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240092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Klein | Lawrence Klein | Lawrence Robert Klein (September 14, 1920 – October 20, 2013) was an American economist. For his work in creating computer models to forecast economic trends in the field of econometrics in the Department of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania, he was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1980 specifically "for the creation of econometric models and their application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies." Due to his efforts, such models have become widespread among economists. Harvard University professor Martin Feldstein told the Wall Street Journal that Klein "was the first to create the statistical models that embodied Keynesian economics," tools still used by the Federal Reserve Bank and other central banks.
Life and career
Klein was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of Blanche (née Monheit) and Leo Byron Klein. He went on to graduate from Los Angeles City College, where he learned calculus; the University of California, Berkeley, where he began his computer modeling and earned a B.A. in Economics in 1942; he earned his Ph.D. in Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1944, where he was Paul Samuelson's first doctoral student.
Early model-building
Klein then moved to the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, which was then at the University of Chicago, now the Cowles Foundation. There he built a model of the United States economy to forecast the development of business fluctuations and to study the effects of government economic-political policy. After World War II Klein used his model to correctly predict, against the prevailing expectation, that there would be an economic upturn rather than a depression due to increasing consumer demand from returning servicemen. Similarly, he correctly predicted a mild recession at the end of the Korean War.
Klein briefly joined the Communist Party during the 1940s, which led to trouble years later.
At the University of Michigan, Klein developed enhanced macroeconomic models, in particular the famous Klein–Goldberger model with Arthur Goldberger, which was based on foundations laid by Jan Tinbergen of the Netherlands, later winner of the first economics prize in 1969. Klein differed from Tinbergen in using an alternative economic theory and a different statistical technique.
McCarthyism and move to England
In 1954, Klein's brief membership in the Communist Party was made public and he was denied tenure at the University of Michigan, in the wake of the McCarthy era. Klein moved to the University of Oxford, and developed an economic model of the United Kingdom known as the Oxford model with Sir James Ball. Additionally, at the Institute of Statistics Klein assisted with the creation of the British Savings Surveys, based upon the Michigan Surveys.
Return to the U.S.
In 1958 Klein returned to the U.S. to join the Department of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1959 he was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal, one of the two most prestigious awards in the field of economics. In 1968 he became the Benjamin Franklin Professor of Economics and Finance at Penn.
Brookings-SSRC Project
In the early 1960s Klein became the leader of the major "Brookings-SSRC Project" to construct a detailed econometric model to forecast the short-term development of the U.S. economy.
Wharton
Later in the '60s, Klein constructed the Wharton Econometric Forecasting Model. This model, considerably smaller than the Brookings model, achieved a very good reputation for its analysis of business conditions, used to forecast fluctuations including national product, exports, investments, and consumption, and to study the effect on them of changes in taxation, public expenditure, oil price, etc.
In 1969 Klein founded Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates or WEFA (now IHS Global Insight), launching the econometric forecasting industry in the United States. Among his clients were General Electric Company, IBM, and Bethlehem Steel Corporation. He was the initiator of, and an active research leader in their LINK project, a consortium of model builders from many countries, which was also mentioned in his Nobel citation. The aim was to produce the world's first global economic model, linking models of many of the world's countries so that the effect of changes in the economy of one country are reflected in the other. LINK, which is now operated by the United Nations, is still meeting regularly, most recently in September 2018 in Santiago, Chile.
Klein served as a thesis advisor for numerous well-known economists including E. Roy Weintraub in the late 1960s.
Later career
During the 1976 United States presidential election, Klein coordinated Jimmy Carter's economic task force. He declined an invitation to join Carter's administration. Klein has also been president of the Econometric Society. the International Atlantic Economic Society (1989–1990), and the American Economic Association (in 1977).
His Nobel citation concludes that "few, if any, research workers in the empirical field of economic science, have had so many successors and such a large impact as Lawrence Klein". However, Christopher Sims has criticized the assumptions underlying large macro-econometric models built by Klein (Sims, 1980). Also, many economists have questioned the suitability of estimation methods employed by large structural models and the usefulness of simple autoregressive models for approximating economic systems.
In his final years, he was constructing short range "current quarter models" that use current economic indicators to get a handle on the rate of economic growth during the current and next quarter. In contrast to earlier efforts to model the economy structurally and to use constant adjustments and judgmental estimates for the exogenous variables, these systems are deliberately automatic and mechanical, simply translating available information into a statistically best estimate of current conditions. This represents a very different tradition from his earlier model building and applications.
After formal retirement and until his death he was engaged in macro econometric model building high-frequency models that project the economy in a monthly, quarterly frame. A publication on high frequency model containing countries such as US, China, Russia, India, Brazil, Mexico, Korea and Hong Kong was expected in 2008.
Klein was a founding trustee of Economists for Peace and Security.
He died at the age of 93 in his home on October 20, 2013.
Publications
Economic Fluctuations in the United States, 1921–41 (1950)
An Econometric Model of the United States, 1929–52 (with AS Goldberger, 1955)
The Keynesian Revolution (1947)
The Wharton Econometric Forecasting Model (with MK Evans, 1967)
A Textbook of Econometrics (1973)
The Brookings Model (With Gary Fromm. 1975)
Econometric Model Performance (1976)
An Introduction to Econometric Forecasting and Forecasting Models (1980)
Econometric Models As Guides for Decision Making (1982)
The Economics of Supply and Demand 1983
Economics, Econometrics and The LINK (with M Dutta, 1995)
China and India: Two Asian Economic Giants, Two Different Systems (2004). Article free downloadable at the journal Applied Econometrics and International Development http://www.usc.es/economet/aeid.htm
See also
List of economists
References
Further reading
Sims, C. (1980). Marcoeconomics and reality. Econometrica, 48, 1-48.
External links
Lawrence Klein
Economists for Peace and Security
IDEAS/RePEc
1920 births
2013 deaths
Nobel laureates in Economics
American Nobel laureates
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Macroeconomists
Time series econometricians
21st-century American economists
20th-century American economists
American people of German-Jewish descent
Jewish American social scientists
University of Pennsylvania faculty
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Presidents of the Econometric Society
Los Angeles City College alumni
People from Omaha, Nebraska
Econometricians
Neo-Keynesian economists
University of Michigan faculty
Presidents of the American Economic Association
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Economists from Nebraska | [
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|
240096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photokeratitis | Photokeratitis | Photokeratitis or ultraviolet keratitis is a painful eye condition caused by exposure of insufficiently protected eyes to the ultraviolet (UV) rays from either natural (e.g. intense sunlight) or artificial (e.g. the electric arc during welding) sources. Photokeratitis is akin to a sunburn of the cornea and conjunctiva.
The injury may be prevented by wearing eye protection that blocks most of the ultraviolet radiation, such as welding goggles with the proper filters, a welder's helmet, sunglasses rated for sufficient UV protection, or appropriate snow goggles. The condition is usually managed by removal from the source of ultraviolet radiation, covering the corneas, and administration of pain relief. Photokeratitis is known by a number of different terms including: snow blindness, arc eye, welder's flash, bake eyes, corneal flash burns, flash burns, niphablepsia, or keratoconjunctivitis photoelectrica.
Signs and symptoms
Common symptoms include pain, intense tears, eyelid twitching, discomfort from bright light, and constricted pupils.
Cause
Any intense exposure to UV light can lead to photokeratitis. In 2010, the Department of Optometry at the Dublin Institute of Technology published that the threshold for photokeratitis is 0.12 J/m². (Prior to this, in 1975, the Division of Biological Effects at the US Bureau of Radiological Health had published that the human threshold for photokeratitis is 50 J/m².) Common causes include welders who have failed to use adequate eye protection such as an appropriate welding helmet or welding goggles. This is termed arc eye, while photokeratitis caused by exposure to sunlight reflected from ice and snow, particularly at elevation, is commonly called snow blindness. It can also occur due to using tanning beds without proper eyewear. Natural sources include bright sunlight reflected from snow or ice or, less commonly, from sea or sand. Fresh snow reflects about 80% of the UV radiation compared to a dry, sandy beach (15%) or sea foam (25%). This is especially a problem in polar regions and at high altitudes, as with about every of elevation (above sea level), the intensity of UV rays increases by four percent.
Diagnosis
Fluorescein dye staining will reveal damage to the cornea under ultraviolet light.
Prevention
Photokeratitis can be prevented by using sunglasses or eye protection that transmits 5–10% of visible light and absorbs almost all UV rays. Additionally, these glasses should have large lenses and side shields to avoid incidental light exposure. Sunglasses should always be worn, even when the sky is overcast, as UV rays can pass through clouds.
The Inuit, Yupik, and other Arctic peoples carved snow goggles from materials such as driftwood or caribou antlers to help prevent snow blindness. Curved to fit the user's face with a large groove cut in the back to allow for the nose, the goggles allowed in a small amount of light through a long thin slit cut along their length. The goggles were held to the head by a cord made of caribou sinew.
In the event of missing sunglass lenses, emergency lenses can be made by cutting slits in dark fabric or tape folded back onto itself. The SAS Survival Guide recommends blackening the skin underneath the eyes with charcoal (as the ancient Egyptians did) to avoid any further reflection.
Treatment
The pain may be temporarily alleviated with anaesthetic eye drops for the examination; however, they are not used for continued treatment, as anaesthesia of the eye interferes with corneal healing, and may lead to corneal ulceration and even loss of the eye. Cool, wet compresses over the eyes and artificial tears may help local symptoms when the feeling returns. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) eyedrops are widely used to lessen inflammation and eye pain, but have not been proven in rigorous trials. Systemic (oral) pain medication is given if discomfort is severe. Healing is usually rapid (24–72 hours) if the injury source is removed. Further injury should be avoided by isolation in a dark room, removing contact lenses, not rubbing the eyes, and wearing sunglasses until the symptoms improve.
See also
Actinic conjunctivitis
Albedo
Glare (vision)
Over-illumination
Health effects of sun exposure
Selective yellow
Eye black
Solar Retinopathy
References
External links
Blindness
Mountaineering and health
Disorders of sclera and cornea
Welding safety
Hazards of outdoor recreation
bg:Снежна слепота
de:Schneeblindheit
it:Cecità da neve
no:Snøblindhet
pl:Ślepota śnieżna
ru:Офтальмия
fi:Lumisokeus
sv:Snöblindhet
tr:Kar körlüğü
zh:雪盲症 | [
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|
240097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton%20Econometric%20Forecasting%20Associates | Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates | Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates, Inc (WEFA Inc) was an economics forecasting and consulting organization founded by Nobel Prize winner Lawrence Klein.
WEFA Inc was a spinoff of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, where Klein taught. WEFA Inc traced an interesting path (see below for full details) from its predecessor in 1961 (the Economic Research Unit, discussed below), its initial launch in 1969 (as Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates Inc), to its ultimate merger with DRI (formerly Data Resources Inc.) forming Global Insight in 2001, and subsequent to that, Global Insight's acquisition in 2008 by IHS Inc.
Origins
Incorporated in 1969 by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania as a "not for profit" organization, WEFA Inc was an outgrowth of the Economics Research Unit (ERU) located in the economics department of the University of Pennsylvania. The ERU, a research unit devoted to graduate economics education, was originally sponsored in 1961 by grants from five US corporations including, IBM, Bethlehem Steel, John Deere, Exxon and Sunoco.
Among other things, the ERU was originally charged with the maintenance and use of the Wharton Quarterly Model [WQM] and the Wharton Index of Capacity Utilization. Between 1961 and 1969 the number of sponsors increased to the point where a more efficient organization was needed [WEFA Inc] to manage the many projects that grew out of the operation of the Wharton Quarterly Model.
Leadership
In June 1969, when WEFA Inc was incorporated, Lawrence R. Klein was appointed board chairman, Michael D. McCarthy was appointed executive director, and the then Director of the ERU, F. G. Adams, was appointed secretary-treasurer. Other members of the Board were: The Dean of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce at the University of Pennsylvania, ex officio, The Chairman of the Department of Economics of the University of Pennsylvania, ex officio, Paul F. Miller, (Board of Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania), Michael K. Evans (University of Pennsylvania, economics department), Paul Taubman (University of Pennsylvania, economics department), and Richard J. Kruizenga,(Chief Economist and Manager, Corporate and Environmental Economics, Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey).
Michael D. McCarthy served as executive director from June 1969 to December 1970. After joining WEFA Inc as Director of Industrial Research in August 1969, Ross S. Preston was appointed a board member and executive director of WEFA Inc in December 1970.
Preston served as executive director until the spring of 1975, at which time he was appointed secretary-treasurer of WEFA Inc. During Preston's tenure as executive director, WEFA Inc not only expanded its sponsorship of the Wharton Quarterly Model [WQM], but also developed the Wharton Annual and Industry Forecasting Model [WAIFM] which integrated input-output theory within the structure of a macro-econometric model. The predecessor of WAIFM was the Brookings Quarterly Model, originally funded by the Social Science Research Council.
The LINK project (also housed at WEFA Inc), which produced the world's first global macroeconomic model, was mentioned in Klein's citation for the Economic Sciences in 1980.
Distribution rights
The various organization which acquired the rights to distribute WQM and WAIFM include:
1961-69 Economics Research Unit (University of Pennsylvania) distributes the Wharton Quarterly Model;
1969 University of Pennsylvania Board of Trustees (WEFA Inc is incorporated and takes over distribution of the Wharton Quarterly Model);
1969 WEFA Inc begins distribution of the Wharton Annual and Industry Forecasting Model;
1980 Ziff-Davis Publishing Co. acquires WEFA Inc;
1983 Cie International de Services en Informatique acquires WEFA Inc;
1986 WEF Associates AG acquires WEFA Inc;
1987 WEF Associates AG acquires Chase Econometrics, WEFA Inc becomes WEFA-CEIS;
1994 Information Partners (Bain Capital) acquires WEFA-CEIS;
1997 Primark Corporation acquires WEFA-CEIS;
2000 The Thomson Corporation acquires Primark Corporation;
2001 Global Insight acquires WEFA-CEIS from The Thomson Corporation and merges it with DRI;
2008 IHS Inc. acquires Global Insight.
General corporate timeline
June 13, 1969: Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates is founded as a non-profit organization wholly owned by the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania.
July 14, 1979: McGraw-Hill announces it plans to buy Data Resources, a major competitor of Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates for about $103 million.
December 18, 1979: It is announced that University of Pennsylvania plans to sell its controlling interest in Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates, and has held talks with three potential buyers.
June 12, 1980: Ziff-Davis Publishing Co., a privately held publishing and broadcasting company, purchased Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates Inc. from the University of Pennsylvania for an undisclosed amount. The University said it retained a minority interest. Ziff announced that Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates would be the cornerstone of a new company, Strategic Information, which planned to spend tens of millions of dollars in the next five to six years to acquire state of the art computer equipment, according to Dennis O'Brien, who was named COO and Executive Vice President.
March 18, 1983: Cie International de Services en Informatique (CISI), a computer firm owned by the French government, acquires an 80 percent interest in Wharton Econometrics from Ziff Davis Publishing Co, and an option to buy the remaining 20 percent in 1985. At the time, Wharton Econometrics is expected to generate revenue of US$8 million in 1983.
June 20, 1983: CISI Wharton, part of the French CEA, announces plans to invest US$12 million over the next three years to position the newly enlarged entity as one of the world's leading economic forecasters.
November 16, 1986: It is announced that WEF Associates, a group of European investors (the Salem family) advised by M Gerard Vila, would acquire CISI Wharton. At the time, CISI Wharton was described as having generated losses of FFr 100m in 1984-85 on revenue of FFr 94m, and employing 200 people.
April 1, 1987: WEF Associates AG, the parent of Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates, announced that it acquired Chase Econometrics from Chase Manhattan Bank N.A., a unit of Chase Manhattan Corp, and that the new entity would be called WEFA-CEIS, Wharton Consulting and Economic Consulting and Economic Information Services. Chase Econometrics had been founded by Michael Kaye Evans, who had previously collaborated with Klein at Wharton but parted ways. An earlier magazine article had described Wharton Econometrics as "austere and academic", Data Resources as "cerebral and expanding", and Chase as "outspoken and controversial". Lawrence Chimerine, chairman of Chase Econometrics, became chairman and CEO, of the new business, while Lawrence Klein was positioned to act as a consultant and continue to oversee the board.
April 11, 1987: Wharton Econometrics and Chase Econometrics agreed to call the merged companies Wharton Economics rather than the originally proposed name, WEFA-CEIS. According to the CEO Lawrence Chimerin, the term "econometrics" was dropped, because the consolidated company would broaden its services from econometric modeling to areas such as financial analysis, planning support, and software development.
August 2, 1994: Information Partners, a private investment group affiliated with Bain Capital and focused on investments and acquisitions in the information services marketplace, announced that it had completed the purchase of The WEFA Group. The transaction was later valued at US$20 million.
January 16, 1997: Primark Corporation, headed by chairman and CEO Joseph E. Kasputys, announced it entered into an agreement to acquire WEFA Holdings Inc. from Bain Capital Inc. and other shareholders in a US$45 million cash transaction. According to Primark, WEFA had revenues of about US$29 million in 1996 and was profitable. It was also reported that in selling WEFA, Information Partners had earned a ninefold return on its August 1994 acquisition. In its press release, Primark said Allen Sinai was named to the new position as WEFA's chief global economist, and that William Mundell would continue as WEFA's president and chief executive.
Early-1997 to June 1998: Primark holds discussions with several prospective buyers, including Reed Elsevier. Reed Elsevier withdrew its offer while it dealt with a possible merger with Wolters Kluwer.
June 5, 2000: The Thomson Corporation announced that it would acquire Primark Corporation. At this point, Primark's key brands included A-T Financial Information, Baseline, Disclosure, Datastream, Global Access, GlobalTOPIC, I/B/E/S, MarketEye, PIMS, WEFA, Worldscope and Vestek. Thomson announced that it was looking at how it could integrate Primark's offerings with its own brands such as ILX and First Call. The deal came as a further sign of Thomson's moves to extract itself from some of its traditional operations such as small-circulation newspapers to move toward electronic-based business. It was announced that Thomson was acquiring Primark for approximately US$842 million, and the assumption of $235 million in Primark debt, while Primark had 1999 revenues of $495 million. Joseph E. Kasputys, Primark's Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, became Chairman of Thomson Financial.
March 2001: Joseph Kasputys forms Global Insight, Inc. to be a leading company providing business executives, investors and government officials with economic information, analysis and solutions.
May 7, 2001: Global Insight announced it would acquire DRI and WEFA from their respective parent companies to form its first subsidiary, DRI-WEFA Inc. DRI, formerly known as Data Resources Inc. was at this point a unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, a New York publisher and financial services company, while WEFA was a unit of The Thomson Corporation, a Toronto diversified information company. Joseph Kasputys was the chairman and main shareholder in Global Insight and led the acquisition. At the time of the merger, Kasputys, who had previous roles as a senior executive of both WEFA and DRI, said that he had wanted to bring together DRI and WEFA since 1990. Kasputys had also been executive vice president of McGraw-Hill until 1987. At the point of the merger, WEFA had about 220 employees and DRI about 250. At its peak, DRI, the larger of the two, had brought in US$100 million in revenue. Including new subsidiaries Primark Decision Economics; DAFSA, a European market research company; and Primark Poland, a software development company; Global Insight was planned to employ about 500, have 30 offices world wide, and have annual revenue of $70 million.
2005: Global Insight reportedly generates revenue of US$86 million.
September 18, 2008: Global Insight announces that it will be acquired by IHS Inc., a Colorado-based public company that supplies information on energy, the environment, security, and product life cycles. The acquisition closed on October 13, 2008 for US$165 million, consisting of $118 million in cash and IHS common stock valued at $47 million. In the announcement, Global Insight's 2008 revenues were reported at an estimated $120 million, with an adjusted EBITDA margin in the high single-digits. The deal anticipated the benefits of adding Global Insight to IHS' insight units, including Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Jane's Information Group, and IHS Herold's. At this point, Global Insight is renamed to IHS Global Insight and reportedly has 700 employees in 25 global offices.
References
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
Research and analysis firms
Defunct research and analysis firms
Defunct economics consulting firms
Forecasting organizations | [
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|
240099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oi%20Polloi | Oi Polloi | Oi Polloi are a punk rock band from Scotland that formed around 1981. Starting as an Oi! band, they are now generally more associated with the anarcho-punk genre. The band has become notable for their contributions to the Scottish Gaelic punk subgenre. The name comes from the Greek expression "οἱ πολλοί", Anglicized hoi polloi, meaning "the masses" or "the common people".
The band has gone through about 50 members since their formation, and their only permanent member has been vocalist Deek Allen, who has also been involved in Gaelic-language television. The band has included punks and skinheads. The members have been supporters of Anti-Fascist Action and Earth First!, and they use the motto "No Compromise in Defence of Our Earth," which is an adaptation of Earth First!'s motto. They support direct action in defence of the environment, hunt sabotage, as well as resistance against racism, sexism, homophobia, fascism and imperialism.
Career
After gigs in the Edinburgh area and the recording of the band's self-recorded first cassette demo, Last of the Mohicans, drummer Stu "Doccy" Dunn left to become a karate instructor. A second studio demo, Green Anarchoi and their first vinyl EP, Resist the Atomic Menace, followed.
Oi Polloi started singing in Scottish Gaelic in 1996, recording the Carson? EP, (2003), then recording and releasing the full-length LP Ar Ceòl Ar Cànan Ar-A-Mach in 2006. The band members also use Scottish Gaelic in day-to-day communications.
