were now in support of Sulla. Unable to leave a potentially dangerous army in his rear, Sulla crossed into Asia. He pursued Fimbria to his camp at Thyatira, where Fimbria was confident in his ability to repulse an attack. Fimbria, however, soon found that his men wanted nothing to do with opposing Sulla, and many deserted or refused to fight in the coming battle. Sensing all was lost, Fimbria took his own life, while his army went over to Sulla. To ensure the loyalty of both Fimbria's troops and his own veterans, who were not happy about the easy treatment of their enemy, Mithridates, Sulla now started to penalize the province of Asia. His veterans were scattered throughout the province and allowed to extort the wealth of local communities. Large fines were placed on the province for lost taxes during their rebellion and the cost of the war. As 84 BC began, Cinna, still consul in Rome, was faced with minor disturbances among Illyrian tribes. Perhaps in an attempt to gain experience for an army to act as a counter to Sulla's forces, or to show Sulla that the Senate also had some strength of its own, Cinna raised an army to deal with this Illyrian problem. Conveniently, the source of the disturbance was located directly between Sulla and another march on Rome. Cinna pushed his men hard to move to position in Illyria, and forced marches through snow-covered mountains did little to endear Cinna to his army. A short time after departing Rome, Cinna was stoned to death by his own men. Hearing of Cinna's death, and the ensuing power gap in Rome, Sulla gathered his forces and prepared for a second march on the capital. Second march on Rome In 83 BC, Sulla prepared his five legions and left the two originally under Fimbria to maintain peace in Asia Minor. In the spring of that year, Sulla crossed the Adriatic with a large fleet from Patrae, west of Corinth, to Brundisium and Tarentum in the heel of Italy. Landing uncontested, he had ample opportunity to prepare for the coming war. In Rome, the newly elected consuls, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (Asiagenus) and Gaius Norbanus, levied and prepared armies of their own to stop Sulla and protect the Republican government. Norbanus marched first, with the intention of blocking Sulla's advance at Canusium. Seriously defeated, Norbanus was forced to retreat to Capua, where no respite remained. Sulla followed his defeated adversary and won another victory in a very short time. Meanwhile, Asiagenus was also on the march south with an army of his own, but neither Asiagenus nor his army seemed to have any motivation to fight. At the town of Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla and Asiagenus met face-to-face to negotiate, and Asiagenus surrendered without a fight. The army sent to stop Sulla wavered in the face of battle against experienced veterans, and certainly along with the prodding of Sulla's operatives, gave up the cause, going over to Sulla's side as a result. Left without an army, Asiagenus had little choice but to cooperate, and later writings of Cicero suggest that the two men actually discussed many matters, regarding Roman government and the constitution. Sulla let Asiagenus leave the camp, firmly believing him to be a supporter. He was possibly expected to deliver terms to the Senate, but immediately rescinded any thought of supporting Sulla upon being set free. Sulla later made publicly known the fact that not only would Asiagenus suffer for opposing him, but also that any man who continued to oppose him after this betrayal would suffer bitter consequences. With Sulla's three quick victories, though, the situation began to rapidly turn in his favor. Many of those in a position of power, who had not yet taken a clear side, now chose to support Sulla. The first of these was the governor of Africa, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who was an old enemy of Marius and Cinna's; he led an open revolt against the Marian forces in Africa, with additional help coming from Picenum and Spain. Additionally, two of the three future triumviri joined Sulla's cause in his bid to take control. Marcus Licinius Crassus marched with an army from Spain, and would later play a pivotal role at the Colline Gate. The young son of Pompeius Strabo (the butcher of Asculum during the Social War), Pompey, raised an army of his own from among his father's veterans, and threw his lot in with Sulla. At the age of 23, and never having held a senatorial office, Pompey forced himself into the political scene with an army at his back. Regardless, the war continued, with Asiagenus raising another army in defense. This time, he moved after Pompey, but once again, his army abandoned him and went over to the enemy. As a result, desperation followed in Rome as 83 BC came to a close. Cinna's old co-consul, Papirius Carbo, and Gaius Marius the Younger, the 26-year-old son of the dead consul, were elected as consuls. Hoping to inspire Marian supporters throughout the Roman world, recruiting began in earnest among the Italian tribes who had always been loyal to Marius. In addition, possible Sullan supporters were murdered. The urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus led a slaughter of those senators who seemed to lean towards the invading forces, yet one more incident of murder in a growing spiral of violence as a political tool in the late Republic. As the campaign year of 82 BC opened, Carbo took his forces to the north to oppose Pompey, while Marius moved against Sulla in the south. Attempts to defeat Pompey failed, and Metellus with his African forces, along with Pompey, secured northern Italy for Sulla. In the south, young Marius gathered a large host of Samnites, who assuredly would lose influence with the antipopular Sulla in charge of Rome. Marius met Sulla at Sacriportus, and the two forces engaged in a long and desperate battle. In the end, many of Marius' men switched sides over to Sulla, and Marius had no choice but to retreat to Praeneste. Sulla followed the son of his arch rival and laid siege to the town, leaving a subordinate in command. Sulla himself moved north to push Carbo, who had withdrawn to Etruria to stand between Rome and the forces of Pompey and Metellus. Indecisive battles were fought between Carbo and Sulla's forces, but Carbo knew that his cause was lost. News arrived of a defeat by Norbanus in Gaul, and that he also switched sides to Sulla. Carbo, caught between three enemy armies and with no hope of relief, fled to Africa. This was not yet the end of the resistance, however, as the remaining Marian forces gathered together and attempted several times to relieve young Marius at Praeneste. A Samnite force under Pontius Telesinus joined in the relief effort, but the combined armies were still unable to break Sulla. Rather than continue trying to rescue Marius, Telesinus moved north to threaten Rome. On November 1 82 BC, the two forces met at the Battle of the Colline Gate, just outside Rome. The battle was a huge and desperate final struggle, with both sides certainly believing their own victory would save Rome. Sulla was pushed hard on his left flank, with the situation so dangerous that his men and he were pushed right up against the city walls. Crassus' forces, however, fighting on Sulla's right wing, managed to turn the opposition's flank and drive them back. The Samnites and the Marian forces were folded up, and then broke. In the end, over 50,000 combatants lost their lives, and Sulla stood alone as the master of Rome. Dictatorship and constitutional reforms At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC, the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. Sulla had total control of the city and Republic of Rome, except for Hispania (which Marius' general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing those whom he perceived as enemies of the state and confiscating their property). Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents." Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the east, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles (i.e. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. The purge went on for several months. Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers." The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla's supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life, because of the young man's notorious ambition. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses." Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). Sulla, himself a patrician, thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. As Sulla viewed the office, the tribunate was especially dangerous, and his intention was to not only deprive the Tribunate of power, but also of prestige (Sulla himself had been officially deprived of his eastern command through the underhanded activities of a tribune). Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. To this end, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for 10 years before being re-elected to any office. Sulla then established a system where all consuls and praetors served in Rome during their year in office, and then commanded a provincial army as a governor for the year after they left office. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. After a second consulship in 80 BC (with Metellus Pius), Sulla, true to his traditionalist sentiments, resigned his dictatorship in early 79, disbanded his legions, and re-established normal consular government. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Retirement and death As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that he retired to a life spent in dissolute luxuries, and he "consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long." From this distance, Sulla remained out of the day-to-day political activities in Rome, intervening only a few times when his policies were involved (e.g. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. They are now largely lost, although fragments from them exist as quotations in later writers. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full." Plutarch claims he had seen Sulla's personal motto carved on his tomb on the Campus Martius. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy." Legacy Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I?" Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. He attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware. While Sulla's laws such as those concerning qualification for admittance to the Senate, reform of the legal system and regulations of governorships remained on Rome's statutes long into the principate, much of his legislation was repealed less than a decade after his death. The veto power of the tribunes and their legislating authority were soon reinstated, ironically during the consulships of Pompey and Crassus. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator, as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix (the son of the consul of 31) in AD 52. The latter was the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius. His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion – but that it was the former attribute that was by far the most dangerous. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler. Cultural references The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Lucio Silla by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Silla by George Frideric Handel. In each, he is portrayed as a bloody, womanizing, ruthless tyrant who eventually repents his ways and steps down from the throne of Rome. Pasquale Anfossi and Johann Christian Bach also wrote operas on this subject. Sulla is a central character in the first three Masters of Rome novels, by Colleen McCullough. Sulla is depicted as ruthless and amoral, very self-assured, and personally brave and charming, especially with women. His charm and ruthlessness make him a valuable aide to Gaius Marius. Sulla’s desire to move out of the shadow of aging Marius eventually leads to civil war. Sulla softened considerably after the birth of his son, and was devastated when the boy died at a young age. The novels depict Sulla full of regrets about having to put aside his homosexual relationship with a Greek actor to take up his public career. Sulla is played by Richard Harris in the 2002 miniseries Julius Caesar. Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the Emperor novels by Conn Iggulden, which are centered around the lives of Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Junius Brutus. Sulla is a major character in Roman Blood, the first of the Roma Sub Rosa mystery novels by Steven Saylor. Sulla is the subject of The Sword of Pleasure, a novel by Peter Green published in the UK in 1957. The novel is in the form of an autobiography. Marriages and children His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely Julia Caesaris, Caesar's first cousin once removed. They had two children: The first was Cornelia, who first married Quintus Pompeius Rufus the Younger and later Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus, giving birth to Pompeia (second wife of Julius Caesar) with the former. The second was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who died young. His second wife was Aelia. His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility. His fourth wife was Caecilia Metella, with whom he also had two children: They had twins Faustus Cornelius Sulla, who was a quaestor in 54 BC, and Fausta Cornelia, who first married to Gaius Memmius (praetor in 58 BC), then later to Titus Annius Milo (praetor in 54 BC). Fausta's son from her first marriage was Gaius Memmius, suffect consul in 34 BC. His fifth and last wife was Valeria, with whom he had only one child, Cornelia Postuma, who was born after Sulla's death. Appearance and character Sulla was red-blond and blue-eyed, and had a dead-white face covered with red marks. Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance." He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest." This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property." His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s. Chronology circa 138 BC: Born in Rome; 110 BC: Marries first wife; 107-105 BC: Quaestor and pro quaestore to Gaius Marius in the war with Jugurtha in Numidia; 106 BC: End of Jugurthine War; 104 BC: Legatus to Marius (serving his second consulship) in Gallia Transalpina; 103 BC: Tribunus militum in the army of Marius (serving his third consulship) in Gallia Transalpina; 102-101 BC: Legatus to Quintus Lutatius Catulus (who was consul at the time) and pro consule in Gallia Cisalpina; 101 BC: Took part in the defeat of the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae 97 BC: Praetor urbanus 96 BC: Propraetor of the province of Cilicia, pro consule; 90-89 BC: Senior officer in the Social War, as legatus pro praetore; 88 BC: Holds the consulship for the first time, with Quintus Pompeius Rufus as colleague Invades Rome and outlaws Marius 87 BC: Commands Roman armies to fight King Mithridates of Pontus 86 BC: Participates in the sack of Athens, the battle of Chaeronea and the battle of Orchomenus 85 BC: Liberates the provinces of Macedonia, Asia, and Cilicia from Pontic occupation 84 BC: Reorganizes the province of Asia 83 BC: Returns to Italy and undertakes civil war against the factional Marian government 83-82 BC: Enters war with the followers of Gaius Marius the Younger and Cinna 82 BC: Obtains victory at the battle of the Colline Gate 82/81 BC: Appointed dictator legibus faciendis et rei publicae constituendae causa 80 BC: Holds the consulship for the second time, with Metellus Pius as colleague; 79 BC: Resigns the dictatorship and retires from political life, refusing the post consulatum provincial command of Gallia Cisalpina he was allotted as consul, but retaining the curatio for the reconstruction of the temples on the Capitoline Hill 78 BC: Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer, with funeral held in Rome See also References Sources External links Plutarch's Life of Sulla Called to the Eagle: Some Sullan Centurions 138 BC births 78 BC deaths 2nd-century BC Romans 1st-century BC Roman augurs 1st-century BC Roman consuls 1st-century BC Roman praetors Ancient Roman dictators Ancient Roman generals Cornelii Sullae Leaders who took power by coup Memoirists Optimates Roman patricians Roman Athens Roman governors of Cilicia Roman governors of Hispania Romans who received the grass crown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femoral%20artery
Femoral artery
The femoral artery is a large artery in the thigh and the main arterial supply to the thigh and leg. The femoral artery gives off the deep femoral artery or profunda femoris artery and descends along the anteromedial part of the thigh in the femoral triangle. It enters and passes through the adductor canal, and becomes the popliteal artery as it passes through the adductor hiatus in the adductor magnus near the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the thigh. Structure The femoral artery enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament as the continuation of the external iliac artery. Here, it lies midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the symphysis pubis (Mid-inguinal point). Its first three or four centimetres are enclosed, with the femoral vein, in the femoral sheath. In 65% of the cases, common femoral artery lies anterior to the femoral vein in the middle portion of the thigh. Relations The relations of the femoral artery are as follows: Anteriorly: In the upper part of its course, it is superficial and is covered by skin and fascia. In the lower part of its course, it passes behind the sartorius muscle. Posteriorly: The artery lies on the psoas, which separates it from the hip joint, the pectineus, and the adductor longus. The femoral vein intervenes between the artery and the adductor longus. Medially: It is related to the femoral vein in the upper part of its course. Laterally: The femoral nerve and its branches. Branches The femoral artery gives off several branches in the thigh which include; The superficial circumflex iliac artery is a small branch that runs up to the region of the anterior superior iliac spine. The superficial epigastric artery is a small branch that crosses the inguinal ligament and runs to the region of the umbilicus. The superficial external pudendal artery is a small branch that runs medially to supply the skin of the scrotum or labium majus as. The deep external pudendal artery runs medially and supplies the skin of the scrotum or labium majus. The profunda femoris artery is a large and important branch that arises from the lateral side of the femoral artery about 1.5 in. (4 cm) below the inguinal ligament. It passes medially behind the femoral vessels and enters the medial fascial compartment of the thigh. It ends by becoming the fourth perforating artery. At its origin, it gives off the medial and lateral femoral circumflex arteries, and during its course it gives off three perforating arteries. The descending genicular artery is a small branch that arises from the femoral artery near its termination within the adductor canal. It assists in supplying the knee joint. Segments In clinical parlance, the femoral artery has the following segments: The common femoral artery is the segment of the femoral artery between the inferior margin of the inguinal ligament and the branching point of the deep femoral artery. The subsartorial artery or superficial femoral artery are designations for the segment between the branching point of the deep femoral artery and the adductor hiatus, passing through the subsartorial canal. However, usage of the term superficial femoral is discouraged by many physicians because it leads to confusion among general medical practitioners, at least for the femoral vein that courses next to the femoral artery. In particular, the adjacent femoral vein is clinically a deep vein, where deep vein thrombosis indicates anticoagulant or thrombolytic therapy, but the adjective "superficial" leads many physicians to falsely believe it is a superficial vein, which has resulted in patients with femoral thrombosis being denied proper treatment. Therefore, the terms subsartorial artery and subsartorial vein have been suggested for the femoral artery and vein, respectively, distally to the branching points of the deep femoral artery and vein. Clinical significance Vascular access As the pulsation of the common femoral artery can often be palpated through the skin; and the site of maximum pulsation is used as a point of puncture for catheter access. Common femoral artery (CFA) can be assessed by retrograde puncture. Then another catheter is advanced through the common iliac artery to the contralateral external iliac artery and contralateral superficial femoral artery (SFA). The SFA can be assessed by antegrade puncture after the contralateral retrograde puncture was done. From here, wires and catheters can be directed anywhere in the arterial system for intervention or diagnostics, including the heart, brain, kidneys, arms and legs. The direction of the needle in the femoral artery can be against blood flow (retro-grade), for intervention and diagnostic towards the heart and opposite leg, or with the flow (ante-grade or ipsi-lateral) for diagnostics and intervention on the same leg. Access in either the left or right femoral artery is possible and depends on the type of intervention or diagnostic. The site for optimally palpating the femoral pulse is in the inner thigh, at the mid-inguinal point, halfway between the pubic symphysis and anterior superior iliac spine. Presence of a femoral pulse has been estimated to indicate a systolic blood pressure of more than 50 mmHg, as given by the 50% percentile. The femoral artery can be used to draw arterial blood when the blood pressure is so low that the radial or brachial arteries cannot be located. Peripheral arterial disease The femoral artery is susceptible to peripheral arterial disease. When it is blocked through atherosclerosis, percutaneous intervention with access from the opposite femoral may be needed. Endarterectomy, a surgical cut down and removal of the plaque of the femoral artery is also common. If the femoral artery has to be ligated surgically to treat a popliteal aneurysm, blood can still reach the popliteal artery distal to the ligation via the genicular anastomosis. However, if flow in the femoral artery of a normal leg is suddenly disrupted, blood flow distally is rarely sufficient. The reason for this is the fact that the genicular anastomosis is only present in a minority of individuals and is always undeveloped when disease in the femoral artery is absent. History Textbook illustrations of the genicular anastomosis, such as that shown in the sidebox, all appear to have been derived from the idealized image first produced by Gray's Anatomy in 1910. Neither the 1910 illustration nor any subsequent version, was made of an anatomical dissection but rather from the writings of John Hunter and Astley Cooper which described the genicular anastomosis many years after ligation of the femoral artery for Popliteal aneurysm. The genicular anastomosis has not been demonstrated even with modern imaging techniques such as X-ray computed tomography or angiography. See also Brachial artery, an arm based artery with a similar function References Additional images External links Image at umich.edu - pulse Diagram at MSU QuantaFlo vs ABI in Peripheral Arterial Disease Arteries of the lower limb
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femoral%20triangle
Femoral triangle
The femoral triangle (or Scarpa's triangle) is an anatomical region of the upper third of the thigh. It is a subfascial space which appears as a triangular depression below the inguinal ligament when the thigh is flexed, abducted and laterally rotated. Structure The femoral triangle is bounded: superiorly (also known as the base) by the inguinal ligament. medially by the medial border of the adductor longus muscle. (Some people consider the femoral triangle to be smaller hence the medial border being at the lateral border of the adductor longus muscle.) laterally by the medial border of the sartorius muscle. The apex of the triangle is continuous with the adductor canal. The roof is formed by the skin, superficial fascia, and deep fascia (fascia lata). The superficial fascia contains the superficial inguinal lymph nodes, femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve, branches of the ilioinguinal nerve, superficial branches of the femoral artery with accompanying veins, and upper part of the great saphenous vein. The deep fascia has a saphenous opening and the opening is covered by the cribiform fascia. Its floor is formed by the pectineus and adductor longus muscles medially and iliopsoas muscle laterally. Contents The femoral triangle is important as a number of vital structures pass through it, right under the skin. The following structures are contained within the femoral triangle (from lateral to medial): Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh - It crosses the lateral angle of the triangle, runs on the lateral side of the thigh and ends by dividing into anterior and posterior branches. The anterior branch supplies the anterolateral aspect of the thigh while the lateral branche supplies the lateral aspect of the gluteal region. Femoral nerve and its terminal branches - The nerve enters the femoral triangle by passing beneath the inguinal ligament, just lateral to the femoral artery. In the thigh, the nerve lies in a groove between iliacus muscle and psoas major muscles, outside the femoral sheath, and lateral to the femoral artery. After a short course of about 4 cm in the thigh, the nerve is divided into anterior and posterior divisions, separated by lateral femoral circumflex artery. Nerve to pectineus - This nerve arises from the femoral nerve just above the inguinal ligament. It passes behind the femoral sheath to reach the anterior surface of the pectineus muscle. Femoral sheath encloses the upper 4 cm of the femoral vessels. Its contents are shown below (from lateral to medial): Femoral branch of the genitofemoral nerve - occupies the lateral compartment of the femoral sheath along with femoral artery. It supplies the skin over the femoral triangle. Femoral artery and its branches - It emerges from the base of the femoral triangle at the mid-inguinal point (midpoint between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis of the pelvic bone) and exits through the apex of the triangle into the adductor canal. Femoral vein and its tributaries - The vein lies medial to the femoral artery at the base of the triangle but as it approaches the apex of the triangle, it lies posteromedially to the femoral artery. It receives drainage from great saphenous vein, circumflex veins, and veins corresponding to the branches of the femoral artery here. Deep inguinal lymph nodes - It lies deep to the deep fascia, medial to the upper part of the femoral vein, inside the femoral canal (medial compartment of the femoral sheath). Cloquet's node (also known as Rosenmuller's node) also lies in this canal. It receives lymphatic drainage from superficial inguinal lymph nodes, lymphatic drainage from the glans penis or clitoris, and from the deep lymphatics of the lower limb. Clinical significance Since the femoral triangle provides easy access to a major artery, coronary angioplasty and peripheral angioplasty is often performed by entering the femoral artery at the femoral triangle. Heavy bleeding in the leg can be stopped by applying pressure to points in the femoral triangle. Another clinical significance of the femoral triangle is that the femoral artery is positioned at the midinguinal point (midpoint between the pubic symphysis and the anterior superior iliac spine); medial to it lies the femoral vein. Thus the femoral vein, once located, allows for femoral venipuncture.. Femoral venipuncture is useful when there are no superficial veins that can be aspirated in a patient, in the case of collapsed veins in other parts of body (e.g. arms). The positive pulsation of the femoral artery signifies that the heart is beating and also blood is flowing to the lower extremity. It is also necessary to appreciate clinically that this is a case where the nerve is more lateral than the vein. In most other cases the nerve (relative to its associated artery and vein) would be the deepest or more medial followed by the artery and then the vein. But in this case it is the opposite. This must be remembered when venous or arterial samples are required from the femoral vessels. This area contains the superficial and deep basins of the inguinal lymph nodes, and is the location targeted in an inguinal lymphadenectomy. The basins are separated by the fascia lata. For patients with palpable nodal disease, removal of the superficial and deep basins are recommended. In a patient with a positive sentinel lymph node biopsy, generally only the superficial nodes are removed, unless Cloquet's node (the most superior of the deep nodes) is clinically positive. Additional images References External links - "Anterior and Medial Thigh Region: Boundaries of the Femoral Triangle" Lower limb anatomy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20City%20Airport
London City Airport
London City Airport is an international airport in London, England. It is located in the Royal Docks in the London Borough of Newham, approximately east of the City of London and east of Canary Wharf. These are the twin centres of London's financial industry, which is a major user of the airport. The airport was developed by the engineering company Mowlem in 1986–87. In 2016 it was bought by a Canadian-led consortium of Alberta Investment Management Corporation (AIMCo), OMERS, the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan and Wren House Infrastructure Management of the Kuwait Investment Authority. London City Airport has a single long runway, and a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence (Number P728) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flight training (but only for training necessary for the operation of aircraft at the airport). Only multi-engine, fixed-wing aircraft up to Airbus A318 size with special aircraft and aircrew certification to fly 5.5° approaches are allowed to conduct operations at London City Airport. London City had over 4.5 million passenger movements in 2017. It is the fifth-busiest airport by passengers and aircraft movements serving the London area — after Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton — and was the 14th-busiest in the UK in 2017. In 2019, the airport handled over 5 million passengers. History Proposal and construction The airport was first proposed in 1981 by Reg Ward, who was Chief Executive of the newly formed London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) that was responsible for the regeneration of the area. He in turn discussed the proposal with chairman of John Mowlem & Co Sir Philip Beck and the idea of an airport for Docklands was born. By November of that year Mowlem and Bill Bryce of Brymon Airways had submitted an outline proposal to the LDDC for a Docklands STOLport city centre gateway. On 27 June 1982 Brymon's Captain Harry Gee landed a de Havilland Canada Dash 7 turboprop aircraft on Heron Quays, in the nearby West India Docks, in order to demonstrate the feasibility of the STOLport project. Later that year the LDDC published a feasibility study, an opinion poll amongst local residents showed a majority in favour of the development of the airport, and Mowlem submitted an application for planning permission. A 63-day planning inquiry started on 6 June 1983. By the middle of the following year, Nicholas Ridley the Secretary of State for Transport had indicated that he was "disposed to agree the application", but asked for further details. The Greater London Council brought an action in the High Court of Justice to reopen the inquiry. After the High Court dismissed the action in March 1985, outline planning permission was granted in May of that year, followed by the grant of detailed planning permission in early 1986. Construction began on the site shortly after permission was granted, with Charles, Prince of Wales laying the foundation stone of the terminal building, designed by R Seifert and Partners, on 2 May 1986. The first aircraft landed on 31 May 1987, with the first commercial services operating from 26 October 1987. Queen Elizabeth II officially opened London City Airport in November of the same year. Opening and runway extension In 1988, the first full year of operation, the airport handled 133,000 passengers. The earliest scheduled flights were operated to and from Plymouth, Paris, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. With a runway of only in length, and a slope of the glidepath of 7.5° (for noise abatement reasons), the airport could only be used by a very limited number of aircraft types, principally the Dash 7 and the smaller Dornier 228. In 1989, the airport submitted a planning application to extend the runway, allowing the use of a larger number of aircraft types. In 1990, the airport handled 230,000 passengers, but the figures fell drastically after the Gulf War and did not recover until 1993, when 245,000 passengers were carried. By this time the extended runway had been approved and opened (on 5 March 1992). At the same time the glide path was reduced to 5.5°, still steep for a European airport (the slope of an airport glide path is normally 3.0°), but sufficient to allow a larger range of aircraft, including the BAe 146 regional jet liner and Airbus A318, to serve the airport. By 1995, passenger numbers reached half a million, and Mowlem sold the airport to Irish businessman Dermot Desmond. Five years later passenger numbers had climbed to 1,580,000, and over 30,000 flights were operated. In 2002, a jet centre catering to corporate aviation was opened, as well as additional aircraft stands at the western end of the apron. In 2003, a new ground holding point was established at the eastern end of the runway, enabling aircraft awaiting takeoff to hold there whilst other aircraft landed. Further expansion On 2 December 2005, London City Airport DLR station opened on a branch of the Docklands Light Railway, providing rail access to the airport for the first time, and providing fast rail links to Canary Wharf and the City of London. By 2006, more than 2.3 million passengers used London City Airport. In October 2006, the airport was purchased from Dermot Desmond by a consortium comprising insurer AIG Financial Products and Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP). In the final quarter of 2008 GIP increased its stake in the airport to 75%, the remaining 25% belonging to Highstar Capital. London City Airport was granted planning permission to construct an extended apron with four additional aircraft parking stands and four new gates to the east of the terminal in 2001; they became operational on 30 May 2008. They are carried on piles above the water of the King George V Dock. British Airways commenced the first scheduled transatlantic flights from the airport in September 2009, with a twice a day service to New York City's John F. Kennedy International Airport using a specially configured Airbus A318 aircraft. The A318 is the smallest airliner to operate transatlantic since BA's corporate predecessor, BOAC, began transatlantic jet flights on 4 October 1958, with the De Havilland Comet 4. The first day of the service, one week after Willie Walsh of British Airways pledged to the United Nations that aviation would deliver deep cuts in carbon emissions, was disrupted by activists from Plane Stupid and Fight the Flights dressed up in business suits. London Olympics 2012 Before the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, it was reported that over £7 million (in 2011) was invested in the terminal to extend the Central Search area and adding other improvements. During the Games, however, the airport was only open for a few hours and there were street restrictions (for security), and the low capacity ramp and short runway excluded most long-range arrivals. However, it was the closest airport to Olympic Park, with normal scheduled travel by road of 15 minutes. Current expansion In early 2013, work was expected to start on a £15m investment programme to refurbish the western pier with new departure gates and improved lounges and to redevelop the international arrivals hall and baggage handling areas. In response to the UK government white paper The Future of Air Transport, the airport operators have produced a master plan outlining their vision for growth up to 2030. The plan was subject to public consultation during spring 2006, and has been republished incorporating comments from this consultation. The master plan shows a phased expansion of the airport, giving the capability of handling 8 million passengers per annum by 2030. It does not propose the addition of a second runway, or significant expansion of the airport boundaries. Phase 1 of this development would be undertaken by 2015. It would include the in-progress construction of the eastern apron extension and provision of a finger pier to the south of this apron to provide passenger access to aircraft using the new parking stands. The terminal building would also be extended to use the triangle of land between it and the railway station. The existing jet centre serving corporate aviation would be extended, a new hangar built to allow aircraft maintenance, and a replacement fire station provided. Phases 2 and 3 would be undertaken between 2015 and 2030. Further aircraft parking stands would be built to the east of the terminal, and a taxiway would be constructed alongside and to the south of the runway, to avoid the need for aircraft to back-track on the runway. Both these developments would involve further reduction in the water area of the King George V Dock. The existing fuel farm would be relocated to a site at the east of the airport, where it could be supplied by barge, and linked to a hydrant based supply system, thus eliminating both road tanker deliveries and on-airport fuel bowser movements. The existing surface car park would be replaced by a multi-storey car park, allowing extension of the vehicle drop-off and pick up area. The jet centre and hangar facilities would be further extended. Finally the existing terminal building would be replaced. In line with phase 1 of the master plan, London City Airport made a planning application to the London Borough of Newham in August 2007. This would allow it to increase the number of flights per year from 80,000 to 120,000 by 2010. In July 2008, the Planning Officer for Newham Council produced a report on the Planning Application, recommending that planning permission be granted. The decision was deferred by the council's Development Control Committee at their meeting on 30 July 2008, following a request from Boris Johnson, the Mayor of London, that the decision be delayed until after a study by the National Air Traffic Services (NATS) has been published. Over 10,000 local residents were consulted by Newham Council over the plan of which 1,109 replied, 801 with objections and 308 in support. The 801 objections mainly concerned increase in noise, increase in air pollution, surface transport, socio-economics and regeneration. The 308 supporters mainly concerned the reduction of air pollution, an alternative London and 2012 Olympic gateway, additional jobs, and benefiting to the local economy. The residents campaign group HACAN East (formerly Fight the Flights) is opposed to expansion due to noise and pollution issues. On 29 September 2009, Fight the Flights took Newham Council to court in order to challenge their decision to allow a 50% increase from 76,000 to 120,000 flights. On 20 January 2010, the challenge was dismissed, and a deadline of 14 days to appeal was set. The plan was given the go-ahead in February 2015. However this was overturned by Boris Johnson in March 2015. On 27 July 2016 London City Airport was given approval by authorities for their £344m expansion plan. Recent developments In October 2015, Global Infrastructure Partners which owned 75% of the facility, put it up for sale, with the agreement of Oaktree Capital Management which holds the remaining 25%. A sale to a Canadian-led consortium of Alberta Investment Management Corporation (AIMCo), OMERS, the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan and Wren House Infrastructure Management of the Kuwait Investment Authority for £2 billion was confirmed in February 2016. The sale was completed on 10 March 2016. In September 2016, British Airways announced the termination of one of its two daily long-haul all-business class services from the airport to New York City, citing economic reasons. The decision was taken to relocate the control tower to a site away at Swanwick, Hampshire, utilising three cable links providing live video which will be a UK first by relocating air traffic controllers to a remotely operated digital control room. In January 2021, after a delay due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, London City became the first major airport controlled by a remote Air traffic control tower. Airport opposition Green Party candidate for the 2016 London mayoral election and member of the London Assembly Siân Berry has been vocal in calling for the closure of London City Airport and subsequent redevelopment of the area it occupies. Caroline Russell, the leader of the Green Party on the London Assembly and Scott Ainslie, former Green MEP for London and councillor on Lambeth Council have both called for its closure. There is a small online community who strongly agree with opposition to the airport. Here it has become somewhat of a meme to hate the airport and everyone who uses it regularly. Operations Served destinations Owing to London City Airport's proximity to London's Docklands and financial district, the airport's primary users are business travellers with destinations such as Luxembourg and Frankfurt, although the number of leisure destinations served like Palma de Mallorca, Málaga or Chambéry has increased in recent years. London City is at its busiest during the winter months, when a number of airlines, most notably British Airways and Swissair (later Swiss International Air Lines), fly to ski resort gateway destinations. Zürich, Geneva, and Milan are among the destinations popular among winter sports enthusiasts. In July 2020, British Airways announced the termination of its all-business-class flights between City and New York-JFK, which had been operated since 2009. Facilities and utilized aircraft Due to the airport's proximity to Central London, it has stringent rules imposed to limit the noise impact from aircraft operations. This, together with the physical dimensions of the long runway and the steep glideslope, limits the aircraft types that can use London City Airport. The size and layout of the airport and overall complexity caused by the lack of taxiways mean that the airport gets very busy during peak hours. The air traffic controllers have to deal with over 38 flights per hour on a runway requiring a lengthy backtrack for each aircraft needing to depart from runway 27 or land on runway 09. Operations are restricted to 06:30 to 22:30 Monday to Friday, 06:30 to 13:00 on Saturdays and 12:30 to 22:30 on Sundays. These restrictions are related to noise. Mid-range airliners seen at London City include the ATR 42 (both −300 and −500 variants), ATR 72, Airbus A318, Bombardier Q400, BAe 146/Avro RJ, Dornier 328, Embraer ERJ 135, Embraer 170, Embraer 190 and Fokker 50. On 30 January 2009, trials were completed successfully with the ATR 72–500, leading to its approval for use at the airport. The Embraer 190SR underwent trials from 28 March 2009, and thereafter gained approval. The Fokker 70, BAe Jetstream 41, Saab 340 and Saab 2000 also have approval for scheduled operations at the airport. A number of airlines including Swiss and Odyssey have ordered the Airbus A220 with the intention of operating it from London City once delivered and approved. A220-100 operations for Swiss from City commenced in late 2017. On 22–23 March 2017, the A220-100 completed tests for the 5.5-degree approach in Wichita and Salina, Kansas. The A220-100 was certified for the steep approach landing for London City in April 2017. Corporate aircraft such as the Beechcraft Super King Air, Cessna CitationJet series, Hawker 400, Hawker 800, Piaggio Avanti and variants of the Dassault Falcon business jets are increasingly common. The airport is not available for use by single-engine aircraft or helicopters; recreational flights and single-pilot operations are also not permitted. The size of the airport, constrained by the water-filled Royal Albert and King George V docks to the north and south respectively, also means that there are no covered maintenance facilities for aircraft. The airport was envisaged for use as a seaplane base by AirSea Lines. Terminal With space limited in the London Docklands area, and comparatively low passenger volumes, London City Airport is small compared with several other airports serving London, such as Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton. The airport has a single, two-storey passenger terminal building with 18 gates, all hardstands. The ground floor contains the check-in desks and some service facilities as well as a staircase leading to the security control on the upper level, after which the airside waiting area and several more shops can be found. The waiting area is connected to piers on both sides where corridors on the upper floor lead to the departure gates on the ground level. As the airport has no jet bridges, walk-boarding is used on all stands. Airlines and destinations The following airlines operate regular services to and from London City Airport: Statistics Passengers Passenger numbers at London City Airport saw rapid growth between 2003 and 2008, doubling from around 1.5 million per year to over 3 million. Totals declined in 2009 and 2010, but have since recovered and in 2019 over 5.1 million passengers passed through London City. In 2020, passenger numbers sharply dropped to below 1 million annually during the COVID-19 pandemic. Routes Ground transport Docklands Light Railway London City Airport is served by London City Airport DLR station, which is an elevated station adjoining the terminal building. The station is on a branch of the Docklands Light Railway, which links the airport to Canary Wharf and the City of London as well as to and stations with interchanges to London Underground, London Overground, TfL Rail, Abellio Greater Anglia, c2c Thameslink and Southeastern High Speed train services. Elizabeth line Until 2006, Silvertown railway station on the North London line served the airport, but it was closed during the construction of Crossrail. When the new Elizabeth line comes into service in 2021, its route will pass very close to London City Airport but there are no plans for a station at the airport. Proposals have been put forward that a new station should be opened on the new Elizabeth line to serve the airport; TfL has not included a City Airport station in its plans. Road access The airport is served by the A1020 road and the A112 road. These give fast links to Canning Town, the City of London and Stratford, as well as connecting to the A13 and the North Circular Road (A406). Also the A13 provides easy access to the M25 motorway, as with the A406 connecting to the M11 motorway. The airport has both a short-term and a long-term car park, both within walking distance of the terminal and a taxi rank outside the terminal door. Local buses The airport is served by London Buses services: 473 to Stratford via Plaistow and North Woolwich 474 to Canning Town and Manor Park via Beckton and East Ham The express shuttle buses, which formerly ran to various destinations, were withdrawn after the DLR line was built. Riverboat Thames Clippers services will call to a new wharf being built at nearby residential development Royal Wharf, allowing travel into Central London using an Oyster card or contactless smart card. Accidents and incidents On 13 February 2009, BA CityFlyer Flight 8456 (an Avro RJ100, registered G-BXAR, flying from Amsterdam) suffered a nose-gear collapse while landing at London City. None of the 67 passengers or five crew members were seriously injured in the incident, but three passengers suffered minor injuries; two of them were kept in hospital overnight. The aircraft was damaged beyond economic repair, and was written off by insurers in May 2009. On 21 October 2016, 27 people were injured, two of them seriously, when a tear gas substance was released in London City Airport. Hundreds of other passengers reported experiencing temporary blindness and itching. Many flights were cancelled, leaving thousands stranded and causing major disruption around Europe. A few days later, police arrested a suspect under 'terror offences' and the media referred to the incident as a terror attack. Police later confirmed that tear gas bottles had deliberately been placed to 'cause harm or disruption'. Security was increased at the airport in the days following the attack. In 2019, Extinction Rebellion protesters disrupted some approaches to the airport; one person climbed onto the terminal building and a Paralympian climbed on top of an aircraft. The railway station at the airport was occupied for some hours. See also List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies Airports of London References External links London City Airport Consultative Committee HACAN East – Residents Campaign Group City Airport Transport in the London Borough of Newham Companies based in the London Borough of Newham 1987 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20artery%20of%20the%20thigh
Deep artery of the thigh
The deep artery of the thigh, (profunda femoris artery or deep femoral artery) is a large branch of the femoral artery. It travels more deeply (posteriorly) than the rest of the femoral artery. Structure The deep artery of the thigh branches off the posterolateral side of the femoral artery soon after its origin. It travels down the thigh closer to the femur than the femoral artery. It runs between the pectineus muscle and the adductor longus muscle. It runs on the posterior side of adductor longus muscle. It pierces the adductor magnus muscle, and may be known as the fourth perforating artery as it continues. The deep femoral artery does not leave the thigh. Branches The deep artery of the thigh gives off the following branches: Lateral circumflex femoral artery. Medial circumflex femoral artery. 3 Perforating arteries - perforate the adductor magnus muscle to the posterior and medial compartments of the thigh to connect with the branches of the popliteal artery behind the knee. Function The deep artery of the thigh is the main supply of oxygenated blood to the thigh. Additional images See also Femoral artery Obturator artery References External links - "Arteries of the lower extremity shown in association with major landmarks." () Arteries of the lower limb
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Kenny
Pat Kenny
Patrick Kenny (born 29 January 1948) is an Irish broadcaster, who currently hosts the daily radio show The Pat Kenny Show on Newstalk and the current affairs show Pat Kenny Tonight on Virgin Media One. Prior to this, Kenny had a 41-year high-profile career at RTÉ, in which he was their highest paid presenter for several years. He presented radio show Today with Pat Kenny on RTÉ Radio 1 each weekday morning between 10:00 and midday until 2013. He hosted The Late Late Show from September 1999 until May 2009, then returned as a stand-in host in January 2013. He presented the current affairs programme The Frontline, each Monday night from 2009 until its axing in 2013. He was the co-host of Eurovision Song Contest 1988, as well as numerous other television shows, including Today Tonight, Saturday Live and Kenny Live, and has worked for both RTÉ Radio 1 and RTÉ 2fm, sometimes simultaneously, in a career that has spanned five decades. He is the holder of a Jacob's Award and was perennially cited as the highest paid employee at RTÉ. He was named 23rd most influential person of 2009 by the magazine Village. Early career Kenny was educated at the O'Connell School and obtained a chemical engineering degree from University College Dublin (UCD) in 1969. Subsequently, he was a postgraduate student at Georgia Institute of Technology and then a lecturer at Bolton Street College of Technology in Dublin. He began his broadcasting career in parallel to his academic "day-job" by working as a continuity announcer on RTÉ radio in the mid-1970s. He subsequently became a radio disc jockey. In 1986, Kenny won a Jacob's Award for his "unusual versatility" in presenting three diverse radio shows: Saturday View on RTÉ Radio 1, and, on RTÉ 2fm, The Kenny Report and The Outside Track. Television career Today Tonight, Eurovision, The Pat Kenny Show, Saturday Live, Kenny Live! Kenny became a television broadcaster on RTÉ's Today Tonight, a current affairs programme in the mid-1980s. He moved in an unexpected direction for a current affairs presenter when he filled the role of co-presenter of the 1988 Eurovision Song Contest. This he did alongside Michelle Rocca at the Royal Dublin Society's Simmonscourt Pavilion. Kenny continued to be associated with Eurovision, providing television commentary for Irish viewers of the event on nine occasions from 1991 to 1999. He was criticised for referring on-air to the transsexual Israeli singer Dana International as "he, she or it" during the 1998 edition of the contest and later refused to apologise for the remark. He presented The Pat Kenny Show. Subsequently, he had a guest slot on the weekly chat show Saturday Live. He went on to host the show permanently and its title was changed to Kenny Live!. There was a much publicised rivalry between Kenny Live!, broadcast on Saturday nights and The Late Late Show, broadcast on Friday nights. Saturday Live, latterly Kenny Live!, had been conceived as preserving the weekend slot on a Saturday night to prevent loss of viewers and corresponding loss of advertising revenue. The Late Late Show (1999–2009) Gay Byrne retired from presenting The Late Late Show in 1999. Kenny was announced as Byrne's replacement on 24 May 1999. He was in Israel for the 1999 Eurovision Song Contest when the announcement was made that he was taking over at the age of 51. Kenny became the new host, but not without criticism of his style during his tenure; Sunday Independent columnist Eilis O'Hanlon expressed this sentiment in 2006, writing: Among the highlights of Kenny's career in presenting The Late Late Show was his Toy Show interview with comedian Jerry Seinfeld. Seinfeld remained tight-lipped, even as Pat Kenny referred to him as Jerry Sein-field. Kenny also came under fire after an interview on The Late Late Show with Babyshambles' lead singer Pete Doherty. Kenny repeatedly questioned Doherty over his much talked about drug habits, with Doherty appearing visibly uncomfortable. Doherty, obviously annoyed, stated that Kenny had asked him "about 12" questions about drugs and Kate Moss, but nothing about his music; "I don't know if you could even name a song that I've written", Doherty quipped at one point. "Possibly not", Kenny replied. On 27 March 2009, Kenny announced that he would resign as host of The Late Late Show at the end of the season. Guests on his final night included U2, who presented Kenny with a rare Gibson guitar and a pair of shades. During the final programme, which included an outside party, Kenny thanked the crew for their work during his ten-year reign as host. The Frontline and Prime Time (2009–2013) In September 2009, Kenny began presenting The Frontline every Monday night on RTÉ One, a topical debate show revolving around the interaction between Kenny, his guests and an invited audience. On 19 July 2012, Kenny appeared as host of Prime Time, the current affairs programme which replaced Kenny's pre-Late Late Show programme, Today Tonight. The Evening Herald called this " a surprise return to a familiar slot... It was a return to his roots for Mr Kenny who made his name as a current affairs broadcaster". The Frontline ended in January 2013 as Kenny became the co-host with long-time main presenter Miriam O'Callaghan of a revamped Prime Time in February 2013 until he departed RTÉ on 31 July 2013. On-air attacks and interruptions Kenny has sustained several on-air personal attacks during his career as presenter of The Late Late Show and The Frontline. These include: In November 2006, Paul Stokes, an intruder on the set of The Late Late Show, confronted Kenny live on air calling the show host and his predecessor Gay Byrne "insufferable arseholes". Eight days later Stokes rammed his car into the entrance of RTÉ's television centre and was subsequently charged with harassment after daubing walls near Kenny's home with threatening messages. During an interview with SIPTU general president Jack O'Connor on The Frontline on 2 November 2009, O'Connor suggested that a "reasonable level of tax" should be levied on "trophy houses". When asked to define the term "trophy house", O'Connor replied: "A house like yours, probably", to which Kenny replied, "I built my house in 1988. How is it a 'trophy house'? I don't want this crap coming at me!" O'Connor apologised a few moments later. During an interview with Minister for Social and Family Affairs Mary Hanafin on The Frontline on 9 November 2009, an audience member berated Kenny over the issue of an excessive wage. He compared Kenny's wage to that of the President of the United States for 11 hours of broadcast per working week. He alleged that Kenny had no right to pontificate about social welfare, or people who had no means. When Kenny attempted to resume, he was repeatedly interrupted by the audience member who continued to shout. The attack lasted for several minutes before a commercial break was taken. Departure from RTÉ On 31 July 2013, it was announced that Kenny would not be renewing his contract with RTÉ after a 41-year presence there, and would be leaving RTÉ to join radio station Newstalk to host a current affairs magazine show on weekdays from 10am to 12.30pm, starting on 2 September 2013. It caused some surprise in RTÉ. RTÉ presenters have admitted the defection of Pat Kenny to rivals Newstalk is a "major loss" for the national broadcaster. Gay Byrne described his decision as a great loss for RTÉ; Miriam O'Callaghan said she has learnt greatly from Kenny; saying that he "... is an incredibly talented broadcaster and has shown all of us current affairs presenters how it is done." Return to television It was announced in August 2014 that Kenny would return to TV screens in 2015 on UTV Ireland with a new show titled Pat Kenny in the Round, recorded in the Round Room in the Mansion House in Dublin. However the show was axed in September 2015. In 2016, Kenny joined TV3 to host the current affairs show Pat Kenny Tonight along with Colette Fitzpatrick. Later the series was hosted just by Pat Kenny. A new series Pat Kenny's Big Debate was launched and in 2021 it was announced that Pat Kenny was no longer working with Virgin Media TV. Politics and Activism Kenny supported Miriam O'Callaghan when she came under fire from Sinn Féin for challenging Martin McGuinness of his past misdeeds during the 2011 presidential election campaign in a Prime Time debate, saying "I wouldn't criticise Miriam for doing what she did". Kenny was also critical of Seán Gallagher after the presidential candidate objected to a tweet Kenny read out on The Frontline days before the 2011 election. Kenny told Gallagher to get over Tweetgate and get back to what he was "supposed to be good at"—creating jobs, and said he was "judged by the public not to be worthy." In 2018, Kenny lent his support to a Health Service Executive campaign to educate the public on harm reduction concerning cocaine. While using his radio slot to read out practical advice regarding drug use, Kenny also warned listeners that cocaine "lines the pockets of criminals", despite a perception of the drug as "party central". Kenny has spoken out against Ireland's historic censoring of Provisional IRA figures in broadcast media, describing the practice as "unsuccessful". He cites both American politician John F. Kennedy and actor Paul Newman as personal heroes. As a child, Kenny witnessed Kennedy in the flesh during the President's 1963 state visit to Ireland, later describing Kennedy as "the epitome of power and charisma" who "was iconic even before he was killed." He has been a vocal critic of European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen's efforts to promote gender equality at the top of European politics. Speaking in August 2020, Kenny commented: "I know she [President von der Leyen] wants gender balance in the Commission, but it should be: Can you nominate two talented people, and I don't care what gender they are, as long as they can do the job. The idea that you get two people of one gender who are really fabulous, and it would be a toss-up between them, but you have to discard one of them and pick someone of the other gender in order to be politically correct, it doesn't seem right to me." Earnings Kenny was the highest-paid presenter on RTÉ in 2008 earning €950,956. His pay was reduced to €729,604 in 2009 due to the economic climate. Director-General of RTÉ Cathal Goan, commenting on the salaries paid to the top stars, said: "There's no question that by today's standard, they were excessive. I have to repeat that they were set at a different time in a different competitive reality where some of this talent might be up for poaching by other organisations and in RTÉ’s view at the time, they delivered value for money". Kenny issued the following statement: "I am satisfied that the significant reduction in the fees paid to my company takes account of current economic circumstances while also reflecting my experience over 37 years in broadcasting at RTÉ". His high salary was strongly denounced on live television, while Kenny was hosting. He was not technically a member of RTÉ staff but was paid through a separate company, enabling Kenny and RTÉ to reduce the amount of tax paid on his salary. Kenny has defended himself by saying he was working harder than ever, that "I've done my bit" and that he would never "put a gun to RTE's head". In March 2013, it was revealed he had earned €630,000 in 2011. Pat Kenny Media Services Limited, the private company of which Kenny and his wife are sole directors, posted accumulated profits of €1.52 million in 2018. Awards In September 2012, Kenny was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree by University College Dublin for "exceptional contributions to public service broadcasting." In 2016, he received a lifetime achievement award by the Irish Film and Television Awards (IFTA). Styles of Byrne and Kenny Kenny's career has been extensive, having been a continuity announcer, radio disc jockey, television current affairs presenter, subsequently anchor and chat show host. His early radio career mirrored that of Byrne's. However Byrne focused always being in entertainment and never in current affairs. Byrne described himself as an entertainer first. Initially Kenny was perceived, by a critic, as being unsuited to the field of light entertainment as this description of Kenny Live! stated: "The fact is that Pat Kenny, is unsuited to the type of showbiz knockabout which Gay Byrne is so at home with.": Kenny has described his style: "Do you want bland television where everything you hear reinforces your own view, or do you want to be challenged? I favour the latter. I like to challenge people. You might get angry and pick up the phone to Joe Duffy, or you might complain to the Broadcasting Complaints Commission; that's great. It means you're involved in the argument in some way". Due to his long association with the show, Byrne in his autobiography seemed to almost have proprietarial rights, having been both producer and presenter of the show. Kenny was the subject of much media criticism for his takeover from Byrne. In autumn 2003, The Late Late Show had a competitor in the Friday evening time slot, with the arrival of competing television chat programme, The Dunphy Show, hosted by controversial broadcaster Eamon Dunphy on RTÉ's main rival TV3. However, The Dunphy Show failed to achieve expected viewership figures and was scrapped in December 2003 after 14 episodes. In October 2011, Gay Byrne said the idea that he and Pat were competing in some sort of rivalry was "bloody rubbish". John Bowman's history of RTÉ Television contains a quote from chief executive Vincent Finn from when Kenny asked for to be paid more money. "In many ways," Mr Finn told the RTÉ Authority, "he believes he is better than Gay Byrne." Bowman stood by this in a radio interview on Kenny's show, saying that the revelations in which Finn said Kenny "feels very strong about the Gay Byrne thing" were contained in the RTÉ Authority archives. Personal life Kenny is married to Kathy. She has publicly defended him against the criticism he received over the amount of money he was paid by RTÉ. They live in Dalkey, Dublin, in a house built in the early 1990s on a site purchased in 1988. They have two daughters, and Kenny is also the father of another child from a previous relationship, whom he sees regularly and supports financially.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Doctors+thought+she%27d+had+a+stroke+and+close+friends+feared+the+worst...-a085800475|title=Doctors Feared That She Had Had Stroke|newspaper=Daily Mirror|date=12 May 2002}}</ref> Kenny's family home was on Infirmary Road, Dublin. Kenny's father, Jim, died in 1982 at the age of 74. Kenny's mother, Connie, died and was buried on 23 October 2008. Kenny's mother's burial received media coverage as it led to Kenny's non-appearance on an edition of The Late Late Show that was aired that same evening. Off-screen personality A current RTÉ employee, who has "regular dealings" with Kenny says he is "really good at what he does" and "works very hard to make both his radio show and the Late Late'' as good as possible." Kenny was said to be "very good at doling out praise and encouragement, particularly to younger members of staff". When he was attacked live on air in 2006, Aoife, daughter of the attacker, Paul Stokes, and by coincidence a researcher on the show at the time, was consoled by Kenny. 2008 High Court case In April 2008 Kenny and his neighbour went to court over the issue of who owned a nearby field. Kenny's case was that he had entitlement of 'Gorse Hill' through adverse possession sometimes known as squatters rights. During proceedings it was claimed that Kenny placed a lock on the field without telling his neighbour. It was also claimed that Kenny came at him with 'fists raised' and 'jostled' or fought with him. Kenny also claimed damages for his neighbour's assault on him. The case was settled with Kenny buying the land for an undisclosed sum and both sides paying their own costs. Unauthorised advertisements In February 2019 Kenny became a high-profile victim of the fake news phenomenon when it was reported that unauthorised advertisements for erectile dysfunction cures bearing the presenter's likeness had been circulated online. Taking to his Newstalk radio show, Kenny blasted the adverts as "a scam" and advised listeners not to "buy [erectile dysfunction medication] with [Kenny's] imagined recommendation". Reaction to "Golfgate" In the wake of the Oireachtas Golf Society scandal which engulfed Irish politics during the COVID-19 pandemic, Kenny spoke out in defence of his erstwhile RTÉ colleague and rival for the airwaves Sean O'Rourke, who was cut adrift by the national broadcaster for his actions during the scandal. Kenny, himself a keen golfer, described the reaction to O'Rourke's carousing with politicians as "ridiculous". He has criticised the general response of the Irish government to COVID-19, accusing those in power of "pandering to populists and looking over their shoulders at the publicans', farming and hoteliers' lobbies". See also List of Eurovision Song Contest presenters References External links The Pat Kenny Show at Newstalk.ie 1948 births Living people Alumni of University College Dublin Georgia Tech alumni Irish television presenters Irish television talk show hosts Jacob's Award winners Newstalk presenters People educated at O'Connell School Prime Time (Irish TV programme) presenters RTÉ television presenters RTÉ Radio 1 presenters RTÉ 2fm presenters 20th-century Irish people 21st-century Irish people Virgin Media Television (Ireland) presenters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20haggis
Wild haggis
Wild haggis (given the humorous taxonomic designation Haggis scoticus) is a fictional creature of Scottish folklore, said to be native to the Scottish Highlands. It is comically claimed to be the source of haggis, a traditional Scottish dish that is in fact made from the innards of sheep (including heart, lungs, and liver). According to some sources, the wild haggis's left and right legs are of different lengths (cf. Sidehill gouger or Dahu), allowing it to run quickly around the steep mountains and hillsides which make up its natural habitat, but only in one direction. It is further claimed that there are two varieties of haggis, one with longer left legs and the other with longer right legs. The former variety can run clockwise around a mountain (as seen from above) while the latter can run anticlockwise. The two varieties coexist peacefully but are unable to interbreed in the wild because in order for the male of one variety to mate with a female of the other, he must turn to face in the same direction as his intended mate, causing him to lose his balance before he can mount her. As a result of this difficulty, differences in leg length among the haggis population are accentuated. Haggis abroad The notion of the wild haggis is widely believed, though not always including the idea of mismatched legs. According to an online survey commissioned by haggis manufacturers Hall's of Broxburn, released on 26 November 2003, one-third of U.S. visitors to Scotland believed the wild haggis to be a real creature. See also Sidehill gouger Dahu, another fictional animal also said to exist in "clockwise" and "anticlockwise" varieties Jackalope Wolpertinger Drop bear Tree octopus References Scottish folklore Haggis Fictional animals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20saphenous%20vein
Great saphenous vein
The great saphenous vein (GSV, alternately "long saphenous vein"; ) is a large, subcutaneous, superficial vein of the leg. It is the longest vein in the body, running along the length of the lower limb, returning blood from the foot, leg and thigh to the deep femoral vein at the femoral triangle. Structure The great saphenous vein originates from where the dorsal vein of the big toe (the hallux) merges with the dorsal venous arch of the foot. After passing in front of the medial malleolus (where it often can be visualized and palpated), it runs up the medial side of the leg. At the knee, it runs over the posterior border of the medial epicondyle of the femur bone. In the proximal anterior thigh inferolateral to the pubic tubercle, the great saphenous vein dives down deep through the cribriform fascia of the saphenous opening to join the femoral vein. It forms an arch, the saphenous arch, to join the common femoral vein in the region of the femoral triangle at the sapheno-femoral junction. Tributaries Several veins join the great saphenous vein, but each of them is not present in every individual. Most of them join it near its junction with the common femoral vein (CFV), at various average distances from this junction: At the ankle, the great saphenous vein receives branches from the sole of the foot through the medial marginal vein; in the lower leg it anastomoses freely with the small saphenous vein, communicates by perforator veins (Cockett perforators) with the anterior and posterior tibial veins and receives many cutaneous veins; near the knee it communicates with the popliteal vein by the Boyd perforator, in the thigh it communicates with the femoral vein by perforator veins (Dodd perforator) and receives numerous tributaries; those from the medial and posterior parts of the thigh frequently unite to form a large accessory saphenous vein which joins the main vein near the sapheno-femoral junction. Near the fossa ovalis it is joined by the superficial epigastric, superficial circumflex iliac vein, and superficial external pudendal veins. The thoracoepigastric vein runs along the lateral aspect of the trunk between the superficial epigastric vein below and the lateral thoracic vein above and establishes an important communication between the femoral vein and the axillary vein. Clinical significance Pathology of the great saphenous vein is relatively common, but in isolation typically not life-threatening. Varicose veins: The great saphenous vein, like other superficial veins, can become varicose; swollen, twisted and lengthened, and generally considered to be unsightly. Varicose veins are not life-threatening and various treatment options are available. However, when the diameter of the vein is too large for the valves within it to coapt completely, the resulting condition, chronic venous insufficiency, can result in skin color changes in the calf and ulcers that may persist for years if the vein is not ablated. Thrombophlebitis: The GSV can thrombose. This type of phlebitis of the GSV is usually not life-threatening in isolation; however, if the blood clot is located near the sapheno-femoral junction or near a perforator vein, a clot fragment can migrate to the deep venous system and to the pulmonary circulation. Also it can be associated with, or progress to a deep vein thrombosis which must be treated promptly. So a GSV thrombosis is investigated by ultrasonography to detect if these complications are present. Use in cardiovascular procedures The vein is often removed by cardiac surgeons and used for autotransplantation in coronary artery bypass operations, when arterial grafts are not available or many grafts are required, such as in a triple bypass or quadruple bypass. The great saphenous vein is the conduit of choice for vascular surgeons, when available, for performing peripheral arterial bypass operations [ see vascular bypass ]. The saphenous vein may undergo vein graft failure after engraftment, but still it has superior long-term patency compared to synthetic grafts (PTFE, PETE (Dacron)), human umbilical vein grafts or biosynthetic grafts [Omniflow]. Often, it is used in situ (in place), after tying off smaller tributaries and destruction of the venous valves with a device called valvulotome, e.g. LeMaitre's valvulotome. Removal of the saphenous vein will not hinder normal circulation in the leg. The blood that previously flowed through the saphenous vein will change its course of travel. This is known as collateral circulation. The saphenous nerve is a branch of the femoral nerve that runs with the great saphenous vein and can be damaged in surgery on the vein. Use in emergency medicine When emergency resuscitation with fluids is necessary, and standard intravenous access cannot be achieved due to venous collapse, saphenous vein cutdown may be utilized. Etymology The terms "saphaina" (Greek, meaning "manifest", "to be clearly seen") and "safoon" (Hebrew, "שָׂפוּן" meaning "hidden/covered") as well as "safin" (Arabic, "صَافِن" meaning "deep/embedded") have been claimed as the origin for the word "saphenous". Additional images See also Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) Saphena varix Varicose veins References External links Great saphenous vein - Stedman's medical dictionary. Veins of the lower limb
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMT%20Rohna
HMT Rohna
HMT Rohna was a British India Steam Navigation Company passenger and cargo liner that was built on Tyneside in 1926 as SS Rohna and requisitioned as a troop ship in 1940. ("HMT" stands for His Majesty's Transport.) Rohna was sunk in the Mediterranean in November 1943 by a Henschel Hs 293 guided glide bomb launched by a Luftwaffe aircraft. More than 1,100 people were killed, most of whom were US troops. Building In 1925, British India Line ordered two new ships for its Madras–Nagapatam–Singapore service. They were sister ships but were built by different shipyards and had different engines. Hawthorn Leslie and Company built Rohna at its shipyard at Hebburn on Tyneside. Barclay, Curle and Company built in Glasgow on Clydeside. Both ships were launched and completed in 1926. Rohna was launched on 24 August 1926 and completed on 5 November. She was named after a village in Sonipat, Punjab, India. She had 15 corrugated furnaces that heated five single-ended boilers with a combined heating surface of . These fed steam at 215 lbf/in2 to two four-cylinder quadruple expansion steam engines, developing a total of 984 NHP. Each engine drove one of the ship's twin screws, giving Rohna 984 NHP or 5,000 ihp. She achieved on her sea trials and had a cruising speed of . By 1934, Rohna carried wireless direction finding equipment. Civilian service Instead of taking up her Madras–Nagapatam–Singapore route immediately, Rohna spent her first six months of service taking military reinforcements to Shanghai. As a result, she did not start her intended service until June 1927. Cyclone in Madras On 31 October 1927, Rohna was moored to a buoy in Madras Harbour in India when a weather signal and falling air pressure warned of the approach of a tropical cyclone. Her Master, EG Carré, had her starboard anchor laid out with of cable, and got the engineers to raise steam so that her main engines could be started if needed. By 0700 hrs on 1 November, a heavy swell was running within the harbour, at times lifting the four-ton mooring buoy completely out of the water. By 1100 hrs there was also heavy rain and Rohnas bridge ordered the engines to "stand by". Ten minutes later the anchor cable parted, shaking the ship. She was now dragging her port anchor, which Captain Carré therefore decided to have hauled in. Weighing anchor would take about 20 minutes, so in the meantime Carré had Rohna got under way to avoid being run onto the harbour breakwater. Other ships were moored in the harbour, and Carré's helmsman had to steer through a narrow space between two of them in a very heavy sea. Eventually Rohna was able to make for the harbour mouth and put to sea and head 20 miles south to where the storm was less severe. Next day the cyclone had passed and Rohna returned to port. Deck passengers When new, Rohna was certified to carry 5,064 deck passengers. In 1931, new regulations called the Simla Rules (superseded in 1948 by the SOLAS Convention) reduced this to 3,851, but this was still more than any other UK-registered ship. War service When the UK entered the Second World War in September 1939 Rohna was in the Indian Ocean. Apart from a voyage from Karachi to Suez with Convoy K 4, Rohna operated unescorted between Rangoon and Madras until late November. On 10 December she left Bombay for the Mediterranean, passing through the Suez Canal on 20–21 December and reaching Marseille on 26 December. From 3 January 1940 until 10 March she operated unescorted between Marseille and Port of Haifa in Mandatory Palestine, at first in convoys but after 29 January independently. On 15 March 1940 Rohna returned through the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean, where she operated unescorted between Bombay, Rangoon and Colombo until June. In May she was requisitioned as a troop ship and on 6 June she left Bombay for Durban. She then ran between Durban, Mombasa and Dar es Salaam until 28 July, when she left Mombasa for Bombay. Rohna took troops from Bombay to Suez in August 1940 in Convoy BN 3 and from Bombay to Port Sudan in September/October 1940 in Convoy BN 6. She made further trips from Bombay to Suez in November 1940 in Convoy BN 8A, from Colombo to Suez in February 1941 in Convoy US 8/1 and from Bombay to Singapore in March 1941 in Convoy BM 4. The day after the Iraqi coup d'état in April 1941 Rohna was ordered to Karachi, whence she took some of the first elements of Iraqforce to Basra in Convoy BP 2. During the Anglo-Iraqi War in May the ship made a second trip from Karachi to Basra in Convoy BP 5. After the Allied victory in Iraq at the end of May she spent the rest of the year running between Basra and Bombay, each time going to Basra in a BP-series convoys and returning independently. On 8 December 1941 Japan invaded Malaya. A month later Rohna left Bombay for Singapore in Convoy BM 10, arriving on 25 January 1942. She left on 28 January in Convoy NB 1, a fortnight before Singapore was surrendered to Japan. From March 1942 Rohna spent a year criss-crossing the Indian Ocean between Bombay, Karachi, Colombo, Basra, Aden, Suez, Khorramshahr, Bandar Abbas, Bahrain and Âbâdân; sometimes in convoys but much of the time unescorted. In March 1943 she sailed from Bombay in Convoy BA 40 to Aden and then independently to Suez, where she passed through the canal on 6–7 April. For the remainder of her career Rohna supported the North African Campaign, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy. Until the beginning of July she ran independently between Alexandria, Tripoli and Sfax. From then on she sailed mostly in convoys, working between Alexandria, Malta, Tripoli, Augusta, Port Said, Bizerta and Oran. Loss At 1230 hrs on 25 November 1943, Rohna and four other troop ships left Oran in French Algeria. At sea three hours later they joined Convoy KMF 26 which was passing on its way from Britain to Alexandria. About 1630 hrs the next day off Bougie the convoy was attacked by 14 Luftwaffe Heinkel He 177A heavy bombers escorted by Junkers Ju 88 aircraft, followed by between six and nine torpedo bombers. At the time the convoy had a limited air escort of four land-based Free French Air Force Spitfires. Later in the course of the attack they were relieved by RAF Spitfires. The He 177As carried Henschel Hs 293 radio-guided, rocket-boosted glide bombs, almost 30 of which they launched at the convoy. The convoy's combined anti-aircraft fire seems to have impeded most of the attackers' attempts to guide their glide bombs onto their targets. Rohnas DEMS gunners contributed with her machine guns, Oerlikon autocannons and about 20 rounds from her 12-pounder gun. The convoy shot down at least two aircraft and damaged several others. Rohna was the only casualty. About 1715 or 1725 hrs an He 177A piloted by Hans Dochtermann released a glide bomb that hit Rohna on her port side, at the after end of her engine room and Number Six troop deck. Men poured on deck, many of them badly wounded. The impact was about above the water line but it flooded the engine room, knocked out all electrical equipment including her pumps, and set the ship ablaze. The impact demolished the number four bulkhead. It also destroyed six of her 22 lifeboats and forced out the plates of her hull so that none of her surviving port boats could be lowered past them. Troops cut the falls of some of the boats, causing them to fall in the sea and be swamped. Only eight boats were launched; they became overloaded with troops and most became waterlogged or capsized. The number one deck serang (boatswain), Bhowan Meetha, helped the chief officer to launch the boats. Other members of the lascar crew launched the two aft lifeboats and abandoned ship without remaining to help to launch the other boats. With number four hold afire and all communications severed, the crewmen aft had lost contact with the bridge and had no way to reach the boat deck to help with the other boats. They disobeyed orders, and acted on their own. As Rohna listed 12 degrees to starboard, her crew launched most of her 101 liferafts. By 1750 hrs only a few rafts remained so they took the hatch boards from number three hold and threw them overboard too. By now number four hold, just aft of the engine room, was on fire. The and cargo ship fell behind the convoy to rescue survivors, protected by the , which made a smokescreen and gave anti-aircraft cover. Clan Campbell had a high freeboard so she lowered a cargo net for survivors to use as a scramble net. The climb was about from the sea to the deck, which was difficult for many of the exhausted survivors. The wind was only Force 4, but there was a swell that prevented the rescue ships from launching their own boats. Among the last people to leave the ship were her master, Captain TJ Murphy, the chief, second and third officers, the senior medical officer and four US soldiers. This group remained on the foredeck for about 30 minutes after the other soldiers and crew had abandoned ship. About 90 minutes after the missile hit the ship there was a rending noise, probably from the collapse of a bulkhead aft. Clouds of smoke came from number three hold and the ship settled by the stern. The group threw the last four rafts overboard and abandoned ship. After night fell, Atherstone switched from anti-aircraft cover to rescuing survivors and the tug Mindful arrived from Bougie and joined the operation. The rescue continued until 0215 hrs on 27 November. In total, 819 survivors were taken to Philippeville: 602 on Pioneer, about 110 on Clan Campbell and about 70 on Atherstone. Of the 1,138 men who were killed, 1,015 were US personnel. The attack is the largest loss of US troops at sea due to enemy action in a single incident. A further 35 US troops of the 2,000 originally embarked, later died from their wounds. As well as the troops, five of Rohnas officers and 117 of her 195 crew were killed, along with one of her 12 DEMS gunners and one hospital orderly. USS Pioneer rescued 606 survivors. Details of the loss were revealed slowly over time. By February 1944 the US Government had acknowledged that more than 1,000 soldiers had been lost in the sinking of an unnamed troopship in European waters, but it hinted that a submarine was responsible. By June 1945 the US Government had released accurate casualty figures, the ship had been identified as Rohna, and the cause of the sinking had been identified as German bombers, but did not mention that a guided bomb was used. The use of an "aerial glider bomb" was first reported publicly on 14 November 1945 in an account of the battle in the Salt Lake City Tribune. On 9 March 1947 the Chicago Tribune published a complete account of the attack, including the use of a "radio-controlled [sic] glider bomb." In 1948 a history of British India Line in the Second World War was published, stating "the missile was one of the new glider bombs guided by wireless". The US Government officially released the remaining details of the incident, specifically that a radio-controlled glide bomb had been used, in 1967 after the passing of the Freedom of Information Act. Monuments Members of Rohnas crew who were killed are commemorated in the Second World War section of the Merchant Navy War Memorial at Tower Hill in London. Her lascar seamen are commemorated in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission monuments at Chittagong and Mumbai. A monument to the US troops who were killed was unveiled at Fort Mitchell National Cemetery in Seale, Alabama in 1996. In 1962, the traffic median of the Esplanade in Bronx, New York, at the corner of Astor Avenue, was named in memory of Private Sidney Weissman, a local resident killed in the sinking of the Rohna. On 5/31/2021, a bridge in Gardner, MA was dedicated to honor U.S. Cpl. Lawrence Lukasevicius, a Gardner resident who was one of the soldiers killed while on the Rohna.https://www.gardner-ma.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=991 Controversy In 1998 Dr James G. Bennett, who lost a brother in the sinking, published a book, The Rohna Disaster, through the self-publishing service Xlibris. In it he alleges that the heavy loss of life was due to the incompetence and cowardice of the Rohnas lascar crew and faulty safety procedures and equipment aboard. In 2002 the History Channel released an episode of its History Undercover series, The Rohna Disaster: WWII's Secret Tragedy, that was based on Bennett's book and repeated his allegations. Wartime reports by the lieutenant colonel in command of the US troops aboard, and by Rohnas second officer and other survivors, contradict aspects of Bennett's allegations. See also List of ships sunk by missiles References Sources Further reading External links The Rohna Survivors Memorial Association (transcript of radio documentary) The HMT Rohna Documentary Preview – Rohna: Classified Michael Walsh, ''Rohna Memories, Eyewittness to Tragedy , 2005 Google Books 1926 ships Maritime incidents in November 1943 Ships of the British India Steam Navigation Company Ships sunk by German aircraft Shipwrecks of Algeria Steamships of the United Kingdom Troop ships of the Royal Navy Ships built on the River Tyne World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby%20%28character%29