In 2013, they collaborated with CLÀR, a Scottish Gaelic publisher, to launch Air Cuan Dubh Drilseach, a Gaelic science fiction novel by Tim Armstrong, the singer of Mill a h-Uile Rud, at events at Elvis Shakespeare on Leith Walk and on The Cruz Boat at the shore in Leith.
Discography
12" LPs
Skins 'N' Punks Volume Two (Split w Betrayed) 1986
Unlimited Genocide (Split w A.O.A.) 1986
Mad As... (Split w Toxik Ephex) 1987
Unite And Win (Oi! Records) 1987
In Defence of Our Earth (Words of Warning Records) 1990
You've Heard It All Before Track on The Crass Covers Compilation album (Ruptured Ambitions Records) 1993
Fight Back! (Re-Release of Old Split Material) 1994
Total Anarchoi (Live/Studio Collection – CD/LP) 1996
Fuaim Catha (Skuld Records) 1999
Outraged by the System (Step-1 Music) 2002
Heavenly Peace]' (Split 12" EP w Nikmat Olalim, Campari Records) 2006Ar Ceòl Ar Cànan Ar-A-Mach (Self Release/Campari records/Nikt Nic Nie Wie) 2006Gaidhlig na Lasair (compilation of underground Gaelic punk and techno)(Problem? Records) 2006Total Resistance to the Fucking System (Plastic Bomb) 2008SS Politician (Chaosrurale Records/Active Rebellion) 2010Duisg! (Plastic Bomb/Active Rebellion) 2012Saorsa (Ruin Nation Records) 2016
7" EPsResist the Atomic Menace 1986 (re-released 1994)Outrage 1988Omnicide 1991 (Words of Warning Records)Guilty (Ruptured Ambitions Records) 1993Oi Polloi / Blownapart Bastards (Split) 1994Oi Polloi - s/t (Nikt Nic Nie Wie)Bare Faced Hypocrisy Sells Records The Anti-Chumbawamba EP w/Riot/Clone, The Bus Station Loonies, Anxiety Society, The Chineapple Punks, Love Chips and Peas, and Wat Tyler 1998 (Ruptured Ambitions Records)THC (Campary Rec.) 1998Let the Boots Do the Talking (Ruptured Ambitions Records) 1999Carson? (Nikt Nic Nie Wie) 2003Ceòl Gàidhlig mar Sgian nad Amhaich (compilation with Mill a h-Uile Rud, Atomgevitter and Nad Aislingean) (Problem Records) 2005Mind the Bollocks (Kämäset Levyt Records) 2007Cyklopen split EP with Kansalaistottelemattomuus 2010Split EP with Appalachian Terror Unit Profane Existence (US)/NNNW (Europe) 2011Split EP with Na Gathan (Limited May Tour Edition) Problem Records 2012
DVDOi Polloi: The Movie''
See also
Mill a h-Uile Rud
References
External links
Live review by John Robb, Manchester July 2011
Article on Gaelic punk in The Scotsman newspaper
Article in The Scotsman Gaelic page on Oi Polloi and their Ar Cànan, Ar Ceòl, Ar-a-mach LP
BBC Radio nan Gaidheal Rapal session February 2008 with 3 Gaelic tracks
Air Cuan Dubh Drilseach website – Tim Armstrong/CLAR literary collaboration
Anarcho-punk groups
Scottish Gaelic music
Oi! groups
Street punk groups
Skinhead
British anti-fascists
Musical groups established in 1981
Scottish punk rock groups
Musical groups from Edinburgh | [
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240104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Dearborn | Henry Dearborn | Henry Dearborn (February 23, 1751 – June 6, 1829) was an American military officer and politician. In the Revolutionary War, he served under Benedict Arnold in his expedition to Quebec, of which his journal provides an important record. After being captured and exchanged, he served in George Washington's Continental Army. He was present at the British surrender at Yorktown. Dearborn served on General George Washington's staff in Virginia.
He served as Secretary of War under President Thomas Jefferson, from 1801 to 1809, and served as a commanding general in the War of 1812. In later life his criticism of General Israel Putnam's performance at the Battle of Bunker Hill caused a major controversy. Fort Dearborn in Illinois, Dearborn County in Indiana, and the city of Dearborn, Michigan, were named in his honor.
Background
Henry Dearborn was born February 23, 1751, to Simon Dearborn and Sarah Marston in North Hampton in the Province of New Hampshire. He was descended from Godfrey Dearborn, from Exeter in England, who came to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1639. Godfrey Dearborn settled first at Exeter, New Hampshire, and soon after at Hampton, where four successive generations of his descendants lived. Henry spent much of his youth in Epping, where he attended public schools. He grew up as an athletic boy, notably strong and a champion wrestler. He studied medicine under Dr. Hall Jackson of Portsmouth and opened a practice on the square in Nottingham, New Hampshire, in 1772.
Dearborn was married three times: to Mary Bartlett in 1771, to Dorcas (Osgood) Marble in 1780, and to Sarah Bowdoin, widow of James Bowdoin, in 1813. Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn was his son by his second wife.
Revolutionary War service
When fighting in the American Revolutionary War began, Dearborn fought with the Continental Army as a captain in the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire Regiments; he soon rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. He was appointed Deputy Quartermaster General in July 1781 and served on George Washington's staff while in Virginia. At age twenty-three, he organized and led a local militia troop of sixty men to the Boston area, where he fought on June 17, 1775, at the Battle of Bunker Hill as a captain in Colonel John Stark's 1st New Hampshire Regiment. During the battle, Dearborn observed that "Not an officer or soldier of the continental troops engaged was in uniform, but were in the plain and ordinary dress of citizens; nor was there an officer on horseback." Dearborn years later would accuse Israel Putnam of failing his duty during that battle, resulting in what has since been known as the Dearborn-Putnam controversy.
Dearborn volunteered to serve under Colonel Benedict Arnold in September 1775, during the difficult American expedition to Quebec. Later Dearborn would record in his Revolutionary War journal their overall situation and condition: "We were small indeed to think of entering a place like Quebec. But being now almost out of provisions we were sure to die if we attempted to return back and we could be in no worse situation if we proceeded on our rout."
On the final leg of the march, Dearborn was taken seriously ill with fever, forcing him to remain behind in a cottage on the Chaudière River. Later he rejoined the combined forces of Arnold and Gen. Richard Montgomery in time to take part in the assault on Quebec. Dearborn's journal is an important record for that campaign. During the march he and Aaron Burr became companions. Along with a number of other officers, Dearborn was captured on December 31, 1775, during the Battle of Quebec, and detained for a year. He was released on parole in May 1776, but he was not exchanged until March 1777.
After fighting at Ticonderoga in July 1777, Dearborn was appointed major in the regiment commanded by Alexander Scammell.
In September 1777, Dearborn was transferred to the 1st New Hampshire Regiment, under Colonel Joseph Cilley. He took part in the Saratoga campaign against Burgoyne at Freeman's Farm. The first battle was largely fought by troops from New Hampshire, Dearborn's home state. The New Hampshire brigade under General Poor and a detachment of infantry under Major Dearborn, numbering about three hundred, along with detachments of other militia, and Whitcomb's Rangers, co-operated with Morgan in the repulse of Fraser's attack. The cautious General Horatio Gates reluctantly ordered a reconnaissance force consisting of Daniel Morgan's Provisional Rifle Corps and Dearborn's light infantry to scout out the Bemis Heights area. Gates later noted Dearborn's marked ability as a soldier and officer in his report. Thereafter Dearborn joined General George Washington's main Continental Army at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, as a lieutenant colonel, where he spent the winter of 1777–1778.
Dearborn fought at the Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey in 1778, following the British evacuation of Philadelphia to retreat to concentrate at New York City, in the final major battle of the Northern Theatre, and in the summer of 1779 he accompanied Major General John Sullivan on the Sullivan Expedition against the Iroquois in upstate New York and in the Battle of Wyoming against the Six Nations, thereafter laying waste to the Genesee Valley and the various regions around the Finger Lakes.
During the winter of 1778-1779, he was encamped at what is now Putnam Memorial State Park in Redding, Connecticut. Dearborn rejoined General Washington's staff in 1781 as deputy quartermaster general and commanded the 1st New Hampshire at the Battle of Yorktown with the rank of colonel and was present when Cornwallis surrendered in October of that year.
In June 1783, Dearborn received his discharge from the Continental Army and settled in Gardiner, Maine, where he became Major General of the Maine militia. Washington appointed him marshal of the District of Maine. Dearborn served in the U.S. House of Representatives from the District of Maine, 1793 to 1797. He was an original member of the New Hampshire Society of the Cincinnati.
Revolutionary War journals
During the American Revolution Dearborn maintained six separate journals where he recorded the various campaigns, battles and other notable events from his point of experience. His Revolutionary War journals of Henry Dearborn, 1775-1783, have provided historians of early American history with valuable first-hand information from the perspective of an officer who was engaged in the various battles and surrounding events. His journals were first published in 1939 by the Caxton Club of Chicago and were edited from the original manuscripts by historians Lloyd A. Brown and Howard Henry Peckham; the publication includes a biographical essay of Dearborn by Hermon D. Smith. The six journals are enumerated as follows:
Journal I. The Quebec ExpeditionJournal II. The Burgoyne CampaignJournal III. Operations in the Middle ColoniesJournal IV. Sullivan's Indian ExpeditionJournal V. The Yorktown CampaignJournal VI. Peace Negotiations
Dearborn also wrote An Account of the Battle of Bunker Hill. Various scholars have cited the short work as being culturally important and greatly contributing to the knowledge base of early American history.
Post-Revolution
Dearborn was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Massachusetts Militia in 1787 and was promoted to major general in 1789. The same year he was appointed as the first U.S. Marshal for the District of Maine under the new Constitution of 1787 by President Washington. He represented this district as a Democratic-Republican in the Third and Fourth Congresses from 1793 to 1797.
In 1801, third President Thomas Jefferson appointed Dearborn Secretary of War, a post he held for eight years until March 7, 1809. Dearborn advised Jefferson in matters of military personnel when Jefferson was formulating the Military Peace Establishment Act in 1800-01, which outlined a new set of laws and limits for the military and also led to the founding of a national military academy at West Point. In April 1801, Dearborn asked George Baron, an Englishman who was Dearborn's friend from Maine, to be the mathematics instructor at the academy. Dearborn also offered the superintendency of the school to Jonathan Williams, who had translated into English some European treatises on artillery and fortification.
During the 1801 and 1802 period, Dearborn and Jefferson corresponded frequently, discussing various political and military matters. Notable among them was Dearborn's report of May 12, 1801 on the War Department, and his recommendation for "designating the boundary line between the United States, and the adjacent British possessions, in such manner as may prevent any disputes in future..."
During his tenure, he helped Jefferson form a policy on Native Americans, the goal being to establish a western boundary by procuring lands along the Mississippi River.
In 1805 while events in the Burr conspiracy were beginning to unfold, Aaron Burr and Louisiana Territory governor James Wilkinson were allegedly planning war with Mexico, with the aim of establishing a secessionist state in the Southwest in the process. Hoping to incite war with Spain, Wilkinson in a letter to Secretary of War Dearborn urged him to attack Western Spanish Florida from Baton Rouge. Prompted by prevailing rumors of war, Dearborn ordered him to send three companies of troops to Fort Adams in Western Florida as a precaution. The prospect of war in turn was used by Wilkinson to justify sending an exploratory military expedition into the Southwest to find a route that would be used to supply a war effort at the U.S.-Spanish-Mexican border. In May, Dearborn ordered Wilkinson to the Orleans territory, directing his general to "repel any invasion of the United States east of the Sabine River or north or west of the bounds of what has been called West Florida..." Dearborn further maintained that any such movements across these borders would constitute "an actual invasion of our territorial rights". This was the opportunity both Burr and Wilkinson were hoping for, thinking that Spanish officials were on edge over the prospect of confrontation with the U.S. and could easily be provoked into war. When Wilkinson, however, had asked Dearborn to send an exploratory military expedition into the Southwest, Dearborn replied that, "you, Burr, etc., are becoming too intimate ... keep every suspicious person at arm's length." At this time Dearborn also warned his top general that "your name has very frequently been mentioned with Burr's." Shortly thereafter Burr was arrested for treason.
Dearborn was appointed collector of the port of Boston by President James Madison in March 1809, a position he held until January 27, 1812, when he was appointed as the Commanding General of the United States Army.
War of 1812
During the War of 1812, while President Madison was urging Federalists to join in "united support" against Britain in a war they were given little reason to cooperate in, he gave Henry Dearborn senior command of the northeast sector which ranged from the Niagara River to the New England coast. Dearborn had favor with Madison as a Revolutionary War veteran who rose to the rank of colonel and for serving as Secretary of War under President Jefferson, and especially for helping Jefferson draft the Military Peace Establishment Act, which served to remove many Federalist officers from the ranks of the military. Subsequently, Madison's choice for commanding general of the northeast theater was not well received by most Federalists. At age 61, however, Dearborn was now overweight, slow and insecure, and he found it difficult to inspire confidence among the men under his command. In March he suffered a minor injury from a fall, and it is suggested that Dearborn took his time recovering. When the war broke out he spent even more time in Boston, fearing, as did Vice President Elbridge Gerry, that the Federalists were once again plotting a northeastern secession and ready to install a "Hanoverian"-like monarchy in opposition to them.
Needing to present Congress with reports of progress, Secretary of War William Eustis urged Dearborn to promptly embark for Albany and plan and make preparations for an invasion of Montreal in Canada. Dearborn maintained, however, that he must first get to New England and secure the militia for defending the New England coast, which would free up the regular troops of the region for the coming campaign against Canada, and before the Federalists effected an open revolt there. After disputes with New England's several Federalist governors, who refused to supply the militia for coastal defense, Dearborn reluctantly left New England for Albany with regular troops in late July, leaving the coast almost defenseless against British coastal attacks.
On August 9, while General William Hull was expecting a diversionary attack by Dearborn in the Niagara area, the latter was still at his headquarters at Greenbush, just outside of Albany, and was having great difficulty amassing troops for the coming offensive in Canada. At this time George Prévost had sent British Colonel Edward Baynes to negotiate a temporary armistice with Dearborn. Dearborn learned that Lord Liverpool was giving the American government time to respond. Lacking the means to adequately engage the British in Canada, Dearborn was not eager for battle, welcomed the delay, and rushed news of the armistice to Madison for approval. In the meantime Dearborn gave orders to General Van Rensselaer to avoid any engagements along the Niagara. The truce, however, was short-lived when on August 15 Madison repudiated Dearborn's agreement and orders were issued to renew the offensive.
Dearborn prepared plans for simultaneous assaults on Montreal, Kingston, Fort Niagara, and Amherstburg, but the execution was imperfect. A half-hearted advance into Lower Canada in November 1812 simply collapsed after a very minor engagement at the Battle of Lacolle Mills. Some scholars believe that Dearborn also did not move quickly enough to provide sufficient troops to defend Detroit. Hull, without firing a shot, surrendered the city to British General Isaac Brock. Hull was court-martialed and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted. Dearborn headed the court martial.
On April 27 1813, American forces on Lake Ontario under Dearborn and Commodore Isaac Chauncey gained success at the Battle of York, occupying the town for several days and capturing many guns and stores. Thereafter the American army was transported across the lake in Chauncey's ships to Fort Niagara. Dearborn assembled 4,500 troops at Fort Niagara and planned to attack Fort George next, and entrusted the attack to Colonel Winfield Scott, but his army required rest and reorganisation. No preparations had been made to accommodate the troops at Fort Niagara, and they suffered considerable shortages and privations for several days.
Although Dearborn had minor successes at the capture of York (now Toronto) on April 27, 1813, and at the capture of Fort George on May 27, 1813, his command was, for the most part, ineffective. He was recalled from the frontier on July 6, 1813, and reassigned to an administrative command in New York City, and married his third wife, Sarah Bowdoin.
Dearborn was honorably discharged from the Army on June 15, 1815.
Later life
Dearborn was an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati, and was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816, now the oldest historical society in the United States.
Dearborn ran for Governor of Massachusetts in 1818 against incumbent John Brooks. Because Dearborn was a Democratic-Republican in a predominantly Federalist state, he needed favorable press to help his campaign. Subsequently, Dearborn accepted an offer from Charles Miner, the editor of The Port Folio, a Philadelphia political magazine, asking him to verify and edit a British soldier's map depicting the Battle of Bunker Hill. Dearborn saw this as a chance to win public favor and seized the opportunity. However, his efforts backfired when he also wrote a "correct account" of the battle in the article, which was reprinted in 1818, accusing Israel Putnam of inaction and cowardly leadership during the battle, which sparked a major and long-lasting controversy among veterans of the war and various historians.
President James Madison nominated Dearborn for reappointment as Secretary of War, but the Senate rejected the nomination, and in the face of fierce criticism over Dearborn's performance during the War of 1812, Madison withdrew the nomination. He was later appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal by President James Monroe and served from May 7, 1822, until June 30, 1824, when, by his own request, he was recalled.
He retired to his home in Roxbury, Massachusetts, where he died five years later. He is interred in Forest Hills Cemetery in Jamaica Plain (outside of Boston at the time; annexed to the city in 1874).
Legacy
Lewis and Clark, appointed by Thomas Jefferson, named the Dearborn River in west-central Montana after Dearborn in 1803. Dearborn County, Indiana; Dearborn, Michigan; and Dearborn, Missouri, were also named for him, as was Fort Dearborn in Chicago, which in turn was the namesake for Dearborn Street, a major street in downtown Chicago. There was also a Fort Dearborn in Adams County, Mississippi, in the early 1800s; see Leonard Covington.
Augusta, Maine, was so renamed after Henry's daughter, Augusta Dearborn, in August 1797.
A U.S. military armory, initially named "Mount Dearborn", was planned in the early 1800s to be built on an island near the confluence of the Catawba and Wateree rivers, adjacent to Great Falls, South Carolina. The facility was never constructed, but the island name stuck, and after the town was founded in 1905, its main thoroughfare was named Dearborn Street.
During World War II, a coastal defense fort named Fort Dearborn was established in Henry Dearborn's home state of New Hampshire, to guard the approaches to Portsmouth.
General Dearborn's son, Henry A. S. Dearborn, was a U.S. congressman representing Massachusetts's 10th congressional district from 1831 to 1833.
See also
List of American Revolutionary War battles
Unsuccessful nominations to the Cabinet of the United States
Notes
References
Bibliography
e-Book
, pages covering account
Website sources
Further reading
— eBook
— eBook
— eBook
— eBook
External links
The Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
Letters from Henry Dearborn, to Washington, Adams, Jefferson, etc.
George LaBarre Galleries: Henry Dearborn autographed as President, Republican Institution Certificate dated 1821.
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1751 births
1829 deaths
19th-century American diplomats
19th-century American politicians
Ambassadors of the United States to Portugal
American people of English descent
American revolutionaries
American Revolutionary War Diarists
Collectors of the Port of Boston
Commanding Generals of the United States Army
United States Army personnel of the War of 1812
People of colonial New Hampshire
Continental Army officers from New Hampshire
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Jefferson administration cabinet members
Massachusetts Democratic-Republicans
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts
Members of the United States House of Representatives from the District of Maine
People from Gardiner, Maine
People from North Hampton, New Hampshire
Politicians from Boston
Rejected or withdrawn nominees to the United States Executive Cabinet
United States Marshals
United States Secretaries of War
War of 1812 prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom
People from Roxbury, Boston
Burials at Forest Hills Cemetery (Boston) | [
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|
240105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room%20temperature | Room temperature | Colloquially, "room temperature" is a range of air temperatures that most people prefer for indoor settings. It feels comfortable to a person when they are wearing typical indoor clothing. Human comfort can extend beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation and other factors.
In certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed-upon ranges. In contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature, as measured by a thermometer, of the air (or other medium and surroundings) in any particular place. The ambient temperature (e.g. an unheated room in winter) may be very different from an ideal room temperature.
Comfort temperatures
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language identifies room temperature as around , while the Oxford English Dictionary states that it is "conventionally taken as about ". The ideal room temperature may vary by place and culture; studies from Nigeria show a comfortable temperature range of , comfortably cool and comfortably warm . Owing to variations in humidity and (likely) clothing, recommendations for summer and winter may vary; a suggested typical range for winter is , with that for summer being . Some studies have suggested that thermal comfort preferences of men and women may differ significantly, with women on average preferring higher ambient temperatures.
In the recent past it was common for house temperatures to be kept below the comfort level; a 1978 UK study found average indoor home temperatures to be while Japan in 1980 had median home temperatures of to
Health effects
The World Health Organization in 1987 found that comfortable indoor temperatures between were not associated with health risks for healthy adults with appropriate clothing, humidity, and other factors. For infants, elderly, and those with significant health problems, a minimum was recommended. Temperatures lower than with humidity above 65% were associated with respiratory hazards including allergies.
The WHO's 2018 guidelines give a strong recommendation that a minimum of is a "safe and well-balanced indoor temperature to protect the health of general populations during cold seasons", while a higher minimum may be necessary for vulnerable groups including children, the elderly, and people with cardiorespiratory disease and other chronic illnesses. The recommendation regarding risk of exposure to high indoor temperatures is only "conditional". Minimal-risk high temperatures range from about depending on the region, with maximum acceptable temperatures between .