Kirby (character)
is the titular protagonist of the Kirby series of video games owned by Nintendo and one of Nintendo's most popular and familiar major mascots, Kirby's round appearance and ability to copy his foes' powers has made him a well-known figure in video games, consistently ranked as one of the most iconic video game characters of all-time. He first appeared in 1992 in Kirby's Dream Land for the Game Boy. Originally a placeholder, created by Masahiro Sakurai, at the age of 19, for the game's early development, he has since then starred in over 20 games, ranging from action platformers to puzzle, racing, and even pinball, and has been featured as a playable fighter in all Super Smash Bros. games. He has also starred in his own anime and manga series. Since 1999, he has been voiced by Makiko Ohmoto. Kirby is well known for his ability to inhale objects and creatures to gain their powers, as well as his ability to float by expanding his body. He uses these abilities to rescue various lands, including his homeworld of Planet Popstar, from evil forces and antagonists, such as Dark Matter or Nightmare. On these adventures, he often crosses paths with his rivals, King Dedede and Meta Knight, though Meta Knight can be seen as a hero, depending on the game. Kirby has been described as one of the most legendary video game characters of all time by PC World. In virtually all his appearances, Kirby is depicted as cheerful, innocent and food-loving; however, he becomes fearless, bold and clever in the face of danger. Concept and creation Kirby was created by Masahiro Sakurai as the player character of the 1992 game Kirby's Dream Land. The character's design was intended to serve as placeholder graphics for the game's original protagonist in early development and thus was given a simplistic ball-like appearance. Sakurai switched to the placeholder design for the final character design when he believed that it served the character better. The character was known as during development until the name "Kirby" was chosen from a draft list of potential names. Shigeru Miyamoto stated that "Kirby" was chosen in honor of American lawyer John Kirby, who defended Nintendo in the Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd. case in 1984 and that the guttural-sounding name contrasted amusingly with the character's cute appearance. Kirby appears white in Kirby's Dream Land due to the grayscale palette of the Game Boy system. Sakurai intended the character to be pink, though Miyamoto had originally thought the character to be yellow. Kirby does appear white in the game's North American promotional materials and artwork to reflect the character's in-game appearance. In North America, Kirby consistently appears in artwork with a more striking, bolder expression than in Japan, where his expression is more relaxed. Nintendo has said that the more battle-ready appearance appeals to a wider audience in North America. Characteristics Physical appearance Kirby has a pink, spherical, body with small stubby arms and large red shoes. His eyes are a distinctive oval shape and are white (eye shine) at the top, black in the center and dark blue on the bottom (all black in early games) with rosy cheek-blushes near his eyes. His body is soft and flexible, allowing him to stretch or flatten and adopt different shapes, open his mouth very wide to inhale foes, or inflate himself with air and fly. He is 20 cm (about 8 in) tall, In Kirby: Nightmare in Dream Land, Kirby's Return to Dream Land and Kirby & the Amazing Mirror, different colored Kirbys appear as other players in multi-player games. In the case of the latter, they are the result of Kirby being divided into four by Dark Meta Knight. Personality Kirby hails from the distant Planet Popstar, where he lives in a dome-shaped house in the country of Dream Land. He has a positive attitude, and frequently helps to save Dream Land through the use of his unique powers. His age is never directly stated, although he is referred to as a "little boy" in the English manual for Kirby's Dream Land, described as a baby in the anime, and was referred to as being a "jolly fellow" in Kirby Super Star. Kirby is cheerful and innocent. He is often depicted with a voracious appetite. His other hobbies include singing, although he is tone-deaf. Abilities Kirby's main ability is inhaling enemies and objects and spitting them out with incredible force. Both his mouth and body expand to allow him to inhale things much larger than himself. However, there is a limit to what he can inhale; excessively large or heavy foes like bosses can resist Kirby's inhale. Against these opponents Kirby must find smaller characters to use as ammo or intercept his opponent's attacks and send them back at them. Kirby Super Star greatly expanded on the concept of Copy Abilities from Kirby's Adventure. Originally Kirby just obtained one move from a Copy Ability which replaced his Inhale but Kirby Super Star introduced multiple fighting techniques for each ability with their own controls. Additionally while Kirby's Adventure didn't have Kirby's appearance drastically change when he had a Copy Ability, aside from his color changing to orange or snow white, or wielding a weapon for abilities like Sword or Hammer. Kirby Super Star gave each Copy Ability its own costume, such as a fiery crown for Fire Kirby or a floppy green cap that resembles Link's for Sword Kirby. In Kirby Super Star, Kirby could sacrifice his current Copy Ability to create a 'Helper', an allied version of the enemy Kirby typically gets that ability from. The new Helper could be controlled by the game or a second player. This feature has not yet been included in later Kirby games, although it was included in Kirby Super Star's remake, Kirby Super Star Ultra and was intended to return in the cancelled GameCube Kirby game which would have had Kirby able to make up to four helpers at once. In the game Kirby Star Allies, the game's main mechanic is similar to this, but with now up to 3 helpers without sacrificing his current copy ability. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Kirby's Final Smash is his Cook ability from Kirby Super Star, which cook opponents, items and more. In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, Kirby's Final Smash is an Ultra Sword attack. Species Although never explored in great detail in the series, Kirby is not the only member of his kind. Similar looking characters are seen in the ending of Kirby's Dream Land, and its remake Spring Breeze in Kirby Super Star. Meta Knight and Galacta Knight, both of whom bear a close resemblance to Kirby without their masks, are often hinted to be of the same species as Kirby. In general, members of the species all look similar, but sometimes have different colored skin, eyes, and feet. No official term exists for them other than Kirby's species. They are commonly referred to as 'Kirbys' and is the name of both the species and character. As a name, however, 'Kirby' refers to only one character. In the English manual of Kirby & the Amazing Mirror, the term 'Kirbys' is used at points, to illustrate the feature of having four differently colored versions of Kirby active in the game simultaneously, although in this situation the four "Kirbys" are four pieces of Kirby rather than four individual Kirby-like beings. Another common term is 'Dream Landers', a term used in the instruction manual for Kirby's Adventure. This term, however, also refers to anyone who lives in Dream Land, including characters like King Dedede. The biography of Kirby in Super Smash Bros. Brawl says Kirby is a citizen of Dream Land. Sometimes the term 'puff' or 'puffball' is used in official materials to refer to Kirby's round shape, though this does not necessarily indicate the name of his species. In Kirby: Nightmare in Dream Land, Kirby's Return to Dream Land and Kirby & the Amazing Mirror, different colored Kirbys appear as other players in multi-player games. In the case of the latter, they are the result of Kirby being divided into four by Dark Meta Knight. Appearances Main series Kirby's main media form are games, as he is the star and protagonist of the Nintendo owned series named after him. Most Kirby games are platform games in which Kirby fights enemies, solves puzzles, and challenges bosses. Each game typically adds a new twist or change to Kirby's abilities that the levels of the game emphasize, such as combining power ups in Kirby 64 or Super Abilities in Return to Dream Land. Most games involve Kirby saving a world or even universe from a dark, evil force of some kind. Typical Kirby games have a powerful being, such as Dark Matter or Nightmare, controlling or corrupting a secondary villain. The series has 35 games currently, with the first being Kirby's Dream Land in 1992 and the latest being Kirby and the Forgotten Land in 2022. Although most are platform games, some spin offs have included pinball, racing, and puzzle games. A new game titled Kirby and the Forgotten Land, which will be the first 3D mainline Kirby game, will be released in Spring 2022. Super Smash Bros. series Kirby appears in the Super Smash Bros. series of games as a playable character, which is also created by Masahiro Sakurai. He is the sole Kirby series representative in Super Smash Bros. and Super Smash Bros. Melee, and has been one of three (the others being Meta Knight and King Dedede) as of Super Smash Bros. Brawl. He reprises his role as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, the latter of which features him playing a starring role in the "World of Light" story mode in which he survives Galeem's massacre on all the fighters. Anime Kirby appears in his own anime titled Kirby: Right Back at Ya!, (Japanese: 星のカービィ Hoshi no Kaabii) in Japan. The series was licensed in North America by 4Kids Entertainment and the Canadian company Nelvana, and produced by Warpstar Inc., a company formed between a joint investment between Nintendo and HAL Laboratory. It aired on 4Kids TV, via Chubu-Nippon Broadcasting (since 2001 which has done 100 episodes). The anime series is set in its own universe independent of the games and offers its own take on the setting and characters, however, Kirby's creator, Masahiro Sakurai, was greatly involved in its creation, so it did not stray far from his vision of how Kirby should be. The anime contains darker themes such as war, and death while still maintaining the cheerful and surreal themes the games are known for. In the anime Kirby's origin and backstory are explored much more deeply than in the games. Kirby is a legendary Star Warrior who, according to legend, is fated to save Pop Star from destruction, but he was awoken from his slumber 200 years too early by mistake and as such has many baby or childlike qualities. Because of his age, he is still getting the hang of his powers and depends even more on the help of his friends to pull through tough situations. It is also implied that Kirby was originally a creation of the ancient evil entity called Nightmare but refused to follow his evil orders and was discarded into the depths of space. Kirby's Warpstar is also expanded upon, as in the games it is a mode of transportation, but here the Warpstar is also the source of his power but as he's too young to keep it safe for himself the character Tiff takes it upon herself to keep the Warpstar safe. Though Sakurai instructed that Kirby not speak in full sentences (citing the Peanuts character Snoopy) he did allow him to use a small vocabulary including a catch phrase "Poyo" and the names of various attacks and characters. Prior to this Kirby was also in a short educational video that was released exclusively in Japan in 1994, designed to teach Kanji to young children. The feature was not animated, but contained illustrations and was bundled with a similar video featuring Mario and Wario. Manga and comics Kirby also stars in several manga adaptations, which have been drawn by over 20 manga artists. The longest running series, Kirby of the Stars: The Story of Dedede Who Lives in Pupupu, was serialized in CoroCoro Comic from 1994 to 2006, which has been compiled into 25 tankōbon volumes, with over 10 million copies being printed. It continued serialization in CoroCoro Aniki in 2017. Viz Media originally planned to release the manga in English in September 2010, but it was pushed back and eventually cancelled. The series was later published as a "best-of" collection, which also features new chapters from its continued serialization, and was published in English as Kirby Manga Mania by Viz Media. The German Club Nintendo magazine often featured comics starring various Nintendo characters, including Kirby. In his comics, Kirby is reimagined as a detective and King Dedede as his sidekick. These comics were promotions for Kirby games that were released in Germany at the time including Kirby's Dream Land 2, Kirby's Avalanche, and Kirby's Dream Course. Reception Since he first appeared in Kirby's Dream Land, Kirby has received positive reception. Nintendo Power listed Kirby as their 19th favourite hero, commenting that he doesn't get the respect that he deserves. Kirby ranked second on GameDaily's Top 10 Super Smash Bros. characters list. They also included him in their "Pretty in Pink Video Game Characters" article. GamesRadar listed Kirby as one of the most lovable blobs, calling him one of the cutest things to appear in a Nintendo game, yet also describing the way he defeats his enemies as "horrific." He ranked sixth on IGN's top 10 veteran Super Smash Bros. characters, described as the "pinkest badass ever made." An issue of the webcomic VG Cats depicts Kirby in 100 forms from both video games and other forms of media, such as characters from The Legend of Zelda, Metal Gear and Gundam. In 2011, Cheat Code Central ranked Ninja Kirby as the ninth top ninja in video games. UGO Networks listed Kirby on their list of "The Cutest Video Game Characters" stating "It's easy to get on board with someone who will eat anything." In 2009, GameSpot chose him as one of the characters to compete in their poll for the title of "All Time Greatest Game Hero". In a 2010 Famitsu poll, Kirby was voted by readers as the 12th most popular video game character. The 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition lists Kirby as the 18th most popular video game character. In 2012, GamesRadar ranked him as the 40th "most memorable, influential, and badass" protagonist in games, saying "[i]f you don’t think a pink blob can be tough, then you clearly haven’t seen Kirby in action". Jeremy Parish of Polygon ranked 73 fighters from Super Smash Bros. Ultimate "from garbage to glorious", listing Kirby third and stated that "He’s probably the single most consistent character in the Nintendo mascot lineup; unlike Link and Mario, And his “copy power” makes him unpredictably fun to play as in Smash." Gavin Jasper of Den of Geek ranked Kirby as first of Super Smash Bros. Ultimate characters, and stating that "Kirby is the glue holding Smash together." See also List of Kirby characters References External links Kirby's Official U.S. homepage Kirby on Play.Nintendo.com The Evolution of Kirby Child characters in video games Child superheroes Extraterrestrial characters in video games Extraterrestrial superheroes Fictional amorphous creatures Fictional humanoids Fictional swordfighters in video games Kirby (series) characters Male characters in video games Nintendo protagonists Shapeshifter characters in video games Super Smash Bros. fighters Video game characters introduced in 1992 Video game characters who use magic Video game mascots
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239699
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quater-imaginary%20base
Quater-imaginary base
The quater-imaginary numeral system was first proposed by Donald Knuth in 1960. It is a non-standard positional numeral system which uses the imaginary number 2i as its base. It is able to (almost) uniquely represent every complex number using only the digits 0, 1, 2, and 3. (Numbers less than zero, which are ordinarily represented with a minus sign, are representable as digit strings in quater-imaginary; for example, the number −1 is represented as "103" in quater-imaginary notation.) Decompose the quater-imaginary means . as we know, . so, . The real and imaginary parts of this complex number are thus readily expressed in base −4 as and respectively. Converting from quater-imaginary To convert a digit string from the quater-imaginary system to the decimal system, the standard formula for positional number systems can be used. This says that a digit string in base b can be converted to a decimal number using the formula For the quater-imaginary system, . Additionally, for a given string in the form , the formula below can be used for a given string length in base Example To convert the string to a decimal number, fill in the formula above: Another, longer example: in base 10 is Converting into quater-imaginary It is also possible to convert a decimal number to a number in the quater-imaginary system. Every complex number (every number of the form a+bi) has a quater-imaginary representation. Most numbers have a unique quater-imaginary representation, but just as 1 has the two representations 1 = 0. in decimal notation, so has the two quater-imaginary representations 1.2i = 0.2i. To convert an arbitrary complex number to quater-imaginary, it is sufficient to split the number into its real and imaginary components, convert each of those separately, and then add the results by interleaving the digits. For example, since −1+4i is equal to −1 plus 4i, the quater-imaginary representation of −1+4i is the quater-imaginary representation of −1 (namely, 103) plus the quater-imaginary representation of 4i (namely, 20), which gives a final result of −1+4i = 1232i. To find the quater-imaginary representation of the imaginary component, it suffices to multiply that component by 2i, which gives a real number; then find the quater-imaginary representation of that real number, and finally shift the representation by one place to the right (thus dividing by 2i). For example, the quater-imaginary representation of 6i is calculated by multiplying 6i × 2i = −12, which is expressed as 3002i, and then shifting by one place to the right, yielding: 6i = 302i. Finding the quater-imaginary representation of an arbitrary real integer number can be done manually by solving a system of simultaneous equations, as shown below, but there are faster methods for both real and imaginary integers, as shown in the negative base article. Example: Real number As an example of an integer number we can try to find the quater-imaginary counterpart of the decimal number 7 (or 710 since the base of the decimal system is 10). Since it is hard to predict exactly how long the digit string will be for a given decimal number, it is safe to assume a fairly large string. In this case, a string of six digits can be chosen. When an initial guess at the size of the string eventually turns out to be insufficient, a larger string can be used. To find the representation, first write out the general formula, and group terms: Since 7 is a real number, it is allowed to conclude that d1, d3 and d5 should be zero. Now the value of the coefficients d0, d2 and d4, must be found. Because d0 − 4 d2 + 16 d4 = 7 and because—by the nature of the quater-imaginary system—the coefficients can only be 0, 1, 2 or 3 the value of the coefficients can be found. A possible configuration could be: d0 = 3, d2 = 3 and d4 = 1. This configuration gives the resulting digit string for 710. Example: Imaginary number Finding a quater-imaginary representation of a purely imaginary integer number is analogous to the method described above for a real number. For example, to find the representation of 6i, it is possible to use the general formula. Then all coefficients of the real part have to be zero and the complex part should make 6. However, for 6i it is easily seen by looking at the formula that if d1 = 3 and all other coefficients are zero, we get the desired string for 6i. That is: Another conversion method For real numbers the quater-imaginary representation is the same as negative quaternary (base −4). A complex number x+iy can be converted to quater-imaginary by converting x and y/2 separately to negative quaternary. If both x and y are finite binary fractions we can use the following algorithm using repeated Euclidean division: For example: 35+23i=121003.22i 35 23i/2i=11.5 11=12−0.5 35÷(−4)=−8, remainder 3 12/(−4)=−3, remainder 0 (−0.5)×(−4)=2 −8÷(−4)= 2, remainder 0 −3/(−4)= 1, remainder 1 2÷(−4)= 0, remainder 2 1/(−4)= 0, remainder 1 20003 + 101000 + 0.2 = 121003.2 32i+16×2−8i−4×0+2i×0+1×3−2×i/2=35+23i Radix point "." A radix point in the decimal system is the usual . (dot) which marks the separation between the integer part and the fractional part of the number. In the quater-imaginary system a radix point can also be used. For a digit string the radix point marks the separation between non-negative and negative powers of b. Using the radix point the general formula becomes: or Example If the quater-imaginary representation of the complex unit i has to be found, the formula without radix point will not suffice. Therefore, the above formula should be used. Hence: for certain coefficients dk. Then because the real part has to be zero: d4 = d2 = d0 = d−2 = 0. For the imaginary part, if d5 = d3 = d−3 = 0 and when d1 = 1 and d−1 = 2 the digit string can be found. Using the above coefficients in the digit string the result is: Addition and subtraction It is possible to add and subtract numbers in the quater-imaginary system. In doing this, there are two basic rules that have to be kept in mind: Whenever a number exceeds 3, subtract 4 and "carry" −1 two places to the left. Whenever a number drops below 0, add 4 and "carry" +1 two places to the left. Or for short: "If you add four, carry +1. If you subtract four, carry −1". This is the opposite of normal long addition, in which a "carry" in the current column requires adding 1 to the next column to the left, and a "borrow" requires subtracting. In quater-imaginary arithmetic, a "carry" subtracts from the next-but-one column, and a "borrow" adds. Example: Addition Below are two examples of adding in the quater-imaginary system: 1 − 2i 1031 3 − 4i 1023 1 − 2i 1031 1 − 8i 1001 ------- + <=> ----- + ------- + <=> ------- + 2 − 4i 1022 4 − 12i 12320 In the first example we start by adding the two 1s in the first column (the "ones' column"), giving 2. Then we add the two 3s in the second column (the "2is column"), giving 6; 6 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 2 as the result in the second column) and carry −1 into the fourth column. Adding the 0s in the third column gives 0; and finally adding the two 1s and the carried −1 in the fourth column gives 1. In the second example we first add 3+1, giving 4; 4 is greater than 3, so we subtract 4 (giving 0) and carry −1 into the third column (the "−4s column"). Then we add 2+0 in the second column, giving 2. In the third column, we have 0+0+(−1), because of the carry; −1 is less than 0, so we add 4 (giving 3 as the result in the third column) and "borrow" +1 into the fifth column. In the fourth column, 1+1 is 2; and the carry in the fifth column gives 1, for a result of . Example: Subtraction Subtraction is analogous to addition in that it uses the same two rules described above. Below is an example: − 2 − 8i 1102 1 − 6i 1011 ------- <=> ----- − 3 − 2i 1131 In this example we have to subtract from . The rightmost digit is 2−1 = 1. The second digit from the right would become −1, so add 4 to give 3 and then carry +1 two places to the left. The third digit from the right is 1−0 = 1. Then the leftmost digit is 1−1 plus 1 from the carry, giving 1. This gives a final answer of . Multiplication For long multiplication in the quater-imaginary system, the two rules stated above are used as well. When multiplying numbers, multiply the first string by each digit in the second string consecutively and add the resulting strings. With every multiplication, a digit in the second string is multiplied with the first string. The multiplication starts with the rightmost digit in the second string and then moves leftward by one digit, multiplying each digit with the first string. Then the resulting partial products are added where each is shifted to the left by one digit. An example: 11201 20121 × --------------- 11201 ←––– 1 × 11201 12002 ←––– 2 × 11201 11201 ←––– 1 × 11201 00000 ←––– 0 × 11201 12002 + ←––– 2 × 11201 --------------- 120231321 This corresponds to a multiplication of . Tabulated conversions Below is a table of some decimal and complex numbers and their quater-imaginary counterparts. Examples Below are some other examples of conversions from decimal numbers to quater-imaginary numbers. Z-order curve The representation of an arbitrary complex number with gives rise to an injective mapping with some suitable . Here cannot be taken as base because of The image is a Cantor set which allows to linearly order similar to a Z-order curve. Consequently, is not continuous. See also Quaternary numeral system Complex-base system Negative base References Further reading Non-standard positional numeral systems Donald Knuth Complex numbers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Yanks
Boston Yanks
The Boston Yanks were a National Football League team based in Boston, Massachusetts, that played from 1944 to 1948. The team played its home games at Fenway Park. Any games that conflicted with the Boston Red Sox baseball schedule in the American League were held at Braves Field of the cross-town National League team, the Boston Braves. Team owner Ted Collins, who managed singer and TV show host Kate Smith (1907–1986) for thirty years, picked the name "Yanks" because he originally wanted to run a team that played at New York City's old Yankee Stadium. The Yanks could manage only a losing 2–8 record during their first regular season. Because of a shortage of players caused by World War II, the Yanks were temporarily merged with the erratic founding APFA member Dayton Triangles' franchise, then known as the Brooklyn Tigers, for the 1945 season, and styled as just the Yanks with no home city named. The merged team played four home games in Boston and one in New York and finished with a losing 3–6–1 record. When Brooklyn Tigers owner Dan Topping announced his intentions to join the newly established rival professional football league, the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) in 1946, his NFL franchise, which was a founding APFA member that he had moved from Dayton, Ohio in 1929, was revoked and all of its players were assigned to the Yanks, with the original Triangles legacy being carried on by this group. After three continuous losing seasons, Collins finally was allowed to move to New York City. But instead of an official relocation, he asked the league to officially fold his Boston franchise and give him a new franchise, for a Federal tax write off. The League granted his request, and Collins named his new team the New York Bulldogs. However, like many of this franchise's moves, the NFL considers them to have folded, while the players and assets simply moved, ultimately keeping the Dayton Triangles' legacy alive as the last remaining Ohio League member. Despite the franchise's assets moving to a new city and carrying on the team's legacy, The Boston Yanks are the only officially defunct NFL team ever to have the first overall NFL draft pick. They had it twice, in 1944 and 1946, selecting a quarterback from Notre Dame: Angelo Bertelli and Frank Dancewicz, both Massachusetts natives. First round draft selections Pro Football Hall of Fame Season-by-season References Defunct National Football League teams 1944 establishments in Massachusetts 1948 disestablishments in Massachusetts American football teams established in 1944 American football teams disestablished in 1948 American football teams in Boston
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239703
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolius
Anatolius
Anatolius is both a given name and a surname. Notable people with the name include: Given name Anatolius of Laodicea (died 283), Bishop of Laodicea in Syria, also known as Anatolius of Alexandria Anatolius, Vicarius of the Diocese of Asia in 352 Anatolius (praetorian prefect), Praetorian prefect of Illyricum in 360, probably identical to Vindonius Anatolius Anatolius (magister militum) (421–451), East Roman general, politician and diplomat Patriarch Anatolius of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople (449 - 458) Anatolius (curator), Byzantine honorary consul, killed in an earthquake in 557 Anatolius (Osroene), Byzantine governor of Osroene, executed as a crypto-pagan c. 579 Frans Anatolius Sjöström (1840–1885), Finnish architect Surname Vindonius Anatolius, 4th century Greek writer See also Anatoly (name) Anatol Anatoli (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo%20%28NFL%29
Buffalo (NFL)
Buffalo, New York had a turbulent, early-era National Football League team that operated under multiple names and several different owners between the 1910s and 1920s. The early NFL-era franchise was variously called the Buffalo All-Stars from 1915 to 1917, Buffalo Niagaras in 1918, the Buffalo Prospects in 1919, Buffalo All-Americans from 1920 to 1923, Buffalo Bisons from 1924 to 1925 and in 1927 and 1929, and the Buffalo Rangers in 1926. The franchise, which was experiencing financial problems in 1928, did not participate in league play that season. History Prior to the NFL Buffalo operated an early professional football circuit from at least the late 1800s onward. Among notable predecessors to the team discussed here were the Buffalo Oakdales, whose heyday was in the years 1908 and 1909 and who ceased operations c. 1915; the Cazenovias, who were New York's best team in 1910 and 1911; and the Lancaster Malleables, from the neighboring town of Lancaster, New York, who were the best team in the region in 1913 and 1914. These teams played each other and teams from nearby cities (for example, the Rochester Jeffersons). The All-Stars played from 1915 to 1917 under the leadership of Eugene F. Dooley; in 1917, Dooley, along with his star player Barney Lepper, took the team on a barnstorming tour of midwestern pro football teams. In 1918, the city's teams were not allowed to play outside the area because of the 1918 flu pandemic; Dooley and Lepper discontinued the All-Stars. Shoe salesman Warren D. Patterson, at the same time as this, formed a new team known as the Buffalo Niagaras, signing former Youngstown Patricians quarterback Ernest "Tommy" Hughitt as his quarterback. As the Niagaras, the team won a citywide championship in 1918, going undefeated with a 6–0–0 record (including a forfeit), having only one touchdown scored on them in any of their six games. They were one of the few upper-level teams still able to play games that year, with most of the top-level teams (such as the Patricians, Canton Bulldogs and Massillon Tigers) all having suspended operations due to the pandemic and/or World War I player shortages; this allowed Buffalo to get a leg up on its Ohio competition and sign otherwise-unemployed players, setting a course for bringing the region on par with the Ohio League and the ultimate establishment of the NFL. With that, they could have theoretically staked a claim to being the best team in the nation, especially considering how the team would perform over the next three seasons, but the Professional Football Researchers Association is dismissive of any claim that does not come from the Ohio League, and gives the mythical "national title" to the Dayton Triangles, who also went undefeated that year. When the New York Pro Football League reopened in 1919, the team, now reorganized into a franchise known as the Prospects, defeated the Rochester Jeffersons for the league title in a two-game Thanksgiving weekend tournament. The two teams tied the Thanksgiving Day game, but Buffalo handily defeated Rochester 20–0 the following Sunday. Lepper teamed up with Hughitt and Patterson in early 1920 to create the Buffalo All-Americans, then quickly sold the team to Frank McNeil, a somewhat abrasive and aggressive owner who was able to get the team into the National Football League for its first season. However records indicate he may not have actually entered his team into the American Professional Football Association until 1921, the All-Americans are generally shown as the third-place team in league standings from that year (the confusion stems from a statement in the minutes from the league's April 1921 reorganization meeting admitting an unidentified team from Buffalo; this may have instead been the Tonawanda Kardex, who joined the league in 1921, playing only one game). Patterson held on to the Prospects name and put together a lower quality team that played through 1923, including a 1922 game against the All-Americans themselves. The NFL The All-Americans had success during its first couple of APFA seasons, posting a 9–1–1 regular season record in 1920, becoming the first professional NFL team to win by margins of 20 or more points in each of its first four games, an asterisked record which was not tied until the 2007 New England Patriots' offense duplicated the feat; the asterisk is because, in the early NFL, the All-Americans played five of its 11 games against non-league opponents. The Buffalo-Phoenixville connection Unique for a professional football team, the All-Americans had a sharing agreement with the Union Club of Phoenixville, a side project managed by All-Americans player Heinie Miller. Miller would take himself and seven other All-Americans to Phoenixville, Pennsylvania to play games on Saturdays (Pennsylvania had blue laws that prevented play on Sunday), and then return to Buffalo on Sundays. This sharing agreement lasted into 1921 when Miller formed the new Union Quakers of Philadelphia, but All-Americans owner Frank McNeil put a halt to the agreement halfway through the 1921 season after the Quakers played the Canton Bulldogs and wore out the All-Americans players. Five All-Americans left the team to play for the Quakers full-time; Buffalo had the pickings of the then-defunct Detroit Tigers to replenish their roster. First trade in the NFL In 1920, the Akron Pros held the All-Americans to a scoreless tie in front of only 3,000 fans. At the game, Akron owners Frank Nied and Art Ranney agreed to sell Bob Nash to Buffalo for $300 and five per cent of the gate, in the first known player deal between NFL clubs. 1920 Championship issue Along with the Decatur Staleys and Akron Pros, Buffalo claimed a share of the 1920 league title. That same season the Pros held the best record in the league, and only had to avoid losing a game. Meanwhile, Buffalo and the Staleys had to win in order to capture the AFPA Championship. The Pros were able to hold the Staleys to a scoreless tie at Cub Park. However, the Pros still had to play the All-Americans who were fresh from a 7–3 win over the Canton Bulldogs at New York City's Polo Grounds. Despite Buffalo's confidence going into the match, the Pros also held the All-Americans to scoreless tie. Both the All-Americans and the Staleys complained about the championship, arguing that Akron had only tied, but not defeated them. However, because league president Jim Thorpe and vice president Stan Cofall were absent from the meeting, Akron's owner Art Ranney was presiding over the meeting. Joseph Carr, owner of the Columbus Panhandles, moved at the league's meeting in April 1921 to give Akron the sole title and the rights to the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup. Buffalo finished in third place, with Chicago in second place. In a separate motion, Carr would be elected league president. According to modern NFL tie-breaking rules, the 1920 Buffalo All-Americans would be co-champions. They would be tied with the Akron Pros in win percentage, wins to losses (.864), both teams beating out the Decatur Staleys, who would have a season that counted 11 wins to 2 losses (.846). "Staley Swindle" On November 27, 1921, the All-Americans claimed the AFPA title with a record of 9–0–2. However, for reason still unknown, owner Frank McNeil agreed to play two more games. He did tell the Buffalo media that the two games were exhibitions and would have no bearing on the team's claim to the AFPA title. George Halas and the Chicago Staleys manage to capture second place in the AFPA in 1921, with their only loss of the season against Buffalo. McNeil scheduled the two additional games against the Pros and Staleys back-to-back. The first game was scheduled for December 3 against the tough Pros, after which his team would take an all-night train to Chicago to play the Staleys the next day. The All-Americans defeated the Pros, arriving in Chicago worn out and in no condition to play the Staleys, and lost. McNeil still believed his team was the AFPA's 1921 champion, and even invested in tiny gold footballs for his players to commemorate the achievement. However Halas declared that the title was Chicago's, basing his claim on his belief that the second game of the Buffalo-Chicago series mattered more than the first. He also pointed out that the aggregate score of the two games was 16–14 in favor of the Staleys. McNeil insisted the Buffalo All-Americans were the champions, still maintaining that the last two games his team played were merely exhibitions. It didn't matter. The league awarded the championship by a vote of the Association's executive committee in January 1922 to the Staleys. This episode is referred to by several sports historians and Buffalo sports fans as the "Staley Swindle." McNeil eventually went to his grave trying to get the league's decision overturned. In their decision, based on a generally accepted (but now obsolete) rule that if two teams play each other more than once in a season, the second game counts more than the first, the executive committee followed established tradition. Had Buffalo not played the last game, they would have had an undefeated season and won the title. In both the 1920 and 1921 seasons, Buffalo played all of its games at home (the lone exceptions being the two 1921 matches in Chicago and one against the Detroit Tigers). Buffalo Bisons Under the leadership of player-coach Tommy Hughitt, the All-Americans, though they never equaled the success of the first two seasons, continued to post winning records in 1922 and 1923. Star running back Ockie Anderson's knees deteriorated during the 1922 season, forcing his early retirement and beginning the team's decline. In 1924, owner Frank McNeil sold the team back to Hughitt and Warren D. Patterson, who immediately changed the team name to Bisons (a stock name for Buffalo sports teams) and signed several players (Pete Calac, Benny Boynton and Jim Ailinger being among them) to make another run at the title. After starting the season 6–2, the team lost their last three to once again end up marginally above .500. Hughitt retired at the end of the season. After Hughitt's retirement at the end of the 1924 season, the team struggled for the rest of its lifespan. However, on October 1, 1925, the Bisons managed to wrestle Jim Kendrick from his contract with the Hammond Pros and signed him to play for Buffalo. In 1925 the Bisons were led by former Columbia University star and Buffalo native Walter Koppisch. Prior to Kendrick joining the team, the Bisons were already 0–2 on the season. Kendrick's first game with Buffalo came on Sunday, October 4, 1925, against the Rochester Jeffersons. With Kendrick in the line-up, the Bisons tied the Jeffersons and the Akron Pros in their next two games. A week later the Bisons defeated the Columbus Tigers, 17–6. However tragedy struck the team just a few days later when, team captain Walter Koppisch was injured in a car accident and was advised to sit out a few games to allow his injuries to heal. A week later, the Bisons were defeated by the Frankford Yellow Jackets, 12–3. However, the team was scheduled to play the New York Giants at the Polo Grounds, a few days later. The game was also going to be the first game back for Koppisch. However, the Bisons, despite a strong defensive showing, could not generate their offensive potential. This game was Koppisch's last appearance in a Buffalo uniform. The team then lost their final two games of the season to the Providence Steam Rollers (10–0) and the Chicago Cardinals (23–6). In July 1926 it was announced that Walter Koppisch would not be returning to manage the Buffalo Bisons in the upcoming season. Meanwhile, Jim Kendrick was announced to be taking over as the team's manager, and serving as a player-coach. Buffalo Rangers Jim Kendrick announced his "Buffalo Rangers" experiment, fielding an exhibition team of players from Texas and the Southwestern United States for the 1926 season. His plan was that this exhibition squad would then represent Buffalo in the NFL. Because most of the players were Texans, the team was nicknamed the "Rangers" in deference to the state's legendary peacekeeping force. Along with the West Coast's Los Angeles Buccaneers and the South's Louisville Colonels, it was one of three teams that represented cities outside the NFL's existing footprint. Kendrick believed that if the players have no outside interests or anything to divert their minds from playing football, they can play better. The season's outcome would determine if his theory was correct. The Buffalo media alternately referred to the team as the "Bison Rangers," combining the old name with the new so that fans might more easily identify with the team that was on its third name in seven years. The one-year experiment brought a 4–4–2 (.500) season. Buffalo expected Kendrick to return to field the Rangers for the 1927 season, however he signed with the New York Giants, and most of the remaining players went their separate ways, citing their dislike for Buffalo's cold winters as the primary reason for leaving. Return of the Bisons and closure Dim Batterson, a local high school and college coach and an assistant with the team since 1925, was brought in to coach the 1927 season. After five games (all losses, all but one being a shutout), the team suspended operations and failed to finish the season. The team did not return to play in 1928, but returned in 1929 with former Oorang Indian Al Jolley as coach. Among their players that year was Jess Rodriguez, the first Hispanic-American player in the NFL (the Frankford Yellow Jackets had hired Ignacio "Lou" Molinet two years prior, but Molinet was a Cuban national). Much like in 1927, the Bisons failed to win a game until their final game, when in a case of cosmic irony they upset the Chicago Bears 19–7; thus, the very team that had spoiled their undefeated season in 1921 saved them from the indignity of a winless season in 1929. With the Great Depression underway, the Bisons folded, never to return again. During the season, the Bisons set an NFL record of six consecutive games without ever having a lead in regulation play. The record was tied in 2012 by the Kansas City Chiefs. With the exception of the three teams that have direct descendants still in the NFL—the Bears, Arizona Cardinals and Dayton Triangles (whose remains reside in the current Indianapolis Colts), Buffalo was the longest-lived of the league's original 13 teams. At least one further game against an NFL team was played in Buffalo in the wake of the Bisons' failure: the independent Buffalo Bears narrowly lost, 8–6, to the Cleveland Indians in a 1931 contest. Buffalo would become a regular "neutral site" for NFL exhibitions from 1938 to 1958. The team has no official relation to future Buffalo pro football franchises: the Buffalo Indians and Tigers of the third American Football League, the Buffalo Bisons of the AAFC, or the Buffalo Bills of today which was one of the new AFL teams (formation announced in 1959) that first played in 1960. Players of note As of 2019, no All-Americans, Bisons or Rangers player had been named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. It is the second-longest existing team to have never contributed a player to the Hall, behind only the Jacksonville Jaguars. Members of the College Football Hall of Fame Benny Boynton Eddie Casey Walter Koppisch Elmer Oliphant Others Jim Ailinger, at the time of his death in 2001, the oldest surviving NFL alumnus. Ockie Anderson, teammate of Fritz Pollard on Union Club of Phoenixville in 1920 and considered one of the best forward passers of his era, winning a national title at Colgate in 1916. Walt Brewster Pete Calac, teammate of Jim Thorpe in 1920. Tommy Hughitt Heinie Miller Paul Robeson Gus Sonnenberg Lud Wray Season records External links Historical Society of the Buffalo All-Americans, Bisons & Rangers Buffalo Bills fanclub, which tracks the Football history of Western New York State. References New York Pro Football League teams American football teams established in 1915 American football teams disestablished in 1929 Defunct National Football League teams American football in Buffalo, New York Buffalo Bills Defunct American football teams in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20O%27Hara
Jean O'Hara
Betty Jean O'Hara (1913 in Chicago, Illinois – 1973) was a famed prostitute in Honolulu's "vice district" during World War II. Biography Born in Chicago, Illinois, she was the only child of strict Catholic parents. Her father was a medical doctor. She received a good education. When O'Hara was 17, she went to a party and met another girl who was sporting expensive jewellery. The girl's boyfriend was a pimp and introduced O'Hara to prostitution so she could also have jewellery. Initially she worked in Chicago, but later moved around the US mainland. Police records show that between 1934 and 1938 O'Hara had been arrested for prostitution three times. In June 1934, using the name "Jean Burk" she was arrested in Chicago. In 1937 she was banned from LaSalle County by the county court in Ottawa, Illinois. Finally she was banned from Monterey County, California for two years and given a suspended 90 day prison sentence in April 1938. O'Hara was probably working in a high-class brothel in San Francisco when she was recruited to work in Honolulu. Hawaii When Honolulu madams needed new prostitutes, they sent a "mail order" to agents, usually in San Francisco, to recruit them and arrange transport to Hawaii. The steamers were met by a detective. O'Hara and the other women were taken to the Blaisdell Hotel on Fort Street, explained the "10 commandments" for prostitutes and told any infraction would lead to them being removed from the islands. They were then taken to the police station, where they were fingerprinted and photographed. From there she was taken to the brothel where she was to work in Hotel Street. After a few months she had saved a considerable sum. She decided to live outside the red-light district and rented a house near Waikiki Beach with her friend Betty. After the vice squad objected as prostitutes were not supposed to live outside the red-light district, the two women moved to the Pacific Heights area. After the vice squad again objected, O'Hara and Betty went to Kauai and worked in one of the three brothels there, which serviced mainly plantation workers. After a few months on Kauai, they worked on Maui island for a while before returning to Honolulu in 1939. On her return to Honolulu, O'Hara was beaten up by the police and charged with assault and battery on a police office by the officer concerned. She filed a case against the policeman and the chief of police. The resulting publicity resulted in the charges being dropped. This successful standing up to the vice squad was the start of the squad losing its hold over the red-light district. With some money behind her, O'Hara set herself up as a madam. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, people were fearful of further bombings. People were keen to sell their property and O'Hara bought up several properties which subsequently made her very wealthy. Immediately after the attack, many of the brothels were turned over to quarters for the wounded. With the brothels occupied and the authorities distracted, the prostitutes started working outside the district. O'Hara started working from the luxury Moana Hotel with two other women. Following complaints about noise, O'Hara was arrested. As the military had now taken control of the red-light district and prostitution, she was tried by a military court and sentenced to 6 months. On her release she returned to her brothel. which was on Hotel Street. By this time the military had set a fixed price for prostitute's services. O'Hara is credited with inventing the "bull pen" system where a single prostitute would work three rooms in rotation: In one room a man would be undressing, in a second room the prostitute would be having sex, and in the third room the man would be dressing. With price controls circumventing the laws of supply and demand, O'Hara's system sped up the process and allowed each prostitute to see many more 'johns' every day. In 1944 O'Hara was charged with trying to murder the husband of a fellow prostitute. The trial attracted much publicity and the jury only took 5 minutes to acquit O'Hara. After the trial she quit the sex industry. After martial law ended in 1944, partly because of O'Hara's notoriety, the red-light district was shut down. In 1944, O'Hara's published her memoirs as My Life as a Honolulu Prostitute. The book was later re-published under the title Honolulu Harlot. The 1956 Jane Russell film, The Revolt of Mamie Stover was based on O'Hara's life in Honolulu (Mamie Stover was an alias O'Hara used). O'Hara had married a 'local boy' named Noriger. Years later she tried to kill him in San Francisco by ramming him against a tree with her car. O'Hara died in 1973. References Bibliography 1913 births 1973 deaths Writers from Chicago American prostitutes Prostitution in Hawaii
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis%20Marines/Red%20Jackets
Minneapolis Marines/Red Jackets
The Minneapolis Marines were an early professional football team that existed from 1905 until 1924. The team was later resurrected from 1929 to 1930 under the Minneapolis Red Jackets name. The Marines were owned locally by Minneapolitans John Dunn and Val Ness, and composed primarily of working-class teenagers. Some of the first games were played at Camden Park, The Parade, and Bottineau Field. Later games were played at larger stadiums such as Nicollet Park and Lexington Park. The Minneapolis Marines are the first Minnesota-based team to join the National Football League, predating the Duluth Eskimos (1923) and Minnesota Vikings (1961). History Origins The Marines, formed mostly in 1905, were composed of working-class teenagers that came from the area that is located close to US Bank Stadium at the junction between Cedar and Washington Avenues. The team began play in the 115-pound weight class, and by 1907 had moved up to the 145-pound weight class. The team's 1907 roster consisted of future professional stars Walt Buland, Sheepy Redeen, Dutch Gaustad and its star player Rube Ursella. In 1909 future boxer, Labe Safro, joined the team as a fullback. These players represented the core of the team until 1919. The Marines would only have players on the team with no high school or college playing experience until 1913. During the 1910s, the Minneapolis Marines became known as one of the best and dominant "independent" teams in the upper Midwest region. It is thought that the Minneapolis Marines defensive line, headed by Buland and Gaustad, brought the Marines most of their wins. Hiring ex-college players Between 1910 and 1914, the year's biggest football game in Minneapolis independent football was between the Minneapolis Beavers and the Minneapolis Marines. In contrast to the Marines, most of the Beaver players had college experience playing at the University of St. Thomas. The Marines defeated the Beavers in 1910 to win the city title. However, in 1911 and 1912, the Beavers pulled off upsets against the Marines. This led to the team hiring an outside coach, Ossie Solem. He would stay with the team through the 1915 season. During his time with the Marines, Solem introduced the team to the single-wing formation, developed by the famed coach Pop Warner and used by the University of Minnesota at the time. In 1913 and 1914, the Marines defeated the Beavers to reclaim the Minneapolis city championship. The Beavers disbanded after the 1914 season. By 1916 the Marines added several other ex-college players to their lineup. The most notable was Bobby Marshall, who was the first African-American player at the University of Minnesota, having played there from 1903 until 1906. By 1916 Marshall was one of the best semi-pro players in the Twin Cities area. Dewey Lyle and Fred Chicken, who would later become a pro star in the NFL, were also picked up around that time. Many players that made the Marines squad had previously played for big college teams such as the University of Minnesota, Hamline University, Augsburg University, Macalester College, and Carleton College. Peak of the team The Marines initially won many of their games as they were participating in a semi-pro league. Dunn, who served the team as a player and manager, was extremely happy with the Marines' initial performance and he wanted to move his team into the professional leagues. Dunn moved the Marines away from the teams they had already beaten and into the new Nicollet Park, which was also the home of the Minneapolis Millers baseball team, and was larger than the team's previous fields. Dunn scheduled games against out of town teams and the Marines went on to have a substantial winning streak of 34 games in a row. However, with the team's former rivals, the Beavers, out of the picture, the Marines had no strong local opposition. This led Dunn to schedule an annual Thanksgiving game against a team of ex-Gophers all-stars from the University of Minnesota. From 1913 until 1917, while the Marines posted a 34–0 regular season record, the team was 0–2–1 against the Gophers All-Stars. The NFL and first closure Independent football shut down completely in 1918, due to a combination of the flu pandemic and World War I. When the Marines were finally able to play again, in 1919, they lost several of their key players who moved to the Rock Island Independents. With their core players (Marshall, Ursella, Buland, Lyle, and Chicken) gone, the Marines were unable to regain their pre-war form, causing attendance to decline after 1919. Dunn tried to find a way to keep the team solvent. On August 27, 1921, the Minneapolis Marines joined the American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League in 1922). Dunn hoped that if the Marines were playing professional football, there would be more fans and more money generated. The Marines posted a 4–11–2 record against NFL teams from 1921 until 1923. After posting an 0–6 record in 1924, Dunn folded the team. The Red Jackets and second closure Dunn and Val Ness attempted to resurrect their franchise in 1929 with a new version of the Marines. Though Ole Haugsrud had first rights to the next Minnesota-based franchise (a deal resulting from his sale of the Duluth Eskimos back to the league in 1927), he passed, letting Dunn and Val Ness have control over the new team. The pair decided to try one more time to produce an effective professional football team, as they became the new owners of the Minneapolis Red Jackets. The team was named for their red jerseys with red and white striped sleeves, like that which the Marines had worn years earlier. The team posted a dismal 1–9 record in 1929. The Red Jackets finished in the "red" financially, but not far from breaking even, primarily because they played three games with the Chicago Bears that season. In 1930, they planned to play their four home games in October in Minneapolis' Nicollet Park. The franchise hoped for good weather, thus stimulating better attendance. However, it rained on each scheduled date and the team went broke. After a 1–7–1 start in 1930, the Red Jackets merged into the NFL's Frankford Yellow Jackets by selling Frankford ten of their players, and then went out of existence. Three other players were sold to the Green Bay Packers. Minneapolis would not hold another NFL franchise for the next three decades, before the Vikings debuted in 1961 (Haugsrud would own a 10% share of that franchise). First pro football training camp The Minneapolis Marines are especially known for their lack of prior football experience and their outstanding ability to still remain one of the best "independent" teams in the upper midwest regions. They worked hard and did everything they could to gain an edge over the competition and be at the top of their game. They would hold pre-season training camps in order to get in shape and hone their skills, one of which was called Clef Camp located near Lake Pokegama in Grand Rapids, Minnesota. Season-by-season (pre-NFL) Season-by-season (NFL seasons only) References PFRA's article on Minneapolis Marines (broken link) 1905 establishments in Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%20%281920s%20NFL%20teams%29
Detroit (1920s NFL teams)
Detroit had four early teams in the National Football League before the Detroit Lions. The Heralds played in 1920, and had played as an independent as far back as 1905. The Tigers, a continuation of the Heralds, played in 1921, folding midseason and sending their players to the Buffalo All-Americans. The Panthers competed from 1925 to 1926 and the Wolverines in 1928. Team histories Detroit Heralds/Tigers In 1905, several University of Detroit football players, led by Bill Marshall, organized the Heralds as an amateur team after the university did not field a squad. While the university's football team resumed play in 1906, the Heralds continued to play as an amateur team. In 1911, the team dropped its amateur status and became semi-professional. In 1916, several out-of-town players were brought in to replace some of the older players, several of whom had been with the Heralds since 1905. Despite not being based in Ohio, the Heralds played many of their games against teams in the Ohio League. In 1917, the team recorded an 8–2 record, their only losses coming at the hands of the Ohio League champion Canton Bulldogs and a military team from Battle Creek. The Heralds were a rarity in 1918; while most teams either stopped play or reduced their schedules to only local teams because of World War I and the flu pandemic, the Heralds continued to play a full schedule and even travel to other cities, accruing a 6–2 record with both losses coming to the Ohio League champion Dayton Triangles. In 1919, as the suspended teams resumed play and travel restrictions eased significantly, the Heralds went 1–4–2, including losses to Bulldogs and the Massillon Tigers. In 1920, the American Professional Football Association, predecessor to the National Football League, was established. While the Heralds did not officially join the association, they are listed in league standings for the season. Overall, the Heralds went 2–3–3. The Heralds were reorganized into the Detroit Tigers, after the city's major league baseball team, for the 1921 season. However, after a tie and a win in their first two games, the Tigers lost the next five. Several players complained about not getting paid and left the team during the season. The team officially folded at the end of the season in mid-November. Its remaining players were given to the Buffalo All-Americans. Detroit Panthers In 1925, Detroit fielded its second NFL franchise, the Detroit Panthers. The team was organized by future Hall of Famer, Jimmy Conzelman. Conzelman was a quarterback who had recently played with the Decatur Staleys, Rock Island Independents and the Milwaukee Badgers. Conzelman served as the team's owner, coach, and starting quarterback. The Panthers started the season 8–1. However, a 6–3 upset loss to the Independents on Thanksgiving Day knocked them out of first place and they ended the season in third. The Panthers hoped to build on their 1925 season, but they opened the 1926 season with an 0–3 record. After rallying to a 4–0–2 record in their next six games, they lost their last three. Conzelman gave up the franchise and joined the Providence Steam Rollers as player-coach. Detroit Wolverines Following the 1927 season, the Cleveland Bulldogs were sold to a group of investors, who moved the team to Detroit. Coached by LeRoy Andrews, the team was renamed the Detroit Wolverines. They were named after quarterback Benny Friedman's alma mater, the Michigan Wolverines. The Wolverines finished their 1928 season in third place with a 7–2-1 record, losing only to the Providence Steam Rollers and the Frankford Yellow Jackets, the NFL's first and second place teams. During the offseason, Tim Mara, the owner of the New York Giants, was interested in acquiring Friedman. Rather than simply trade for Friedman, Mara bought the entire Wolverines franchise and promptly deactivated it, delivering Friedman and other star Wolverines players to New York. The NFL would not return to the Motor City for six years, until the Portsmouth Spartans became the Detroit Lions in 1934. Past Thanksgiving Day games While the Lions are well known for playing on Thanksgiving Day, the other Detroit teams had a history of playing on Thanksgiving Day as well: 1917 Heralds vs. Canton Bulldogs (lost 7–0) 1920 Heralds at Dayton Triangles (lost 28–0) 1921 Tigers, merged with the Buffalo All-Americans, at Chicago Staleys (won 7–6) 1925 Panthers vs. Rock Island Independents (lost 6–3) 1926 Panthers vs. Los Angeles Buccaneers (lost 9–6) 1928 Wolverines vs. Dayton Triangles (won 33–0) Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season References External links Team colors site Detroit Heralds history Detroit Panthers history Detroit Wolverines history Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Detroit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Senators%20%28NFL%29
Washington Senators (NFL)
Washington Senators, also referred to as the Washington Pros or Washington Presidents, was a professional football club from Washington, D.C. The team played for one season in the American Professional Football Association (now the National Football League) during the 1921 season. Afterward, it continued to operate as an independent football club until 1941. The Senators played and practiced at American League Park. Formation Washington, D.C. was a considerable distance from most professional football activity in the 1910s and 1920s, with the closest circuit of professional teams of note located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At least one pre-NFL team from the city, the Washington Vigilants, was considered at or near par to the top teams in the country, consistently beating its local peers and playing a close loss to the Youngstown Patricians, an undefeated team in the Ohio League, then considered the premier U.S. pro circuit, in 1915. The Vigilants disbanded in 1916. The Senators were formed specifically for the 1921 APFA season. Officials from the Washington Professional Football Club met at the Arlington Hotel on May 19, 1921 to finalize plans for the team, then referred to as the Washington Pros. Tim Jordan was appointed the team's business manager, and the squad was coached by former Georgetown star Jack Hegarty. The Senators would play a full 11-game schedule, however only four of those games would be against other APFA squads. The team featured Benny Boynton who would be involved in all three Senator touchdowns that were scored in APFA contests, throwing for two and running in the third. 1921 season First non-league opponents The Senators began their 1921 campaign with a 33–0 win over the Wilmington Collegians. Led by quarterback Bullets Watson, the victory featured touchdowns by Jack Sullivan, Watson and Dutch Leighty. The team's next opponent was the Holmesburg Athletic Club which was based out of Holmesburg, Pennsylvania, and were made up of former college stars from Penn State, Penn, Cornell, Swarthmore College, Carlisle Indian School and Lafayette College. The Senators third game was against a team from Norfolk, after a semi-pro team from Akron was unable to play due to having a large number of injured players. Syracuse Pros After playing against three non-APFA opponents, the Senators defeated the Syracuse Pros 20–7 at home. It is unclear however if the Pros were ever a part of the APFA. The team acknowledged that they were members of the league, however there is no record available through the APFA or NFL documenting the team's membership. Therefore, the Pros are not counted in many record books as being an APFA or NFL franchise. Harry Courtney Harry Courtney, a left-handed pitcher for the Washington Senators baseball club, signed with the football Senators for their November 20 against a team from Clarksburg, West Virginia. However Clark Griffith, the owner of the baseball Senators, found out about his Courtney moonlighting as a football player. Griffith ordered Courtney to stop playing football or risk finding himself without a job in baseball. Indeed, Courtney gave up his football career and continued to focus only on baseball. APFA debut The Senators' APFA debut occurred on November 27, 1921, when they faced the Canton Bulldogs. Canton had a reputation was one of the nation's premier clubs. The game received relatively large amounts of exposure in the local papers. Many observers saw this as Washington's big chance to show that it was a force to be taken seriously nationally. While, Canton was known for its speed, Washington came into the game with a weight advantage. Washington's average offensive lineman tipped the scales at 189 pounds while Canton's stood at 185 pounds, while the backs registered at 171 pounds to the Bulldogs' 168 pounds. To help his team win the game, Senators head coach Jack Hegerty signed three former Canton players in an effort to tip the odds. Former Georgia Tech star Joe Guyon, Johnny Gilroy and Pete Calac. The plan was to have the men come off the bench and provide support to the already sturdy starting eleven. With tickets priced one dollar, approximately 4,000 showed up to American League Field to see the game. However Canton shutout Washington, 15–0. Rochester forfeit controversy Washington was originally scheduled to play the Pittsburgh Collegians after their loss to Canton, however the plans for the game fell apart. When that happened, Tim Jordan substituted the Collegians for the Rochester Jeffersons. On December 5, 1921, a game was scheduled between the Jeffersons and the Senators. Due to the field being covered with snow, Rochester's manager Leo Lyons refused to play the game rather than risk injury to his players. It has been said by some fans and historians that Lyons forfeited the game because of snowy conditions. However, according to Lyons, the Senators had a poor fan turnout due to a snowstorm and said they would only pay the Jefferson team roughly $200. That amount would not allow for the team to be paid to play the game, or travel expenses for the trip back to Rochester. The game had an NFL guarantee that the Jeffersons must be paid $800 for the game regardless of anything. Lyons refused to play the game because of Washington not paying the $800 that was in the game contract. The contract between the two teams stated that if there was a dispute as to the condition of the field, the decision would belong to the home team. Washington was willing to play the game, not wanting to disappoint the 400 or so fans that had showed up. After forty minutes of arguing, the game was awarded to Washington, by the score of 1–0. Later, NFL commissioner Joseph Carr ruled in favor of Lyons and the Jeffs. Meanwhile, the Senators were required to pay an $800 guaranteed fee to the Jeffersons for showing up regardless of whether the contest happened or not. Washington never paid, as it decided to immediately leave the APFA after the season anyway. As a result of the fine remaining unpaid, the NFL did record the game as a victory, however the Elias Sports Bureau has not recognized this game as a forfeit and official NFL standings also say it was not a forfeit. First win and rematch with Canton The Senators recorded their first APFA victory on December 11 against the Cleveland Indians, 7–0, before a reported 5,000 spectators. On December 18, 1921, Tim Jordan landed a rematch with the Canton Bulldogs, and was determined to put up a better fight. Washington reached an agreement with Penn State All-American quarterback Glenn Killinger to play for the Senators, hoping that one of the premier collegiate players would be enough to tip the scales. However at the last moment, Killinger not only pulled out of his deal with the Senators, but also signed with the Bulldogs. Washington found themselves in an early 14–0 deficit, after a long Killinger pass caught the Senators by surprise, and a poor Boynton punt gave Canton an easy chance to push in their second touchdown. However Washington evened the score at 14 after two long drives that ended with a Johnnie Hudson touchdown reception and a Boynton touchdown run. The game remained tied late into the game, with the Senators holding possession with just a few minutes left in the game. But Washington's Gene Vidal fumbled the ball, and Canton was able to march down the field to take the lead. After the kickoff, the Bulldogs intercepted a Washington pass and returned it for the final touchdown. Before around 6,000 fans, the Senators again fell to the Bulldogs 28–14. However, the Senators would play one more game, while still members of the AFPA. On December 26, 1921, the Senators were scheduled to play a team of All-Stars at American League Park. The results of the game are unknown. The Senators finished the game with a 1–2–0 AFPA record. † – Does not include the forfeit by the Rochester Jeffersons that is not officially recognized by the NFL 1922 The Senators would leave the AFPA following the 1921 season. Only three of the Senators (Benny Boynton, Pete Calac and Joe Guyon) would play in the NFL following the 1921 season. Led by Bullets Watson on the field and Tim Jordan off (who appears to have doubled as coach), the club did continue to function in the 1922 season as the Washington Football Club or the Washington Pros. Games Home Opener: Akron Indians 6, Pros 0 November 5; Pros at Baltimore If this game was in fact played, Washington came out with a victory or tie. November 12; Toledo Maroons 16, Pros 0 at American League Park The game featured the return of Bennie Boynton, who left the Pros to play with Toledo. For this game, Boynton switched sides and played with the Pros. Akron recorded two touchdowns and safety to remain unbeaten. The Pros relied heavily on Boynton, but could no recover from an early blocked drop-kick, which was run back for the first Arkon score. November 19; Pros vs. Rochester at American League Park November 26; no game Pros vs. Chester Shipbuilding (replacement for Pennsylvania Quakers) Pros vs. Canton Bulldogs The game against Canton came after nearly a month-long layoff, they hosted the APFA champion, and their old nemesis, the Canton Bulldogs. Canton was determined to keep their unbeaten record unblemished, and started their regular unit against the Washingtonians. References PROS WILL BATTLE ALL-STARS TODAY :LINE-UP OF TEAMS IN GAME AT PARK TODAY Boynton Will Play.. (1921, December 26). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 10. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 191017012). PRO FOOTBALL MEN TO COMPLETE PLANS. (1921, May 19). The Washington Post (1877–1954),3. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 195262732). PRO FOOTBALL TEAMS WILL BE SEEN HERE. (1921, May 20). The Washington Post (1877–1954),2. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 195264962). GRIFF ORDERS COURTNEY TO CUT OUT FOOTBALL. (1921, November 27). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 22. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 284298722). PROS WILL PLAY QUAKER ELEVEN. (1921, October 19). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 16. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 284207252). STALLINGS' ROCHESTER GRID SQUAD TO PLAY LOCAL TEAM. (1921, August 17). The Washington Post (1877–1954),12. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 195438542). CANTON BULLDOGS PLAY HERE SUNDAY. (1921, November 23). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 19. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 190963392). ALL-AMERICANS WITH BULLDOGS. (1921, November 24). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 14. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 224348812). DISTRICT PROS HEAVIEST TEAM. (1921, November 25). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 12. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 284292502). NAME LINE-UPS FOR PRO GAME. (1921, November 26). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 14. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 284295732). ALL-AMERICAN STARS TO PLAY HERE TODAY :Joe Guyon May Play.. (1921, November 27). The Washington Post (1877–1954),p. 23. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from ProQuest Historical Newspapers The Washington Post (1877–1991) database. (Document ID: 284298922). American football teams established in 1921 Sports clubs disestablished in 1941 Defunct National Football League teams Sports in Washington, D.C. 1921 establishments in Washington, D.C. 1941 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacius%20of%20Constantinople
Acacius of Constantinople
Acacius (?26 November 489) was the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 472 to 489. Acacius was practically the first prelate throughout the Eastern Orthodoxy and renowned for ambitious participation in the Chalcedonian controversy. Acacius advised the Byzantine emperor Zeno to issue the Henotikon edict in 482, in which Nestorius and Eutyches were condemned, the twelve chapters of Cyril of Alexandria accepted, and the Chalcedon Definition ignored. This effort to shelve the dispute over the Orthodoxy of the Council of Chalcedon was quite in vain. Pope Felix III saw the prestige of his see involved in this slighting of Chalcedon and his predecessor Leo's epistle. He condemned and deposed Acacius, a proceeding which the latter regarded with contempt, but which involved a schism between the two sees that lasted after Acacius's death. The Acacian schism lasted through the long and troubled reign of the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I, and was only healed by Justin I under Pope Hormisdas in 519. The Coptic Orthodox Church celebrates The Departure of St. Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople on the 30th of the Coptic month of Hatour. Early life and episcopate Acacius first appearers in authentic history as the orphanotrophos, or an official entrusted with the care of the orphans, in the Church of Constantinople, which he administered with conspicuous success. Suidas further describes Acacius as possessing an undoubtedly striking personality of making the most of his opportunities. He seems to have affected an engaging magnificence of manner; was openhanded; suave, yet noble, in demeanour; courtly in speech, and fond of a certain ecclesiastical display. His abilities attracted the notice of the Roman emperor Leo I, over whom he obtained great influence by the arts of an accomplished courtier, which led to his succession to the seat of Patriarch on the death of Gennadius in 471. The first five or six years of his episcopate were uneventful enough. Soon he involved in controversies, which lasted throughout his patriarchate, and ended in a schism of thirty-five years between the churches of the East and West. On the one side he laboured to restore unity to Eastern Orthodoxy, which was distracted by the varieties of opinion to which the Eutychian debates had given rise; and on the other to magnify the authority of his see by asserting its independence of Rome, and extending its influence over Alexandria and Antioch. In both respects he appears to have acted more in the spirit of a statesman than of a theologian; and in this relation the personal traits of liberality, courtliness, and ostentation, noticed by Suidas, are of worthy importance. Chalcedonian controversy Allied opposition against Basilicus and Timothy Aelerus The opposition was the first important measures earning Acacius the enthusiastic popular support and praise of Pope Simplicius. In conjunction with a Stylite monk, Daniel the Stylite, he placed himself at the head of the opposition to the usurped emperor Basiliscus. Timothy Aelerus, the Non-Chalcedonian patriarch of Alexandria under Basiliscus' protection since 476, had already induced Basiliscus to put forth an encyclical or imperial proclamation (egkyklios) condemning the teaching of the council of Chalcedon. Acacius himself seems to have hesitated at first about adding his name to the list of the Asiatic bishops who had already signed the encyclical; but, warned by a letter from Pope Simplicius, who had learned of his questionable attitude from the ever-vigilant monastic party, he reconsidered his position and threw himself violently into the debate. This sudden change of front redeemed him in popular estimation, and he won the regard of the Chalcedonian party, particularly among the various monastic communities throughout the East, by his now ostentatious concern for sound doctrine. Even Pope Simplicius wrote him a letter of commendation. The chief circumstance to which Acacius owed this sudden wave of popularity was the adroitness with which he succeeded in putting himself at the head of the particular movement of which Daniel the Stylite was both the coryphaeus and the true inspirer. The agitation was, of course, a spontaneous one on the part of its monastic promoters and of the populace at large, who sincerely detested Eutychian theories of the Incarnation; but it may be doubted whether Acacius, either in Chalcedonian opposition now, or in efforts at compromise later on, was anything profounder than a politician seeking to compass his own personal ends. Of theological principles he seems never to have had a consistent grasp. He had the soul of a gamester, and he played only for influence. Basiliscus was beaten. Basiliscus withdrew his offensive encyclical by a counter-proclamation, but his surrender did not save him. In the meantime the emperor Zeno, a fugitive up to the time of the Acacian opposition, reclaimed the throne which he had lost; and Basiliscus, after abject and vain concessions to the ecclesiastical power, was given up to him (as tradition says) by Acacius, after he had taken sanctuary in his church in 477. At this moment the relations between Zeno, Acacius, and Simplicius appear to have been amicable. They agreed on the necessity of taking vigorous measures to affirm the decrees of the council of Chalcedon, and for a time acted in concert. Disputes over Peter Mongus and John Talaia In 479 Acacius consecrated a Patriarch of Antioch, and thus exceeded the proper limits of his jurisdiction. However, Pope Simplicius admitted the appointment on the plea of necessity. Trouble soon broke out of all dimensions when the Non-Chalcedonian party of Alexandria attempted to force Peter Mongus into that see against John Talaia in 482. Simplicus protested against Peter Mongus's appointment as patriarch, because of his role in the Non-Chalcedonian party of Alexandria, siding with John Talaia. Both aspirants lay open to grave objections. Mongus was, or at least had been, Non-Chalcedonian; John Talaia was bound by a solemn promise to the Emperor not to seek or (as it appears) accept the Patriarchate. Talaia at once sought and obtained the support of Simplicius, and slighted Acacius. Mongus represented to Acacius that he was able, if confirmed in his post, to heal the divisions caused by the dispute. This time events gave Acacius the opportunity he seems to have been long waiting for—to claim a primacy of honour and jurisdiction over the entire East, which would emancipate the bishops of the capital not only from all responsibility to the sees of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, but to the Roman Pontiff as well. Acacius, who had now fully ingratiated himself with Zeno, suggested the emperor to take sides with Mongus in spite of the vehement opposition of Simplicius. Acacius counteracted by sending envoys to discuss the terms of reunion for all churches of the East. Henotikon Edict and the Acacian Schism Shortly afterwards Acacius drawn up a document, or series of articles, which constituted at once both a creed and an instrument of reunion, as his measure to claim jurisdiction over the entire East. This creed, known to theology as the Henotikon, was originally directed to the irreconcilable factions in Egypt. It was a plea for reunion on a basis of reticence and compromise. And under this aspect it suggests a significant comparison with another and better known set of "articles" composed nearly eleven centuries later, when the leaders of the Anglican schism were threading a careful way between the extremes of Roman teaching on the one side and of Lutheran and Calvinistic negations on the other. The Henotikon edict in 482 affirmed the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (i.e. the Creed of Nicaea completed at Constantinople) as affording a common, final and united symbol or expression of faith. All other symbola or mathemata were excluded; Eutyches and Nestorius were unmistakably condemned in an anathema, while the twelve chapters of Cyril of Alexandria were accepted. The teaching of Chalcedon was not so much repudiated as passed over in silence; Jesus Christ was described as the "only-begotten Son of God ... one and not two" and there was no explicit reference to the two natures. Peter Mongus naturally accepted the Henoticon and was hence confirmed in his see. John Talaia refused to subscribe to it and retired to Rome (482–483), where his cause was taken up with great vigour by letters of Pope Simplicius urging Acacius to check the progress of heresy elsewhere and at Alexandria. The letters were futile, and Simplicius died soon afterwards. His successor, Pope Felix III zealously espoused the cause of Talaia and despatched two bishops, Vitalis and Misenus, to Constantinople with letters to Zeno and Acacius, demanding that the latter should repair to Rome to answer the charges brought against him by Talaia (Felix, Epp. 1, 2). The mission utterly failed. Vitalis and Misenus were induced to communicate (i.e., to receive Holy Communion) publicly with Acacius and the representatives of Mongus, and returned embarrassingly to Italy in 484. On their arrival at Rome an indignant synod was held. They were themselves deposed and excommunicated; a new anathema was issued against Mongus, and Acacius was irrevocably excommunicated for his connection with Mongus, for exceeding the limits of his jurisdiction, and for refusing to answer at Rome the accusations of Talaia; but no direct heretical opinion was proved or urged against him. Acacius was branded by Pope Felix as one who had sinned against the Holy Spirit and apostolic authority (Habe ergo cum his ... portionem S. Spiritus judicio et apostolica auctoritate damnatus); and he was declared to be perpetually excommunicated (nunquamque anathematis vinculis exuendus). Felix communicated the sentence to Acacius, and at the same time wrote to Zeno, and to the church at Constantinople, charging every one, under pain of excommunication, to separate from the deposed patriarch. Another envoy, named Tutus, was sent to carry the decree of this double excommunication to Acacius in person. Acacius refused to accept the documents brought by Tutus and showed his sense of the authority of the Roman See, and of the synod which had condemned him, by erasing the name of Pope Felix from the diptychs. For the rest, the threats of Felix produced no practical effect. The Eastern Christians, with very few exceptions, remained in communion with Acacius. Talaia equivalently gave up the fight by consenting to become Bishop of Nola; and Zeno and Acacius took active measures to obtain the general acceptance of the Henoticon throughout the East. According to some (and probably biased) sources, Acacius began a brutal policy of violence and persecution, directed chiefly against his old opponents the monks, to work with Zeno for the general adoption of the Henoticon. The condemnation of Acacius, which had been made in the name of the Pope, was repeated in the name of the council of Chalcedon, and the schism was complete in 485. Acacius took no heed of the sentence up to his death in 489, which was followed by that of Mongus in 490, and of Zeno in 491. Fravitas (Flavitas, Flavianus), his successor, during a very short patriarchate, entered on negotiations with Felix, which resulted in nothing. The policy of Acacius broke down when he was no longer able to animate it. In a few years all his labour was undone. The Henoticon failed to restore unity to the East, and in 519 the Byzantine emperor Justin I submitted to Pope Hormisdas, and the condemnation of Acacius was recognized by the church of Constantinople. References Attribution: Bibliography Dietmar W. Winkler: Acacius of Constantinople, in: David G. Hunter, Paul J.J. van Geest, Bert Jan Lietaert Peerbolte (eds.): Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000027 5th-century patriarchs of Constantinople 489 deaths Ancient Christians involved in controversies Year of birth unknown Orphanotrophoi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Bulldogs
Boston Bulldogs
The Boston Bulldogs can refer to the following sports teams: Boston Bulldogs (AFL), a professional American football team that was a member of the first American Football League in 1926 Boston Bulldogs (NFL), a professional American football team that was originally the Pottsville Maroons, playing in Boston in 1929 Boston Bulldogs (soccer), a professional football (soccer) team that started as the Worcester Wildfire in 1997 and competed in the A-League and the USL Pro Soccer League Boston Bulldogs (ice hockey), a former American Tier III Junior A ice hockey team that competed in the Atlantic Junior Hockey League Boston Bulldogs (WBCBL), a professional women's basketball team and member of the Women's Blue Chip Basketball League whose name was changed from Boston Bombers after the Boston Marathon bombing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20bears
List of fictional bears