Definitions in science and industry
Temperature ranges are defined as room temperature for certain products and processes in industry, science, and consumer goods. For instance, for the shipping and storage of pharmaceuticals, the United States Pharmacopeia-National Formulary (USP-NF) defines controlled room temperature as between , with excursions between allowed, provided the mean kinetic temperature does not exceed . The European Pharmacopoeia defines it as being simply , and the Japanese Pharmacopeia defines "ordinary temperature" as , with room temperature being . Merriam-Webster gives as a medical definition a range of as being suitable for human occupancy, and at which laboratory experiments are usually performed.
See also
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure
ISO 1
Indoor air quality
References
Environmental engineering
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Science experiments
Atmospheric temperature | [
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|
240107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shar | Shar | In the Unix operating system, shar (an abbreviation of shell archive) is an archive format created with the Unix shar utility. A shar file is a type of self-extracting archive, because it is a valid shell script, and executing it will recreate the files. To extract the files, only the standard Unix Bourne shell sh is usually required.
Note that the shar command is not specified by the Single Unix Specification, so it is not formally a component of Unix, but a legacy utility.
Details
While the shar format has the advantage of being plain text, it poses a risk due to being executable; for this reason the older and more general tar file format is usually preferred even for transferring text files. GNU provides its own version of shar in the GNU Sharutils collection.
unshar programs have been written for other operating systems but are not always reliable; shar files are shell scripts and can theoretically do anything that a shell script can do (including using incompatible features of enhanced or workalike shells), limiting their utility outside the Unix world.
The drawback of self-extracting shell scripts (any kind, not just shar) is that they may rely on a particular implementation of programs; shell archives created with older versions of makeself, for example, the original Unreal Tournament for Linux installer, fails to run on bash 3.x due to a change in how missing arguments to trap built-in command are handled.
History and variants
James Gosling is credited with writing the first version of the shar utility in 1982, and also wrote an early example (allegedly 1978-79) of the concept in the form of this simple shell script:
# shar -- Shell archiver
AR=$1
shift
for i do
echo a - $i
echo "echo x - $i" >>$AR
echo "cat >$i <<'!Funky!Stuff!'" >>$AR
cat $i >>$AR
echo "!Funky!Stuff!" >>$AR
done
The following variants of shar are known:
shar 1.x (1982) by Gosling. Public domain shell script.
Current FreeBSD shar. 3-clause BSD license, shell script. Adds md5sum.
shar2 or xshar (1988) by William Davidsen. Public domain, C program.
shar3 (1989) by Warren Tucker.
shar 3.49 (1990) by Richard H. Gumpertz. Adds uuencode support.
Current GNU sharutils. GPLv3, C program.
cshar (1984) by Michael A. Thompson and Mark Smith, now lost to bitrot. C program.
cshar (1988) by Rich Salz, C program. Likely influenced shar 3.49.
ccshar (1996), a modification to output a csh script instead. Rarely used on Usenet.
GNU is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.
Similar formats
A version of the same concept, but for the VMS operating system, was written in 1987 by Michael Bednarek from The Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research as a DCL script, VMS_SHAR.COM. This was later maintained and extended by James A. Gray from Xerox, and Andy Harper from King's College London.
makeself (2001–) is a shell script that generates self-extracting tarballs (, ) using the same shell script header technique. Using tar precludes makeself from being used in plain text directly, but the better compression and other functionalities has made it more popular in the 21st century among software vendors seeking to package Linux software.
See also
List of Unix commands
References
External links
Information about shar files (Carnegie Mellon)
GNU sharutils
Unix archivers and compression-related utilities
Archive formats | [
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|
240114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysalis%20Records | Chrysalis Records | Chrysalis Records () is a British record label that was founded in 1968. The name is both a reference to the pupal stage of a butterfly and a combination of its founders' names, Chris Wright and Terry Ellis. It started as the Ellis-Wright Agency.
History
Early years
In an interview for Jethro Tull's video 20 Years of Jethro Tull, released in 1988, Wright states "Chrysalis Records might have come into being anyway, you never know what might have happened, but Chrysalis Records really came into being because Jethro Tull couldn't get a record deal and MGM couldn't even get their name right on the record". This was after the single "Sunshine Day/Aeroplane" was incorrectly credited to 'Jethro Toe'.
Chrysalis entered into a licensing deal with Chris Blackwell's Island Records for distribution, based on the success of bands like Jethro Tull, Ten Years After and Procol Harum, which were promoted by the label. Jethro Tull signed with Reprise Records in the United States, which led Chrysalis to an American distribution deal with Reprise's parent company, Warner Bros. Records. This lasted from 1972 until U.S. Chrysalis switched to independent distribution in 1976. PolyGram handled international distribution and Festival Records covered Australia and New Zealand. In 1973, it signed British rock band UFO. Towards the end of the 1970s, the label began to extend its range of music, incorporating acts from the punk rock scene such as Generation X. The Chrysalis offshoot 2 Tone Records brought in bands such as The Specials and The Selecter.
In 1979, Chrysalis bought and distributed U.S. folk label Takoma Records, naming manager/producer Denny Bruce as president, who signed The Fabulous Thunderbirds and T-Bone Burnett. Jon Monday who was Vice President of Takoma Records prior to the acquisition continued as General Manager, later becoming Director of Marketing of Chrysalis Records.
Chrysalis made history in 1979 by creating the first "music video album", a videocassette featuring a corresponding music video for each song on Blondie's Eat to the Beat album (released at the same time as the LP).
In the 1980s, Chrysalis was at the forefront of the British new romantic movement with bands such as Gen X, Ultravox, and Spandau Ballet. The 1980s proved to be the most successful time for the label, whose roster then included Billy Idol, Pat Benatar, Blondie and Huey Lewis and the News. Chrysalis also distributed Animal Records, the short-lived label founded by Blondie guitarist, Chris Stein. In 1983, after the label re-established itself in New York, Eric Heckman, formally of Atlantic and Epic Records promotion took over as Senior Director of Promotion and Marketing. Also in 1983, Daniel Glass moved to Chrysalis as Director of New Music Marketing, advancing later to Senior Vice President. During the next two years Chrysalis broke Huey Lewis and the News, Billy Idol and Spandau Ballet in the United States, whilst Pat Benatar continued to find success on both the traditional and dance music charts.
In 1984, Chrysalis bought Ensign Records, a record label Nigel Grainge started in 1976 (with the label's name coming from the idea that 'N. signs' as in 'Nigel Signs') which would go on to have The Waterboys, World Party and Sinéad O'Connor on its roster in the late 1980s. Ensign joined TV marketing/compilations company Dover Records and dance label Cooltempo as part of the Chrysalis family, with Grainge staying on to run the label that he founded.
EMI
50% of the Chrysalis Records label was sold in 1989, then the remaining half in 1991 to Thorn EMI, with the Chrysalis Group (primarily a music publisher with other interests in radio and television production) setting up new indie labels such as Echo and Papillion in the mid 1990s. Chrysalis Records was folded into EMI subsidiary and flagship label EMI Records in 2005, with catalogue and artists such as Starsailor being shifted to EMI's main imprints. In 2010, BMG Rights Management bought Chrysalis Music's assets (the publishing division and The Echo Label), whilst the British Chrysalis Records catalogue (minus Robbie Williams, whose catalogue stayed behind with Universal's Island Records) was put up for sale by Universal Music Group in 2012 after its acquisition of EMI.
In July 2013, Warner Music Group completed acquisition of Parlophone Label Group, which includes the British Chrysalis catalogue, for £487 million. When Universal Music Group purchased EMI ownership of Chrysalis passed to UMG, and Warner Music Group acquired a part of EMI from UMG, including the original Chrysalis Records Ltd with its catalogue of 130 artists.
The American and Canadian Chrysalis catalogue, including artists such as Blondie, Huey Lewis and The News, and Pat Benatar, was acquired by CEMA, later EMI-Capitol Special Markets, which was folded into EMI Records Group (ERG) North America, and was then merged into Capitol Music Group, parent of former sister label Capitol Records, and is currently distributed by that label. Debbie Harry's only Chrysalis album released in the US, KooKoo, was later divested by Capitol after the merger. The Ramones' North American distribution catalogue was later acquired by another sister label of Capitol's, Geffen Records, distributed by Universal Music Enterprises, but the British distribution of Ramones' Chrysalis catalogue remained with Parlophone.
Later ownership
Chrysalis Records was bought in May 2016 from WMG in a deal led by Blue Raincoat Music's Jeremy Lascelles and Sade's Diamond Life producer Robin Millar. The agreement saw the co-founder and original owner of Chrysalis, Chris Wright, reunited with the label as non-executive chairman, 27 years after selling the company to EMI. Former Virgin Media boss Robert Devereux was also part of the original consortium.
Chrysalis Records has represented over 20,000 recordings comprising many British and other, chiefly American, rock and pop tracks from the 1960s to 1990s. Artists on the roster include The Specials, Sinead O'Connor, The Waterboys, Ten Years After, Debbie Harry, Fun Boy Three, Ultravox, Lucinda Williams, Dario G, Generation X, the Two Tone label, Grant Lee Buffalo, Everything but the Girl, Athlete, Fun Lovin' Criminals, Suzi Quatro, Steve Harley, Naked Eyes and many more.
After the 2016 purchase, the pre-2013 Chrysalis catalogues of namely Spandau Ballet, The Proclaimers, Jethro Tull and Ramones (only in the UK) stayed behind with WMG. The non-Ramones British reissues from Parlophone are distributed outside Europe by Rhino Entertainment, while the North American rights to Naked Eyes' albums, originally released by EMI America, stayed with Capitol Records, and the non-American rights to Belinda Carlisle's only Chrysalis album, A Woman & a Man, were ceded to her former label, Virgin Records.
In 2018, the Cooltempo label was relaunched by Blue Raincoat Music with the release of the Eye Ring EP by Francesca Lombardo and Infinity Ink's debut album House of Infinity. In August 2019, music rights company, Reservoir, partnered with Blue Raincoat, to make the Chrysalis record label part of Reservoir's extended global infrastructure and network.
2020s
Chrysalis Records relaunched itself as a front line label in February 2020, marking a return to releasing new music for the first time in over two decades. The first signing was in partnership with award winning independent label Partisan Records. The labels came together to sign British singer/songwriter Laura Marling in a fully co-branded global release. As the first project released on Chrysalis' re-launched frontline label, Marling's album, Song for Our Daughter, debuted in April 2020 to critical acclaim and a Mercury Prize nomination.
In September 2020, Chrysalis signed the indie singer-songwriter Liz Phair. Her raw lyrical style made her a trailblazer for a raft of female artists in alternative music, when she began to make records at the start of the 1990s. Phair's first album in a decade, Soberish, came out later in 2021.
On 6 August 2021, the second album from Laura Marling and Mike Lindsay's project, Lump (styled in all caps), titled Animal charted at number 65 on the UK Albums Chart, and was one of the Top 20 selling albums for that week (6 August - 12 August 2021).
Artists
3 Man Island
Mick Abrahams/Mick Abrahams Band
Adam F
The Adventures
Ian Anderson
The Angels (billed as Angel City in the United States)
Armored Saint
Arrested Development
Arrow
Art of Noise
Athlete
Bahamadia
The Babys
Claudja Barry
Edyta Bartosiewicz
Toni Basil
Bedlam
Pat Benatar
The Bible
The Big F
Rory Block
Blodwyn Pig
Blonde on Blonde
Blondie
The Blue Aeroplanes
Gary Brooker
Enrique Bunbury
Butt Trumpet
Cajun Moon
Belinda Carlisle
Paul Carrack
Catherine Wheel
Carter USM
Chick Churchill
Child's Play
The City
Clouds
Alice Cohen
The Colourfield
D Generation
Daddy Freddy
Jimmy Destri
Device
Divinyls
Micky Dolenz
Dover
The Fabulous Thunderbirds
Feline
Follow For Now
Fun Boy Three
Fun Lovin' Criminals
Rory Gallagher
Lee Garrett
Gang Starr
Generation X/Gen X
Gentle Giant (except US and Canada)
Ghost Dance
Nick Gilder
Go West
Phillip Goodhand-Tait
Bobcat Goldthwait
Grand Prix
David Grant
Max Carl Gronenthal
Guru
Steve Hackett (US)
Geri Halliwell
Paul Hardcastle
Roy Harper (US)
Debbie Harry
Chesney Hawkes
Boo Hewerdine
The Housemartins
Ian Hunter
Icehouse
Billy Idol
Innocence
Jazz Got Soul
Jellybean
Jeffrey Gaines
Jethro Tull
Joan Jett
Bob Johnson & Pete Knight
Mickey Jupp
Kino
Kiss that
Leo Kottke
Greg Lake
Amanda Lear
Alvin Lee
Huey Lewis and the News
Leyton Buzzards
Linx
Living in a Box
Mandalaband
Masters of Reality
Frankie Miller
Mutha's Day Out
The Next School
Sinéad O'Connor
Pere Ubu
Liz Phair
Astor Piazzolla
Cozy Powell
Power Station (except the US)
Maddy Prior & June Tabor
The Proclaimers
The Permanent Cure
Procol Harum
Brian Protheroe
Q-Tips
Trevor Rabin (except South Africa)
Racing Cars
Ramones 1989-2006 (UK only)
Rappin' 4-Tay
Robbie Williams
John Dawson Read
Runrig
Bridget St John
Leo Sayer (except US and Canada)
Michael Schenker Group
2nd Vision
Sea Hags
The Selecter
Shanghai (formerly Spider)
Lucie Silvas
Simple Minds
Slaughter
Sonia
Spandau Ballet
The Specials (US)
Split Enz (except New Zealand and Australia)
Stage Dolls (US)
Starsailor
Steeleye Span
Stiff Little Fingers
Karlheinz Stockhausen
Supertramp (except the US)
Sylvester
Ten Years After
Ian Thomas Band
Richard & Linda Thompson
Tír na nÓg
Toto Coelo
Mary Travers
Trouble Tribe
Robin Trower
The Pursuit Of Happiness
2 Tribes
Bonnie Tyler (US)
Judie Tzuke
UFO
Ultravox
Midge Ure
Uriah Heep (US)
The Venetians
Vigil
Vinnie Vincent Invasion
John Waite
Wartime
Was (Not Was) (US)
The Waterboys
Waysted
White Town
Wild Turkey
The Winkies
Wireless
World Party
Year Zero
Zephyr
See also
The Echo Label (a Chrysalis Group indie label)
Papillon Records (a Chrysalis Group record label)
Lists of record labels
References
External links
Official site for Chrysalis Records at Blue Raincoat Music
Ben Sisario, "Warner Music Group Buys EMI Assets for $765 Million". New York Times, "Media Decoder" blog, 7 February 2013
Discogs page on Chrysalis Records
1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
2005 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
2016 establishments in the United Kingdom
Record labels established in 1968
Record labels disestablished in 2005
Record labels established in 2016
EMI
Defunct record labels of the United Kingdom
Pop record labels
IFPI members
Progressive rock record labels
British independent record labels
Labels distributed by Universal Music Group
Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
British subsidiaries of foreign companies | [
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|
240122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sten | Sten | The STEN (or Sten gun) is a family of British submachine guns chambered in 9×19mm which were used extensively by British and Commonwealth forces throughout World War II and the Korean War. They had a simple design and very low production cost, making them effective insurgency weapons for resistance groups, and they continue to see usage to this day by irregular military forces. The Sten served as the basis for the Sterling submachine gun, which replaced the Sten in British service until the 1990s, when it, and all other submachine guns, were replaced by the SA80.
The Sten is a select fire, blowback-operated weapon and loads its magazine on the left, rather than the bottom, as is the usual configuration. Sten is an acronym, from the names of the weapon's chief designers, Major Reginald V. Shepherd and Harold J. Turpin, and "En" for the Enfield factory.
Over four million Stens in various versions were made in the 1940s, making it the second most produced submachine gun of the Second World War, after the Soviet PPSh-41.
History
The Sten emerged while Britain was engaged in the Battle of Britain, facing invasion by Germany. The army was forced to replace weapons lost during the evacuation from Dunkirk while expanding at the same time. After the start of the war and to 1941 (and even later), the British purchased all the Thompson submachine guns they could from the United States, but these did not meet demand, and Thompsons were expensive, costing $200 in 1939 (and still $70 in 1942), whereas a Sten would turn out to cost only $11. American entry into the war at the end of 1941 placed an even bigger demand on the facilities making Thompsons. In order to rapidly equip a sufficient fighting force to counter the Axis threat, the Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield, was commissioned to produce an alternative.
The credited designers were Major R. V. Shepherd, OBE, Inspector of Armaments in the Ministry of Supply Design Department at The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, (later Assistant Chief Superintendent at the Armaments Design Department) and Harold John Turpin, Senior Draughtsman of the Design Department of the Royal Small Arms Factory (RSAF), Enfield. Shepherd had been recalled to service after having retired and spending some time at the Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA).
The Sten shared design features, such as its side-mounted magazine configuration, with the Lanchester submachine gun being produced at the same time for the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, which was a copy of the German MP28. In terms of manufacture, the Lanchester was entirely different, being made of high-quality materials with pre-war fit and finish, in stark contrast to the Sten's austere execution. The Lanchester and Sten magazines were even interchangeable (though the Lanchester's magazine was longer with a 50-round capacity, compared to the Sten's 32.)
The Sten used simple stamped metal components and minor welding, which required minimal machining and manufacturing. Much of the production could be performed by small workshops, with the firearms assembled at the Enfield site. Over the period of manufacture, the Sten design was further simplified: the most basic model, the Mark III, could be produced from five man-hours of work. Some of the cheapest versions were made from only 47 different parts. The Mark I was a more finely finished weapon with a wooden foregrip and handle; later versions were generally more spartan, although the final version, the Mark V, which was produced after the threat of invasion had died down, was produced to a higher standard.
The Sten underwent various design improvements over the course of the war. For example, the Mark 4 cocking handle and corresponding hole drilled in the receiver were created to lock the bolt in the closed position to reduce the likelihood of unintentional discharges inherent in the design. Most changes to the production process were more subtle, designed to give greater ease of manufacture and increased reliability, and the potentially great differences in build quality contributed to the Sten's reputation as being an unreliable weapon. However, a 1940 report stated that "Exaggerated reports about the unreliability [of the Sten] were usually related to the quality of manufacture. Don Handscombe and his comrades in the Thundersley Patrol of the Auxiliary Units rated them more reliable than the Thompson SMG." Sten guns of late 1942 and beyond were highly effective weapons, though complaints of accidental discharge continued throughout the war.
The Sten was replaced by the Sterling submachine gun from 1953 and was gradually withdrawn from British service in the 1960s. Other Commonwealth nations followed suit, either by creating their own replacements, such as the Australian F1 submachine gun, or adopting foreign designs.
Design
The Sten was a blowback-operated submachine gun firing from an open bolt with a fixed firing pin on the face of the bolt. This means the bolt remains to the rear when the weapon is cocked, and on pulling the trigger the bolt moves forward from spring pressure, stripping the round from the magazine, chambering it and firing the weapon all in the same movement. There is no breech locking mechanism, the rearward movement of the bolt caused by the recoil impulse is arrested only by the mainspring and the bolt's inertia. The German MP40, Russian PPSh-41, and US M3 submachine gun, among others, used the same operating mechanisms and design philosophy of the Sten, namely their low cost and ease of manufacture. Though the MP40 was also built largely for this purpose, Otto Skorzeny went on record saying that he preferred the Sten because it required less raw material to produce, and performed better under adverse combat conditions. The effect of putting lightweight automatic weaponry into the hands of soldiers, greatly increased the short-range firepower of the infantry, especially when the main infantry weapon was a bolt-action rifle capable of only around 15 rounds per minute and not suited for short-range combat. However, the open-bolt firing mechanism, short barrel, and use of pistol ammunition severely restricted accuracy and stopping power, with an effective range of only around , compared to for the Lee–Enfield rifle.
Stoppages could occur for a variety of reasons: some as a result of poor maintenance, while others were particular to the Sten. Carbon buildup on the face of the breech or debris in the bolt raceway could cause a failure to fire, while a dirty chamber could cause a failure to feed. Firing the Sten by grasping the magazine with the supporting hand - contrary to instruction - tended to wear the magazine catch, altering the angle of feed and causing a failure to feed: the correct method of holding the weapon was as with a rifle, the left hand cradling the fore piece.
Additional problems stemmed from the Sten's magazine, which was like the Lanchesters derived from the MP28, originally in order to facilitate the use of that weapon's magazines. Unfortunately, this decision meant incorporating that magazine's faults in the process. The magazine had two columns of 9 mm cartridges in a staggered arrangement, merging at the top to form a single column. While other staggered magazines, such as the Thompson, fed from both the left and right side alternately (known as "double-column, staggered-feed"), the Sten magazine, required the cartridges to gradually merge at the top of the magazine to form a single column ("double column, single feed"). As a consequence, any dirt or foreign matter in this taper area could cause feed malfunctions. Additionally, the walls of the magazine lip had to endure the full stresses of the rounds being pushed in by the spring. This, along with rough handling could result in deformation of the magazine lips (which required a precise 8° feed angle to operate), resulting in misfeeding and a failure to fire. If a Sten failed to feed due to jammed cartridges in the magazine, standard practice to clear it was as follows: remove magazine from Sten, tap the base of the magazine against the knee, re-insert magazine in Sten, then re-cocking the weapon and firing again as normal. To facilitate easier loading when attempting to push the cartridges down to insert the next one, a magazine filler tool was developed and formed part of the weapon's kit.