This is a list of fictional bears that appear in video games, film, television, animation, comics and literature. This also includes pandas, but not the unrelated red panda species. The list is limited to notable, named characters. This list is a subsidiary to the List of fictional animals article. Animation Comics Film and television Literature Video games Mascots Avalanche the Golden Bear, the official mascot of the Golden Bears of Kutztown University of Pennsylvania Baerenmarken (Nestle Bear Brand) (de), the mascot for , a German milk and dairy products company. Bananas T. Bear, the official mascot of the University of Maine Bandabi, the mascot of the 2018 Winter Paralympic games Bely Mishka, one of 3 mascots of the 2014 Winter Olympics Berlino, the mascot of the 2009 World Championships in Athletics Billy Bob Brockali, was the mascot of ShowBiz Pizza Place and was the bass & vocals of the band for the show The Rock-afire Explosion before it re-branded to Chuck E. Cheese's. Bing Dwen Dwen, the mascot of the 2022 Winter Olympics Blue, the official mascot of Labatt Brewing Company Boomer, the official mascot of Lake Forest College Boomer, the official mascot of Missouri State University Broxi Bear, official mascot of Rangers Football Club Bruiser, the official mascot of Baylor University Bruiser, the official mascot of Belmont University Bruno, the official mascot of Brown University Brutus the Bruin Bear, the official mascot Salt Lake Community College Bundy R. Bear, official mascot of Bundaberg Rum The Care Bears, greeting card mascots Carlton the Bear, the official mascot of the Toronto Maple Leafs The Charmin Bears, the mascot family of bears for Charmin Clark, official team mascot of the Chicago Cubs Clutch, the official mascot for the Houston Rockets Coal, one of 3 mascots of the 2002 Winter Olympics Comet, the official mascot of Concordia University Cooper, the official mascot for the West Virginia Black Bears Cresta, the official mascot for Cresta General, the official mascot of Georgia Gwinnett College George, the bear in the British Hofmeister Beer commercials of the 1980s. "For great lager, follow the bear" Golden Bear, the official mascot for Miles College Golden Bear, the official mascot for Western New England University The Gomdoori, 2 Asian black bear mascots of the 1988 Summer Paralympic games Griz, the official mascot for Franklin College Grizz Also Super Grizz, from the Memphis (Vancouver) Grizzlies Grizz, official mascot of Oakland University Grizzlies, official mascot of Adams State University Grizzly, official mascot of Butler Community College The Grupo Bimbo mascot Hamm's Beer bear and its wife, Harley bear Hidy, one of 2 mascots of the 1988 Winter Olympics Howdy, one of 2 mascots of the 1988 Winter Olympics The Icee Company Bear Jazz Bear, the official mascot of the Utah Jazz John Lewis bear, mascot for the 2013 Christmas Advert by the John Lewis chain of department stores in Great Britain. Jingjing, one of 5 mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics Klawz Da Bear, the official mascot of the University of Northern Colorado Kumamon, mascot of Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan Max C Bear, the official mascot of the State University of New York at Potsdam Miga, one of 3 mascots of the 2010 Winter Olympics Misha, the mascot of the 1980 Summer Olympics Monte, the official mascot of the University of Montana Nanook, one of two mascots for the Edmonton Eskimos NYIT Bear, the official mascot of the New York Institute of Technology Objee, the official mascot of the United States Coast Guard Academy Oski the Bear, the official mascot of the University of California, Berkeley Parker T. Bear, the mascot for the Fresno Grizzlies Phineas T. Brizzly, the mascot for Brizzly Polar Bear, the official mascot of Fox's Glacier Mints Polar Bear, the official mascot of the Bowdoin College Polar Bear, the official mascot of the Ohio Northern University Polar Bear, the official mascot of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. AKA Nanook Pom-Bear, the teddy shaped potato snack mascot Populoso, the official mascot of the Puerto Rico Islanders Pudsey Bear, the official mascot of Children in Need Ranger D. Bear, the official mascot of the University of Wisconsin–Parkside Scotty the Bear, the official mascot of the University of California, Riverside Smokey Bear, mascot of the U.S. Forest Service, based on a real orphaned bear cub also named Smokey Snuggle, the fabric softener bear (known as Coccolino in other regions) Staley Da Bear, the official mascot of the Chicago Bears Sugar Bear, mascot for General Foods Corporation's Post Sugar Crisp cereal T. C., the official mascot for the Minnesota Twins The Great Root Bear and its wife, Rosie Bear - Corporate mascots for A&W Root Beer Toby, the official mascot of Mercer University Touchdown, the official mascot of Cornell University. AKA Cornell Big Red United Buddy Bears initiated by Klaus and Eva Herlitz Victor E. Bear, the official mascot of the University of Central Arkansas Myth and folklore Callisto Drop bear Golden Bear Jambavan Jean de l'Ours Nandi bear Otso Ungnyeo Ursa Major Ursa Minor Other The animatronic cast of the Country Bear Jamboree attraction, found at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom and Tokyo Disneyland Beach Bear, was the guitar and vocals of the band for the show The Rock-afire Explosion before it re-branded to Chuck E. Cheese's. Boof, a teddy bear belly heart in Suzy's Zoo Choo-choo, a baby black bear that was part of the Rock-afire Explosion. He doesn't speak and would just he pop out of his tree stump and bounce up and down to the music. Duffy, originally created for and briefly sold at the Disney World Once Upon a Toy shop in Orlando in 2002 but now can be found at the Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland and Disney California Adventure Park in California, Walt Disney World in Florida, Hong Kong Disneyland and Disneyland Paris, is Mickey's huggable bear Fuzzy Wuzzy, subject of a well-known rhyme of the same name Gloomy Bear, character from Japanese graphic designer Mori Chack. Gloomy, an abandoned little bear, is rescued by Pitty, a little boy. At first, he is cute and cuddly, but becomes more wild as he grows up. Since bears do not become attached to people like dogs by nature, Gloomy attacks Pitty even though he is the owner. Pedobear is an Internet meme that became popular through the imageboard 4chan. As the name suggests ("pedo" being short for "pedophile"), it is portrayed as a pedophilic bear. It is a concept used to mock pedophiles or people who have any sexual interest in children or jailbait. The bear image has been likened to bait, used to lure children or as a mascot for pedophiles References Notes Bears Bears Bears, fictional
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottsville%20Maroons
Pottsville Maroons
The Pottsville Maroons were an American football team based in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, in the Northeastern part of the state. Founded in 1920, they played in the National Football League (NFL) from 1925 to 1928. In 1929 they relocated to Boston, where they played one season as the Boston Bulldogs. The team was founded as the Pottsville Eleven, an independent team playing in the local eastern Pennsylvania circuit. Home games were played at Minersville Park, a high school stadium in nearby Minersville. They joined the local Anthracite League in 1924, the same year they adopted the "Maroons" nickname, and won the league title. The next season they joined the NFL under owner John G. Streigel. Though dominant on the field, a controversial suspension cost them the 1925 NFL Championship. They were reinstated the following year, but after two successive losing seasons in 1927 and 1928, Streigel sold the Maroons to a group in Boston, where they played one season before folding. 1925 was their best season. The 1928 roster included three future Pro Football Hall of Fame members – Johnny "Blood" McNally, Walt Kiesling, and coach Wilbur "Pete" Henry – but posted the worst record in franchise history. Writer John O'Hara, who would go on to become a world-famous novelist with Appointment in Samarra, covered the team for the local newspaper, the Pottsville Republican. History Origins Like other coal towns in eastern Pennsylvania, Pottsville had been fielding football teams from at least the 1910s. The team that became the Maroons was established in 1920 as the Pottsville Eleven, and had a roster mostly made up of firemen from the Yorkville Hose Company. The team was initially unaffiliated with any league, playing on the independent circuit against other teams from the coal mining towns of eastern Pennsylvania. In 1922 the team attracted the sponsorship of area businessmen Harold Kingsbury, Irvin Heinz and Frank Schoeneman, who brought in talented professional players such as Carl Beck, Benny Boynton and Stan Cofall. Still, the team maintained a strong local presence by recruiting many Pottsville natives to its roster. The result was a team with consistent winning records and strong crowds. Anthracite League In 1924 local surgeon John G. "Doc" Striegel purchased the Pottsville Eleven for $1,500. That year teams in the local circuit decided to form a league, which became known as the Anthracite League. This was also the year the team adopted the Maroons name; according to legend, the team placed an order for new football jerseys with local sporting goods supplier Joe Zacko, telling him that the color was not important. Zacko sent them twenty-five maroon jerseys, giving birth to the name. During the 1924 Anthracite League season, the Maroons added three members of the NFL's 1923 Canton Bulldogs championship team to their roster. These players were Larry Conover, Harry Robb and future Hall of Fame inductee Wilbur "Pete" Henry. NFL President Joseph Carr was not pleased to see stars like Henry deserting the league to play for an independent coal region team, but there was little he could do about it unless Pottsville joined the league. A suit filed by Henry's former NFL team was thrown out on a technicality by a Pennsylvania judge. The Maroons then posted a 6–0–1 record against Anthracite League teams and clinched the league title that November with a victory over Coaldale. Immediately after winning the Anthracite League title, the Maroons issued challenges to both the NFL champion Cleveland Bulldogs and the Frankford Yellow Jackets, who claimed the Eastern professional championship. When neither team accepted, Striegel scheduled a game with the NFL's Rochester Jeffersons, who had not beaten an NFL opponent since 1921. These two teams met in a season finale on the last Sunday of November. Rochester managed to defeat Pottsville 10–7, giving the Maroons their only loss of the season. However Pottsville ended its 1924 season with an overall record of 12–1–1, scoring 288 points and allowing only 17 while capturing the Anthracite League title. NFL The Anthracite League collapsed after the season, but Striegel and the Maroons were undeterred. They applied for, and received, a franchise in the NFL. This was somewhat unusual, as the team's Minersville Park was a relatively small high school field; the league administration may have been attracted by the favorable logistics of a second team near the Frankford Yellow Jackets in Philadelphia. Pennsylvania's blue laws, which prohibited football on Sundays in Philadelphia, were simply not followed in Pottsville, allowing traveling teams to play the Yellowjackets on a Saturday and then head to Pottsville on Sunday. Since many Maroons players moved back to their NFL teams in 1925, the Maroons recruited several talented players to replace them. These included former Army great Walter French and Jack Ernst, a quarterback from Lafayette College. Another Army recruit, end Eddie Doyle, later served in World War II and was the first American killed in the landings in North Africa. Topping this collection of stars was Charlie Berry, possibly the best athlete on the team; after a spectacular athletic career at Lafayette College, he signed both pro baseball and pro football contracts. However, this strong talent was expensive, and difficult to make up even with sellout crowds at little Minersville Park. During this time the Maroons insisted that their players live in the Pottsville area. During the 1920s most players had to travel great distances from their homes and only joined their teams on game day. By having the players live in Pottsville, coach and former Colgate University assistant Dick Rauch instituted regular practices for his players. This helped the Maroons to a 28–0 win over the Buffalo Bisons in their first NFL game. When not practicing, the Maroons spent their days hanging around the fire house, drinking Yuengling, playing cards and tossing footballs in the street. The Maroons then jumped out to a 9–1–1 record. However some believe that having visiting teams play Frankford the day before the Maroons benefited the team. Pottsville was 5–1–0 in their six games against teams that played the Yellow Jackets the previous day. On the first snap of the game against the Chicago Bears, the Pottsville players knocked football legend Red Grange out cold. Grange soon recovered from the hit, only to be knocked out again. Immediately Grange said "The hell with (the $500 owed to him for the one game), it ain't worth it." He then proceeded to walk off the field. The team's only loss in 1925 came from a 20–0 upset to the Yellow Jackets. However, in the second meeting of the two teams, the Maroons beat Frankford 49–0. By this point in the season, Pottsville and the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals) were the two top teams in the league, having comparable records. At the time, the NFL Championship went to the team with the best record against other NFL teams. As such, the match-up between the two was of great importance. The Maroons met the Cardinals in late November near the end of the season for a game at Chicago's Comiskey Park, under snowy conditions. The Maroons won the game 21–7, thereby putting them ahead of the Cardinals in the championship race. 1925 NFL Championship controversy Before the season ended, however, the Maroons were suspended by NFL commissioner Joseph Carr, thus denying them the championship title. This has been the subject of controversy ever since. Earlier in the year, the Frankford Yellow Jackets had scheduled an exhibition game between a team of former University of Notre Dame stars and the best NFL team in the east. As the NFL's dominant eastern team at the time, they believed they themselves would get to play the potentially lucrative match against the "Notre Dame All-Stars". However, when Pottsville later pulled ahead in the standings, they won the right to play the All-Stars. As Pottsville's Minersville Park was a high school stadium with a capacity of only around 6,000, team owner John Streigel booked the much larger Shibe Park in Philadelphia for the big game. Philadelphia, though, was within the Yellow Jackets' designated territory, and Frankford complained to the league. Commissioner Carr warned Streigel several times that Pottsville's franchise would be suspended if they played in Philadelphia. Not wanting to give up on a potential financial windfall for his team, Streigel went ahead with the game. He would later claim he had received verbal permission from the NFL by telephone, though he gave inconsistent responses as to which official he had spoken to. The Maroons won the game 9–7, which was considered a major win for professional football, but the match only attracted about 8,000 fans, a major financial disappointment. As threatened, Carr suspended Pottsville and removed them from the NFL, preventing them from finishing their schedule. Meanwhile, Chicago Cardinals owner Chris O'Brien hastily scheduled two games against the Hammond Pros and the Milwaukee Badgers, both of whom had already disbanded for the season. O'Brien's intention appears not to have been to secure the championship, but to improve their record so as to entice the Chicago Bears and their star Red Grange into one last game. The game against the Badgers spurred a scandal of its own, when the Badgers filled out their roster with four high school players, in contravention of NFL rules. Both teams were sanctioned by the league. Regardless, with Pottsville out of the league, the Cardinals had the best record, and were awarded the championship by the league. For his part, O'Brien refused to accept the title, and afterward the league never officially awarded it at all. Later both the franchise and the NFL would claim the Cardinals as the 1925 champions. The Cardinals did not attempt to publicly take credit for the title until 1933, when it was acquired by Charles Bidwill whose descendants still own the modern-day franchise (since relocated to St. Louis and now Arizona). The Cardinals have won only one further NFL title, in 1947, leading to discussion that the franchise is "cursed" as a result of the debacle. Return to the NFL The NFL reinstated the Maroons the very next season. The league feared that the Maroons would jump to the threatening American Football League. In 1926 Red Grange and his manager C. C. Pyle wanted an NFL franchise in New York City. However, that move would have infringed on the territorial rights of the New York Giants. Pyle and Grange were turned down, so they decided to start their own league, the AFL. To keep independent teams from joining Grange's league, the NFL hastily expanded to 22 franchises. The Maroons were one of the teams added, or in this case reinstated. That year the Maroons were once again in the thick of title contention until late in the season. Pottsville's shutout victories over the Buffalo Rangers and Akron Indians led to the team finishing with a 10–2–1 record and third place in the final standings. 1926 also saw the signing of George Kenneally, a rookie out of St. Bonaventure University, who earned all-pro status and was named team captain in just his second season, and would later become part owner of the club. However, towards the end of the season, the Maroons management struggled to meet its financial obligations, and there were published reports of a strike among the team's players. The 1927 season saw a decline in the team's on-field performance. Pottsville lost several of its stars, and others were growing older, and finished the season with a disappointing 5–8–0 record. Doc Striegel relinquished operational control of the team for the 1928 season by "loaning" it to a group of three players: Herb Stein, Pete Henry and Duke Osborn. Henry took over the coaching reins but the downward spiral continued. The Maroons ended what turned out to be their final season in Pottsville with a dismal 2–8–0 record. At the end of the season the players were given a small football made of anthracite coal, a memento of the last season played in Pottsville. Boston Bulldogs Striegel sold the club during the offseason to a New England-based partnership that included Maroons' standout, George Kenneally. The new owners relocated the franchise to Boston prior to the 1929 season, where it was renamed the Bulldogs. The Bulldogs would be the first of a string of unsuccessful attempts at establishing an NFL team in Massachusetts and would be followed by the Boston Redskins in the 1930s and the Boston Yanks in the 1940s. Not until the American Football League's Patriots (established in 1960) joined the NFL in 1970 would the league be able to establish a permanent presence in New England's most populous market (and even that team required a hostile takeover to prevent being relocated in the 1990s). Six veteran Maroons players made the move with the team. Dick Rauch also returned to the fold, resuming his position as head coach. Based at Boston's Braves Field, the Bulldogs nonetheless had a two-game swan song in their old stomping grounds, defeating both the Buffalo Bison on October 27 at Minersville Park and the Orange Tornadoes on October 29 at Mitchell Field. The team folded at season's end with a 4–4–0 record. Because the Washington Commanders began in 1932 as the Boston Braves, some Pottsville backers, with help from a few writers, have suggested that the team descended from the Maroons by way of the Boston Bulldogs. The 1932 Boston franchise, however, had no relationship to the 1929 Bulldogs (that team instead descended from the Tornadoes, by way of the 1931 Cleveland Indians). Today In 1963, the NFL created a special committee to investigate the 1925 controversy. The committee brought the Maroons' claim to a team owners meeting that year, where the owners voted 12–2 in favor of keeping the championship with the Cardinals. That same year, the surviving members of the Maroons carved their own championship trophy out of coal, and presented it to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, where it can be seen today. The 1925 Maroons have since been immortalized in Pottsville, where there are bars and establishments bearing the team's name, and an inspirational picture of the 1925 "World Champion" team is displayed in the high school football team's locker room. In 2003, the NFL decided to address, via a vote during an owners meeting on whether the league should re-examine the case regarding the 1925 championship; in October, the NFL voted 30–2 not to reopen the case. Thus, the Cardinals are still listed as the 1925 NFL champions. Today, the people of Pottsville still embrace the legacy of the Maroons. The town contains the headquarters of the Pottsville Maroons Memorial Committee, whose job it is to keep alive the spirit of Pottsville's only big-league sports franchise. In Pottsville, there was a major push led by Mayor John D.W. Reiley to restore the Maroons' 1925 title. The owner of a local embroidery shop still makes Maroons T-shirts and distributes them to residents and fans. In 2003, Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell got involved in the Pottsville-NFL debate, lobbying NFL owners and asking city and borough councils across the state to lobby the league to restore the Maroons' title. Despite the long-time backing of Bears founder George Halas, Steelers founder Art Rooney and, more recently, Steelers chairman Dan Rooney, Philadelphia Eagles owner Jeff Lurie, the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and former commissioner Paul Tagliabue, the NFL's other owners, led, not surprisingly, by the Cardinals, still continue to vote this down (30–2). Also in 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush spoke on the subject. According to an article in ESPN the Magazine, Bush sent a handwritten note to ESPN calling the Maroons' case "illuminating." After a 2003 vote in favor of keeping the 1925 title with the Cardinals, Rendell wrote an angry letter to Tagliabue, calling the NFL owners a group of "cowardly barons". Rendell berated the National Football League, and declared he would have no more communication with league officials until they granted the Pottsville Maroons the 1925 title. The governor ended the letter saying, "I am closing with the wish that every NFL franchise except for the Eagles and the Steelers lose large quantities of money". In 2006 David Fleming authored the book Breaker Boys: The NFL's Greatest Team and the Stolen 1925 Championship. In 2008, USA Today statistician Jeff Sagarin analyzed the two teams' statistics, including considerations for strength of schedule to determine which was the better team in 1925. The results showed the Maroons as the better team to the second-place Cardinals. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season by season References Pottsville Maroons Sports Bar – Maroons history as told by the owner. Pottsville Maroons, Ghosts of the Gridiron Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League () 1925 Pottsville Maroons, Professional Football Reference (URL last accessed September 30, 2006) 1925 Chicago Cardinals, Professional Football Reference (URL last accessed September 30, 2006) Pottsville Maroons, Professional Football Reference "Lost in Time" by David Fleming Notes American football teams established in 1920 American football teams disestablished in 1929 Defunct National Football League teams History of Pennsylvania Defunct American football teams in Pennsylvania Anthracite League teams Pottsville, Pennsylvania 1920 establishments in Pennsylvania 1929 disestablishments in Massachusetts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange/Newark%20Tornadoes
Orange/Newark Tornadoes
The Orange Tornadoes and Newark Tornadoes were two manifestations of a long-lived professional American football franchise that existed in some form from 1887 to 1941 and from 1958 to 1970, having played in the American Amateur Football Union from 1888 to 1895, the National Football League from 1929 to 1930, the American Association from 1936 to 1941, the Atlantic Coast Football League from 1963 to 1964 and 1970, and the Continental Football League from 1965 to 1969. The team was based for most of its history in Orange, New Jersey, with many of its later years in Newark. Its last five seasons of existence were as the Orlando Panthers, when the team was based in Orlando, Florida. The NFL franchise was sold back to the league in October 1930. The team had four head coaches in its two years in the NFL – Jack Depler in Orange, and Jack Fish, Al McGall and Andy Salata in Newark. History Early years The Orange Tornadoes can trace their roots back to the Orange Athletic Club. The Orange A.C. was originally an amateur football team that began play in 1887. The team's first ever game was a 36–0 loss to the Seton Hall University football team. By the 1890s the Orange became a semi-pro team. In 1892, the team practiced under electric lights at night to prepare for an October 8 game against Rutgers College. The Orange A. C. would go on to win that game 22–10. In 1893, the team won the American Football Union Championship, after posting an 8–2 record. In 1902, the Orange A. C. played against Philadelphia Phillies and the Philadelphia Athletics of the first National Football League. The team also played in World Series of Football in that year, at Madison Square Garden. In 1902, Orange lost to All-Syracuse, 36–0. However, the team returned to the World Series of Football in 1903, when they played the Watertown Red & Black and the eventual champion, the Franklin Athletic Club. Orange lost to Watertown, 11–0, and to Franklin, 12–0. However, it did manage to defeat the Oreo Athletic Club of Asbury Park, 22–0. Pre-NFL The Orange team became an established independent pro team from 1919 until 1928, under the nickname the Orange AC Golden Tornadoes. During this time, Orange defeated the New York Brickley Giants of the NFL. They also played pre-NFL versions of the Frankford Yellow Jackets and the Staten Island Stapletons. They also played against the Atlantic City Roses and the Millville Big Blue, two of the top independent teams of the 1920s. By 1928, Orange held the New York Giants and Frankford Yellow Jackets to close scores. On September 16, 1928 Orange held the 1927 NFL Champion New York Giants to just a 7–0 victory. A week earlier the NFL's previous champions, the Frankford Yellow Jackets, were held to a 12–0 victory. Orange showed that their team could compete in the NFL. While the Golden Tornadoes played in Orange, a separate Newark Bears played in the original American Football League in the 1926 season in Newark, unrelated to the Tornadoes team that would later take on that identity. That Newark Bears club was later absorbed into the Staten Island Stapletons. 1929 season In 1929 Ole Haugsrud, the owner of Duluth Eskimos, sold his NFL franchise rights for the Eskimos to Piggy Simandl, a wholesale meat salesman and sports promoter from Orange, who named his franchise the Orange Tornadoes. The Tornadoes played their home games at Knights of Columbus Stadium. The first game for the new team was a scoreless tie against the New York Giants on September 29, 1929. A week later the team recorded its first NFL win by defeating the Boston Bulldogs 7–0. The victory came off a short George Pease pass to Paul Longua, who ran 60 yards for a touchdown. However, the following week, Orange experienced its first NFL loss in a 7–0 defeat to the 1928 NFL Champions, the Providence Steamroller. The team regrouped on October 19, 1929, and the Tornandoes held the Frankford Yellow Jackets to a 6–6 tie at Frankford Stadium. A week later the team rallied from a 13–0 deficit to defeat the Boston Bulldogs, 19–13. On October 29, 1929, the Bulldogs and Tornadoes met again to play, in Pottsville, Pennsylvania. Prior to 1929, the Bulldogs played as the Pottsville Maroons and the teams played for their still loyal fans at the Maroons' Minersville Park. This time however, the Tornadoes lost 6–0 by way of a 4-yard touchdown run from Boston's Tony Latone. On October 3, the Tornadoes held the Staten Island Stapletons to a scoreless tie at Thompson Stadium. During that game the Stapletons were within scoring distance three times, but to no avail. Meanwhile, the Tornadoes only penetrated the Staten Island 20-yard line once. The Orange then lost a rematch against the New York Giants, 22–0, a week later. But after a scoreless tie against Frankford, the Orange defeated the Staten Island Stapletons 3–0, due to a Felix McCormick field goal. However, the next game, against the Chicago Cardinals, resulted in a 26–0 Tornadoes loss. The Cardinals, led by Ernie Nevers, put up 20 points in the second quarter of the game. The Tornadoes then ended their 1929 season with a 10–0 loss to Frankford. They finished with a 3–5–4 record, scoring 35 points, while giving up 80. 1930 The team's fortune in the NFL changed for the worse after it moved to Newark in 1930. During the team's time in Newark, it played its home games at Newark Schools Stadium. Head coach Jack Depler defected to buy the Dayton Triangles, moving that team to Brooklyn and transforming that team into the Brooklyn Dodgers. He took most of the members of the 1929 Tornadoes with him. Meanwhile, the Tornadoes went through three coaches during the 1930 season, and the team's only victory during the 1930 season was against the Frankford Yellow Jackets. The last game for the Newark Tornadoes was against the New York Giants, a 34–7 loss on October 29, 1930. The franchise ended league play after the 1930 season and was sold back to the NFL. The league ordered the franchise sold to the highest bidder prior to the 1931 season, but there were no takers and the team took the field as the “Cleveland Indians” under league ownership. In 1932, a Boston-based group won a new NFL franchise and was awarded the remains of the failed Newark organization. The new team would be named the Boston Braves, now the Washington Commanders. However, the NFL does not consider Washington to be a continuation of the Tornadoes, just as it does not consider the Tornadoes to be a continuation of the Duluth Eskimos. Tornadoes and Bears in the American Association Though the NFL franchise had moved to Newark, owner Edwin Simandl had kept a barebones organization back in Orange, just in case the NFL Tornadoes failed. When they did, he moved as many players as he could from the Newark squad back to Orange. The minor league Tornadoes played in various leagues, including the American Association, of which it was a charter member. The Orange Tornadoes moved back to Newark in 1937 and were eventually bought by the Chicago Bears. Playing under the name Newark Bears (a name previously used by the Newark Bears of the 1926 American Football League), the team played in the AA through 1941. The team did not return after World War II; instead, George Halas took what was left of the team and split it into the Newark Bombers and the Akron Bears. The Bloomfield Cardinals replaced both teams in 1947. The NFL severed ties with all minor league teams in 1948. Bears revived in the ACFL and Continental League The Newark Bears returned in 1963, when the Atlantic Coast Football League's Paterson Miners (a team that had been in operation since 1958 as the Franklin Miners) moved to Newark and took the Bears name. This version of the Bears was owned by Sol Rosen. In 1965, the team applied to the American Football League to join that league, but were turned down (as the New York metropolitan area already had both the Jets and NFL's Giants, both of which counted North Jersey as their market and would eventually move to New Jersey in later years), and instead joined the upstart Continental Football League, where it played one season in 1965 before moving to Orlando, Florida, and becoming the Orlando Panthers. The Panthers played in the ContFL from 1966 to the league's dissolution in 1969; it was consistently one of the most successful teams in that league. When the Continental Football League folded, the Bears returned to the ACFL, playing one more season in 1970. The Panthers were thrown out of the ACFL following the 1970 season, after the ownership group that bought the team attempted to cut the team's budget by simply not paying its expenses. Meanwhile, in New Jersey, the ACFL moved the former Charleston Rockets franchise to Newark in 1969, becoming the "Jersey Jays." The Jays played from 1969 to 1971. Uniforms In 1929, Orange experimented with using letters instead of numbers on player jerseys; Heinie Benkert, for example, wore the letter "C" on his uniform. Season-by-season A complete game-by-game record to 1937 can be found here. References Sources Pro-Football Reference HickokSports.com 1929 NFL season Orange Athletic Club of New Jersey: Complete Football Records In the Same League Uniform Numbers of the NFL Discussion of Newark and Orlando in the Continental Football League from the Professional Football Researchers Association American football teams established in 1929 American football teams disestablished in 1969 Defunct National Football League teams Sports in Newark, New Jersey Continental Football League teams World Series of Football (1902–03) Orange, New Jersey 1929 establishments in New Jersey 1969 disestablishments in Florida Athletic Club football teams and seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duluth%20Eskimos
Duluth Eskimos
The Duluth Eskimos were a professional football team from Duluth, Minnesota in the National Football League (NFL). After spending most of their time as a traveling team, they withdrew from the league after the 1927 season. A distinction of the Eskimos is they were one of the first NFL teams to use a logo. History Initial formation The team initially formed in 1923 as the Kelleys (officially the Kelley Duluths, after the Kelley-Duluth Hardware Store). The team joined the National Football League on July 28, 1923. The team was put together by Kelley-Duluth Hardware Store owner M. C. Gebert with the help of Dewey Scanlon, a college graduate who played football at Valparaiso University in Indiana. The Kelleys, residing in the northernmost city in the NFL at the time, had the disadvantage of not being able to play at home during late November and early December, due to the harsh winters in northern Minnesota. This meant that Duluth either played unusually short seasons (they played only 16 games in three years as the Kelleys—seven in 1923, six in 1924 and three in 1925) or had to play on the road (as the Eskimos did, which allowed them to have much longer schedules). Duluth's best season came in 1924, when the Kelleys went 5–1, putting the Kelleys in fourth place. Team renames The Kelleys lost their name sponsorship in 1926, but signed star running back Ernie Nevers. The team renamed themselves Ernie Nevers's Eskimos in response to these developments. The 1926 NFL season saw an increased emphasis on traveling teams: the Los Angeles Buccaneers represented the West Coast, the Louisville Colonels represented the Southeast, and the Buffalo Rangers represented Texas and the Desert Southwest. The Eskimos joined in on the trend, becoming a traveling team (assumably representing the far northern states) and allowing themselves to play a far longer season than the Kelleys did. After one home game at the beginning of the 1926 season, the Eskimos never played in Duluth again. The team finished in the middle of the NFL standings in 1926, prompting the Eskimos to continue the traveling team setup. In 1927, the results were far more negative: winning only one game. Owner Ole Haugsrud then sold the team back to the league at the end of the season. When Haugsrud did this, part of the deal gave him first rights for any future NFL team in Minnesota. He passed on buying a stake in the Minneapolis Red Jackets in 1929. However, when the NFL voted to expand in 1960 to the Twin Cities, Haugsrud was able to buy 10% of the Minnesota Vikings (90% of the team was owned by an ownership group that had originally planned to launch a separate team in the American Football League). Later years Due to various transactions, the Kelleys/Eskimos have a tenuous link to the modern NFL. Edwin Simandl, a promoter in Orange, New Jersey; bought the defunct franchise on July 27, 1929 for the 1929 season and used it to promote his decades-old Orange Tornadoes to the major leagues. The NFL, however, did not consider the Tornadoes to be the successors of the Eskimos. The Tornadoes moved to Newark for the 1930 season before going back to the minors. When Simandl handed the franchise rights back to the league, it was understood that the first new expansion team of the 1931 season would receive the Tornadoes' old franchise. Because of the Great Depression, no buyer was found, and the league ended up putting the franchise on the field as the Cleveland Indians under collective ownership. In 1932, a Boston group received the next expansion franchise; strong circumstantial evidence indicates that it was awarded the assets of the failed Tornadoes/Indians organization. This group used it to start the Boston Braves. In 1933, the team was renamed the Redskins, and in 1937 it moved to Washington, D.C. where it still plays as the Washington Commanders. However, due to the two-year period of dormancy, the Washington Commanders and the NFL consider the Boston/Washington franchise as a separate organization dating to 1932, and not as a continuation of the Tornadoes nor the Eskimos/Kelleys. A second, unrelated, Duluth football team carried the "Eskimos" name, and played at the Northwest Football League in 1936. Legacy The film Leatherheads is partially based on the story of the Duluth Eskimos. On May 18, 2015, local lawmakers of one town in the Duluth-Superior area passed a motion to bring the NFL back to the region via team relocation and also voted in favor of an outdoor football stadium despite no current means of financing it. It is unclear if their proposal was ever formally submitted to the NFL. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season References American football teams established in 1923 American football teams disestablished in 1927 Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Minnesota 1923 establishments in Minnesota 1927 disestablishments in Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menas
Menas
Menas, a male personal name, could refer to: People Menas, one of the seventeen representatives for Sparta to swear an oath for the Peace of Nicias Menas or Minas of Aksum, Ethiopian bishop (6th century) Menas of Ethiopia, Emperor of Ethiopia (1559–1563) Menas (freedman), a Roman admiral who served under Sextus Pompeius Saint Menas (disambiguation) Other A pirate in William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, based on the historical admiral Menas, Niger national football team nickname Menas or Meenas, a tribe of India See also Mena (disambiguation) Menes (disambiguation) Mina (disambiguation) Saint Menas (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menas%20of%20Constantinople
Menas of Constantinople
Menas (Minas) () (? – 25 August 552) considered a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, was born in Alexandria, and enters the records in high ecclesiastical office as presbyter and director of the Hospital of Sampson in Constantinople, where tradition has him linked to Saint Sampson directly, and in the healing of Justinian from the bubonic plague in 542. He was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I on 13 March, 536. Pope Agapetus I consecrated him to succeed Anthimus, who was condemned as a monophysite. This was first time that a Pope consecrated a Patriarch of Constantinople. At some date very soon after his election he received the order (keleusis) from the Emperor, whose text is not preserved, but which instructed him to call a synodos endemousa to examine the case of Anthimus, which would be heard at a series of five sessions, beginning on 2 May and ending 4 June 536. This Synod condemned Anthimus, as noted in Novel XLII from Justinian, addressed directly to Menas. Within this same effort from Justinian to seal the growing rift between the Patriarch in Constantinople and that of Jerusalem, Menas later took a position against Origen, a crisis merging into the Three-Chapter Controversy, an attempt to condemn the writings of certain Non-Chalcedonian figures. Because of these moves, he was excommunicated by Agapetus in 547 and in 551 for taking positions counter to those held by the Pope; but in both cases the sentence of excommunication was quickly lifted. Menas' patriarchy represents the greatest extent of papal influence in Constantinople. Almost immediately after the events of 536, which may be viewed as a Chalcedonian victory over monophysites, the ordination of an independent network of monophysite bishops would begin, leading eventually to the formation of a separate monophysite church, the still-existing Syrian Orthodox Church. Justinian and Mena's efforts for Church doctrinal unity would meet with failure. It was during his patriarchate that emperor Justinian's church of Hagia Sophia, then the largest building in the world and the seat of the Patriarchs, was consecrated. Also, in 551 the Emperor compelled Menas to call what would be the Fifth Ecumenical Council, to reconcile the Western and Eastern Churches around the Three Chapter Controversy, to be chaired ultimately by his successor Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople in 553. He died peacefully in 552. His feast day in both the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions is observed on August 25. References External links Saints from Constantinople Menas Year of birth missing 6th-century Christian saints Justinian I Ancient Alexandrians 552 deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Tigers
Chicago Tigers
The Chicago Tigers of the American Professional Football Association (APFA) played their first and only season in 1920, the first year of the league (1920), and have the distinction of being the first NFL team to fold. They had a record of 2 wins, 5 losses and 1 tie. The team played its home games at Chicago's Wrigley Field (then called Cubs Park) and was the first NFL team to do so. The Tigers were never formally members of the APFA. However, since the team played seven games against APFA teams in 1920, resulting in a 1–5–1 league record, they are generally included in the league standings. The franchise According to Emil Klosiinkski in the book, Pro Football in the Days of Rockne, the Tigers' main offensive weapon was their passing game. This specifically referred to the passes thrown by Johnny Barrett and Milt Ghee to Jack Meagher and Oscar Knop. On October 24, 1920, the Decatur Staleys (renamed the Chicago Bears in 1922) played a game against the Tigers at Cubs Park and billed it as "the season's most professional game" that would also determine the "pro title". Many Decatur games, at the time, were billed as championships in an attempt to lure crowds. The Staleys defeated the Tigers 10–0. Winner-take-all legend In 1920 the Tigers and Racine Cardinals were playing for the same Chicago fan dollar. Legend has it that the Cardinals' owner Chris O’Brien offered to play for the right to represent the city of Chicago in the APFA, and that Tigers’ owner Guil Falcon had agreed to the terms. The game resulted in a 6–3 Cardinals win, with Paddy Driscoll scoring the game's only touchdown on a 40-yard run. The Tigers finished the season with a 2–5–1 record and, as allegedly promised, dropped out of the league. However, there are three problems with this story: first, the Tigers played two more league games after losing to the Cardinals; second, O'Brien was willing to let the Decatur Staleys play in Chicago the following season (in fact, it was the Staleys that proved to be the Tigers' actual last league opponent); and third, there is no contemporary evidence for the challenge. According to the NFL, the Chicago Tigers folded between the 1920 and 1921 seasons. Season-by-season References Ziemba, Joe (1999). When Football Was Football: The Chicago Cardinals and the Birth of the NFL. Triumph Books. . NFL Franchise Chronology: Chicago Tigers Defunct National Football League teams American football teams established in 1920 American football teams disestablished in 1920 Tigers 1920 establishments in Illinois 1920 disestablishments in Illinois
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati%20Celts
Cincinnati Celts
The Cincinnati Celts (pronounced with a hard C) was the first professional football team to play in Cincinnati, Ohio. The team played in the unofficial "Ohio League" and the American Professional Football Association (renamed the National Football League in 1922). The Celts were a traveling team, playing all of their APFA games in other cities' stadia. In its only season in the APFA, 1921, the team had a record of 1–3. For the entire span of the team's existence, the Celts were coached by Mel Doherty, who was also the team's center. History Origins The Celts were established in 1910 as a semi-pro team made up primarily of players from Miami University in nearby Oxford. During the first 10 years of their existence, the team flourished while playing numerous semi-pro teams from Ohio. An early member of the squad, George Roudebush, referred to the team as being run “by a bunch of wild Irishmen.” In 1914, Lou Partlow played for the Celts. 1916 Pine Village game One of the greatest moments in the team's early existence came against a team from Pine Village, Indiana, in 1916. While Pine Village consisted of only 300 residents, it was the top team in Indiana before World War I, compiling a record of 12 undefeated seasons. In 117 games, the team had only one tie-game finish. Pine Village faced the Celts before a crowd of 2,500 people in nearby Lafayette. With Pine Village leading Cincinnati 6–2, the Celts were forced to punt. George Roudebush then lined up behind the punter. Under the rules of the time, anyone lining up behind the punter was eligible to recover the kick as a free ball. After the ball was kicked, Roudebush ran down the field. Pine Village, not wanting to touch the ball, was unaware that Roudebush was eligible to recover it. Roudebush recovered the ball in the Pine Village end zone, giving the Celts a 9–6 victory. NFL The Celts were not initially invited to join the new APFA when the league was formed in 1920. The team accepted an invitation the following year, but proved unable to compete against league foes, being outscored 117–14 in their only four league games. The team's only two touchdowns, and sole victory, came during a 14–0 shutout of the Muncie Flyers. The Celts also faced the 1920 APFA champion Akron Pros, Cleveland Tigers and the Evansville Crimson Giants, losing handily in each contest. The Celts finally withdrew from the league in 1922, just prior to it being renamed the National Football League. For many years, the NFL record book listed the Celts as having an APFA record of 0–8–0. After reviewing records from the era, the NFL corrected the standings. The team's finances were also troubling. Game attendance for the Celts never reached above 2,500 spectators. As a result of this and other financial issues, the Celts were unable to pay the nominal league fees. The Celts continued as an amateur team until 1923. Season-by-season External links Cincinnati Celts profile at Ohio History Central Cincinnati Celts 1921 overview at databaseFootball.com Baseball teams established in 1910 Baseball teams disestablished in 1923 1910 establishments in Ohio 1923 disestablishments in Ohio Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Cincinnati Ohio League teams Defunct American football teams in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati%20Reds%20%28NFL%29
Cincinnati Reds (NFL)
The Cincinnati Reds were a National Football League team that played the 1933 season and the first eight games of the 1934 season. The football Reds played most of their home games at Crosley Field. Other home games were played at Dayton's Triangle Park, Portsmouth's Universal Stadium and Xavier University's Corcoran Stadium in a rare night game against the Chicago Cardinals. The team was eventually suspended for failure to pay league dues during the 1934 season and the St. Louis Gunners, an independent team, replaced the Reds on the schedule for the last three games. The Reds hold the dubious distinction of having the two lowest officially recognized season scoring totals in NFL history. In 1933 they scored 38 points in 10 games, tying the 1942 Detroit Lions for second on that list. In 1934 the Reds and Gunners combined for only 37 points in 11 games with the Reds, themselves, scoring only 10 points in 8 games before their suspension. The franchise was shut out in 12 of its 18 games. By comparison, the 75 points scored by the Reds and Gunners in 21 games over two seasons only exceed the 73 points scored by the Chicago Bears in the 1940 NFL Championship Game by two, and by three the 72 points scored by the Washington Redskins on November 27, 1966, the record for points scored by a team in a regular season game. Further, the 1950 Los Angeles Rams averaged 38.83 points per game, the highest such average in NFL history. These records, however, only consider NFL seasons going back to 1932, the first year in which official statistical records were kept. Several teams failed to score at least 10 points in seasons of varying length (up to 8 games in some cases) between 1920 and 1931. Alvin J. Jolley was named the team's coach in the summer of 1933. Season-by-season References External links Cincinnati Reds American football teams established in 1933 Sports clubs disestablished in 1934 Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Cincinnati Defunct American football teams in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Louis%20Gunners
St. Louis Gunners
The St. Louis Gunners were an independent professional football team based in St. Louis, Missouri, that played the last three games of the 1934 National Football League season, replacing the Cincinnati Reds on the league schedule after the Reds' league membership was suspended. They won their first game against the Pittsburgh Pirates (now Steelers) 6–0, and lost the last two to the Detroit Lions (40–7) and the Green Bay Packers (21–14). Six of the Reds players joined the team for the last two games. The team was headquartered at the St. Louis National Guard Armory, which accounts for its nickname the 'Gunners'. History Origins In 1931, the 128th Field Artillery of the Missouri National Guard, announced through its spokesman that it would sponsor a team for the upcoming football season. The club was originally called the Batter A Gunners from its association with the Guard. Future Hall-of-Famer Jimmy Conzelman, was named the team's first head coach. Bud Yates was named the team's general manager. 1931–1933 The Gunners posted a 5–2–1 record in 1931. However, they lost to the NFL's Chicago Cardinals, 26–6. After the game, Cardinals captain, Ernie Nevers, called the Gunners the "best independent club we have ever faced." A game against a second NFL team, the New York Giants, was scheduled and later canceled that season, to avoid conflict with another game involving a team of Notre Dame All-Stars. For the team's second season, Bullet Baker was named the team's new coach. While most of the core of the team was kept intact, the Gunners brought in Dick Thornton and Mack Gladden from the University of Missouri. Meanwhile, Yates left the team for the season, for a position with the cross-town St. Louis Veterans. The 1932 Gunners posted a 7–4–1 record. The team was able to play its rival, the Memphis Tigers, to a standoff in three games, St. Louis winning 6–0, Memphis winning 12–0, and the third game ending in a scoreless tie. Later that year, the Tigers, Gunners and the Oklahoma City Chiefs each laid some claim to a mythical "independent championship,". Two of the team's losses that season came against NFL caliber opponents, the Cardinals, 20–7, and the Portsmouth Spartans, 12–0. By 1933, the team had been renamed the "St. Louis Gunners". Most of the ties the team had with the National Guard had been severed. For example, the players were no longer required to stay at the Battery A barracks, as they had in the past. Dick Frahm, Babe Lyon, and Charley Malone were signed from the Washington Redskins. The team posted an 11–2–3 record in 1933. That year it managed to defeat many of the NFL teams it faced. The Gunners defeated the NFL's Brooklyn Dodgers 21–2, and the Chicago Cardinals 28–7. The team also held the Chicago Bears to a scoreless tie. The team's only two NFL losses of the year came against the Green Bay Packers and the Cincinnati Reds. The team had also managed to outscore its opponents 297–72. Entry into the NFL On August 8, 1934, before the start of the NFL season, St. Louis purchased the NFL's Cincinnati Reds for $20,000. However, the Gunners needed the other league owners to approve the sale. Only then would the Gunners would be official members. On August 17, the other owners decided to reject the Gunners bid to buy the Reds, probably because St. Louis was considered to be too remote from the rest of the clubs, most of which were in the Northeast, and yearly trips there would have increased travel expenses. Meanwhile, the Gunners declined membership in the minor league American Football League. As a result, the new league decided to form the St. Louis Blues. Gunners GM Bud Yates was credited with founding the team. The Blues lured Dick Frahm away from the Gunners and even took over the lease of Public Schools Stadium. As a result, the Gunners moved their home games to Sportsman's Park. Meanwhile, Chile Walsh became the team's fourth head coach in four years. The Gunners started their 1934 season, 5–0 against several semi-pro teams. The team was searching desperately for decent teams to compete against. However, on November 6, 1934, the NFL finally approved the sale of the Cincinnati Reds to St. Louis for $20,000 – $30,000. The Gunners were now officially members of the NFL and were invited to play the Reds last 3 games of the 1934 NFL season. The Blues then moved to Kansas City two days later in order to avoid fighting the Gunners for control of the St. Louis fan base. 1934 NFL season The Gunners defeated their first NFL opponent, the Pittsburgh Pirates, 6–0. However, a week later they were defeated by the Detroit Lions 40–7. The team managed to defeat the Pirates again in a 10–0 rematch, but the game, scheduled while the Gunners were still playing independently, was subsequently ruled an exhibition. The Gunners lost to the Packers a week later, 21–14, before dropping another close game to the Dodgers 17–14. The Gunners ended their 1934 season with a 7–0 win over the Kansas City Blues. The team then moved to the rival American Football League where it folded after a season. Season results References American football teams established in 1931 Sports clubs disestablished in 1940 Defunct National Football League teams Gunners 1931 establishments in Missouri 1940 disestablishments in Missouri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound%20box
Sound box
A sound box or sounding box (sometimes written soundbox) is an open chamber in the body of a musical instrument which modifies the sound of the instrument, and helps transfer that sound to the surrounding air. Objects respond more strongly to vibrations at certain frequencies, known as resonances. The frequency and strength of the resonances of the body of a musical instrument have a significant impact on the tone quality it produces. The air inside the chamber has its own resonances, and these interact with the resonances of the body, altering the resonances of the instrument as a whole. The sound box typically adds resonances at lower frequencies, enhancing the lower-frequency response of the instrument. The distinctive sound of an instrument with a sound box owes a lot to the alteration made to the tone. A sound box is found in most string instruments. The most notable exceptions are some electrically amplified instruments like the solid body electric guitar or the electric violin, and the piano which uses only a sound board instead. Drumhead lutes such as the banjo or erhu have at least one open end of the sound box covered with animal skin (or a skin-like acrylic material). Open back banjos are normally used for clawhammer and frailing, while those used for bluegrass have the back covered with a resonator. In some arrangements, loudspeakers are also mounted on a sound box to enhance their output, particularly bass speakers. One notable example of this arrangement is called the bass reflex enclosure. However, in these cases the box resonance is carefully tuned so as to make the sound more equal across frequencies, rather than to impart a particular character to the reinforced sound. Acoustic guitar Basic physics of the violin Filter (signal processing) Frequency response Resonance chamber References String instrument construction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland%20Tigers%20%28NFL%29
Cleveland Tigers (NFL)
The Cleveland Tigers were the first Cleveland team franchise in what became the National Football League (NFL). The Tigers played in the "Ohio League" before joining the American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League in 1922) during the 1920 and 1921 seasons. History The Cleveland Indians football team was originally established in 1916 and played in the Ohio League. The team was formed after the Massillon Tigers raided the Akron Indians roster in 1915 and took away many of their star players. That year Peggy Parratt, the Akron Indians player-coach formed the Cleveland Indians with several former ex-Akron Indians players and a few new ex-college players. Despite a winning record, the 1916 Indians season was disappointing, losing twice to the Canton Bulldogs, who were led by Jim Thorpe, and splitting a pair of games with the Columbus Panhandles. In 1920, when owners of professional teams organized a more structured league, Jimmy O'Donnell, a local sports promoter, obtained the Cleveland franchise. O'Donnell, also the owner of a semi-pro baseball team called the Tigers, was aided in his football venture by Stan Cofall, a football star at Notre Dame from 1914 to 1916, and with the Massillon Tigers. Cofall helped re-organize the Cleveland team in 1919 and, along with O'Donnell attended the September 1920 meeting in Canton, Ohio that founded the American Professional Football Association, which became the NFL the following year. For the first half of the 1920 season, Cofall was the Tigers' player-coach; he was also elected vice-president of the new league. In their first season, the Cleveland Tigers scored only 2 touchdowns and lost 3 games by 7–0 scores, compiling a record of 1–4–2. For the 1921 season, the name of the team was changed to the Indians, partly because it was a stock name in Cleveland (a baseball team had also used the name since 1915) but more because three Native Americans were signed away from the Canton Bulldogs. In 1921 the Tigers returned with two future Hall of Famers, Joe Guyon and player-coach Jim Thorpe. The team won its first two games. However, during the team's second game, Thorpe injured his ribs and was lost for the season. The Tigers then narrowly lost the next four games. When Thorpe returned to action in a postseason game against the New York Brickley Giants in December, the Tigers were again victorious. Early in 1922, O'Donnell received league permission to suspend operations for a year, but when he could not post the $1,000 annual guarantee the NFL required, his franchise was canceled. Guyon and Thorpe went off to LaRue, Ohio to form the Oorang Indians. A new Indians franchise was later purchased by Samuel Deutsch who operated the team in 1923. He then relocated the Canton Bulldogs to Cleveland in 1924 and merged them with his Indians team. A third, unrelated Indians team also played in the NFL in 1931. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season External links Encyclopedia of Cleveland History American football teams established in 1916 American football teams disestablished in 1921 Defunct National Football League teams Ohio League teams Early professional American football teams in Ohio American football teams in Cleveland Defunct American football teams in Ohio 1916 establishments in Ohio 1921 disestablishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland%20Indians%20%28NFL%201931%29
Cleveland Indians (NFL 1931)
The Cleveland Indians were a professional football team in the National Football League for the 1931 season. The 1931 team was a league-sponsored club that played the majority of their games on the road. The NFL had acquired the franchise of the Orange/Newark Tornadoes when that team left the league after the 1930 season; the league intended to locate this team permanently in Cleveland with new ownership. Jerry Corcoran assumed ownership of the team on behalf of the NFL and assumed management of the team. Cleveland was chosen because of the recent construction of their brand-new Cleveland Stadium; at 83,000 seats, the massive stadium was by far the largest in the league, which was still regularly playing games in stadiums of under 10,000 fans in some of the smaller markets. However, game attendance for the Indians' two home games were nowhere near capacity (the home opener drew a mere 2,000 fans; the finale, a more respectable but still relatively small 10,000) and no suitable owner was found that would put the team in Cleveland, so the team's spot in the league was sold to George Preston Marshall, who established a team in Boston (later known as the Redskins) in the 1932 season. Among the games this incarnation of the Indians played was an exhibition against the Buffalo Bears in Buffalo, New York, a city that had lost their own NFL franchise, the Bisons, after the 1929 season. It would begin an extensive tradition of neutral-site NFL games in Buffalo that would last until the Buffalo Bills were established in 1960. Other Cleveland Indians teams in the NFL The "Indians" name was used previously for two other Cleveland-based NFL teams. They first use of the Indians name came in 1921, when the Cleveland Tigers became the "Cleveland Indians" before folding after the 1921 season. A second "Indians" NFL team arose in 1923. That team played as the "Indians" for the 1923 season before changing its name to the Cleveland Bulldogs in 1924. These three Cleveland teams are viewed as three totally different franchises by the NFL. The 1931 Indians would be followed in the city by the Cleveland Rams, who joined the NFL in 1937 after one season in the American Football League and played in Cleveland through the 1945 season. The Rams were followed by the Cleveland Browns in 1946, who played their first four seasons in the All-America Football Conference before joining the NFL in 1950. Season-by-season References American football teams established in 1931 Sports clubs disestablished in 1931 Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Cleveland Defunct American football teams in Ohio 1931 establishments in Ohio 1931 disestablishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel%20Doorman
Karel Doorman
Karel Willem Frederik Marie Doorman (23 April 1889 – 28 February 1942) was a Dutch naval officer who during World War II commanded remnants of the short-lived American-British-Dutch-Australian Command naval strike forces in the Battle of the Java Sea. He was killed in action when his flagship was torpedoed during the battle, having chosen to go down with the ship. Biography Early career Doorman was born 1889 in Utrecht, Netherlands, and raised as a Roman Catholic from a military family. In 1906, he and his brother Lou ACM Doorman were commissioned as midshipmen. In 1910, he was promoted to officer and moved to the Dutch East Indies aboard the cruiser Tromp. During his first three years of duty from January 1912 to December 1913, he was placed aboard the survey vessels and and was mainly tasked with mapping the coastal waters of New Guinea. Early in 1914, he returned to the Netherlands on board the cruiser . In March 1914, he requested a transfer to the Aviation Service. In April 1914, Doorman served on the during its mission to the Principality of Albania to recover the body of Major Lodewijk Thomson of the International Gendarmerie. Doorman's transfer to the Aviation Service was approved in mid-1915 and he became one of the first naval officers to be awarded his pilot wings. Naval aviator From 1915 to 1918, Doorman was stationed at Soesterberg with the Aviation Service under the command of Captain (later Major) of Engineers Henk Walaardt. There, he met Albert Plesman, an observer who later became a pilot. In 1915, Doorman was awarded a civilian pilot's license and in 1916 he was awarded a Naval pilot's license. From 1917 to 1921, he was an instructor at Soesterberg Air Base and from October 1918 at the Naval Air Base De Kooy in Den Helder. Doorman commanded this Naval Air Base from 1919 to 1921. Because of his merits as an organizer in the nascent field of naval aviation, he was made a Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau in 1922. Budget cuts and an arm injury ended Doorman's active flying career but from November 1921 to November 1923, he attended the Higher Naval School in The Hague; this training, which included coursework in aircraft and naval vessel communication, laid the groundwork for his later career. After he completed this training, he was placed with the Department of the Navy at Batavia in December 1923. Personal life From 1919 to 1934, Doorman was married to Justine A.D. Schermer. Their son was born in 1928. The marriage ended in 1934, soon after the birth of a third child. That same year, Doorman married Isabella J.J.J. Heyligers, with whom he had a fourth child. Later naval career In 1926, for the first time in eleven years, Doorman gained a longer appointment aboard the armored naval vessel . Until late 1927, he was the ship's gunnery officer and later also became its first officer. Early in 1928, Doorman returned to the Netherlands, where he ran equipment-purchasing for The Hague's Naval Aviation department. In 1932, under his command, the mine-layer HNLMS Prins van Oranje sailed three times in the same year to the Dutch East Indies. The same year, he also commanded two destroyers; and ; the latter saw action against the rebels on HNLMS De Zeven Provinciën in February 1933. In January 1934, Doorman returned to the Netherlands with Evertsen and spent three years as Chief of Staff of the naval commander in Den Helder. In 1936, he submitted a request to the Secretary of Defense to command a cruiser in the Dutch East Indies. Consequently, he departed as a captain in 1937 for the Dutch East Indies, commanding the cruisers and . In August 1938, he was appointed Commander of Naval Aviation in the Dutch East Indies. From his headquarters at Surabaya Morokrembangan Naval Air Station, he made a number of inspection tours in the archipelago. World War II On 16 May 1940, Doorman was promoted to rear-admiral and on 13 June 1940, on board the light cruiser , he took command of the squadron previously lead by Rear-Admiral GW Stöve at Surabaya. In early 1942 he led remnants of the ABDA Combined Striking Force. On February 3, Doorman led a group of ships that went to stop a Japanese invasion force that was heading towards Makassar. While en route, his flotilla was observed by the Japanese and bombed, forcing it to turn back after several ships were damaged. This conflict was known as Battle of Makassar Strait, also called the Battle of the Flores Sea. On 18 February, Japanese forces invaded Bali. Doorman led another force attempting to stop the invasion the next day. Due to the short notice and the challenge of consolidating his troops, three waves of counterattacks were planned. The first wave involving cruisers and destroyers was unsuccessful, culminating in the sinking of the Dutch destroyer . The second wave, consisting of a Dutch cruiser and several American destroyers was also unsuccessful, although they caused severe damage to a Japanese destroyer. The third wave of patrol boats encountered no Japanese forces. The failure to stop the Japanese led to the occupation of Bali. This engagement is known as the Battle of Badung Strait. Doorman was killed in action when De Ruyter was hit by a Japanese long lance torpedo and sunk in the Battle of the Java Sea. Part of the crew was rescued but Doorman, following navy tradition, chose to go down with his ship. On 5 June 1942, he was posthumously made a Knight 3rd class in the Military William Order. The medal was awarded to the rear admiral's eldest son on 23 May 1947 by Lieutenant-Admiral Conrad Helfrich on board . The ceremony was attended by Prince Bernhard. "I am attacking, follow me" Karel Doorman is often honoured because he signaled ("I am attacking, follow me") during the Battle of the Java Sea, which some have considered gallant. However, one source doubts that he ever uttered those words. On 27 February 1942, at approximately 4pm, the Japanese and the allied squadrons spotted each other. Karel Doorman realised that the Dutch fleet was outnumbered but nonetheless proceeded to attack. His actions lost the fleet and he ultimately went down with his ship. The guns of the two Japanese cruisers had a greater range than the Allied guns and at about 5pm the British cruiser was hit. Twenty minutes, later the Dutch destroyer was torpedoed exploding and breaking into two. Confusion arose in the Allied squadron over the way forward, compounded because HMS Exeter could only sail at half power and wanted to return to port at Soerabaja (now Surabaya). Following instructions issued by High Command, Doorman gave the order to attack at the approach of the Japanese fleet. The tactical command was "I am attacking, follow me"; he did not signal at the beginning of the battle in the Java Sea. It is a loose translation of the signal sent by him, "All ships – follow me" to remedy the confusion. The battle on 27 February 1942 which, with interruptions, lasted for over seven hours, ended with the almost complete destruction of Doorman's squadron. The squadron commander perished aboard the flagship, which sank after around 90 minutes. Memorials Four ships in the Royal Netherlands Navy were named after him: the escort carrier Karel Doorman (QH1), the aircraft carrier , the frigate Karel Doorman (F827), and the multi-role support vessel . The Kloosterkerk in The Hague has a memorial plaque. Commemorations of the Battle of the Java Sea are regularly held. Honors and awards Knight 3rd class of the Military William Order, posthumously entered into the register on 5 June 1942 Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 21 August 1941. Officer of the Order of Orange-Nassau (previously appointed a Knight) War Memorial Cross with two bars Distinguishing for Long Service as an officer, with figures XXX Mobilization Cross 1914–1918 Virtuti Militari, Silver Cross (Poland) References External links 1889 births 1942 deaths Captains who went down with the ship Royal Netherlands Navy admirals Royal Netherlands Navy pilots Royal Netherlands Navy personnel of World War II Dutch military personnel killed in World War II Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari Knights of the Order of the Netherlands Lion Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau Military personnel from Utrecht (city) Knights Third Class of the Military Order of William
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus%20Panhandles
Columbus Panhandles
The Columbus Panhandles were a professional American football team based in Columbus, Ohio. The club was founded in 1901 by workers at the Panhandle shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad. They were a part of the Ohio League from 1904 before folding after one season. Three years later, the team tried again and playing the Ohio League from 1907 to 1919, not winning a championship, before becoming charter members of the American Professional Football Association (APFA) which became the National Football League (NFL). The Panhandles are credited with playing in the first NFL game against the Dayton Triangles. They have no NFL championships, but Joseph Carr, the team's owner from 1907 to 1922, is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame for his work as NFL president. Origins The earliest existence of the Panhandles was in 1900; the Columbus Press-Post reported Jack Walsh creating the "Panhandle railroad team" consisting of "big hardy railroad men." No other articles in 1900 were written about the Panhandles. A game was scheduled for October 19 of next year, however, no source provided an outcome. In 1901, managed by William Butler of the Ohio Medical University, the Panhandles played two games against the Columbus Barracks, a team consisting of local soldiers. The results were split; the first was a 2–6 loss while the second was a 12–6 win. Butler left the Panhandles for unknown reasons, and the new manager for the 1902 season was Harry Greenwood. Greenwood placed advertisements in every newspaper he could in order to schedule games against local opponents. His ad read "The Panhandle Athletic Club has organized a football team and would like to play any college, high school or manufacturing team on Saturday or Sunday." As a result, the Panhandles scheduled four games in 1902: three against the Columbus Barracks and one against the Dennison Panhandles, and finished with a 0–3–1 record. Again, the Panhandles got a new manager for the 1903 season, E. E. Griest. Griest needed help with the team, so he hired Ben Chamberlain to coach the team. After an exhibition game against the Ohio State Buckeyes, the Panhandles won their first game of the season, a 38–0 victory over Neil Avenue Athletic Club. This victory gave the team some unexpected press; the Columbus Citizen wrote the first article praising the team. The Panhandles 1903 season ended with a 5–3 record. Joe Carr In 1904, Joseph Carr, who was a sports writer for the Ohio State Journal and manager of the railroad's baseball team the Famous Panhandle White Sox, took over the football team. However, the Panhandles didn’t take off and the team played just two games. Carr tried again three years later in 1907. Carr saw the potential for professional football not only to be a great spectator sport but also to become a successful business venture and envisioned pro football being just as popular as Major League Baseball. One of the first things Carr did when he became the owner of the Panhandles was to exploit one of the railroad's policies. Since most of the team's players were employed by the railroad, they could ride the train free of charge. Because of this perk, Carr was able to schedule mostly road games, eliminating the expenses of stadium rental, game promotion, and security for the field. While the team did play the majority of their games on the road as a traveling team, their home games were played at Indianola Park. The Panhandles adopted an amateur sandlot mentality for their playing style. Since the team was composed mainly of railroad workers, the scenario gave the players limited time to practice and prepare for games. The Panhandles did the majority of their preparation during their lunch breaks. Workers had a one-hour break during a normal workday, and the players on the team usually took the first 15 minutes to eat lunch and used the remaining 45 minutes to practice football. An athletic field behind the railroad shops in Columbus became the team's practice field. The Nessers However Carr knew that if his team was to succeed, he needed an attraction. Carr built his team around pro football's most famous family the Nesser Brothers, who were already drawing crowds throughout the country. Carr used the seven Nesser brothers as the backbone of the Panhandles, and the football-playing family remained in that role for nearly 20 years. None of the Nessers attended college, despite many offers. The seven Nesser brothers, who worked as boilermakers for the Pennsylvania Railroad, were exceptionally large and strong for people living in the early 20th century. Frank Nesser was 6-foot 1-inch tall and weighed 235 pounds. They all were exceptionally great athletes for their time. Carr took out ads describing his Panhandles as the toughest professional team in football, led by the famous Nesser brothers. In 1921 the Panhandles line-up included player-coach Ted Nesser and his son Charlie. It is the only time in NFL history a father and son played together on the same team. The Nesser brothers nephew, Ted Hopkins and brother-in-law, John Schneider, also played on the team. The Panhandles' rosters did not include many former college players or All-Americans, so the athletic field in the railroad yards was the place where the team found out who could play. The team's "dirty" reputation was learned and developed on the railroad yards, not in college stadiums. The press sometimes criticized the Panhandles for their rough play; but it was a big draw for the fans and a main reason many paid to attend games. Columbus city champs era Over a span of 20 years, the Panhandles were considered the best pro team in the city of Columbus. The team compiled a 33–5 record against opponents from Columbus, including a 32–1 record over their last 33 games. Between 1914 and 1916, which were seen as best years of the franchise, the Nesser-led team went a combined 22–10–1. The majority of the early pro teams would go out of their way to schedule the Panhandles, as they knew it would be easy to advertise a game featuring the famous Nessers. In 1915, The Panhandles were rumored to have played against the legendary Knute Rockne six times in 1915. According to the team, each time they played Rockne, he was on a different team. This rumor, however, is false; Rockne was too much of a family man to play that much pro football, and Notre Dame had most of its home games during the pro football season. NFL On August 20, 1920, a meeting attended by representatives of four Ohio League teams—the Canton Bulldogs, the Cleveland Tigers, the Dayton Triangles, and the Akron Pros—was held. At the meeting, the representatives tentatively agreed to introduce a salary cap for the teams, not to sign college players nor players under contract with another team, and became united as the American Professional Football Conference. They then contacted other major professional teams and invited them to a meeting for September 17. At the meeting in September, held at Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Massillon Tigers, the Chicago Cardinals, the Rochester Jeffersons, and the Hammond Pros were present. The following was achieved: the name of American Professional Football Association was chosen; officers of the league were elected with Jim Thorpe as president; a membership fee of $100 was set; a committee to draft a constitution was named; the secretary of the league was to receive a list of all players used during the season by January 1, 1921; and the trophy that would be awarded to the league champions. During this time, the Panhandles were admitted into the league. First AFPA game The Panhandles may have played in the first game with two APFA opponents. However, due to not having the games start at a standardized time, and the failure of the future NFL to record the start times, historians can not determine for sure which two teams played in the first league match-up. What is known for a fact is that the first contests between teams listed as APFA members occurred on October 3, 1920. On that date, the Panhandles were defeated by the Dayton Triangles, 14–0, at Triangle Park, and the Rock Island Independents beat the Muncie Flyers, 45–0, in Rock Island. Frank Bacon of the Triangles is credited with the first punt return for a touchdown. Columbus Tigers Following the 1921 season, Carr became the league's new president and renamed the AFPA, the NFL. He then discontinued the Panhandles after the 1922 season because of cost and salary demands. Following the 1922 season, the Panhandles became the Columbus Tigers. In 1923, the Tigers attained their best ranking in the NFL, finishing eighth. During that season multiple players won awards. Rookie end Gus Tebell, who was also the coach, was awarded 1st Team All NFL by the Canton Daily News as well as the Green Bay Press-Gazette. Gus Sonnenberg, Paul Goebel, Jack Sack, and Bob Rapp were all awarded 1st Team All-NFL by the Canton Daily News. Pete Stinchcomb was awarded 2nd Team All-NFL by Collyer's Eye. During this time, and at the time of the team folding, Jerry Corcoran was owner of the Tigers. The next season, they finished tenth. Boni Petcoff was awarded 1st Team All-NFL by the Green Bay Press-Gazette. Petcoff and Paul Goebel were both awarded 2nd Team All NFL by the Green Bay Press-Gazette, with the latter being awarded 2nd Team All NFL by the Collyer's Eye as well. Then, the Tigers ended their final two seasons 20th and 19th, respectively. Hall-of-Famers Notable players Nesser Brothers Jack Sack (1902–1980) Season records Notes References External links Columbus Tigers Team Encyclopedia at Pro-Football-Reference.com Sports teams in Columbus, Ohio American football teams established in 1901 American football teams disestablished in 1926 Defunct National Football League teams Ohio League teams American football teams in Columbus, Ohio Defunct American football teams in Ohio 1901 establishments in Ohio 1926 disestablishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton%20Triangles
Dayton Triangles
The Dayton Triangles were an original franchise of the American Professional Football Association (now the National Football League (NFL)) in 1920. The Triangles were based in Dayton, Ohio, and took their nickname from their home field, Triangle Park, which was located at the confluence of the Great Miami and Stillwater Rivers in north Dayton. They were the longest-lasting traveling team in the NFL (1920–1929), and the last such "road team" until the Dallas Texans in 1952, who, coincidentally, descended from the Dayton franchise. The Texans players and assets were moved to Baltimore in 1953, and then to Indianapolis in 1983, where they now operate as the Colts, just 117 miles west of their origin. They have kept their color scheme through the years and, ultimately, have never missed an NFL season in some form. Origins The original Dayton Triangles members first began playing together as basketball players at St. Mary's College, now the University of Dayton, from 1908 until 1912. After graduation, the players organized a basketball team of alumni, students, and other local athletes. They went by the name of the St. Mary's Cadets. The Cadets claimed the title of "World Basketball Champions" by defeating the Buffalo German Ramblers. In the fall of 1913, the St. Marys Cadets organized a football team. The team was coached by Louis Clark, who coached the St. Mary's college football team as well. Al Mahrt was elected team captain. The team finished its first season with a 7–0 record and won the Dayton City Championship. It also won the Southern Ohio Championship by defeating the Cincinnati Celts 27–0 at Redland Park. The team won a second city championship in 1914, despite injuries to Al Mahrt and Babe Zimmerman. In 1915 the team changed its name to the Dayton Gym-Cadets after their presumed sponsors, the Dayton Gymnastic Club. That season saw Al Marhrt take over as the team's coach. The team only lost one game that season, to the Columbus Panhandles. It also won its third city championship. 1916–1919 The team was reorganized in 1916 as a recreational football team from among the employees of three downtown Dayton factories: the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (or Delco), the Dayton Metal Products Company, and the Domestic Engineering Company (now called Delco-Light). Carl Storck, who later served as treasurer of the NFL and as acting league president from 1939 to 1941, co-sponsored the Dayton Cadets and used players recruited from the three factories to fill out the team roster. Storck would later become the team's manager, while Bud Talbott, a Walter Camp All-American tackle and team captain at Yale University, was named the team's coach. The team's name was also changed to the Dayton Triangles that season. In 1916, the Triangles went 9–1, defeating teams from Cincinnati, Detroit, Toledo and Pittsburgh. The Canton Bulldogs, with the legendary Jim Thorpe in the line-up, claimed the "Ohio League" Championship after their win over the Massillon Tigers. The Triangles challenged the Bulldogs to a game on December 10, 1916, but the game was never played. The following season saw the Triangles move into their new park, Triangle Park. The team's 1917 campaign was successful. The team went 6–0–2 that season. The Triangles were able to score 188 points and gave up only 13 to their opponents. 1918 Championship 1918 saw the United States entry in World War I, as well as the devastating Spanish flu pandemic. While the Triangles lost players to military service, they also had many kept home with regular jobs in industries deemed essential to the war effort and, along with the few other teams still playing, far less competition for the talent pool. This allowed the Triangles to keep a team on the field and beat what few representative teams remained and eventually claiming an Ohio League Championship. The Triangle player-coach that season was Earle "Greasy" Neale, since Bud Talbott joined the army. During their championship run, the Triangles defeated future NFL teams, the Toledo Maroons, Hammond Pros, Columbus Panhandles and Detroit Heralds. The Triangles went 8–0–0 in 1918, one of two known teams to have collected a perfect record of more than five games that year, the other being the Buffalo Niagaras, whose 6–0–0 record was collected as a result of playing only teams from Buffalo and who built their team on many of the players left out of work because of the Ohio League teams' suspension. In 1919, they followed up their championship with a season record of 4–2–1. National Football League (NFL) era At the first meetings held on August 20, 1920 and September 17, 1920 at Ralph Hay's Hupmobile dealership located in Canton, Ohio, the Triangles were represented by their manager Carl Storck as they became charter members of the new league called the American Professional Football Association (APFA), until 1922 when it was renamed the National Football League. During the latter meeting, Jim Thorpe was unanimously elected as the new league's president. Also at this meeting, a membership fee of $ 100 per team was established, however George Halas stated that none of the charter teams ever paid it. On October 3, 1920, the Triangles won what could be considered the very first APFA/NFL game, with a 14–0 defeat of the Columbus Panhandles at Triangle Park. The high point of the Triangles' 1920 season was a 20–20 tie at Triangle Park with Thorpe's Canton Bulldogs; it was the first time a team had scored three touchdowns on the Bulldogs since 1915. Trailing the Triangles, 20–14, Thorpe nailed two late field goals to tie the score. Six games into the season, the Triangles remained undefeated (4–0–2) but in the final three games lost twice to eventual league champion, the Akron Pros, ending 1920 with a 5–2–2 mark. Decline In 1922, the other teams in the NFL were recruiting and signing top college players from around the country; however Dayton continued to use mainly local players. This marked a decline in the team's performance, and the Triangles ceased being competitive in the NFL. Because of their poor showing on the field, the Triangles were not able to draw crowds for home games: Triangle Park, with a seating capacity of 5,000, rarely saw that many fans. Soon, the combination of poor home gates and the lure of $2,500 guarantees to play at larger venues (like Wrigley Field, Comiskey Park and the Polo Grounds), made the Triangles primarily a traveling team. By the late twenties, Dayton was one of the league's doormats, winning just five of their 51 NFL contests from 1923 through 1929. Only the revenues from playing on the road kept them afloat. Also around this time, the NFL began shaking off its roots in mid-sized midwestern cities. Although the Triangles were one of only three original NFL teams (along with the Bears and Cardinals) to survive the 1920s, and the only team from the Ohio League to survive past 1926, it soon became apparent that Dayton was not big enough to support a team in the burgeoning league. Finally, on July 12, 1930, a Brooklyn-based syndicate headed by Bill Dwyer bought the Triangles; the franchise moved to Brooklyn and was renamed the Brooklyn Dodgers. Jack Depler was a co-owner and new coach of the Dodgers who had been a coach-player for the NFL's Orange Tornadoes. He took most of the members of the 1929 Tornadoes with him for the new Dodgers team. Lineage Due to numerous transactions over the years, the Triangles have a tenuous connection to the current NFL. The Dodgers merged with the Boston Yanks franchise for the 1945 season due to player shortages. In 1946, Brooklyn's owner jumped to the AAFC and played as the New York Yankees, while the Boston Yanks remained in the NFL. In 1949, the Yanks moved to New York and became the New York Bulldogs, while the AAFC Yankees merged with the Brooklyn Dodgers and played as the Brooklyn-New York Yankees. When the AAFC merged with the NFL in 1950, the Yankees players were divided between the New York Giants and the New York Bulldogs, the latter of whom were renamed the New York Yanks. Due to heavy financial losses, the Yanks were sold back to the NFL in 1952 and awarded to a group from Texas, who moved them to Dallas for the 1952 season as the Dallas Texans. The Texans were again sold back to the NFL midway through the season, and in 1953, their players were awarded to an ownership group in Baltimore and continued to play as the (new) Baltimore Colts. The Colts moved to Indianapolis in 1984 and are still playing as the Indianapolis Colts. In spite of the unbroken continuity of the franchises that began with the Triangles in 1913 and the Boston Yanks from 1944, the NFL and the Colts organization currently do not consider the Colts to be a continuation of the Triangles or any other franchise. Teams named after the football Triangles During the 1970s, the Dayton Triangles Soccer Club revived the name and enjoyed some success and recognition as a successful youth (and later semi-pro) soccer club. Like the football team, they took their name from the same city park and played an important role in development of soccer in the Miami Valley. In 1973, the Dayton Triangles RFC club was founded. Like the aforementioned soccer club, this team also took its name from the original football team and city park. Through various amalgamations over the years, the club is still active under the name of the Dayton Area Rugby Club. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season Notes References External links Dayton Triangles fan website Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Dayton, Ohio Defunct American football teams in Ohio 1913 establishments in Ohio 1929 disestablishments in Ohio American football teams established in 1913 American football teams disestablished in 1929
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Scholasticus
John Scholasticus
John Scholasticus or Scholastikos (c. 503 – 31 August 577) was the 32nd patriarch of Constantinople from April 12, 565 until his death in 577. He is also regarded as a Saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Life He was born at Sirimis, in the region of Cynegia, near Antioch. There was a flourishing college of lawyers at Antioch, where he entered and did himself credit. This was suppressed in 533 by Justinian I. John was ordained and became agent and secretary of his church. This would bring him into touch with the court at Constantinople. When Justinian, towards the close of his life, tried to raise the sect of the Aphthartodocetae to the rank of Orthodoxy and determined to expel Eutychius for his opposition, the able lawyer-ecclesiastic of Antioch, who had already distinguished himself by his great edition of the canons, was chosen to carry out the imperial will. He was also credited for methodical classification of Canon law, the Digest of Canon Law. Following some older work which he mentions in his preface, he abandoned the historical plan of giving the decrees of each council in order and arranged them on a philosophical principle, according to their matter. The older writers had sixty heads, but he reduced them to fifty. To the canons of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Ephesus, and Constantinople, already collected and received in the Greek church, John added 89 "Apostolical Canons," the 21 of Sardica, and the 68 of the canonical letter of Basil. Writing to Photius, pope Nicholas I cites a harmony of the canons which includes those of Sardica, which could only be that of John the Lawyer. When John came to Constantinople, he edited the Nomocanon, an abridgment of his former work, with the addition of a comparison of the imperial rescripts and civil laws (especially the Novels of Justinian) under each head. Balsamon cites this without naming the author, in his notes on the first canon of the Trullan council of Constantinople. In an MS. of the Paris library the Nomocanon is attributed to Theodoret, but in all others to John. Theodoret would not have inserted the "apostolical canons" and those of Sardica, and the style has no resemblance to his. In 1661 these two works were printed at the beginning of vol. ii. of the Bibliotheca Canonica of Justellus, at Paris. Photius (Cod. lxxv.) mentions his catechism, in which he established the teaching of the consubstantial Trinity, saying that he wrote it in 568, under Justin II, and that it was afterwards attacked by the impious Philoponus. Fabricius considers that the Digest or Harmony and the Nomocanon are probably rightly assigned to John the Lawyer. Little is known of his episcopal career. Seven months after his appointment Justinian died. The new emperor, Justin II, was crowned by the patriarch, November 14, 565. He organized a compromise between the Chalcedonians and Non-Chalcedonians in 567, and temporarily reunited the two sects in 571. John died shortly before Justin in 577. Original citations Fabricius, xi. 101, xii. 146, 193, 201, 209; Evagr. H. E. iv. 38, v. 13, Patr. Gk. lxxxvi. pt. 2; Theoph. Chronogr. 204, etc., Patr. Gk. cviii.; Niceph. Callist. iii. 455, Patr. Gk. cxlvii.; Victor Tunun. Patr. Lat. lxviii. 937; Baronius, ad. ann. 564, xiv. xxix.; 565, xvii.; 578, 5; Patr. Constant. in Acta SS. Bolland. Aug. i. p. * 67. References 500s births 577 deaths 6th-century patriarchs of Constantinople 6th-century Christian saints Year of birth unknown 6th-century Byzantine writers Byzantine jurists 6th-century jurists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evansville%20Crimson%20Giants
Evansville Crimson Giants
The Evansville Crimson Giants were a professional American football team based in Evansville, Indiana and were a part of the National Football League in 1921 and 1922. The Giants home games were played at Bosse Field. According to the Evansville Courier and Press in 1921, 'they surprised local fans in developing a winning team' and 'the Giants' one-sided victories over inferior non-league teams has had good fan reaction.' However, the team did not succeed, mostly due to scheduling mistakes and management problems. Evansville's local sporting enthusiasts also failed to respond favorably and attend the home games. History Ex-Collegians The Crimson Giants history is rooted in Evansville's first significant semi-pro team, the Evansville Ex-Collegians, who began play in 1920. The Ex-Collegians played and followed the typical semi-professional template of the era. The team employed mostly local players almost exclusively. They paid those players a small sum based on gate receipts and on a game-by-game basis. The team also operated without any real management oversight, meaning that the players looked after the team's finances, and scheduled games haphazardly. In 1920, group of local businessmen tried to purchase the Ex-Collegians. However, the investors and the players failed to reach a compromise. After the initial two victories over modest opponents, the Ex-Collegians bragged of possibly playing the most celebrated pro football team in the nation, the Canton Bulldogs on Christmas Day 1920. While the chances of the game taking place between Evansville and Canton were slim, the rumour of a Canton game was really a marketing scheme to draw attention to the newly established Ex-Collegians. The team would finish their 1920 season with a 7–1 record. Formation of the Crimson Giants In 1921 the same unnamed businessmen who failed to take over the Ex-Collegians in 1920 decided to form their own team. Frank Fausch, Fullback for the Ex-Collegians and Mark Ingle, an offensive lineman with the team, left the Ex-Collegians to create a new corporation known as the "American Football Association", which would own a new professional team soon nicknamed the Crimson Giants. Fausch served as team's president and general manager, while Ingle served as vice-president. The two men put together an ownership group that included Evansville's leading businessmen and professionals. Evansville's mayor, Benjamin Bosse, and the vice-president of City National Bank were included in this group. The city's Chamber of Commerce was also heavily involved in promoting the Crimson Giants. Merger of the Ex-Collegians and Crimson Giants The remaining Ex-Collegians, led by their quarterback and captain, Menz Lindsey, at first refused to join Fausch and Ingle. The Ex-Collegians wanted instead to continue playing independently. However Fausch need many of those Ex-Collegian players, in order to create his new team. He came to an agreement with Guy Morrison, a popular baseball pitcher with the Evansville Evas of the Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League. With Morrison, Fausch arranged for a benefit game that would provide funds for the construction of a World War I veterans' memorial. By doing this the Crimson Giants secured the exclusive use of the only suitable stadium in Evansville, Bosse Field. Lindsey tried to challenge the Giants to a contest in the benefit game, however Fausch refused to respond. Many professional football players soon flooded to the Crimson Giants. Bourbon Bondurant, an insurance agent with prior pro football experience with the Fort Wayne Friars; Joe Windbiel, a local high school coach who played professionally with the Detroit Heralds; architect Earl Warweg, who had played semi-pro football for five years in Indianapolis; cigar company traffic manager Clarence Specht; and June Talley, an insurance adjuster also with college football experience, soon joined the team. After finding no other venue in which to play in Evansville, many of the Ex-Collegians joined the Crimson Giants. Soon Doc Gorman joined the Crimson Giants, becoming the first Ex-Collegian, other than Fausch and Ingle, to defect. Within a week, Lindsey and Clarence Spiegel, two main pillars of the Ex-Collegians' organization, jumped to the Crimson Giants. The NFL On August 27, 1921, Fausch traveled to Chicago to secure an American Professional Football Association (renamed the National Football League in 1922) franchise for Evansville. It was then that Evansville was awarded an AFPA franchise, that was scheduled to begin play in 1921. 1921 season The Crimson Giants won five of their first seven games. The team's first ever league win came at home on October 2, 1921, as the Crimson Giants defeated the Louisville Brecks, 21–0. The team's second league win can a week later against the Muncie Flyers, 14–0. However, the Crimson Giants lost to the Hammond Pros 3–0 the very next week. That win was Hammond's first win in the league. During that game, Herb Henderson later stated that the Hammond players met with him during the game and asked if he could tone down his hits because the Hammond players still needed to be healthy for work on Monday. Henderson, a high school football coach, refused and stated that he needed to show his players, who were sitting in the stands watching him, "how tackling was done." However, the team lost a lot of money when it suffered through a series of scheduling mishaps in the second half of November. As a result of the eleven games originally scheduled, only five were actually played. Furthermore, only half of the ten games ultimately played by the Giants were against league opponents. In early November, the Crimson Giants travelled to Green Bay, Wisconsin, to face the APFA's Green Bay Packers at Hagemeister Park. Although Fausch intended to play every game in Evansville, he chose at this point to receive a guaranteed sum from the Packers' organization rather than risk losing more money at Bosse Field, where attendance had been disappointing. With several players unable to leave Evansville for the weekend, Fausch found replacements, but the revamped Crimson Giants were defeated in Green Bay, 43–6. Fausch then scheduled a pair of non-league opponents to the schedule. The first game which was to take place in Chicago was cancelled due to heavy snow, while the other game was cancelled by the opposing team. Fausch quickly added a game against the Cincinnati Celts. However, when faced with poor field conditions and two days of heavy rain, Fausch made a last-minute cancellation. Rather than play before another small crowd and lose more money, he decided not to play at all. The Crimson Giants had now cancelled their last three games, one of which was to be played on Thanksgiving Day, the biggest football day of the year. As a result, the players received no money, and Fausch had to pay rent for an unused Bosse Field. Fausch made sure the next game would be played. The Cincinnati Celts were rescheduled and Fausch informed the press that the game would be played "rain or shine." He then stated that three more games, two against AFPA opponents, would be played in Evansville. The Celts game was played on Bosse Field, which was damaged due to heavy rains. The Crimson Giants won their sixth game of the season, 48–0, however the team still took a financial loss due to poor attendance. A scoreless tie against a non-AFPA opponent, two weeks later, ended the 1921 season for the Crimson Giants. Committee of Five Many of the Crimson Giants' players became upset with management of the team under Fausch after the 1921 season. It was then that several members of the team took matters into their own hands. The "Committee of Five", led by former Ex-Collegians Menz Lindsey and Clarence Spiegel, forced Fausch to surrender management of the team. The "Committee of Five" could not reverse the Crimson Giants' financial fortunes. The Committee lost money in its only contests. Fausch and his American Football Association corporation, lost an estimated $10,000 over the course of the season, despite playing a total of nine games at home and only one on the road. To combat the "Committee of Five", Fausch asserted publicly that it was he who held the franchise rights in the American Professional Football Association, and thus owned the Crimson Giants. And to help improve the team's finances, he suggested that he would play every Crimson Giants game on the road. However Fausch lost his players. Several former Giants announced they would play for the local Knights of Columbus squad instead. Then Menz Lindsey re-formed the Ex-Collegians and named Herb Henderson the team's coach. Lindsey's club then secured the financial backing of the Evansville Baseball Fans' Association. Johnny Nee, manager of the Evanston Evas, became the team's business manager. The team was then dubbed the Fans' Association team. Fausch attended the APFA's meeting in Columbus, Ohio, and posted a $1,000 bond to secure his claim to the franchise. It was at this meeting that Chicago Bears owner, George Halas, suggested that the APFA be renamed the NFL. The Crimson Giants' membership in the NFL, meant that the Fans' Association team could not play league teams. Thus the team would be forced to play teams that were considered second-rate opponents. However, the Fans' Association team had secured an exclusive lease to Bosse Field for the entire football season, leaving the Crimson Giants with no park for the 1922 season. The Fans' Association team also signed many key players from the 1921 Crimson Giants team. Around this time Johnny Nee renamed the Fans' Association team the Evansville Pros and attempted to schedule games against the Hammond Pros, Dayton Triangles, and the Louisville Brecks. However a letter from NFL President Joseph Carr, stated that Johnny Nee's Evansville Pros were not members of the NFL and NFL league clubs would only be allowed to play Fausch's Crimson Giants. 1922 season The Crimson Giants played their first three games of the season on the road. Fausch in the meantime had hoped that the Evansville Pros would fold in October, so that he could regain the rights to Bosse Field. Luckily for Fausch, the Pros folded after witnessing poor attendance and an 0–1–1 record. As a result, Fausch entered into negotiations with Nee over the sale of the lease for Bosse Field. However, the negotiations between the two clubs broke down and the Crimson Giants cancelled their remaining home games. The team would only play three games in 1922, all on the road. The Crimson Giants lost all three of those games to the Toledo Maroons, Rock Island Independents and Louisville Brecks. The wins by the Brecks and Maroons became the first in Louisville and Toledo franchise history. Meanwhile, the Rock Island Independents became only the second team with two 100 yard rushers in their 60–0 win over Evansville. Jimmy Conzelman ran for five touchdowns during that game, setting an NFL record that would remain in place until 1929, when Ernie Nevers scored 40 points alone against the Chicago Bears. The Independents also became the first NFL team to rush for 300 yards in that Evansville game. The Independents almost made it to 400, with 66 carries for 396 yards. The Crimson Giants had the ball for only 26 plays, and seven of those were punts. End of the Crimson Giants Fausch talked briefly about re-organizing a new Crimson Giants club for the 1923 season, however he never made an effort to restart the team. Several of the Crimson Giants went on to play professional football for other NFL teams. While the Evansville Crimson Giants were the only league team to go under between the end of the 1922 season and the beginning of the 1923 season, few teams other than the Bears saw profits from football. Social make up of the Evansville teams The Crimson Giants relied more on outside talent than their did their predecessors, the Ex-Collegians. 17 of the Crimson Giants 30 players in 1921 were from Evansville, but by 1922 only five of the team's 17 players were locals. In contrast, 22 of 23 players on the 1920 Ex-Collegians were from Evansville. When faced with competition from the Giants in 1921, the Ex-Collegians brought in a few outsiders before folding, but generally semi-pro teams spent little effort on recruiting. Both the Ex-Collegians and the Crimson Giants relied almost exclusively on players with college experience. Both teams consisted overwhelmingly of players from middle class backgrounds. Only a few blue collar workers played professional football in Evansville in the early 1920s. Of every players whose occupation could be determined, almost all of them were white collar workers. The 1921 Crimson Giants even included three lawyers, one physician, and one dentist. It is believed that the blue collars workers were excluded from football in Evansville due to a lack of leisure time. Season-by-season See also Sports in Evansville References History of the Evansville Giants Notes American football teams established in 1921 Sports clubs disestablished in 1922 Defunct National Football League teams Sports in Evansville, Indiana Defunct American football teams in Indiana 1921 establishments in Indiana 1922 disestablishments in Indiana
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239748
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20Buccaneers
Los Angeles Buccaneers
The Los Angeles Buccaneers were a traveling team in the National Football League during the 1926 season, ostensibly representing the city of Los Angeles, California. Like the Los Angeles Wildcats of the first American Football League, the team never actually played a league game in Los Angeles. It was operated out of Chicago with players from California colleges. The historian Michael McCambridge has stated that the Buccaneers originally planned to play in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and became a road team only after the Coliseum Commission refused to allow pro teams to play there. However, the difficulty of transcontinental travel in the era before modern air travel must have been a major factor in the decision to base the team in the Midwest, especially considering there were numerous other stadiums large enough to accommodate an NFL team (the Rose Bowl and Wrigley Field of Los Angeles being among them) had the league desired to pursue that route. Despite being rejected by the Coliseum, the Buccaneers did play two true home games in Los Angeles, both of them exhibition games against the AFL's New York Yankees in January 1927. The Buccaneers also played two games in San Francisco, including the last game of the Buccaneers' existence, an exhibition game against the Wildcats, with the Buccaneers being shut out, 17–0, on January 23, 1927. Because of this, the NFL officially considers the team's home city to be Los Angeles. Season-by-season Roster All-time record References Defunct National Football League teams Defunct American football teams in California American football teams established in 1926 American football teams disestablished in 1927
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muncie%20Flyers
Muncie Flyers
The Muncie Flyers, known as the Congerville Flyers for most of their existence, were a professional American football team from Muncie, Indiana, that played from 1905 to 1926. The Flyers were an independent squad for most of their existence, but are remembered mostly for their very brief stint in the American Professional Football Association (later known as the National Football League). With only three official league games, one in 1920 and two in 1921, the Flyers are the third-shortest-lived team in league history, behind the two games of the original New York Giants and the one game of the Tonawanda Kardex Lumbermen, and the shortest by a team not from the state of New York. History Origins The origins of the team show that it evolved from the Congerville (Muncie) Athletic Club, which dates back to at least 1905. Local newspapers provided spotty coverage of the team. An occasional reference was made to a game being scheduled and sometimes the game results with a brief game account were in the Monday paper. In 1910, the Congerville Athletic Club finished with a 10–0–1 record, outscoring their opponents 145–0. All of the home games were played against other local Muncie teams, while the road games were played in nearby Hartford City, Dunkirk, and Alexandria. In 1916, the Congerville Athletic Club team and the Congerville Flyers team merged and Muncie was represented by the Congerville Flyers. The Flyers The Congerville Muncie Flyers evolved from a team called the Congerville Thirds. This team was later renamed the Congerville Flyers. The 1915 edition of the Flyers proved to be a respectable team, finishing with a 5–3–3 record. Their star player was local player Cooney Checkeye. Playing all its games on the road, the 1916 Flyers had a disappointing year, finishing with a 2–6–1 record. Also representing Congerville in 1915 and 1916 was the Congerville Eagles. This lightweight team was closely associated with the Flyers, sometimes lending the heavyweight team a player or two when they were short due to injuries. World War I The Congerville Flyers played briefly in 1917, but they did not field a team in 1918 due to the United States involvement in World War I and the influenza epidemic. In September 1917, Earl Ball announced that he had organized a team. Scheduled to be on this team were famous college players: Dick Abrel of Purdue and Al Feeney of Notre Dame. Also scheduled to play was Christian Chambers, formerly of the Fort Wayne Friars. The team was to be led by local hero Cooney Checkaye. Ball invited ten more players to come to practice the next morning. However, a week later, on September 9, Ball announced that he had released all the players he had signed and that he would not be fielding a team due to the war. The local press was convinced that had Muncie fielded this team, it would have no doubt been strong contenders for the state championship. The NFL era With the war ended, football came back to life in eastern Indiana. The Flyers played some strong teams, including the Wabash Athletic Association, Fort Wayne War Vets, and Cincinnati Celts. The 1919 team finished with a 4–1–1 record. In 1920, the Flyers were one of the original 14 teams in the American Professional Football Association, which later became the National Football League. In the second ever NFL game, the Rock Island Independents destroyed the Muncie Flyers 45–0. The following week, the Decatur Staleys canceled their game with the Flyers. Muncie found it difficult to schedule another game. While the team was idle, most of its players signed to play with other local teams. The Flyers did have a game scheduled against the Dayton Triangles on November 7, 1920, but that game was rained out. The Flyers came back in late November and early December and won three non-APFA games, finishing with a 3–1–0 overall (0–1–0 APFA) record. Returning to the APFA in 1921, the Flyers opened the season by crushing the non-APFA Elwood Legion, then lost league games against the Evansville Crimson Giants, and, at home, against the Cincinnati Celts. They were scheduled to play on November 13, 1921, against the Green Bay Packers, but that game was canceled, leaving the Flyers with a 1–2–0 overall (0–2–0 APFA) record. The Flyers' mark in APFA football was an unimpressive 0–3–0. But during 1920 and 1921, the Flyers posted a 4–0–0 mark against non-APFA teams. Including 1919, the Flyers posted an 8–1–1 record against non-APFA teams. Post-NFL After leaving the APFA, the Muncie Flyers reverted to their original name of the Congerville Flyers. Due to weak fan support, the Flyers played almost all their games on the road from in 1922, 1923, and 1924. The Flyers did play one home game, in 1924, that was against the "Notre Dame Reserves of Brownson Hall". The Flyers lost 47–0. Some speculate that the team they played was not really reserves from Notre Dame, but the strong South Bend Arrows. During those three years, the road-bound Flyers finished with a respectable 10–8–3 record. In 1925, the Flyers could not find a home field in Muncie, so they based their team out of neighboring Jonesboro. The team was referred to as the Jonesboro Flyers and played 9 of 11 games in Jonesboro, finishing with a 6–2–3 record. Season-by-season Notes References External links History of the Muncie Flyers Football team American football teams established in 1905 American football teams disestablished in 1925 Defunct National Football League teams Defunct American football teams in Indiana Sports in Muncie, Indiana 1905 establishments in Indiana 1925 disestablishments in Indiana Athletic Club football teams and seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas%20City%20Blues
Kansas City Blues
Kansas City Blues may refer to:: Sport Kansas City Blues (1885-1901), an early minor league baseball franchise Kansas City Blues (Western League), an 1898–1900 baseball team of the Western League Kansas City Blues (American Association), a 1902–54 minor-league baseball team Kansas City Blues (USA Rugby), a Rugby Super League team founded in 1966 Kansas City Blues (ice hockey), a minor-league hockey team Kansas City Blues (NFL), a Kansas City-based NFL team in 1924 Kansas City Blues (AFL), a 1934 American Football League team Music Blues#Urban_blues, a subgenre of blues music known as Kansas City blues "Jim Jackson's Kansas City Blues", a song by Blues singer Jim Jackson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisville%20%28NFL%29
Louisville (NFL)
Louisville, Kentucky had two professional American football teams in the National Football League: the Louisville Breckenridges (or Brecks for short) from 1921 to 1924 and the Louisville Colonels in 1926. The NFL intended for the Brecks to be a traveling team, however the team played a series of "home" games. All Brecks home games were played at Eclipse Park, until the stadium caught fire and burned to the ground on November 20, 1922. Meanwhile, the Colonels played all of their games on the road. While the Colonels were really a traveling team out of Chicago they are usually accepted as a continuation of the Brecks franchise. Louisville Brecks (1899–1924) The Brecks dated their beginnings back to 1899. Officially the name of the team was the Louisville Breckenridge Club. The club was located in Louisville at corner of Fifth and St. Catherine Streets at what was then the city's perimeter. The Louisville Courier-Journal reported in 1922 that the Brecks dated "back fifteen years, springing from a boys neighborhood team, the Floyds and Brecks, that has kept itself intact probably longer than any independent team in the country." At first the team was considered an amateur team, made up of mostly neighborhood boys. However, by 1919, the team was considered professional, although evidently still made up of local players. The team's first ever professional football game was held on November 16, 1919. The game resulted in a 17–0 Brecks victory over the New Albany Calumets. That win allowed the Brecks to claim the mythical "Falls Cities" title. While a champion was declared, no "league" existed at this time. The NFL Brecks owner, Aaron Hertzman, sent a $25 franchise fee to the NFL on February 21, 1921. The Official NFL Encyclopedia confirms that although officials from Louisville failed to attend the April 1921 league meeting, the NFL did receive a letter requesting a franchise from the Breckenridges. As a result, Hertzman beat out many of the other professional and semi-pro football teams in the Louisville area. In 1920, there were at least nine independent teams in the area, including the Brecks and the Evansville Ex-Collegians. NFL President Joseph Carr liked the idea of having professional football in cities with strong baseball traditions. This may answer why he granted Hertzman and the Brecks their franchise in 1921. Unlike today, the announcement of Louisville being granted an NFL franchise, was widely ignored by the Louisville press. However, in 1920, only a little attention had been paid the league. The Brecks were one of eight teams that joined the NFL (then called the American Professional Football Association) in 1921. Carr had intended to use the Brecks a traveling team to fill in open dates in the schedules of the more "established" teams. However, the Brecks did not operate like one. The team played only two league games in 1921, one at home and one on the road, hardly justify the Brecks as a road team. But they were all Louisville born or raised in Louisville. And unlike most road teams, the Brecks' two league games were not with established teams but with the struggling Evansville Crimson Giants and the Columbus Panhandles, another road team. Hertzman managed the Brecks. The team played split schedules between league games and local, independent games. 1921 season They lost their first league game to the Evansville Crimson Giants on October 2, 1921. Reports estimated that the game drew more than 2,000 spectators. The games proceeds went to a fund to erect a memorial to the first Indiana soldier to die in World War I. The Brecks next six games were played at Eclipse Park against independent teams. During those six games, the Brecks finished with a 4–2 record. A November 6, 1921 a game with the Cincinnati Celts was canceled, because the Celts could not fulfill the contract. The Brecks didn't play another APFA team until December 4. That game resulted in a 6–0 loss to the Columbus Panhandles in Louisville, due to a late game touchdown pass. The Brecks lost their only two league games in 1921, however they did manage to finish with an overall record of 4–4–1. Karl Hower, played in 1921 for his hometown team. 1922 season The Brecks home schedule included only games with other road teams. However, the Brecks played a series of tough opponents on the road. The team lost on the road to the eventual 1922 NFL Champion Canton Bulldogs 38–0 and the Toledo Maroons 39–0. The very next game featured the worst loss in franchise history as the Brecks were defeated by the Racine Legion 59–0. Louisville's first NFL victory didn't come until November 22, 1922. During that game, the Brecks defeated the Crimson Giants, 13–6. This game also proved to be the only game in which the Brecks scored. However, the Brecks experienced tragedy a few days later, when Eclipse Park caught fire and burned to the ground. The team's remaining two games were then cancelled. Had Eclipse Park not burned down, forcing cancellation of the final two games, the team would probably have financially broken even. 1923 season After the destruction of Eclipse Park, the Brecks decided to play their home games of the 1923 season at the newly constructed Parkway Field. In order for the team to bring the Akron Pros, Columbus Panhandles, or Oorang Indians to Louisville, the Brecks announced the sale of season tickets. However, the 1923 season began in the same manner as the previous year, with a 37–0 loss to Canton. The following week saw a 34–0 loss at Columbus. Meanwhile, the Brecks home opener against Akron was cancelled due to poor ticket sales. The Breck did manage to play the Oorang Indians in Louisville, for the team's very last NFL game. The Indians were an all-Native American football team, created by, owner Walter Lingo to promote the sale of his airedale terriers. The game included pre-game entertainment and the very first halftime shows. The Indians roster also included Jim Thorpe. The Brecks lost the game 12–0. 1924 season The Brecks finished their last season of football in 1924 as members of the Fall Cities Football Federation and compiled a 2–3 record. The Brecks felt Alumni Field was "more suitable" to their schedule and moved their home games to the field in 1924. Meanwhile, Aaron Hertzman, the owner of the now defunct Brecks, was elected the NFL's Sergeant of Arms. Louisville Colonels (1926) The Louisville Colonels were created in 1926 to fill the schedules of the expanded NFL, but they were a traveling team that operated out of Chicago. That season, the NFL added several semi-pro teams to their ranks, mostly to keep them out of the rival American Football League. While the Colonels were really a traveling team out of Chicago, they are usually accepted as a continuation of the Brecks franchise. Bill Harley, the former owner of the Toledo Maroons, was granted the right to manage the Louisville Colonel operation out of Chicago, while Hertzman still owned the team. The Colonels failed to register a single point during the 1926 season, one of a very small number of organized teams to have suffered such an ignonomy. The team's first game resulted in a 13–0 loss to the Canton Bulldogs, while their second game resulted in a 47–0 loss to the Detroit Panthers. Louisville's final two NFL games came on November 7, 1926 (Chicago Bears 34, Louisville Colonels 0) and November 14, 1926 (Green Bay Packers 14, Louisville Colonels 0). The Brecks-Colonels franchise is the last team from the four currently extant major professional sports leagues of North America to play its home games in Kentucky, although the Kentucky Colonels played in the American Basketball Association from 1967 until the ABA-NBA merger brought the ABA into the National Basketball Association after the 1975–76 season. Only five of 38 different players played NFL football outside of Louisville. Season-by-season See also Sports in Louisville, Kentucky References American football teams in Kentucky American football teams established in 1921 American football teams disestablished in 1926 Defunct National Football League teams 1921 establishments in Kentucky 1926 disestablishments in Kentucky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Yankees%20%28NFL%29
New York Yankees (NFL)
The New York Yankees were a short-lived professional American football team from 1926 to 1929. The team was a member of the first American Football League in 1926, and later the National Football League from 1927 to 1929. They played their home games at Yankee Stadium. The team featured Red Grange at halfback. History Challenge to the NFL The Yankees arose as a result of a contract dispute between Grange and his previous team, the NFL's Chicago Bears. During the early 1920s, Grange was the star attraction for the Bears, and his play had done a lot to promote the fledgling NFL. However Red's agent C. C. "Cash and Carry" Pyle challenged the Bears owner George Halas in 1926, by stating that Red's contract was owned by himself, and not Halas. Pyle then approached Halas to demand for Grange a generous salary and one-third ownership of the Bears. Halas refused. Pyle then took his quest for an NFL franchise to the NFL's 1926 winter meeting. There he showed to the other owners that he had the rights to Grange. As a result, he wanted an NFL team of his own and he wanted it in New York City's Yankee Stadium. If he would be denied, Pyle threatened to start his own league. However a market in the New York market was not available. Tim Mara held exclusive NFL rights to the New York Giants. Mara had just struggled through his first year as an owner, and was saved from financial disaster ironically by Grange's exhibition appearance. Nearing the end of their first season, the Giants had gone largely unnoticed by New York fans and newspapers, and Giants' owner Tim Mara was deeply in the red. But Grange's appearance drew 73,000 people to the Polo Grounds; in one afternoon Mara was in the black financially, and professional football had gained new respect among New York's influential sportswriters. Now Pyle wanted to take away half of Mara's market. Brooklyn compromise The other franchise owners backed Mara, however they did not want to lose Grange and his drawing power. They were well aware of what a game against Grange could mean to their finances. They were also aware that Pyle might actually carry out a threat to start a new league if they refused his request. As a result, the league proposed a compromise. It was proposed that Pyle could have his "New York" franchise but it would be located in Brooklyn, which was a part of New York City. However Pyle had already gone ahead and rented Yankee Stadium, and that was where he intended to play. Rejecting the NFL's offer, he set out to make good on his threat. With his new New York Yankees franchise as its flagship, Pyle put together a league called the American Football League. 1926 season Once the league was under way, Grange lived up to his reputation and drew well wherever he played. 22,000 spectators turned out in Philadelphia to watch the Yankees play the Philadelphia Quakers. In comparison, an NFL game a week later in the same stadium between the Frankford Yellow Jackets and the New York Giants drew only 10,000. However, the league would still fold at the end of the season. However Pyle's Yankees were given the NFL franchise that was asked for in the first place. NFL and Decline While the bulk of the AFL disappeared with the demise of the league, two of its members had an official existence after the 1926 season. Although the Brooklyn Horsemen disbanded after its last NFL game, the team's franchise was never withdrawn or canceled by the league. New York Giants owner Tim Mara was awarded the Horsemen franchise in payment of a debt and proceeded to lease it to C. C. Pyle for his New York Yankees team. The agreement between the two rivals limited the number of home games that the Yankees were permitted to play in its namesake stadium (four in 1927) and forced to be primarily a road team displaying the talents of Red Grange. This arrangement lasted for three years: the Yankees were no more after the 1929 season. Grange played for the Yankees in 1927, however he sat out the next season with a bad leg, and then returned to the Bears where he played until 1934. He then coached the Bears from 1942 until 1948. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season References American football teams established in 1926 American football teams disestablished in 1928 American Football League (1926) teams Defunct National Football League teams Defunct American football teams in New York City Yankees Sports in the Bronx 1926 establishments in New York (state) 1928 disestablishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenstain%20Bears
Berenstain Bears
The Berenstain Bears is a children's literature franchise created by the late Stan and Jan Berenstain and continued by their son, Mike Berenstain, who assumed partial authorship in 2002, and full authorship in 2012 following Jan's death. The books feature a family of anthropomorphic grizzly bears who generally learn a moral or safety-related lesson in the course of each story. Since the 1962 debut of the first Berenstain Bears book, The Big Honey Hunt, the series has grown to over 300 titles, which have sold approximately 260 million copies in 23 languages. The Berenstain Bears franchise has also expanded well beyond the books, encompassing two television series and a wide variety of other products and licenses. While enjoying decades of popularity and receiving numerous awards, the series has been criticized for its perceived saccharine tone and formulaic storytelling. History Stanley Berenstain and Janice Grant met in 1941, on their first day of drawing class at the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art, where they formed an immediate bond. After being separated during World War II, during which Stan worked for the Army as a medical illustrator and Janice worked as a riveter, they were reunited and married in 1946. While initially working as art teachers, the Berenstains pursued a joint career in cartooning and gradually found success working together on illustrations, humorous sketches and cover art for publications including The Saturday Review of Literature, Collier's, McCall's, Good Housekeeping, and The Saturday Evening Post. In 1951, they published Berenstains' Baby Book, a humorous how-to aimed at adults and based on their experiences raising their infant son Leo in downtown Philadelphia. Nearly two dozen other books followed; described by Stan as "cartoon essays," the titles included Marital Blitz, How To Teach Your Children About Sex Without Making A Complete Fool of Yourself and Have A Baby, My Wife Just Had A Cigar! In the early 1960s, the Berenstains sought to enter the field of writing for young children. For their first children's book, they chose to cast bears as the main characters, primarily because the animal held wide appeal and could be drawn easily. Stan also observed that female bears are "terrifyingly good mothers" while the males are "lousy fathers." (The Berenstains denied that their last name had anything to do with the decision.) In their 2002 memoir, they said that they knew from the start that their book would "have three characters: a bluff, overenthusiastic Papa Bear who wore bib overalls and a plaid shirt and...a wise Mama Bear who wore a blue dress with white polka dots...and a bright, lively little cub." The Berenstains' first bear story, titled Freddy Bear's Spanking, arrived on the desk of Theodor Geisel, better known as Dr. Seuss, who had found phenomenal success in 1957 with The Cat in the Hat and was now editor of a Random House series called "Beginner Books". Geisel took on the manuscript, but spent the next two years ruthlessly challenging the Berenstains to make improvements to the writing and structure and to connect with their characters on a deeper level. He asked questions such as "What kind of pipe tobacco does Papa Bear smoke?" and urged them to analyze the relationship between Papa Bear and Small Bear, to which Stan responded, mystified, "Well, he's the father, and he's the son"; however, Jan attributed the inspiration for the characters' dynamic to the 1931 film The Champ. The book was finally published in 1962 under the title The Big Honey Hunt, with no plans to revisit the bears in a sequel. Geisel had told the Berenstains to feature a different animal in their next story, as "there are already too many bears... Sendak's got some kind of bear. There's Yogi Bear, the Three Bears, Smokey Bear, the Chicago Bears... for your next book you should do something as different from bears as possible." They had started work on a new project featuring a penguin when Geisel called and told them: "We're selling the hell out of the bear book." The second bear book, The Bike Lesson, appeared in 1964, featuring the names Stan and Jan Berenstain instead of Stanley and Janice; Geisel had changed the credit without consulting them. Geisel was also responsible for adding the name "Berenstain Bears" to the covers of succeeding books. Over the next several decades, Stan and Jan collaborated on hundreds of books from their home studio outside Philadelphia. After developing a storyline together, one of them (usually Stan) would develop a first draft, which the other would then refine into an 1100-word manuscript. They also worked together on the illustrations. In 2002, the couple released a memoir of their career titled Down A Sunny Dirt Road. Their sons Leo and Mike also entered the family business after making their own forays into children's publishing as an author and illustrator, respectively. In the 1990s, the men worked on the Berenstain Bears "Big Chapter Book" series (published under the names Stan and Jan Berenstain). Following Stan's death from lymphoma in 2005, Mike collaborated with his mother on writing and illustrating Berenstain Bears installments, while Leo has been involved with the business side of the franchise. Jan Berenstain died in February 2012 following a stroke. Mike Berenstain continues to write and illustrate new books in the series. Characters and themes The Berenstain Bears, who reside "in a big treehouse down a sunny dirt road deep in Bear Country," consists of Papa Bear, an oafish, bumbling carpenter; wise Mama Bear, a housewife and perfectionist; and their children, Brother Bear (originally Small Bear), and later additions Sister Bear and Honey Bear. Sister Bear was introduced in the 1974 book The Berenstain Bears' New Baby in response to requests from female readers. Honey Bear's imminent arrival was announced in early 2000 in The Birds, the Bees, and the Berenstain Bears, along with a reader contest to name the new bear; her birth was featured later that year in The Berenstain Bears and Baby Makes Five. Stories about the bears generally follow a basic formula, so described by the Berenstains: "Papa sets out to instruct Small Bear in some aspect of the art of living and ends up badly the worse for wear, with Small Bear expressing his appreciation for the fine lesson Papa has taught him." In the words of The Washington Posts Paul Farhi, "The action usually starts when the kids face a problem. They turn to Papa, who offers a "solution" that only makes the problem—or the kids' fears about it—even worse. Enter Mama, who eventually sets everyone straight." The litany of issues confronted by the Berenstain Bears over their fifty years of publication includes bullying, messiness, poor sportsmanship, visiting the dentist, online safety, and childhood obesity, among countless others. The Berenstains often drew inspiration from their own family experiences, which Stan credited for the series' continued relevance: "Kids still tell fibs and they mess up their rooms and they still throw tantrums in the supermarket...Nobody gets shot. No violence. There are problems, but they're the kind of typical family problems everyone goes through." The couple also claimed, in response to criticism of the characterization of Papa and Mama Bear, that those characters were heavily inspired by Stan and Jan Berenstain themselves. Books Reception The Berenstain Bears series had sold over 240 million copies by 2003. Of their books, 35 are in the Publishers Weekly top 250 titles of all time, and 15 are in the top 100 children's paperbacks. The series has received praise and awards for its contributions to children's literature as well as condemnation for promoting outdated gender roles, simplistic and unrealistic messages, and not keeping up with the times. Criticism Critics of the series have called it "syrupy", "unsatisfying", "infuriatingly formulaic", "hokey", "abominable", and "little more than stern lectures dressed up as children's stories."Kochakian, Mary Jo. "The Berenstains Would Be Fine If Papa Bear Had A Bigger Brain." Hartford Courant, August 11, 1998. In a 1989 editorial titled "Drown the Berenstain Bears", The Washington Post columnist Charles Krauthammer lamented the popularity of the books, writing that "it is not just the smugness and complacency of the stories that is so irritating," but the bears themselves, particularly "the post-feminist Papa Bear, the Alan Alda of grizzlies, a wimp so passive and fumbling he makes Dagwood Bumstead look like Batman." He described Mama Bear as "the final flowering of the grade-school prissy, the one with perfect posture and impeccable handwriting...and now you have to visit her every night. The reason is, of course, that kids love them. My boy, 4, cannot get enough of these bears." Upon the death of Stan Berenstain in 2005, The Washington Post published an "Appreciation" piece which many Post readers found surprisingly unappreciative in its tone. Written by Paul Farhi, who had previously rebuked the Berenstain Bears as the most popular example of a lamentable and misguided "self-help" genre aimed at children, the 2005 piece revived his earlier sentiments: The larger questions about the popularity of the Berenstain Bears are more troubling: Is this what we really want from children's books in the first place, a world filled with scares and neuroses and problems to be toughed out and solved? And if it is, aren't the Berenstain Bears simply teaching to the test, providing a lesson to be spit back, rather than one lived and understood and embraced? Where is the warmth, the spirit of discovery and imagination in Bear Country? Stan Berenstain taught a million lessons to children, but subtlety and plain old joy weren't among them. Subsequent letters from readers condemned Farhi for expressing such harshness toward the recently deceased; one wrote, "In the name of fairness, please be sure to allow the Berenstain family the opportunity to someday retort in Farhi's obituary." Readers also defended the books' "warmth" and their enduring popularity among young children."Unappreciated." The Washington Post, December 2, 2005. Slates Hanna Rosin drew criticism for the writing of Jan Berenstain's death, "As any right-thinking mother will agree, good riddance. Among my set of mothers the series is known mostly as the one that makes us dread the bedtime routine the most." (Rosin subsequently apologized and admitted she "was not really thinking of [Berenstain] as a person with actual feelings and a family, just an abstraction who happened to write these books.")Lawson, Richard. "On 'The Berenstain Bears' and When to Say Nothing at All." The Atlantic Wire, Feb 28, 2012. Awards and praise The Berenstain Bears series has been awarded the Ludington Award from the Educational Paperback Association for their contribution to children's literature, the Drexel Citation from Drexel University, several Philadelphia Literary Children's Roundtable Honors, and many other state reading association awards. Following Jan Berenstain's death in 2012, acclaimed children's author Jerry Spinelli said that "the Berenstains made a wonderful and lasting contribution to children's literature." Author and professor Donna Jo Napoli said, "Those bears have helped so many children through so many kinds of challenges that kids face, in such a cheerful and kind of energetic way." The Washington Posts Alexandra Petri wrote that the books were "timeless, timely, and kind-hearted, like all the best literature," and acknowledged the Posts 1989 piece by saying, "This is one of the times the kids have the right idea and Charles Krauthammer does not." Franchise Since the Berenstain Bears' creation, the characters have been widely licensed for a broad array of products. The franchise exploded in size in the 1980s, when King Features began aggressively promoting the Bears to marketers amidst a surge in popularity following a series of animated television specials. As of 1983, the Berenstain Bears had been licensed to approximately 40 companies for more than 150 types of products, with projected annual sales of $50 million. Television The Berenstain Bears first appeared on television in five animated specials on NBC, airing as follows: The Berenstain Bears' Christmas Tree (December 3, 1979)"Previews." The Evening Independent, 1979-12-03, p. 11-B. The Berenstain Bears Meet Bigpaw (November 20, 1980) The Berenstain Bears' Easter Surprise (April 14, 1981) The Berenstain Bears' Valentine Special (promotional title) (broadcast as The Berenstain Bears' Comic Valentine and released on home video as The Berenstain Bears and Cupid's Surprise) (February 13, 1982)Sutton, Charlotte. "The TV Column." The Washington Post, 1984-02-11, p. G10. The Berenstain Bears' Littlest Leaguer (also called The Berenstain Bears Play Ball) (May 6, 1983)Dimich, Carol. "The TV Column." The Washington Post, 1984-05-19, p. C6. The first special starred Ron McLarty, Gabriela Glatzer, Jonathan Lewis, and Pat Lysinger as Papa, Sister, Brother and Mama, respectively. Most reprised their roles in the subsequent specials. From 1985 through 1987, an animated series titled The Berenstain Bears Show aired as part of CBS' Saturday-morning cartoon block.Margulies, Lee. "CBS Adds 4 Series to Children's Slate." The Washington Post, May 1, 1986."'Berenstain Bears,' Hulk Hogan Tossed Off CBS' Schedule." Akron Beacon Journal, 1987-04-27, p. B4. The series was nominated in 1987 for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in Children's Programming; it was also nominated that year for a Humanitas Prize in the category of Non-Prime Time Children's Animated Show."Winners To Be Honored July 7; Humanitas Finalists Announced." Los Angeles Times, June 25, 1987. A second TV series, also called The Berenstain Bears, debuted on PBS in 2003. The series was produced by the Canadian company Nelvana and consisted of 40 30-minute episodes adapted from the books and also a few new stories as well, similar to the 1985 production. However, the series are considered separate adaptations and were never aired together. Even though the 2003 series is not a remake but a continuation of the episodes, some characters' personalities changed while other characters no longer appeared. (However, new characters appeared.) The original specials and TV series have a rustic design and interaction with other forest animals, while the Nelvana series completely embraced rural life with slower timing. Additionally, as a Canadian production, due to Canadian laws requiring Nelvana to employ only Canadian writers and artists, the Berenstains' involvement in the program was limited; They sought to exert their influence on some details, according to Stan. "Our bears don't wear shoes, and Papa wouldn't wear his hat in the house...And we try to keep complete, total banality out of the stories." Common practicalities of animation did force some minor costume changes from the books, such as eliminating polka dots and plaids. (This issue also occurred in previous animated series and specials. Only a limited amount of polka dots was allowed in the five specials.) The show's theme song is performed by Lee Ann Womack. In 2011, 20 episodes of the Nelvana series were dubbed in the Native American Lakota language and began airing on public television in North and South Dakota under the title Matȟó Waúŋšila Thiwáhe'' ("The Compassionate Bear Family"). The translated series was a collaboration of the Standing Rock Indian Reservation and the nonprofit Lakota Language Consortium, with Mike Berenstain and Nelvana waiving all licensing fees for the venture. The Berenstain Bears is the first animated series to be translated into a Native American language in the United States."Berenstain Bears Reconnect Sioux To Native Language." Tell Me More, NPR, September 26, 2011. Software and video games Several computer games and other software adaptations of the Berenstain Bears books have been released, including the following: 1983: Berenstain Bears, by Coleco for the Atari 2600 gaming system. A rare and collectible cartridge that was playable only with the KidVid controller accessory. 1990: Berenstain Bears Learn About Counting, MS-DOS game to teach counting. 1990: Berenstain Bears: Junior Jigsaw, MS-DOS game featuring putting together a simple jigsaw puzzle. 1991: Berenstain Bears: Fun With Colors, MS-DOS game that teaches basic colors. 1992: Berenstain Bears Learning Essentials, MS-DOS game that teaches pre-school knowledge. 1993: Berenstain Bears On Their Own: And You On Your Own, a CD-i game. 1993: The Berenstain Bears: Learning At Home, Volume 1, computer software from Compton's New Media. Noted for requiring "a whopping 20 megabytes of hard-disk space." 1993: Berenstain Bears Treehouse Classroom, MS-DOS game. 1993: The Berenstain Bears: Learning At Home, Volume 2, computer software from Compton's New Media. 1994: Berenstain Bears Learn About Letters, computer software from Softprime Inc. Reviewed by The New York Times as "mediocre." 1994: The Berenstain Bears' Camping Adventure, video game for the Game Gear and Sega Genesis platforms, as part of their "Sega Club" children's lineup. 1994: Berenstain Bears: A School Day, a video game for the Sega Pico. 1995: The Berenstain Bears Get in a Fight, computer software from Random House/Brøderbund as part of the Living Books series. An animated point-and-click adaptation of the book of the same name, featuring a brief video interview with the Berenstains. The Milwaukee Journal said, "The quality of the disc's illustrations and the bluegrass banjo soundtrack by Tony Furtado are first-rate." Living Books later released a second Berenstain Bears installment, The Berenstain Bears in the Dark. 1996: Berenstain Bears in the Dark, Microsoft Windows game. 1999: Life's Little Lessons with the Berenstain Bears: Clean Up, Pick Up, and Recycle, Microsoft Windows game. 2000: Extreme Sports with the Berenstain Bears, video game from Sound Source Interactive for the Game Boy Color. It was included on a list of the “20 Worst Video Games Ever Made” by Electronic Gaming Monthly. 2001: Berenstain Bears and the Spooky Old Tree, video game for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance. 2005: Life's Little Lessons with the Berenstain Bears: When Little Bears are Scaredy Bears, Microsoft Windows game. 2006: Life's Little Lessons with the Berenstain Bears: Little Bears Make Big Helpers, Microsoft Windows game. Museum exhibits In late 2002, an exhibit titled "The Berenstain Bears Celebrate: The Art of Stan and Jan Berenstain" opened at the James A. Michener Art Museum in the Berenstains' home of Bucks County, Pennsylvania. Organized by the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and timed to coincide with the release of the Berenstains' memoir Down A Sunny Dirt Road, the exhibit provided a retrospective of the couple's artwork, influences and techniques, as well as the evolution of their famous bears. The exhibit was subsequently hosted by the Rockwell Museum in 2003.Auspitz, Debra. "Stan and Jan's Plan", City Paper (Philadelphia), October 24, 2002."The Berenstain Bears Celebrate: The Art of Stan and Jan Berenstain" , Norman Rockwell Museum. In 2005, the Lied Discovery Children's Museum in Las Vegas, Nevada, opened "Growing Up With the Berenstain Bears", an exhibition offering children the chance to experience life-size versions of Bear Country landmarks. The Youth Museum Exhibit Collaborative and the Berenstains themselves assisted in the exhibit's development. The exhibition visited eight other museums in the United States and Canada before returning to Lied Discovery Children's Museum in 2010."For Children", The New York Times, January 5, 2007."Berenstain Bears Back To Visit Children's Museum", Las Vegas Review-Journal, 2010-03-11, p. 3E. The National Museum of Play in Rochester, New York, is host to a permanent exhibit, "The Berenstain Bears — Down a Sunny Dirt Road." Opened in 2008, the original exhibition features interactive 3D playsets such as Mama Bear's Quilt Shop, Papa Bear's Woodworking Shop, and Dr. Bearson's Dentist Office."The Berenstain Bears: Down a Sunny Dirt Road." National Museum of Play. Stage show The off-Broadway musical The Berenstain Bears LIVE! in Family Matters, the Musical debuted in June 2011 at MMAC (Manhattan Movie and Arts Center) in New York City, after having toured the country in an earlier version. Originally scheduled to run from June to September 4, the show was extended through October and subsequently moved to the Marjorie S. Deane Little Theatre for an open-ended run. The show was produced by Berenstain fan Matt Murphy, whose previous work included Memphis and Altar Boyz. Improper Magazine called it "a genuinely enjoyable and enriching experience for kids", while The New York Times said that "little theatergoers will enjoy the actors" but the story was "a bit too tidy and tame."Weiner, Iris. "Berenstain Bears Come Alive in Off-Broadway Musical." The Improper, July 25, 2011. Feature film A planned Berenstain Bears feature film adaptation was announced in 2009 by Walden Media and director Shawn Levy, whose company 21 Laps would produce the film. The project was envisioned as a comedy with both live action and computer-animated elements, and an original storyline that would combine details from several Berenstain books. "I'd like the film to be un-ironic about its family connections but have a wry comedic sensibility that isn't oblivious to the fact that they're bears," Levy said. Comparing it to the film Elf, Levy said he thought the Berenstain Bears film would be "witty but never sarcastic." As of January 2012, the project was reportedly in the script phase. Social issues In 2007, the Berenstain Bears became the "spokesbears" for Prevent Child Abuse America. Said PCA America President and CEO Jim Hmurovich: "This is a great example of a socially conscious and child-focused business taking a stand on an issue that has great consequences for all of us. This helps us begin having a more honest conversation about how each of us has a role to prevent the abuse and neglect of our nation's children." The Berenstains were approached by former U.S. Surgeon General C. Everett Koop, who asked them to write an anti-smoking book for children. They declined, but the idea did lead to a 1988 book about peer pressure, The Berenstain Bears and the Double Dare. In 1997, they published The Berenstain Bear Scouts and the Sinister Smoke Ring; Florida governor Lawton Chiles purchased 600,000 copies of the book to distribute to children as part of his anti-smoking campaign. Beginning in 2008, a number of Berenstain Bears titles of a specifically religious nature have been released by Mike Berenstain. These include The Berenstain Bears: God Loves You, The Berenstain Bears Say Their Prayers and a Berenstain Bears Bible - Complete New International Reader's Version written at a third-grade reading level. The titles are part of a series called Living Lights and are published by the Christian company Zondervan and HarperCollins. In August 2012, the publishers of the series faced controversy regarding the fast food restaurant Chick-fil-A's plan to distribute titles in the series as part of a kids' meal promotion, with gay rights advocates urging the publishers to pull out of the promotion, due to the Chick-fil-A founder's controversial statements regarding same-sex marriage. HarperCollins responded by stating that it was not their "...practice to cancel a contract with an author, or any other party, for exercising their first amendment rights." Other products In the 1980s, the prominent vaccine manufacturer Lederle Laboratories licensed the Berenstain Bears for a promotional campaign encouraging children to get vaccinated. As part of the campaign, Lederle distributed Berenstain Bears stuffed animals and books to every pediatrician's office in the United States. In the 1990s and 2000s, many Cedar Fair theme parks, including Cedar Point, featured kids' play areas called "Berenstain Bear Country" that were themed to the franchise. The Berenstain Bears could also be found at the parks as costumed characters.Granelli, James S. "Knotts Agree to Sell Park." Los Angeles Times, October 22, 1997.Kraft, Randy. "Anything But Tame: Mighty Wild Mouse, Camp Snoopy Pace Dorney Park Opening." The Morning Call, May 5, 2000. A musical album titled The Berenstain Bears Save Christmas: The Musical! was released by Good Mood Records in 2006. Adapted from the 2003 book The Berenstain Bears Save Christmas, the album teamed the Berenstains with the father-son composing team of Elliot Lawrence and Jamie Broza, the former of whom composed music for the holiday television specials and original television series. Other products that have featured the Berenstain Bears include clothing, Happy Meals, cereal, chocolate, crackers, greeting cards, puzzles, embroidery kits, and notepads. Name confusion Many people incorrectly remember the name of the series as the "Berenste'''in Bears". This confusion has generated multiple explanations of the memories, including an unannounced name change, time travel, or parallel universes, and has been described as an instance of the Mandela effect. According to Stan Berenstain's son, confusion over the name has existed since his father's childhood, when a teacher insisted that the name was spelled "Berenstein" due to the prevalence of names ending in "-stein". A few examples of the "Berenstein" spelling have been found in references to and knockoffs of official merchandise and publications, and cartoons for the series used an ambiguous pronunciation which may contribute to the false memory. References External links Berenstain Bears official site Berenstain Bears at PBS Kids Berenstain Bears at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 22, 2018. American children's books American picture books Books about bears Books about families Book series introduced in 1962 Fictional quintets Series of children's books
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239760
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartford%20Blues
Hartford Blues
The Hartford Blues of the National Football League played only in the 1926 NFL season, with a record of 3–7. The team was based in Hartford, Connecticut but played at the East Hartford Velodrome. Hall of Famers Season-by-season References Complete Football Records American football teams in Connecticut American football teams established in 1924 American football teams disestablished in 1927 Defunct National Football League teams Defunct sports teams in Connecticut Blues East Hartford, Connecticut 1924 establishments in Connecticut 1927 disestablishments in Connecticut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic
Quadratic
In mathematics, the term quadratic describes something that pertains to squares, to the operation of squaring, to terms of the second degree, or equations or formulas that involve such terms. Quadratus is Latin for square. Mathematics Algebra (elementary and abstract) Quadratic function (or quadratic polynomial), a polynomial function that contains terms of at most second degree Complex quadratic polynomials, are particularly interesting for their sometimes chaotic properties under iteration Quadratic equation, a polynomial equation of degree 2 (reducible to 0 = ax2 + bx + c) Quadratic formula, calculation to solve a quadratic equation for the independent variable (x) Quadratic field, an algebraic number field of degree two over the field of rational numbers Quadratic irrational or "quadratic surd", an irrational number that is a root of a quadratic polynomial Calculus Quadratic integral, the integral of the reciprocal of a second-degree polynomial Statistics and stochastics Quadratic form (statistics), scalar quantity ε'Λε for an n-dimensional square matrix Quadratic mean, the square root of the mean of the squares of the data Quadratic variation, in stochastics, useful for the analysis of Brownian motion and martingales Number theory Quadratic reciprocity, a theorem from number theory Quadratic residue, an integer that is a square modulo n Quadratic sieve, a modern integer factorization algorithm Other mathematics Quadratic convergence, in which the distance to a convergent sequence's limit is squared at each step Quadratic differential, a form on a Riemann surface that locally looks like the square of an abelian differential Quadratic form, a homogeneous polynomial of degree two in a number of variables Quadratic programming, a special type of mathematical optimization problem Quadratic growth, an asymptotic growth rate proportional to a quadratic function Periodic points of complex quadratic mappings, a type of graph that can be used to explore stability in control systems Quadratic bézier curve, a type of bezier curve Computer science Quadratic probing, a scheme in computer programming for resolving collisions in hash tables Quadratic classifier, used in machine learning to separate measurements of two or more classes of objects Quadratic time, in referring to algorithms with quadratic time complexity Other Quadratic (collection), a 1953 collection of science fiction novels by Olaf Stapledon and Murray Leinster See also Cubic (disambiguation), relating to a cube or degree 3, as next higher above quadratic Linear, relating to a line or degree 1, as next lower below quadratic Quad (disambiguation) Quadratic transformation (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oorang%20Indians
Oorang Indians
The Oorang Indians () were a traveling team in the National Football League from LaRue, Ohio (near Marion). The franchise was a novelty team put together by Walter Lingo to market his Oorang dog kennels. All of the Indians players were Native American, with Jim Thorpe serving as its leading player and coach. The team played in the National Football League in 1922 and 1923. Of the 20 games they played over two seasons, only one was played at "home" in nearby Marion. With a population well under a thousand people, LaRue remains the smallest town ever to have been the home of an NFL franchise, or probably any professional team in any league in the United States. History Beginnings In 1919 Oorang Kennel owner, Walter Lingo, met and became friends with Jim Thorpe of the Canton Bulldogs, a future Pro Football Hall of Famer who was considered the greatest athlete of his time. Lingo had a deep passion for the Airedales, which he raised, and for Native American culture. LaRue, Ohio, was once the site of an old Wyandot village and Lingo believed that a supernatural bond existed between the Indians and the Airedales. Thorpe first came to Lingo's defense after neighboring farmers accused Lingo's Oorang Kennels of raising "a nation of sheep killers". Thorpe came to Lingo's aid by testifying that he once knew an Oorang Airedale that had saved the life of a 6-year-old girl, named Mabel, from being trampled by a bull. Afterwards, Lingo and Thorpe became friends and soon began hunting together. In 1921, Lingo invited Thorpe and Pete Calac, who was a teammate of Thorpe's at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, to his plantation in LaRue to hunt for opossum. It was on this trip that the men agreed on a way both to advertise Airedales and to employ Thorpe, who after dominating the Ohio League for much of the late 1910s was no longer to lead his Canton Bulldogs to championships in a broader national league. Lingo would purchase a franchise in the young National Football League, and Thorpe would run the team. At the time, the cost of purchasing an NFL franchise was $100. Meanwhile, just one of Lingo's Airedales sold for $150. Lingo saw the idea of a franchise as a way of touring the country's leading cities for the express purpose of advertising his Airedales. Therefore, he placed two conditions on the team. The first was that Thorpe had to field an all-Indian team. Secondly, Lingo wanted the team to help run his kennels in addition to playing football. Thorpe and Calac agreed to both terms. Finally, Thorpe would be paid $500 a week to coach, play, and manage the kennels. In June 1922, Lingo, who also served as the team's business manager, traveled to Canton, Ohio, and purchased an NFL franchise for $100. He named his team the Oorang Indians, after his kennels and favorite breed of dog. The name stood out to sports and dog fans alike. Lingo originally wanted the team to play out of LaRue, but that was hard to justify since the small town was missing a football field. The issue led to the club performing almost exclusively on the road as a traveling team, where it could draw the biggest crowds and best advertise the dogs. However, Thorpe and Lingo also felt that it would be nice to keep the Indians at home once or twice a year. The nearest town with a suitable football field was Marion, Ohio, which served as the location for the Indians' "home" games. The players would be in a constant state of travel week after week to many of the major cities in the country; such traveling teams were a regular part of professional football, which had a tradition of barnstorming, through its early existence. However, despite the hectic schedule, Lingo later insisted that the Indians received the very best of care. The same dieticians and the same trainer who fed his Airedales and cared for their well-being also tended to the Indian team members. Fielding the team Jim Thorpe served as a player-coach and recruited players for the team. In keeping with Lingo's wishes that franchise be an all-Indian team, Indians from all over the United States traveled to LaRue to try out for the team. Many of the prospects were from Thorpe's alma mater, the Carlisle Indian School. Several of the candidates looking to make the team had not played in years and were older than 40. While many of the members of the team were not full-blooded Indians—Thorpe himself was three-eights Irish—every identifiable team member has proved to have at least some Indian blood. The Oorang Indians consisted of members who were Cherokee, Mohawk, Chippewa, Blackfeet, Winnebago, Mission, Caddo, Sac and Fox, Seneca, and Penobscot. The team roster included such colorful names as Long Time Sleep, Woodchuck Welmas, Joe Little Twig, Big Bear, War Eagle, and Thorpe. The team also had four former Carlisle Indians football captains in Thorpe, Joe Guyon, Pete Calac, and Elmer Busch and the Indians' trainer was John Morrison, reportedly the first Carlisle captain. Walter Lingo's son Bob later recalled that the team practiced every day, depending on the workload at the dog kennel. However, training for an NFL season was only a secondary mission for the players. They did everything at the dog kennels, from training the dogs to building crates to ship them in. They kept in good physical condition, which was more important than an actual practice. Bob Lingo also stated that several of the team's plays were made up on the spot, similar to the play-calling in a sandlot football game. The 1922 season The Indians had two future Hall of Famers on the roster, Thorpe and Joe Guyon. However, they did not play much. Thorpe was confined to coaching on the sidelines through most of the first half of the 1922 season and never played more than a half afterward. Guyon did not join the team until midway through the 1922 season. Pete Calac, who won several "Ohio League" titles with Thorpe and the Canton Bulldogs, was still suffering from career-threatening wounds from fighting in France during World War I. The Indians began their season with a 3–2 record in their first 5 five games. Both of the team's losses came against NFL opponents, the Canton Bulldogs and the Dayton Triangles. The two of their victories came against independent teams and one in the NFL, the perennially bottom-dwelling Columbus Panhandles. One of those games against an independent team, the Indianapolis Belmonts, was played in a snowstorm. The Indians defeated the Belmonts, 33–0, taking home $2,000 in profits along with a Cherokee tackle named Chief Johnson, whom Thorpe recruited at halftime. A week later the Indians were defeated 62–0 by the Akron Pros. The team then lost their next three games, all against league opponents: the Minneapolis Marines 13–6, the Chicago Bears 33–6, and the Milwaukee Badgers 13–0. The team did rebound to win their next two games, which were against league opponents, an upset over the Buffalo All-Americans 19–7, and a rematch with Columbus 18–6. However, their last two games ended in losses against independent teams, to finish with a 3–6 record (5–8 overall). First-ever halftime shows Rather than retiring to the locker room at halftime, the Oorang Indians showed Lingo's Airedales to the crowd. It was debatable, though, whether the Indians were there to play football or give Airedale exhibitions at halftime. In addition to the exhibitions with the dogs, the Indians, including Thorpe, participated in helping the Oorang Airedales perform tricks for the crowd. However, it was their halftime entertainment that made them such a huge attraction in the early 1920s. There were shooting exhibitions with the dogs retrieving the targets. There were Indian dances and tomahawk and knife-throwing demonstrations. Thorpe had a history of repeatedly drop kicking footballs through the uprights from midfield. Indians player Nick Lassa (also called "Long-Time-Sleep") even wrestled a bear on occasion. Off-field behavior The Indians players knew that Lingo's only goal was to advertise his Airedales and that winning football games wasn't important to him. Therefore, the players spent a lot of their free time partying and drinking. In 1922, the night before a game with the Chicago Bears, the Indians went to a Chicago bar called "Everyman's Saloon." At 2:00 a.m., the bartender stopped serving drinks since Illinois law prohibited the sale of alcohol after 2 a.m. This action upset the Indians players, who stuffed the bartender in a telephone booth and turned it upside down. The Indians lost to the Bears 33–6 just a few hours later. Another instance occurred in November 1923 in St. Louis (as the Indians were in town for a game against the All-Stars), when several of the Indians went out drinking for the night. As the night came to an end, the players decided it was time to return to their hotel. They soon found a trolley that could take them back to their rooms; however, that particular trolley was headed in the opposite direction. To solve this problem, the Indians players reportedly picked up the trolley, and turned it around on the tracks. They then told the conductor the address for their hotel. Another reason for the team's lack of success, according to Ed Healey, a Hall of Fame tackle for the Chicago Bears, was that Thorpe was not a good coach, especially where discipline was concerned. However, Healey insisted the players were "tough S.O.B.'s, but good guys off the field." The 1923 season The Indians played in the NFL again for the 1923 season, but the team that was fielded was weaker than the one from the year prior. While many of the players had moments of great play, the 1923 Indians were anchored by Thorpe, Guyon, and Calac, though those three players were constantly missing from the line-up due to injury. Guyon did not play until the eighth game of the season against the Canton Bulldogs, and Thorpe suffered a season-ending injury in the team's ninth game, against the Columbus Tigers. While Thorpe was still a decent player, he had lost much of the speed that helped him throughout his earlier career. The team lost all of their first nine games, all against NFL opponents, and were outscored 235–12. The Indians finally won their first game of the season against the independent Marion Athletics, 33–0, before splitting their last two games, a 22–19 loss against the Chicago Cardinals and a 19–0 win over the Louisville Brecks. Decline At first the Oorang Indians were an excellent gate attraction. However, most fans knew that the team wasn't very good, and they'd already seen the halftime show, so they stayed away. The novelty soon wore off and Lingo pulled his financial backing. At the end of the 1923 season, the Oorang Indians disbanded. Lingo didn't renew the franchise, and it formally folded in 1924. Legacy In 1997, which was the 75th anniversary of the team's founding, the Marion County Historical Society erected an Ohio Historic Marker on the site of the Oorang Indians' practice field in LaRue, Ohio. Today, LaRue still has the distinction of being the smallest community to have a National Football League franchise. Two members of the Oorang Indians, Jim Thorpe and Joe Guyon, were named as charter members of the National Football League Hall of Fame. Meanwhile, Lingo's kennels, which were the sole reason for the team, thrived until 1929, when the industry was impacted by the Clutch Plague; however, the Oorang Kennel Company continued until Walter Lingo's death in 1969. The Indians are also believed to have the highest percentage of Oklahomans on its roster than any other NFL squad before or since. Finally the club was also the first NFL team to have a regular training camp during their short existence. Lingo revived the Oorang Indians as a basketball team in the late 1920s, again with Jim Thorpe as his star; the basketball version of the Indians is poorly documented. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season Tribes represented Cherokee Nick Lassa Stan Powell Emmett McLemore Stillwell Saunooke Chippewa Arrowhead Napoleon Barrel Leon Boutwell Ted Buffalo Xavier Downwind Gray Horse Joe Guyon Ted St. Germaine Baptiste Thunder Cupeno Woodchuck Welmas Mission Reggie Attache Pete CalacMohawk Bob Hill Joe Little Twig Mohican Eagle Feather Pomo Elmer Busch Sac and Fox Bill Newashe Jack Thorpe Jim Thorpe Winebago Bill Winneshiek Wyandotte Al Jolley See also World Famous Indians, the similarly sponsored barnstormer basketball team led by Thorpe References Further reading American football teams established in 1922 American football teams disestablished in 1923 Defunct National Football League teams Native American sportspeople Native American history of Ohio Defunct American football teams in Ohio Early professional American football teams in Ohio 1922 establishments in Ohio 1923 disestablishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond%20Pros
Hammond Pros
The Hammond Pros from Hammond, Indiana played in the National Football League from 1920 to 1926 as a traveling team. History The Pros were established by local businessman Paul Parduhn and Dr. Alva Young. Young, a boxing promoter and owner of a racing stable, also served as doctor/trainer (and part-owner) for a semi-pro football team operated by the Hammond Clabby Athletic Association from 1915 to 1917. In 1918, Young presided over a new team known as the "Hammond All-Stars" and played against many of the teams that would form the backbone of the American Professional Football Association (including the Racine Cardinals, Detroit Heralds, Rock Island Independents, Minneapolis Marines, Cleveland Tigers, Canton Bulldogs, and Toledo Maroons); Young attended the historic meeting in Canton, Ohio at which the APFA was formed in 1920. (It is said that a game between Hammond and Canton, played Thanksgiving Day 1919 and drawing some 12,000 spectators in Chicago, convinced team owners that a league would be viable.) In 1919, the team starred George Halas at wide receiver; Halas left for the Decatur Staleys – the future Chicago Bears – the following year, remaining with that franchise as a player, coach and owner until his death in 1983. Despite the name, the Pros were little more than a semi-professional outfit; most of the players were locals who had full-time jobs and couldn't practice much, and thus were simply no match for most other NFL squads. Nor did they really represent Hammond, as the town's stadium (A. Murray Turner Field) was built for baseball and seated only a few thousand. The Pros would play only two regular-season NFL games in Hammond over their seven years in the league, and would use Cubs Park in Chicago as an unofficial "home" stadium. Nevertheless, Young kept the team going in the NFL for seven years and 34 games, with a combined record of 5-26-4. The Pros might have lasted even longer, but after winning the 1926 battle with the American Football League, the NFL decided to scale down to 12 teams, getting rid of many of the smaller franchises, including the Pros. Of the nine African-American players in the league during those years, six played for the Pros, including the first African-American head coach in the NFL, Fritz Pollard, and the successful music producer Mayo Williams. Hall of Famers Season-by-season References External links More info on the Hammond Pros American football teams established in 1920 American football teams disestablished in 1926 Defunct National Football League teams Defunct American football teams in Indiana 1920 establishments in Indiana 1926 disestablishments in Indiana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenosha%20Maroons
Kenosha Maroons
The Kenosha Maroons were a National Football League football team in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Officially, the club only played in the league during the 1924 season, dissolving after posting no wins in five games. History Origins Prior to the 1924 season, the NFL ordered the Toledo Maroons, based in Toledo, Ohio to either transfer or suspend operations. Then on September 16, 1924, the Kenosha Evening News reported that the City of Kenosha agreed to purchase the Toledo franchise. However no conclusive evidence exists that the Toledo franchise was officially transferred to Kenosha. Kenosha felt that the team would be successful under the direction of George Johnson, an umpire in the Midwest Baseball League. Johnson began scouting for talent to stock the new club. Financial support was offered by the Nash and Simmons companies, long-time sponsors of local athletic teams. Johnson soon signed Marv Wood, a 195-pound fullback from the University of California, and Walt Cassidy, a wide receiver and 1923 graduate of the University of Detroit. Others on the official roster were quarterback Jimmy Simpson, also out of the University of Detroit; running back George Seasholtz from Lafayette College; and Clete Patterson, an offensive guard from Ohio University. There were wide receiver Dick Stahlman of DePaul University; running back Dick Vick and offensive tackle Ray Oberbroekling from Loras College. One of the most popular players was Earl Potteiger, a running back. He was well known in Kenosha as a baseball player for the Simmons and Nash teams in previous years. Potteiger would go on to coach the championship New York Giants three years later. Bo Hanley was named coach of the Maroons. 1924 season On October 3, 1924, the Maroons played their first game of the season against the Frankford Yellow Jackets. They lost the game 31–6. Despite the loss, hopes were high for the team's second game, against the Milwaukee Badgers. However, the result was a 21–0 defeat. The big game and the home opener, which became the only game the professional Maroons would ever play in Kenosha, was scheduled for Sunday October 19, 1924 against the Hammond Pros. Newspaper reports state that the weather was perfect, and remained warm during the first half of the Maroons-Pros contest which ended in scoreless tie. However, the wind shifted and a sharp breeze cooled off the thousand or so spectators at Nash Field. On the gridiron things heated up. Capping a third quarter drive, fullback Seasholtz hurtled over the goal for a Maroon touchdown. He missed the conversion kick. However, the Pros came back to score with a minute left in the game. Maroons' tackle Fritz Heinisch, a Racine native, blocked the extra point try to preserve the final tie which was considered almost a moral victory for the underdog home team. The game drew about 600 spectators in attendance, which was considerably less than a victory since other NFL teams, like the Green Bay Packers, who could draw 5,000 hometown fans to a game. Injuries in the Hammond game were costly. Usher broke his nose, Simpson injured his neck, and Potteiger suffered a broken arm that finished him for the season. From that point, it was all downhill for the Maroons. On October 26, 1924, the team played a strong Duluth Kelleys team. With a powerful running attack, mixed with passes, the Kelleys wiped out the Kenoshans, 32–0. The Maroons failed to make a first down all afternoon. A game with the Waukegan Elks of the lesser Midwest League was scheduled for November 2. At the last minute, however, the Illinois team cancelled out. Some claimed that Midwest officials pressured Waukegan not to play outside its league. When manager Johnson was unable to schedule a replacement game, November 2 became an open date. Citing the missed game and the poor local attendance at the Hammond contest, a Racine sportswriter claimed pro football in Kenosha was "a flop" and predicted the Maroons would not finish the season. A Maroons spokesman dismissed the accusations and announced the team would travel to Buffalo, New York the following weekend to play the Buffalo Bisons. But there was uncertainty in the air as Johnson announced that there would be a big announcement after the Buffalo game. At Buffalo, the Maroons lost 27–0 to the Bisons. Ten Days later the "high-priced" Maroons players were released from their contracts and the original team disbanded. In a startling development, the local financial backers announced they were keeping the franchise and had bought the winning, but financially troubled, Duluth Kelleys. The Duluth players were to simply switch jerseys and become the new Kenosha Maroons. The Kelleys were tied for fourth place in the league with the Packers and the Chicago Cardinals. On Thanksgiving Day 1924 a game between the new Maroons and the Racine Horlick-Legion was announced, as was another, just three days later, on November 30, 1924 with the NFL's Kansas City Cowboys. However neither game was played. The Kelleys went back to Duluth to play several more years. For Kenosha the season ended dismally with a 0–4–1 record. The Maroons tied with the winless Minneapolis Marines and the Rochester Jeffersons for last place in the NFL. Aftermath The final chapter of the Maroons history is missing from the sports pages of the local paper. There were no announcements of the cancellation of the final two games and it went unreported that the franchise had been lost. However an error in the NFL records, which persists today, shows that the Maroons lost a fifth game that season to the Rock Island Independents. That phantom game, claimed as a victory by Rock Island, appears incorrectly in NFL records as the Kenosha team's fifth loss of its only season. In reality, this game was held after the "high-priced" Maroons players and the rest of the original team disbanded, and the team that played Rock Island was instead composed of "Kenosha All-Stars". Season-by-season References See also Toledo Maroons List of Kenosha Maroons players Toledo Maroons American football teams established in 1924 American football teams disestablished in 1924 Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Wisconsin 1924 establishments in Wisconsin 1924 disestablishments in Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee%20Badgers