The slot on the side of the body where the cocking knob ran was also a target of criticism, as the long opening could allow foreign objects to enter. On the other hand, a beneficial side-effect of the Sten's minimalist design was that it would fire without any lubrication. This proved useful in desert environments such as the Western Desert campaign, where lubricating oil retained dust and sand.
The open bolt design combined with cheap manufacture and rudimentary safety devices also meant the weapon was prone to accidental discharges, which proved hazardous. A simple safety could be engaged while the bolt was in the rearwards (cocked) position. However, if a loaded Sten with the bolt in the closed position was dropped, or the butt was knocked against the ground, the bolt could move far enough rearward to pick up a round (but not far enough to be engaged by the trigger mechanism) and the spring pressure could be enough to chamber and fire the round. The Mk. IV's cocking handle was designed to prevent this by enabling the bolt to be locked in its forward position, thereby immobilising it. Wear and manufacturing tolerances could render these safety devices ineffective.
Though the Sten was somewhat prone to malfunction, in the hands of a well-disciplined soldier, who knew what these issues were, and how to avoid them, they were less of a liability as otherwise may be suggested. According to Leroy Thompson, "Troops usually made the conscious choice to keep the Sten with a magazine in place, based on the assumption that they might need it quickly. It might, then, be argued that more troops were saved by having their Sten ready when an enemy was suddenly encountered than were injured by accident. The Sten was more dangerous to its users than most infantry weapons, but all weapons are dangerous."
Variants
Sten guns were produced in several basic marks, of which nearly half of the total produced consisted of the Mark II variant. Approximately 4.5 million Stens were produced during the Second World War.
Mark I
The first ever Mk I Sten gun (number 'T-40/1' indicating its originator Harold Turpin, the year 1940 and the serial number "1") was handmade by Turpin at the Philco Radio works at Perivale, Middlesex during December 1940/January 1941. This particular weapon is held by the historical weapons collection of the British Army's Infantry and Small Arms School Corps in Warminster, Wiltshire.
The Mark I had a conical flash hider and fine finish. The foregrip, forward handle and some of the stock were made of wood. The stock consisted of a small tube, similar to the Mark II Canadian. A design choice that was only present on the Mark I was that the pistol grip could be rotated forward to make it easier to stow. 100,000 Mark I Stens were made before production was moved to the Mark II. Mark I Stens in German possession were designated MP 748(e), the 'e' standing for englisch.
Mark I*
To simplify production of the Mark I, the foregrip, wooden furniture and flash hider were removed with this variant.
Mark II
The Mark II was the most common variant, with two million units produced. The flash eliminator and the folding handle (the grip) of the Mk I were omitted. A removable barrel was now provided which projected beyond the barrel sleeve. Also, a special catch allowed the magazine to be slid partly out of the magazine housing and the housing rotated 90 degrees counter-clockwise (from the operator's perspective), together covering the ejection opening and allowing the weapon and magazine both to lie flat on its side.
The barrel sleeve was shorter and rather than having small holes on the top, it had three sets of three holes equally spaced on the shroud. To allow a soldier to hold a Sten by the hot barrel sleeve with the supporting hand, an insulating lace-on leather sleeve guard was sometimes issued. Sten Mk II's in German possession were designated MP 749(e). Some Mk IIs had wooden stocks. The Spz-kr assault rifle, a rudimentary German design made in the closing stages of the war, used the receiver and components from the Sten Mk II, and the MP 3008 was made as a cheap copy.
Overall length:
Barrel length:
Weight:
Mark II (Canadian)
During World War II a version of the Sten gun was produced at the Long Branch Arsenal in Long Branch, Ontario (now part of Toronto). This was very similar to the regular Mark II, with a different stock ('skeleton' type instead of strut type). It was first used in combat in the Dieppe Raid in 1942.
The Mark II is made in China with a copy known as the M38. The Chinese M38s were made in an automatic-only configuration, unlike the standard Mark II. The M38 was made in 9×19mm and 7.62×25mm Tokarev variants.
Overall length:
Barrel length:
Weight:
Mark III
After the Mark II, this was the most produced variant of the Sten, manufactured in Canada alongside the United Kingdom, with Lines Bros Ltd being the largest producer. The Mark III was made of 48 parts, compared to the Mark II's 69, but the Mark II remained more commonplace for logistical reasons – parts between the two were not interchangeable. Though slightly lighter, the magazine well was fixed in place, and the barrel could not be removed, meaning if it was damaged the weapon had to be scrapped. Combined with the fact the Mark III was more prone to failure than the Mark II, production of the weapon ceased in September 1943. Unlike the Mark II, the receiver, ejection port, and barrel shroud were unified, leading to them being extended further up the barrel. Captured Sten Mk III's in German possession were designated MP 750(e). A total of 876,886 Mark III's were produced.
Mark V
The Mark V added a bayonet mount, and a wooden pistol grip and stock. There was a No. 4 Lee–Enfield rear sight and the weapon was of better quality manufacture and finish than the Mk II and Mk III.
Another variant of the Mk V had a swivel stock and rear sight mirror intended for firing around corners in urban warfare, similar to the Krummlauf developed by the Germans for the StG 44.
Suppressed models
Mk II(S) and Mk VI models incorporated an integral suppressor and had a lower muzzle velocity than the others due to a ported barrel intended to reduce velocity to below the speed of sound – – without needing special ammunition. The suppressor heated up rapidly when the weapon was fired, and a canvas cover was laced around the suppressor for protection for the firer's supporting hand.
Mk II(S) Designed in 1943, the Mk II(S) ("Special-Purpose") was an integrally suppressed version of the Mk II. Captured examples of the Sten Mk II(S) in German service were designated MP 751(e).
Mk VI The Mk VI was a suppressed version of the Mk V. The Mk VI was the heaviest version due to the added weight of the suppressor, as well as using a wooden pistol grip and stock.
The suppressed models were produced at the request of the Special Operations Executive (SOE) for use in clandestine operations in occupied Europe, starting with the Mk II(S) in 1943. Owing to their tendency to overheat, they were fired in short bursts or single shots. Some guns were even changed to semi-automatic only.
In addition to its use in the European theatre, the Mk II(S) saw service with clandestine units in the Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA) such as the Services Reconnaissance Department and SOE's Force 136 on operations against the Imperial Japanese Army. The Sten Mk II(S) was used by the Operation Jaywick party during their raid into Japanese-occupied Singapore Harbour.
The Sten Mk II(S) also saw service with the Special Air Service Regiment during the Vietnam War.
Experimental models
Mark II (wooden stock model) This was a standard Sten Mk.II with a wooden stock attached in place of the wireframe steel stock used with Mk.IIs. This wooden stock model was never put into service; likely due to the cost of producing it.
Mark II (Rosciszewski model) This was a Sten Mk.II modified by Antoni Rosciszewski of Small Arms Ltd. The magazine was mechanically operated by the breech block movement. The trigger was split into two sections, with the upper part of the trigger offering full-auto fire and a lower part offering single shots. It was very complex in design and never fielded.
Mark II (pistol grip model) This was a Sten Mk.II with a wireframe pistol grip, intended for use with paratroopers. It was compact but predictably uncomfortable to fire.
Model T42 This was a Sten Mk.II modified with a 5-inch barrel and folding stock, as well as a conventional pistol grip and redesigned trigger guard. It was dubbed the "T42" in prototype phases, but never entered service.
Mark IV The Mark IV was a smaller variant of the Sten, comparable in size to a pistol, and never left the prototype stage. It used a conical flash hider, a shortened barrel, and a much lighter stock.
Rofsten Developed at the Royal Ordnance Factory at Fazakerley (ROF), the Rofsten was an odd Sten prototype with a redesigned magazine feed, ergonomic pistol grip, selector switch and cocking system. The weapon was cocked by pulling the small ring above the stock. A large flash eliminator was fixed onto the barrel, and a No.5 bayonet could be fixed. It was made to a very high quality standard and had an increased rate of fire (around 900 rounds per minute). The Rofsten was made in 1944 as a single prototype and ROF wanted to submit it to trials the next year. Despite better quality there were numerous reliability problems due to the much higher rate of fire. The budget cuts prevented the modifications and this version never got beyond the prototype stage.
Foreign-built variants and post-1945 derivatives
Argentina Sten MkIIs were licence-copied in Argentina by Pistola Hispano Argentino and can be recognised with a wooden handguard in front of the trigger group. It was known as the Modelo C.4. Another variant came with a pistol grip section based on the Ballester–Molina .45 pistol.
Israel Copies of the Sten Mk II and Sten Mk V were clandestinely manufactured in Tel Aviv and on various kibbutzim in 1945-48 for use with Haganah and other Jewish paramilitary groups. The Halcon ML-57 was a simpler derivative of the Sten gun of Argentine origin that was fed from a vertically inserted magazine.
France The French "Gnome et Rhône" R5 Sten, manufactured by the motorbike and aeroplane engine manufacturer Gnome et Rhône (SNECMA), came with a forward pistol grip and distinctive wooden stock, although its greatest improvement was a sliding bolt safety, added to secure the bolt in its forward position. Another variant made by MAC (Manufacture d’armes de Châtellerault), were made and tested shortly after WWII. One variant had an unusual stock shape that proved detrimental to the firer's aim. Internally it was basically a Sten gun but had two triggers for semi/full auto, a grip safety and a foregrip that used MP40 magazines. Another had a folding stock with a folding magazine insert. The trigger mechanism was complicated and unusual. Neither of these prototypes had any kind of success and MAC closed its doors not long after their conception. The French were not short of SMGs after the war; they had some 3,750 Thompsons and Stens, as well as MAS 38s.
Norway The Norwegian resistance, under the leadership of Bror With, created a large number of Sten guns from scratch, mainly to equip members of the underground army Milorg. In his autobiography, Norwegian resistance fighter Max Manus frequently mentions the Sten as one of the weapons his groups of commandos and resistance fighters used effectively against German troops.
Denmark Several groups in the Danish resistance movement manufactured Sten guns for their own use. BOPA produced around 200 in a bicycle repair shop on Gammel Køge landevej (Old Køge road), south of Copenhagen. Holger Danske produced about 150 in workshops in Copenhagen, while employees of the construction company Monberg & Thorsen built approximately 200–300 in what is now the municipality of Gladsaxe (a suburb of Copenhagen) for use by Holger Danske and others. The resistance groups 'Frit Danmark' and 'Ringen' also built significant numbers of Stens.
Poland From 1942 and 1944, approximately 11,000 Sten Mk IIs were delivered to the Armia Krajowa by the SOE and Cichociemni. Because of the simplicity of the design, local production of Sten variants was started in at least 23 underground workshops in Poland, with some producing copies of the Mark II, and others developing their own designs, namely the Polski Sten, Błyskawica and KIS. Polski Stens made in Warsaw under the command of Ryszard Białostocki were built from parts made in official factories, with the main body of the design being made from hydraulic cylinders produced for hospital equipment. To help disguise their origin, the Polski Stens were marked in English.
Belgium A little known version of the MkII Sten was built in Belgium by l'arsenale militare belga (the Belgian military arsenal). The magazine well was stamped AsArm (the manufacturer), ABL (for Armée Belge Belgisch Leger), the Belgian Royal Crown and a serial number of typically five figure with no letter prefix. It is believed the Belgian built Mk II Stens remained in ABL service until the early 1980s, particularly with helicopter-borne forces. Some of the weapons had a "Parkerised" finish. After the Second World War the Belgian Army was mainly equipped with a mixture of British and American submachine guns. The army, wanting to replace them with a modern and preferably native design, tested various designs with the Vigneron M2 and licence-produced FN Uzi being selected. However, the Imperia was an improved Sten with a fire selector and retractable stock.
Germany In late 1944, Mauser began to produce copies of the Mk II Sten for sabotage purposes. The series was referred to as the Gerät Potsdam (Potsdam Device) and almost 10,000 weapons were made. By 1945, Germany was seeking a cheaper replacement for the MP40 submachine gun to issue to the Volkssturm. Mauser produced a modified Sten, named the MP 3008. The main difference was that the magazine attached below the weapon. Altogether, roughly 10,000 were produced in early 1945, just before the end of World War II.
Australia The Mark I Austen submachine gun ("Australian Sten") was an Australian design, derived from the Sten and manufactured by the Lithgow Small Arms Factory. It externally resembled the Sten but had twin pistol grips and folding stock resembling those of the German MP40. Australian and NZ troops however preferred the Owen gun which was more reliable and robust in jungle warfare. A Mk 2 version was also produced which was of different appearance and which made more use of die-cast components. 20,000 Austens were made during the war and the Austen was replaced by the F1 submachine gun in the 1960s.
United States A short-lived American invention developed in the 1980s, the Sputter Gun was designed to circumvent the law that defined a machine gun as something that fired multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger. The Sputter Gun had no trigger, but fired continuously after loading and the pulling back of its bolt, firing until it ran out of ammunition. The gun was very short lived as the ATF quickly reclassified it. During the 1970s-1980s, International Ordnance of San Antonio, Texas, United States released the MP2 machine pistol. It was intended as a more compact, simpler derivative of the British Sten gun to be used in urban guerrilla actions, to be manufactured cheaply and/or in less-than-well-equipped workshops and distributed to "friendly" undercover forces. Much like the FP-45 Liberator pistol of World War II, it could be discarded during an escape with no substantial loss for the force's arsenal. The MP2 is a blowback-operated weapon that fires from an open bolt with an extremely high rate of fire.
Guatemala The SM-9 is a machine pistol of Guatemalan origin and manufactured by Cellini-Dunn IMG, Military Research Corp and Wildfire Munitions as the SM-90. It is blowback operated, firing from an open bolt and can use magazines from Ingram MAC-10 submachine guns inserted into a similar foregrip that can be rotated 45 and 90 degrees for left/right handed operators. The layout of the receiver is somewhat simpler than that of a Sten with its internal components light in weight enabling a very high rate of fire of 1200rpm. Its forward pistol grip can hold a spare magazine as well as handling the weapon when firing.
Croatia The Pleter submachine gun was created in 1991 when the breakup of Yugoslavia in the midst of emerging war left the newly formed Republic of Croatia with small number of military firearms. Since the embargo prevented the Croatian military from legally buying them on open market (so they were mostly obtained on the world black market, but with significantly higher price and sometimes of questionable quality), to fulfill the immediate need for arms, they tried to resort on quick and simple locally made designs. Despite having a vertical magazine well (designed to accept 32-round staggered-feed direct copy of UZI magazine, rather than original single-feed Sten-type magazine), analogies with the Sten include a striking resemblance in the barrel assembly and in the bolt and recoil spring. In addition, this gun also fires from an open bolt, and is further simplified by removing fire mode selector or any safety.
Canada SMG International in Canada manufactured reproductions of the Sten in six variants. They made copies of the Sten's Mk 1*, Mk II and Mk III, a "New Zealand Sten" (a Mk II/III Sten hybrid, with sights and a fixed magazine housing similar to the Mk III), then branched out into "hypothetical" Sten-guns with a "Rotary Magazine Sten" (a Mk II Sten with a drum magazine attached below the weapon and wooden horizontal forward grip on the left side of the weapon) and the "FRT Gun" (a long barrel Sten with a wooden or Mk 1* type butt stock, a drum magazine attached below the weapon and sliding ramp rear sights). These last two being obviously not Sten reproductions, especially if they included a drum magazine. The "Rotary Magazine Sten" is a vertically fed Sten which uses a modified Sten bolt, which can use either PPSh drum magazines or stick magazines. The FRT gun is essentially a Suomi that uses a Sten trigger mechanism. All SaskSten guns fire from an open bolt.
Service
The Sten, especially the Mark II, tended to attract affection and loathing in equal measure. Its peculiar appearance when compared to other firearms of the era, combined with sometimes questionable reliability made it unpopular with some front-line troops. It gained nicknames such as "Plumber's Nightmare", "Plumber's Abortion", or "Stench Gun". The Sten's advantage was its ease of mass-production manufacture in a time of shortage during a major conflict.
Made by a variety of manufacturers, often with subcontracted parts, some early Sten guns were made poorly and/or not to specification, and could malfunction in operation, sometimes in combat. The double-column, single-feed magazine copied from the German MP28 was never completely satisfactory, and hasty manufacturing processes often exacerbated the misfeed problems inherent in the design. A common statement heard from British forces at the time was that the Sten was made "by Marks and Spencer out of Woolworth." British and Commonwealth forces in the early years of the war often extensively test-fired their weapons in training to weed out bad examples; a last-minute issue of newly manufactured Stens prior to going into action was not always welcomed.
The MK II and III Stens were regarded by many soldiers as very temperamental, and could accidentally discharge if dropped or even laid on the ground whilst the gun was cocked. Others would fire full-automatic when placed on 'single', or fire single shots when placed on 'automatic'. This was particularly true of early Stens using bronze bolts, where the sear projection underneath the bolt could wear down more easily than ones made of case-hardened steel.
Stens could jam at inopportune moments. One of the more notable instances of this was the assassination of SS–Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich on 27 May 1942, when Czechoslovak Warrant Officer Jozef Gabčík wanted to fire his Sten point blank at Heydrich, only to have it misfire. His comrade Jan Kubiš then hastily tossed a grenade, which mortally wounded Heydrich. There are other accounts of the Sten's unreliability, some of them true, some exaggerated and some apocryphal. France manufactured (well-made) Sten copies postwar into the early 1950s, evidently believing in the basic reliability and durability of the design.
A well-maintained (and properly functioning) Sten gun was a devastating close-range weapon for sections previously armed only with bolt-action rifles. In addition to regular British and Commonwealth military service, Stens were air-dropped in quantity to resistance fighters and partisans throughout occupied Europe. Due to their slim profile and ease of disassembly/reassembly, they were good for concealment and guerrilla warfare. Wrapping the barrel in wet rags would delay undesirable overheating of the barrel. Guerrilla fighters in Europe became adept at repairing, modifying and eventually scratch-building clones of the Sten (over 2,000 Stens and about 500 of the similar Błyskawica SMGs were manufactured in occupied Poland).
Canadian infantry battalions in northwest Europe retained spare Sten guns for special missions and the Canadian Army reported a surplus of the weapons in 1944.
The Sten saw use even after the economic crunch of World War II, replacing the Royal Navy's Lanchester submachine guns into the 1960s, and was used in the Korean War, including specialist versions for British Commandos. It was slowly withdrawn from British Army service in the 1960s and replaced by the Sterling SMG; Canada also phased out the Sten, replacing it with the C1 SMG.
The Sten was one of the few weapons that the State of Israel could produce domestically during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Even before the declaration of the State of Israel, the Yishuv had been producing Stens for the Haganah; after the declaration, Israel continued making Stens for IDF use. The opposing side also used (mostly British-made) Stens, particularly the irregular and semi-regular Arab Liberation Army.
In the 1950s, "L numbering" came into use in the British Army for weapons—Stens were then known as L50 (Mk II), L51 (Mk III) and L52 (Mk V).
One of the last times the Sten was used in combat during British service was with the RUC during the IRA border campaign of 1956–1962. In foreign service, the Sten was used in combat at least as recently as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.
In 1971, various marks of Stens were used by guerrilla fighters during the Bangladesh Liberation War.
A number of suppressed Stens were in limited use by the US Special Forces during the Vietnam War, including c. 1971, by the United States Army Rangers.
In 1984, Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her bodyguards, one of whom fired the entire magazine (30 rounds) of his Sten at point-blank range, of which 27 hit her.
In the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, both nationalists and communist Chinese forces used the Sten. Some Stens were converted by the communists to 7.62×25mm by using the magazine housing from a PPS to accept curved PPS magazines. British, Canadian, and Chinese Stens were seen in the hands of the communists during the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
The Finnish Army acquired moderate numbers of Stens in the late 1950s, mainly Mk. III versions. Refurbishment at the Kuopio Arsenal included bluing of the arms. Stens in Finnish service saw limited usage by conscripts (notably combat swimmers) and were mostly stockpiled for use in a future mobilization.
During the Zapatista movement in 1994, some Zapatista soldiers were armed with Sten guns.
Users
: Used by the Albanian National Liberation Army during World War II. The weapons were supplied by the British SOE.
FNLA
: Modelo C.4..
: Locally produced during World War II.
: Extensively used during 1971 war.
: Locally produced during World War II.
: Central African Republic Police had 10 Stens in 1963
Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)
: Fidel Castro praised the Canadian Sten gun in his 1958 interview with Erik Durschmied
: Most used by communist forces had their Stens converted to 7.62x25 caliber.
: Used by Czechoslovak troops for Operation Anthropoid, the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. The gun jammed and failed to fire.
: Used by the Danish resistance movements like BOPA and Holger Danske. Locally produced.
: 76 115 MK 2s and 3s bought in 1957–1958; used until replaced by assault rifles.
: Used during World War II by the Free French forces, the French Resistance and some captured from the Resistance were used by the pro-German Milice française. Still used after World War II.
: Used in the 1947–1949 Palestine war and the Suez Crisis.
Sten guns were supplied to the Italian resistance movement by the SOE, along with the United Defense M42 submachine gun supplied by the OSS during the Italian Campaign. These guns, along with the Berretta M38A, were used by the Italian partisans until the end of World War II.
: Arab Legion
L: Used by the regular police paramilitary GSU, army paratroopers; replaced by G3A3/4, M4 and HK416.
Kingdom of Laos: Used by the Royal Lao Army and the CIA-sponsored irregular Special Guerrilla Groups during the Laotian Civil War.