Milwaukee Badgers
The Milwaukee Badgers were a professional American football team, based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, that played in the National Football League from 1922 to 1926. The team played its home games at Athletic Park, later known as Borchert Field, on Milwaukee's north side. The team was notable for having many African-American players for the time. After the team folded following the season (largely due to being left broke because of a $500 fine by the NFL for using four high-school players in a game against the Chicago Cardinals, a game arranged after the Badgers had disbanded for the season), many of its members played for the independent semi-pro Milwaukee Eagles. Some of the players from this team went on to play for the NFL's Pittsburgh Pirates in 1933. This has led some to mistakenly believe that either the Badgers or Eagles became the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Milwaukee market is now claimed by the Green Bay Packers, who played three or four regular season games there from 1933 to 1994, including the 1939 NFL Championship Game. The Packers still reserve two games a season for their old Milwaukee season ticket holders, and have their flagship radio station there as well. History Origins The Milwaukee Badgers were founded by two Chicago sporting promoters, Joe Plunkett and Ambrose McGuirk. The pair saw the city as a great prospect for a professional football club. In order to create a team that could compete immediately in the early National Football League, the men scoured the East Coast college ranks, signing multiple All-Americans in hopes of building a team of all-stars that could rival the Green Bay Packers for state supremacy. The team's first major signing was Fritz Pollard, who had been a player-coach the previous year for the Akron Pros. Pollard was also the first black man to coach whites in American professional sports. Two other African-Americans played for the Badgers in 1922, Paul Robeson and Duke Slater. First years The Badgers played their first home game on October 15, 1922, in which they defeated the Racine Legion 20-0 in front of 6,000 fans at Athletic Park. However injuries and team disunity caught up with the Badgers, as they finished the season with just two wins, four defeats and three ties, resulting in 11th place in the standings. The next season, the Badgers fielded an all-white team, ending their brief experiment with integration. However, the 1923 season would be the high point in the franchise's short history, as they placed third in the league with a 7-2-3 record. However both of the Badgers' losses that season came from the Packers, who kept them a distant second in popularity among Wisconsin's professional football fans. Even worse the Badgers struggled to even outdraw local semi-professional and factory teams. Games between those squads could draw as many as 9,000 spectators, while the Badgers rarely attracted around 4,500. In 1924, the Badgers went 5-8, before losing all six of their games in 1925 and being outscored 191-7. Meanwhile, Milwaukee citizens held so little interest in the club, that the team played just one home game. However while interest in Badgers dwindled at home, several interested parties within the Chicago Cardinals began to take notice of them. 1925 high school players scandal In 1925, the Chicago Cardinals were in need of two easy wins to help keep up with the Pottsville Maroons and stay in the hunt of the 1925 NFL Championship. As a result, the Cardinals planned two extra games that were scheduled against the Badgers and the Hammond Pros, who were both losing teams in that season. The Pros and the Badgers were both NFL teams, but had ended their seasons. The Badgers, owned by Ambrose McGuirk, agreed to a game against the Cardinals. However, McGuirk lived in Chicago, and had a tough time putting a team together to play the Cardinals. So Art Folz, a substitute quarterback for the Cardinals, convinced four players from Chicago's Englewood High School into joining the Badgers for the game under assumed names, thereby ensuring that the Cardinals' opponent was not a pro caliber club. The high schoolers were reported to be William Thompson, Jack Daniels, Charles Richardson and J. Snyder. However NFL President Joseph Carr later learned that high school players had been used in an NFL game. He then stated that the 59-0 Cardinals win would be stricken from the record. However, the league had never got around to removing it. The game is still a part of the NFL records. Cardinals' owner Chris O'Brien was also fined $1,000 by Carr for allowing his team play the game. Meanwhile, McGuirk was ordered to sell his Milwaukee franchise within 90 days. Folz, for his role, was barred from football for life. However, by 1926, Carr toned down his punishment for each party involved in the scandal. Folz's lifetime ban was lifted, probably to prevent him from going the first American Football League; however he chose not to return to pro football. The $1,000 fine against O'Brien was rescinded, probably since the amount would have put the Cardinals out of business. McGuirk though had already sold his Badgers franchise to Johnny Bryan, a fullback with the Chicago Bears. The Englewood players were also forgiven, and two of them, William Thompson and Charles Richardson, earned high school all-star recognition at the end of the season. Folz reportedly told the high schoolers that the game was a "practice game" and would in no part affect their amateur status. This game would also be used to state that the Pottsville Maroons should have won the 1925 NFL Championship. Decline Bryan took an aggressive approach to rebuilding the team, even ditching the club's familiar orange sweaters for bright red. While a 2-2 start gave the team hope, but they dropped the last five games of the season and folded the following summer due to a lack of money. In ten games against the rival Packers, the Badgers were winless, managing only a scoreless tie in their first meeting. Players Pro Football Hall of Famers Other players LaVern Dilweg Frank Morrissey Paul Robeson Roy Vassau Johnny Heimsch Season records References External links What Happened To The Milwaukee Badgers? American football teams established in 1922 1922 establishments in Wisconsin American football teams disestablished in 1926 1926 disestablishments in Wisconsin Sports in Milwaukee American football teams in Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racine%20Legion
Racine Legion
The Racine Legion was a professional American football team based in Racine, Wisconsin, of the National Football League from 1922 to 1924. Its official name was the Horlick-Racine Legion. The team then operated as the Racine Tornadoes in 1926. History In 1915, the Racine Regulars formed Wisconsin's first important semi-professional team. They primarily played against teams from Illinois and Indiana. The team became known as the Racine Battery C in 1916 after many of the players joined the First Wisconsin Reserve Artillery Battery C. Because of World War I and the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 the team took a break. It was reorganized in 1919 with sponsorship from the local American Legion post and William Horlick, president of his family's malted milk company. The reorganized team was known as the Horlick-Racine Legion. In 1922, the American Professional Football Association changed its name to the National Football League. Racine, now known simply as the Racine Legion, although its official name remained the Horlick-Racine Legion, was one of four new teams admitted to membership that season. Led by the fullback-kicker Hank Gillo, who led the league in scoring with 52 points, Racine finished sixth in the 18-team league with a 6–4–1 record. Despite two more respectable seasons, the team failed because of finances. In 1925, the franchise was held over by the NFL, but they did not field a team that season. Milton "Mitt" Romney, team captain at the University of Chicago in 1922, became a quarterback for the Racine Legion before later joining the Chicago Bears. He was a cousin of Michigan Governor George W. Romney, and his nickname inspired that of George Romney's son, 2012 U.S. presidential candidate Mitt Romney. Facing the threat of Red Grange's American Football League in 1926, the NFL was eager to get as many teams and players as possible into the fold to keep them away from the AFL. The Racine franchise was reactivated. The team, now called the Tornadoes, had a few of the same players as the Legion but many stars went to other teams in 1925. After winning their first game, the Tornadoes lost four in a row and disbanded in late October because of struggling finances. Season-by-season Trivia The Racine Legion have the distinction of winning the only NFL game where one team scored exactly 4 points. On November 25, 1923, the Legion beat the Chicago Cardinals by a score of 10-4. Further, the Cardinals franchise had used Racine as its geographic name until 1922, referring to Racine Ave. on which the team's home field was located. See also :Category:Racine Legion players References Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in Wisconsin American football teams established in 1915 American football teams disestablished in 1926 1915 establishments in Wisconsin 1926 disestablishments in Wisconsin Sports in Racine, Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester%20Jeffersons
Rochester Jeffersons
The Rochester Jeffersons from Rochester, New York played from 1898 to 1925, including play in the National Football League from 1920 to 1925. History Formed as an amateur outfit by a rag-tag group of Rochester-area teenagers after the turn of the 20th century (a 1925 report has the team being founded in 1898), the team became known as the Jeffersons in reference to the locale of their playing field on Jefferson Avenue. Around 1908 a teenager by the name of Leo Lyons joined with the club as a player, and within two years began to manage, finance, and promote the team on a full-time basis. For their first decade of their existence the "Jeffs" played other amateur and semi-pro teams from the upstate New York area such as the Rochester Scalpers and the Oxfords. From 1914 to 1917, the team grew stronger with opponents from Buffalo and Syracuse. In 1916, they were the New York State champions. By 1917, the Jeffs had started to look past state borders not only for big-name opponents, but for big-name talent as well. At the end of October 1917, Lyons managed to secure a match against the country's greatest team, the Canton Bulldogs, who had the legendary Jim Thorpe as their star attraction. Thorpe's squad crushed the Jeffs 41–0, but the audacity of challenging such a superior team to a match won Lyons and his club a bit of notoriety. In 1920, Leo Lyons was at the Hupmobile showroom in Canton, Ohio to become an original member of the newly formed American Professional Football Association, which would be known in two years as the National Football League. The NFL recognizes that 1920 meeting as the founding of the National Football League. As it turned out, Rochester was more interested in its thriving sandlot football circuit than in professional football. The Jeffersons had attempted to recruit some of the country's best college players, but the fans would rather see local boys play, and, by 1922, the Jeffersons' on-field product was enough to annihilate local teams (thus discouraging fans from coming out as blowouts were assured) but, after some initial modest success, not good enough to compete with the rest of the NFL (thus also discouraging fans from coming out as the Jeffersons were almost assured to lose). As a result, the teams attendance suffered badly, with the local semi-pro teams drawing much better. Without a consistent draw at the gate, the team's finances, play on the field and ability to draw star talent likewise suffered, and the team finished its last four seasons without a single league win. (This was not to say that the team went totally winless in this span; in a 1924 contest, the Jeffersons defeated the Pottsville Maroons of the Anthracite League; the Maroons, the class of their league, moved to the NFL in 1925, when it contended for the NFL title.) In 1920, John Barsha played for the team. From 1921-24, two-time First Team All Pro Doc Alexander played for the team. After an unsuccessful last-ditch effort to lure Red Grange to Rochester (he instead signed with the Chicago Bears), the team suspended operations after the 1925 NFL season; by this point, the team had been losing money (to the point where Lyons' house had been foreclosed upon because of his dumping of virtually all his assets into the team) and had been a traveling team for two seasons (1924 and 1925). The team remained technically suspended for 1926 and 1927, but allowed its franchise to expire in 1928. Lyons stayed on with the NFL as an unofficial historian after the Jeffersons' folding. Notable players John Barsha (born Abraham Barshofsky; 1898–1976) Elmer Oliphant 1920 edition of the team Season records Legend References External links Carroll, Bob. THE TOWN THAT HATED PRO FOOTBALL. Pro Football Researchers Association Coffin Corner: Vol. III, 1981. The Official Rochester Jeffersons Website American football teams established in 1898 American football teams disestablished in 1928 Defunct National Football League teams Jeffersons Defunct American football teams in New York (state) New York Pro Football League teams 1898 establishments in New York (state) 1928 disestablishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonawanda%20Kardex%20Lumbermen
Tonawanda Kardex Lumbermen
The Tonawanda Kardex (also known as the Tonawanda Lumbermen and during its first season, the All-Tonawanda Lumberjacks) was an American football team active between 1916 and 1921. It played its games in Tonawanda, New York, a suburb of Buffalo with close ties to North Tonawanda, New York where American Kardex was founded. The team is most notable for its one game as a member of the American Professional Football Association in 1921 (now the National Football League), the shortest-lived team in the league's history. Early history Professional football was being played in Tonawanda by no later than 1913 (this terminus ad quem comes from records that show the team lost to the Lancaster Malleables in the region's showcase Thanksgiving game that year). They played their home games on the Tonawanda High School field, sometimes drawing up to 3,500 fans for a game. For the team's entire history, it was coached by Syracuse standout Walter "Tam" Rose. In 1917, it defeated the Rochester Jeffersons for the state championship. In 1919, it made the state playoffs but lost in the semifinals to the Buffalo Prospects, who went on to win the title. The 1920 All Tonawanda Lumberjacks were a very successful team, garnering a record of 7–1 against two local American Professional Football Association (the predecessor to the NFL) franchises and other independent teams, only allowing more than 6 points in one of their contests (the one loss, a 35–0 decision to Buffalo). Their last game of the season against the Rochester Jeffersons was among the first games in the traditional Thanksgiving Day series. Tonawanda in the APFA With their 1920 success (and a crackdown by the APFA on playing non-league teams), the Lumberjacks joined the league in 1921 as the Tonawanda Lumbermen or Tonawanda Kardex, named for (and presumably sponsored by) James Rand Jr.'s American Kardex, a company that through mergers and acquisitions became part of Rand Kardex, Remington Rand, Sperry Rand, and eventually UniSys. Before 1921, the team played its home games at Tonawanda High School; however, its lone game in the NFL was an away game, and according to contemporary news reports, the team had intended to play as a traveling team had it continued beyond one game. NFL records list the nonexistent and spurious "Lumbermen Stadium" as the team's home field. The 1921 season began much like the first, with a scoreless tie against the Syracuse Pros, followed by a 9–7 win against the Cleveland Panthers. A game against the Rochester Scalpers scheduled for November was canceled; instead, on November 6, 1921, the Kardex traveled to Rochester to play their sole APFA league game, against the Rochester Jeffersons. There they played the worst game of their existence, a 45–0 blowout loss to the Jeffs in front of 2,700 fans. Several factors played into the Lumbermen's departure from the league. Records from the Pro Football Researchers Association indicate that Tonawanda had trouble scheduling games due to a lack of willing opponents. The now-renamed NFL's franchise fee for 1922 also increased from $50 to $1,000, making it harder for Tonawanda to play a second season in the league. The team's declining on-field performance was also a factor (Rochester and Syracuse were two teams that Tonawanda had beaten handily as an independent in 1920 but performed far less well against as a league member in 1921). Whether or not the team continued to exist is somewhat unclear. Records from 1925 show that the Buffalo Football Bisons played an exhibition game against a team from Tonawanda before the 1925 regular season, but it is not known if it is the same Tonawanda team as the APFA/NYPFL franchise. The "Lumberjacks" name is currently in use by North Tonawanda High School. Team roster Due to incomplete record-keeping during this time, some players from the 1921 team are only reported upon by their last name. Backnor, C; Fred Brumm, LT; Cassidy, QB; Joe Dussosoit, RE; Andy Fletcher, LHB; Art Georke, LE; Clarence Hosmer, LG; Rudy Kraft, LG-C; George Kuhrt, LT; Buck MacDonald, RG; Tom McLaughlin, RHB-FB; Bill Meisner, RHB; Frank Morrisey, RT; Frank Primeau, RE-QB; Tam Rose, LHB; Spin Roy, LE; Bill Sanborn, RE; Charles Tallman, RT; Red Werder, C; Wex, FB;Wise, QB Season-by-season References External links Historical Record for Tonawanda Kardex Tonawanda Kardex an NFL enigma Deconstructing NFL Uniforms The Tonawanda What? The Tonawanda Kardex Tom educates One and Done NFL team survived to lose one game Made in WNY Did you know? Old Team Tuesday: The Tonawanda Kardex Meet the NFL team that lost its only game ever before folding Unknown stories of WYN: Tonawanda's day in the NFL The Fate of the Tonawanda Kardex A story better than Hollywood or Tonawanda The Tonawanda Kardex: The NFL's shortest-lived team We're Lumberjacks and we're OK! The One Losing Game for Tonawanda's 1921 NFL Team There used to be an NFL football team in Tonawanda American football teams established in 1916 American football teams disestablished in 1921 Defunct National Football League teams Sports in Buffalo, New York American football in Buffalo, New York New York Pro Football League teams Defunct American football teams in New York (state) 1916 establishments in New York (state) 1921 disestablishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%20Island%20Independents
Rock Island Independents
The Rock Island Independents were a professional American football team, based in Rock Island, Illinois, from 1907 to 1926. The Independents were a founding National Football League franchise. They hosted what has been retrospectively designated the First National Football League Game on September 26, 1920 at Douglas Park. The Independents were founded in 1907 by Demetrius Clements as an independent football club. Hence, the team was named the "Independents." In 1926, the Independents left the NFL to become a charter member of the first American Football League, the only NFL team to do so. The Independents then folded along with the entire league in 1927. Pro Football Hall of Fame alumni Jimmy Conzelman (1920–1921), Joe Guyon (1924), Ed Healey (1920–1922), Duke Slater (1922-1926), and Jim Thorpe (1924–1925) played for the Independents. National Football League formed 1920 The National Football League was formed over the course of two meetings in 1920. On August 20, 1920 an initial meeting was held by representatives of the Akron Pros, Canton Bulldogs, Cleveland Tigers, and Dayton Triangles. The meeting was held at the Jordan and Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton, Ohio and resulted in the formation of the American Professional Football Conference (APFC). A second and considerably larger meeting was held on September 17, 1920. The meeting was again at Canton owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile dealership in Canton and Independents owner Walter Flanigan was present to represent the Independents. Representatives of eleven teams were present at the second meeting: the four teams from the first meeting, plus the Decatur Staleys, Chicago Cardinals, Massillon Tigers, Hammond Pros, Muncie Flyers, Rock Island Independents and Rochester Jeffersons. The minutes of this meeting are in Pro Football Hall of Fame archives. The league was renamed to the American Professional Football Association (APFA), and the number of teams was expanded, with league play to begin in 1920. The newly formed league elected Jim Thorpe as its first President and consisted of 14 teams. The Buffalo All-Americans, Chicago Tigers, Columbus Panhandles, and Detroit Heralds joined the league during the year. The Massillon Tigers from Massillon, Ohio was also at the September 17 meeting, but did not field a team in 1920. After the formation of the league, Flanigan was named to the committee that created the league's constitution. Today, only two of these franchises, the Decatur Staleys (now the Chicago Bears) and the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals), remain as NFL franchises. First-ever National Football League game 1920 On September 26, 1920, the Independents hosted the first official game featuring a team from the APFA. Thus, the Independents' Douglas Park became the site of the first ever National Football League contest. Just nine days after the league had formed, on September 26, 1920, the Independents defeated the St. Paul Ideals 48–0 in the first contest involving a member team of the APFA. A week later, on October 3, 1920, the Independents defeated the Muncie Flyers 45–0 at Douglas Park in the first full week of APFA league play. 3,100 fans were in attendance as Arnie Wyman, former Minnesota great, made his debut for the Islanders, scoring three touchdowns. This might have been the first NFL game ever played between two NFL teams, however, NFL historical records don't indicate the kickoff time for this game or the other APFA game played that day between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles in Dayton, Ohio. NFL Franchise The Independents posted 4–2–1 records in the league's first year. They had the same record the next two seasons, with five of their six losses in three years coming to George Halas and the Decatur Staleys/Chicago Staleys/Chicago Bears. On June 24, 1922, the APFA changed its name to the National Football League (NFL). The Independents' overall NFL record was 26–14–9, with five winning seasons in six years. After finishing fourth in 1920, their best overall finish in the National Football League standings was fifth, which they accomplished three times: in 1921 and 1922 under Jimmy Conzelman, and in 1924 under Johnny Armstrong. Franchise history overview One of the first professional football teams, the Independents were founded in 1907 by Demetrius Clements as an independent football club. The independent team had no athletic club affiliation, no social club ties and no corporate company backing or sponsorship. As a result, the team was named the "Independents." The Independents played in Douglas Park (1907–1925) and Browning Field (1926). After its founding, the 1910 team went undefeated and were not scored on in five games. Many of the players from the 1910 team reunited in 1912 and, under Coach John Roche, the Independents won eight games without giving up a score. Walter Flanigan was the owner of the Independents 1915 to 1923. Dale Johnson then owned the team from 1924 until it folded, along with the rest of the American Football League in 1926. Walter Flanigan had joined the Independents as a backup end in 1912. For the following two seasons, he served as the team's assistant manager, under then-manager Jack Roche. In 1915, Flanigan became the owner of the team and later promoted the Independents by scheduling two home games in 1917 against the Minneapolis Marines. This contest helped the Independents gain legitimacy. Rock Island lost to the Marines by a score of 7–3 in front of over 6,400 fans at Douglas Park in the first game on November 4. The two teams played again on November 18 and Rock Island lost again, 33–7, in the second game in front of 4,500 fans. However, World War I and the military draft put a temporary halt to Flanigan's plans of expanding the team into new markets. In 1919, Flanigan hired Rube Ursella of the Minneapolis Marines to serve as a player-coach. Ursella brought several other Minneapolis players with him. These new players would help improve play and help secure the team an invitation to join the NFL. The Independents lost only to the Hammond Pros, led by George Halas in 1919. Flanigan then challenged the Canton Bulldogs to a "championship" game, offering a $5,000 guarantee if they would come to Rock Island for the game. But Canton, which had already won the "Ohio League" championship by defeating the Massillon Tigers, turned down the offer. It is likely that Canton's player/coach Jim Thorpe and owner Ralph Hay felt that Flanigan could not deliver on his $5,000 guarantee. However, the Independents still had defeated the Columbus Panhandles 49–0 and the Indians 17–0 that season. In 1919, the season prior to the establishment of the National Football League, they claimed to be "Champions of the USA". The invitation to Canton led to the Independents being invited to the September 17, 1920 historic meeting. On October 16, 1921, the Independents battled back from a 7–0 deficit against the Chicago Cardinals to lead 14–7 in the second quarter. The comeback was sparked by two touchdowns, scored by player-coach Frank Coughlin. Flanigan then ordered the team's tackle, Ed Healey relieve Coughlin. Once Coughlin was safely on his way toward the sideline, Healey delivered a message to Jimmy Conzelman from Flanigan, it read: "Coughlin was fired! The new coach was Conzelman!" This act marked the first and only time an owner hired a new coach in the middle of a game. In 1922, Flanigan sold the contract of Ed Healey, to Halas and the Chicago Bears for $200. However, Healey soon became a star for the Bears and would later be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1964. In 1923, Flanigan left the Independents to concentrate on his real estate and insurance businesses. In 1923, Flanigan sold the Independents to Dale Johnson, a local businessman. Johnson hired Vince McCarthy, the Independents' back-up quarterback as the new general manager. The Independents then signed Hall of Fame player Jim Thorpe in 1924. With Rock Island High School alumni and Olympian Sol Butler joining the squad, Rock Island went 2–3–3 in 1923, and rebounded to post winning seasons in 1924 and 1925. In what proved to be a fatal move, after the 1925 season Johnson moved the team to the fledgling rival American Football League. Johnson felt that the American Football League, which featured Red Grange, would out-perform the NFL. The Independents then signed Elmer Layden, one of the Four Horsemen of Notre Dame for 1926. However, after the 1926 season, the Independents folded along with the entire American Football League in 1927. American Football League (1926) and demise In 1926, football star Red Grange and his agent, C. C. Pyle, formed the American Football League (AFL) after Pyle was denied ownership of an NFL franchise in New York City. Talks took hold and the league was formed. Founding American Football League teams for 1926 were the Boston Bulldogs, Brooklyn Horsemen, Chicago Bulls, Cleveland Panthers, Los Angeles Wildcats, Newark Bears, New York Yankees, Philadelphia Quakers and the Rock Island Independents. Rock Island left the NFL to join the new league. The Independents also moved from Douglas Park in Rock Island to Browning Field in neighboring Moline, Illinois for the 1926 season. The Independents were the only NFL team to make the jump to the rival league. However, the AFL did not pay as much as the NFL did a year prior and Independents players left the team for bigger salaries with other NFL teams. As a result, the Independents ended their season with a 2–6–1 record. Coached by Johnny Armstrong, the Independents played their first three games at Browning Field and then played the rest of their 1926 games as a traveling team. The AFL folded after the season and the Independents were rejected in their attempt to rejoin the NFL. They played as a semi-pro team in 1927, then went out of business. Stadiums From their inception until their last season, the Independents played at Douglas Park in Rock Island, Illinois, from 1907–1925. In 1926, in what became their final year of existence, the Independents moved to Browning Field in neighboring Moline, Illinois. Both locations are still in use today. Douglas Park is located at the corner of 18th Avenue and 9th Street in Rock Island, Illinois. Douglas Park was also the home of the minor league baseball Rock Island Islanders during the Independents era. Today, the site has baseball field and a playground and hosts some lower level Rock Island High School events. Douglas Park hosts an annual tribute football game to the Independents, played in retro uniforms and using early football rules. Browning Field, the Independents' home in 1926, is located at 16th Street and 23rd Avenue in Moline, Illinois. The Independents shared the stadium with the minor league baseball Moline Plowboys. Today, Browning Field is home to Moline High School sports teams and the adjacent Wharton Field House is the former home of the National Basketball Association's Tri-Cities Blackhawks, today's Atlanta Hawks. Jim Thorpe Jim Thorpe, considered "the World's Greatest Athlete", joined the Independents in 1924 and the team went 5–2–2 in league play. After the 1925 season they toured nationally to promote pro football, often under the name "Tampa Cardinals". After the 1925 season, Thorpe formed a team composed primarily of his teammates from the Rock Island Independents, that would play several games throughout Florida. In a 1926 New Year's Day football exhibition, the Cardinals played against the Chicago Bears led by Red Grange. The game itself was billed as a clash of old vs. new, with Grange, the rising star, taking on Thorpe, the aging legend. During the game Grange rushed for a 70-yard touchdown as the Bears notched a 17–3 victory at Plant Field in Tampa, Florida. Pro Football Hall of Fame alumni Season-by-season A second, unrelated, "Rock Island Independents" played at the Northwest Football League in 1936. Notable Independents' games Independent November 19, 1916. Defeated Moline Indians 21–3. Douglas Park. 3,000 in attendance November 4, 1917. Lost to Minneapolis Marines 7–3. Douglas Park 6,400. November 18, 1917. Lost to Minneapolis Marines 33–7. Douglas Park. 4,500. October 12, 1919. Lost to Hammond All-Stars 12–7. Douglas Park. 7,000. November 19, 1919. Defeated Moline Fans Association 57–0. Douglas Park. 2,000. AFPA September 26, 1920. Defeated St. Paul Ideals 48–0. Douglas Park. 800. First NFL Game. October 3, 1920. Defeated Muncie Flyers 45–0. Douglas Park. 3,100. October 17, 1920. Lost to Decatur Staleys 7–0. Douglas Park. 7,000. November 7, 1920 Tied Decatur Staleys 0–0. Douglas Park. 4,991. October 2, 1921. Tied Detroit Tigers 0–0. Douglas Park. 3,304. October 16, 1921. Defeated Chicago Cardinals 14–7. Normal Park Chicago. 4,000. October 23, 1921. Defeated Detroit Tigers 14–0. Tiger Stadium. 3000. October 30, 1921. Defeated Green Bay Packers 13–3. Hagemeister Park Green Bay. 6,000. November 13, 1921. Lost to Chicago Staleys 0–3. (Cubs Park). 2,500. NFL October 1, 1922. Defeated Green Bay Packers. 19–14. Douglass Park. 3,500. October 8, 1922. Lost to Chicago Bears 6–10. Douglas Park. 4,749. November 19, 1922 Lost to Chicago Bears 3–0. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 5,600. September 30, 1923. Defeated Chicago Bears 3–0. Douglas Park. 3,500. November 18, 1923. Lost to Chicago Bears 7–3. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 6,500. December 9, 1923. Lost to Chicago Bears 29–7. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 6,000. September 28, 1924. Tied Chicago Bears 0–0. Douglas Park. 4,500. November 2, 1934. Tied Chicago Bears 3–3. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 6,000. December 14, 1924. Defeated Chicago Bears 7–6. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 7,000. September 29, 1925. Tied Chicago Bears 0–0. Douglas Park. 2,000. October 4, 1925. Defeated Green Bay Packers 3–0. Douglas Park. 3,000. October 18, 1925. Lost to Green Bay Packers 0–20. City Stadium. 7,000. November 1, 1925. Lost to Chicago Bears 6–0. Cubs Park (Wrigley Field) 8,000. November 26, 1925. Defeated Detroit Panthers 6–3. Tiger Stadium. November 29, 1925. Lost to Chicago Cardinals 0–7. Comiskey Park. 3,000. AFL November 2, 1926. Lost to New York Yankees 35–0. Yankee Stadium. 35,000. November 21, 1926. Lost to Chicago Bulls 3–0. Comiskey Park. 1,800. External links Rock Island Independents Historical Site References Defunct National Football League teams American Football League (1926) teams 1907 establishments in Illinois 1926 disestablishments in Illinois Rock Island, Illinois Moline, Illinois Rock Island County, Illinois Sports teams in the Quad Cities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen%20Arvale
Carmen Arvale
The Carmen Arvale is the preserved chant of the Arval priests or Fratres Arvales of ancient Rome. The Arval priests were devoted to the goddess Dia, and offered sacrifices to her to ensure the fertility of ploughed fields (Latin arvum). There were twelve Arval priests, chosen from patrician families. During the Roman Empire the Emperor was always an Arval priest. They retained the office for life, even if disgraced or exiled. Their most important festival, the Ambarvalia, occurred during the month of May, in a grove dedicated to Dia. The Carmen Arvale is preserved in an inscription dating from 218 AD which contains records of the meetings of the Arval Brethren. It is written in an archaic form of Old Latin, likely not fully understood any more at the time the inscription was made. One of its interpretations goes as follows: enos Lases iuuate enos Lases iuuate enos Lases iuuate neue lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleores neue lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleores neue lue rue Marmar sins incurrere in pleores satur fu, fere Mars, limen sali, sta berber satur fu, fere Mars, limen sali, sta berber satur fu, fere Mars, limen sali, sta berber semunis alternei advocapit conctos semunis alternei advocapit conctos semunis alternei advocapit conctos enos Marmor iuuato enos Marmor iuuato enos Marmor iuuato triumpe triumpe triumpe triumpe triumpe While passages of this text are obscure, the traditional interpretation makes the chant a prayer to seek aid of Mars and the Lares (lases), beseeching Mars not to let plagues or disasters overtake in the fields, asking him to be satiated, and dance, and call forth the "Semones", who may represent sacred sowers. (Cf. Semo Sancus, a god of good faith.) Semones are minor tutelary deities, in particular Sancus, Priapus, Faunus, all Vertumni, all Silvani, Bona Dea. The semones are probably the hidden life forces residing in seeds: they were presented only offers of milk in the earliest tradition. limen sali, sta means jump over the beam of the threshold/door/lintel, stand in standard Latin. See also Carmen (verse) Roman Triumph Notes References Ancient Roman religion Roman religion inscriptions Old Latin literature 3rd-century inscriptions
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239774
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staten%20Island%20Stapletons
Staten Island Stapletons
The Staten Island Stapletons also known as the Staten Island Stapes were a professional American football team founded in 1915 that played in the National Football League from 1929 to 1932. The team was based in the Stapleton section of Staten Island. They played under the shortened nickname the "Stapes" the final two seasons. Jack Shapiro, who was a blocking back for the Stapletons, was the shortest player in NFL history. History Early years The Staten Island Stapletons were founded in 1915 as a neighborhood team. The team was organized by Dan Blaine, who also served as the team's halfback. Blaine later became rich by building up a chain of restaurants. The Stapletons played similar semi-pro neighborhood teams from the New York City area. During those early years the Stapes played more for fun than money. Crowds were small and player salaries averaged $10 per game. The team won several local semi-pro titles before World War I. The team was inactive in 1918, due to Blaine's service commitment to the military and involvement in the war. However, the team was renewed in 1919. By that time, Blaine was the team's sole owner. He retired as a player in 1924 but continued as owner and manager of the Stapletons, who were commonly known as the Stapes. By that time the team set up Thompson Stadium, a cozy minor-league park in the neighborhood that gave them their name, as their permanent home field. Today the stadium site is occupied by Stapleton Housing located between Broad, Hill and Warren Streets and Tompkins Avenue. Prior to moving into Thompson Stadium, the Stapletons played in two temporary local parks: Stapleton Field and East Shore Oval. In 1923-24 Daniel Daley manager of Stapes claimed the New York Metropolitan championship by beating the best independent pro teams in the area. However, in 1925, Tim Mara formed the New York Giants who moved into the Polo Grounds. The Giants presence in New York overshadowed the Stapes, particularly with the sell-out visit by Red Grange and the Chicago Bears on December 6, 1925. The Giants and Stapes began their New York rivalry on Thanksgiving Day 1925. The Giants defeated the Stapes in an exhibition game 7–0. Newark Bears takeover Over the following couple of seasons, the Stapes would play exhibitions against pro teams from the NFL and various other leagues. On November 14, 1926, the Stapes were routed by the Newark Bears, 33–0. The Bears belonged to Red Grange's American Football League, which served as competitor to the NFL during the 1926 season. Unhappy with the defeat, Blaine promptly hired most of the Newark players, including star rookie Doug Wycoff, who were still owed money because the Newark owner was having financial problems. As a result, the Bears went out of business while the Stapletons benefited from Newark's folding. In 1928, Blaine further upgraded the team by signing some players from New York University. Pre-NFL In 1927, the Stapes fielded their ex-Newark Bears squad, although Wycoff signed with the Giants. The Giants would go on to win the 1927 NFL championship and defeated the Stapes twice in non-league games, 19–0 and 18–0. The Stapes though did manage to beat the NFL's Duluth Eskimos, featuring Ernie Nevers 7–6 on November 27, 1927. By 1928, Blaine wanted the Stapes to become an NFL franchise. He bolstered his squad by re-signing Doug Wycoff back as a player-coach and by signing six graduates from the nationally ranked New York University team. The Stapes had their best season on record, going 10–1–1, including a 3–1 record against NFL teams. They even pulled out a 7–0 victory over the Giants on Thanksgiving Day. NFL After his team rolled up a 10–1–1 record in 1928, Blaine applied for an NFL franchise in 1929. He needed permission from Tim Mara, the owner of the Giants, because Staten Island was in Mara's exclusive territory. But Mara actually had an extra franchise. It had originally belonged to the Brooklyn Lions and had been given to Mara when the Lions folded in 1927, because they owed him money. Mara had then allowed the New York Yankees, owned by Grange's manager C. C. Pyle, to use the franchise when that team moved from the defunct AFL into the NFL. The Yankees went out of business after the 1928 season, so the franchise again went back to Mara and he passed those franchise's rights on to Staten Island. Blaine promptly hired Ken Strong, who became a Stapletons Hall of Famer. Strong, who received All-American honors while at New York University, was a speedy, powerful runner who was also one of the best kickers of the era. The Stapletons would never have a winning season in the NFL. During its first NFL season in 1929, the team went 3–4–3, defeating the Dayton Triangles, Brooklyn Dodgers and the Minneapolis Red Jackets. It also managed to tie the Frankford Yellow Jackets once and Orange Tornadoes twice. The team improved to a 5–5–2 record in 1930. That season the Stapes managed to defeat the rival New York Giants 7–6, after a four-yard touchdown run from Doug Wycoff and an extra point kick from Strong. In July 1931, the team's official name on the league records was changed from the Stapleton Football Club, Inc., to Staten Island Stapes. At this time, Doug Wycoff left the team to rejoin the Giants. In need of a coach, Blaine hired Hinkey Haines, who had played briefly for the Stapes in 1929. The Stapes opened at home by beating the Dodgers 9–7 before 7,000 fans. However a week later at Ebbets Field, the Dodgers forced 3 interceptions to defeat the Stapes 18–6. The team would post a 4–6–1 record in 1931, defeating the Giants (once), Dodgers (twice) and the Cleveland Indians. Decline In 1932, the Stapes finished last, defeating only the Giants and the Chicago Cardinals. Blaine was allowed by the NFL to suspend league play for the upcoming 1933 season. The team continued to lose money in 1933. While the team posted losses against the Giants, Dodgers, Portsmouth Spartans, and Green Bay Packers, it did manage to defeat the newly established Philadelphia Eagles. Doug Wycoff and Bob Campiglio stayed with the Stapes in 1933, but their star player Ken Strong signed with the Giants and helped them win the NFL's Eastern Division championship that season and the NFL league championship in 1934. Blaine went through the formality of getting NFL permission to suspend league operations for the 1934 season. The team played one more season of semi-pro football in 1934 before quietly folding a year later. In June 1935, Blaine's franchise was finally declared forfeit. The franchise's failure can be blamed on a combination of the Great Depression and having too small of a stadium that could never accommodate enough fans to make the team profitable. Therefore, Stapes fans could not afford enough tickets to make a team possible. Pro Football Hall of Famers Season-by-season References Staten Island Stapletons Historic Football Records Notes American football teams established in 1915 American football teams disestablished in 1935 Defunct National Football League teams American football teams in New York City History of Staten Island 1915 establishments in New York City 1935 disestablishments in New York (state) Defunct American football teams in New York City Sports in Staten Island
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Louis%20All-Stars
St. Louis All-Stars
St. Louis All-Stars was a professional football team that played in the National Football League during the 1923 season. The team played at St. Louis, Missouri's Sportsman's Park. Ollie Kraehe owned, managed, coached and played guard for the team. History Origins The idea for the All-Stars came to Ollie Kraehe while he was still a substitute offensive lineman playing for the Rock Island Independents. Kraehe figured that if small towns markets, like Green Bay and Rock Island, could be successful operating a professional football team, then operating in a larger market like St. Louis would bring in even more income. He was a local football hero in St. Louis since he had played college football at Washington University in St. Louis alongside Jimmy Conzelman and had captained the 1921 team. Building the franchise Team In 1923, NFL President Joe Carr gave Kraehe an NFL franchise. He paid $100 (about $1,600 in 2021) for the franchise and began organizing a team about a month before the 1923 season was to start. He also named his club the "All-Stars", however, he soon discovered that there was a lack of All-American talent available. Many of the players were locals who came from St. Louis University and Washington University. Kraehe later stated that, "There were some players who didn't want their parents to know they were in the game and some of them used fictitious names". He also admitted that, "there were some who pretended to be All-Americans from the East just to get a chance to play". One of the most notorious All-American impostors for the All-Stars was a man using the alias Jack "Dolly" Gray. Gray claimed to be the All-American end from Princeton's 1922 "Team of Destiny;" it soon became obvious that the impostor was not the Princeton end (for one, the man whose identity Gray was trying to steal was actually named Howard "Howdy" Gray) and was nowhere near as talented. Ollie Kraehe sold Gray to the Green Bay Packers after a game between the two. Packers chairman Curly Lambeau believed that he had just acquired Howdy Gray, who would have been by far the All-Stars' best player, but Lambeau soon discovered he had been hoodwinked after watching his new end perform so badly the next game that he addressed Kraehe on the matter. Kraehe told Lambeau that trading away the impostor was meant as a "joke" and that he would return the money paid for Gray to Lambeau. However some established players like Bub Weller, an all-American from Nebraska, and Dick King, an all-American from Harvard, did play for the team. The All-Stars were big but slow, very much defense-oriented. They would give up only 15 points in their first five games, but on the other hand, they would fail to score a touchdown. Stadium Kraehe also needed a home field for his All-Stars to play. In 1923, the St. Louis Browns owned Sportsman's Park. Kraehe was able to work out an agreement where the Browns would receive 15 percent of gross revenue, or 20 percent if the gross was more than $10,000. There were two stipulations for using the field. First, the All-Stars could practice on the outfield grass from October 10 to December 2 only if it does not interfere with the St. Louis University team's practice. The second stipulation ended the All-Stars stadium deal if there was a World Series game played in St. Louis (something that did not materialize; for the third straight season, the 1923 World Series was played entirely in New York). 1923 season The All-Stars began the 1923 season with a 25–0 defeat of a team from Murphysboro, Illinois in a non-league game. For the second game, the All-Stars played the Green Bay Packers to a scoreless tie at Bellevue Park. They followed up with another scoreless tie against the Hammond Pros. However, the All-Stars were losing money. Kraehe lost more than $2,000, as only 719 spectators attended the team's home opener at Sportsman's Park. He blamed the low attendance on rainy weather and the fact that most sports fans were concentrating on the World Series being played in New York City. However, the lack of offense from the All-Stars made the St. Louis fans reluctant to spend their money to see a team that had not scored a touchdown in their first four NFL games. The All-Stars lost their second and third NFL games to the Cleveland Indians and the Milwaukee Badgers. Both scores resulted in 6–0 losses. The team also lost a fifth game to the Packers in front of a home crowd of only 750. The All-stars held the Packers scoreless for most of the game until Cub Buck kicked a 28-yard field goal to give the Packers a 3–0 win. Things did take a turn for the better when the All-Stars played the Oorang Indians, featuring Jim Thorpe, in front of 5,000 fans the following week. The Indians were a popular attraction in the early NFL. They were more of a novelty team and not considered very good. This raised the All-Stars hopes for a victory, or at least a touchdown. Al Casey scored both of St. Louis' touchdowns in a 14–7 All-Stars win. Meanwhile, Thorpe threw a touchdown pass to put the Indians on the scoreboard. The Indians' visit helped ease the team's financial losses. Two weeks later, The All-Stars played the Milwaukee Badgers in a rematch at Sportsman's Park. The Badgers' Jimmy Conzelman was one of St. Louis' most popular athletes and Kraehe hoped that his presence would put fans in the stands. 2,395 fans paid to see Conzelman and the Badgers win 17–0 (a better crowd than usual, but still below expectations). The end Kraehe estimated the financial losses for the All-Stars at $1,300 for the Badgers' game and $6,300 for the season. He was forced to cancel his final NFL game of the season against the Cleveland Indians, as injuries left the All-Stars unable to field a team. Afterwards, he took what was left of his team to Benld, Illinois, and lost to a local team 9–7. In September 1924, Kraehe sold the All-Stars franchise back to the NFL, who cancelled it. St. Louis would later become a stop for other NFL teams: The St. Louis Gunners very briefly joined the NFL at the end of the 1934 season. The Cardinals, who relocated from Chicago in 1960, played in the city until 1987, when the team relocated to Arizona. The St. Louis Rams, who relocated from Los Angeles in 1995, played in the city until 2015, when the team relocated back to Los Angeles. Season-by-season References NFL Franchise Chronology: St. Louis All-Stars American football teams established in 1923 Sports clubs disestablished in 1923 Defunct National Football League teams All Stars 1923 establishments in Missouri 1923 disestablishments in Missouri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo%20Maroons
Toledo Maroons
The Toledo Maroons were a professional American football team based in Toledo, Ohio in the National Football League in 1922 and 1923. Prior to joining the NFL, the Maroons played in the unofficial "Ohio League" from 1902 until 1921. History Origins The Maroons originated as a semi-pro football team known as the Toledo Athletic Association, in 1902. The Association formed the Toledo Maroons in 1906 as a farm team for teenagers who could later move up to playing for the Association's senior team. However, in 1908, the Association was forced to disband after the owners of Armory Park, where the team played, no longer wanted the field torn up by cleats. Despite the setback, the Maroons kept playing on other fields. By 1909, the former teenagers were adults, still playing organized football, and they began to play against numerous amateur and semi-pro opponents from outside the area. Beginning in 1915, the Maroons were playing some very strong opposition, including such future NFL teams as the Columbus Panhandles, the Dayton Gym Cadets (later known as the Dayton Triangles), and the Cincinnati Celts. NFL When the American Professional Football Association was organized in 1920, Toledo chose to remain an independent team. However, in 1922, the Maroons joined the league, now renamed the National Football League. The Maroons finished fourth with a 5–2–2 record that season, then dropped to 3–3–2 in 1923. Attendance was poor in Toledo, so the franchise moved to Kenosha, Wisconsin, and dropped out of the league after an 0–4–1 record in 1924. The Maroons ran up a 5–2–2 record in their initial 1922 season. However, the level of competition was suspect. Their opponents' combined mark was only 7–23–2. The Maroons scheduled easy opponents again in 1923 and finished this season at 3–3–2. However, when they were blasted 28–0 in the last game of the season by the Canton Bulldogs, the Toledo squad played its last game. After the 1923 season ended, the league ordered the team to either transfer or suspend operations. The team's players and personnel did eventually move to Kenosha, Wisconsin to play as the Kenosha Maroons for the 1924 season. However no conclusive evidence exists that the Toledo franchise was officially transferred to Kenosha. Season-by-season References Index to NFL Franchise Histories: Toledo Maroons Ohio History Central: Toledo Maroons Maroons season records 1902 establishments in Ohio 1923 disestablishments in Ohio Sports clubs established in 1902 Sports clubs disestablished in 1923
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc%20Warren
Marc Warren
Marc Warren (born 20 March 1967) is an English actor, known for his British television roles. His roles have included Albert Blithe in Band of Brothers, Danny Blue in Hustle, Dougie Raymond in The Vice, Dominic Foy in State of Play, Rick in Mad Dogs, the Comte de Rochefort in The Musketeers and the Gentleman in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell, and Piet Van Der Valk in TV series Van Der Valk. Career Warren made his professional debut in May 1986 when he appeared at The Northampton Theatre Royal in Stags and Hens. Warren has consistently worked in film, television, theatre and radio. He was a member of the National Youth Theatre and trained at the East 15 Acting School (although he did not graduate). He played Billy Casper in Kes at the Birmingham Rep studio (as well as on their UK small scale and schools tour) directed by John Herriman for the Snap Theatre Company. Warren continued his career with a role in a 1988 production of Godspell which he won by writing to the producers, and went unrepresented until the following year. In 1991 he played Lot in a production of The Seven Descents of Myrtle at the Redgrave Theatre in Farnham. He had his first major film breakthrough with the 1992 BBC film An Ungentlemanly Act, in which he played Tony Hunt. He played Dougie Raymond in the British television series The Vice and Albert Blithe in HBO's mini-series Band of Brothers. His first recurring television role was in Grange Hill. In 1995, Warren starred in Boston Kickout. In 1996 Warren played Immortal Morgan D'Estaing in the season four Highlander: The Series episode "Double Jeopardy". Warren worked in the production of digital storyboards (as a stand-in for Ewan McGregor) in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. In 2000, he was presented a Royal Television Society award for his role as Monks in the ITV production of Oliver Twist. In 2001 he appeared in the television drama Men Only as Mac, the husband of Katie (Esther Hall). In 2002, he played Dr. Ivo Steadman in No Night Is Too Long, a British film adapted from the novel of the same name. He played key supporting character Dominic Foy in the 2003 BBC serial State of Play. He played Danny Blue (a main character) in BBC TV series Hustle from series 1–4. In June 2006 he played the character Elton Pope in the Doctor Who episode "Love & Monsters". In December 2006 he appeared as the crazed assassin Mr. Teatime in Sky1's adaptation of Hogfather by Terry Pratchett. The same month he played Count Dracula in a new adaptation of Bram Stoker's classic novel, produced by ITV Productions for BBC Wales. The TV film, which aired in December, received viewing figures of 5.23 million. In February 2007 he appeared as casino-operating villain Tony Crane in the second series of BBC drama Life on Mars. In December 2007 he played Mr. John Simpson in the BBC production of Ballet Shoes with Emilia Fox and Emma Watson. In January 2008 Warren starred in the Messiah series Messiah V: The Rapture taking over the main role from Ken Stott. In the 2008 film Wanted, he played a small role as The Repairman, a member of The Fraternity. In 2009 he starred in a revival of Martin McDonagh's The Pillowman at the Curve theatre in Leicester, playing Katurian, for which he was nominated for a TMA award. Warren can be heard on television and radio ads in UK. He joined Alexander Armstrong in lending his voice for the launch advertisements for Zurich Connect from July 2009. Warren starred as Ray Say in a West End revival of The Rise and Fall of Little Voice alongside Diana Vickers and Lesley Sharp from October 2009 to January 2010. In May 2010, he played Steve Strange in Worried About The Boy, a BBC production due about the life of Boy George. The following year, Warren initiated and starred in a new Sky One production, Mad Dogs (alongside Max Beesley, Philip Glenister and John Simm), which eventually ran to fourteen episodes over four series. September 2011 saw Warren return to the theatre to play the charismatic rebel Cool Hand Luke. Emma Reeves' new adaptation of Donn Pearce's novel Cool Hand Luke was directed by Andrew Loudon and ran for a limited season from 23 September 2011 to 7 January 2012 at the Aldwych Theatre, London. He reprised his role of Danny Blue in Hustle for the series' final episode. He joined the cast of the American drama The Good Wife in 2012 in a recurring role of Kalinda Sharma's estranged husband. He played Rochefort in the BBC drama The Musketeers, and appeared as The Gentleman in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell on the BBC. Personal life In late 1979 Warren moved from Northamptonshire to Farnborough, Hampshire. He attended Cove Senior School between 1980 and 1982, before moving back north to his hometown. Filmography Film Television References External links 1967 births English male film actors English male television actors English male stage actors English male radio actors Living people People from Northampton 21st-century English male actors 20th-century English male actors People from Farnborough, Hampshire Actors from Northamptonshire Male actors from Hampshire National Youth Theatre members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen%20Saliare
Carmen Saliare
The Carmen Saliare is a fragment of archaic Latin, which played a part in the rituals performed by the Salii (Salian priests, a.k.a. "leaping priests") of Ancient Rome. There are 35 extant fragments of the Carmen Saliare, which can be read in Morel's FPL. The rituals revolved around Mars and Quirinus, and were performed in March and October. These involved processions in which they donned archaic armour and weapons, performed their sacred dance, and sang the Carmen Saliare. As a body they existed before the founding of the Roman Republic, tracing their origin back to the reign of Numa Pompilius. The Salian priests were chosen from the sons of patrician families whose parents were still living. They were appointed for life, though they were allowed to resign from the Salian priesthood if they achieved a more prestigious priesthood or a major magistracy. In the Annales written by Roman historian Tacitus, it is revealed that several Romans proposed the name of Germanicus to be added to the Salian Song, as a memory of his virtue and goodwill. Fragments Two fragments which have been preserved by Marcus Terentius Varro in his De Lingua Latina, 7.26, 27 (fragment 2 and 1 by Maurenbrecher's numbering): The mysterious cozeulodorieso has attracted several proposals. Julius Pomponius Laetus proposed in his editio princeps the interpretation osculo dolori ero "I shall be as a kiss to grief", though his emendations are now dismissed as "editorial fantasy". George Hempl restored it more carefully to coceulod orieso, attested in some manuscripts aside from the spacing, which is good archaic Latin for classical cucūlō oriēre "(thou shalt) come forth with the cuckoo". A fragment preserved by Quintus Terentius Scaurus in his De orthographia (fragment 6 by Maurenbrecher's numbering): An excerpt of it: See also Carmen (verse) Notes References External links B. Maurenbrecher: Carminum Saliarium reliquiae edidit B. Maurenbrecher; in: Jahrbücher für classische Philologie. Herausgegeben von Alfred Fleckeisen. Einundzwanzigster Supplementband. Mit einer Karte. Druck und Verlag von B. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1894, p. 313ff. (IA) Carminum Saliarium reliquiae edidit B. Maurenbrecher. Commentatio ex supplemento uno et vicesimo Annalium Philologicorum seorsum expressa. Lipsiae in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. MDCCCXCIV [1894] (IA) George Hempl: III.—The Origin of the Latin Letters G and Z. By Prof. George Hempl, in: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 1899. Volume XXX, pp. 26 & 39f. (JSTOR): XII.—The Salian Hymn to Janus. By Prof. George Hempl, in: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 1900. Volume XXXI, pp. 182ff. (JSTOR, IA, google-US) Ancient Roman religion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salii
Salii
In ancient Roman religion, the Salii ( , ) were the "leaping priests" (from the verb saliō "leap, jump") of Mars supposed to have been introduced by King Numa Pompilius. They were twelve patrician youths, dressed as archaic warriors: an embroidered tunic, a breastplate, a short red cloak (paludamentum), a sword, and a spiked headdress called an apex. They were charged with the twelve bronze shields called ancilia, which, like the Mycenaean shield, resembled a figure eight. One of the shields was said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of King Numa and eleven copies were made to protect the identity of the sacred shield on the advice of the nymph Egeria, consort of Numa, who prophesied that wherever that shield was preserved, the people would be the dominant people of the earth. Each year in March, the Salii made a procession round the city, dancing and singing the Carmen Saliare. Ovid, who relates the story of Numa and the heavenly ancilia in his Fasti (3.259–392), found the hymn and the Salian rituals outdated and hard to understand. During the Principate, by decree of the Senate, Augustus' name was inserted into the song (Res Gestae 10). They ended the day by banqueting. Saliaris cena became proverbial for a sumptuous feast. King Tullus Hostilius is said to have established another collegium of Salii in fulfillment of a vow which he made in the second war with Fidenae and Veii. These Salii were also twelve in number, chosen from the Patricians, and appeared to have been dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They were called the Salii collini, Agonales, or Agonenses. It is unclear whether the primary aim of the ritual was to protect Rome's army, although this is the traditional view. The Salii are sometimes credited with the opening and closing of the war cycle which would last from March to October. Founder In addition to the myth of the ancile, several other explanations are offered in Greek and Latin sources for the founding of the priesthood. An origin among the Etruscans is attributed to a founding by Morrius, king of Veii. The Salii are also given an origin in connection with Dardanus and the Samothracian Di Penates, and the Salius who came to Italy with Evander and in the Aeneid competed in the funeral games of Anchises. Indeed in book VIII of The Aeneid, while in the land of King Evander Aeneas is entertained by the Salii during a feast, who are commemorating the fame and feasts of Hercules. Ancient authors quoted by Maurus Servius Honoratus and Macrobius recorded that Salii had existed at Tibur, Tusculum and Veii even before their creation in Rome. Interpretations of the rituals There is no single standing description of the Salii's rituals throughout the month of March from one of the ancient authors, and facts have to be reconstructed from multiple mentions in diverse works; however there are strong indications that the procession may actually have lasted a full 24 days, from March 1st which opened the festival till March 24th which closed it, with the procession moving from one station to another each day, and some revelling being held each evening; a complete assessment can be found in Smith, Wayte, & Marindin (1890). Wissowa Classical philologist Georg Wissowa maintained that the ritual of the Salii is a war dance or a sword dance, with their costumes clearly indicating their military origin. Dumézil Georges Dumézil interpreted the rituals of the Salii as marking the opening and the closing of the yearly war season. The opening would coincide with the day of the Agonium Martiale on March 19, and the closing with the day of the Armilustrium on October 19. The first date was also referred to as ancilia movere, "to move the ancilia," and the second as ancilia condere, "to store (or hide) the ancilia." Dumezil views the two groups of Salii — one representing Mars and the other Quirinus — as a dialectic relationship showing the interdependency of the military and economic functions in Roman society. Usener Because the earliest Roman calendar had begun with the month of March, Hermann Usener thought the ceremonies of the ancilia movere were a ritual expulsion of the old year, represented by the mysterious figure of Mamurius Veturius, to make way for the new god Mars born on March 1. On the Ides of March, a man ritually named as Mamurius Veturius was beaten with long white sticks in the sacrum Mamurii, in Usener's view as a form of scapegoating. Mamurius was the mythic blacksmith who forged eleven replicas of the original divine shield that had dropped from the sky. According to Usener and Ludwig Preller Mars would be a god of war and fertility while Mamurius Veturius would mean "Old Mars". Mars is himself a dancer, and the head of the Salian dancers, patrician young men whose parents were both living (patrimi and matrimi). Wissowa compares the Salii with the noble youth who dance the Lusus Troiae. The ritual dance of the Salii would thus be a coalescence of an initiation into adulthood and war with a scapegoat ritual (see also pharmakos). Others Other 19th-century scholars have compared the rituals of the Salii with the Vedic myths of Indra and the Maruts. Nomenclature Numa's Salii Palatini were dedicated to Mars surnamed Gradivus (meaning "he who walks into battle"), and were quartered on the Palatine Hill. Tullus' Salii Collini were dedicated to Quirinus, and were quartered on the Quirinal Hill. Rosinus called them Agonenses Salii. The second group of Salii may in fact have been created during an Augustan reorganization of the priesthood. Paulus ex Festo p. 10 M reads: ... Agones dicebant montes, Agonia sacrificia quae fiebant in monte; hinc Romae mons Quirinalis Agonus et Collina Porta Agonensis: "Agones were called the mounts, Agonia the sacrifices that took place on the mounts; hence in Rome the Quirinal mount (is named) Agonus and the Porta Collina Agonensis". Salian virgins Sextus Pompeius Festus makes a perplexing reference to "Salian virgins" (saliae virgines). Wearing the paludamentum and pointed apex of the Salii, these maidens were employed to assist the College of Pontiffs in carrying out sacrifices in the Regia. It has been suggested that the passage in Festus describes a transvestite initiation. An earlier explanation held that the maidens played the role of absent warriors in some form of propitiation. The meaning of their being "hired" is unclear. References Notes Sources Ancient Roman religious titles Ares
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeeves%20and%20Wooster
Jeeves and Wooster
Jeeves and Wooster is a British comedy-drama television series adapted by Clive Exton from P. G. Wodehouse's "Jeeves" stories. It aired on the ITV network from 22 April 1990 to 20 June 1993, with the last series nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series. Set in the UK and the US in an unspecified period between the late 1920s and the 1930s, the series starred Hugh Laurie as Bertie Wooster, an affable young gentleman and member of the idle rich, and Stephen Fry as Jeeves, his highly intelligent and competent valet. Bertie and his friends, who are mainly members of the Drones Club, are extricated from all manner of societal misadventures by the indispensable Jeeves. When Fry and Laurie began the series, they were already a popular comedic double act due to regular appearances on Channel 4's Saturday Live and their own show A Bit of Fry & Laurie (BBC, 1987–95). In the television documentary Fry and Laurie Reunited (2010), the actors, reminiscing about their involvement in the series, revealed that they were initially reluctant to play the parts of Jeeves and Wooster, but eventually decided to do so because the series was going to be made with or without them and they felt no one else would do the parts justice. The series was a collaboration between Brian Eastman of Picture Partnership Productions and Granada Television. Theme and opening credits The theme (called "Jeeves and Wooster") is an original piece of music in the jazz/swing style written by composer Anne Dudley for the programme. Dudley uses variations of the theme as a basis for all of the episodes' scores and was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for her work on the third series. Characters Many of the programme's supporting roles – including significant characters such as Aunt Agatha, Madeline Bassett and Gussie Fink-Nottle – were played by more than one actor. One prominent character, Aunt Dahlia, was played by a different actress in each of the four series. Francesca Folan played two very different characters: Madeline Bassett in series one and Lady Florence Craye in series four. The character of Stiffy Byng was played by Charlotte Attenborough in series two and by Amanda Harris in series three and then by Attenborough again in series four. Richard Braine, who took over the role of Gussie Fink-Nottle in series three and four, also appeared as the conniving Rupert Steggles in series one. Episodes Reception The third series of Jeeves and Wooster won a British Academy Television Award for Best Design for Eileen Diss. The final series won a British Academy Television Award for Best Graphics for Derek W. Hayes and was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series; it also earned a British Academy Television Award for Best Original Television Music for Anne Dudley and a British Academy Television Award for Best Costume Design for Dany Everett. In retrospect, Michael Brooke of BFI Screenonline called screenwriter Clive Exton "the series' real star", saying his "adaptations come surprisingly close to capturing the flavour of the originals" by "retaining many of Wodehouse's most inspired literary similes." Home releases Granada Media released all four series on DVD in Region 2 between 2000 and 2002. On 1 September 2008, ITV Studios Home Entertainment released Jeeves and Wooster: The Complete Collection, an eight-disc box set featuring all 23 episodes of the series. In Region 1, A&E Home Entertainment, under licence from Granada Media Entertainment, released the complete 23-episode collection on DVD in the US and Canada. In Region 4, Shock Entertainment has released the entire series on DVD in Australia. It was initially released in season sets in 2007/2008, followed by a complete series collection on 4 August 2008. Locations Interior shots of Skeldings Hall (Bobbie Wickham's house) were filmed at Home House, a historic house in London. Totleigh Towers was filmed at Highclere Castle, Hampshire. Totleigh-in-the-Wold scenes were filmed in Haddenham, Buckinghamshire; particularly around the duck pond and church. Other location shots of "Trouble at Totleigh Towers" were filmed at West End, Waltham St Lawrence, Berkshire. Exterior shots of Brinkley Court were filmed at Barnsley Park, Gloucestershire in series 1 and Hall Barn, Buckinghamshire in series 4. All interior shots of Brinkley Court were filmed at Wrotham Park, Hertfordshire. Interior and exterior shots of Chuffnell Hall, in series 2, were also filmed at Wrotham Park. Shots of Chuffnell Regis, Devon were filmed in Clovelly, Devon and High Street, Long Crendon, Buckinghamshire Scenes from "Bertie Sets Sail" were filmed in Halton House, Buckinghamshire Chuffnell Regis Station shots were filmed at Horsted Keynes station – Bluebell Railway, Sussex. Ditteridge Hall ("Jeeves Takes Charge") was filmed at Englefield House, Berkshire. Twing Hall ("The Purity of the Turf") was filmed at Stanway House, Gloucestershire. The "Victoria Hotel" and the "Hotel Riviera" in Westcombe-on-Sea ("Pearls Mean Tears") were filmed in Sidmouth, Devon. Some of the exterior shots in the gardens of the estate in "Jeeves in the Country" are filmed at Polesden Lacey, Surrey. Barmy's Aunt's House ("Kidnapped!") was filmed at Clandon Park, Surrey. Deverill Hall ("Right Ho, Jeeves") was filmed at Joyce Grove, Oxfordshire. Fothergill Hall ("Comrade Bingo") was filmed at Dorney Court, Buckinghamshire. Lord Worplesdon's New York City residence ("The Once and Future Ex") was filmed at Gaddesden Place, Hertfordshire. Exterior shots of Stuyvesant Towers, Bertie Wooster's residence in New York City in series 3 and 4, were filmed at Senate House in Bloomsbury, the central library and administration building for the University of London. Exterior shots of Berkeley Mansions, Bertie Wooster's residence in London, were filmed at 2 Mansfield Street, Marylebone. References Notes Sources External links The Russian Wodehouse Society—Episode guides, screenshots and quotes from the four series. British comedy-drama television shows 1990s British comedy-drama television series 1990 British television series debuts 1993 British television series endings Television shows based on works by P. G. Wodehouse ITV comedy Television series set in the 1920s Television series set in the 1930s Television series produced at Pinewood Studios Television series by ITV Studios Television shows produced by Granada Television English-language television shows
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighborhood%20of%20Make-Believe
Neighborhood of Make-Believe
The Neighborhood of Make-Believe is the fictional kingdom inhabited by hand puppet characters on the children's television series Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, which originally aired on PBS (and its predecessor NET) from 1968 to 2001, and its predecessor Mister Rogers, which ran from 1963 to 1966. Principal puppeteer Fred Rogers developed many of the characters in the 1950s for Josie Carey's program, The Children's Corner. Both shows were shot in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Overview The adventures of the Make-Believe Neighborhood citizens appear in a short segment once in the middle of almost every episode. Rogers deliberately makes clear the distinction between the "real world" and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe by transitioning in and out of the Neighborhood segment via a distinctive red and yellow model electric trolley that enters and exits through small tunnels in the wall (or occasionally by setting up small tabletop models of the various Neighborhood of Make Believe buildings), and by discussing what had happened with his audience after the end of each segment. The same storyline continues for a week or more (similar to a soap opera), though Rogers is always sure to recap the plot for the audience. Characters Characters in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe were portrayed by both hand puppets operated by puppeteers, and on-screen actors. They would occasionally talk to the viewers in specific episodes. Regular puppets King Friday XIII (performed by Fred Rogers in the original series, Matt Vogel in Donkey Hodie) – King Friday XIII is the imperious monarch of the neighborhood. He is relatively egocentric, irrational, resistant to change, and temperamental, although open-minded enough to listen when told he is wrong. He has a fondness for giving long-winded speeches and using big words. When meeting with someone, he would quote "[insert character name here], I presume." He or she would respond: "Correct as usual/always, King Friday." King Friday has two pet wooden birds named Troglodytes aedon and Mimus polyglottos (the scientific names, in genus and species, of the house wren and the northern mockingbird, respectively). Mimus appeared first in Episode #20 from 1968 and Troglodytes appeared in Episode #1285 from 1973. King Friday also uses big words for certain songs like "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" and "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which he refers to as "Royal versions". King Friday was the second puppet to appear on Children's Corner. Queen Sara Saturday (performed by Fred Rogers) – Queen Sara Saturday is King Friday's wife. She was first introduced as a commoner from Westwood on Episode #32 and the two married in Episode #1015. In the third-season episode #1117, they had a son named Prince Tuesday. Queen Sara is more rational and level-headed than her husband. She frequently mentions doing charity work for Food for the World. Queen Sara was named for and resembles Fred Rogers' wife, Sara Joanne Rogers. Prince Tuesday (performed by Adair Roth (pre '79 series), Fred Michael (1979–1980), Charles Altman (1981–1986), briefly Carole Switala, Lenny Meledandri (1987–2001)) – Prince Tuesday is the son of King Friday and Queen Sara. Born in the third season (Episode #1117) and named for the day of the week when he was born, Prince Tuesday is one of only two characters to age during the course of the series (he starts as a baby, then a toddler; and from 1979 onward, he is elementary school-aged). He is curious and enthusiastic and attends the school in "Someplace-Else". X the Owl (performed by Fred Rogers) – X the Owl lives in an old oak tree in the Neighborhood. He is eager and cheerful and has a strong desire to learn new things. Many of X's stories involve assignments from the Owl Correspondence School and he idolizes Benjamin Franklin. He also has trouble making decisions. X was the third puppet to appear on Children's Corner. Henrietta Pussycat (performed by Fred Rogers) – Henrietta Pussycat is X's neighbor and lives in a small yellow and orange school house supported by a strong limb on the tree. Early episodes established her as the governess of several nice mice, thus the schoolhouse. She has a habit of randomly inserting "meow" into her sentences due to being a cat. When she was first introduced, she could only say "beautiful", "telephone", and "Mister Rogers", in addition to "meow". She is anxious, preoccupied with beauty, and prone to jealousy. She also was the flower girl at Betty and James' wedding. She is the fourth puppet to appear on Children's Corner. Lady Elaine Fairchilde (performed by Fred Rogers) – Lady Elaine Fairchilde is an outspoken, cranky schemer who moved to the Neighborhood from Someplace Else to run the Museum-Go-Round after the Froggs moved out in early 1969. Lady Elaine was often known to say "Okay, toots," and is generally the antagonist when a storyline calls for one. One of her prized possessions is her Boomerang-Toomerang-Zoomerang, with which she can turn the neighborhood upside-down. Although a frequent antagonist (hinted at times to hide possible insecurities), she is not portrayed as evil, but as someone who challenges authority, particularly King Friday's authority, as she often has rows with the king. She first appeared in Episode #5 of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood and is named after Fred's adopted sister. Daniel Stripèd Tiger (performed by Fred Rogers) – Daniel Stripèd Tiger is the first puppet ever to appear on Children's Corner and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. He is a shy tiger who lives in a non-functioning grandfather clock with no hands (because, in make-believe, it is whatever time you imagine). Despite his shyness, Daniel exhibits wisdom and intelligence when he does speak. His favorite toy is a small dump truck, and he wears a watch on one arm because "when you live in a clock you really should know what time it is." He was the ring bearer for Betty and James's wedding. He was named after Dorothy Daniel, who gave Fred his first puppet. Daniel was the puppet most frequently brought along by Rogers for live performances and Rogers stated that Daniel represented certain aspects of his personality. In July 2011, PBS announced that Daniel's son (also named Daniel) would be the star of his own show Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood. Cornflake "Corney" S. Pecially (performed by Fred Rogers) – Cornflake S. Pecially is a beaver-like character who is the proprietor of a factory specializing in rocking chairs. His original factory burned down in a story during the first season, but his neighbors pitched in to help him build a new one. Corney has also been known to produce dolls, pretzels, model trolleys, and other goods. He debuted on Misterogers, the precursor of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. Corney's middle initial and last name are a play on the word "especially." Grandpère Tiger (performed by Fred Rogers) – His real name being "Henri Frederique de Tigre", Grandpère Tiger is a French tiger and bon-vivant who lives to the left of the castle in the Eiffel Tower. He has a very kind heart and often donates the use of the tower to his neighbors whenever they ask. Collette Tiger (performed by Fred Rogers) - Collete is Grandpère's granddaughter who lives in France and appears in 1971 and 1984. At first, Henrietta Pussycat becomes jealous of Collette because of her beauty. In time, they become good friends. The Frogg Family – The Frogg Family are a family of frogs who were the original curators of the Museum-Go-Round. The family is made up of Dr. Frank Lee Frogg who works as a pediatrician, Mrs. Frogg, and their son Tadpole. The family moved to Westwood during the first color week of the series and were only seen infrequently after that. The Platypus Family – The Platypus Family are duck-billed platypuses who live in a mound. It consists of Dr. Bill Platypus (performed by Bill Barker in a Scottish accent), his wife Elsie Jean Platypus (also performed by Bill Barker) and their daughter Ornithorhynchus Anatinus (Ana) Platypus (the Latin scientific name for a platypus) (performed by Carole Muller Switala). Along with Prince Tuesday, she is one of two puppet characters to age during the series. Ana has four grandparents: Grandma Nell Platypus, Grandpa Tom Platypus (maternal), Nana Platypus and Dada Platypus (paternal). Dr. Bill works at the Eiffel Tower where Grandpère lives and plays the bagpipes. "Doc Bill" plays on the word "duck-bill." Harriet Elizabeth Cow (performed by Bob Trow in the original series, Stephanie D'Abruzzo in Donkey Hodie) – Harriet Elizabeth Cow is the school teacher and Donkey Hodie's co-worker in "Someplace Else". She played the organ for Betty and James' wedding and is named after Fred Rogers' aunt. Edgar Cooke (performed by Fred Rogers) – Edgar Cooke is the chef of the castle who sings everything he says, per King Friday's request for a "singing chef" H.J. Elephant III (performed by Chuck Aber) – H.J. Elephant III is one of Prince Tuesday's friends. Betty Okonak Templeton-Jones (performed by Michael Horton) – Betty Okonak Templeton-Jones is the longtime friend of Lady Elaine who occasionally comes to visit from Southwood. She was a widow until marrying James Michael Jones. James Michael Jones (performed by Michael Horton) – James Michael Jones is Betty Okonak Templeton-Jones's second husband. James is a resident of Glassland where he did "Exactly Like Me" portraits (which are really mirrors). Carrie Dell Okonak Templeton-Jones – Known as "Carrie Dell" for short, Carrie Dell Okonak Templeton-Jones is the adopted daughter of James Michael Jones and Betty Okonak Templeton-Jones. Old Goat (performed by Tom Megalis in the first storyline, Michael Horton in the second storyline) – Old Goat is a resident of Northwood and speaks only in "goat sounds". New Goat (performed by Sara Locklard) - New Goat is a resident of Northwood and can translate for Old Goat. Donkey Hodie (performed by Fred Rogers in the original series, David Rudman in Donkey Hodie) – Donkey Hodie is a donkey that lives in Someplace Else with Harriet Elizabeth Cow and operates a Washer Dryer Sorter Dumper there. Originally, Donkey Hodie came to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe to build a windmill, but King Friday didn't like having it so close to the castle. At the scientific advice of Scientist Adler, Donkey Hodie relocated to Someplace Else. The name "Donkey Hodie" is a pun of the name of Don Quixote, and the windmill storyline is a spoof of Don Quixote's penchant for tilting at windmills. Donkey Hodie has a series which aired on May 3, 2021, and was redesigned as a more modern felt-faced puppet. The titular character from Donkey Hodie is the granddaughter of the original Donkey Hodie and the original Donkey Hodie is referred as Grampy Hodie. Hilda Dingleboarder (performed by Barbara Russell) - An employee at Corney's factory. She once invented a recycling machine when the Neighborhood of Make-Believe faced a garbage crisis. Yo-Yo LaBelle (performed by Michael Horton) - An alien from the stars. All he can say is "Mee" and "Thee." Only Daniel Stripèd Tiger can understand what Yo-Yo LaBelle is saying. Audrey Duck (performed by Susan Linn) - An occasional visitor to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Catalion (performed by Susan Linn) - A lion who is an occasional visitor to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe and is a friend of Audrey Duck. Mr. Skunk (performed by Chuck Aber) - A skunk who lives in Westwood and occasionally visits the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. As he is insecure, he tends to spray when nervous or startled. Neighborhood Trolley – A small, red, sentient electric trolley that enters and exits the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, taking the viewers of the show with it. Known simply as "Trolley", it communicates through the uses of its whistle of a steam locomotive and bell and occasionally moves backwards and forwards to get the other characters' attention or to show that it is getting impatient, and a musical melody is usually heard every time the Trolley moves along its tracks. It can go both fast and slow. Also, when lifted from the tracks, it can show pictures from the past, as revealed in the episodes "Then and Now". Live characters These characters, some in costumes, are much larger than the puppet characters and sometimes help the puppets with tasks such as lifting or moving large objects, which the small puppet characters are unable to do. Some of these live characters include: Lady Aberlin (portrayed by Betty Aberlin) – King Friday's niece and frequently the "main" character of the segments. Often the only full-sized character in the neighborhood segments, she acts as something of a level-headed older sister to the puppets and audience alike, and an audience surrogate, providing exposition for the story's narrative. She can occasionally be seen dancing around the Neighborhood whenever she's by herself. Sometimes nicknamed Lady A, she was one of Betty's brides-maids along with Lady Elaine for Betty and James' wedding. She also sometimes acts as a surrogate mother to Daniel Tiger, as, unlike Prince Tuesday or Ana Platypus, he has no parental figures, but attends school with them. She is the daughter of King Friday's older sister Claire, and her cousins are Prince Tuesday, as well as the sons of Friday's younger brother Paul (these include Nicky, Qwentin, Paulie and Kevin). After Prince Tuesday, and the sons of King Friday's brother, Lady Aberlin is next in line for the throne of the kingdom. Mr. McFeely (portrayed by David Newell) – The "Speedy Delivery" delivery man. He sometimes delivers letters and packages to the citizens of the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Generally if a package from OCS (Owl Correspondence School) is being delivered to X the Owl, Mr. McFeely delivers it. He is one of a few characters to pass between Mr. Rogers' "real" world and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Handyman Negri (portrayed by Joe Negri) – The friendly, avuncular neighborhood handyman. Plays the guitar. However, he was also originally known as Joe Negri in the early days of the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Bob Dog (portrayed by Bob Trow in the original series, performed by David Rudman in Donkey Hodie) – A friendly, playful dog. Bob Dog is enthusiastic about many things, a trait which sometimes gets him into trouble. Becomes an "adopted cousin" for Ana Platypus. Chef Brockett (portrayed by Don Brockett) – A baker who sometimes helps Edgar Cooke. He is one of the few characters to exist in both Mr. Rogers' "real" world and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Officer Clemmons (portrayed by François Clemmons) – A police officer who sometimes helps out King Friday in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Officer Clemmons regularly finds time to contribute to the many Neighborhood plays and operas. He once served as a professor for the Owl Correspondence School teaching a class in Early American Owl History. He is one of the few characters to exist in both Mr. Rogers' "real" world and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Scientist Adler (portrayed by Bud Adler) - A scientist who offered his scientific expertise to Donkey Hodie. He is one of a few characters to exist in Mr. Rogers' "real" world and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Mr. Appel - A struggling magician who sells magician equipment. He is one of a few characters to exist in Mr. Rogers' "real" world and the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. Pilot Ito (portrayed by Yoshi Ito) - After first appearing as herself and singing regularly for King Friday and his family, she later delivered King Friday's new airplane and was hired as the royal pilot. A talented opera singer who usually sang with Francois Clemmons in the "real" world, she appeared in three of the Neighborhood operas (twice as herself, once as Pilot Ito). Robert Troll (portrayed by Bob Trow) – The gibberish-speaking whimsical troll who is the friend of the castle. Robert Troll has many hidden talents as he is an artist, and is good at understanding things in nature. He is sometimes called "Robertroll". Robert Troll is a pun on his actor Robert Trow. Miss Paulificate (portrayed by Audrey Roth) – The telephone operator at the Castle. Storylines often allude to her former career as a dancer and she often demonstrates her tap-dancing abilities. She frequently takes the brunt of King Friday's bad moods. Nurse Miller (portrayed by Maxine Miller) - A nurse who works for Dr. Frogg. Mayor Maggie (portrayed by Maggie Stewart) – The Mayor of Westwood, a democracy bordering the Neighborhood of Make-Believe. She was introduced in the 1970s to show that women can run for mayor too. By contrast, the Neighborhood of Make-Believe is a monarchy, the throne of which is inherited by male-preference primogeniture. She is fluent in sign language. Despite being a leader of similar stature to the King, she is frequently roped into doing his bidding. Charles R. Aber: Westwood Neighbor (portrayed by Chuck Aber) – Also known as Neighbor Aber, he is the associate of Mayor Maggie of Westwood. During the course of the series, he also holds the position of a Clown T-shirt salesman, delivery man, and pilot. It is revealed that he is divorced and doesn't get to see his kids much. Despite living in Westwood, Aber is a frequent character in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe from 1981 to the end. In episode 1727 to episode 1730, Aber once posed as Kevin Wendell Gorilla to see how people would treat him if he wasn't himself. Mr. Anybody (portrayed by Don Francks) - A character in the earlier episodes who can take on any role. He was present when the Platypus Family moved into the Neighborhood of Make-Believe and was responsible for giving Trolley his whistle. Hula Mouse (portrayed by Tony Chiroldes) – A Spanish-speaking mouse who can do anything with his hula hoop. Called H.M. for short and has been heard to sing in English. Cousin Mary Owl (portrayed by Mary Rawson) – X the Owl's cousin. She is a green and yellow owl. She also attended OCS (Owl Correspondence School) and enjoys videography. X notes that Mary lives in a sycamore tree. She can write in "short wing," which is similar to short hand. Cousin Stephen Owl (portrayed by Stephen Lee) – X the Owl's cousin. Keith the Carpenter (portrayed by Keith David) – A carpenter from Southwood and unofficial "uncle" to Carrie Dell. He was James' best-man at his wedding. Digger Digorum (portrayed by Anna Haworth) - A regular visitor to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe who is King Friday XIII's teacher. Mr. Lloyd Allmine (portrayed by Bert Lloyd) – A man who took Daniel's clock, claiming he owned it (along with anything he wanted, hence his name). He returned in several other episodes, having reformed into a nicer character and running a museum of his collection. Ellen Patterson (portrayed by Zelda Pulliam) – Owner of Patterson Pools and Patterson Pipes. Beaver O'Day (portrayed by Jim Beard) – A beaver who is Ellen's partner. Reardon (portrayed by John Reardon) – A real-life opera baritone, Reardon comes to the Neighborhood to help produce and perform in the 13 "mini-operas". Purple Panda (performed by David L. Nohling in 1973–1991, Matt Meko in 1996–2000, Frankie Cordero in Donkey Hodie) – A two-toned purple-colored giant panda from Planet Purple with a robotic, monotone voice. He arrives in the neighborhood by teleporting, which is "The Purple Way to travel". He often carries a large bowl for his favorite dish, tapioca pudding. The Purple Panda that appears in Donkey Hodie is depicted as a hand puppet and is friends with the titular character. Little Panda (performed by Liz Rossi) – A smaller panda that is also from Planet Purple. His abilities appear similar to Purple Panda and he speaks in a similar monotonous voice. Randy S. Caribou (performed by Chuck Aber) – A caribou who wanted to hide from Chef Brockett after accidentally squashing a cake decorated to look like a soccer ball. He was played by Chuck Aber during the Fun and Games week of episodes. Big Bird (performed by Caroll Spinney) – Big Bird was a special guest on the show in one episode when he came to deliver his entry to the "Draw the Neighborhood" art contest. Henrietta became jealous of Big Bird, because she assumed he would be a better friend to X. Geography The Land of Make-Believe was staged with a theatrical set design, landmarks include (from left to right): Eiffel Tower – The only structure located left of the Castle; dark green and blue with red railing. There is also a red flashing light on top. Grandpère Tiger lives here. Its name and appearance is based on the real Eiffel Tower in Paris. King Friday's Castle – This is usually the first location seen in the Land of Make Believe as Trolley enters from a tunnel on its left side. Three different castles were featured in the show. For the first 27 episodes (in black and white), the castle was a very small (and presumably blue-colored as were the two forthcoming castles) two-tier structure with two archways in the lower tier and one archway in the combined square/round tower at the top. A television antennae was mounted in one of the square tower's front corners. On March 27, 1968, a larger castle was debuted without advance notice. This was also a two-tier structure with two archways in each and one polygonal tower at the top. A gold XIII plate was mounted on the front panel of the upper walkway. A new service entrance archway for employees and guests was built to the castle's right on the other side of the trolley tracks where it remained for the rest of the series. On February 27, 1969, the day before King Friday married Queen Sara Saturday, Lady Elaine used her boomerang and Handyman Negri played Brahms' Second Symphony on his guitar to magically change the old castle into a newer, even larger castle as their wedding gift to the royal couple. This became the well-known castle used for the remainder of the series: three-tier structure with seven archways; two in the lower tier, three in the center, and one in each of the two round towers at the top. The gold XIII was now under the second tier's widest archway where King Friday and Queen Sara came out to greet visitors. A carpeted exterior staircase was added to the left. A decorative waterfall/fountain was installed in front of the left side in 1971; King Friday would donate the waterfall to the people of Westwood many years later. Trolley Bridge/Tracks – There are two trolley routes in the Neighborhood. One is the usual route taken by the Neighborhood Trolley which is a concrete bridge that runs in front of the castle, entering the Neighborhood from the "real" world via tunnel on the left of the castle and running to the right tunnel next to the Castle's service entrance (and vice versa when it was time to return to the "real" world). The original trolley bridge for the first 27 episodes of the series ran a circular alignment to the original structure which castle guests had to cross under. When the castle was enlarged in the middle of the first season, the bridge was extended, widened and modified to make it easier for castle guests to cross under. A second route was occasionally used in which the Trolley ran past the other residences in the Neighborhood. Tele-can – The neighborhood can-and-string phone was originally located in a booth adjacent to the Rocking Chair Factory and Great Oak Tree. The booth was later reconstructed into a cage suspended in air and moved in front of the castle trolley tracks. Whenever anyone needed to make a call (via Miss Paulifficate, the castle operator), he or she would stand under the cage, look up and signal for the cage to come down. Rocking Chair Factory – Located to the right of the Castle service entrance. Cornflake S. Pecially lives and works here. The original structure consisted of lights, dials and meters and a wide open tier at the top where Corny greeted and talked to his friends and customers. There was also a storage box to the left of the main structure. On May 15, 1968, the factory was destroyed by an accidental fire in the boiler room. Two days later, a new larger factory was completed. This was a pink colored structure (not revealed to TV viewers until the first color episode on February 10, 1969) with "Rockit" in script lettering and new blinking lights, dials and meters. Additional features included a revolving gear wheel and a display case with three rocking chairs. Great Oak Tree – Located in the center of the neighborhood, it is residence to Henrietta Pussycat, who lives in a small yellow schoolhouse-shaped structure with red double doors and a yellow bell within the branches of the tree, as well as to X the Owl, whose home is entered through an orange door with crossbeams on its inside originally shaped like a "Z". On February 19, 1969, at X's request to coincide with his name, Handyman Negri installed two wooden blocks within the crossbeams, giving it its well-known "X" shape. Museum-Go-Round – A revolving round, grey structure with grey pillars, originally owned and operated by the Frogg Family. On February 10, 1969, Mr. Frogg accepted a position with the zoo in Westwood, prompting the family to find a new owner for the museum before moving from the Neighborhood of Make Believe. A couple of days later, Lady Elaine Fairchilde (then a resident of Someplace Else) impressed Mrs. Frogg with her knowledge of the museum and eagerness to become its new curator. Mrs. Frogg's recommendation of Lady Elaine was passed by King Friday and the Frogg Family made their transfer to Westwood. On February 18, Lady Elaine moved into her new residence and installed a new red bell outside. The next day, she painted the pillars various colors with an assist from Lady Aberlin. Like the castle, The Museum seems to have an endless number of rooms, frequently designated by letters (e.g. dinosaurs are in the "D" room). Frog Pond – A stone pond resembling a fountain where Dr. and Mrs. Frogg and their son, Tadpole, lived before moving to Westwood. This was removed after the first week of color episodes and replaced by the Platypus Mound. Platypus Mound – A mound with six holes, which replaced the Frog Pond when the Platypus Family moved to the neighborhood. Grandfather Clock – An orange structure in the shape of a clock with a white flower pendulum, knocker, and yellow face without hands. Daniel Stripèd Tiger lives here. This is the outermost structure on the neighborhood set, and characters are never shown venturing beyond it. Bordering regions The world of the Land of Make-Believe also features several other "regions." Along with King Friday's realm, there are also bordering territories including: The City of Westwood – West of the Neighborhood, half-a-day's walk from The Neighborhood of Make Believe and quarter-a-day's walk from Someplace Else. According to Mr. Aber, the region didn't have enough water supply for a swimming pool. The former Miss Sara Saturday was a resident of Westwood prior to her marriage to His Majesty King Friday XIII and her concurrent ennoblement as Queen Consort. The City of Southwood – South of the Neighborhood where Betty and James live. The Area of Northwood – Northwood is considered goat country and is north of the Neighborhood. Someplace Else – North of the neighborhood and south of Northwood where Donkey Hodie and Harriet Cow live. Located here is the schoolhouse where Daniel, Ana Platypus, and Prince Tuesday are students. Land of Allmine – Lloyd Allmine's home. It was later turned into a museum. Planet Purple Characters also frequently interact with the inhabitants of Planet Purple, where everything and everyone are purple and exactly the same. Every girl on Planet Purple is named "Pauline" and every boy is named "Paul." Purple Panda, a resident of Planet Purple, can return there "the purple way" (just by thinking). Moreover, all of the planet's inhabitants speak monotonously, often intoning, "We are people from the planet purple." Inhabitants of Planet Purple are forbidden to sit in rocking chairs and, if they do, they are not allowed to return home. In one visit to the Neighborhood, Purple Panda sits in one of Cornflake S. Pecially's rocking chairs. However, with the help of the rest of the Neighbors, it is agreed that sitting in rocking chairs is an acceptable activity for all people, and Purple Panda is allowed to return home. Planet Purple was discovered by Lady Elaine Fairchilde. Theatrical productions During the course of the series, the people and puppets in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe produced 13 "operas", with the assistance of John Reardon, and a play. These stories were told to the viewers by Fred Rogers. Operas The 13 operas are known as: Babysitter Opera (1968) Campsite Opera (1968) Teddy Bear Whaling Ship Opera (1969) Pineapples and Tomatoes (1970) Monkey's Uncle (1971) Snow People and Warm Pussycat (1972) Potato Bugs and Cows (1973) All in the Laundry (1974) Key to Otherland (1975) Windstorm in Bubbleland (1980) Spoon Mountain (1982) A Granddad for Daniel (1984) A Star for Kitty (1986) Play There was one play that was done in the series that featured the people and puppets in the Neighborhood of Make-Believe: Josephine the Short-Necked Giraffe (1989) Animated spinoffs In July 2011, at the annual Television Critics Association summer press tour, PBS announced the production of a Mister Rogers' Neighborhood animated spinoff, which debuted on the network in Fall 2012. Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood is hosted by Daniel Tiger (son of Daniel Stripèd Tiger) and features Neighborhood of Make-Believe characters as adults with families of their own. In January 2020, it was announced that a puppet spinoff of the series called Donkey Hodie was greenlit and would premiere in early 2021. The series would be crafted by Spiffy Pictures creators David & Adam Rudman and Todd Hannart. On January 27, 2021, it was confirmed that the series would launch on May 3 of that year and the series' logo, website, and theme song were revealed. References Fictional elements introduced in 1963 Fictional neighborhoods Fictional kingdoms Mister Rogers' Neighborhood
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Forme%20of%20Cury
The Forme of Cury
The Forme of Cury (The Method of Cooking, from Middle French : 'to cook') is an extensive 14th-century collection of medieval English recipes. Although the original manuscript is lost, the text appears in nine manuscripts, the most famous in the form of a scroll with a headnote citing it as the work of "the chief Master Cooks of King Richard II". The name The Forme of Cury is generally used for the family of recipes rather than any single manuscript text. It is among the oldest extant English cookery books, and the earliest known to mention olive oil, gourds, and spices such as mace and cloves. Context The collection was named The Forme of Cury by Samuel Pegge, who published an edition of one of the manuscripts in 1780 for a trustee of the British Museum, Gustavus Brander. It is one of the best-known medieval guides to cooking. The Forme of Cury may have been written partly to compete with Le Viandier of Taillevent, a French cookery book created at about the same time. This supports the idea that banquets were a symbol of power and prestige for medieval lords and kings. Approach In the preamble, the authors explain that the recipes are meant to teach a cook how to make common dishes and unusual or extravagant banquet dishes. They also note that the recipes were written with the advice of the best experts in medicine and philosophy. The Forme of Cury is the first known English cookery book to mention some ingredients such as cloves, olive oil, mace and gourds. Many recipes contain what were then rare and valuable spices, such as nutmeg, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, and cardamom. In addition to imparting flavour, many of the spices called for were included specifically to impart rich colouring to the finished dishes for the purpose of, as Pegge says, "gratifying the sight". There is a particular emphasis on yellows, reds, and greens, but gilding and silvering were also used in several of the recipes. Yellow was achieved with saffron or egg yolk, red with "sanders" (sandalwood) or alkanet, and green often with minced parsley. There are recipes for preparing many types of animal meat, including whale, crane, curlew, heron, seal and porpoise. There are about ten vegetable recipes, including one for a vinaigrette salad, which indicates influence from Portugal and Spain, as French cooks rarely used vegetables at that time. There are also several pasta dishes, evidence of Italian influence. Some recipes in The Forme of Cury appear to have been influenced by the Liber de Coquina, which had contributions from Arabic cuisine. For example, the recipe for (see illustration) corresponds to the Arabic (a rich semolina pudding). The confectionery-like confirms the connection with Sicily (which had been Arab, Catalan and Norman), as it uses the Arab technique of cooking in soft ball syrup. Sample recipe The following is a recipe from the modern critical edition: In modern English: Sauce Madame. Take sage, parsley, hyssop and savory, quinces and pears, garlic and grapes, and stuff the geese with them, and sew the hole so that no dripping comes out, and roast them well and keep the dripping that falls from them. Take the gelatin and dripping and place in a cooking-pot. When the geese are roasted enough, take them off and chop them in pieces, and take what is within and put it in a cooking-pot and put in wine if it is too thick. Add to it powder of galangal, powder-douce and salt, and boil the sauce and dress the geese in dishes and lay the sauce on. Modern recreations The Café at the Rylands, in Manchester's John Rylands Library where the manuscript is kept, cooked Tart in Ymber Day, Compast, Payn Puff, Frumenty and Gingerbrede, accompanied by Piment (spiced wine), for invited guests in 2009. See also Apicius – a collection of Roman cookery recipes Liber de Coquina – 14th-century cookbook of Italian and French origin Utilis Coquinario – another Middle English cookbook Le Viandier – 14th-century French cookbook Notes References Bibliography (modern critical edition) External links British Library, Add. MS 5016, a 15th-century copy of The Forme of Cury in scroll format. John Rylands Library, English MS 7; (index to the images) , an 18th-century edition (page images) Text, links and modern versions at the Foods of England project Pygg in sawse sawge (British Library) Medieval cookbooks Middle English literature History of English cuisine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Carrillo
Leo Carrillo
Leopoldo Antonio Carrillo (; August 6, 1880 – September 10, 1961), known professionally as Leo Carrillo, was an American actor, vaudevillian, political cartoonist, and conservationist. He was best known for playing Pancho in the popular television series The Cisco Kid (1950–1956) and in several films. Biography Family roots Leo Carrillo was a member of the Carrillo family of California, a prominent Californio family, and traced his ancestry through California, Mexico, and Spain to the year 1260. His great-great grandfather José Raimundo Carrillo (1749–1809), was a soldier in the Spanish Portolá expedition colonization of Las Californias, arriving in San Diego on July 1, 1769. Franciscan Friar Junípero Serra performed the marriage ceremony for Don Jose Raimundo and Tomasa Ignacia Lugo in 1781. His great-grandfather Carlos Antonio Carrillo (1783–1852) was governor of Alta California (1837–38). His great-uncle, José Antonio Carrillo, was a three-time mayor of Los Angeles and twice married to sisters of Governor Pío Pico. His paternal grandfather, Pedro Carrillo, who was educated in Boston, was a writer. Early history The family moved from San Diego to Los Angeles then to Santa Monica, where Carrillo's father Juan José Carrillo (1842–1916), served as the city's police chief and later the first mayor. His cousin was Broadway star William Gaxton (real name Arturo Antonio Gaxiola). Proud of his heritage, Carrillo wrote the book The California I Love, published shortly before his death in 1961. Career A university graduate, Carrillo worked as a newspaper cartoonist for the San Francisco Examiner, then turned to acting on Broadway. In Hollywood, he appeared in more than 90 films, often as a dialect specialist -- although in real life, he had a baritone speaking voice without a trace of an accent. He usually used the dialect for comic effect, liberally salting his speech with malaprops: "My ears, they are para-loused!" or "Why you wanna put your dirty face in my horse's water? I got a healthy horse and you put Germans in the water!" When his screen character left any scene, Carrillo always exclaimed, "Let's went!" Leo Carrillo could play sympathetic and villainous roles with equal skill. In 1951 he took the starring role in the feature film Pancho Villa Returns, which was filmed in both English-dialogue and Spanish-dialogue versions. However, he is best remembered as Pancho, good-natured sidekick of The Cisco Kid, opposite Duncan Renaldo as Cisco. Renaldo and Carrillo were teamed for a series of feature films in 1949, and then for a syndicated television series that ran from 1950 until 1956. The Cisco Kid was notable as the first TV series filmed in color. After The Cisco Kid ended production, Carrillo appeared in the episode "Rescue at Sea" of the syndicated military drama Men of Annapolis. Civic contributions Carrillo was a preservationist and conservationist of long standing. When a film crew did location filming in Hilo, Hawaii in 1933, the city named one of its stately banyan trees in Carrillo's honor; the "Leo Carrillo tree" still stands there today. Carrillo served on the California Beach and Parks commission for 18 years and played a key role in the state's acquisition of Hearst Castle at San Simeon, Los Angeles Arboretum, and Anza-Borrego Desert State Park. He eventually was made a goodwill ambassador by the California governor at the time. As a result of his service to California, west of Malibu, California on CA-1 Pacific Coast Highway, a 1.5-mile beach is named Leo Carrillo State Park in his honor. The City of Westminster, California named an elementary school for him. Leo Carrillo Ranch Historic Park, originally Rancho de los Kiotes, in Carlsbad, California, is a registered California Historical Site. Rancho Carrillo Trail, also in Carlsbad, is named for Leo Carrillo. Political views In the early days of World War II, Carrillo advocated for the removal of all Japanese Americans from the west coast. In a telegram to Congressman Leland Ford that received extensive coverage, Carrillo wrote: I travel every week through a hundred miles of Japanese shacks on the way to my ranch, and it seems that every farmhouse is located on some strategic elevated point. Let's get them off the coast and into the interior. You know and I know the Japanese situation in California. The eastern people are not conscious of this menace. May I urge you in behalf of the safety of the people of California to start action at once. Carrillo was a Republican. In 1944, for instance, he performed a "Wild West" act at the massive rally organized by David O. Selznick in the Los Angeles Coliseum in support of the Dewey-Bricker ticket as well as Governor Earl Warren of California, who became Dewey's running mate in 1948 and later the Chief Justice of the United States. The gathering drew 93,000, with Cecil B. DeMille as the master of ceremonies and with short speeches by Hedda Hopper and Walt Disney. Among the others in attendance were Ann Sothern, Ginger Rogers, Randolph Scott, Adolphe Menjou, Gary Cooper, Edward Arnold, William Bendix, and Walter Pidgeon. Personal life In 1913, Carrillo married Edith Shakespeare Haeselbarth of Nyack, New York, whom he met backstage at the New York City theater where she had seen him perform. They remained together until her death in 1953. They lived in Los Alisos on Channel Road, in Santa Monica Canyon. The Carrillos had one child, a daughter, Marie Antoinette. They spent part of their time at their ranch in Carlsbad, California. Carrillo frequently permitted Boy Scout groups to camp on the grounds. Death Leo Carrillo died of cancer in 1961 at the age of 81 and is interred at Santa Monica's Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery. Legacy For his contributions to the film industry, Leo Carrillo has a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1635 Vine Street, and a second star at 1517 Vine Street for his work in television. Filmography See also Rancho De Los Kiotes (Leo Carrillo Ranch Historic Park) Leo Carrillo State Park Notes Footnotes Mark Anthony Carrillo Sr Born July 13, 1982 the relative of Leo Carrillo Citations References José Raimundo Carrillo (1749-1809) Leo Carrillo biography PIO PICO GENEALOGY DATABASE Santa Monica |title=Leo Carrillo The California I Love Billboard, 24 Sep 1949. Page 47. Leo Carrillo Ranch Historic Park Rancho Carrillo Trail David M. Jordan, FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2011), p. 231 [http://projects.latimes.com/hollywood/star-walk/leo-carrillo/ Hollywood Star Walk Leo Carrillo cuzin to Mark Anthony Carrillo is related to Leo Carrillo/San Gabriel ] External links Leo Carrillo Ranch Historic Park Friends of Carrillo Ranch Community of Rancho Carrillo - Riverside County The Colt Revolver in the American West—Leo Carrillo's Single Action Army 1880 births 1961 deaths American male film actors Hispanic and Latino American male actors History of Los Angeles Male actors from Los Angeles American people of Spanish descent Vaudeville performers Deaths from cancer in California American cartoonists People from Freeport, New York Artists from California 20th-century American male actors Burials at Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery, Santa Monica California Republicans Western (genre) television actors Male Western (genre) film actors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%20von%20Count
Count von Count
Count von Count (known simply as the Count) is a mysterious but friendly vampire Muppet on the long-running PBS/HBO children's television show Sesame Street who is meant to parody Bela Lugosi's portrayal of Count Dracula. He first appeared on the show in the Season 4 premiere in 1972, counting blocks in a sketch with Bert and Ernie. Description and personality The Count's main role is to teach counting skills to children. The Count loves counting so much (as said in his signature greeting, “They call me the Count because I love to count things.”) that he often will count anything and everything regardless of size or amount, to the point of annoying other characters. In Episode 0539 (Season 5, 1973), for example, he hired Ernie to answer his telephone so that he would not be bothered while looking for things to count. He then impulsively forbade him from answering the first call that came through until it was way too late because he wanted to count all 5 times the telephone rang, and a mêlée resulted when the caller re-tried, resulting in an argument with Ernie. In Episode 1970 (Season 16, 1984), on his first day of serving as an elevator operator, he foolishly neglected to let Kermit the Frog out at his selected floor, because he wanted to count all 10 floors in the building, and was unable to stop until he finished, leaving Kermit very angry. In Episode 3489 (Season 27, 1996), he tricked Oscar the Grouch into saying the word "no" 17 times, by continuously knocking on his trash can and prodding him to help the Count find something to count 17 of. The Count can occasionally lose his temper if interrupted while counting, or feel sad when there is nothing around for him to count. But apart from these, he is typically portrayed as friendly and cheerful. Once he reaches the total number of his targeted item to count, thunderstorms roll (even indoors) while he laughs his iconic "Ah-Ah-Ah!" staccato laugh. The Count lives in an old cobweb-infested castle which he shares with many bats, a wolf named Yuba, and a cat named Fatatita. He spent his childhood in the Carpathian Mountains, which makes it clear he is Romanian, as explained in his most famous song, "The Batty Bat". His pet bats tend to have Slavic names, such as Grisha, Misha, Sasha, and Tatiana. He views the bats as his "children" and sometimes counts them. As a running gag, his castle has a squeaky door, which visitors always point out, only for the Count to instantly change the subject to his counting addiction. The Count drives a special car, the Countmobile, designed to look like a bat. (cf. Batmobile) The Count has been shown with a number of girlfriends, who tend to be vampire Countesses. These include Countess von Backwards (debuting in Sesame Street‘s 28th season), who counts backward, her total is indicated by a wolf howl; Countess Dahling von Dahling (debuted in the 12th season); and one simply called "The Countess" (first appearing in season 8). The von Count family includes an unnamed brother and mother as well as an Uncle Uno and grandparents. His grandparents are unnamed, but they too love to count and have a similar laugh (ah ah ah!), but instead of thunder and lightning, Grandma Count’s counting makes it rain, and Grandpa Count’s counting makes it snow. The Count has a personal cloud hovering over him, which is the possibility of the source of his thunder and lightning. Some residents have been disturbed by it in a few episodes. For example, it interrupted Kermit's broadcast at the Three Little Pigs' house, and the pigs were frightened by it, thinking rain would follow, and in episode 0974, he was counting at midnight, and as his punishment, the Amazing Mumford used magic to detach his cloud, therefore taking his thunder and lightning away until he understood. This episode was featured in a 1978 Sesame Street bedtime storybook titled "Who Stole the Count's Thunder?" According to BBC News, during an interview with the More or Less team's Tim Harford, the Count said his favorite number is 34,969. The Count was quoted as saying, "It's a square-root thing.": 34,969 is a perfect square, being 1872. The Count's signature song is "The Song of the Count". The song was written by Jeff Moss as a traditional Hungarian Csárdás. He might not be a vampire in the classic sense, given that he has been seen with a reflection in a mirror, and he has no problem with being out in the daylight. The Count was originally portrayed by Jerry Nelson. However, Nelson's health began to deteriorate in 2004, so he retired from performing all his characters except for the Count and his other Sesame Street characters. Due to his increasingly failing health, Nelson could no longer puppeteer the character of the Count, so he handed over puppeteering duties to Matt Vogel, though Nelson still continued to voice the Count. After Nelson's death in 2012, Vogel took over voicing and puppeteering the Count full time the following year. Character history The Count debuted on Sesame Street in Episode 0406, the premiere of Season 4 (1972–73), and he was conceived by Norman Stiles, who wrote the first script. In the Count's very first scene, Ernie told Bert to watch his pyramid of blocks and make sure nothing happened to it while he got his camera to take a picture of the pyramid. The Count then walked by, counted the blocks, and in the process, took Ernie's pyramid apart before Bert could stop him. He then counted the blocks again, moving them back into place. Bert yelled at the Count for moving Ernie's blocks, so the Count counted the blocks again, taking the pyramid apart. The Count was performed by Jerry Nelson, who brought the character to life. He is made out of the Large Lavender Live Hand Anything Muppet pattern. Before a counting session, he originally greeted the viewers (and the characters) by saying, "Greetings. I am the Count. They call me the Count because I LOVE to count... things." Nelson voiced the Count until his death on August 23, 2012. At that time, Matt Vogel had taken over performing the puppetry of the Count. Upon Nelson's death, Vogel started performing both the Count's voice and puppetry. His first performance of the Count was in a YouTube video called "Counting the Yous in YouTube", a song about the celebration of Sesame Street's YouTube channel reaching 1 billion views. Despite the fact that the Count is now friendly and non-threatening, in his earliest appearances from 1972 to 1975, he showed a much more villainous nature. To begin a counting session, the Count would enter the scene holding his cape over his face in an exaggerated Lugosi-style pose before reciting his greeting, and he was often accompanied by creepy organ music. He would not even let anything interrupt him while counting, and to prevent this, he shouted "SILENCE!" and used hypnotic powers to temporarily stun people with a wave of his hands (although he sometimes did this without shouting anything, and even did it for no reason, occasionally). He only did this twice. In his first appearance, he hypnotized Bert before counting Ernie's pyramid blocks, while on season 5, during a skit with Grover, the waiter, he hypnotized Grover to serve him more hot dogs to count instead of eating, leaving Grover breathless. And after counting, he would laugh maniacally, "MWAH HA HA HA HA HAAAA!!!", while thunder and lightning flashed in moody colors, and then he would exit the scene, once again, holding his cape over his face. This aspect of the Count's personality, however, was abruptly ended in 1975 out of concern that it might frighten younger viewers, and this practice was changed, as he became friendlier, did not have hypnotic powers, did not enter or exit the scene holding his cape over his face, and interacted more pleasantly with the characters (both live actors and Muppets). Also, the creepy organ music was removed, the lightning flashes were changed from moodily colored to normally colored, and his laugh was changed from a maniacal laugh to a more throaty, triumphant Lugosi-style laugh, "Ah! Ah! Ah! Ah! Ah!" Belvedere Castle, in New York's Central Park, was used for exterior establishing shots of the Count's castle on the show. The Count made an appearance in the film The Muppets Take Manhattan at Kermit the Frog and Miss Piggy's wedding, then in the Sesame Street movies Follow That Bird (1985) as a supporting character and The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland (1999) as a minor character. Notably, the Count appeared on-screen during the closing credits of Follow That Bird, where he proceeded to read and count the credits. He also said, "Hi, Mom." when a credit appears for Joan Ganz Cooney, creator of Sesame Street. In Season 33, the Count got a daily segment on Sesame Street, simply called The Number of the Day. Internationally In the Dutch version of the series, Sesamstraat, the Count's name is Graaf Tel (literally, "Count (nobleman) Count (the process of counting)"). In the French series 1, Rue Sésame, his name is Comte von Compte. In the German series Sesamstraße, his name is Graf Zahl (literally, "Count Number"). In the Hebrew series Rechov Sumsum, his name is 'מר סופר', phonetically pronounced 'Mar Sofer', which literally means "Mr. Counter". In the Mexican series Plaza Sésamo, his name is Conde Contar (literally, "Count of Counting"). In the Polish series Ulica Sezamkowa, his name is Liczyhrabia (literally, "Countcount"). In the Portuguese series Rua Sésamo, his name is Conde de Contar (translated as "Count of Counting"). In the Russian series Улица Сезам, his name is Graf Znak (Граф Знак) (translated as "symbol" or "sign" as the mathematical categories). In the Spanish series, Barrio Sésamo, his name is Conde Draco. In the Turkish series Susam Sokağı, his name is Sayıların Kontu (literally, "The Count of Numbers") Appearances outside Sesame Street The Count appeared on a video package aired on the first episode of the Late Show with David Letterman that was shown after Letterman's emergency quintuple bypass operation. He appeared as a surgeon in an operating theater, counting "One bypass... AH AH AH! Two bypass..." The Count was interviewed in character on the BBC Radio 4 economics programme More or Less on December 11, 2009, where he mentioned his favorite number, 34969. He appeared on the Halloween edition of SportsCenter to count down the top ten trick plays of the 2010 college football season. He was a guest on Countdown with Keith Olbermann for the first-anniversary episode. He was animated in Family Guy counting bats, and then Peter Griffin asked if the Count had ever "done someone in." In a later episode, when he is dating Meg Griffin, he counts three nipples and then leaves immediately in disgust. He was also animated in The Simpsons, this time counting coconuts. Marge Simpson admits her dislike towards the Count. She gets upset and yells, "Go back to your own country!". In another episode, Homer Simpson and Count Dracula asked him where they could find Lisa Simpson and Edmund, who had run away together. The Count is also seen sucking Big Bird's blood. The Count also appears along with Elmo and Big Bird at the Springfield ice show. In the Mormon Tabernacle Choir 2014 PBS Christmas Concert Keep Christmas with You, Tabernacle organist Richard Elliott along with the Count, performed "The Twelve Days of Christmas" on the 7,667-pipe Conference center organ. He was a guest on Late Night with Seth Meyers on March 27, 2015, to help out in the feature "This Week in Numbers". In the video game Plague Inc., an achievement references The Count, which is triggered when the player's vampire makes 123 victims in the USA. He was interviewed in character by Wired in a video released on February 22, 2017. In the interview, he cannot decide on a single favorite number, and says he will be 6,523,728 years old "next October." He has an on-going role in supporting the United States Census in public service announcements. In popular culture The St. Paul Saints, an independent minor-league baseball team in St. Paul, Minnesota, known for unique and sometimes over-the-top promotions, announced that it would give away 2,500 bobblehead dolls dressed as the Count at its May 23, 2009 game. However, instead of the Count's regular head, this doll's head featured Al Franken on one side and Norm Coleman on the other, and was called "Count von Re-Count"—referring to the extraordinarily prolonged recount and legal battle surrounding the 2008 U.S. Senate election between the two men. The team made further jabs at the election during the game. Australian rugby league football international Anthony Minichiello has been nicknamed 'The Count' due to his striking resemblance to the character. During the 2020 United States presidential election, which required a ballot-counting period of four days before Joe Biden was declared the winner (a result of record-setting use of mail-in voting and early voting), the Count was featured in many internet memes and social media posts, such as playful wishes that he could be called in to assist the tabulation and the insistence that President Donald Trump's demand to "Stop the Count" was hopeless against the Sesame Street character. See also Arithmomania#In folklore and Vampire#Creating vampires for other vampires with a compulsion to count Notes and references Fictional counts and countesses Fictional vampires Sesame Street Muppet characters Television characters introduced in 1972 Transylvania in fiction Fictional Romanian people Vampires in television Fictional immigrants to the United States Gothic fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth%20Country%20Experiment
Nth Country Experiment
The Nth Country Experiment was an experiment conducted by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory starting in May 1964 which sought to assess the risk of nuclear proliferation. The experiment consisted in paying three recent young physicists who had just received their PhDs, though had no prior weapons experience, to develop a working nuclear weapon design using only unclassified information, and with basic computational and technical support. "The goal of the participants should be to design an explosive with a militarily significant yield", the report on the experiment read, "A working context for the experiment might be that the participants have been asked to design a nuclear explosive which, if built in small numbers, would give a small nation a significant effect on their foreign relations." The experiment ended on April 10, 1967, after only three man-years of work over two and a half calendar years. According to a heavily redacted declassified version of the summary, it was apparently judged by lab weapons experts that the team had come up with a credible design for the technically more challenging implosion style nuclear weapon. It is likely that they would have been able to design a simpler gun combination weapon even more quickly, though in such a case the limiting factor in developing such a weapon is not usually design difficulty but rather the procurement of material (enriched uranium). The term "Nth Country" referred to the goal in assessing the difficulty in developing basic weapons design (again, not the same thing as the development of weapons themselves) for any potential country with a relatively small amount of technical infrastructure—if the United States was the 1st country to develop nuclear weapons, and the USSR the 2nd, and so on, which would be the Nth country? Due to the increased amount of publicly available resources regarding nuclear weapons, it is reasonable to assume that a viable weapon design could be reached with even less effort today. However in the history of nuclear weapons, the development of fission weapons was never strongly hindered by basic design questions except in the very first nuclear weapons programs. The Summary Report of the Nth Country Experiment was declassified—though heavily excised—in 2003. Summary In April of 1964, physicists David A. Dobson and David N. Pipkorn were hired by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (then known as Livermore Radiation Laboratory) to design a nuclear explosive with "militarily significant yield". The following year, David Pipkorn dropped out of the project and was replaced by Robert W. Seldon, a captain in the United States Army Reserve. Like Pipkorn and Dobson, Seldon possessed a physics PhD and had no nuclear expertise. See also United States v. The Progressive, et al. — a court case regarding Howard Morland constructing the design for the hydrogen bomb from public domain documents. John Aristotle Phillips — a Princeton undergraduate who apparently accomplished a similar feat as those in the Nth Country Experiment in 1977. Smyth Report — first U.S. release on nuclear weapons technical information (1945) Nuclear terrorism References External links Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Livermore, "Summary Report of the NTH Country Experiment," W. J. Frank, ed., March 1967. (copy of original report in PDF format) No Experience Necessary Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Dan Stober, March/April 2003, pp. 12 Article from The Guardian Atomic John A truck driver uncovers secrets about the first nuclear bombs. Physics experiments Nuclear secrecy Nuclear proliferation 1964 in the United States 1964 in science
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter%20egg%20%28media%29
Easter egg (media)
An Easter egg is a message, image, or feature hidden in software, a video game, a film, or another, usually electronic, medium. The term used in this manner was coined around 1979 by Steve Wright, the then-Director of Software Development in the Atari Consumer Division, to describe a hidden message in the Atari video game Adventure, in reference to an Easter egg hunt. The earliest known video game Easter egg is in Moonlander (1973), in which the player tries to land a spaceship on the moon; if the player flies horizontally enough, they encounter a McDonald's restaurant and if they land next to it an astronaut will visit it instead of standing next to the ship. The earliest known Easter egg in software in general is one placed in the "make" command for PDP-6/PDP-10 computers sometime in October 1967–October 1968, wherein if the user attempts to create a file named "love" by typing "make love", the program responds "not war?" before proceeding. Origin The use of the term "Easter egg" to describe secret features in video games originates from the 1980 video game Adventure for the Atari 2600 game console, programmed by employee Warren Robinett. At the time, Atari did not include programmers' names in the game credits, both to prevent competitors from poaching its developers, as well as to deny developers a means to bargain with the management of the new owners, Warner Communications. Robinett, who disagreed with his supervisor over this lack of acknowledgment, secretly programmed the message "Created by Warren Robinett" to appear only if a player moves their avatar over a specific pixel (dubbed the "Gray Dot") during a certain part of the game and enters a previously "forbidden" part of the map where the message can be found. When Robinett left Atari, he did not inform the company of the acknowledgment that he included in the game. Shortly after his departure, the "Gray Dot" and his message were discovered by a player. Atari's management initially wanted to remove the message and release the game again, until this was deemed too costly. Instead, Steve Wright, the Director of Software Development in the Atari Consumer Division, suggested that they keep the message and, in fact, encourage the inclusion of such messages in future games, describing them as Easter eggs for consumers to find. In video games While Robinett's message in Adventure led to the first use of the phrase Easter egg, Easter eggs are included in previous video games. The earliest known video game Easter egg is in Moonlander (1973), in which the player tries to land a spaceship on the moon; if the player flies horizontally enough, they encounter a McDonald's restaurant and if they land next to it an astronaut will visit it instead of standing next to the ship. Other early known Easter eggs include one in the first text adventure game, Colossal Cave Adventure (1976), from which Adventure was fashioned, which includes several secret words. One of these is "xyzzy", a command which enables the player to move between two points in the game world. According to research by Ed Fries, one of the earliest Easter eggs in a graphical video games could be found in Starship 1 (1977), programmed by Ron Milner. By triggering the cabinet's controls in the right order, the player can have the message "Hi Ron!" appear on the screen. Fries describes it as "the earliest arcade game yet known that clearly meets the definition of an Easter egg". The existence of this Easter egg wasn't published until 2017, leading Fries to suggest that, as more than one hundred arcade games predate Starship 1, earlier Easter eggs may still be undiscovered. Fries says that some Atari arcade cabinets were resold under the Kee Games label and include changes to the hardware that make the game appear different from the Atari version. Anti-Aircraft II (1975) includes a means to modify the circuit board to make the airplanes in the game appear as alien UFOs. Fries surmises that this feature may have been intended for a Kee Games release. For this reason, and because it requires a hardware modification, Fries questions whether it meets the definition of an Easter egg. In 2004, an Easter egg displaying programmer Bradley Reid-Selth's surname was found in Video Whizball (1978), a game for the Fairchild Channel F system. Since Adventure, there has been a long history of video game developers placing Easter eggs in their games. Most Easter eggs are intentional - an attempt to communicate with the player, or a way of getting even with management for a perceived slight. Easter eggs in video games take a variety of forms, from purely ornamental screens to aesthetic enhancements that change some element of the game during play. The Easter egg included in the original Age of Empires (1997) is an example of the latter; catapult projectiles are changed from stones to cows. More elaborate Easter eggs include secret levels and developers' rooms - fully functional, hidden areas of the game. Developers' rooms often include inside jokes from the fandom or development team and differ from a debug room in that they are specifically intended for the player to find. Some games even include hidden minigames as Easter eggs. In the LucasArts game Day of the Tentacle (1993), the original Maniac Mansion (1987) game can be played in its full version by using a home computer in a character's room. Similarly, a programmer included the whole of TimeSplitters 2 (2002) within Homefront: The Revolution (2016), accessed by using a special code at an in-game arcade cabinet. Other Easter eggs originated unintentionally. The Konami Code, a type of cheat code, became an intentional Easter egg in most games, but originates from Konami's Gradius (1985) for the Nintendo Entertainment System. The programmer, Kazuhisa Hashimoto, created the code as a means to rapidly debug the game by giving the player's avatar additional health and powers to easily traverse the game. These types of codes are normally removed from the game before it is shipped but, in the case of Gradius, Hashimoto forgot to remove it and the code was soon discovered by players. Its popularity inspired Konami to reuse the code and purposely retain it for many of its future games as an Easter egg. Technical issues may also create unintentional Easter eggs. Jon Burton, founder of Traveller's Tales, said that many seemingly apparent Easter eggs in their Sega Genesis games came about as a result of introducing programming tricks to get around some of the difficulty they had in getting Sega's strict certification for their games, catching any exceptions during execution to bring the game back to a usable state as to pass certification. For example, hitting the side of the Sonic 3D Blast (1996) cartridge while it is slotted in the console will bring the game back to the Level Select screen, which Burton explains is the default exception handling for any unidentified processor error, such as when connectivity between the cartridge and the console's microprocessor is temporarily lost. In computing Software In computer software, Easter eggs are secret responses that occur as a result of an undocumented set of commands. The results can vary from a simple printed message or image to a page of programmer credits or a small video game hidden inside an otherwise serious piece of software. In the TOPS-10 operating system (for the DEC PDP-10 mainframe computer), the command is used to invoke the TECO editor to create a file. If given the file name argument , so that the command reads , it will pause and respond before creating the file. The Easter egg was added sometime between October 1967 and October 1968 by William F. Weiher at the Stanford AI Lab to the COMPIL program for the PDP-6, which was then used in the TOPS-10 operating system, making it the first Easter egg in a software program. This same behavior occurs on the RSTS/E operating system, where TECO will provide this response. Other Unix operating systems respond to "" with "" (a reference to The Prisoner in Berkeley Unix, 1977). Some versions of the DEC OpenVMS operating system have concealed exit status codes, including a reference to the Monty Python Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook skit; "" returns the message "%SYSTEM-W-FISH, my hovercraft is full of eels" while "" returns a reference to an early Internet meme: "%SYSTEM-F-GAMEOVER, All your base are belong to us". Many personal computers have much more elaborate eggs hidden in ROM, including lists of the developers' names, political exhortations, snatches of music, or images of the entire development team. Easter eggs in the 1997 version of Microsoft Office include a hidden flight simulator in Microsoft Excel and a pinball game in Microsoft Word. Since 2002, Microsoft does not allow any hidden or undocumented code as part of its trustworthy computing initiative. The Debian operating system's package tool apt-get has an Easter egg involving an ASCII cow when variants on are typed into the shell. An Easter egg is found on all Microsoft Windows operating systems before XP. In the 3D Text screen saver, entering the text "volcano" will display the names of all the volcanoes in the United States. Microsoft removed this Easter egg in XP but added others. In Windows Vista and later, by launching a screensaver executable (introduced with Windows Vista) on the command line with the /p65552 flag, for example launching the "bubbles" screen saver with bubbles.scr /p65552 command-line parameter, it runs as desktop wallpaper. Microsoft Excel 95 contains a hidden action game similar to Doom (1993) called The Hall of Tortured Souls. The Google search engine famously contains many Easter eggs, given to the user in response to certain search queries. Steve Jobs banned Easter eggs from Apple products upon his return to the company. The first Easter egg to appear after his death is in a 2012 update to the Mac App Store for OS X Mountain Lion, in which downloaded apps are temporarily timestamped as "January 24, 1984", the date of the sales launch of the original Macintosh. The Python programming language and its ecosystem of libraries include various Easter eggs. Hardware While computer-related Easter eggs are often found in software, occasionally they exist in hardware or firmware of certain devices. On some home computers the BIOS ROM contains Easter eggs. Notable examples include some errant 1993 AMI BIOS that on November 13, 1993, proceeded to play "Happy Birthday" via the PC speaker repeatedly instead of booting, as well as several early Apple Macintosh models that have photos of the development team in the ROM. These Mac Easter eggs were well-publicized in the Macintosh press at the time along with the means to access them, and were later recovered by an NYC Resistor team, a hacker collective, through elaborate reverse engineering. Similarly, the Radio Shack Color Computer 3's ROM contains code which displays what looks like three Microware developers on a ++ keypress sequence—a hard reset which discards any information currently in RAM. Several oscilloscopes contain Easter eggs. One example is the HP 54600B, known to have a Tetris (1984) clone, and the HP 54622D contains an imitation of the Asteroids (1979) game named Rocks. Another is the Tektronix 1755A Vector and Waveform Monitor which displays swimming fish when Remote > Software version is selected on the CONFIG menu. In the second and third hardware revision of the Minolta Dynax/Maxxum/Alpha 9 SLR camera, including all SSM/ADI upgraded cameras, an undocumented button sequence can be utilized to reconfigure the camera to behave like the Dynax/Maxxum/Alpha 9Ti and subsequently invoke support for the limited model's extra functions also in the black model. One of Hewlett-Packard's electronic pocket calculators, the HP-45 (introduced in 1973), has a built-in undocumented stopwatch. The Commodore Amiga 1000 computer includes the signatures of the design and development team embossed on the inside of the case, including Jay Miner and the paw print of his dog, Mitchy. The Commodore Amiga models 500, 600, and 1200 each feature Easter eggs in the form of song titles by The B-52's as white printing on the motherboards. The 500 says "B52/Rock Lobster", the 600 says "June Bug", and the 1200 says "Channel Z". The Amiga OS software contains hidden messages. Many integrated circuit (chip) designers have included hidden graphics elements termed chip art, including images, phrases, developer initials, logos, and more. This artwork, like the rest of the chip, is reproduced in each copy by lithography and etching. These are visible only when the chip package is opened and examined under magnification. The 1984 CVAX microchip implementation of the MicroVAX CPU contains in its etchings the Russian phrase in the Cyrillic alphabet "VAX: When you care enough to steal the very best", placed there because, "knowing that some CVAXs would end up in the USSR, the team wanted the Russians to know that we were thinking of them". Comics American comic book artists are known to include hidden messages in their art: In a reprint of classic Captain America comics, a production artist drew a penis on Bucky Barnes. In 2000, Al Milgrom inserted a message into Universe X: Spidey #1 insulting his previous boss, Marvel Editor in Chief Bob Harras, following Harras' termination from Marvel Comics. On Page 28, panel 3, the spines of books on a bookshelf in the background read, "HARRAS HA HA, HE'S GONE, GOOD RIDDANCE TO BAD RUBBISH HE WAS A NASTY S.O.B." The message was spotted after the book was printed but before it went on sale; the copies that were printed for consumers were destroyed. However, 4,000 preview copies were distributed to retailers as part of a "First Look" deal, and these are today considered rare collectors' items. Milgrom was "apparently fired and allegedly (and quietly) re-hired several weeks later". Ethan Van Sciver hid the word "sex" in the background of nearly every page of New X-Men #118 (November 2001). Van Sciver subsequently stated that he hid the word throughout the book because he was annoyed with Marvel at the time for reasons he cannot remember, and thought it would be fun to engage in some mischief with his work. Indonesian artist Ardian Syaf is known to engage in the practice of hiding Easter egg references to political figures in the backgrounds of his artwork. In Batgirl (vol. 4) #9 (July 2012), Syaf included a storefront sign that referenced the President of Indonesia, Joko Widodo, although the text that accompanies the image of Widodo is covered by a caption. In April 2017, he caused an outcry by placing Easter egg references to the November 2016 Jakarta protests into the pages of X-Men Gold #1, which were perceived by readers to be anti-Semitic and anti-Christian. Though Syaf acknowledged the political nature of the messages, he stated that they were not intended to express any anti-Semitic nor anti-Christian sentiment on his part. In response to these Easter eggs, Marvel terminated their contract with Syaf. Video Home media Easter eggs are found on films, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs, often as deleted scenes or bonus features. Klinger states that their presence is "another signifier of artistry in the world of DVD supplements." According to American film critics James Berardinelli and Roger Ebert, most DVDs do not contain them and most examples are "inconsequential", but a few, such as the one found on the Memento DVD release, are "worth the effort to seek out". Broadcast media Unlike DVDs and computer games, broadcast radio and television programs contain no executable code. Easter eggs may still appear in the content itself, such as a hidden Mickey in a Disney film or a real telephone number instead of a 555 fictitious telephone number. A 2014 Super Bowl advertisement was leaked online in which a lady gives a man a real telephone number, which the advertiser had hidden as a marketing ploy; the first caller to the number received a pair of tickets to the game. The 1980s animated series She-Ra: Princess of Power featured a character called Loo-Kee who typically appeared once per episode, hidden in a single screenshot. At the end of the episode, the screenshot would be shown again and Loo-Kee would challenge viewers to locate him before revealing his hiding place. More recent broadcast media, where viewers have access to high-resolution digital copies or streaming services, may include further Easter eggs that can only be found by freezing the show at certain points. In the anthology series Black Mirror, the producers have included Easter eggs that reference past episodes, or tie into future episodes, as a means of loosely tying together all episodes into a single Black Mirror universe. Security concerns Security author Michel E. Kabay discussed security concerns of Easter eggs in 2000, saying that, while software quality assurance requires that all code be tested, it is not known whether Easter eggs are. He said that, as they tend to be held as programming secrets from the rest of the product testing process, a "logic bomb" could also bypass testing. Kabay asserts that this undermined the Trusted Computing Base, a paradigm of trustworthy hardware and software in place since the 1980s, and is of concern wherever personal or confidential information is stored, as this may then be vulnerable to damage or manipulation. Microsoft created some of the largest and most elaborate Easter eggs, such as those in Microsoft Office. In 2005, Larry Osterman of Microsoft acknowledged Microsoft Easter eggs, and his involvement in development of one, but described them as "irresponsible", and wrote that the company's Operating System division "has a 'no Easter Eggs' policy" as part of its Trustworthy Computing initiative. In 2006, Douglas W. Jones said that while "some Easter eggs may be intentional tools used to detect illegal copying, others are clearly examples of unauthorized functionality that has slipped through the quality-control tests at the vendor". While hidden Easter eggs themselves are harmless, it may be possible for malware to be hidden in similar ways in voting machines or other computers. Netscape Navigator contributor Jamie Zawinski stated in an interview in 1998 that harmless Easter eggs impose a negligible burden on shipped software, and serve the important purpose of helping productivity by keeping programmers happy. Contemporary works about Easter eggs Easter eggs have become more widely known to the general public and are referenced in contemporary artworks. In the Doctor Who episode "Blink", the existence of video Easter eggs across seventeen DVDs leads to solving the protagonists' dilemma. In Ernest Cline's novel Ready Player One and its film adaptation, the protagonists are competing with others to find various Easter eggs within a large virtual reality environment. The final challenge includes identifying and reaching the Easter egg from the Atari Adventure game. See also List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products List of filmmaker's signatures List of Google Easter eggs The Book of Mozilla References External links "Chip Fun: Microchip-based Easter eggs" – National Museum of American History. The Easter Egg Archive Cheating in video games Computer humor In-jokes Perception Software anomalies Software features
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20English%20Bible
World English Bible
The World English Bible (WEB) is an English translation of the Bible published in 2000. It is an updated revision of the American Standard Version (1901). The World English Bible was created by volunteers using the American Standard Version as the base text as part of the ebible.org project through Rainbow Missions, Inc., a Colorado non-profit corporation. The World English Bible is one of the few public domain, twenty-first century English translations of the entire Bible, and it is freely distributed to the public using electronic formats. Features The World English Bible claims to be one of the few English-language Bibles custom translated to be understood by most English-speakers worldwide, eliminating the need for data-processing based or computer operating system-specific internationalizations. Work on the World English Bible began in 1997 and it was first known as the American Standard Version 1997. The World English Bible project was started to produce a modern English Bible version that is not copyrighted, does not use archaic English (such as the KJV), and is not translated into Basic English (such as the Bible in Basic English). The World English Bible follows the American Standard Version's decision to transliterate the Tetragrammaton, but uses "Yahweh" instead of "Jehovah" throughout the Old Testament. The British and Messianic editions as well as the Apocryphal books and New Testament use the traditional forms (e.g., the LORD). The translation also includes the following Apocryphal books (in the following order): Tobit Judith Additions to Esther (additions found in the LXX namely Esther 10:4 – 16:24) Wisdom (also known as the Wisdom of Solomon) Ecclesiasticus (or Sirach) Baruch Epistle of Jeremy (or the Letter of Jeremy) Prayer of Azarias (Daniel 3:24–97 in the LXX & Vulgate) Susanna (Daniel 13 in the LXX & Vulgate) Bel and the Dragon (Daniel 14 in the LXX & Vulgate) I Maccabees II Maccabees 1 Esdras Prayer of Manasses Psalm 151 III Maccabees IV Maccabees 2 Esdras Translation philosophy The work is based on the 1901 American Standard Version English translation, the Greek Majority Text, and the Hebrew Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia with some minor adjustments made because of alternate readings found in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint. These alternate readings are usually ignored or restricted to the footnotes. The translation process included seven phases of editing and proofreading for each book. An initial automated pass updated approximately 1,000 archaic words, phrases and grammatical constructs. The first manual pass added quotation marks (the ASV had none) and other punctuation and compared the translation to the Greek and Hebrew texts in areas where significant textual variants or meanings were unclear. Licensing All of the text of the World English Bible is deeded into the public domain. The ebible.org project maintains a trademark on the phrase "World English Bible" and forbids any derivative work that substantially alters the text from using the name "World English Bible" to describe it. The reasons given were that they felt copyright was an ineffective way of protecting the text's integrity and the fact that the Creative Commons licenses did not exist at the time the project began and thus, since the decision to place the text in the public domain had already been made, "it is way too late to change that decision" after the fact. Critical reception The Provident Planning web site uses the World English Bible because it is free of copyright restrictions and because the author considers it to be a good translation. The Bible Megasite review of the World English Bible says it is a good revision of the American Standard Version of 1901 (ASV) into contemporary English, which also corrects some textual issues with the ASV. The World English Bible is widely published in digital formats by a variety of publishers. See also Literal English Version – A derivative of the WEB New American Standard Bible Open English Bible – A primarily digitally published translation Modern Literal Version – A primarily digitally published translation New English Translation – A primarily digitally published translation References External links World English Bible at Project Gutenberg World English Bible online At Grace-Centered Magazine: Searchable World English Bible World English Bible online version 2000 books 2000 in Christianity Bible translations into English Public domain books simple:World English Bible
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windlass
Windlass
The windlass is an apparatus for moving heavy weights. Typically, a windlass consists of a horizontal cylinder (barrel), which is rotated by the turn of a crank or belt. A winch is affixed to one or both ends, and a cable or rope is wound around the winch, pulling a weight attached to the opposite end. The oldest depiction of a windlass for raising water can be found in the Book of Agriculture published in 1313 by the Chinese official Wang Zhen of the Yuan Dynasty ( 1290–1333). The Greek scientist Archimedes was the inventor of the windlass. Uses Vitruvius, a military engineer writing about 28 BC, defined a machine as "a combination of timber fastened together, chiefly efficacious in moving great weights." About a century later, Hero of Alexandria summarized the practice of his day by naming the "five simple machines" for "moving a given weight by a given force" as the lever, windlass, screw for power, wedge, and tackle block (pulley). Until nearly the end of the nineteenth century it was held that these "five mechanical powers" were the building blocks from which all more complex assemblages were constructed.' During the Middle Ages the windlass was used to raise materials for the construction of buildings such as in Chesterfield's crooked spire church. A windlass cocking mechanism on crossbows was used as early as 1215 in England, and most European crossbows had one by the Late Middle Ages. Windlasses are sometimes used on boats to raise the anchor as an alternative to a vertical capstan (see anchor windlass). The handle used to open locks on the UK's inland waterways is called a windlass. Windlass can be used to raise water from a well. The oldest description of a well windlass, a rotating wooden rod installed across the mouth of a well, is found in Isidore of Seville's ( 560–636) Origenes (XX, 15, 1–3). Windlass have also been used in gold mining. A windlass would be constructed above a shaft which allowed heavy buckets to be hauled up to the surface. This process would be used until the shaft got below 40 metres deep when the windlass would be replaced by a 'whip' or a 'whim'. Differential windlass In a differential windlass, also called a Chinese windlass, there are two coaxial drums of different radii r and r′. The rope is wound onto one drum while it unwinds from the other, with a movable pulley hanging in the bight between the drums. Since each turn of the crank raises the pulley and attached weight by only , very large mechanical advantages can be obtained. Spanish windlass A Spanish windlass is a device for tightening a rope or cable by twisting it using a stick as a lever. The rope or cable is looped around two points so that it is fixed at either end. The stick is inserted into the loop and twisted, tightening the rope and pulling the two points toward each other. It is commonly used to move a heavy object such as a pipe or a post a short distance. It can be an effective device for pulling cars or cattle out of mud. A Spanish windlass is sometimes used to tighten a tourniquet or a straitjacket. A Spanish windlass trap can be used to kill small game. An 1898 report to the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations about an American vessel captured by a Spanish gunboat described the Spanish windlass as a torture device. One of the captives' wrists were tied together. The captor then twisted a stick in the rope until it tightened and caused the man's wrists to swell. See also Differential pulley Hoist (device) References External links Spanish windlass Sailing rigs and rigging Mechanisms (engineering) Winches
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20John%20XIX
Pope John XIX
Pope John XIX (; died October 1032), born Romanus, was bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 1024 to his death. He belonged to the family of the powerful counts of Tusculum, succeeding his brother, Benedict VIII. Papal relations with the Patriarchate of Constantinople soured during John XIX's pontificate. He was a supporter of Emperor Conrad II and patron of the musician Guido of Arezzo. Family Romanus was born in Rome. He was the third son of Count Gregory I of Tusculum and his wife, Mary. During the pontificate of his brother, Benedict VIII, Romanus held the temporal power in the city as consul and senator. Upon the death of Benedict, Romanus, a layman, was elected to succeed him. He was immediately ordained in all the orders in succession, and consecrated bishop in order to enable him to ascend the papal chair. He took the name of John. Papacy John XIX played a role in the process leading to the Schism of 1054 by rejecting a proposal by Patriarch Eustathius of Constantinople to recognise that patriarchate's sphere of interest in the east. Against the grain of ecclesiastical history, John XIX agreed, upon being paid a large bribe, to recognize the patriarch of Constantinople's claim to the title of ecumenical bishop. However, this proposal excited general indignation throughout the Church, compelling him almost immediately to withdraw from the agreement. John invited the celebrated musician, Guido of Arezzo, to visit Rome and explain the musical notation invented by him. He encouraged the Benedictine to instruct the Roman clergy in music. On the death of the Emperor Henry II in 1024, John gave his support to Emperor Conrad II, who along with his wife, Gisela of Swabia, was crowned with great pomp at St. Peter's Basilica on Easter of 1027. Two kings, Rudolph III of Burgundy and Cnut the Great of Denmark and England, took part in this journey to Rome. Consistent with his role as a Christian king, Cnut went to Rome to repent for his sins, to pray for redemption and the security of his subjects, and to improve the conditions for pilgrims, as well as merchants, on the road to Rome. Rudolph had control of many of the toll gates. Negotiations being successful, the solemn word of the pope, Conrad and Rudolph was given with the witness of four archbishops, twenty bishops, and "innumerable multitudes of dukes and nobles", suggesting it was before the ceremonies were completed. In 1025 he sent the crown to Poland and blessed the coronation of the Polish king Bolesław I the Brave. On 6 April 1027, John held a Lateran synod in which he declared for the patriarch of Aquileia against the patriarch of Grado, giving its bishop, Poppo of Aquileia, the patriarchal dignity and putting the bishop of Grado under his jurisdiction. In fact, the patriarch took precedence over all Italian bishops. In 1029, John revoked his decision and reaffirmed all the dignities of Grado. John also enacted a papal bull endowing Archbishop Byzantius of Bari with the right to consecrate his own twelve suffragans after the reattachment of the Bariot diocese to Rome in 1025. This was part of a conciliatory agreement with Eustathius, whereby the existence of the Byzantine Rite would be allowed in Italy in exchange for the establishment of Latin Rite churches in Constantinople. Pope John XIX took the Cluny Abbey under his protection, and renewed its privileges in spite of the protests of Goslin, bishop of Macon. He offered Odilo of Cluny the archbishopric of Lyons, but Odilo refused and the pope then chided Odilo for disobedience. John XIX died shortly after. He was said to have been killed by a mob of angry peasants, but there is no evidence to support this. His nephew Benedict IX was selected to succeed him, although he was still young; according to some sources, he was only 12, but he was more likely to have been about 18 or 20. Family tree John XIX was closely related to five other popes who reigned in the 10th and 11th centuries, as well as some of the most powerful rulers of Italy at the time. References Sources Runciman, Steven. Byzantine Civilisation. London, University Paparback, 1961. Popes Italian popes 11th-century archbishops 1032 deaths Cardinal-nephews Medieval Roman consuls Year of birth unknown 11th-century popes Counts of Tusculum
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20College
Boston College