: Used by Royal Malaysia Police, Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Navy and Malaysian Prison Department in 1950s to 1970s.
: Retired.
: Still in service in 2006.
: Used some captured Stens during World War II, under the designations MP 748 (e) for the Mark I to MP 751 (e) for the Mark V. From late 1944, they produced an almost identical copy for home defence: the MP 3008.
: Used by the Norwegian resistance from 1940–1945. The guns came to the resistance groups by air (supply drops). Used by the Army after the war.
: Used by the Recognized Guerrilla Units during World War II.
: Used by Polish Armed Forces in the West and main resistance army in occupied Poland, the Armia Krajowa (Home Army). The majority of the resistance's Stens were dropped to Poland in SOE supply drops, but some of the Polish Stens were produced in the occupied country. Polish engineers also designed their own Sten version, the Błyskawica submachine gun. After the war, it was used by many anti-communist partisan groups (cursed soldiers).
: Known as m/43.
: Used by SWAPOL during the South African Border War.
: The Tibetan Army purchased 168 guns in 1950.
: Suppressed Stens used during the Vietnam War by American special forces.
: Việt Minh and Viet Cong
: Used by the Yugoslav Partisans and Chetniks. Also used after the war.
Non-state groups
The Provisional IRA and Official IRA
The Ulster Volunteer Force and Ulster Freedom Fighters
Balcombe Street Gang
The Angry Brigade
Notes
References
External links
"Sten Gun to be forerunner of invasion" September 1943 detailed article in Popular Science
Complete machinist's plans to manufacture a Sten Mk II
Sten at Modern Firearms
9mm Parabellum submachine guns
Insurgency weapons
Simple blowback firearms
Submachine guns of the United Kingdom
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1941
World War II infantry weapons of Australia
World War II infantry weapons of China
World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom
World War II submachine guns | [
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240123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticity%20%28physics%29 | Plasticity (physics) | In physics and materials science, plasticity, also known as plastic deformation, is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is known as yielding.
Plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals, soils, rocks, concrete, and foams. However, the physical mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary widely. At a crystalline scale, plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations. Such defects are relatively rare in most crystalline materials, but are numerous in some and part of their crystal structure; in such cases, plastic crystallinity can result. In brittle materials such as rock, concrete and bone, plasticity is caused predominantly by slip at microcracks. In cellular materials such as liquid foams or biological tissues, plasticity is mainly a consequence of bubble or cell rearrangements, notably T1 processes.
For many ductile metals, tensile loading applied to a sample will cause it to behave in an elastic manner. Each increment of load is accompanied by a proportional increment in extension. When the load is removed, the piece returns to its original size. However, once the load exceeds a threshold – the yield strength – the extension increases more rapidly than in the elastic region; now when the load is removed, some degree of extension will remain.
Elastic deformation, however, is an approximation and its quality depends on the time frame considered and loading speed. If, as indicated in the graph opposite, the deformation includes elastic deformation, it is also often referred to as "elasto-plastic deformation" or "elastic-plastic deformation".
Perfect plasticity is a property of materials to undergo irreversible deformation without any increase in stresses or loads. Plastic materials that have been hardened by prior deformation, such as cold forming, may need increasingly higher stresses to deform further. Generally, plastic deformation is also dependent on the deformation speed, i.e. higher stresses usually have to be applied to increase the rate of deformation. Such materials are said to deform visco-plastically.
Contributing properties
The plasticity of a material is directly proportional to the ductility and malleability of the material.
Physical mechanisms
In metals
Plasticity in a crystal of pure metal is primarily caused by two modes of deformation in the crystal lattice: slip and twinning. Slip is a shear deformation which moves the atoms through many interatomic distances relative to their initial positions. Twinning is the plastic deformation which takes place along two planes due to a set of forces applied to a given metal piece.
Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold. Lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot.
Slip systems
Crystalline materials contain uniform planes of atoms organized with long-range order. Planes may slip past each other along their close-packed directions, as is shown on the slip systems page. The result is a permanent change of shape within the crystal and plastic deformation. The presence of dislocations increases the likelihood of planes.
Reversible plasticity
On the nanoscale the primary plastic deformation in simple face-centered cubic metals is reversible, as long as there is no material transport in form of cross-slip. Shape-memory alloys such as Nitinol wire also exhibit a reversible form of plasticity which is more properly called pseudoelasticity.
Shear banding
The presence of other defects within a crystal may entangle dislocations or otherwise prevent them from gliding. When this happens, plasticity is localized to particular regions in the material. For crystals, these regions of localized plasticity are called shear bands.
Microplasticity
Microplasticity is a local phenomenon in metals. It occurs for stress values where the metal is globally in the elastic domain while some local areas are in the plastic domain.
Amorphous materials
Crazing
In amorphous materials, the discussion of "dislocations" is inapplicable, since the entire material lacks long range order. These materials can still undergo plastic deformation. Since amorphous materials, like polymers, are not well-ordered, they contain a large amount of free volume, or wasted space. Pulling these materials in tension opens up these regions and can give materials a hazy appearance. This haziness is the result of crazing, where fibrils are formed within the material in regions of high hydrostatic stress. The material may go from an ordered appearance to a "crazy" pattern of strain and stretch marks.
Cellular materials
These materials plastically deform when the bending moment exceeds the fully plastic moment. This applies to open cell foams where the bending moment is exerted on the cell walls. The foams can be made of any material with a plastic yield point which includes rigid polymers and metals. This method of modeling the foam as beams is only valid if the ratio of the density of the foam to the density of the matter is less than 0.3. This is because beams yield axially instead of bending. In closed cell foams, the yield strength is increased if the material is under tension because of the membrane that spans the face of the cells.
Soils and sand
Soils, particularly clays, display a significant amount of inelasticity under load. The causes of plasticity in soils can be quite complex and are strongly dependent on the microstructure, chemical composition, and water content. Plastic behavior in soils is caused primarily by the rearrangement of clusters of adjacent grains.
Rocks and concrete
Inelastic deformations of rocks and concrete are primarily caused by the formation of microcracks and sliding motions relative to these cracks. At high temperatures and pressures, plastic behavior can also be affected by the motion of dislocations in individual grains in the microstructure.
Mathematical descriptions
Deformation theory
There are several mathematical descriptions of plasticity. One is deformation theory (see e.g. Hooke's law) where the Cauchy stress tensor (of order d-1 in d dimensions) is a function of the strain tensor. Although this description is accurate when a small part of matter is subjected to increasing loading (such as strain loading), this theory cannot account for irreversibility.
Ductile materials can sustain large plastic deformations without fracture. However, even ductile metals will fracture when the strain becomes large enough—this is as a result of work hardening of the material, which causes it to become brittle. Heat treatment such as annealing can restore the ductility of a worked piece, so that shaping can continue.
Flow plasticity theory
In 1934, Egon Orowan, Michael Polanyi and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor, roughly simultaneously, realized that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained in terms of the theory of dislocations. The mathematical theory of plasticity, flow plasticity theory, uses a set of non-linear, non-integrable equations to describe the set of changes on strain and stress with respect to a previous state and a small increase of deformation.
Yield criteria
If the stress exceeds a critical value, as was mentioned above, the material will undergo plastic, or irreversible, deformation. This critical stress can be tensile or compressive. The Tresca and the von Mises criteria are commonly used to determine whether a material has yielded. However, these criteria have proved inadequate for a large range of materials and several other yield criteria are also in widespread use.
Tresca criterion
The Tresca criterion is based on the notion that when a material fails, it does so in shear, which is a relatively good assumption when considering metals. Given the principal stress state, we can use Mohr's circle to solve for the maximum shear stresses our material will experience and conclude that the material will fail if
where σ1 is the maximum normal stress, σ3 is the minimum normal stress, and σ0 is the stress under which the material fails in uniaxial loading. A yield surface may be constructed, which provides a visual representation of this concept. Inside of the yield surface, deformation is elastic. On the surface, deformation is plastic. It is impossible for a material to have stress states outside its yield surface.
Huber–von Mises criterion
The Huber–von Mises criterion is based on the Tresca criterion but takes into account the assumption that hydrostatic stresses do not contribute to material failure. M. T. Huber was the first who proposed the criterion of shear energy. Von Mises solves for an effective stress under uniaxial loading, subtracting out hydrostatic stresses, and states that all effective stresses greater than that which causes material failure in uniaxial loading will result in plastic deformation.
Again, a visual representation of the yield surface may be constructed using the above equation, which takes the shape of an ellipse. Inside the surface, materials undergo elastic deformation. Reaching the surface means the material undergoes plastic deformations.
See also
Atterberg limits
Plastometer
Poisson's ratio
References
Further reading
Solid mechanics
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240126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.hack//Sign | .hack//Sign | .hack//Sign (stylized as .hack//SIGN) is an anime television series directed by Kōichi Mashimo, and produced by studio Bee Train and Bandai Visual, that makes up one of the four original storylines for the .hack franchise. Twenty-six original episodes aired in 2002 on television and three additional bonus ones were released on DVD as original video animation. The series features each characters designed by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, and written by Kazunori Itō. The score was composed by Yuki Kajiura, marking her second collaboration with Mashimo.
The series is influenced by psychological and sociological subjects, such as anxiety, escapism and interpersonal relationships. The series focuses on a Wavemaster (magic user) named Tsukasa, a player character in a virtual reality massively multiplayer online role-playing game called The World. He wakes up to find himself in a dungeon in The World, but he suffers from short-term memory loss as he wonders where he is and how he got there. The situation gets worse when he discovers he is trapped in the game and cannot log out. From then on, along with other players, Tsukasa embarks on a quest to find the truth behind his abnormal situation.
The series premiered in Japan on TV Tokyo from April 4 to September 25, 2002. It was broadcast across East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia and Latin America, by the anime television network, Animax, and across the United States, Nigeria, Canada and United Kingdom, by Cartoon Network, YTV and AnimeCentral (English and Japanese) respectively. It was distributed across North America by Bandai.
The storyline moves at a leisurely pace, and has multiple layers — the viewer is often fed false information and red herrings, potentially leading to confusion until the true nature of events is unveiled towards the end of the series. It relies on character development and has few action scenes; most of the time character interaction is presented in the form of dialogue. English language reception to the series has been generally positive, but some of these sources have negatively criticised the series as a result of its slow pacing and character-driven storyline.
Synopsis
Setting
The series is set in a fictional 2009, introducing a computer virus called Pluto's Kiss as the cause of a massive Internet shutdown. The results are described as catastrophic: traffic lights shut down, planes collide in midair, and the American nuclear missiles are nearly launched. As a consequence, cyberspace is subjected to severe restrictions. The virus affects all operating systems except for one, Altimit OS, the only operating system immune to all computer viruses.
Two years later free access to the networks recovers, bringing with it the release of The World: the first online game since Pluto's Kiss, developed for Altimit OS. The World is portrayed as a fantasy setting wherein player characters can be different classes, adventure by themselves to go searching through dungeons or join with others and form parties, fight monsters and level up, collect new items and participate in special events. At the center of each server is a Root Town, which contain shops, a save point, and the Chaos Gate that players use to travel between servers in the game.
Harald Hoerwick is introduced as the creator of The World. He secretly designed the game as a virtual womb in order to create the ultimate artificial intelligence (AI), by receiving emotional and psychological data from the players. His motivation is revealed to be the death of Emma Wielant, a German poet with whom he was in love; the AI, who was named Aura, would serve as the "daughter" they never had. Harald left the gathering of the required data for Aura's development at the care of the core system of The World itself, an omnipresent AI called Morganna Mode Gone. The storyline of .hack//Sign, set in early 2010, revolves around the premise of Morganna attempting to stall the growth of Aura indefinitely, after realizing that she will lose her purpose once Aura is complete.
Plot
The series follows the story about Tsukasa being mind-trapped into the game. Despite being a "fantasy quest type adventure", it does not rely on action sequences. Instead, the show is driven by mystery, slowly revealing its secrets to the viewer while paying much attention to the individual characters. Questions like what happened to Tsukasa in the real world, who he really is, and why he cannot log out are driving points of the story.
Soon after the beginning of the series, Tsukasa is led to a hidden area. There he meets Morganna, depicted as a voice without physical appearance, and Aura, who appears as a young girl clad entirely in white, floating asleep above a bed. The storyline introduces Morganna as an ally, but her real intentions are unknown at this point.
As the story progresses many characters are introduced, some who want to help, some who have ulterior motives. Then more questions arise as to "what is happening in the game itself, who are these various characters, what are their true goals and what will happen to Tsukasa". All the while he is seen struggling with his increasingly dire situation as well as his own social and emotional shortcomings. Tsukasa isolates himself, but eventually he begins to get closer to other players, and builds strong relationships with some of them; the most important is the one born between him and Subaru, a kind and thoughtful female Heavy Axeman.
In the meantime, the series follows the quest for the , a legendary item rumored to have the ability to bypass the system in The World. Some characters want the Key to gain the power this supposedly confers. Others believe the item will provide Tsukasa with a way to log out. Despite their reasons for seeking it, everyone agrees that it is related to Tsukasa in some way, as he is also a factor bypassing the system in the game. His body being in a coma in the real world adds a sense of urgency to the quest.
Near the end of the series, Tsukasa's real-life identity takes a more central place in the storyline, particularly in relation to his growing bond with Subaru. The series shows his fear and insecurity as he confesses to her that he is probably a girl in the real world. It is also at this point when Tsukasa is told Morganna's plan by a highly skilled hacker called Helba. Morganna conceived the plan to link Aura to a character who could corrupt her with negative emotional data, placing her in a state where she would never awaken. The chosen character was Tsukasa, as his mind was filled with distressful memories of his real life. Helba also suggests that when Aura is able to awaken, "the Key of the Twilight will take form".
The story reaches the climax, when Tsukasa confronts Morganna. He declares that he is no longer afraid of her or of reality, and will log out because there is someone he wants to see. This statement triggers Aura's awakening, allowing Tsukasa to log out. The last scenes feature an emotional encounter between Tsukasa's real-life self, who is shown to actually be a girl, and the real-life player behind Subaru.
Characters
The primary characters in the series are Tsukasa, BT, Bear, Mimiru and Subaru (as depicted in the intro of the series).
Tsukasa is the protagonist of the story and plays a Wavemaster. At the start of the series he is seen waking up to find himself trapped in The World, unable to log out. He is initially depicted as a cynical introvert who tends to avoid others as much as possible, but his character development shows him growing to realize there are people who care about him. One of these people is Subaru, a female Heavy Axeman introduced as the leader of the Crimson Knights, a player organization designed to fight injustice (such as player killing) in The World. Most of the time Subaru is the only character preventing the Crimson Knights from running wild; she knows that they must be restrained from abusing their power. She eventually joins in the search of a way to help Tsukasa, and builds a close relationship with him.
Also close to Tsukasa is Mimiru, a Heavy Blade who is poor at planning things out and following through on them. She is the first player to meet Tsukasa, and later forms a bond with him and vows to protect him. She usually hangs out with Bear, trying to solve the mystery of Tsukasa's inability to log out. Bear is an older player of the game and plays a Blademaster. He appears as cool and collected, always willing to help out newbies. He also conducts research in the real world on Tsukasa. One of Bear's acquaintances is BT, a plotting and scheming Wavemaster.
BT teams up with Crim and Sora to find the Key of the Twilight. Crim is a powerful Long Arm, friend of Subaru who founded the Crimson Knights organization with her, but afterwards left it as he found it did not match his personality. Amiable, easygoing and sociable; he prefers to keep the real world and the game separate. Crim's stated goal when playing is simply to have fun, although he never turns down a chance to help somebody in need. Sora is a Twin Blade player killer who enjoys hunting players down, especially attractive female ones, and demanding their Member Addresses in exchange for their lives. He sees Tsukasa as the strongest link to the Key of the Twilight, and starts working with BT in the quest for it.
Concept and design
The project development began in early 2000 as a joint effort between Bandai and CyberConnect2, with the original idea of producing an online game. In online games people can interact with each other and create their own stories. The producers wanted to design a game that would offer the players the same experience, but they later thought it would be more appealing with its own storyline, like in standard offline role-playing video game. According to Daisuke Uchiyama, sub-leader of Bandai's video game planning department, the result was a challenge to the RPG genre itself: an offline RPG, entitled .hack, set in a simulated MMORPG named The World.
For The World'''s design, writer Kazunori Ito did an extensive research on online games available at the time: the staff played titles such as Phantasy Star Online, Final Fantasy XI, and Ultima Online. Nevertheless, according to Hiroshi Matsuyama (president of CyberConnect2), they were not actively looking to make the fictional game seem like a real-life one. Instead, the idea was to create a "gigantic game system that, if the CC Corporation (the creators of The World in the game) actually existed, it would make sense for them to be behind" [emphasis added]; a game described by Matsuyama as largely "futuristic and alien".
As the project started shortly before the PlayStation 2's release, the authors seized the opportunity to make the .hack game on the new platform. This decision allowed them to develop into unexpected directions. Shin Unozawa, general manager of Bandai's game department, suggested dividing the game into four parts and release them in three-month intervals. The idea being to follow the four panel manga style as well as to keep sales constant throughout the year. Taking advantage of the PlayStation 2's capability to read DVD-Video, the authors also decided making an OVA series (.hack//Liminality) comprised by four episodes, one to go with each game. Nevertheless, they still felt the need to bolster the project with something more, therefore they decided to produce .hack//Sign, a TV show timed to air with the first game's release. For Kōichi Mashimo it was a hectic schedule: he was directing both animated projects, and was also in the midst of developing the Noir anime series.
Imagery
The virtual environment depicted in .hack//Sign draws on medieval imagery: settings range from a Venice-like city to a Gothic stone church, passing by settlements such as villages and castles; the series' scenery shows examples of Celtic art. Natural landscapes such as forests and tundras complete the setting design, which overall displays the fantasy theme seen in most MMORPGs.
Sadamoto's character designs follow the fantasy theme as well, drawing influence from the sword and sorcery subgenre in particular. Character designs also draw on Celtic imagery: Director Mashimo acknowledged similarities between Bear's design and Mel Gibson in his role as William Wallace, an example of Celtic warrior. All the characters are given distinctive patterns resembling tattoos, the visual representation of a fictional gameplay aspect called Wave.
In contrast with The World's scenery, real-world sequences are minimalist in their presentation. They display faces frequently obscured by shadows or hidden by extreme angles. The dialogue is not heard, but shown through title cards: when someone speaks the screen blacks out and a line of red or blue text appears with the dialogue. The combination of visual and acoustic noise makes reality appear as "some kind of less authentic, alternate channel".
Music
Yuki Kajiura provides a soundtrack permeated by the Celtic style and gaming theme of the series. The songs feature synthesizer and strings compositions, as well as vocals consisting of English chanting. Celtic influence is prominent in themes such as "Key of the Twilight" and "Open Your Heart". Performed by Emily Bindiger, "Key of the Twilight" blends a pulsing drum and bass mix with guitar intonations. "Open Your Heart", on the other hand, combines Bindiger's contralto vocals with an uilleann pipes solo. The .hack//Sign soundtrack also features vocals by Yuriko Kaida. "Mimiru" has her humming across a saxophone melody performed by Kazuo Takeda; in "Das Wandern" she sings over a lone piano.
European influence is prominent in instrumental pieces as well, "Foreigners" being a prime example. Reminiscent of a classic Irish diddy, the track comprises a flute dancing across a tribal-like percussion set. Orchestral music includes pieces such as "Fear" and "Kiss". "Fear" features an electronic melody wrapped around a digital-beat groove, mixed with a distant voice uttering "feeaarr!". Combining "the childlike humanity into a frightening digital reality", the song is an "analogy to the series' plot". "Kiss" is a theme that entirely features traditional symphony, although only using a few performers. It is a violin and piano mix, used to set mood in the series.
The opening theme of the series is "Obsession". Performed by Kajiura's musical group See-Saw, the track features an electric guitar and rapid electronic beat. The closing theme is , also performed by See-Saw. It is a blend of Japanese vocals, an Irish bouzouki, acoustic guitars and percussion. Both themes were released as a single on May 22, 2002, by Victor Entertainment. Three original soundtracks with vocals Emily Bindiger, with music and arrangement (and lyrics in vocals themes) by Yuki Kajiura were released. The first original soundtrack was released in North America with the limited edition of the first .hack//Sign DVD. This album is a mix of vocal themes and BGM. Most of the vocal songs and a couple of BGM tracks have strong Celtic influence. The BGM is completed with tracks with noticeable console-RPG style. The second original soundtrack was released in North America with the limited edition of the second .hack//Sign DVD. All of the tracks are fairly slow, with catchy beats. The final music soundtrack was titled ".hack//Extra Soundtrack". In North America this soundtrack was included with the limited edition of the fourth .hack//Sign DVD. DSTV-channel/full>
Discs
Themes
Despite its visual concept, .hack//Sign is not a sword and sorcery story, but an exposition-driven character study. It proposes "a trip inside the psychology and soul of an emotionally bruised, but slowly healing person." Themes range from psychological to sociological and are dealt with using classical dialogue as well as image-only introspection.
Among the most prominent themes in .hack//Sign are anxiety, its causes, and the effects it has upon human behavior. Scenes of the real world show people living an apprehensive, even painful reality: characters' background includes subjects such as dysfunctional families and physical impediments. Tsukasa himself is psychologically affected by years of physical abuse and neglect, a state that gets worse throughout his experience in the game, where his reality disappears and he begins to doubt his own existence. When anxiety is excessive (like in the case depicted by Tsukasa's story) and can not be relieved by practical problem-solving methods, "the human ego uses maneuvers such as a defense mechanism to deny, falsify or even distort reality." The anime series explores this process as the root of emotional and behavioral issues such as detachment and isolation.
Escapism, if only as representing a consequence of anxiety, is a significant theme in .hack//Sign. The series explores how technology, such as the Internet and online games, can be used to escape reality. The World is portrayed as a means that people use "to escape their lives", assuming roles online that compensate for their shortcomings in the real world: to some, it is a place where they can overcome their physical limitations; to others, it is a social outlet or a world free of rules. In addition, the preference given to the virtual world over reality represents the intrusion of technology in the social structure: as people engage in "the wide potential of cyberspace", they become more withdrawn in the real world.
Interpersonal relationships are a prominent theme too. The show explores the psychological effects social connections have upon people with emotional needs. Initially Tsukasa shows no respect for any values or other people, but as he engages in relationships, he begins to gradually change, learning to care about others and acquiring the strength to face the reality of his life.
Media
Releases
Originally, .hack//Sign was broadcast in Japan on TV Tokyo between April 4 to September 25, 2002. The same year Victor Entertainment released the entire score in three albums, along with a single containing the opening and ending of the series.
In North America, .hack//Sign was licensed and distributed by Bandai Entertainment, and dubbed by PCB Productions, who are known for their adaptations of fare like Geneshaft. The dub aired on Cartoon Network's Toonami between February 1, 2003 and March 1, 2004. The series was also released on DVD, spanning six volumes. The limited edition ran from March 4, 2003 to March 16, 2004, followed by the regular edition from March 18, 2003 to March 16, 2004. A recap episode called Evidence and the DVD only episode Intermezzo were included in the sixth volume, and Unison was only included in its limited edition. Following the multimedia concept of the franchise, Bandai also acquired the license for the .hack games, the first one being released the same month the anime series began broadcast.
The multimedia approach is shown through the DVD release as well. The limited edition not only included the three soundtrack albums of the series, but also the soundtrack of .hack//Liminality and a demo disc of the first game.
The series was compiled three times. The first DVD boxset was released on October 26, 2004, by the name .hack//Sign – Complete Collection, and the second, more affordable one on August 22, 2006, by the name .hack//Sign: Anime Legends Complete Collection. Neither of these releases contains the OVA episode Unison.
Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment, Funimation announced at SDCC 2013, that they acquired four .hack titles including SIGN. In 2015, Funimation released the DVD boxset .hack//Sign: The Complete Series, which contains all 28 episodes, including both OVA episodes.
Publications
A compilation artbook called .hack//the visions was included in the February, 2003 issue of Newtype published by Kadokawa Shoten. The book contains .hack//Sign, .hack//Legend of the Twilight, and the .hack games illustrations which were originally shown in different issues of Newtype during 2002. Participating artists included Rei Izumi, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Satoshi Ohsawa, and Yuko Iwaoka.
An information book about Project .hack. was published by Fujimi Shobo in June, 2003. The book, called Encyclopedia .hack (), is a compilation of theories and information about storyline, setting, and characters of the franchise, taken from the series itself. Another information book about Project .hack was published by Softbank Publishing on September 27, 2003. This publication was called hack//analysis () and, unlike Encyclopedia, included never-before-seen information on The World and the characters of the franchise. Information about .hack//Sign characters like Bear and BT was expanded in this book.
Reception
The series has generally been positive. Holly Ellinwood of Anime Active saluted Ito's "well thought out, even provocative" storyline in the 2006 review of the series, saying that it is "far more cerebral, even existential than the anime's other less sophisticated contemporaries." Nevertheless, reviewers agree that it is the series which viewers either love or hate. According to Mike Toole from Anime Jump, it "deserves to be both maligned and admired". NeedCoffee's reviewer regarded the show as "one of the most controversial titles in recent years". Negative criticism focuses on the slow-paced story and the almost total absence of action sequences, elements which are also considered as what makes the series "most unique".
Bamboo Dong of Anime News Network called the series "interesting to watch," saying the story gets more "detailed and complex" by the show's fourth episode, praised the music selection, the voice casting, and the artwork. Dong also said that while the storyline has "aspects of mediocrity, " the storyline is intriguing and intense, and that the series is something that "has to be watched at least once."
Nick Creamer of Anime News Network called the series the "grandfather of MMO anime," saying it is mellow, contemplative, and slow. He further said that the show puts you in the middle of relationships between the character and although these are not originally described, views come to understand the logic behind their actions, and added that the "underlying art" of the series holds up. He also said that the series has consistent backgrounds, a diverse music score, and calls the anime, ultimately, a story of "anxiety and identity and virtual selves."
The series received high marks for technical aspects. Chris Beveridge from Anime On DVD feels the animation is "gorgeous" and the "colors are lush and vivid". Tasha Robinson from SCI FI Weekly says that "The World's hugely varied settings provide ever-changing backgrounds," which are considered by Rob Lineberger of DVD Verdict as "detailed and innovative". In his review of the first English release, Mike Toole described the series as "a beautiful, rich-looking series, with frequently sumptuous character design and animation that's only emphasized by the quality of the DVD." A negative opinion is expressed by Rob Lineberger himself, who says that "many of the animated sequences were static characters with slightly moving lips." Tasha Robinson, instead, shows a more neutral perspective on this subject, saying that "the animation is simple but attractive." A concern several reviewers express is that the gaming environment the series tries to simulate should be more crowded, being a game supposedly extremely popular worldwide. A different opinion is that of Anime Academy's reviewer, who writes that the anime's depiction of the game-world setting is realistic and accurate.
Bandai's release earned praise for the quality of the video transfer and the DVD extras (particularly in the limited edition). Reviewers appreciated the English voice acting: Lauren Synger from DVD Vision Japan feels that "everyone was very appropriate to their characters", noting that Brianne Sidal did an excellent work capturing Saiga's Tsukasa. Lineberger, in contrast, finds the English dub to be "antiseptic and uninspired". Bamboo Dong of Anime News Network thinks for her part that Mimiru sounded bland and poorly executed, but overall, the actors did a good job "delivering their lines and giving life to their characters."
Ridwan Khan of Animefringe welcomes the "excellent" .hack//Sign'' score composed by Yuki Kajiura, which is hailed by Mark McPherson from Anime Boredom as "the best orchestrated track ever made for a television series". Most reviewers agree that the soundtrack is one of the series' most prominent features. A negative criticism on the music is that it tends to overwhelm the dialogue in the first couple of episodes. Kōichi Mashimo has stated that he specifically had the music louder than the dialogue as he tried to do some experimentation, and it was his intent to draw complaints from the audience. Still, Chris Beveridge thinks it is an "interesting device to sort of ratchet up the speed of things."
Notes and references
External links
Official Bandai Namco .hack website
Official Cyberconnect .hack//Sign website
Sign
2002 anime OVAs
2002 anime television series debuts
Adventure anime and manga
Anime composed by Yuki Kajiura
Bandai Entertainment anime titles
Bandai Visual
Bee Train Production
Fantasy anime and manga
Funimation
Madman Entertainment anime
Fiction about shapeshifting
Toonami
TV Tokyo original programming
Fiction about amnesia | [
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|
240127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20market | Grey market | A grey market or dark market (sometimes confused with the similar term "parallel market") is the trade of a commodity through distribution channels that are not authorized by the original manufacturer or trade mark proprietor. Grey market products (grey goods) are products traded outside the authorized manufacturer's channel.
Etymology
Manufacturers of computers, telecom, and technology equipment often sell these products through distributors. Most distribution agreements require the distributor to resell the products strictly to end users. However, some distributors choose to resell products to other resellers. In the late 1980s, manufacturers labelled the resold products as the "grey market".
The legality of selling "grey market" products depends on a number of factors. Courts in the United States and in the EU make a number of assessments, including an examination of the physical and non-physical differences between the "grey market" and authorized products to determine whether there are material differences. The legality of the products oftentimes turns on this examination.
In November 2016, the Court of Appeal of England and Wales confirmed a ruling in the case of R v C and Others that the sale of grey goods can be met by criminal sanctions under section 92 of the UK Trade Marks Act 1994, with a potential penalty of up to 10 years in prison.
It is worth mentioning that the goods sold in this case were, in fact, counterfeit and infringed on trademarks; as such, people would consider these to be black market goods, rather than grey. The simple fact is that selling or reselling any products one has bought is not generally considered a crime, and most traders rely on their right to resale and thus trade.
Description
Grey market goods are goods sold outside the authorized distribution channels by entities which may have no relationship with the producer of the goods. This form of parallel import frequently occurs when the price of an item is significantly higher in one country than another. This commonly takes place with electronic equipment such as cameras. Entrepreneurs buy the product where it is available cheaply, often at retail but sometimes at wholesale, and import it to the target market. They then sell it at a price high enough to provide a profit but below the normal market price.
International efforts to promote free trade, including reduced tariffs and harmonised national standards, facilitate this form of arbitrage whenever manufacturers attempt to preserve highly disparate pricing. Because of the nature of grey markets, it is difficult or impossible to track the precise numbers of grey market sales. Grey market goods are often new, but some grey market goods are used goods. A market in used goods is sometimes nicknamed a green market.
The two main types of grey markets are those of imported manufactured goods that would normally be unavailable or more expensive in a certain country and unissued securities that are not yet traded in official markets. Sometimes the term dark market is used to describe secretive, unregulated trading in commodity futures, notably crude oil in 2008. This can be considered a third type of "grey market" not intended or explicitly authorised by oil producers.
The import of legally restricted or prohibited items such as prescription drugs or firearms, on the other hand, is considered black market, as is the smuggling of goods into a target country to avoid import duties. A related concept is bootlegging; the smuggling or transport of highly regulated goods, especially alcoholic beverages. The term "bootlegging" is also often applied to the production or distribution of counterfeit or otherwise infringing goods (also black market).
Grey markets sometimes develop for video game consoles and titles whose demand temporarily exceeds their supply causing authorised local suppliers to run out of stock. This happens especially during the holiday season. Other popular items, such as dolls, magnets and contraception, can also be affected. In such situations, the grey market price may be considerably higher than the manufacturer's suggested retail price, with unscrupulous sellers buying items in bulk for the express purpose of inflating the prices during resale, a practice called scalping. Online auction sites such as eBay have contributed to the emergence of the video-game grey market.
Goods
Arcade games
Certain otherwise identical arcade games are marketed under different titles, such as Carrier Air Wing/US Navy, Mega Man/Rockman, and Police 911/Police 24/7.
When certain arcade games are first powered on, a warning message is shown such as “[t]his game is intended only for sale and use in (country/region)” and often, such a message is occasionally displayed while the machine is in an attract mode.
One reason for these regional name variants is trademark issues. A company may not own the rights to a trademark in another country, where that trademark may be owned by an entirely different entity. Because of this, a different name must be used.
These regional name variations may also be used to prevent the sale of bootleg arcade games, including those from Japanese versions.
Automobiles
Automobile manufacturers segment world markets by territory and price, thus creating a demand for grey import vehicles.
Although some grey imports are a bargain, some buyers have discovered that their vehicles do not meet local regulations, or that parts and services are difficult to obtain because these cars are different from the versions sold through the new car dealer network.
Also, ensuring service history and mechanical condition for a vehicle purchased at a distance can be a problem.
Many used cars come from Singapore or Japan, and are sold in other countries around the world, including United Kingdom, Russia and New Zealand. Japan and Singapore both have strict laws against older cars. The Japanese Shaken road-worthiness testing regime, requires progressively more expensive maintenance, involving the replacement of entire vehicle systems, that are unnecessary for safety, year on year, to devalue older cars and promote new cars on their home market that were available for low prices. This makes these well running cars seem reasonably priced, even after transport expenses. There are very few cars in Japan more than five years old.
New car arbitrage has become an issue in the US as well, especially when the US price is lower in the US than in countries like China.
Beyond cost issues, grey market cars provide consumer access to models never officially released. Before 1987, the Range Rover and Lamborghini Countach, both revolutionary designs, were grey import vehicles in the United States. The grey market provided a clear signal to these manufacturers that the United States had significant demand for these cars, and their present-day US model descendants remain popular. Years later, Nissan similarly decided to sell the GT-R in North America after seeing how many people were importing older Skylines. Although Mercedes-Benz was also a beneficiary of the signals to US consumer demand that the grey market provided, their lobbying in Washington succeeded in virtually ending the US grey market in 1988.
In the UK, some Japanese domestic market models fetch a high price because of their performance, novelty or status, assisted by the fact that the Japanese drive on the left, in common with the UK, so vehicles are right hand drive. Popular types include - off-road vehicles, people carriers, affordable sports cars like the Mazda MX-5 / Roadster, very high performance sports cars like the rally homologation based cars like the Subaru Impreza and Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, ultra compact kei cars, and limited edition Japanese market designer cars like the Nissan Figaro.
In Japan, due to strict and differing car classifications and emission regulations, or lack of main consumer demand, some international models or certain regional models aren't sold in Japanese Domestic Market. Grey importers are trying to import some of these models into Japan but it is permitted due to lack of restrictions imposed on them, unlike in other countries. Among the grey-imported vehicles in Japan are pickup trucks like Toyota Tundra, Nissan Navara and Subaru BRAT, which aren't officially sold in Japan.
Broadcasting
In television and radio broadcasting, grey markets primarily exist in relation to satellite radio and satellite television delivery.
The most common form is companies reselling the equipment and services of a provider not licensed to operate in the market. For instance, a Canadian consumer who wants access to American television and radio services that are not available in Canada may approach a grey market reseller of Dish Network or DirecTV. There is also a grey market in the United States (especially from Canadian citizens with winter homes in the U.S.) for Canadian satellite services such as Bell Satellite TV or Shaw Direct.
In Europe some satellite TV services are encrypted since they have only been authorised by content suppliers to broadcast films, sporting events and US entertainment programming in a certain country or countries, hence only residents of the UK and Ireland may subscribe to Sky Digital. In other European countries with large British expatriate populations, such as Spain, Sky is widely available through the grey market. Although Sky discourages the use of its viewing cards outside the UK or Ireland, and has the technology to render them invalid, many people continue to use them.
Parallel importing of "free-to-view" Sky cards from the UK to Ireland is often done so that Irish Sky customers can receive Channel 5 and some of the other channels not generally available via Sky in the Republic because of trademark and other licensing issues. Conversely, Sky viewing cards from the Republic of Ireland, which allow viewing of Irish terrestrial channels, are imported into the UK. Northern Ireland residents subscribing to Sky can watch RTÉ One and Two and TG4, although not TV3, which carries many of the same programs as ITV, a lot of the programs airing before ITV can show them.
It is also becoming increasingly common in the UK for some pubs to use satellite decoder cards from Greece, Norway, Poland or the Arab world to receive satellite TV broadcasting live English football matches from those countries. Alternatively, they may use cards which allow pirate decryption of scrambled signals. Such cards are typically much cheaper than the cards available in the UK from Sky (who charge extra fees for public showing licences). However, Sky has taken civil and criminal action against some who do this. Two recent cases involving grey cards have been referred to the European Court of Justice. The suppliers of grey cards and Karen Murphy have won their cases at the European Court of Justice. The judges have ruled that right holders cannot license their content on an exclusive territorial basis as it breaches EU Law on competition and free movement of goods and services. However, whilst this ruling allows domestic viewers to subscribe to foreign satellite services, pubs may still need permission from right holders such as the Premier League to broadcast content. This is because certain elements of the broadcast such as branding are copyrighted. The matter now rests on the High Court to incorporate the ruling into UK Law.
There have been two High Court judgements on this matter now. Mr. Justice Kitchin has ruled that QC Leisure and other suppliers of foreign satellite systems can carry on with their businesses if they can prevent copyright elements such as branding of football matches from being shown in a public place. The Premier League can pursue prosecutions of licensees who show branding of matches via foreign satellite systems. Karen Murphy has won her case in the High Court following the ruling from the European Court of Justice. The ruling from Justice Stanley Burnton allows Ms Murphy to shop for the cheapest foreign satellite provider. However the ruling from Justice Kitchin prevents Ms Murphy from showing matches in her pub via foreign satellite systems because branding are copyrighted. It is no longer illegal though for a customer to purchase a foreign viewing card from an EU country and use it outside the territory.
Cell phones
The emergence of the GSM international standard for cell phones in 1990 prompted the beginning of the grey market in the cell phone industry. As global demand for mobile phones grew, so did the size of the parallel market. Today, it is estimated that over 30% of all mobile phones traded will pass through the grey market and that statistic continues to grow. It is impossible to quantify an exact figure, but sources suggest that as many as 500,000 mobile phones are bought and sold outside official distribution channels through their trading platforms every day. Many smaller countries and markets (such as Croatia, for example) are still being prone to grey imports of mobile phones, apparently due to very limited number of mobile phone models ever to be sold in that particular country.
The driving forces behind a heavily active mobile phone grey market include currency fluctuations, customers demands, manufacturers policies and price variations. It is not uncommon for grey market traders to introduce a product into a market months in advance of the official launch. This was evident with the launch of the iPhone 4, where international grey market traders bought large quantities at Apple's retail price then shipped to countries where the product was not available adding a substantial margin to the resale price.
Computer games
Purchasing some games from online content distribution systems, such as Valve's Steam, simply requires entering a valid CD key to associate with an account. In 2007, after the release of The Orange Box, Valve deactivated accounts with CD keys that were purchased outside the consumer's territory in order to maintain the integrity of region-specific licensing. This generated complaints from North American customers who had circumvented their Steam end-user licence agreement by purchasing The Orange Box through cheaper, market retailers.
Due to regional lockout, video game consoles and their games are often subjected to grey market trade and are chosen as the alternative to modding by some gamers. The reasons for this may range from the console being crippled in some markets to that of the desired game not being released for the market the potential consumer of the game is in.
PC code stripping is a process by which boxed PC product is bought in large quantities at cheap rates. Manual labor is then used to open the box, retrieve the activation code from the box and enter the code into a database. The activation code is then sold online as a download key and the physical product is discarded or sold as backup media.
Electronics
There is a grey market in electronics in which retailers import merchandise from regions where the prices are cheaper or where regional design differences are more favourable to consumers, and subsequently sell merchandise in regions where the manufacturer's selling price is more expensive. Online retailers are often able to exploit pricing disparities in various countries by using grey-market imports from regions where the product is sold at lower costs and reselling them without regional buyer restrictions. Websites such as Taobao and eBay enable customers to buy products designed for foreign regions with different features or at cheaper costs, using parallel importation.
The grey market for photographic equipment and other such electronics is thriving in heavily taxed states like Singapore with dealers importing directly from lower taxed states and selling at lower prices, creating competition against local distributors recognised by the products' manufacturers. "Grey sets", as colloquially called, are often comparable to products purchased from the manufacturer's preferred retailer. Lenses or flash units of parallel imports often only differ by the warranty provided, and since the grey sets were manufactured for another state, photographic equipment manufacturers often offer local warranty, instead of international warranty, which will render grey sets ineligible for warranty claims with the manufacturer.
Because of the nature of local warranties, importers of grey sets usually offer their own warranty schemes to compensate for the manufacturers' refusal of service. Grey sets do not differ particularly from official imports. They look and function identically. In the early days of camera sales during the 60s and 70s, when lenses had amber coating, the bargain basements for Japanese equipment were Hong Kong and Singapore, through which goods were channeled to European shop windows bypassing the often substantial levy of the official importers. World-market pricing and the Internet have largely eliminated this. Canon gives their hard-selling DSLR cameras names like "Rebel" in the US and "EOS xx0/xx00" outside it, aimed at preventing the competitively priced US-merchandise reaching Europe where sales are slower but achieve a higher profit.
Frequent-flyer miles
Trade or bartering of frequent-flyer miles is prohibited by nearly all major airlines, although an authorised medium exists for specific frequent flyer programs. Unauthorised exchanges of frequent flyer miles – of which several exist – are also major examples of grey markets.
Infant formula
Following the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, parents in China lost confidence in locally produced infant formula, creating a demand for European, Japanese and American produced formula. Import restrictions on formula from these sources has led to parents willing to pay a premium for foreign brands leading to the emergence of milk-powder runners, who buy formula at ticket price over the counter in Hong Kong, carry the tins over the border to Shenzhen before returning to Hong Kong to repeat the process. The effect of the runners led to a shortage of infant formula in Hong Kong forcing the government to impose an export restriction of two tins per person per trip. The Chinese then turned to Australia, subsequently also caused shortages there and for milk formula producers to ask retailers in the United Kingdom to restrict purchasers to two tins, as there was evidence that milk formula is being purchased for onward shipment to China.
Pharmaceuticals
Some prescription medications, most notably popular and branded drugs, can have very high prices in comparison to their cost of transport. In addition, pharmaceutical prices can vary significantly between countries, particularly as a result of government intervention in prices. As a consequence, the grey market for pharmaceuticals flourishes, particularly in Europe and along the US–Canada border where Canadians often pay significantly lower prices for US-made pharmaceuticals than Americans do.
Securities
Public company securities that are not listed, traded or quoted on any U.S. stock exchange or the OTC markets are sometimes purchased or sold over the counter (OTC) via the grey market. Grey market securities have no market makers quoting the stock. Since grey market securities are not traded or quoted on an exchange or interdealer quotation system, investors' bids and offers are not collected in a central spot so market transparency is diminished and effective execution of orders is difficult.