Boston College (BC) is a private Jesuit research university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. Founded in 1863, the university has more than 9,300 full-time undergraduates and nearly 5,000 graduate students. Although Boston College is classified as an R1 research university, it still uses the word "college" in its name to reflect its historical position as a small liberal arts college. Its main campus is a historic district and features some of the earliest examples of collegiate gothic architecture in North America. Boston College offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees through its eight colleges and schools: Morrissey College of Arts & Sciences, Carroll School of Management, Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Connell School of Nursing, Graduate School of Social Work, Boston College Law School, Boston College School of Theology and Ministry, Woods College of Advancing Studies. Boston College athletic teams are the Eagles. Their colors are maroon and gold and their and mascot is Baldwin the Eagle. The Eagles compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference in all sports offered by the ACC. The men's and women's ice hockey teams compete in Hockey East. Boston College's men's ice hockey team has won five national championships. Alumni and affiliates of the university include governors, ambassadors, members of Congress, scholars, writers, medical researchers, Hollywood actors, and professional athletes. Boston College has graduated several Rhodes, Fulbright, and Goldwater scholars. Other notable alumni include a U.S. Speaker of the House, a U.S. Secretary of State, and chief executives of Fortune 500 companies. History Early history In 1825, Benedict Joseph Fenwick, S.J., a Jesuit from Maryland, became the second bishop of Boston. He was the first to articulate a vision for a "College in the City of Boston" that would raise a new generation of leaders to serve both the civic and spiritual needs of his fledgling diocese. In 1827, Bishop Fenwick opened a school in the basement of his cathedral and took to the personal instruction of the city's youth. His efforts to attract other Jesuits to the faculty were hampered both by Boston's distance from the center of Jesuit activity in Maryland and by suspicion on the part of the city's Protestant elite. Relations with Boston's civic leaders worsened such that, when a Jesuit faculty was finally secured in 1843, Fenwick decided to leave the Boston school and instead opened the College of the Holy Cross west of the city in Worcester, Massachusetts where he felt the Jesuits could operate with greater autonomy. Meanwhile, the vision for a college in Boston was sustained by John McElroy, S.J., who saw an even greater need for such an institution in light of Boston's growing Irish Catholic immigrant population. With the approval of his Jesuit superiors, McElroy went about raising funds and in 1857 purchased land for "The Boston College" on Harrison Avenue in the Hudson neighborhood of South End, Boston, Massachusetts. With little fanfare, the college's two buildings—a schoolhouse and a church—welcomed their first class of scholastics in 1859. Two years later, with as little fanfare, BC closed again. Its short-lived second incarnation was plagued by the outbreak of Civil War and disagreement within the Society over the college's governance and finances. BC's inability to obtain a charter from the anti-Catholic Massachusetts legislature only compounded its troubles. On , more than three decades after its initial inception, Boston College's charter was formally approved by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. BC became the second Jesuit institution of higher learning in Massachusetts and the first located in the Boston area. Johannes Bapst, S.J., a Swiss Jesuit from French-speaking Fribourg, was selected as BC's first president and immediately reopened the original college buildings on Harrison Avenue. For most of the 19th century, BC offered a singular 7-year program corresponding to both high school and college. Its entering class in the fall of 1864 included 22 students, ranging in age from 11 to 16 years. The curriculum was based on the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum, emphasizing Latin, Greek, philosophy, and theology. Move to Chestnut Hill Boston College's enrollment reached nearly 500 by the turn of the 20th century. Expansion of the South End buildings onto James Street enabled increased separation between the high school and college divisions, though Boston College High School remained a constituent part of Boston College until 1927, when it was separately incorporated. In 1907, newly installed President Thomas I. Gasson, S.J., determined that BC's cramped, urban quarters in Boston's South End were inadequate and unsuited for significant expansion. Inspired by John Winthrop's early vision of Boston as a "city upon a hill", he re-imagined Boston College as world-renowned university and a beacon of Jesuit scholarship. Less than a year after taking office, he purchased Amos Adams Lawrence's farm on Chestnut Hill, six miles (10 km) west of downtown. He organized an international competition for the design of a campus master plan and set about raising funds for the construction of the "new" university. Construction began in 1909. By 1913, construction costs had surpassed available funds, and as a result Gasson Hall, "New BC's" main building, stood alone on Chestnut Hill for its first three years. Buildings of the former Lawrence farm, including a barn and gatehouse, were temporarily adapted for college use while a massive fundraising effort was underway. While Maginnis's ambitious plans were never fully realized, BC's first "capital campaign"—which included a large replica of Gasson Hall's clock tower set up on Boston Common to measure the fundraising progress—ensured that President Gasson's vision survived. By the 1920s BC began to fill out the dimensions of its university charter, establishing the Boston College Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, the Boston College Law School, and the Woods College of Advancing Studies, followed successively by the Boston College Graduate School of Social Work, the Carroll School of Management, the Connell School of Nursing, and the Lynch School of Education and Human Development. In 1926, Boston College conferred its first degrees on women (though it did not become fully coeducational until 1970). On April 20, 1963, an address by President John F. Kennedy, the nation's first Catholic president who had received an honorary degree in 1956, was the highlight of a week-long centennial celebration. With the rising prominence of its graduates, Boston College and its powerful Alumni Association had established themselves among the city's leading institutions. At the city, state and federal levels, BC graduates dominated Massachusetts politics for much of the 20th century. However, cultural changes in American society and in the church following the Second Vatican Council forced the university to question its purpose and mission. Meanwhile, poor financial management lead to deteriorating facilities and resources, and rising tuition costs. Student outrage, combined with growing protests over Vietnam and the bombings in Cambodia, culminated in student strikes, including demonstrations at Gasson Hall in April 1970. The Monan era By the time J. Donald Monan, S.J. began his presidency on September 5, 1972, BC was approximately $30 million in debt, its endowment totaled just under $6 million, and faculty and staff salaries had been frozen during the previous year. Rumors about the university's future were rampant, including speculation that BC would be acquired by Harvard University. After Monan's appointment, the Boston College Board of Trustees was reconfigured. The board was broadened beyond its historic membership of members of the Society of Jesus, as lay alumni and business leaders were brought in, bringing new business models and an ability to raise funds. A similar restructuring had been accomplished first at the University of Notre Dame in 1967 by Fr. Theodore Hesburgh, CSC, and Edmund Stephan, with many other Catholic colleges following suit in the ensuing years. In 1974, Newton College of the Sacred Heart was merged into BC, allowing expansion of Boston College to the Newton College campus. Boston College Law School moved to the campus, and its dormitories provided needed housing for a student population that was increasingly residential, for which the school had to lease off-campus apartments and even motel rooms. Monan was credited with turning around the school's financial position, leading to an improved reputation and increasing attention from around the world. In 1996, Monan's 24-year presidency came to an end when he was named University Chancellor and succeeded by President William P. Leahy, S.J. Recent history Since assuming the Boston College presidency, Leahy's tenure has been marked with an acceleration of the growth and development initiated by his predecessor, as well as by what some critics see as abandonment of the college's initial mission to provide a college education for residents of Boston. It has expanded by almost , while dramatically reducing the greenery of its middle campus, although portions of the college's legendary "Dustbowl" were removed to accommodate additional expansion of its buildings. During this period, undergraduate applications have surpassed 31,000. At the same time, BC students, faculty and athletic teams have seen indicators of success—winning record numbers of Fulbrights, Rhodes, and other academic awards; setting new marks for research grants; and winning conference and national titles. In 2002, Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program to examine issues facing the Catholic Church in light of the clergy sexual abuse scandal. His effort brought BC worldwide praise and recognition for "leading the way on Church reform." Recent plans to merge with the Weston Jesuit School of Theology were followed by an article in The New York Times claiming "such a merger would further Boston College's quest to become the nation's Catholic intellectual powerhouse" and that, once approved by the Vatican and Jesuit authorities in Rome, BC "would become the center for the study of Roman Catholic theology in the United States." On February 16, 2006, the merger was authorized by the Jesuit Conference. In 2003, after years of student-led discussions and efforts, and administrators' repeated rejection of pleas from students, the school approved a Gay-Straight Alliance, the first university-funded gay support group on campus. In 2004, between 1,000 and 1,200 students rallied behind a student-led campaign to expand the school's non-discrimination statement to include equal protection for gays and lesbians. Earlier that year 84% of the student body voted in favor of a student referendum calling for a change in policy. After several months of discussion the university changed its statement of nondiscrimination to make it more welcoming to gay students in May 2005, but stopped short of prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. On December 5, 2007, Boston College announced a master plan, a $1.6 billion, 10-year plan to revamp the campus and hire new faculty. The plan includes over $700 million for new buildings and renovations of the campus, including construction of four new academic buildings, a sharp reduction in the size of the legendary "dustbowl" campus green, a recreation center to replace the Flynn Recreation Complex, a university center to replace McElroy Commons (which is slated for destruction), and the creation of 610 beds for student housing, as well as many other constructions and renovations. The plan has been criticized by Boston city officials. On February 21, 2008, Boston Mayor Thomas M. Menino warned the school to construct new dormitory building on its main campus, rather than on property acquired from the Archdiocese of Boston. The school was long an institution that targeted commuter students from the Boston area, however in the school's pursuit of a national legacy, that function has been forgotten as the number of commuter students enrolled dropped from well over 50% to a mere three students, according to statistics published by the alumni magazine. On June 10, 2009, Mayor Menino and Boston's zoning commission approved the Boston College Master Plan, signaling an end to the long approval process, while allowing the school to enter design and planning phases. On October 18, 2017, hundreds of students walked out of class in a protest against racism and to demand the college officials pay more attention to the school's racial climate. The walk out was sparked by the defacing of two Black Lives Matter posters and an offensive photo was circulated on social media sites. On December 8, 2018, walls, furniture, and a bathroom in the Welch Hall were vandalized with racist, anti-black graffiti. Also, over the previous months, pro-refugee and Black Lives Matter signs were repeatedly removed around campus. Campus Chestnut Hill main campus Boston College's main campus in Chestnut Hill, west of downtown Boston, is and includes over 120 buildings set on a hilltop overlooking the Chestnut Hill Reservoir. A "Boston College" streetcar station on Boston's MBTA public transit system, is located at St. Ignatius Gate; it is the western terminus of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) Green Line's B branch (also known as the "Boston College" line) and connects the school to Boston's city center and to other destinations in the city. Due largely to its location and presence of buildings featuring gothic towers reaching into the sky, the Boston College campus is known generally as the "Heights" and to some as the "Crowned Hilltop". The main campus is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Designed by Charles Donagh Maginnis and his firm Maginnis & Walsh in 1908, the Boston College campus is a seminal example of Collegiate Gothic architecture. Combining Gothic Revival architecture with principles of Beaux-Arts planning, Maginnis proposed a vast complex of academic buildings set in a cruciform plan. Maginnis's design broke from the traditional Oxbridge models that had inspired it—and that had until then characterized Gothic architecture on American campuses. In its unprecedented scale, Gasson Tower was conceived not as the belfry of a singular building, but as the crowning campanile of Maginnis' new "city upon a hill". Although Maginnis' ambitious Gothic project never saw full completion, its central portion was built according to plan and forms the core of what is now BC's iconic middle campus. Among these, the Bapst Library has been called the "finest example of Collegiate Gothic architecture in America" and Devlin Hall won the Harleston Parker Medal for "most beautiful building in Boston". The 1895 Louis K. Liggett Estate was acquired in 1941 and developed into a Tudor-style upper campus, while an architecturally eclectic lower campus took shape on land acquired by filling in part of the Chestnut Hill Reservoir. Modernism had an enormous impact on development after the 1940s, though some of the modernist buildings at BC maintained non-modern rough stone facades in keeping with Maginnis's original designs. Boston College's eight research libraries contain over two million printed volumes. Including manuscripts, journals, government documents and microform items, ranging from ancient papyrus scrolls to digital databases, the collections have some twelve million items. Together with the university's museums, they include original manuscripts and prints by Galileo, Ignatius of Loyola, and Francis Xavier as well as world-renowned collections in Jesuitana, Irish literature, sixteenth-century Flemish tapestries, ancient Greek pottery, Caribbean folk art and literature, Japanese prints, U.S. government documents, Congressional Archives, and paintings that span the history of art from Europe, Asia, and the Americas. Opened in 1928, Bapst Library was named for the first president of Boston College (Johannes Bapst, S.J., 1815 to 1887) and it was one of the few structures built according to Charles Donagh Maginnis' original "Oxford in America" master plan. Bapst served as the university's main library until 1984. A guide to the building's stained glass windows is available online. The Burns Library of Rare Books and Special Collections is home to more than 150,000 volumes, some 15 million manuscripts and other important works, including a world-renowned collection of Irish literature. A rare facsimile of the Book of Kells is on public display in the library's Irish Room, and each day one page of the illuminated manuscript is turned. It also houses the papers of prominent Boston College alumni. The library is named after the Honorable John. J. Burns (1901 to 1957), Massachusetts Superior Court Justice and a member of the Boston College Class of 1921. There are a variety of student housing options for students on campus. Those located on lower campus are Walsh, Rubenstein, Ignacio, 90 St. Thomas More Road, 66 Commonwealth Ave, Vanderslice, Gabelli, Voute, Stayer, and 'The Mods'. Roncalli, Welch, and Williams Halls are located on the middle campus on College Road. Freshman housing on Upper Campus includes Kostka, Gonzaga, Fitzpatrick, Medeiros, Cheverus, Claver, Loyola, Xavier, Fenwick, and Shaw House. Additional freshman housing is on the Newton Campus and includes Cushing, Duchesne (East and West), Hardey, and Keyes (North and South). In the fall of 2010, Boston College began construction of Stokes Hall, a academic building on what was formerly known as the Dustbowl. Stokes Hall is the first academic building to be constructed on the Middle Campus since 2001. It was completed in December 2012, and opened for use in January 2013. In 2014, the university reconstructed St. Mary's Hall and renovated indoor pieces of Carney Hall. More Hall had been demolished to make way for a new residence hall in July 2014, slated to open sometime in 2016. Middle Campus Carney Faculty Center Located on middle campus, Carney Faculty Center no longer hosts classes and is largely office space. Rather, the building houses the offices of the Army ROTC program as well as the Student Program Offices. Often known as 'dark and dank', the building is distinct from the quadrangle area located across the campus green, known as the Dustbowl. Built in 1963, Carney has an unusual structure seeming to face away from the rest of the campus. Contrary to popular belief, the building was not built backwards but rather styled to allow more offices to have windows, according to BC Historian, Professor Thomas O'Connor. The Beacon Street side of the building contains a fountain in the middle of the courtyard; the fountain has been dry for decades as the result of the frequent use of powdered soap pranks by undergraduate students. The building additionally contains sets of unused lockers throughout the floors, which added to the fictitious speculation of the building being a former high school although they had been used by the commuter students who formed the vast majority of enrollment for many years. The existing 10-year university plan slates Carney Hall for reconstruction. Sections of the first floor have received new carpets, fresh coats of paint, and new ceiling tiles. The existing university 30–50-year plan schedules the reconstructed building to remain part of the quadrangle. McElroy Commons Located on the Southwest Corner of middle campus, McElroy is referred to by students as 'Mac', reflecting the common, but incorrect, pronunciation of the building's name. McElroy Commons holds a variety of offices and contains Carney's Dining Hall which serves the majority of students living on College Road and Upper Campus. Eagle's Nest, a lunch spot is located on the second floor of the building. The first floor of the building was updated in the summer of 2013. Stokes Hall Fulton Hall McGuinn Hall Devlin Hall Lyons Hall Gasson Hall St. Mary's Hall Bapst Library One of the most iconic images of Boston College lies within Gargan Hall of Bapst Library. Gargan Hall is a widely popular study location for students, open 24 hours on most days and known as the quietest place on campus. Gargan Hall regularly finds itself in the top 10 of the world's most beautiful libraries. While for years the hall contained a red rug, the hall now is carpeted in emerald green. This art library contains over 51,000 volumes, 150 serial titles, and access to hundreds of journal databases and electronic journals in Art, Architecture, Museum Studies and Photography. The library maintains print and electronic reserves for courses in the Fine Arts. O'Neill Library Cushing Hall Campion Hall Merkert Hall Higgins Hall Maloney Hall Newton Campus In addition to the main campus at Chestnut Hill, BC's Newton Campus, formerly Newton College of the Sacred Heart, is located to the west in the inner suburb of Newton, Massachusetts. The campus is home to the law school, Stuart Dining Hall, Trinity Chapel, and residential housing for roughly 40% of the freshman class. Freshman dormitories on Newton Campus include Hardey, Cushing, Duchesne, and Keyes. Two athletic fields and a recreation center are also located on the campus. A new building opened in 1996 housing the Law Library for the Boston College Law School in Newton. Brighton Campus Between 2004 and 2007, Boston College acquired of land from the Archdiocese of Boston. This included the archdiocese's former headquarters, sold to the university in 2004 for $107,400,000. The grounds are named after Brighton, the Boston neighborhood in which it is located, as the municipal border sits on the street intersection where the two properties meet. It is adjacent to the main campus (on the opposite side of Commonwealth Avenue), and includes the Italian Renaissance-style historic mansion of the Cardinal's residence. The mansion now houses the McMullen Museum of Art, which has a prominent permanent collection and organizes exhibits from all periods and cultures of art history. Recent exhibits and acquisitions include works by Edvard Munch, Amedeo Modigliani, Frank Stella, Françoise Gilot, John LaFarge, and Jackson Pollock. However, outshining by far all McMullen exhibitions, previous and subsequent, in terms of international media attention and attendance numbers was the 1999 exhibition, "Saints and Sinners: Caravaggio and the Baroque Image," featuring as its centerpiece the first North American appearance of the then-recently rediscovered masterpiece by Italian Baroque artist Caravaggio, The Taking of Christ. Admission to the museum is free and open to the general public. In 2008, the Weston Jesuit School of Theology merged with Boston College, and the new School of Theology and Ministry moved to Brighton. In addition to other offices and facilities, the Brighton campus is home to the Harrington Athletics Village. Other properties in Chestnut Hill In 2017, the university purchased the 24-acre Mishkan Tefila Synagogue property in Chestnut Hill. When purchased, the property was only used for administrative services and event parking. The former synagogue's 806-seat auditorium has since been opened as a new rehearsal and event venue for Boston College's Robsham Theater Arts Center. It is currently the largest venue for theater at the university. Additionally, the building houses a large, ballroom-style, multi-purpose room and a hexagon-shaped meeting room for performances, events, and conferences. An outdoor quad is also available to be used for events and the performing arts. Approximately 17 wooded acres of the property, however, have been taken by the City of Newton under the power of eminent domain in December 2019. In 2020, Boston College bought Pine Manor College, a small liberal arts college in Chestnut Hill with a high amount of first generation college students and inner city students that was undergoing financial struggles. Other properties The University owns and maintains a number of other properties around Massachusetts and the Republic of Ireland. Connors Center: an retreat center in Dover, Massachusetts. Weston Observatory: a seismology research observatory and field station in Weston, Massachusetts. Boston College Ireland: home to the Centre for Irish Programmes: Dublin on St. Stephen's Green in Dublin, Ireland. Bellarmine House: an Jesuit Villa House in Cohasset, Massachusetts, maintained by the Jesuits Community at BC and used for religious retreats. Organization and administration Its annual operating budget is approximately $667 million. The most recent and ongoing fundraising campaign, dubbed "Light the World", was announced on October 11, 2008. The seven-year campaign aims to raise $1.5 billion in honor of the 150th anniversary of the college. Funds raised will be used to support the strategic priorities of the university, including academic programs, financial aid, Jesuit Catholic identity, athletics, student programming, and capital construction projects. Catholic and Jesuit The 112 Jesuits living on the Boston College campus make up one of the largest Jesuit communities in the world and include members of the faculty and administration, graduate students, and visiting international scholars. The chapel for the university is located in St. Mary's Hall, the Jesuit residential facility. Additional BC chapels are Trinity Chapel on the Newton Campus, St. Joseph's Chapel in the Basement of Gonzaga Hall on Upper Campus, Simboli Hall Chapel on the Brighton Campus, and St. Catherine of Sienna Chapel in Cushing Hall. Over 70 Catholic Masses are celebrated on Campus each week during the Academic Year. The college also maintains close relations with the nearby Church of Saint Ignatius of Loyola. The church is named after the founder of the Jesuit order, Ignatius of Loyola. It is run independently of the Archdiocese and is staffed by the Jesuits. Although not technically the university's church, Boston College provides the parish with Internet access, e-mail service, telephone and voice mail service, parking, and dormitory space for the religious education program. Each year, several Boston College students teach in the religious education program. Jesuit priests from Boston College occasionally preside at the church's liturgies. St. Ignatius provides a spiritual home for many students during their time at Boston College and has also hosted alumni weddings. The church building is also used by the college for some of their larger religious events. Affiliated institutions St. Columbkille Parish is a Catholic Church and elementary school in Brighton, Massachusetts that has an alliance with BC. Under the agreement, the parish school is to be governed by a board of members and a board of trustees comprising representatives from the Archdiocese of Boston, Boston College, St. Columbkille Parish and the greater Boston community. The board of trustees will authorize an audit of the school's curriculum, faculty, finances, and facilities before creating a strategic plan to guide the school in the future. Lynch School of Education and Human Development faculty will work directly with the school's teachers on faculty and curriculum development, presenting new approaches to education and working to establish best practices in the classroom. The agreement, announced in March 2006 by University President William P. Leahy, S.J., and Boston Cardinal Sean O'Malley, OFM Cap., is believed to represent the first such collaboration between a Catholic university and a parochial school in the United States. Admissions For the Class of 2025, Boston College received 39,875 applications, of which it admitted 18.9%. The interquartile(middle 50%) of admitted students of the class of 2025 who submitted test scores under Boston College's test-optional policy possessed scores between 1460-1540 on the SAT and 33-35 on the ACT. The accepted class includes students from 50 states, 3 U.S. territories, and 75 foreign countries. Academics Schools and colleges As a research university, Boston College is made up of a total of eight constituent colleges and schools: Morrissey College of Arts & Sciences Carroll School of Management Lynch School of Education and Human Development Connell School of Nursing Boston College School of Social Work Boston College Law School Boston College School of Theology and Ministry Woods College of Advancing Studies Rankings Boston College tied for 35th among national universities and tied for 468th among global universities in U.S. News & World Report "America's Best Colleges 2021" rankings and 41st in the Forbes 2019 edition of "America's Top Colleges", In 2016, the undergraduate school of business, the Carroll School of Management, placed 3rd in an annual ranking of U.S. undergraduate business schools by Bloomberg Businessweek. A 2007 Princeton Review survey of parents that asked "What 'dream college' would you most like to see your child attend were prospects of acceptance or cost not issues?" placed BC 6th. Boston College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. Gabelli Presidential Scholars Program The Gabelli Presidential Scholars Program is a competitive undergraduate program offered to a subset of early action applicants of Boston College. Students who accept an invitation to apply for the program are asked to spend a weekend at Boston College, where they complete several interviews and participate in a mock honors program seminar. The Gabelli Presidential Scholars Program is very competitive; out of the Boston College applicants invited to apply to the GPSP program, 15 are awarded the scholarship. Since the entire early application pool is evaluated in determining whom to grant application invitations to, the overall admissions rate of the program is less than 1%. The scholarship includes a number of enrichment opportunities such as several summer programs, among them a summer-long international study program for language proficiency and academic or professional advancement and "high-level" internships. This program offers a full-tuition scholarship to Boston College. Order of the Cross and Crown The Order of the Cross and Crown, founded in 1939, is the College of Arts and Sciences honor society for seniors who have achieved an average of at least A−, as well as established records of unusual service and leadership on the campus. The selections committee, composed of the deans, faculty members, and administration, appoints specially distinguished members of the Order to be its officers as Chief Marshal and Marshals. Induction into the Cross and Crown Honor Society is one of the highest and most prestigious honors that BC students can receive. Campbell Soup Company CEO, Denise Morrison is an example of one prominent member. Research Scholarly publications Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review Boston College Law Review C21 Resources, a progressive journal of contemporary Catholic issues, published by BC's Church in the 21st Century Center. Dianoia: The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College, a journal featuring undergraduate work in philosophy from around the world. The Eagletarian, published by The BC Economics Association. Guide to Jesuit Education International & Comparative Law Review Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment Lumen et Vita: The Graduate Academic Journal of the Boston College School of Theology and Ministry, New Arcadia Review Religion and the Arts Journal Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations, the official journal of the Council of Centers of Jewish-Christian Relations (CCJR) and is published by the Center for Christian-Jewish Learning at Boston College and the Boston College Libraries. Teaching Exceptional Children / Teaching Exceptional Children Plus Third World Law Journal Uniform Commercial Code Reporter-Digest Philosophy Philosophy has long been an important part of the university's curriculum. In the seventies, Boston College's Philosophy Department distinguished itself from the majority of American Departments by promoting the study of Continental European philosophy over and above analytic philosophy. Under the direction of Department Chair Joseph Flanagan, SJ and following the example of Fordham University, the department branched out from its traditional strengths in philosophy of religion, ancient/medieval philosophy, and Thomism. It has since become a leading university in the United States for the study of continental philosophy. As of 2021, Boston College ranks 39th in the world, and 13th in the United States, for philosophy according to the QS World University Rankings. The Department has featured as permanent faculty a number of noted continental philosophers including Heidegger scholar William J. Richardson, SJ as well as experts in phenomenology Richard Cobb-Stevens and Jacques Taminiaux. The Department today still has a large proportion of experts in continental philosophy including European philosophy and literature expert Richard Kearney, expert in phenomenology John Sallis, expert in Christian philosophy and apologetics Peter Kreeft, and experts in social and political philosophy David M. Rasmussen and James Bernauer, SJ. Since the seventies, the Department has also had a number of notable visiting professors including Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jean-Luc Marion, and Bernard Lonergan, SJ. Student life AHANA AHANA is the term Boston College uses to refer to persons of African-American, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American descent. The term was coined at Boston College in 1979 by two students, Alfred Feliciano and Valerie Lewis, who objected to the name "Office of Minority Programs" used by Boston College at the time. They cited the definition of the word minority as "less than" and proposed, instead, to use the term AHANA which they felt celebrated social cultural differences. After receiving overwhelming approval from the university's board of trustees, and UGBC president Dan Cotter, the Office of Minority Student Programs became the Office of AHANA Student Programs. The term, or one or its derivative forms, such as ALANA (where "Latino" is substituted for "Hispanic"), has become common on a number of other American university campuses. Boston College, which has registered the term AHANA as a trademark, has granted official permission for its use to over 50 institutions and organizations in the United States. Many more use the term unofficially. Other institutions that use the AHANA acronym include Suffolk University, Cleveland State University, Eastern Mennonite University, Saint Martin's University, Le Moyne College, and Salem State University. With some support on campus, there are still racist incidents on campus, such as Black Lives Matter posters being torn down and anti-black vandalism on dorm walls. Student media Newspapers The Heights, the principal student newspaper, published weekly; established in 1919 The Gavel, an independent progressive student magazine; launched on October 27, 2009. The Gavel publishes most articles online, but brought back its print edition in the Spring of 2018. The Torch, an independent Catholic student newspaper that publishes stories covering Catholic news on campus and around the world as well as student faith reflections. It was established in 2013. The Rock, an independent student online publication recognized by the university. Launched on September 26, 2011 The New England Classic, a satirical newspaper unrecognized by the university but regularly published and distributed on campus; launched in Fall 2007 and is independently funded. Colloquium Political Science Journal, The political science journal of Boston College that is sponsored by the Institute for the Liberal Arts at Boston College. Broadcasting The BC, a widely acclaimed parody of The OC featuring students, Jesuits, and administrators Boston College Television (BCTV), a student-run cable television station formerly featuring a show known as Now You Know, but now reports on student life, sports, entertainment, and other subjects WZBC, 90.3 FM, the student-run radio station which provides independent and experimental music Other notable publications Sub Turri, the Boston College yearbook, published since 1913 The Stylus of Boston College, the undergraduate literary magazine, founded in 1882 Elements Undergraduate Research Journal, the premier undergraduate research journal of Boston College, published biannually Al-Noor: The Boston College Undergraduate Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies Journal, one of the only undergraduate Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies Journals in the world. Kaleidoscope International Journal, the international relations and global studies journal of Boston College Dianoia: The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College Ensembles BC bOp", the Boston College jazz band Boston College "Screaming Eagles" Marching Band Boston College Symphony Orchestra, Pep Band, the ensemble that performs at Boston College hockey and basketball games University Wind Ensemble of Boston College University Symphonic Band University Chorale of Boston College Madrigal Singers of Boston College Theater Performance The Dramatics Society Contemporary Theater Alma mater Alma Mater was written by T.J. Hurley, who also wrote For Boston (the Boston College Fight Song) and was a member of the Class of 1885. Athletics Boston College teams are known as the Eagles. They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level (Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) sub-level for football), primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 2005–06 season. The Eagles formerly competed as a charter member of the Big East Conference from 1979–80 to 2004–05. Up to that point, Boston College was the only Big East member affiliated with the Catholic Church that played football in the conference. All the football-playing members of the Big East are now secular (usually public) institutions. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing (non-ACC), football, golf, ice hockey (non-ACC), sailing (non-ACC), skiing (non-ACC), soccer, swimming, tennis, and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing (non-ACC), field hockey, golf, ice hockey (non-ACC), lacrosse, rowing, sailing, skiing, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track & field and volleyball. The men's and women's ice hockey teams compete in Hockey East; while the women's rowing team competes in the Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC) as well as the ACC; and the co-ed skiing, fencing and sailing teams are non-ACC/NCAA. Boston College is one of only thirteen universities in the country offering NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly, I-A) football, Division I men's and women's basketball, and Division I hockey. The mascot for all Boston College athletic teams is the Eagle, generally referred to in the plural, i.e., "The Eagles". The character representing the mascot at football, hockey, and basketball games is an American bald eagle named Baldwin, derived from the "bald" head of the American bald eagle and the word "win". The school colors are maroon and gold. The fight song, For Boston, was composed by T.J. Hurley, class of 1885. In hockey and baseball, Boston College participates in the annual Beanpot tournaments held at TD Banknorth Garden and Fenway Park, respectively. Boston College competes in the Beanpot against the three other major sports colleges in Boston: the Northeastern University Huskies, Harvard University Crimson, and Boston University Terriers. BC has reached the championship game 31 times and has won the Beanpot 16 times, including the 2010, 2011 and 2012 championships. The less renowned baseball tournament, was first played in 1990 and out of seventeen baseball Beanpots, Boston College has won nine, last winning in 2008. The baseball team also plays an exhibition game against the Boston Red Sox at jetBlue Park after several years at City Of Palms Park both in Ft. Myers, Florida during Major League Baseball's spring training. The men's hockey team won the 2008 NCAA Championship on April 12, 2008 with a 4–1 victory over the University of Notre Dame in Denver, Colorado, the 2010 NCAA Championship with a 5–0 victory over Wisconsin on April 10, 2010, and in 2012 in the 2012 NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Tournament with a 4–1 victory over Ferris State University in Tampa. Principal athletic facilities include Alumni Stadium (capacity: 44,500), Conte Forum (8,606), Kelley Rink (7,884), Eddie Pellagrini Diamond at John Shea Field (1,000), the Newton Soccer Complex (1,000), and the Flynn Recreation Complex. The Yawkey Athletics Center opened in the spring of 2005. BC students compete in 31 varsity sports as well as a number of club and intramural teams. On March 18, 2002, Boston College's Athletics program was named to the College Sports Honor Roll as one of the nation's top 20 programs by U.S. News & World Report. Boston College athletes are among the most academically successful in the nation, according to the NCAA's Academic Progress Rate (APR). In 2006 Boston College received Public Recognition Awards with fourteen of its sports in the top 10% of the nation academically. The Eagles tied Notre Dame for the highest total of any Division I-A university. Other schools having ten or more sports honored included Navy (12), Stanford (11), and Duke (11). Teams honored were football, men's fencing, men's outdoor track, men's skiing, women's rowing, women's cross country, women's fencing, women's field hockey, women's indoor track, women's outdoor track, women's skiing, women's swimming, women's soccer, women's tennis, and women's volleyball. Boston College's football program was one of only five Division I-A teams that were so honored. The other four were Auburn, Navy, Stanford, and Duke. Football The Boston College Eagles have achieved repeated success in college football. On November 16, 1940, BC's Frank Leahy-coached championship team took a win from two-season undefeated Georgetown University in the final seconds, in a game that renowned sportswriter Grantland Rice called the greatest ever played. Two of Boston College's most famous football victories came in dramatic fashion, on the final play of the game. On November 23, 1984, before a national audience on CBS, Doug Flutie threw a Hail Mary to Gerard Phelan for a 47–45 victory over the University of Miami at the Orange Bowl. The Eagles finished the 1984 season with a 10–2 record, defeating the University of Houston in the Cotton Bowl. The team completed the season with a #5 rank in the AP poll. Flutie was awarded the Heisman Trophy, the only Eagle to date so honored. On November 20, 1993, the Eagles beat undefeated archrival Notre Dame 41–39 on a 41-yard field goal by David Gordon as time expired, preventing the Fighting Irish a berth in the national championship game. In 2007, the Eagles reached the #2 rank in both the AP and Coaches' Poll as well as the BCS rankings, led by Matt Ryan. Ryan was awarded the 2007 Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award, presented annually to the nation's most outstanding college senior quarterback. He was selected third in the 2008 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, making him the highest-chosen BC player in NFL Draft history. The Eagles annually wear red bandanna-themed uniforms in honor of fallen September 11, 2001 hero Welles Crowther, class of 1999. Crowther, who played on BC's lacrosse team, was an equity trader who died saving the lives of at least 10 people during the 2001 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in New York City. He used a red bandanna that he often carried to keep from breathing in smoke and debris. Fight Song: "For Boston" "For Boston" is claimed to be America's oldest college fight song, composed by T. J. Hurley in 1885. It has two verses but the most commonly sung one is the first verse. Boston-based band Dropkick Murphys covered this song on their album Sing Loud, Sing Proud!. Changes have been made to the song, including reworking the phrase "for here men are men" into "for here all are one" in the first verse. Notable persons BC students were universally called "Heightsmen" until 1925 when Caitlin Beckman became the first "Heightswoman" to receive a BC degree. "Heightsonian" was originally conceived as a way to gender neutralize the original term "Heightsmen", though "Eagles", once exclusively used for members of the university's athletics teams, is more commonly used. The term "Golden Eagles" refers strictly to BC graduates who have celebrated their 50th anniversary reunion. "Double Eagles" refer to alumni who attended Boston College High School and graduated from the college and "Triple Eagles" are those alumni who are also graduates of a graduate program. There are over 179,000 alumni in over 120 countries around the world. Boston College students have enjoyed success in winning prestigious post-graduate fellowships and awards, including recent Rhodes, Marshall, Mellon, Fulbright, Truman, Churchill, and Goldwater scholarships, among others. BC's yield rate for Fulbright awards is the highest in the country. In 2007, students in the German department were awarded 13 Fulbright scholarships, five more than the previous highest number from a single department. Although formal numbers are not kept, and the claim cannot be confirmed, the number of award winners from one department to study in a specific country is considered by some scholars to be the highest in the 60-year history of the Fulbright program. See also Hopkins House (Boston College) Jesuit Ivy List of Jesuit sites List of presidents of Boston College References External links Boston College Athletics website Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities Catholic universities and colleges in Massachusetts 1863 establishments in Massachusetts Educational institutions established in 1863 Gothic Revival architecture in Massachusetts Jesuit universities and colleges in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temazepam
Temazepam
Temazepam (sold under the brand names Restoril among others) is a medication used to treat insomnia. Such use should generally be for less than ten days. It is taken by mouth. Effects generally begin within an hour and last for up to eight hours. Common side effects include sleepiness, anxiety, confusion, and dizziness. Serious side effects may include hallucinations, abuse, anaphylaxis, and suicide. Use is generally not recommended together with opioids. If the dose is rapidly decreased withdrawal may occur. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is not recommended. Temazepam is an intermediate acting benzodiazepine and hypnotic. It works by affecting GABA within the brain. Temazepam was patented in 1962 and came into medical use in 1969. It is available as a generic medication. In 2018, it was the 188th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions. Medical uses In sleep laboratory studies, temazepam significantly decreased the number of nightly awakenings, but has the drawback of distorting the normal sleep pattern. It is officially indicated for severe insomnia and other severe or disabling sleep disorders. The prescribing guidelines in the UK limit the prescribing of hypnotics to two to four weeks due to concerns of tolerance and dependence. The United States Air Force uses temazepam as one of the hypnotics approved as a "no-go pill" to help aviators and special-duty personnel sleep in support of mission readiness. "Ground tests" are necessary prior to required authorization being issued to use the medication in an operational situation, and a 12-hour restriction is imposed on subsequent flight operation. The other hypnotics used as "no-go pills" are zaleplon and zolpidem, which have shorter mandatory recovery periods. Contraindications Use of temazepam should be avoided, when possible, in individuals with these conditions: Ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements) Severe hypoventilation Acute narrow-angle glaucoma Severe hepatic deficiencies (hepatitis and liver cirrhosis decrease elimination by a factor of two) Severe renal deficiencies (e.g. patients on dialysis) Sleep apnea Severe depression, particularly when accompanied by suicidal tendencies Acute intoxication with alcohol, narcotics, or other psychoactive substances Myasthenia gravis (autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness) Hypersensitivity or allergy to any drug in the benzodiazepine class Special caution needed Temazepam should not be used in pregnancy, as it may cause harm to the fetus. The safety and effectiveness of temazepam has not been established in children; therefore, temazepam should generally not be given to individuals under 18 years of age, and should not be used at all in children under six months old. Benzodiazepines also require special caution if used in the elderly, alcohol- or drug-dependent individuals, and individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders. Temazepam, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments. Partial but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments. The smallest possible effective dose should be used in elderly or very ill patients, as a risk of apnea and/or cardiac arrest exists. This risk is increased when temazepam is given concomitantly with other drugs that depress the central nervous system (CNS). Misuse and dependence Because benzodiazepines can be abused and lead to dependence, their use should be avoided in people in certain particularly high-risk groups. These groups include people with a history of alcohol or drug dependence, people significantly struggling with their mood or people with longstanding mental health difficulties. If temazepam must be prescribed to people in these groups, they should generally be monitored very closely for signs of misuse and development of dependence. Adverse effects In September 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class. Common Side effects typical of hypnotic benzodiazepines are related to CNS depression, and include somnolence, sedation, dizziness, fatigue, ataxia, headache, lethargy, impairment of memory and learning, longer reaction time and impairment of motor functions (including coordination problems), slurred speech, decreased physical performance, numbed emotions, reduced alertness, muscle weakness, blurred vision (in higher doses), and inattention. Euphoria was rarely reported with its use. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, temazepam had an incidence of euphoria of 1.5%, much more rarely reported than headaches and diarrhea. Anterograde amnesia may also develop, as may respiratory depression in higher doses. A 2009 meta-analysis found a 44% higher rate of mild infections, such as pharyngitis or sinusitis, in people taking Temazepam or other hypnotic drugs compared to those taking a placebo. Less common Hyperhydrosis, hypotension, burning eyes, increased appetite, changes in libido, hallucinations, faintness, nystagmus, vomiting, pruritus, gastrointestinal disturbances, nightmares, palpitation and paradoxical reactions including restlessness, aggression, violence, overstimulation and agitation have been reported, but are rare (less than 0.5%). Before taking temazepam, one should ensure that at least 8 hours are available to dedicate to sleep. Failing to do so can increase the side effects of the drug. Like all benzodiazepines, the use of this drug in combination with alcohol potentiates the side effects, and can lead to toxicity and death. Though rare, residual "hangover" effects after night-time administration of temazepam occasionally occur. These include sleepiness, impaired psychomotor and cognitive functions which may persist into the next day, impaired driving ability, and possible increased risks of falls and hip fractures, especially in the elderly. Tolerance Chronic or excessive use of temazepam may cause drug tolerance, which can develop rapidly, so this drug is not recommended for long-term use. In 1979, the Institute of Medicine (USA) and the National Institute on Drug Abuse stated that most hypnotics lose their sleep-inducing properties after about three to 14 days. In use longer than one to two weeks, tolerance will rapidly develop towards the ability of temazepam to maintain sleep, resulting in a loss of effectiveness. Some studies have observed tolerance to temazepam after as little as one week's use. Another study examined the short-term effects of the accumulation of temazepam over seven days in elderly inpatients, and found little tolerance developed during the accumulation of the drug. Other studies examined the use of temazepam over six days and saw no evidence of tolerance. A study in 11 young male subjects showed significant tolerance occurs to temazepam's thermoregulatory effects and sleep inducing properties after one week of use of 30-mg temazepam. Body temperature is well correlated with the sleep-inducing or insomnia-promoting properties of drugs. In one study, the drug sensitivity of people who had used temazepam for one to 20 years was no different from that of controls. An additional study, in which at least one of the authors is employed by multiple drug companies, examined the efficacy of temazepam treatment on chronic insomnia over three months, and saw no drug tolerance, with the authors even suggesting the drug might become more effective over time. Establishing continued efficacy beyond a few weeks can be complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing between the return of the original insomnia complaint and withdrawal or rebound related insomnia. Sleep EEG studies on hypnotic benzodiazepines show tolerance tends to occur completely after one to four weeks with sleep EEG returning to pretreatment levels. The paper concluded that due to concerns about long-term use involving toxicity, tolerance and dependence, as well as to controversy over long-term efficacy, wise prescribers should restrict benzodiazepines to a few weeks and avoid continuing prescriptions for months or years. A review of the literature found the nonpharmacological treatment options were a more effective treatment option for insomnia due to their sustained improvements in sleep quality. Physical dependence Temazepam, like other benzodiazepine drugs, can cause physical dependence and addiction. Withdrawal from temazepam or other benzodiazepines after regular use often leads to benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, which resembles symptoms during alcohol and barbiturate withdrawal. The higher the dose and the longer the drug is taken, the greater the risk of experiencing unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms can also occur from standard dosages and after short-term use. Abrupt withdrawal from therapeutic doses of temazepam after long-term use may result in a severe benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. Gradual and careful reduction of the dosage, preferably with a long-acting benzodiazepine with long half-life active metabolites, such as chlordiazepoxide or diazepam, are recommended to prevent severe withdrawal syndromes from developing. Other hypnotic benzodiazepines are not recommended. A study in rats found temazepam is cross tolerant with barbiturates and is able to effectively substitute for barbiturates and suppress barbiturate withdrawal signs. Rare cases are reported in the medical literature of psychotic states developing after abrupt withdrawal from benzodiazepines, even from therapeutic doses. Antipsychotics increase the severity of benzodiazepine withdrawal effects with an increase in the intensity and severity of convulsions. Patients who were treated in the hospital with temazepam or nitrazepam have continued taking these after leaving the hospital. Hypnotic uses in the hospital were recommended to be limited to five nights' use only, to avoid the development of withdrawal symptoms such as insomnia. Interactions As with other benzodiazepines, temazepam produces additive CNS-depressant effects when coadministered with other medications which themselves produce CNS depression, such as barbiturates, alcohol, opiates, tricyclic antidepressants, nonselective MAO inhibitors, phenothiazines and other antipsychotics, skeletal muscle relaxants, antihistamines, and anaesthetics. Administration of theophylline or aminophylline has been shown to reduce the sedative effects of temazepam and other benzodiazepines. Unlike many benzodiazepines, pharmacokinetic interactions involving the P450 system have not been observed with temazepam. Temazepam shows no significant interaction with CYP3A4 inhibitors (e.g. itraconazole, erythromycin). Oral contraceptives may decrease the effectiveness of temazepam and speed up its elimination half-life. Overdose Overdosage of temazepam results in increasing CNS effects, including: Somnolence (difficulty staying awake) Mental confusion Respiratory depression Hypotension Impaired motor functions Impaired or absent reflexes Impaired coordination Impaired balance Dizziness, sedation Coma Death Temazepam had the highest rate of drug intoxication, including overdose, among common benzodiazepines in cases with and without combination with alcohol in a 1985 study. Temazepam and nitrazepam were the two benzodiazepines most commonly detected in overdose-related deaths in an Australian study of drug deaths. A 1993 British study found temazepam to have the highest number of deaths per million prescriptions among medications commonly prescribed in the 1980s (11.9, versus 5.9 for benzodiazepines overall, taken with or without alcohol). A 1995 Australian study of patients admitted to hospital after benzodiazepine overdose corroborated these results, and found temazepam overdose much more likely to lead to coma than other benzodiazepines (odds ratio 1.86). The authors noted several factors, such as differences in potency, receptor affinity, and rate of absorption between benzodiazepines, could explain this higher toxicity. Although benzodiazepines have a high therapeutic index, temazepam is one of the more dangerous of this class of drugs. The combination of alcohol and temazepam makes death by alcohol poisoning more likely. Pharmacology Temazepam is a white, crystalline substance, very slightly soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in alcohol. Its main pharmacological action is to increase the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABAA receptor. This causes sedation, motor impairment, ataxia, anxiolysis, an anticonvulsant effect, muscle relaxation, and a reinforcing effect. As a medication before surgery, temazepam decreased cortisol in elderly patients. In rats, it triggered the release of vasopressin into paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and decreased the release of ACTH under stress. Pharmacokinetics Oral administration of 15 to 45 mg of temazepam in humans resulted in rapid absorption with significant blood levels achieved in fewer than 30 minutes and peak levels at two to three hours. In a single- and multiple-dose absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) study, using tritium-labelled drug, temazepam was well absorbed and found to have minimal (8%) first-pass drug metabolism. No active metabolites were formed and the only significant metabolite present in blood was the O-conjugate. The unchanged drug was 96% bound to plasma proteins. The blood-level decline of the parent drug was biphasic, with the short half-life ranging from 0.4-0.6 hours and the terminal half-life from 3.5–18.4 hours (mean 8.8 hours), depending on the study population and method of determination. Temazepam has very good bioavailability, with almost 100% being absorbed following being taken by mouth. The drug is metabolized through conjugation and demethylation prior to excretion. Most of the drug is excreted in the urine, with about 20% appearing in the faeces. The major metabolite was the O-conjugate of temazepam (90%); the O-conjugate of N-desmethyl temazepam was a minor metabolite (7%). History Temazepam was synthesized in 1964, but it came into use in 1981 when its ability to counter insomnia was realized. By the late 1980s, temazepam was one of the most popular and widely prescribed hypnotics on the market and it became one of the most widely prescribed drugs. Society and culture Recreational use Temazepam is a drug with a moderate potential for misuse. Benzodiazepines have been abused orally and intravenously. Different benzodiazepines have different abuse potential; the more rapid the increase in the plasma level following ingestion, the greater the intoxicating effect and the more open to abuse the drug becomes. The speed of onset of action of a particular benzodiazepine correlates well with the ‘popularity’ of that drug for abuse. The two most common reasons for preference were that a benzodiazepine was ‘strong’ and that it gave a good ‘high’. A 1995 study found that temazepam is more rapidly absorbed and oxazepam is more slowly absorbed than most other benzodiazepines. A 1985 study found that temazepam and triazolam maintained significantly higher rates of self-injection than a variety of other benzodiazepines. The study tested and compared the abuse liability of temazepam, triazolam, diazepam, lorazepam, oxazepam, flurazepam, alprazolam, chlordiazepoxide, clonazepam, nitrazepam, flunitrazepam, bromazepam, and clorazepate. The study tested self-injection rates on human, baboon, and rat subjects. All test subjects consistently showed a strong preference for temazepam and triazolam over all the rest of the benzodiazepines included in the study. North America In North America, temazepam misuse is not widespread. Other benzodiazepines are more commonly prescribed for insomnia. In the United States, temazepam is the fifth-most prescribed benzodiazepine, however there is a major drop off from the top four most prescribed (alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam in that order). Individuals abusing benzodiazepines obtain the drug by getting prescriptions from several doctors, forging prescriptions, or buying diverted pharmaceutical products on the illicit market. North America has never had a serious problem with temazepam misuse, but is becoming increasingly vulnerable to the illicit trade of temazepam. Australia Temazepam is a Schedule 4 drug and requires a prescription. The drug accounts for most benzodiazepine sought by forgery of prescriptions and through pharmacy burglary in Victoria. Due to rife intravenous abuse, the Australian government decided to put it under a more restrictive schedule than it had been, and since March 2004 temazepam capsules have been withdrawn from the Australian market, leaving only 10 mg tablets available. Benzodiazepines are commonly detected by Customs at different ports and airports, arriving by mail, also found occasionally in the baggage of air passengers, mostly small or medium quantities (up to 200–300 tablets) for personal use. From 2003 to 2006, customs detected about 500 illegal importations of benzodiazepines per year, most frequently diazepam. Quantities varied from single tablets to 2,000 tablets. United Kingdom In 1987, temazepam was the most widely abused legal prescription drug in the United Kingdom. The use of benzodiazepines by street-drug abusers was part of a polydrug abuse pattern, but many of those entering treatment facilities were declaring temazepam as their main drug of abuse. Temazepam was the most commonly used benzodiazepine in a study, published 1994, of injecting drug users in seven cities, and had been injected from preparations of capsules, tablets, and syrup. The increase in use of heroin, often mixed with other drugs, which most often included temazepam, diazepam, and alcohol, was a major factor in the increase in drug-related deaths in Glasgow and Edinburgh in 1990–1992. Temazepam use was particularly associated with violent or disorderly behaviours and contact with the police in a 1997 study of young single homeless people in Scotland. The BBC series Panorama featured an episode titled "Temazepam Wars", dealing with the epidemic of temazepam abuse and directly related crime in Paisley, Scotland. The trend was mocked in the 1995 Black Grape song "Temazi Party" (also called "Tramazi Party"). Medical research issues The Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine published a paper expressing concerns about benzodiazepine receptor agonist drugs, the benzodiazepines and the Z-drugs used as hypnotics in humans. The paper cites a systematic review of the medical literature concerning insomnia medications and states almost all trials of sleep disorders and drugs are sponsored by the pharmaceutical industry, while this is not the case in general medicine or psychiatry. It cites another study that "found that the odds ratio for finding results favorable to industry in industry-sponsored trials was 3.6 times as high as in non–industry-sponsored studies". Issues discussed regarding industry-sponsored studies include: comparison of a drug to a placebo, but not to an alternative treatment; unpublished studies with unfavorable outcomes; and trials organized around a placebo baseline followed by drug treatment, but not counterbalanced with parallel-placebo-controlled studies. Quoting a 1979 report that too little research into hypnotics was independent of the drug manufacturers, the authors conclude, "the public desperately needs an equipoised assessment of hypnotic benefits and risks" and the NIH and VA should provide leadership to that end. Street terms Street terms for temazepam include king kong pills (formerly referred to barbiturates, now more commonly refers to temazepam), jellies, jelly, Edinburgh , tams, terms, , , , , beans, eggs, green eggs, wobbly eggs, knockouts, hardball, , oranges (common term in Australia and New Zealand), rugby balls, , terminators, red and blue, no-gos, , blackout, green devils, drunk pills, brainwash, mind erasers, , (combined with buprenorphine), mommy's big helper, vitamin T, big T, TZ, the , (North America) and others. Availability Temazepam is available in English-speaking countries under the following brand names: Euhypnos Normison Norkotral Nortem Remestan Restoril Temaze Temtabs Tenox In Spain, the drug is sold as ''. In Hungary the drug is sold as Signopam. Legal status In Austria, temazepam is listed in UN71 Schedule III under the Psychotropic Substances Decree of 1997. The drug is considered to have a high potential for abuse and addiction, but has accepted medical use for the treatment of severe insomnia. In Australia, temazepam is a Schedule 4 - Prescription Only medicine. It is primarily used for the treatment of insomnia, and is also seen as pre-anaesthetic medication. In Canada, temazepam is a Schedule IV controlled substance requiring a registered doctor's prescription. In Denmark, temazepam is listed as a Class D substance under the Executive Order 698 of 1993 on Euphoric Substances which means it has a high potential for abuse, but is used for medical and scientific purposes. In Finland, temazepam is more tightly controlled than other benzodiazepines. The temazepam product Normison was pulled out of shelves and banned because the liquid inside gelatin capsules had caused a large increase in intravenous temazepam use. The other temazepam product, Tenox, was not affected and remains as prescription medicine. Temazepam intravenous use has not decreased to the level before Normison came to the market. In France, temazepam is listed as a psychotropic substance as are other similar drugs. It is prescribed with a nonrenewable prescription (a new doctor visit every time), available only in 7 or 14-pill packaging for one or two weeks. One brand was withdrawn from the market in 2013. In Hong Kong, temazepam is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. Temazepam can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined HKD$10,000. The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000-fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000-fine and/or seven years of jail time. In Ireland, temazepam is a Schedule 3 controlled substance with strict restrictions. In the Netherlands, temazepam is available for prescription as 10- or 20-mg tablets and capsules. Formulations of temazepam containing less than 20 mg are included in List 2 of the Opium Law, while formulations containing 20 mg or more of the drug (along with the gel-capsules) are a List 1 substance of the Opium Law, thus subject to more stringent regulation. Besides being used for insomnia, it is also occasionally used as a preanesthetic medication. In Norway, temazepam is not available as a prescription drug. It is regulated as a Class A substance under Norway's Narcotics Act. In Portugal, temazepam is a Schedule IV controlled drug under Decree-Law 15/93. In Singapore, temazepam is a Class A controlled drug (Schedule I), making it illegal to possess and requiring a private prescription from a licensed physician to be dispensed. In Slovenia, it is regulated as a Group II (Schedule 2) controlled substance under the Production and Trade in Illicit Drugs Act. In South Africa, temazepam is a Schedule 5 drug, requiring a special prescription, and is restricted to 10– to 30-mg doses. In Sweden, temazepam is classed as a "narcotic" drug listed as both a List II (Schedule II) which denotes it is a drug with limited medicinal use and a high risk of addiction, and is also listed as a List V (Schedule V) substance which denotes the drug is prohibited in Sweden under the Narcotics Drugs Act (1968). Temazepam is banned in Sweden and possession and distribution of even small amounts is punishable by a prison sentence and a fine. In Switzerland, temazepam is a Class B controlled substance, like all other benzodiazepines. This means it is a prescription-only drug. In Thailand, temazepam is a Schedule II controlled drug under the Psychotropic Substances Act. Possession and distribution of the drug is illegal. In the United Kingdom, temazepam is a Class C controlled drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (Schedule 3 under the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001). If prescribed privately (not on the NHS), temazepam is available only by a special controlled drug prescription form (FP10PCD) and pharmacies are obligated to follow special procedures for storage and dispensing. Additionally, all manufacturers in the UK have replaced the gel-capsules with solid tablets. Temazepam requires safe custody and up until June 2015 was exempt from CD prescription requirements. In the United States, Temazepam is currently a Schedule IV drug under the international Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and is only available by prescription. Specially coded prescriptions may be required in certain states. Synthesis Pharmacologically active metabolite of diazepam, q.v. N-oxides are prone to undergo the Polonovski rearrangement when treated with acetic anhydride, and this was illustrated by the synthesis of oxazepam. It is not surprising that the N-methyl analogue (1) also undergoes this process, and hydrolysis of the resulting acetate gives temazepam (2). Care must be exacted with the conditions, or the inactive rearrangement product (3) results. References External links Temazepam | Inchem Panorama document - 1995 - YouTube video Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Benzodiazepines Chloroarenes Lactams Lactims GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
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239817
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20battles%20301%E2%80%931300
List of battles 301–1300
This is a List of battles from 301 A.D. to 1300 A.D. 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century 12th century 13th century See also List of Byzantine battles References 0601
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tervel%20of%20Bulgaria
Tervel of Bulgaria
Khan Tervel () also called Tarvel, or Terval, or Terbelis in some Byzantine sources, was the khan of Bulgaria during the First Bulgarian Empire at the beginning of the 8th century. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named him caesar, the first foreigner to receive this title. He was raised a pagan like his grandfather Khan Kubrat. but was later possibly baptised by the Byzantine clergy. Tervel played an important role in defeating the Arabs during the siege of Constantinople in 717–718. The Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans states that Tervel belonged to the Dulo clan and reigned for 21 years. According to the chronology developed by Moskov, Tervel would have reigned 695–715. Other chronologies place his reign in 701–718 or 700–721, but cannot be reconciled with the testimony of the Imennik. The testimony of the source and some later traditions allow identifying Tervel as the son and heir of his predecessor Asparukh, who had perhaps died in battle against the Khazars. Alliance with Justinian II Tervel is first mentioned in the Byzantine sources in 704, when he was approached by the deposed and exiled Byzantine emperor Justinian II. Justinian acquired Tervel's support for an attempted restoration to the Byzantine throne in exchange for friendship, gifts, and his daughter in marriage. With an army of 15,000 horsemen provided by Tervel, Justinian suddenly advanced on Constantinople and managed to gain entrance into the city in 705. The restored emperor executed his supplanters, the emperors Leontius and Tiberius III, alongside many of their supporters. Justinian awarded Tervel with many gifts, the title of kaisar (caesar), which made him second only to the emperor and the first foreign ruler in Byzantine history to receive such a title, and a territorial concession in northeastern Thrace, a region called Zagora. Whether Justinian's daughter Anastasia was married to Tervel as had been arranged is unknown. Only three years later, however, when Justinian II consolidated his throne he violated this arrangement and commenced military operations to recover the ceded area but Khan Tervel routed the Byzantines at the Battle of Anchialus (near present-day Pomorie) in 708. In 711, faced by a serious revolt in Asia Minor, Justinian again sought the aid of Tervel, but obtained only lukewarm support manifested in an army of 3,000. Outmaneuvered by the rebel emperor Philippicus, Justinian was captured and executed, while his Bulgarian allies were allowed to retire to their country. Tervel took advantage of the disorders in Byzantium and raided Thrace in 712, plundering as far as the vicinity of Constantinople. Given the chronological information of the Imennik, Tervel would have died in 715. However, the Byzantine Chronicler Theophanes the Confessor ascribes Tervel a role in an attempt to restore the deposed Emperor Anastasius II in 718 or 719. If Tervel had survived this long, he would have been the Bulgarian ruler who concluded a new treaty (confirming the annual tribute paid by the Byzantines to Bulgaria, the territorial concessions in Thrace, regulating commercial relations and the treating of political refugees) with Emperor Theodosius III in 716. However, elsewhere Theophanes records the name of the Bulgarian ruler who concluded the treaty of 716 as Kormesios, i.e., Tervel's eventual successor Kormesiy. It is probable that the chronicler ascribed the events of 718 or 719 to Tervel simply because this was the last name of a Bulgar ruler that he was familiar with, and that his sources had been silent about the name, as in his account of the siege of Constantinople. According to another theory Kermesios was authorized by Tervel to sign the treaty. Most researches agree that it was during the time of Tervel when the famous rock relief the Madara Rider was created as a memorial to the victories over the Byzantines, to honour his father Asparukh and as an expression of the glory of the Bulgarian state. The war with the Arabs in 717–718 and later life On 25 May 717, Leo III the Isaurian was crowned Emperor of Byzantium. During the summer of the same year the Arabs, led by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, crossed the Dardanelles and besieged Constantinople with a large army and navy. Leo III made a plea to Tervel for help, relying on the treaty of 716, and Tervel agreed. The first clash between the Bulgars and the Arabs ended with a Bulgar victory. During the very first stages of the siege the Bulgars appeared in the Muslim rear and large part of their army was destroyed and the rest were trapped. The Arabs built two trenches around their camp facing the Bulgarian army and the walls of the city. They persisted with the siege despite the severe winter with 100 days of snowfall. In the spring, the Byzantine navy destroyed the Arab fleets that had arrived with new provisions and equipment, while a Byzantine army defeated Arab reinforcements in Bithynia. Finally, in early summer the Arabs engaged the Bulgars in battle but suffered a crushing defeat. According to Theophanes the Confessor, the Bulgars slaughtered some 22,000 Arabs in the battle. Shortly after, the Arabs raised the siege. In 719, Tervel again interfered in the internal affairs of the Byzantine Empire when the deposed emperor Anastasios II asked for his assistance to regain the throne. Tervel provided him with troops and 360,000 gold coins. Anastasios marched to Constantinople, but its population refused to cooperate. In the meantime Leo III sent a letter to Tervel in which he urged him to respect the treaty and to prefer peace to war. Because Anastasios was abandoned by his supporters, the Bulgarian ruler agreed to Leo III's pleas and broke relations with the usurper. He also sent Leo III many of the conspirators who had sought refuge in Pliska. Legacy Tervel Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Tervel of Bulgaria. See also History of Bulgaria Bulgars References Sources Mosko Moskov, Imennik na bălgarskite hanove (novo tălkuvane), Sofia 1988. Jordan Andreev, Ivan Lazarov, Plamen Pavlov, Koj koj e v srednovekovna Bălgarija, Sofia 1999. (primary source), Bahši Iman, Džagfar Tarihy, vol. III, Orenburg 1997. (primary source), Nikephoros Patriarch of Constantinople, Short History, C. Mango, ed., Dumbarton Oaks Texts 10, 1990. (primary source), The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, C. Mango and R. Scott, trans., Oxford University Press, 1997. External links Rulers of Bulgaria – Tervel Monarchs of the Bulgars 7th-century births 7th-century Christians 8th-century Christians 721 deaths 8th-century Bulgarian monarchs Christian monarchs Caesars (Byzantine nobles) Bulgarian people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars People of the Arab–Byzantine wars Dulo clan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four%20Histories
Twenty-Four Histories
The Twenty-Four Histories (), also known as the Orthodox Histories (), are the Chinese official dynastic histories covering from the earliest dynasty in 3000 BC to the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. The Han dynasty official Sima Qian established many of the conventions of the genre, but the form was not fixed until much later. Starting with the Tang dynasty, each dynasty established an official office to write the history of its predecessor using official court records, partly in order to establish its own link to the earliest times. As fixed and edited in the Qing dynasty, the whole set contains 3,213 volumes and about 40 million words. It is considered one of the most important sources on Chinese history and culture. The title "Twenty-Four Histories" dates from 1775, which was the 40th year in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. This was when the last volume, the History of Ming, was reworked and a complete set of the histories was produced. Collection Inheritance works These works were begun by one historian and completed by an heir, usually of the next generation. Records of the Grand Historian, inherited from Sima Tan 司馬談 (father) by Sima Qian 司馬遷 (son) Book of Han, inherited from Ban Biao 班彪 (father), Ban Gu (son) by Ban Zhao 班昭 (daughter/sister) Book of Liang and Book of Chen, inherited from Yao Cha 姚察 (father) by Yao Silian 姚思廉 (son) Book of Northern Qi, inherited from Li Delin 李德林 (father) by Li Baiyao 李百藥 (son) History of the Southern Dynasties and History of the Northern Dynasties, inherited from Li Dashi 李大師 (father) by Li Yanshou 李延壽 (son) Related works There were attempts at producing new historiographies after the Qing dynasty, but they either never gained widespread acceptance as part of the official historical canon or they remain unfinished. Modern attempts at creating the official Qing history In 1961, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the declaration of the Republic of China (ROC), the ROC government in Taiwan published the History of Qing, adding 21 supplementary chapters to the Draft History of Qing and revising many existing chapters to denounce the People's Republic of China (PRC) as an illegitimate, impostor regime. It also removed passages that were derogatory towards the Xinhai Revolution. This edition has not been widely accepted as the official Qing history because it is recognized that it was a rushed job motivated by political objectives. It does not correct most of the errors known to exist in the Draft History of Qing. An additional project, attempting to write a New History of Qing incorporating new materials and improvements in historiography, lasted from 1988 to 2000. Only 33 chapters out of the projected 500 were published. This project was later abandoned following the rise of the Pan-Green Coalition, which sees Taiwan as a distinct entity from Mainland China, both culturally and politically. As such, it is argued that it is not the duty of the Taiwanese regime to compile the Qing history. In 1961, the PRC also attempted to complete the Qing history, but historians were prevented from doing so against the backdrop of the Cultural Revolution. In 2002, the PRC once again announced that it would complete the History of Qing. The project was approved in 2003, and put under the leadership of historian Dai Yi. Initially planned to be completed in 10 years, the project suffered multiple delays, pushing completion of the first draft to 2016. Chinese Social Sciences Today reported in April 2020 that the project's results were being reviewed. Modern editions In China, the Zhonghua Book Company (Zhonghua Shuju) have edited a number of these histories. They have been collated, edited, and punctuated by Chinese specialists. From 1991 to 2003, it was translated from Classical Chinese into modern written vernacular Chinese, by Xu Jialu and other scholars. Translations One of the Twenty-Four Histories is in the process of being fully translated into English: Records of the Grand Historian by William Nienhauser, in nine volumes. In Korean and Vietnamese, only the Records has been translated. Most of the histories have been translated into Japanese. See also Chinese classic texts Draft History of Qing, a continuation of the histories through 1911 History of China Official communications of the Chinese Empire Zizhi Tongjian References Citations Sources External links Chinese Literature The Ershiwushi 二十五史 "The Twenty-five Official Dynastic Histories" (zhengshi 正史) Ulrich Theobold, China Knowledge Series of history books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogre
Ogre
An ogre (feminine: ogress) is a legendary monster usually depicted as a large, hideous, man-like being that eats ordinary human beings, especially infants and children. Ogres frequently feature in mythology, folklore, and fiction throughout the world. They appear in many classic works of literature, and are most often associated in fairy tales and legend with a taste for infants. In mythology, ogres are often depicted as inhumanly large, tall, and having a disproportionately large head, abundant hair, unusually colored skin, a voracious appetite, and a strong body. Ogres are closely linked with giants and with human cannibals in mythology. In both folklore and fiction, giants are often given ogrish traits (such as the giants in "Jack and the Beanstalk" and "Jack the Giant Killer", the Giant Despair in The Pilgrim's Progress, and the Jötnar of Norse mythology); while ogres may be given giant-like traits. Famous examples of ogres in folklore include the ogre in "Puss in Boots" and the ogre in "Hop-o'-My-Thumb". Other characters sometimes described as ogres include the title character from "Bluebeard", the Beast from Beauty and the Beast, Humbaba from the Epic of Gilgamesh, Grendel from Beowulf, Polyphemus the Cyclops from Homer's Odyssey, the Man-eating giant in "Sinbad the Sailor", and the Oni of Japanese folklore. Etymology The word ogre is of French origin, originally derived from the Etruscan god Orcus, who fed on human flesh. Its earliest attestation is in Chrétien de Troyes' late 12th-century verse romance Perceval, li contes del graal, which contains the lines: The ogres in this rhyme may refer to the ogres who were, in the pseudohistorical work History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the inhabitants of Britain prior to human settlement. The Italian author Giambattista Basile (1575–1632) used the related Neapolitan word uerco, or in standard Italian, orco in some of his tales. This word is documented in earlier Italian works (Fazio degli Uberti, 14th century; Luigi Pulci, 15th century; Ludovico Ariosto, 15th–16th centuries) and has even older cognates with the Latin orcus and the Old English orcnēas found in Beowulf lines 112–113, which inspired J.R.R. Tolkien's Orc. All these words may derive from a shared Indo-European mythological concept (as Tolkien himself speculated, as cited by Tom Shippey, The Road to Middle-earth, 45). The Dictionary of the Academy of France alternatively states that the name is derived from the word Hongrois, which means Hungarian, as of western cultures referred to Hungarians as a kind of monstrosity. Ogre could possibly also derive from the biblical Og, last of the giants (or from the Greek river god Oiagros, father of Orpheus). The word ogre came into wider usage in the works of Charles Perrault (1628–1703) or Marie-Catherine Jumelle de Berneville, Comtesse d' Aulnoy (1650–1705), both of whom were French authors. The first appearance of the word ogre in Perrault's work occurred in his Histoires ou Contes du temps Passé (1696). It later appeared in several of his other fairy tales, many of which were based on the Neapolitan tales of Basile. The first example of a female ogre being referred to as an ogress is found in his version of Sleeping Beauty, where it is spelled ogresse. Madame d'Aulnoy first employed the word ogre in her story L'Orangier et l'Abeille (1698), and was the first to use the word ogree to refer to the creature's offspring. Fairy tales that feature ogres Hop-o'-My-Thumb Puss in Boots Sleeping Beauty The Bee and the Orange Tree Finette Cendron or Cunning Cinders Bearskin Tale of the Ogre The Flea The Enchanted Doe Violet The Dove Corvetto The Three Crowns Liisa and the Prince Puss-cat Mew The Selfish Giant Garulfo Ogres in popular culture Ogres appear as antagonists in the 1996 video game Quake. Ogres appear as a player class in the Popular MMORPG Everquest. Ogres are attackable NPCs in the MMORPG RuneScape. Nish and two other Ogres appear in the 2004 film Ella Enchanted. Ogres appear as antagonists in the 2018 video game God of War, despite not being traditionally associated with Norse mythology. Ogres exist as a major faction in Warhammer Fantasy Battle, where they ruled over parts of the world in kingdoms inspired by the Mongol Empire, while in its successor Warhammer: Age of Sigmar, they are largely roaming tribes. In both, they are ravenously hungry and famed for eating the flesh of other beings. In Warhammer 40,000, a subset of humanity has evolved to become enormously tall, unintelligent, and often very fat, named 'Ogryn', in reference to Ogres. Shrek is the eponymous ogre protagonist in the Shrek series of comedy films. Shrek engages in typical ogre behaviors like washing in mud and eating insects, but otherwise is not monstrous. He only feigns nastiness and claims to eat people as a way to deter trespassers in his swamp, which is the backbone of the first film's plot. He also appears to simply enjoy scaring people, due to years of being mistreated by humans simply for the fact he is an ogre and not because he ever did anything. Ogres in the Shrek series are portrayed as having about the same intelligence levels as humans and are not much different than humans aside from appearance and rather disgusting habits. Ironically, no ogre appears in the 2011 spin-off film Puss in Boots. An ogre named Mulgarath is the main antagonist in The Spiderwick Chronicles, wherein the shapeshifting ability from the "Puss in Boots" story is shared by all ogres. Ogres are units for the Orc faction in Warlords Battlecry video games. Ogres are a barbaric race in the Warcraft franchise. One of its main characters, Rexxar, is a half-orc, half-ogre. Ogres are enemies in The Elder Scrolls: Oblivion, and The Elder Scrolls Online. Ogres are fourth-level creatures of the Stronghold faction in the Heroes of Might and Magic III. Ogres make an appearance as shock troops and pillagers from Mount Gundabad in The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. Ogres are a race in the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game. Ogres are the monsters in Creepy issue #2 story "Ogre's Castle". Ogrest from the Dofus / Wakfu-Games / Anime. Created accidentally through alchemy, he became one of the major antagonists of the game. Due to his love being spurned he is constantly mourning atop the mountain he calls his home, his tears regularly flooding the surrounding realms in an Event known as 'Chaos of Ogrest' Ogres is a name for one of the playable classes in the Changeling: The Lost role-playing game. Ogres are giant, dim-witted creatures that makeup Duke Igthorn's army in the animated TV series Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears Ogres appear as the titular enemies in the tactical role-playing video game series Ogre Battle. Nivek Ogre is a Canadian Performer/Actor/Musician/Front Creature of the Industrial style Avant Funk Band "SkiNNy PuPPy". Although he chose to be a re-born/re-purposed creature by way of Light, he was purposed to be an actual Ogre by forces of Darkness. Well meaning, but finds the beast in him will never be cast out, but regulated. In Fallout 3, the five Super mutant behemoths resemble the classic fairytale ogres. They are aggressive, cannibalistic and dim-witted giants that carry rare loot and are armed with clubs. Gallery In illustration In sculpture See also Buggane Cyclopes Darkspawn Daeva Fictional ogres (category) Giant Goliath Humbaba Jinn Jötunn Ke'let Mapinguari Oni Orc Rakshasa Shrek Stallo Troll Wendigo References Rose, Carol. Giants, Monsters, & Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend, and Myth. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. Shippey, Tom. The Road to Middle-earth. London: HarperCollins, 1992 (rev.). South, Malcolm, ed. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A Source Book and Research Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1987. Reprint, New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1988. Kathrine Mary Briggs The Fairies in Tradition and Literature "Ogre." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 15 May 2006, search.eb.com Notes External links Mythological monsters Supernatural legends English legendary creatures Medieval European legendary creatures Mythic humanoids French legendary creatures Italian legendary creatures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromaticity
Aromaticity