In India, the unofficial grey market trades are very common for the initial public offering (IPOs). The people put their money in the unregulated and unofficial grey market before the listing of the IPOs. Company promoters along with the Market Operators buy and sell the shares before the listing. This is the easiest way to manipulate the share price before IPO listing.
Textbooks
College level textbooks have a grey market, with publishers offering them for lower prices in developing countries or sometimes the UK.
These books typically contain a disclaimer stating that importation is not permitted. However, the U.S. Supreme Court decisions Quality King v. L'anza (1998) and especially Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2013, involving textbooks imported from Thailand by an eBay seller) protect the importation of copyrighted materials under the first-sale doctrine.
Swiss watches
The Financial Times has states that the market is now over a billion dollars for grey market Swiss watches such as Rolex, Breitling, IWC, Cartier, Patek Philippe SA, Audemars Piguet, Breguet and Bvlgari
Barron's (newspaper) has been quoted in saying you can get 40% off fine Swiss Watches in the grey market.
The New York Times even going after the Rolex Daytona calling it the hottest watch money can not buy.
Sneakers
One of the biggest Grey Market marketplaces for sneakers is StockX. Since November 2020, it has also opened up to electronic products with a valuation of almost four billion.
StockX has planned to go public since October 2019. As of January 2022, they have not yet done so.
Corporate action
The parties most opposed to the grey market are usually the authorised agents or importers, or the retailers of the item in the target market. Often this is the national subsidiary of the manufacturer, or a related company. In response to the resultant damage to their profits and reputation, manufacturers and their official distribution chain will often seek to restrict the grey market. Such responses can breach competition law, particularly in the European Union. Manufacturers or their licensees often seek to enforce trademark or other intellectual-property laws against the grey market. Such rights may be exercised against the import, sale and/or advertisement of grey imports. In 2002, Levi Strauss, after a 4-year legal case, prevented the UK supermarket Tesco from selling grey market jeans. However, such rights can be limited. Examples of such limitations include the first-sale doctrine in the United States and the doctrine of the exhaustion of rights in the European Union.
When grey-market products are advertised on Google, eBay or other legitimate web sites, it is possible to petition for removal of any advertisements that violate trademark or copyright laws. This can be done directly, without the involvement of legal professionals. For example, eBay will remove listings of such products even in countries where their purchase and use is not against the law. Manufacturers may refuse to supply distributors and retailers (and with commercial products, customers) that trade in grey market goods. They may also more broadly limit supplies in markets where prices are low. Manufacturers may refuse to honor the warranty of an item purchased from grey market sources, on the grounds that the higher price on the non-grey market reflects a higher level of service even though the manufacturer does of course control their own prices to distributors. Alternatively, they may provide the warranty service only from the manufacturer's subsidiary in the intended country of import, not the diverted third country where the grey-market goods are ultimately sold by the distributor or retailer. This response to the grey market is especially evident in electronics goods. Local laws (or customer demand) concerning distribution and packaging (for example, the language on labels, units of measurement, and nutritional disclosure on foodstuffs) can be brought into play, as can national standards certifications for certain goods.
Manufacturers may give the same item different model numbers in different countries, even though the functions of the item are identical, so that they can identify grey imports. Manufacturers can also use supplier codes to enable similar tracing of grey imports. Parallel market importers often decode the product in order to avoid the identification of the supplier. In the United States, courts have ruled decoding is legal, however manufacturers and brand owners may have rights if they can prove that the decoding has materially altered the product where certain trademarks have been defaced or the decoding has removed the ability of the manufacturer from enforcing quality-control measures. For example, if the decoding defaces the logo of the product or brand or if the batch code is removed preventing the manufacturer from re-calling defective batches.
The development of DVD region codes, and equivalent regional-lockout techniques in other media, are examples of technological features designed to limit the flow of goods between national markets, effectively fighting the grey market that would otherwise develop. This enables movie studios and other content creators to charge more for the same product in one market than in another, or alternatively withhold the product from some markets for a particular time.
Canon
The lawsuits started by Canon U.S.A. Inc. v. a number of retailers on 25 October 2015 in the New York Eastern District Court (Case No. 2:15-cv-6019 and No. 2:15-cv-6015) will not be tried until 2016 at the earliest, but are based on a Trademark violation. The Plaintiff alleges that the Defendant retailers applied counterfeit serial numbers to Canon digital SLR cameras and sold kits with inferior (non-Canon) warranties as well as counterfeit batteries and chargers that did not comply with U.S. certification regulations. Canon U.S.A. Inc. also reserves the right to claim damages for "further violations of CUSA's intellectual property and other rights [that] will come to light as this litigation progresses".
Alliance for Gray Market and Counterfeit Abatement
The Alliance for Gray Market and Counterfeit Abatement (AGMA) is a California-based non-profit organisation of information technology (IT) companies that works to educate and raise awareness on counterfeiting; digital IP protection; service and warranty abuse; and the grey market.
Support
Consumer advocacy groups argue that discrimination against consumers—the charging of higher prices on the same object simply because of where they happen to live—is unjust and monopolistic behaviour on the part of corporations towards the public. Since it requires governments to legislate to prevent their citizens from purchasing goods at cheaper prices from other markets, and because this is clearly not in their citizens' interests, many governments in democratic countries have chosen not to protect anti-competitive technologies such as DVD region-coding.
Correspondingly, the grey market has found support from most ideological tendencies. Anarchist opponents of class discrimination argue that private property in general leads to the oppression of much of society and are therefore against the very idea of intellectual property, which forms the basis of arguments against the grey market. Proponents of the corporate financial system, in agreement, assert that the enforcement of intellectual property can lead to a 'lessening of composing effort'.
The grey market has been a constant source of litigation and appeals in the United States. The same fundamental question arises under patent law and copyright law, namely whether or not a good sold abroad lawfully is still protected by United States intellectual property law for the purposes of resale. When purchased domestically, a copyrighted good may be resold by the purchaser under the first sale doctrine contained at 17 U.S.C. §109(c). Similarly, a patented good may be re-sold under the patent exhaustion doctrine. In 2013, the United States Supreme Court largely discussed the legality of the grey market when it decided Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. where it held that a sale abroad of a copyrighted good triggers the first sale doctrine. The decision is largely understood to apply to patented goods as well.
See also
Agorism
Pirate politics
Counter-economics
Cryptocurrency
Hawala
Regional lockout
The Misfit Economy – a 2015 book
Black market
Red Market (organ trade)
White market
Silk Road (marketplace)
References
Further reading
Distribution (marketing)
Economic liberalism
Free market
Informal economy
International trade
Libertarian theory
Market (economics) | [
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|
240128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%20copy | Carbon copy | Before the development of photographic copiers, a carbon copy was the under-copy of a typed or written document placed over carbon paper and the under-copy sheet itself (not to be confused with the carbon print family of photographic reproduction processes). When copies of business letters were so produced, it was customary to use the acronym "CC" or "cc" before a colon and below the writer's signature to inform the principal recipient that carbon copies had been made and distributed to the parties listed after the colon. With the advent of word processors and e-mail, "cc" is used as a merely formal indication of the distribution of letters to secondary recipients.
Use
A sheet of carbon paper is placed between two or more sheets of paper. The pressure applied by the writing implement (pen, pencil, typewriter or impact printer) to the top sheet causes pigment from the carbon paper to reproduce the similar mark on the copy sheet(s). More than one copy can be made by stacking several sheets with carbon paper between each pair. Four or five copies is a practical limit. The top sheet is the original and each of the additional sheets is called a carbon copy.
The use of carbon copies declined with the advent of photocopying and electronic document creation and distribution (word processing). Carbon copies are still sometimes used in special applications: for example, in manual receipt books which have a multiple-use sheet of carbon paper supplied, so that the user can keep an exact copy of each receipt issued, although even here carbonless copy paper is often used to the same effect.
It is still common for a business letter to include, at the end, a list of names preceded by the abbreviation "CC", indicating that the named persons are to receive copies of the letter, even though carbon paper is no longer used to make the copies.
An alternative etymology is that "c:" was used for copy and "cc:" indicates the plural, just as "p." means page and "pp." means pages. This alternative etymology explains the frequent usage of "c:" when only one recipient is listed, while "cc:" is used for two or more recipients of the copies. This etymology can also explain why, even originally, "cc:" was used to list recipients who received typed copies and not necessarily carbon copies. Sometimes this "cc" is interpreted as "courtesy copy".
The term "carbon copy" can denote anything that is a near duplicate of an original ("...and you want to turn him into a carbon copy of every fourth-rate conformist in this frightened land!" Robert Heinlein, Stranger in a Strange Land).
Use as a verb
Carbon copy can be used as a transitive verb with the meaning described under e-mail below related to the CC field of an e-mail message. That is, to send the message to additional recipients beyond the primary recipient. It is common practice to abbreviate the verb form, and many forms are used, including cc and cc:. Past tense forms in use are CCed, cc'd, cc'ed, cc-ed and cc:'d. Present participle or imperfect forms in use include cc'ing. Merriam-Webster uses cc, cc'd and cc'ing, respectively.
Email
In common usage, an email message has three fields for addressees: the To field is for principal recipients of the message, the Cc field indicates secondary recipients whose names are visible to one another and to the principal, and the Bcc (blind carbon copy) field contains the names of tertiary recipients whose names are invisible to each other and to the primary and secondary recipients. It is considered good practice to indicate to the other recipients that a new participant has been added to the list of receivers (e.g. by writing "I sent a copy to John Doe" or "John Doe, who is reading in copy, [...]").
Printers
Dot matrix and daisy wheel impact printers are also able to use carbon paper to produce several copies of a document in one pass, and most models feature adjustable impact power and head spacing to accommodate up to three copies plus the original printout. Usually, this feature is used in conjunction with continuous, prearranged perforated paper and carbon supplies for use with a tractor feeder, rather than with single sheets of paper, for example, when printing out commercial invoices or receipts.
References
External links
Email
Non-impact printing
Copying | [
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240137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StG%2044 | StG 44 | The StG 44 (abbreviation of Sturmgewehr 44, "assault rifle 44") is a German assault rifle developed during World War II by Hugo Schmeisser. It is also known by its early designations as the MP 43 and MP 44 (Maschinenpistole 43 and 44). The StG 44 was an improvement of an earlier design, the Maschinenkarabiner 42(H).
The StG 44 was the first successful assault rifle, with features including an intermediate cartridge, controllable automatic fire, a more compact design than a battle rifle with a higher rate of fire, and being designed primarily for hitting targets within a few hundred metres. Other rifles at the time were designed to hit targets of over a thousand meters, but this was found to be in excess of the range in which most enemy engagements actually took place.
The StG 44 fulfilled its role effectively, particularly on the Eastern Front, offering a greatly increased volume of fire compared to standard infantry rifles. The StG largely influenced the Soviet AK-47, introduced three years after the war concluded. The StG's influence can still be seen in modern assault rifles, which, after World War II, became the global standard for infantry rifles.
Description
MP 43, MP 44, and StG 44 were different designations for what was essentially the same rifle with minor updates in production. The variety in nomenclatures resulted from the complicated bureaucracy in Nazi Germany. Developed from the Mkb 42(H) "machine carbine", the StG 44 combined the characteristics of a carbine, submachine gun, and automatic rifle. StG is an abbreviation of . According to one account, the name was chosen personally by Adolf Hitler for propaganda reasons and means "assault rifle" as in "to assault an enemy position", although some sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the order. After the adoption of the StG 44, the English translation "assault rifle" became the accepted designation for this type of infantry small arm. Over the course of its production, there were minor changes to the butt end, muzzle nut, shape of the front sight base and stepping of the barrel.
The rifle was chambered for the 7.92×33mm Kurz cartridge. This shorter version of the German standard (7.92×57mm) rifle round, in combination with the weapon's selective-fire design, provided a compromise between the controllable firepower of a submachine gun at close quarters with the accuracy and power of a Karabiner 98k bolt-action rifle at intermediate ranges. While the StG 44 had less range and power than the more powerful infantry rifles of the day, Army studies had shown that few combat engagements occurred at more than and the majority within . Full-power rifle cartridges were excessive for most uses for the average soldier. Only a trained specialist, such as a sniper, or soldiers equipped with machine guns, which fired multiple rounds at a known or suspected target, could make full use of the standard rifle round's range and power.
The British were critical of the weapon, saying that the receiver could be bent and the bolt locked up by the mere act of knocking a leaning rifle onto a hard floor. A late-war U.S. assessment derided the StG-44 as "mediocre", "bulky" and "unhandy", declaring it incapable of sustained automatic fire and prone to jamming, though the report accepted that its accuracy was "excellent for a weapon of its type".
History
Background
In the late 19th century, small-arms cartridges had become able to fire accurately at long distances. Jacketed bullets propelled by smokeless powder were lethal out to . This was beyond the range a shooter could engage a target with open sights, as at that range a man-sized target would be completely blocked by the front sight blade. Only units of riflemen firing by volley could hit grouped targets at those ranges. That fighting style was taken over by the widespread introduction of machine guns, which made use of these powerful cartridges to suppress the enemy at long range. Rifles remained the primary infantry weapon, but in some forces were seen as a secondary or support weapon, backing up the machine guns.
This left a large gap in performance; the rifle was not effective at the ranges it could theoretically reach while being much larger and more powerful than needed for close combat. Weapons for short-range use existed, initially semi-automatic pistols and, later, automatic submachine guns. These fired pistol rounds which lacked power, accuracy, and range. They were only useful at very short ranges of no more than . This led to extensive research into creating an intermediate round to fill this gap. This type of ammunition was being considered as early as 1892, but militaries at the time were still fixated on increasing the maximum range and velocity of bullets from their rifles.
Earlier development
In early 1918, Hauptmann (Captain) Piderit, part of the Gewehrprüfungskommission ("Small Arms Examination Committee") of the German General Staff in Berlin, submitted a paper arguing for the introduction of an intermediate round in the German Army with a suitable firearm. He pointed out that firefights rarely took place beyond , about half the sight line range of the 7.92×57mm round from a Mauser Gewehr 98 rifle or less for MG 08 machine gun. A smaller, shorter, and less powerful round would save materials, allow soldiers to carry more ammunition, and increase firepower. Less recoil would allow semi-automatic or even fully automatic select-fire rifles, although in his paper he called it a Maschinenpistole (submachine gun). The German Army showed no interest, as it already had the MP 18 submachine gun firing 9 mm pistol rounds and did not want to create a new cartridge.
In 1923, the German Army set out requirements for a Gewehr 98 replacement. It had to be smaller and lighter than the Mauser, have similar performance out to , and have a magazine with a 20- or 30-round capacity. The Bavarian company Rheinisch-Westfälische Sprengstoff (RWS) experimented with rounds in the 1920s, and German companies developing intermediate ammunition for aerial machine guns showed interest. Development of the future infantry rifle did not start until the 1930s. RWS offered two rounds, one with a 7 mm bullet and one with an 8 mm bullet, both in a 46 mm case. The German company Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken had the 7×39.1mm round, and Gustav Genschow & Co (Geco) proposed a 7.75×39.5mm round. Geco's automatic carbine was the Model A35, a further development of the SG29 semi-automatic rifle. The weapon was complicated and unsafe to handle.
The German government started its own intermediate round and weapon program soon after. German ammunition maker Polte of Magdeburg was commissioned to develop the rounds in April 1938 and signed a contract with the Heereswaffenamt (HWA). At the same time, the HWA contracted C. G. Haenel of Suhl to create a weapon for the round. HWA requirements were for a rifle that was shorter and with equal or less weight to the Kar 98k and as accurate out to ; and be select-fire with a rate of fire under 450 rounds per minute. It should be rifle grenade compatible, reliable, maintainable, and have a "straightforward design". Fifty rifles were to be delivered for field testing in early 1942.
At the start of World War II, German infantry were equipped with weapons comparable to those of most other military forces. A typical infantry unit was equipped with a mix of bolt-action rifles and some form of light, medium or a general-purpose machine guns. A problem with this mix was that the standard rifles were too large to be effectively used by mechanized and armored forces, where they were difficult to maneuver in the cramped spaces of an armored vehicle. Submachine guns, such as the MP 28, MP 38, and MP 40 were issued to augment infantry rifle use and increase individual soldiers' firepower, but lacked range and accuracy beyond .
New requirements
During the invasion of the Soviet Union, increasing numbers of semi-automatic Tokarev SVT-38 and SVT-40s were used by the Red Army – mostly elite units and non-commissioned officers – while some Soviet rifle companies were completely equipped with PPSh-41 submachine guns.
After experiencing high volumes of automatic fire from these weapons, German commanders re-thought their small arms requirements. The German army had been attempting to introduce semi-automatic weapons such as the Gewehr 41, but these proved troublesome in service, and production was insufficient to meet requirements. Several attempts had been made to introduce lightweight machine guns or automatic rifles, but recoil from the powerful 7.92×57mm Mauser round was too difficult to control in automatic fire.
By 1941, it was becoming clear that action needed to be taken. Although various experimental rounds had been developed to one degree or another by this point, the Army instead decided to select yet a new design, the Polte 8×33mm ("short cartridge"). This used a spitzer bullet and basic cartridge design of the standard 7.92×57mm Mauser rifle cartridge, cutting down the cartridge from the original 7.92×57mm Mauser to 7.92×33mm Kurz. It was understood that this was not ideal, but it would minimize logistical problems.
Design influences
The German 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered FG 42 battle rifle/automatic rifle was one of the first inline firearms incorporating a "straight-line" recoil configuration and an elevated sight line over the bore axis. The inline design helps reduce muzzle rise during automatic fire.
MKb 42(H) & MKb 42(W)
Contracts for rifles firing the 7.92×33mm Kurz round were issued to both Walther and Haenel (whose design group was headed by Hugo Schmeisser), were asked to submit prototype weapons under the name 1942 ("machine carbine") or MKb 42. Both designs were similar, using a gas-operated action, with selective fire. Since both rifles shared the title of Maschinenkarabiner 42 the letters (H) and (W) were added to differentiate the two. In this case (H) and (W) were the first initial of each guns manufacturer Haenel Waffen und Fahrradfabrik and Walther Waffenfabrik AG. The MKb 42(H) along with the less successful MKb 42(W) were predecessors of the later MP 43, MP 44, StG 44. The majority of the MP 43's features came from the MKb 42(H), with the hammer firing system and closed bolt coming from the MKb 42(W).
With time, Hitler became aware of the troop trials and ordered that all work on this new weapon be stopped immediately because of the new ammunition. Nonetheless, production was allowed to continue, since the Gustloff company had been developing a machine carbine for normal rifle cartridges as a cover since July 1942.
MP 43, MP 44, StG 44
As work moved forward to incorporate this new firing system, development halted when Hitler suspended all new rifle programs due to administrative infighting within the Third Reich. Hitler ordered that newer submachine guns were to be built, and he strongly disagreed with the use of the Kurz ammunition. To keep the MKb 42(H) development program alive, the Waffenamt (Armament Office) re-designated the weapon as the Maschinenpistole 43 (MP 43) and, making a few improvements, billed the weapon as an upgrade to existing submachine guns.
Much time was wasted trying to make the MP 43 a replacement for the Karabiner 98k rifle. This goal was eventually realized to be impossible; the MP 43 cartridge was too weak to fire rifle grenades, too inaccurate for sniping, and the weapon was too short for bayonet fighting. In September 1943, it was decided that the MP 43 would supplement rather than replace the Kar 98k. As a result, the optical sight base, grenade-launching extended muzzle thread, and bayonet lug were removed.
Adolf Hitler eventually discovered the designation deception and halted the program again. In March 1943, he permitted it to recommence for evaluation purposes only. Running for six months until September 1943, the evaluation produced positive results, and Hitler allowed the MP 43 program to continue in order to make mass production possible. The weapon made extensive use of (for the 1940s) advanced cost-saving pressed and stamped steel components rather than machined parts. The first MP 43s were distributed to the Waffen-SS; in October 1943, some were issued to the 93rd Infantry Division on the Eastern Front. Production and distribution continued to different units. In April 1944, Hitler took some interest in the weapon tests and ordered the weapon (with some minor updates) to be re-designated as the MP 44. In July 1944, at a meeting of the various army heads about the Eastern Front, when Hitler asked what they needed, a general exclaimed, "More of these new rifles!". The exclamation caused some confusion (Hitler's response is reputed to have been "What new rifle?"), but once Hitler saw the MP 44 being demonstrated, he was impressed and gave it the title Sturmgewehr. Seeing the possibility of a propaganda gain, the rifle was again renamed as the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), to highlight the new class of weapon it represented. The designation translates to "Assault rifle, model 1944", thereby introducing the term "assault rifle".
A common belief of Hitler's influence over the Sturmgewehr was that he was against an intermediate rifle round. In reality, he could have ordered the project to be canceled entirely if he wanted to, especially if it had been hidden from him. Numerous reports and company correspondence reveal frequent presentation of the rifle's stages of development to Hitler. Rather than being opposed to the entire idea, his apprehension seemed to be from reluctance to send a new weapon to the front in too small numbers. Industry would not be able to replace some 12 million Kar 98k rifles in a short time, and the already strained logistics structure would have to support another cartridge. While the Sturmgewehr required specialized tooling to manufacture it, it consumed less materials and was faster and easier to make than a Kar 98k. Without suppliers to quickly produce components, companies could not manufacture sufficient numbers to replace the Kar 98k quickly. Introducing the new assault rifle in quantities that would not make an impression on the front would be counter-productive. Hitler instead wanted to introduce it on the largest scale possible, which has been misinterpreted as his resistance to new technology.