In chemistry, aromaticity is a property of cyclic (ring-shaped), typically planar (flat) molecular structures with pi bonds in resonance (those containing delocalized electrons) that gives increased stability compared to other geometric or connective arrangements with the same set of atoms. Aromatic rings are very stable and do not break apart easily. Organic compounds that are not aromatic are classified as aliphatic compounds—they might be cyclic, but only aromatic rings have enhanced stability. Since the most common aromatic compounds are derivatives of benzene (an aromatic hydrocarbon common in petroleum and its distillates), the word aromatic occasionally refers informally to benzene derivatives, and so it was first defined. Nevertheless, many non-benzene aromatic compounds exist. In living organisms, for example, the most common aromatic rings are the double-ringed bases in RNA and DNA. An aromatic functional group or other substituent is called an aryl group. The earliest use of the term aromatic was in an article by August Wilhelm Hofmann in 1855. Hofmann used the term for a class of benzene compounds, many of which have odors (aromas), unlike pure saturated hydrocarbons. Aromaticity as a chemical property bears no general relationship with the olfactory properties of such compounds (how they smell), although in 1855, before the structure of benzene or organic compounds was understood, chemists like Hofmann were beginning to understand that odiferous molecules from plants, such as terpenes, had chemical properties that we recognize today are similar to unsaturated petroleum hydrocarbons like benzene. In terms of the electronic nature of the molecule, aromaticity describes a conjugated system often made of alternating single and double bonds in a ring. This configuration allows for the electrons in the molecule's pi system to be delocalized around the ring, increasing the molecule's stability. The molecule cannot be represented by one structure, but rather a resonance hybrid of different structures, such as with the two resonance structures of benzene. These molecules cannot be found in either one of these representations, with the longer single bonds in one location and the shorter double bond in another (see Theory below). Rather, the molecule exhibits bond lengths in between those of single and double bonds. This commonly seen model of aromatic rings, namely the idea that benzene was formed from a six-membered carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds (cyclohexatriene), was developed by August Kekulé (see History below). The model for benzene consists of two resonance forms, which corresponds to the double and single bonds superimposing to produce six one-and-a-half bonds. Benzene is a more stable molecule than would be expected without accounting for charge delocalization. Theory As it is a standard for resonance diagrams, the use of a double-headed arrow indicates that two structures are not distinct entities but merely hypothetical possibilities. Neither is an accurate representation of the actual compound, which is best represented by a hybrid (average) of these structures. A C=C bond is shorter than a C−C bond. Benzene is a regular hexagon—it is planar and all six carbon–carbon bonds have the same length, which is intermediate between that of a single and that of a double bond. In a cyclic molecule with three alternating double bonds, cyclohexatriene, the bond length of the single bond would be 1.54 Å and that of the double bond would be 1.34 Å. However, in a molecule of benzene, the length of each of the bonds is 1.40 Å, indicating it to be the average of single and double bond. A better representation is that of the circular π-bond (Armstrong's inner cycle), in which the electron density is evenly distributed through a π-bond above and below the ring. This model more correctly represents the location of electron density within the aromatic ring. The single bonds are formed from overlap of hybridized atomic sp2-orbitals in line between the carbon nuclei—these are called σ-bonds. Double bonds consist of a σ-bond and a π-bond. The π-bonds are formed from overlap of atomic p-orbitals above and below the plane of the ring. The following diagram shows the positions of these p-orbitals: Since they are out of the plane of the atoms, these orbitals can interact with each other freely, and become delocalized. This means that, instead of being tied to one atom of carbon, each electron is shared by all six in the ring. Thus, there are not enough electrons to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the "extra" electrons strengthen all of the bonds on the ring equally. The resulting molecular orbital is considered to have π symmetry. History The term "aromatic" The first known use of the word "aromatic" as a chemical term—namely, to apply to compounds that contain the phenyl group—occurs in an article by August Wilhelm Hofmann in 1855. If this is indeed the earliest introduction of the term, it is curious that Hofmann says nothing about why he introduced an adjective indicating olfactory character to apply to a group of chemical substances, of which only some have notable aromas. Also, many of the most odoriferous organic substances known are terpenes, which are not aromatic in the chemical sense. Terpenes and benzenoid substances do have a chemical characteristic in common, namely higher unsaturation than many aliphatic compounds, and Hofmann may not have been making a distinction between the two categories. Many of the earliest-known examples of aromatic compounds, such as benzene and toluene, have distinctive pleasant smells. This property led to the term "aromatic" for this class of compounds, and hence the term "aromaticity" for the eventually discovered electronic property. The structure of the benzene ring In the 19th century, chemists found it puzzling that benzene could be so unreactive toward addition reactions, given its presumed high degree of unsaturation. The cyclohexatriene structure for benzene was first proposed by August Kekulé in 1865. Most chemists were quick to accept this structure, since it accounted for most of the known isomeric relationships of aromatic chemistry. The hexagonal structure explains why only one isomer of benzene exists and why disubstituted compounds have three isomers. Between 1897 and 1906, J. J. Thomson, the discoverer of the electron, proposed three equivalent electrons between each pair of carbon atoms in benzene. An explanation for the exceptional stability of benzene is conventionally attributed to Sir Robert Robinson, who was apparently the first (in 1925) to coin the term aromatic sextet as a group of six electrons that resists disruption. In fact, this concept can be traced further back, via Ernest Crocker in 1922, to Henry Edward Armstrong, who in 1890 wrote "the [six] centric affinities act within a cycle … benzene may be represented by a double ring … and when an additive compound is formed, the inner cycle of affinity suffers disruption, the contiguous carbon-atoms to which nothing has been attached of necessity acquire the ethylenic condition". Here, Armstrong is describing at least four modern concepts. First, his "affinity" is better known nowadays as the electron, which was to be discovered only seven years later by J. J. Thomson. Second, he is describing electrophilic aromatic substitution, proceeding (third) through a Wheland intermediate, in which (fourth) the conjugation of the ring is broken. He introduced the symbol C centered on the ring as a shorthand for the inner cycle, thus anticipating Erich Clar's notation. It is argued that he also anticipated the nature of wave mechanics, since he recognized that his affinities had direction, not merely being point particles, and collectively having a distribution that could be altered by introducing substituents onto the benzene ring (much as the distribution of the electric charge in a body is altered by bringing it near to another body). The quantum mechanical origins of this stability, or aromaticity, were first modelled by Hückel in 1931. He was the first to separate the bonding electrons into sigma and pi electrons. Aromaticity of an arbitrary aromatic compound can be measured quantitatively by the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) computational method and aromaticity percentage methods. Characteristics of aromatic systems An aromatic (or aryl) ring contains a set of covalently bound atoms with specific characteristics: A delocalized conjugated π system, most commonly an arrangement of alternating single and double bonds Coplanar structure, with all the contributing atoms in the same plane Contributing atoms arranged in one or more rings A number of π delocalized electrons that is even, but not a multiple of 4. That is, 4n + 2 π-electrons, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. This is known as Hückel's rule. According to Hückel's rule, if a molecule has 4n + 2 π-electrons, it is aromatic, but if it has 4n π-electrons and has characteristics 1–3 above, the molecule is said to be antiaromatic. Whereas benzene is aromatic (6 electrons, from 3 double bonds), cyclobutadiene is antiaromatic, since the number of π delocalized electrons is 4, which of course is a multiple of 4. The cyclobutadienide(2−) ion, however, is aromatic (6 electrons). An atom in an aromatic system can have other electrons that are not part of the system, and are therefore ignored for the 4n + 2 rule. In furan, the oxygen atom is sp2 hybridized. One lone pair is in the π system and the other in the plane of the ring (analogous to the C–H bond in the other positions). There are 6 π-electrons, so furan is aromatic. Aromatic molecules typically display enhanced chemical stability, compared to similar non-aromatic molecules. A molecule that can be aromatic will tend to change toward aromaticity, and the added stability changes the chemistry of the molecule. Aromatic compounds undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution and nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions, but not electrophilic addition reactions as happens with carbon–carbon double bonds. In the presence of a magnetic field, the circulating π-electrons in an aromatic molecule produce an aromatic ring current that induces an additional magnetic field, an important effect in nuclear magnetic resonance. The NMR signal of protons in the plane of an aromatic ring are shifted substantially further down-field than those on non-aromatic sp2 carbons. This is an important way of detecting aromaticity. By the same mechanism, the signals of protons located near the ring axis are shifted upfield. Aromatic molecules are able to interact with each other in so-called π–π stacking: The π systems form two parallel rings overlap in a "face-to-face" orientation. Aromatic molecules are also able to interact with each other in an "edge-to-face" orientation: The slight positive charge of the substituents on the ring atoms of one molecule are attracted to the slight negative charge of the aromatic system on another molecule. Planar monocyclic molecules containing 4n π-electrons are called antiaromatic and are, in general, unstable. Molecules that could be antiaromatic will tend to change from this electronic or conformation, thereby becoming non-aromatic. For example, cyclooctatetraene (COT) distorts out of planarity, breaking π overlap between adjacent double bonds. Recent studies have determined that cyclobutadiene adopts an asymmetric, rectangular configuration in which single and double bonds indeed alternate, with no resonance; the single bonds are markedly longer than the double bonds, reducing unfavorable p-orbital overlap. This reduction of symmetry lifts the degeneracy of the two formerly non-bonding molecular orbitals, which by Hund's rule forces the two unpaired electrons into a new, weakly bonding orbital (and also creates a weakly antibonding orbital). Hence, cyclobutadiene is non-aromatic; the strain of the asymmetric configuration outweighs the anti-aromatic destabilization that would afflict the symmetric, square configuration. Hückel's rule of aromaticity treats molecules in their singlet ground states (S0). The stability trends of the compounds described here are found to be reversed in the lowest lying triplet and singlet excited states (T1 and S1), according to Baird's rule. This means that compounds like benzene, with 4n + 2 π-electrons and aromatic properties in the ground state, become antiaromatic and often adopt less symmetric structures in the excited state. Aromatic compounds Importance Aromatic compounds play key roles in the biochemistry of all living things. The four aromatic amino acids histidine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine each serve as one of the 20 basic building-blocks of proteins. Further, all 5 nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil) that make up the sequence of the genetic code in DNA and RNA are aromatic purines or pyrimidines. The molecule heme contains an aromatic system with 22 π-electrons. Chlorophyll also has a similar aromatic system. Aromatic compounds are important in industry. Key aromatic hydrocarbons of commercial interest are benzene, toluene, ortho-xylene and para-xylene. About 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year. They are extracted from complex mixtures obtained by the refining of oil or by distillation of coal tar, and are used to produce a range of important chemicals and polymers, including styrene, phenol, aniline, polyester and nylon. Neutral homocyclics Benzene, as well as most other annulenes (with the exception of cyclodecapentaene, because it is non-planar) with the formula C4n+2H4n+2 where n is a natural number, such as cyclotetradecaheptaene (n=3). Heterocyclics In heterocyclic aromatics (heteroaromatics), one or more of the atoms in the aromatic ring is of an element other than carbon. This can lessen the ring's aromaticity, and thus (as in the case of furan) increase its reactivity. Other examples include pyridine, pyrazine, pyrrole, imidazole, pyrazole, oxazole, thiophene, and their benzannulated analogs (benzimidazole, for example). In all these examples, the number of π-electrons is 6, due to the π-electrons from the double bonds as well as the two electrons from any lone pair that is in the p-orbital that is in the plane of the aromatic π system. For example, in pyridine, the five sp2-hybridized carbons each have a p-orbital that is perpendicular to the plane of the ring, and each of these p-orbitals contains one π-electron. Additionally, the nitrogen atom is also sp2-hybridized and has one electron in a p-orbital, which adds up to 6 p-electrons, thus making pyridine aromatic. The lone pair on the nitrogen is not part of the aromatic π system. Pyrrole and imidazole are both five membered aromatic rings that contain heteroatoms. In pyrrole, each of the four sp2-hybridized carbons contributes one π-electron, and the nitrogen atom is also sp2-hybridized and contributes two π-electrons from its lone pair, which occupies a p-orbital. In imidazole, both nitrogens are sp2-hybridized; the one in the double bond contributes one electron and the one which is not in the double bond and is in a lone pair contributes two electrons to the π system. Fused aromatics and polycyclics Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are molecules containing two or more simple aromatic rings fused together by sharing two neighboring carbon atoms (see also simple aromatic rings). Examples are naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. In fused aromatics, not all carbon–carbon bonds are necessarily equivalent, as the electrons are not delocalized over the entire molecule. The aromaticity of these molecules can be explained using their orbital picture. Like benzene and other monocyclic aromatic molecules, polycyclics have a cyclic conjugated pi system with p-orbital overlap above and below the plane of the ring. Substituted aromatics Many chemical compounds are aromatic rings with other functional groups attached. Examples include trinitrotoluene (TNT), acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), paracetamol, and the nucleotides of DNA. Aromatic ions Aromatic molecules need not be neutral molecules. Ions that satisfy Huckel's rule of 4n + 2 π-electrons in a planar, cyclic, conjugated molecule are considered to be aromatic ions. For example, the cyclopentadienyl anion and the cycloheptatrienylium cation are both considered to be aromatic ions, and the azulene molecule can be approximated as a combination of both. In order to convert the atom from sp3 to sp2, a carbocation, carbanion, or carbon radical must be formed. These leave sp2-hybridized carbons that can partake in the π system of an aromatic molecule. Like neutral aromatic compounds, these compounds are stable and form easily. The cyclopentadienyl anion is formed very easily and thus 1,3-cyclopentadiene is a very acidic hydrocarbon with a pKa of 16. Other examples of aromatic ions include the cyclopropenium cation (2 π-electrons) and cyclooctatetraenyl dianion (10 π electrons). Atypical aromatic compounds Aromaticity also occurs in compounds that are not carbocyclic or heterocyclic; inorganic six-membered-ring compounds analogous to benzene have been synthesized. For example, borazine is a six-membered ring composed of alternating boron and nitrogen atoms, each with one hydrogen attached. It has a delocalized π system and undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions appropriate to aromatic rings rather than reactions expected of non-aromatic molecules. Quite recently, the aromaticity of planar rings occurring in the Zintl phase Li12Si7 was experimentally evinced by Li solid-state NMR. Metal aromaticity is believed to exist in certain clusters of aluminium and gallium, specifically Ga32- and Al42-, for example. Homoaromaticity is the state of systems where conjugation is interrupted by a single sp hybridized carbon atom. Y-aromaticity is used to describe a Y-shaped, planar (flat) molecule with resonance bonds. The concept was developed to explain the extraordinary stability and high basicity of the guanidinium cation. Guanidinium is not a ring molecule, and is cross-conjugated rather than a π system of consecutively attached atoms, but is reported to have its six π-electrons delocalized over the whole molecule. The concept is controversial and some authors emphasize different effects. This has also been suggested as the reason that the trimethylenemethane dication is more stable than the butadienyl dication. σ-aromaticity refers to stabilization arising from the delocalization of sigma bonds. It is often invoked in cluster chemistry and is closely related to Wade's Rule. Furthermore, in 2021 a σ-aromatic Th3 complex was reported, indicating that the concept of σ-aromaticity remains relevant for orbitals with principle quantum number 6. Other symmetries Möbius aromaticity occurs when a cyclic system of molecular orbitals, formed from pπ atomic orbitals and populated in a closed shell by 4n (n is an integer) electrons, is given a single half-twist to form a Möbius strip. A π system with 4n electrons in a flat (non-twisted) ring would be antiaromatic, and therefore highly unstable, due to the symmetry of the combinations of p atomic orbitals. By twisting the ring, the symmetry of the system changes and becomes allowed (see also Möbius–Hückel concept for details). Because the twist can be left-handed or right-handed, the resulting Möbius aromatics are dissymmetric or chiral. But as of 2012, no Möbius aromatic molecules had been synthesized. Aromatics with two half-twists corresponding to the paradromic topologies were first suggested by Johann Listing. In one form of carbo-benzene, the ring is expanded and contains alkyne and allene groups. Spherical aromaticity is aromaticity that occurs in fullerenes. In 2000, Andreas Hirsch and coworkers in Erlangen, Germany, formulated a rule to determine when a fullerene would be aromatic. They found that if there were 2(n + 1)2 π-electrons, then the fullerene would display aromatic properties. This follows from the fact that an aromatic fullerene must have full icosahedral (or other appropriate) symmetry, so the molecular orbitals must be entirely filled. This is possible only if there are exactly 2(n + 1)2 electrons, where n is a nonnegative integer. See also Aromatization Aromatic amine List of benzo compounds Simple aromatic ring Pi interaction Avoided crossing Aromatic ring current References Physical organic chemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20tern
Common tern
The common tern (Sterna hirundo) is a seabird in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar distribution, its four subspecies breeding in temperate and subarctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America. It is strongly migratory, wintering in coastal tropical and subtropical regions. Breeding adults have light grey upperparts, white to very light grey underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill. Depending on the subspecies, the bill may be mostly red with a black tip or all black. There are a number of similar species, including the partly sympatric Arctic tern, which can be separated on plumage details, leg and bill colour, or vocalisations. Breeding in a wider range of habitats than any of its relatives, the common tern nests on any flat, poorly vegetated surface close to water, including beaches and islands, and it readily adapts to artificial substrates such as floating rafts. The nest may be a bare scrape in sand or gravel, but it is often lined or edged with whatever debris is available. Up to three eggs may be laid, their dull colours and blotchy patterns providing camouflage on the open beach. Incubation is by both sexes, and the eggs hatch in around 21–22 days, longer if the colony is disturbed by predators. The downy chicks fledge in 22–28 days. Like most terns, this species feeds by plunge-diving for fish, either in the sea or in freshwater, but molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrate prey may form a significant part of the diet in some areas. Eggs and young are vulnerable to predation by mammals such as rats and American mink, and large birds including gulls, owls and herons. Common terns may be infected by lice, parasitic worms, and mites, although blood parasites appear to be rare. Its large population and huge breeding range mean that this species is classed as being of least concern, although numbers in North America have declined sharply in recent decades. Despite international legislation protecting the common tern, in some areas populations are threatened by habitat loss, pollution or the disturbance of breeding colonies. Taxonomy The terns are small to medium-sized seabirds closely related to the gulls, skimmers and skuas. They are gull-like in appearance, but typically have a lighter build, long pointed wings (which give them a fast, buoyant flight), a deeply forked tail, slender legs, and webbed feet. Most species are grey above and white below, and have a black cap which is reduced or flecked with white in the non-breeding season. The common tern's closest relatives appear to be the Antarctic tern, followed by the Eurasian Arctic and roseate terns. Genetic evidence suggests that the common tern may have diverged from an ancestral stock earlier than its relatives. No fossils are known from North America, and those claimed in Europe are of uncertain age and species. The common tern was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under its current scientific name, Sterna hirundo. The word "stearn" was used in Old English and a similar word was used by the Frisians for tern. "Stearn" appears in the poem The Seafarer, written around 1000 AD. Linnaeus adopted this word for the genus name Sterna. The Latin for swallow is hirundo and refers here to the tern's superficial likeness to that unrelated bird, which has a similar light build and long forked tail. This resemblance also leads to the informal name "sea swallow", recorded from at least the seventeenth century. The Scots names picktarnie, tarrock and their many variants are also believed to be onomatopoeic, derived from the distinctive call. Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species, all the informal common names are shared with the Arctic tern. The there was some uncertainty as to whether Sterna hirundo should apply to the common tern or the arctic tern as the species are very similar and both occur in Sweden. In 1913 the Swedish zoologist Einar Lönnberg concluded that the binomial name Sterna hirundo applied to the common tern. Four subspecies of the common tern are generally recognized, although S. h. minussensis is sometimes considered to be an intergrade between S. h. hirundo and S. h. longipennis. Description The nominate subspecies of the common tern is long, including a fork in the tail, with a wingspan. It weighs . Breeding adults have pale grey upperparts, very pale grey underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill that can be mostly red with a black tip, or all black, depending on the subspecies. The common tern's upperwings are pale grey, but as the summer wears on, the dark feather shafts of the outer flight feathers become exposed, and a grey wedge appears on the wings. The rump and tail are white, and on a standing bird the long tail extends no further than the folded wingtips, unlike the Arctic and roseate terns in which the tail protrudes beyond the wings. There are no significant differences between the sexes. In non-breeding adults the forehead and underparts become white, the bill is all black or black with a red base, and the legs are dark red or black. The upperwings have an obvious dark area at the front edge of the wing, the carpal bar. Terns that have not bred successfully may start moulting into non-breeding adult plumage from June, but late July is more typical, with the moult suspended during migration. There is also some geographical variation, Californian birds often being in non-breeding plumage during migration. Juvenile common terns have pale grey upperwings with a dark carpal bar. The crown and nape are brown, and the forehead is ginger, wearing to white by autumn. The upperparts are ginger with brown and white scaling, and the tail lacks the adult's long outer feathers. Birds in their first post-juvenile plumage, which normally remain in their wintering areas, resemble the non-breeding adult, but have a duskier crown, dark carpal bar, and often very worn plumage. By their second year, most young terns are either indistinguishable from adults, or show only minor differences such as a darker bill or white forehead. The common tern is an agile flyer, capable of rapid turns and swoops, hovering, and vertical take-off. When commuting with fish, it flies close to the surface in a strong head wind, but above the water in a following wind. Unless migrating, normally it stays below , and averages in the absence of a tail wind. Its average flight speed during the nocturnal migration flight is at a height of . Moult The juvenile starts moulting into adult plumage in its first October; the head, tail and body plumage is replaced first, mostly by February, then the wing feathers. The primaries are replaced in stages; the innermost feathers moult first, then replacement is suspended during the southern winter (birds of this age staying in their wintering areas) and recommences in the autumn. In May to June of the second year a similar moult sequence starts, with a pause during primary moult for birds that return north, but not for those that stay in the winter quarters. A major moult to adult breeding plumage occurs in the next February to June, between 40–90% of feathers being replaced. Old primary feathers wear away to reveal the blackish barbs beneath. The moult pattern means that the oldest feathers are those nearest the middle of the wing, so as the northern summer progresses, a dark wedge appears on the wing due to this feather ageing process. Terns are unusual in the frequency in which they moult their primaries, which are replaced at least twice, occasionally three times in a year. The visible difference in feather age is accentuated in the greater ultraviolet reflectance of new primaries, and the freshness of the wing feathers is used by females in mate selection. Experienced females tend to accept mates which best show their fitness through the quality of their wing feathers. Rarely, a very early moult at the nesting colony may be linked to breeding failure, both the onset of moult and reproductive behaviour being linked to falling levels of the hormone prolactin. Similar species There are several terns of a similar size and general appearance to the common tern. A traditionally difficult species to separate is the Arctic tern, and until the key characteristics were clarified, distant or flying birds of the two species were often jointly recorded as "commic terns". Although similar in size, the two terns differ in structure and flight. The common tern has a larger head, thicker neck, longer legs, and more triangular and stiffer wings than its relative, and has a more powerful, direct flight. The Arctic tern has greyer underparts than the common, which make its white cheeks more obvious, whereas the rump of the common tern can be greyish in non-breeding plumage, compared to the white of its relative. The common tern develops a dark wedge on the wings as the breeding season progresses, but the wings of Arctic stay white throughout the northern summer. All the flight feathers of the Arctic tern are translucent against a bright sky, only the four innermost wing feathers of the common tern share this property. The trailing edge of the outer flight feathers is a thin black line in the Arctic tern, but thicker and less defined in the common. The bill of an adult common tern is orange-red with a black tip, except in black-billed S. h. longipennis, and its legs are bright red, while both features are a darker red colour in the Arctic tern, which also lacks the black bill tip. In the breeding areas, the roseate tern can be distinguished by its pale plumage, long, mainly black bill and very long tail feathers. The non-breeding plumage of roseate is pale above and white, sometimes pink-tinged, below. It retains the long tail streamers, and has a black bill. In flight, the roseate's heavier head and neck, long bill and faster, stiffer wingbeats are also characteristic. It feeds further out to sea than the common tern. In North America, the Forster's tern in breeding plumage is obviously larger than the common, with relatively short wings, a heavy head and thick bill, and long, strong legs; in all non-breeding plumages, its white head and dark eye patch make the American species unmistakable. In the wintering regions, there are also confusion species, including the Antarctic tern of the southern oceans, the South American tern, the Australasian white-fronted tern and the white-cheeked tern of the Indian Ocean. Identification may be aided by the plumage differences due to "opposite" breeding seasons. The Antarctic tern is more sturdy than the common, with a heavier bill. In breeding condition, its dusky underparts and full black cap outline a white cheek stripe. In non-breeding plumages, it lacks, or has only an indistinct, carpal bar, and young birds show dark bars on the tertials, obvious on the closed wing and in flight. The South American tern is larger than the common, with a larger, more curved red bill, and has a smoother, more extensive black cap in non-breeding plumage. Like Antarctic, it lacks a strong carpal bar in non-breeding plumages, and it also shares the distinctive barring of the tertials in young birds. The white-fronted tern has a white forehead in breeding plumage, a heavier bill, and in non-breeding plumage is paler below than the common, with white underwings. The white-cheeked tern is smaller, has uniform grey upperparts, and in breeding plumage is darker above with whiter cheeks. Juvenile common terns are easily separated from similar-aged birds of related species. They show extensive ginger colouration to the back, and have a pale base to the bill. Young Arctic terns have a grey back and black bill, and juvenile roseate terns have a distinctive scalloped "saddle". Hybrids between common and roseate terns have been recorded, particularly from the US, and the intermediate plumage and calls shown by these birds is a potential identification pitfall. Such birds may have more extensive black on the bill, but confirmation of mixed breeding may depend on the exact details of individual flight feathers. Voice The common tern has a wide repertoire of calls, which have a lower pitch than the equivalent calls of Arctic terns. The most distinctive sound is the alarm KEE-yah, stressed on the first syllable, in contrast to the second-syllable stress of the Arctic tern. The alarm call doubles up as a warning to intruders, although serious threats evoke a kyar, given as a tern takes flight, and quietens the usually noisy colony while its residents assess the danger. A down-slurred is given when an adult is approaching the nest while carrying a fish, and is possibly used for individual recognition (chicks emerge from hiding when they hear their parents giving this call). Another common call is a kip uttered during social contact. Other vocalizations include a kakakakaka when attacking intruders, and a staccato kek-kek-kek from fighting males. Parents and chicks can locate one another by call, and siblings also recognise each other's vocalisations from about the twelfth day from hatching, which helps to keep the brood together. Distribution and habitat Most populations of the common tern are strongly migratory, wintering south of their temperate and subarctic Northern Hemisphere breeding ranges. First summer birds usually remain in their wintering quarters, although a few return to breeding colonies some time after the arrival of the adults. In North America, the common tern breeds along the Atlantic coast from Labrador to North Carolina, and inland throughout much of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains. In the United States, some breeding populations can also be found in the states bordering the Great Lakes, and locally on the Gulf coast. There are small, only partially migratory, colonies in the Caribbean; these are in The Bahamas and Cuba, and off Venezuela in the Los Roques and Las Aves archipelagos. New World birds winter along both coasts of Central and South America, to Argentina on the east coast and to northern Chile on the west coast. Records from South America and the Azores show that some birds may cross the Atlantic in both directions on their migration. The common tern breeds across most of Europe, with the highest numbers in the north and east of the continent. There are small populations on the north African coast, and in the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira. Most winter off western or southern Africa, birds from the south and west of Europe tending to stay north of the equator and other European birds moving further south. The breeding range continues across the temperate and taiga zones of Asia, with scattered outposts on the Persian Gulf and the coast of Iran. Small populations breed on islands off Sri Lanka, and in the Ladakh region of the Tibetan plateau. Western Asian birds winter in the northern Indian Ocean, and S. h. tibetana appears to be common off East Africa during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Birds from further north and east in Asia, such as S. h. longipennis, move through Japan, Thailand and the western Pacific as far as southern Australia. There are small and erratic colonies in West Africa, in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau, unusual in that they are within what is mainly a wintering area. Only a few common terns have been recorded in New Zealand, and this species' status in Polynesia is unclear. A bird ringed at the nest in Sweden was found dead on Stewart Island, New Zealand, five months later, having flown an estimated 25,000 km (15,000 mi). As long-distance migrants, common terns sometimes occur well outside their normal range. Stray birds have been found inland in Africa (Zambia and Malawi), and on the Maldives and Comoros islands; the nominate subspecies has reached Australia, the Andes, and the interior of South America. Asian S. h. longipennis has recent records from western Europe. The common tern breeds over a wider range of habitats than any of its relatives, nesting from the taiga of Asia to tropical shores, and at altitudes up to in Armenia, and in Asia. It avoids areas which are frequently exposed to excessive rain or wind, and also icy waters, so it does not breed as far north as the Arctic tern. The common tern breeds close to freshwater or the sea on almost any open flat habitat, including sand or shingle beaches, firm dune areas, salt marsh, or, most commonly, islands. Flat grassland or heath, or even large flat rocks may be suitable in an island environment. In mixed colonies, common terns will tolerate somewhat longer ground vegetation than Arctic terns, but avoid the even taller growth acceptable to roseate terns; the relevant factor here is the different leg lengths of the three species. Common terns adapt readily to artificial floating rafts, and may even nest on flat factory roofs. Unusual nest sites include hay bales, a stump above the water, and floating logs or vegetation. There is a record of a common tern taking over a spotted sandpiper nest and laying its eggs with those of the wader. Outside the breeding season, all that is needed in terms of habitat is access to fishing areas, and somewhere to land. In addition to natural beaches and rocks, boats, buoys and piers are often used both as perches and night-time roosts. Behaviour Territory The common tern breeds in colonies which do not normally exceed 2,000 pairs, but may occasionally number more than 20,000 pairs. Colonies inland tend to be smaller than on the coast. Common terns often nest alongside other coastal species, such as Arctic, roseate and Sandwich terns, black-headed gulls, and black skimmers. Especially in the early part of the breeding season, for no known reason, most or all of the terns will fly in silence low and fast out to sea. This phenomenon is called a "dread". On their return to the breeding sites, the terns may loiter for a few days before settling into a territory, and the actual start of nesting may be linked to a high availability of fish. Terns defend only a small area, with distances between nests sometimes being as little as , although is more typical. As with many birds, the same site is re-used year after year, with a record of one pair returning for 17 successive breeding seasons. Around 90% of experienced birds reuse their former territory, so young birds must nest on the periphery, find a bereaved mate, or move to another colony. A male selects a nesting territory a few days after his arrival in the spring, and is joined by his previous partner unless she is more than five days late, in which case the pair may separate. The defence of the territory is mainly by the male, who repels intruders of either sex. He gives an alarm call, opens his wings, raises his tail and bows his head to show the black cap. If the intruder persists, the male stops calling and fights by bill grappling until the intruder submits by raising its head to expose the throat. Aerial trespassers are simply attacked, sometimes following a joint upward spiralling flight. Despite the aggression shown to adults, wandering chicks are usually tolerated, whereas in a gull colony they would be attacked and killed. The nest is defended until the chicks have fledged, and all the adults in the colony will collectively repel potential predators. Breeding Pairs are established or confirmed through aerial courtship displays in which a male and a female fly in wide circles up to or more, calling all the while, before the two birds descend together in zigzag glides. If the male is carrying a fish, he may attract the attention of other males too. On the ground, the male courts the female by circling her with his tail and neck raised, head pointing down, and wings partially open. If she responds, they may both adopt a posture with the head pointed skywards. The male may tease a female with the fish, not parting with his offering until she has displayed to him sufficiently. Once courtship is complete, the male makes a shallow depression in the sand, and the female scratches in the same place. Several trials may take place until the pair settle on a site for the actual nest. The eggs may be laid on bare sand, gravel or soil, but a lining of debris or vegetation is often added if available, or the nest may be rimmed with seaweed, stones or shells. The saucer-shaped scrape is typically deep and across, but may extend to as much as wide including the surrounding decorative material. Breeding success in areas prone to flooding has been enhanced by the provision of artificial mats made from eelgrass, which encourage the terns to nest in higher, less vulnerable areas, since many prefer the mats to bare sand. The common tern tends to use more nest material than roseate or Arctic terns, although roseate often nests in areas with more growing vegetation. Terns are expert at locating their nests in a large colony. Studies show that terns can find and excavate their eggs when they are buried, even if the nest material is removed and the sand smoothed over. They will find a nest placed from its original site, or even further if it is moved in several stages. Eggs are accepted if reshaped with plasticine or coloured yellow (but not red or blue). This ability to locate the eggs is an adaptation to life in an unstable, wind-blown and tidal environment. The peak time for egg production is early May, with some birds, particularly first-time breeders, laying later in the month or in June. The clutch size is normally three eggs; larger clutches probably result from two females laying in the same nest. Egg size averages , although each successive egg in a clutch is slightly smaller than the first laid. The average egg weight is , of which 5% is shell. The egg weight depends on how well-fed the female is, as well as on its position in the clutch. The eggs are cream, buff, or pale brown, marked with streaks, spots or blotches of black, brown or grey which help to camouflage them. Incubation is by both sexes, although more often by the female, and lasts 21–22 days, extending to 25 days if there are frequent disturbances at the colony which cause the adults to leave the eggs unattended; nocturnal predation may lead to incubation taking up to 34 days. On hot days the incubating parent may fly to water to wet its belly feathers before returning to the eggs, thus affording the eggs some cooling. Except when the colony suffers disaster, 90% of the eggs hatch. The precocial downy chick is yellowish with black or brown markings, and like the eggs, is similar to the equivalent stage of the Arctic tern. The chicks fledge in 22–28 days, usually 25–26. Fledged juveniles are fed at the nest for about five days, and then accompany the adults on fishing expeditions. The young birds may receive supplementary feeds from the parents until the end of the breeding season, and beyond. Common terns have been recorded feeding their offspring on migration and in the wintering grounds, at least until the adults move further south in about December. Like many terns, this species is very defensive of its nest and young, and will harass humans, dogs, muskrats and most diurnal birds, but unlike the more aggressive Arctic tern, it rarely hits the intruder, usually swerving off at the last moment. Adults can discriminate between individual humans, attacking familiar people more intensely than strangers. Nocturnal predators do not elicit similar attacks; colonies can be wiped out by rats, and adults desert the colony for up to eight hours when great horned owls are present. Common terns usually breed once a year. Second clutches are possible if the first is lost. Rarely, a second clutch may be laid and incubated while some chicks from the first clutch are still being fed. The first breeding attempt is usually at four years of age, sometimes at three years. The average number of young per pair surviving to fledging can vary from zero in the event of the colony being flooded to over 2.5 in a good year. In North America, productivity was between 1.0 and 2.0 on islands, but less than 1.0 at coastal and inland sites. Birds become more successful at raising chicks with age. This continues throughout their breeding lives, but the biggest increase is in the first five years. The maximum documented lifespan in the wild is 23 years in North America and 33 years in Europe, but 12 years is a more typical lifespan. Food and feeding Like all Sterna terns, the common tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, from a height of , either in the sea or in freshwater lakes and large rivers. The bird may submerge for a second or so, but to no more than below the surface. When seeking fish, this tern flies head-down and with its bill held vertically. It may circle or hover before diving, and then plunges directly into the water, whereas the Arctic tern favours a "stepped-hover" technique, and the roseate tern dives at speed from a greater height, and submerges for longer. The common tern typically forages up to away from the breeding colony, sometimes as far as . It will follow schools of fish, and its west African migration route is affected by the location of huge shoals of sardines off the coast of Ghana; it will also track groups of predatory fish or dolphins, waiting for their prey to be driven to the sea's surface. Terns often feed in flocks, especially if food is plentiful, and the fishing success rate in a flock is typically about one-third higher than for individuals. Terns have red oil droplets in the cone cells of the retinas of their eyes. This improves contrast and sharpens distance vision, especially in hazy conditions. Birds that have to see through an air/water interface, such as terns and gulls, have more strongly coloured carotenoid pigments in the cone oil drops than other avian species. The improved eyesight helps terns to locate shoals of fish, although it is uncertain whether they are sighting the phytoplankton on which the fish feed, or observing other terns diving for food. Tern's eyes are not particularly ultraviolet sensitive, an adaptation more suited to terrestrial feeders like the gulls. The common tern preferentially hunts fish long. The species caught depend on what is available, but if there is a choice, terns feeding several chicks will take larger prey than those with smaller broods. The proportion of fish fed to chicks may be as high as 95% in some areas, but invertebrate prey may form a significant part of the diet elsewhere. This may include worms, leeches, molluscs such as small squid, and crustaceans (prawns, shrimp and mole crabs). In freshwater areas, large insects may be caught, such as beetles, cockchafers and moths. Adult insects may be caught in the air, and larvae picked from the ground or from the water surface. Prey is caught in the bill and either swallowed head-first, or carried back to the chicks. Occasionally, two or more small fish may be carried simultaneously. When adults take food back to the nest, they recognise their young by call, rather than visual identification. The common tern may attempt to steal fish from Arctic terns, but might itself be harassed by kleptoparasitic skuas, laughing gulls, roseate terns, or by other common terns while bringing fish back to its nest. In one study, two males whose mates had died spent much time stealing food from neighbouring broods. Terns normally drink in flight, usually taking seawater in preference to freshwater, if both are available. Chicks do not drink before fledging, reabsorbing water, and, like adults, excreting excess salt in a concentrated solution from a specialised nasal gland. Fish bones and the hard exoskeletons of crustaceans or insects are regurgitated as pellets. Adults fly off the nest to defecate, and even small chicks walk a short distance from the scrape to deposit their faeces. Adults attacking animals or humans will often defecate as they dive, often successfully fouling the intruder. Predators and parasites Rats will take tern eggs, and may even store large numbers in caches, and the American mink is an important predator of hatched chicks, both in North America, and in Scotland where it has been introduced. The red fox can also be a local problem. Because common terns nest on islands, the most common predators are normally other birds rather than mammals. The ruddy turnstone will take eggs from unattended nests, and gulls may take chicks. Great horned owls and short-eared owls will kill both adults and chicks, and black-crowned night herons will also eat small chicks. Merlins and peregrine falcons may attack flying terns; as with other birds, it seems likely that one advantage of flocking behaviour is to confuse fast-flying predators. The common tern hosts feather lice, which are quite different from those found in Arctic terns, despite the close relationship of the two birds. It may also be infected by parasitic worms, such as the widespread Diphyllobothrium species, the duck parasite Ligula intestinalis, and Schistocephalus species carried initially by fish. Tapeworms of the family Cyclophyllidea may also infect this species. The mite Reighardia sternae has been found in common terns from Italy, North America and China. A study of 75 breeding common terns found that none carried blood parasites. Colonies have been affected by avian cholera and ornithosis, and it is possible that the common tern may be threatened in the future by outbreaks of avian influenza to which it is susceptible. In 1961 the common tern was the first wild bird species identified as infected with avian influenza, the H5N3 variant being found in an outbreak of South African birds. Status The common tern is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. It has a large population of 1,600,000–4,600,000 mature individuals and a huge breeding range estimated at . Breeding numbers have been estimated at 250,000–500,000 pairs, the majority breeding in Asia. Up to 140,000 pairs breed in Europe. Fewer than 80,000 pairs breed in North America, with most breeding on the northeast Atlantic coast and a declining population of less than 10,000 pairs breeding in the Great Lakes region. In the nineteenth century, the use of tern feathers and wings in the millinery trade was the main cause of large reductions in common tern populations in both Europe and North America, especially on the Atlantic coasts and inland. Sometimes entire stuffed birds were used to make hats. Numbers largely recovered early in the twentieth century mainly due to legislation and the work of conservation organizations. Although some Eurasian populations are stable, numbers in North America have fallen by more than 70% in the last 40 years, and there is an overall negative trend in the global estimates for this species. Threats come from habitat loss through building, pollution or vegetation growth, or disturbance of breeding birds by humans, vehicles, boats or dogs. Local natural flooding may lead to nest losses, and some colonies are vulnerable to predation by rats and large gulls. Gulls also compete with terns for nest sites. Some birds are hunted in the Caribbean for commercial sale as food. Breeding success may be enhanced by the use of floating nest rafts, man-made islands or other artificial nest sites, and by preventing human disturbance. Overgrown vegetation may be burned to clear the ground, and gulls can be killed or discouraged by deliberate disturbance. Contamination with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) resulted in enhanced levels of feminisation in male embryos, which seemed to disappear prior to fledging, with no effect on colony productivity, but dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), which results from the breakdown of DDT, led to very low levels of successful breeding in some US locations. The common tern is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) and the US-Canada Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 apply. Parties to the AWEA agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan. The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation. The North American legislation is similar, although there is a greater emphasis on protection. See also Lake Bant tern colony References Cited texts External links Common tern – Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds Common Tern Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Common tern – Sterna hirundo – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter Common Tern Profile – Madeira Wind Birds Sterna Holarctic birds Articles containing video clips Birds described in 1758 Birds of the Dominican Republic Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Connecticut
University of Connecticut
The University of Connecticut (UConn, sometimes stylized as UCONN) is a public land-grant research university in Storrs, Connecticut. It was founded in 1881. The primary 4,400-acre (17.8 km2) campus is in Storrs, approximately a half hour's drive from Hartford and 90 minutes from Boston. It is a flagship university that is ranked as the best public national university in New England and is tied for 23rd in "top public schools" and tied for 63rd best national university in the 2021 U.S. News & World Report rankings. UConn has been ranked by Money Magazine and Princeton Review top 18th in value. The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The university has been recognized as a Public Ivy, defined as a select group of publicly funded universities considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. UConn is one of the founding institutions of the Hartford, Connecticut/Springfield, Massachusetts regional economic and cultural partnership alliance known as New England's Knowledge Corridor. UConn was the second U.S. university invited into Universitas 21, an elite international network of 24 research-intensive universities, who work together to foster global citizenship. UConn is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges. UConn was founded in 1881 as the Storrs Agricultural School, named after two brothers who donated the land for the school. In 1893, the school became a land grant college. In 1939, the name was changed to the University of Connecticut. Over the next decade, social work, nursing and graduate programs were established, while the schools of law and pharmacy were also absorbed into the university. During the 1960s, UConn Health was established for new medical and dental schools. John Dempsey Hospital opened in Farmington in 1975. Competing in the Big East Conference as the Huskies, UConn has been particularly successful in their men's and women's basketball programs. The Huskies have won 21 NCAA championships. The UConn Huskies are the most successful women's basketball program in the nation, having won a record 11 NCAA Division I National Championships (tied with the UCLA Bruins men's basketball team) and a women's record four in a row (2013–2016), plus over 40 conference regular season and tournament championships. UConn also owns the two longest winning streaks of any gender in college basketball history. History UConn was founded in 1881 as the Storrs Agricultural School. It was named after Charles and Augustus Storrs, brothers who donated the land for the school as well as initial funding. Women began attending classes in 1891 and were officially admitted in 1893, when the name was changed to Storrs Agricultural College and it became Connecticut's land grant college. In 1899, the name changed again to Connecticut Agricultural College; in 1933, to Connecticut State College; and finally, in 1939, to the University of Connecticut. The Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station was founded in 1887. In 1940, the school was first divided into individual colleges and schools, reflecting its new university status. This was also the year the School of Social Work and School of Nursing were established. The graduate program was also started at this time, and the schools of law and pharmacy were absorbed into the university. Ph.D.s have been awarded since 1949. During the 1970s, UConn Health was established in Farmington as a home for the new School of Medicine and School of Dental Medicine. John Dempsey Hospital opened in Farmington in 1975 and has been operated by UConn ever since. In 1995, a state-funded program called UConn 2000 was passed by the Connecticut General Assembly and signed into law by then-Governor John G. Rowland. This 10-year program set aside $1 billion to upgrade campus facilities, add faculty, and otherwise improve the university. An additional $1.3 billion was pledged by the State of Connecticut in 2002 as part of a new 10-year improvement plan known as 21st Century UConn. An agreement was reached in 2012 to launch Jackson Laboratory's $1.1 billion genomic medicine lab on the Farmington UConn Health campus as part of the Bioscience Connecticut initiative. In 2013, Governor Dannel P. Malloy signed into law Next Generation Connecticut, committing $1.7 billion in funding over a decade to enhance UConn's infrastructure, hire additional faculty, and upgrade STEM initiatives. Two sitting U.S. presidents have visited the Storrs campus, Bill Clinton in 1995 and Joe Biden in 2021, to dedicate the first and second iterations of the Dodd Center for Human Rights, respectively. The Dodd Center has brought an array of other world figures to the campus including Madeleine Albright, Elie Wiesel, Oscar Arias, and Mikhail Gorbachev in the fall of 1996. Presidents Gerald Ford and George H. W. Bush visited the campus after holding office. Campuses Storrs campus The primary and original UConn campus is in Storrs, a division of the Town of Mansfield, east of Hartford, Connecticut's capital and bordered by the towns of Ashford, Coventry, Willington, and Windham. Libraries The University of Connecticut Libraries form the largest public research collection in the state. The main library is the Homer D. Babbidge Library, on Fairfield Way in the center of campus. In 1882, Charles Storrs donated the first volumes to the university library collection (specifically, of the agriculture school). The university formerly housed its primary library collections in the Old Whitney building, one of the first agriculture school buildings. The library migrated from Old Main to the basement of Beech Hall in 1929. The university's first librarian was Edwina Whitney, who served from 1900 to 1934. The library then moved to the Wilbur Cross Building and remained there until the 1970s. The current main library, Homer Babbidge, was formerly known as the Nathan Hale Library. It underwent a $3 million renovation that was completed in 1998, making it then the largest public research library in New England. The Storrs campus is also home to the university's Music and Pharmacy libraries, and the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, home to the university's archives and special collections, including university records, rare books, and manuscript collections. Each of the regional campuses also have their own libraries, including the Jeremy Richard Library at the Stamford Campus. These libraries are tied into the Babbidge library through a shared catalogue. The Babbidge-based collection places UConn among the top 30 universities in the nation for library holdings and funding, containing more than 2.5 million print volumes, approximately 2,500 current print periodicals, more than 35,000 unique electronic journals through the eJournal locator, 2.8 million units of microfilm, 180,000 maps at the Map and Geographic Information Center (New England's largest public map collection), millions of electronic books, and an array of free electronic information sources. The UCL also license approximately 265 electronic search databases, many of which contain the full-text of research journals, monographs, and historic documents. The Lyman Maynard Stowe Library, housed at UConn Health, was one of eight federally funded National Network of Libraries of Medicine libraries from 1991 to 2001. The University of Connecticut School of Law houses the School of Law Library at its campus in Hartford. The Stowe and Law libraries have catalogues separate from the Babbidge system, making the total library holdings of the University of Connecticut much higher than the 2.5 million print volumes of Babbidge. UConn participates in several outside library consortia, including the New England Law Library Consortium and the Northeast Research Libraries Consortium. The Dodd Research Center has also formed a partnership with the African National Congress to share materials with South African scholars. Campus The UConn campus at Storrs is home to the Connecticut Repertory Theatre (CRT) run by the Department of Dramatic Arts. The theatre complex has three venues, the 486-seat Harriet S. Jorgensen Theatre, the 241-seat Nafe Katter Theatre, and the 116-seat Studio Theatre. CRT is a member of the Theatre Communications Group, the national service organization for the professional theatre. The Storrs campus also houses the J. Louis von der Mehden Recital Hall, the William Benton Museum of Art, and the Ballard Institute and Museum of Puppetry. UConn is the only institution in the United States that offers a master's degree in puppetry. Among the research facilities on campus is the George Safford Torrey Life Sciences Building, one of the primary sites of biology research and education at UConn. Built in 1961, in 1980 the building was named in honor of Torrey, former head of the university's botany department. Torrey, who came to Connecticut Agricultural College in the fall of 1915 to teach botany, became head of the Department of Botany in 1929 and served in that role until 1953. A collection of his papers, including notebooks, correspondence, memoranda, administrative records, reports, photographs, and various types of slides and filmstrips are housed in the Archives & Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center. The Torrey Life Sciences Building houses offices for the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, the Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, and Biology Central Services. Because it is situated in a fairly rural area, the UConn campus at Storrs has facilities that allow it to be virtually self-sufficient. All heat on campus is steam, and where possible sidewalks were laid over the underground connectors to keep the snow off. In 2005, a cogeneration plant was activated, which generates most of the electricity for the campus, and uses the exhaust steam for the campus central heating system. The university owns its own public water system and waste water treatment facility. With the support of a growing number of industry leaders based in Connecticut, UConn is at the forefront of developing clean, alternative sources of renewable energy using fuel cell technology. In April 2012, UConn commissioned a fuel cell power plant at its Depot Campus that will supply the campus with clean and efficiency energy, cooling and heating. The installation of a ClearEdge Power, former UTC Power, PureCell System is the latest step by UConn to reduce its carbon footprint and build a sustainable community. The fuel cell installation was made possible through a federal stimulus grant from Connecticut's Clean Energy Finance and Investment Authority. The University of Connecticut Police Department is a fully functional police agency with the same statutory authority as any municipal police department in the State of Connecticut. State and internationally accredited, the department is responsible for protecting lives and property at the University of Connecticut and all adjacent areas within the jurisdiction of the UConn Police Department. This includes the main campus in Storrs and the regional campuses. The UConn Division of Public Safety also includes the UConn Fire Department, and Office of the Fire Marshal and Building Inspectors. The UConn Storrs campus is equipped with a blue-light system which allows students to press an emergency button which will notify the police to come to that location. UConn 2000 was a public-private partnership to rebuild, renew and enhance the University of Connecticut from 1995 to 2005, funded by the State of Connecticut. UConn 2000 was enacted by the Connecticut General Assembly in 1995 and signed into law by Governor John G. Rowland. The construction projects were overseen by President Philip E. Austin. The legislature renewed the construction investments through 21st Century UConn, the continuation of UConn 2000, which is another billion dollar construction investment by the state to upgrade facilities at the University of Connecticut. It passed the Connecticut General Assembly and was signed into law by Governor Rowland in 2002. By the time of the project's completion, every building on campus will be new or completely renovated. Money has also been put into the regional and satellite campuses, including the new School of Business facilities in downtown Hartford. Next Generation Connecticut is a multi-faceted $1.5 billion plan to build the state's economic future through strategic investments in science, technology, engineering, and math disciplines (STEM). It passed the Connecticut General Assembly and was signed into law by Governor Dannel Malloy in June 2013. The funds will be used over a 10-year period to hire 250+ new faculty, increase undergraduate enrollment by 6,580 students, and upgrade aging campus infrastructure. Money has also been allocated to build new STEM facilities, construct new STEM teaching laboratories and to create a premier STEM honors college. NextGenCT will also allow for the construction of student housing and a digital media center at the Stamford campus, and allow for the relocation of the Greater Hartford campus back to downtown Hartford. Avery Point campus UConn's Avery Point campus overlooks Long Island Sound in the town of Groton. It is home to the National Undersea Research Center, the Connecticut Sea Grant College, Project Oceanology, the Long Island Sound Resource Center, and the Alexey von Schlippe Gallery of Art. The campus has undergone an extensive transformation in recent years, including new Marine Science and Project Oceanology buildings, a new research vessel, and renovations of the Branford House, the gymnasium, and the main Academic Building. The campus was formerly the summer home of Morton Freeman Plant, a 19th-century railroad, steamship, and hotel magnate. Branford House was his mansion overlooking Long Island Sound, reportedly worth $3 million when it was completed in 1904. Also located on the property was a caretaker's house (the current police station) and a barn and horse stable (the current physical plant buildings). The estate included what is now the Shennecossett Public Golf Course located just north of the campus, which was turned over to the State of Connecticut in the 1930s. During World War II, the remaining portion of the Plant estate was leased to the Coast Guard as a training center, and the Avery Point Light was built. In 1967, it was converted into the Southeastern Campus of the University of Connecticut, later renamed the University of Connecticut at Avery Point. Students have access to classes for all of UConn's traditional majors, as well as the Bachelor of General Studies (BGS). There are three other majors that can be completed at the Avery Point campus besides the BGS degree: Coastal Studies, Maritime Studies, and American Studies. Graduate programs are also offered in STEM Teacher Education, Engineering, and Nursing. Stamford campus In 1951, the University of Connecticut began offering extension courses at the former Stamford High School to provide education for GIs returning from the Korean War. In the fall of 1952, the university formally established a regional campus in Stamford. Upon inception, UConn's Stamford Campus offered five courses — English, Mathematics, History, Speech, and Sociology, and enrolled 21 part-time students. A newly constructed UConn Stamford Campus opened in 1962 on Scofield Town Road, and a separate library building was added in 1974. Also in the mid-1970s, the academic program was expanded to provide a four-year degree in several fields of study. In 1990, planning began for a new UConn Stamford Campus in the heart of downtown Stamford. One of the first UConn 2000 building projects, the new campus opened in 1998, offering a variety of academic programs including undergraduate and graduate degrees. The contemporary glass-enclosed campus features a high-tech approach to learning with internet access in classrooms, laboratories, student amenities and public spaces. Design for the new UConn building was led by Aaron Schwarz, then of Perkins Eastman. In collaboration with area businesses, UConn's Stamford Campus established the Connecticut Information Technology Institute that provides IT professional development and cyber-business research. The Stamford Campus of the University of Connecticut offers complete undergraduate degree programs in thirteen majors as well as the Bachelor of General Studies Degree Program. Majors are American Studies, Business Administration (BSBA), Business Data Analytics (BSBDA), Financial Management (BSFM), Digital Media and Design (BA) and (BFA), Economics, English, Human Development and Family Sciences, History, Political Science, Psychology, and a Certificate Entry into Nursing (CEIN/BS), an accelerated pre-licensure program. At the graduate level, Masters of Business Administration (MBA), Masters of Business Analytics and Project Management (MSBAPM) and an MS in Financial Risk Management are offered. In August 2017, UConn's first-ever permanent residence hall for students outside the Storrs campus was opened at Stamford. The six-story, 116 unit building is intended to house 290 students. Hartford campus In August 2017, UConn formally opened its new campus in downtown Hartford, after nearly 40 years in neighboring West Hartford. The new campus is located within Hartford's Front Street neighborhood, a portion of the Adriaen's Landing project. The centerpiece of the new campus is the historic Beaux-Arts former headquarters of the Hartford Times. UConn Hartford offers a wide range of liberal arts and sciences courses and degrees to over 1,400 undergraduate and more than 600 graduate students. Students pursue undergraduate degrees in American Studies, Business and Technology, Business Administration, English, General Studies, Human Development and Family Sciences, Psychology, and Urban and Community Studies. The Center for Continuing Studies provides a number of certificate program options, in addition to the Bachelor of General Studies, an interdisciplinary degree program tailored to meet individual needs and goals of returning, non-traditional, part-time adult students. Due to the UConn Hartford's proximity to the State Capitol and legislative offices, the university's Department of Public Policy (DPP) is based at the Hartford campus. The DPP offers a Master of Public Administration, Master of Public Policy, Master of Arts in Survey Research, and four graduate level certificates. The university's School of Social Work is also located at the Hartford campus and offers a Master of Social Work and PhD in Social Work. UConn Hartford also offers the one-year Master of Education with Teacher Certification Program for college graduates. Located at Constitution Plaza in downtown Hartford, UConn's Graduate Business Learning Center (GBLC) is home to the UConn School of Business full-time, part-time and Executive MBA program along with master's programs in Business Analytics and Project Management (MSBAPM), Financial Risk Management (FRM), as well as the SS&C Technologies Financial Accelerator. The center was remodeled in 2004 to create a state-of-the-art facility featuring the latest technology. The university has announced that the GBLC will be expanding in Constitution Plaza in 2017 as a result of capacity issues in the future Front Street campus. Waterbury campus In 1942, the University of Connecticut was invited to Waterbury at the request of a group of citizens, headed by the Waterbury YMCA. Named the Waterbury Extension Center, it offered primarily certificate-granting technical courses taught at the YMCA for 253 students who were mostly of returning veterans looking for an affordable and easily accessible means of earning and education. Gradually, as the demand for courses grew, and enrollment increased, certain facilities at Leavenworth High School were used. Each semester about a dozen undergraduate courses were offered and a sizeable non-credit program was added. Four years later in the fall of 1946, the local Advisory Committee, working with the local Board of Education, secured the Begnal School on Charles Street to address the growing need for space created by the increased demands for higher education. In addition to the facilities on Charles Street, the Central YMCA allocated some space in their building for evening classes. The enrollment during this period increased to 662 students in the fall of 1947 and the establishment of an accredited, full-time undergraduate program, at the newly designated Waterbury Branch of the University of Connecticut. Students were able to take the comprehensive Freshman and Sophomore programs in Arts and Sciences, Business Administration, and Engineering as well as Continuing Education for adults. Classes continued to be held at the Begnal School until 1955. At that time, due in large part to local citizen groups, the City of Waterbury and the State of Connecticut, a new four-acre campus at 32 Hillside Avenue was provided. At first, classes and administration were housed together in the Benedict-Miller House at the center of the property. As the need for more space continued to strain the existing facilities, more buildings were added to the site, including a sixteen-room classroom building, a library, as well as a building housing the science and engineering curriculum, bookstore and cafeteria. In 1971, a garrison colonial on Buckingham Street was purchased and became the new home of the campus administration. In August 2003, the Waterbury campus moved to a new 95,000 square foot downtown campus. The U shaped, three-story building at the intersection of East Main Street and Phoenix Avenue was designed to serve more than 1,200 students, faculty and staff, replacing the collection of buildings and houses that has served the Waterbury campus for decades. The new facility was dedicated on October 9, 2003. In January 2016, UConn Waterbury dedicated the newly renovated St. Patrick's Hall also known as the Rectory as the newest addition to its campus. The Rectory Building added two floors of classroom and office space with the fourth floor of the building serving as both a classroom and event space. The University of Connecticut's Waterbury campus serves more than 1,000 students annually and offers nine four-year undergraduate degrees in Allied Health Sciences, American Studies, Business Administration, Business Data Analytics, English, Human Development and Family Sciences, Psychological Sciences, Urban and Community Studies and a bachelor's degree in General Studies for adults. Torrington campus The University of Connecticut at Torrington, founded in 1957, was closed May 2016 due to low enrollment numbers. Bioscience Connecticut In June 2011, the Connecticut General Assembly approved legislation for Bioscience Connecticut, a plan proposed by Connecticut Gov. Dannel P. Malloy to jump-start the Connecticut economy. According to the proposal, Bioscience Connecticut will result in the creation of 3,000 construction jobs annually from 2012 through 2018 and a $4.6 billion increase in personal income by 2037, while generating more than 16,000 jobs. The initiative includes plans for renovations to existing facilities on the UConn Health campus in Farmington, as well the construction of a new patient tower and ambulatory care facility, and seeks to increase UConn Health's medical and dental school enrollments by 30 percent. Jackson Laboratory In January 2012, Gov. Malloy announced that Jackson Laboratory (JAX) had reached an agreement to launch a $1.1 billion genomic medicine laboratory on the campus of UConn Health. The laboratory is an independent, nonprofit biomedical research institution based in Bar Harbor, Maine. According to the agreement, Jackson Laboratory will enter into a collaborative research agreement with UConn Health and will create at least 300 positions within 10 years, 30 percent of total employees being senior scientist positions. Once fully developed, the facility is projected to employ 600 scientists and technicians. The state of Connecticut has approved $291 million of the total capital and research budget; Jackson Laboratory will raise the balance of $860 million through federal research grants, philanthropy, and service income. Academics Undergraduate Students at UConn can pursue over 100 majors, eight undergraduate degrees, 17 graduate degrees and five professional degree programs. Students choose from 87 different minors at UConn, including areas of study not offered as formalized majors. UConn participates in the New England Board of Higher Education's Regional Student Program (NERSP), allowing students from the five other New England states to enroll at the university at a reduced out-of-state tuition rate if their intended major is not offered by one of their in-state universities. The university also participates in a special guaranteed admissions program with the Connecticut Community Colleges (CCC) that is designed for academically qualified students who are attending a Connecticut community college and who are planning to transfer to the University of Connecticut in Liberal Arts & Sciences, Agriculture & Natural Resources, Business, or Engineering. Each year, more than 1,000 transfer students are admitted to the university. Admissions , of the entering freshman at the main campus in Storrs, 54% ranked in the top tenth of their high school class and 89% in the top quarter. Approximately 50,000 prospective students and their families tour the main campus in Storrs annually. UConn's retention rate is among the best for public universities in the nation, with 93% of students returning for their sophomore year. UConn ranks third out of 58 public research universities on basis of graduation time, with the average time to graduate being 4.2 years among those who graduate within 6 years. Graduate and postgraduate Bachelor's, master's, and doctoral programs are offered through the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, the Graduate School, the Neag School of Education, the School of Nursing, the School of Business, the School of Dental Medicine, the School of Medicine, the School of Engineering, the School of Social Work, the Ratcliffe Hicks School of Agriculture, the School of Pharmacy, the School of Law and the School of Fine Arts. Founded in 1921, the University of Connecticut School of Law is accredited by the American Bar Association and is a member of the Association of American Law Schools. The campus is located just outside the downtown core of Hartford, minutes away from the Connecticut State Capitol, state courts and agencies, and the offices of Hartford's law firms and corporations. Law students have ready access to all of these institutions for study, externships, clinical education, practice, and employment. The campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Its gothic-style buildings, constructed in 1925 (except for the new library, which was completed in 1996), housed the Hartford Seminary until 1981. The law school has approximately 325 students and a student:faculty ratio of 4.1:1. UConn Law has repeatedly been ranked the top public law school in New England by U.S. News and World Report, and was most recently in 2020 ranked 52nd of American law schools. There are four scholarly journals edited on campus: the Connecticut Law Review, the Connecticut Public Interest Law Journal, the Connecticut Insurance Law Journal, and the Connecticut Journal of International Law. Students may pursue concentrations in corporate law, criminal law, environmental law, family law, intellectual property law, international law, juvenile law, labor law, litigation, tax law, torts and insurance, legal theory, information technology law, property and land, child advocacy, and policy. The school is particularly known for its strong insurance law and intellectual property law programs. The UConn Health campus in Farmington is home to the School of Medicine, the School of Dental Medicine, John Dempsey Hospital and faculty practices in medical and dental health care. The Lyman Maynard Stowe Library, which is housed at UConn Health, was one of eight federally funded National Network of Libraries of Medicine libraries from 1991 to 2001. Research According to the National Science Foundation, UConn spent $269 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 88th in the nation. In 2005, UConn ranked 64th in terms of R&D expenditure. Rankings and reputation The University of Connecticut has been designated a "Public Ivy" in The Public Ivies: America's Flagship Public Universities. The university was ranked tied for 23rd among public universities in the U.S. and tied for 63rd among national universities in 2021 by U.S. News & World Report. Kiplinger's Personal Finance named UConn the 33rd best value in public higher education for 2019 (26th on the basis of out-of-state tuition). The University of Connecticut was among the top 10 producers of Fulbright Scholars from research institutions in 2017. The 2015 Sierra Club "Cool Schools" list of environmentally responsible universities ranked UConn eighth in the U.S. The University of Connecticut is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. Student life Campus safety In 2014, University of Connecticut was the highest in the nation, tied with Brown University, in "total of reports of rape" on their main campus, with 43 reports of rape. According to victim advocates, the reporting of these incidents was a positive development, demonstrating that sexual assault victims were comfortable stepping forward. In recent years, the University of Connecticut has invested in awareness and prevention of sexual assault by forming a special victims unit, establishing a victim support service, and creating a revised training program to teach how to deal with cases of sexual misconduct. As a result, a study conducted by the Higher Education Data Sharing Consortium showed that rates of sexual violence at the University of Connecticut are lower than the national average. Student organizations There is a wide variety of student organizations on campus, including fraternities and sororities, musical groups, and religious, athletic, political, cultural, business, military, artistic, and community service clubs. There are also student organizations set up with the intent of governing student life itself, the Undergraduate Student Government, the Interfraternity Council, the Panhellenic Council, UConnPIRG, Residence Hall Association, and the various residence hall councils. The university's programming board, the Student Union Board of Governors (SUBOG), plans the largest students events on campus. The organization is completely student run and plans events like the annual concerts, Homecoming, One Ton Sundae, weekly movies, and hosts a range of comedians and speakers each month. The university's daily student-run newspaper, The Daily Campus, is the largest student newspaper in the state of Connecticut. The university has a Huskyvision cable network, channels 14 and 16 at the university. Channel 14 is UCTV, a cable TV network consisting of student-made public-access television shows. The university also has a student-run community radio station, WHUS, which broadcasts at 91.7FM from the UConn Student Union. Many of the students who work for UConn's student media organizations also major in journalism. The University of Connecticut Department of Journalism is the only nationally accredited journalism program in New England. Storrs Downtown Center has been a popular area for UConn students, nearby residents, and visitors. It is a long-term construction project that continues to open new stores. It is a mixed-use town center that includes retail shops, restaurants, offices, and housing, situated on Connecticut Route 195 across from the UConn campus. Some new features include a new Price Chopper supermarket, family oriented restaurants, and an extension of the UConn Co-op bookstore. While many area activities are held on campus, the university provides free local bus transportation and also arranges frequent bus trips to Boston, Manhattan, and the Connecticut shoreline. The main university campus also includes museums, theaters, and performing arts venues such as the Jorgensen Center for the Performing Arts, the J. Robert Donnelly Husky Heritage Sports Museum, the William Benton Museum of Art, the Ballard Institute and Museum of Puppetry and the Connecticut State Museum of Natural History. The UConn Dairy Bar was started circa 1953. It remains open year-round and is well known for its ice cream, with roughly 200,000 customers visiting annually. Symbols Until 1933, the mascot of UConn had been the "Aggies", because of the university's original agricultural nature. In 1933, the university changed its name from Connecticut Agricultural College to Connecticut State College. To reflect this change, athletic teams were then known as the "Statesmen". In December 1934, the Husky was chosen as the mascot. All UConn huskies are named "Jonathan" in honor of Jonathan Trumbull. The current "real" Jonathan is Jonathan XIV; he is often seen greeting fans and eating dog biscuits at sporting events. Jonathan is one of the few university mascots in the nation to have been selected by students via a popular poll. A statue of Jonathan can also be found outside near the entrances to Gampel Pavilion and the natatorium. This statue, by artist Larry Waisele, was dedicated in 1995. Students are known to rub its nose for good luck. The UConn fight song, officially titled "UConn Husky" but commonly called "The Husky Fight Song", is one of the most recognizable in the country, played by the Pride of Connecticut during nationally televised sporting events. An audio presentation of the song is available on the UConn Alumni Association website. A full history of the song can be found on the UConn Advance website. The official colors of the University of Connecticut are blue and white, with red accents included on athletic uniforms. Traditions Coated with thousands of layers of paint over the decades, "The Rock" is a student tradition dating back to the late 1940s. Students repeatedly paint it to promote student events, including dances, pep rallies, student elections, parades, fraternity and sorority functions and a host of other campus activities. The current rock is a portion of a much larger outcropping that was originally located across from the North Campus quadrangle and removed for construction of the Life Sciences building in 1958. Forty years later it was put into storage during the UCONN 2000 construction program. The Rock was relocated to its present site in 2008. UConn officials measured the paint's depth with a small drill in fall 2018 and determined 1.25 inches of paint had accumulated on the rock since it was returned to the site in 2008. OOzeball is UConn's annual mud volleyball tournament. Each year over 1,000 players and spectators come out to watch UConn's finest get "down and dirty." 2012 marked the 29th running of OOzeball, making it the longest running tournament of its kind in the nation. Lip Sync is one of UConn's signature Homecoming events, in which teams from the Cultural Centers and Greek organizations compete in a high-energy lip syncing contest. Each team choreographs a routine set to popular songs, and performs in front of thousands of fans in Gampel Pavilion. The annual Spring Concert organized by the Student Union Board of Governors (SUBOG) has attracted top artists and bands such as Outkast and Third Eye Blind in 2000, Guster and Nelly in 2001, Fat Joe and Nine Days in 2002, 50 Cent and Busta Rhymes in 2003, Ludacris and Kanye West in 2004, Nas and Fabolous in 2005, O.A.R. in 2006, Dashboard Confessional, Reel Big Fish and The Starting Line in 2007, Method Man, Redman, Flo Rida and T-Pain in 2008, 50 Cent and Naughty by Nature in 2009, Jack's Mannequin and KiD CuDi in 2010, B.o.B and Far East Movement in 2011, Wiz Khalifa in 2012, Kendrick Lamar and Steve Aoki in 2013, J Cole in 2014, ASAP Ferg and Schoolboy Q in 2015, Fetty Wap in 2016, and Khalid and PnB Rock in 2018. SUBOG planned to host Lil Uzi Vert and Aminé in 2017 but due to a tropical storm grounding all flights in the area, the show needed to be cancelled. It is known for sizable outdoor parties which historically draw more than 10,000 attendees. Fraternities and sororities Since 2003, UConn has established university-owned Greek housing in the "Husky Village", created an Office of Fraternity and Sorority Life, and hired full-time staff to administer the Greek Life program. Athletics The University of Connecticut athletic teams are nicknamed the "Huskies" and compete at the NCAA's Division I level and in the Football Bowl Subdivision. UConn moved to the American Athletic Conference in most sports in 2013; the Huskies were a charter member of The American when it was founded in 1979 as the original Big East Conference, and were the only remaining charter member of that league. In 2019, UConn accepted a formal invitation to join the Big East Conference following a unanimous vote of the conference's members. The Huskies will begin playing in the Big East in the 2020–2021 season in all twenty sports except for football and men's/women's ice hockey. UConn men's ice hockey became a full member of Hockey East in 2014–15. The women's hockey team will remain in the Hockey East as well, as they were founding conference members in 2002 when the league began women's ice hockey competition. The football program will not be returning to the AAC and will begin play as an FBS Independent starting in the 2020–2021 season. Regardless of football conference affiliation, the school has publicly committed to competing in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the foreseeable future. This will make UConn the only member of the Big East to compete at the highest level of college football. Many UConn student-athletes have gone on to succeed at the professional level, including Ray Allen, Josh Boone, Caron Butler, Andre Drummond, Rudy Gay, Richard Hamilton, Tony Hanson, Jeremy Lamb, Shabazz Napier, Emeka Okafor, Charlie Villanueva and Kemba Walker in the NBA; Sue Bird, Swin Cash, Tina Charles, Stefanie Dolson, Bria Hartley, Maya Moore, Renee Montgomery, Rebecca Lobo Katie Lou Samuelson, Breanna Stewart and Diana Taurasi in the WNBA; Donald Brown, Tyvon Branch, Darius Butler, Will Beatty, Nick Giaquinto, Obi Melifonwu, Byron Jones, and Dan Orlovsky in the NFL; Walt Dropo, Charles Nagy and George Springer in the MLB; and Kevin Burns, Shavar Thomas, O’Brian White, Andre Blake, Carlos Alvarez, Sergio Campbell, Tony Cascio, Josh Ford and Mamadou Doudou Diouf in the MLS. UConn men's basketball player Emeka Okafor (2004) and women's basketball players Rebecca Lobo (1995), Maya Moore (2011) were named the National Academic All-Americans of the Year by the College Sports Information Director of America as seniors. UConn student-athletes graduate at a higher rate than the general student body and many teams and individuals have won honors for academic excellence. UConn is well known for its men's and women's basketball teams, both of which are considered among the best programs in the country. The men's basketball teams have won four National Championships (1999, 2004, 2011 and 2014) while the women's basketball teams have won eleven National Championships (1995, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016) and have played in a total of 19 NCAA Final Fours, including nine in a row. The women's team went undefeated in the 1995, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2014 and 2016 seasons and ended a 111-game winning streak in the 2017 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament. UConn is the only Division I school to sweep the men's and women's basketball titles in the same year, and has done it twice: in 2004 (earning Storrs the nickname "Basketball Capital of the World") and 2014. The university elevated its football program to the Football Bowl Subdivision in 2002, although the school first fielded a team in 1896. UConn became the quickest program to go from FBS elevation to a Bowl Championship Series game when it played in the 2011 Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. UConn has now played in a total of six bowl games. With the growth of the football program, in 2003 UConn football moved to 38,000-seat Rentschler Field in East Hartford, CT to host its home games. In addition, the UConn men's soccer team has won three national championships, in 1948, 1981 and 2000, while the women's soccer team advanced to the National Championship title game in 1984, 1990, 1997 and 2003. UConn is also a blue chip program in field hockey, where it has advanced to the national semifinals 16 times, winning national championships in 1981, 1985, 2013, 2014, and 2017 as an associate member of the Big East conference. The Husky baseball team has played in the College World Series five times, and participated in the 2011 NCAA Super Regionals. The Husky baseball team won the 2013 Big East Championship in Florida, defeating the Notre Dame Fighting Irish. UConn's Husky logo underwent a significant redesign which was unveiled in April 2013. The updated logo, designed by Nike, has appeared on all athletic uniforms since the fall 2013 season. Alumni See also XL Center in Hartford, second home of both basketball teams and home of the men's hockey team Pratt & Whitney Stadium at Rentschler Field in East Hartford, home to the football team J. O. Christian Field, home to baseball team Mark Edward Freitas Ice Forum, home to the women's hockey team and former home of the men's hockey team Morrone Stadium, on campus stadium, home to men's and women's soccer teams University of Connecticut Historic District, a historic district encompassing the historic core of the Storrs campus Long River Review, University of Connecticut's literary review magazine References External links UConn Athletics website Educational institutions established in 1881 Land-grant universities and colleges Mansfield, Connecticut University of Connecticut Universities and colleges in Tolland County, Connecticut Flagship universities in the United States 1881 establishments in Connecticut
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