Production soon began with the first batches of the new rifle being shipped to troops on the Eastern Front. By the end of the war, a total of 425,977 StG 44 variants of all types were produced and work had commenced on a follow-on rifle, the StG 45. The assault rifle proved a valuable weapon, especially on the Eastern front, where it was first deployed. A properly trained soldier with a StG 44 had an improved tactical repertoire, in that he could effectively engage targets at longer ranges than with an MP 40, but be much more useful than the Kar 98k in close combat, as well as provide covering fire like a light machine gun. It was also found to be exceptionally reliable in extreme cold. The StG 44's rate of fire was 540 rpm.
A primary use of the MP 44/StG 44 was to counter the Soviet PPS and PPSh-41 submachine guns, which used the 7.62×25mm Tokarev round. These cheap, mass-produced weapons used a 71-round drum magazine or 35-round box magazine and though shorter-ranged than the Kar 98k rifle, were more effective weapons in close-quarter engagements. The StG 44, while lacking the range of the Kar 98k, had a considerably longer range than the PPS/PPSh submachine guns, more power, an ability to switch between a fully automatic and a default semi-automatic fire mode and surprising accuracy. The StG 44 was an intermediate weapon for the period; the muzzle velocity from its barrel was , compared to of the Karabiner 98k, of the British Bren, of the M1 carbine, and achieved by the MP40. Furthermore, the StG 44's inline design gave it controllability even on full-auto. In short, the StG 44 provided the individual user with unparalleled firepower compared to that of all earlier handheld firearms, warranting other countries to soon embrace the assault rifle concept.
The 1st Infantry Division of Army Group South and 32nd Infantry Division of Army Group North were selected to be issued the rifle, both being refitted from heavy losses on the Eastern Front; ammunition shortages meant the 1st ID was the only division fully equipped with it. The Kar 98k was retained as a specialist weapon for sniping and launching rifle grenades, while MP 40s were used by vehicle and artillery crews and officers. The StG 44 was issued to all infantry soldiers and employed for accurate short-range rapid-fire shooting (similar to how the MP 18 was used when it went into service). The assault rifles in a squad added firepower when the machine gun had to cease fire or move. When attacking a position, Kar 98k riflemen would use grenades against it at close-range, while StG 44 riflemen would fire in rapid semi-automatic or automatic bursts to keep the defenders suppressed. The magazine follower spring had a short service life, so soldiers were ordered to load no more than 25 rounds to reduce wear of the spring. In January 1945, a magazine was introduced fitted with a fixed plug to restrict its capacity to 25 rounds. While the StG 44 was capable of fully automatic fire, German soldiers were directed to use it primarily in semi-automatic mode. Fully automatic mode was to be used only in emergencies, for short bursts of two or three rounds.
Germany had ammunition logistics problems, thus Hitler's calculations came true in part: for the initially planned 200 million rounds per month, 86,000 additional workers were necessary, but it was not available. The 400 million rounds per month planned from February 1944 onwards were completely utopian; from February 1945 the number was then reduced to a realistic 110 million.
One unusual addition to the design was the Krummlauf; a bent barrel attachment for rifles with a periscope sighting device for shooting around corners from a safe position. It was produced in several variants: an "I" version for infantry use, a "P" version for use in tanks (to cover the dead areas in the close range around the tank, to defend against assaulting infantry), versions with 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° bends, a version for the StG 44 and one for the MG 42. Only the 30° "I" version for the StG 44 was produced in any numbers. The bent barrel attachments had very short lifespans – approx. 300 rounds for the 30° version, and 160 rounds for the 45° variant. The 30° model was able to achieve a 35×35 cm grouping at 100 m.
Some StG 44s were fitted with the Zielgerät 1229 infra-red aiming device, also known by its codename Vampir ("vampire"). This device consisted of a large scope, rather like modern starlight scopes, and a large infra-red lamp on top, the scope being able to pick up the infra-red that would be invisible to the naked eye. The user had to carry a transformer backpack powered by a battery fitted inside the gas mask canister. Electric cables connected the power unit with the IR reflector, with the cathode ray tube mounted on the rifle imaging IR from the spotlight. The Vampir had only 15 minutes of battery life, but was able to sight within 200 meters in total darkness. A conical flash hider was added to the barrel to keep the muzzle flash from blinding the shooter.
At the end of the war, Hugo Schmeisser claimed that 424,000 MP 43/MP 44/StG 44 rifles were built between June 1943 and April 1945 in four plants: 185,000 by C.G. Haenel in Suhl; 55,000 by J.P. Sauer & Sohn in Suhl; 104,000 in Erfurt; and 80,000 by Steyr-Daimler-Puch AG in Steyr, Austria. This was fewer than the 1.5 million ordered, and far fewer than the 4 million planned.
Some 822 million rounds of 7.92×33mm Kurz ammunition were produced from 1942 to 1945. At the beginning of March 1945, the troops had 273.9 million rounds, with a replenishment reserve of 69.6 million rounds on standby.
Late prototypes
In a somewhat unrelated development, Mauser continued design work on a series of experimental weapons in an effort to produce an acceptable service-wide rifle for the short cartridge system. One of these prototypes, a product of the engineers at the Light Weapon Development Group (Abteilung 37) at Oberndorf, was the MKb Gerät 06 (Maschinenkarabiner Gerät 06 or "machine carbine device 06") first appearing in 1942. This gun used a unique gas piston-delayed roller-locked action derived from the short recoil operation of the MG 42 machine gun but with a fixed barrel and gas system. It was realized that with careful attention to the mechanical ratios, the gas system could be omitted. The resultant weapon, the Gerät 06(H), was supposedly slated for adoption by the Wehrmacht as the StG 45(M). The operating principle lived on in postwar designs from CEAM/AME, CETME, and most famously, Heckler & Koch.
Towards the end of the war, there were last-ditch efforts to develop cheap so-called Volksgewehr rifles in the 7.92×33mm caliber. One of these, the VG 1-5 (Volkssturmgewehr 1-5), used a gas-delayed blowback action based on the Barnitzke system, whereby gas bled from the barrel near the chamber created resistance to the rearward impulse of the operating parts, which ceases when the projectile leaves the muzzle, allowing the operating parts to be forced rearward by the residual pressure of the cartridge case. This principle has been used most successfully in the P7 pistol.
Post-1945
The Sturmgewehr remained in use with the East German Nationale Volksarmee with the designation MPi.44 until it was eventually replaced with domestic variants of the AK-47 assault rifle. The Volkspolizei used it until approximately 1962 when it was replaced by the PPSh-41. It was still used by other public security formations thereafter. The ammunition was manufactured there at least until 1961. Other countries to use the StG 44 after World War II included Czechoslovakia (although it was not officially adopted) and Yugoslavia, where units such as the 63rd Paratroop Battalion were equipped with it until the 1980s, when the rifles were ultimately transferred to Territorial Defense reserves or sold to friendly regimes in the Middle East and Africa. France adopted captured StG 44 for colonial Foreign Legion units.
Argentina manufactured their own trial versions of the StG 44 made by CITEFA in the late 1940s and early 1950s, but instead adopted the FN FAL in 1955, because it used the then more common and powerful 7.62×51mm NATO round, which also lacked connections with the Third Reich.
New semi-automatic civilian reproductions of the MKb 42(H), MP 43/1, and StG 44 are being manufactured in Germany today by SSD (Sport Systeme Dittrich) and distributed by HZA Kulmbach GmbH in the original 7.92×33mm Kurz chambering and accepting the standard magazines. The PTR-44 by PTR Industries was produced for a short while, but was soon discontinued due to high prices and lack of demand. A .22 rimfire copy of the StG 44 by GSG (German Sports Guns) has also been manufactured in great quantity for a lower price, but it is the only widely available reproduction of the StG. Talks have been made by HMG (Hill & Mac Gunworks) to mass-produce a StG-44 replica in different calibers, including the original 7.92×33mm Kurz, but also more modern calibers, like 7.62×39mm, 5.56×45mm NATO and .300 AAC Blackout, but these have yet to be released.
7.92mm Kurz ammunition is currently manufactured by Prvi Partizan of Serbia.
Legacy
The StG 44 was the first assault rifle-type weapon to be accepted into widespread service and put into mass production. "The principle of this weapon — the reduction of muzzle impulse to get useful automatic fire within actual ranges of combat — was probably the most important advance in small arms since the invention of smokeless powder." The StG 44's effect on post-war arms design was wide-ranging, as made evident by Mikhail Kalashnikov's AK-47, and later Eugene Stoner's M16 and its variants. The Soviet Union was quick to adopt the assault rifle concept. The AK-47 used a similar-sized intermediate round and followed the design concept, but utilized a rotating bolt as a part of its firing action. In 1944 the US added an automatic fire capability to the M1 carbine, and issued it as the M2 carbine with 30 round magazines, fulfilling much the same function. Kits were distributed to convert M1 carbines to M2s.
The extent to which the Sturmgewehr influenced the development of the AK-47 is not clearly known. Apart from external layout similarity and the gas-operation principle, the AK-47 was not a copy of the German gun because the AK-47 used a very different mechanism. However, tens of thousands of Sturmgewehrs were captured by the Soviets and were likely provided to Kalashnikov and his team, so it is likely that he knew of it while designing the AK-47. The 7.62×39mm cartridge, however, was more directly influenced by the 7.92×33mm cartridge used in the StG 44. In July 1943, the Soviet Technical Council of the People's Commissariat for Armament (NKV) met to consider new foreign weapons firing lower-powered rounds. Two rounds that were studied were the American .30 Carbine and German 7.92 Kurz, captured from MKb 42(H) rifles undergoing troop trials. The meeting concluded that the 7.92 mm cartridge was an important development and that the Soviets needed to design a reduced-power round. The first prototype 7.62 mm M1943 round was created a month later and used the 7.92 Kurz design method of using the same caliber bullet as their standard rifle round (7.62×54mmR) in a shorter case.
After World War II, many Western countries continued using their existing full-caliber rifles. Although the 7.62×51mm NATO round adopted post-war was still a full-power cartridge, the trend towards the adoption of less powerful rounds was already under way in the West. For example, the M1 Garand had initially been developed for the .276 Pedersen (7 mm) round, a cartridge less powerful than the standard .30-06 Springfield. The U.S. Army's adoption of the M1 carbine in 1941 proved the utility of a small, handy, low-powered rifle that required little training to use effectively. Franchi of Italy-based the actions of both the LF-58 carbine and the LF-59 battle rifle on the StG-44.
United States and, later, NATO developed assault rifles along a roughly similar path by at first adding selective-fire capability in a reduced power, full-caliber cartridge. The Soviet Union lightened the AK-47 and introduced the AKM. The U.S. developed the concept of small-caliber, high-velocity (SCHV) bullets and further reduced the weight of their firearms with the introduction of the M16 (5.56 mm). The Soviet armed forces followed suit with the introduction of the SCHV AK-74 rifle (5.45 mm).
Users
Current users
Syrian National Coalition for Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
Former users
(three built for trial purposes only)
: used post-war in French Indochina
Italian Resistance (captured)
Soviet partisans (captured)
Non-state groups
Captured StG 44 were used by Polish partisan groups during World War II, including during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944, although they were not a commonly captured weapon. Relatively large numbers of StG 44 were used post-war by Polish anti-communist resistance groups until the 1950s.
After World War II, the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc states supplied allied regimes and guerrilla movements with captured German arms, such as the StG 44, along with newly manufactured or repackaged 7.92×33mm ammunition. French forces discovered many in Algeria and determined the origin to be from Czechoslovakia. Examples also found their way into the hands of the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War, and the PLO. It is still used in very limited numbers by militia and insurgent forces in the Middle East as well as some countries in the Horn of Africa. StG 44s have been confiscated from militia groups by U.S. forces in Iraq.
In August 2012, the Syrian Al-Tawhid Brigade posted a video clip on their YouTube channel showing a cache of StG 44s in their possession. They claimed to have captured 5,000 StG 44 rifles and ammunition from a weapons depot in the city of Aleppo. Photos later surfaced of the rebels using them in combat. In September 2013, a photo showed a Syrian rebel with a Sturmgewehr 44 hooked up to a makeshift remote weapon station. The gun was controlled by a wired joystick, vision was provided by a video camera mounted behind a scope, and the picture was displayed on an LCD screen.
See also
Calzada Bayo CB-57
Cei-Rigotti
EPK (Pyrkal) machine gun
Fedorov Avtomat
HIW VSK
List of assault rifles
PPSh-41
StG 45(M)
Vollmer M35
Wimmersperg Spz
References
<ref>https://reaperfeed.com/how-did-an-mp-44-end-up-in-the-hands-of-the-eoka-in-cyprus/
External links
Meet the StG-44: The First Assault Rifle Ever (The National Interest)
The real story behind the legendary StG-44 (Military Times)
7.92×33mm Kurz assault rifles
Firearms by Hugo Schmeisser
Gas-operated firearms
Research and development in Nazi Germany
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1943
World War II assault rifles
World War II infantry weapons of Germany | [
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240142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakeside%20School%20%28Seattle%29 | Lakeside School (Seattle) | Lakeside School is an elite private/independent school located in Seattle, Washington for grades 5–12. As of 2021, school review website Niche ranks Lakeside School the best private high school in Washington state and the 23rd best private high school in the United States.
History
Lakeside School was developed in 1919 by Frank G. Moran as Moran-Lakeside School on the shores of Lake Washington in the Denny-Blaine neighborhood of Seattle. Originally, the school was intended to feed students to Moran's other school, the Moran School on nearby Bainbridge Island. In 1923 the school was incorporated and renamed to Lakeside Day School. In 1923, it moved to the present site of The Bush School in Washington Park. In 1930, Lakeside moved to its newly constructed campus at its current location. It became coeducational upon merger with St. Nicholas School, a Capitol Hill private girls' school, in 1971.
Academics
All courses at Lakeside are college preparatory, and although AP courses are not offered, the majority meet or exceed the rigor and depth of the AP curriculum. Honors courses are only available in science and math. Graduation requirements include 2 years of Arts, 4 years of English, 3 years of History, 3 years in either a foreign language offered (Chinese/French/Spanish/Latin) or 2 years in two foreign languages, 3 years of Math, 2 years of Physical Education, and 2 years of Science. Additionally students are required to participate in one week of Outdoor Education before graduation and perform 80 service hours (on average 146 hours reported per student), at least 60 of which must be off-campus.
Typically 100% of students go on to matriculate at four-year colleges, with 88% of graduates out-of-state.
Student life
Lakeside has many student-initiated and led clubs, such as the Chess Team, the Acafellas and Bellas (male- and female-identifying a cappella groups, respectively), Quiz Bowl, Ethics Bowl, and Imago (a literary magazine). Other aspects of student life include the affinity groups, like BSU (Black Student Union), GLOW (Gay Lesbian Or Whatever, a gay-straight alliance club), LAPS (Lakeside Asian/Pacific Islander Students), MIXED (Multicultural Initiators EXperiencing and Encouraging Diversity), and LATISPA (a support network for Latin American students). The number and nature of clubs changes each year as student interests change.
Athletics
A large program offers golf, football, soccer, volleyball, crew, wrestling, baseball, basketball, tennis, swimming, diving cross country, and track and field as well as a strength and conditioning program. In recent years, the boys' swim team won a 3A WIAA state championship in the 2011-2012 season as well as in the 2012-2013 season. The 2013-2014 boys' soccer team won the WIAA state championship in the 3A division. The 2014 girls' swim team won the 3A WIAA state championship for the first time in school history, and won the 2015 state championship as well. The 2016 volleyball team won the 3A WIAA state championship for the first time in school history. The 2021 girls' soccer team won the 3A WIAA state championship for the first time since 2003.
Global Service Learning
Established in the summer of 2005, the school's Global Service Learning Program, commonly referred to as GSL, aims at helping students look at the world from a different point of view while helping the underprivileged around the world. In 2005, students visited India, Peru, and China; in the summer of 2006 students travelled to Peru, China, Morocco, and the Dominican Republic. In the summer of 2007, 86 Upper School students traveled to Peru, China, Morocco, India, and the Dominican Republic. This list grew to include Senegal as an option for the 2009 summer trips (removed in 2015 due to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa), Ecuador for the 2013 summer trips, Thailand for 2014, and the Dominican Republic for 2015. The Middle School opened its first Global Service Learning Program for seventh graders with trips to the Makah Indian Reservation on Neah Bay in the summer of 2006; it sent an eighth grade trip to Costa Rica every summer between 2007 and 2014. It also began a trip for sixth graders to Broetje Orchards in the summer of 2010. In 2015, it implemented week long GSL trips around the Pacific Northwest for 8th graders. Students visited Cloud View Farms, the Quinault Reservation, Vernonia, Elwha, the Makah Reservation and Broetje Orchards.
The Global Service Learning Program is one piece of a broad change in curriculum and administrative policies aimed at increasing diversity. The school has focused on, in recent years, its role as an elite prep school and its desire for diverse viewpoints and backgrounds of its curriculum, faculty, and students.
Lakeside students have the opportunity to study abroad during their junior year of high school through schools called School Year Abroad, the Mountain School, the High Mountain Institute, the Maine Coast Semester, and CityTerm. Students may apply in the winter of their sophomore year to spend part of their junior year at one of these schools.
Lakeside has a long tradition in engaging students in global affairs. In 1984, Lakeside students competed against students at Moscow School #20 in a chess match relayed by Telex. The event was one of the first of its kind. A yearly exchange program with Moscow School #20 began in 1986, the first such regular American-Soviet school exchange in the country. Since 1984, the schools have been sister schools.
School traditions
Lakeside has many classic traditions and special events, including May Day (organized by Student Government) Convocation, dances and Arts Fest.
Newer traditions include advisory and regular community dialogues. Advisory groups meet several times a week and are a space for students to build connections with each other and their faculty advisor. Regular community dialogue is a tradition that gives all Upper School students a chance to discuss challenging topics like race, religion, and gender in small groups with trained facilitators.
Lakeside also has several traditional fundraising events. ROAR (Raising Our Allocation Resources), is an annual celebration of the Lakeside community and the primary fundraiser of the Parents and Guardians Association. The Rummage sale, held once or twice yearly since 1950, has also raised money for the school, through donations of used items to be sold to the community.
Notable alumni
Wilber Huston, (class of 1929), NASA mission director, Edison Scholar.
David "Ned" Skinner, (class of 1937), former owner of Seattle Space Needle and the Seattle Seahawks.
Adam West (class of 1946), American film actor, played the original role of Batman in the 1960s TV Series.
Charles Pigott (class of 1947), Chairman and CEO of Paccar 1967-1996.
Booth Gardner, (class of 1954), Governor of Washington state; Chair of National Governors Association.
Craig McCaw (class of 1967), founder of McCaw Cellular (now part of AT&T Mobility) and Clearwire Corporation.
Tor Seidler, (class of 1968), author of "A Rat's Tale", "Mean Margaret" and "Gully's Travels".
Frederic Moll (class of 1969), co-founder of Intuitive Surgical, Hansen Medical, Mako Surgical, and Auris Surgical Robots.
Paul Allen (class of 1971), co-founder of Microsoft and Vulcan Inc.
Ric Weiland (class of 1971), computer software pioneer, programmer and LGBT philanthropist.
Bill Gates (class of 1973), co-founder of Microsoft and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
David B. Kaplan, (class of 1976), American physicist and Director of the Institute for Nuclear Theory at the University of Washington.
Maria Eitel (class of 1980), first president of the Nike Foundation.
Annie Leonard, (class of 1982), Executive Director of Greenpeace USA.
Tom Lee, (class of 1986), CEO Galileo Health, former founder, CEO at One Medical.
Christopher Miller (class of 1993), American film director, writer, and producer (How I Met Your Mother, The Lego Movie, and the Jump Street franchise).
Seth Gordon, (class of 1994), American film director, producer, screenwriter, and film editor (The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters, Four Christmases, Freakonomics, Horrible Bosses, Undefeated, Identity Thief, Baywatch).
Marjorie Liu, (class of 1996), author and comic book writer (Monstress, NYX, X-23, Dark Wolverine, Astonishing X-Men).
Duncan Atwood, Javelin thrower who qualified for the 1980 and 1984 Olympics.
Freddie Wong, (class of 2004), filmmaker, musician, VFX artist and competitive gamer.
Daniel Kan, (class of 2005), entrepreneur and founder and COO of Cruise Automation (acquired by General Motors for $1b).
Royce David, (class of 2017), multi-platinum music producer.
Lauren Selig (class of 1994) Film producer, entrepreneur and investor (Hacksaw Ridge, Lone Survivor, American Made). Daughter of Martin Selig.
Corbin Carroll, (class of 2019), baseball player, drafted as the 16th overall pick of the 2019 MLB Draft.
Adam Selipsky, (class of 1984), CEO of Amazon Web Services and former Tableau Software CEO.
References
External links
Lakeside School website
Lakeside Archives
Schools in Seattle
Private high schools in Washington (state)
High schools in King County, Washington
Educational institutions established in 1914
Private middle schools in Washington (state)
1914 establishments in Washington (state)
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240143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Hockey%20Association | World Hockey Association | The World Hockey Association () was a professional ice hockey major league that operated in North America from 1972 to 1979. It was the first major league to compete with the National Hockey League (NHL) since the collapse of the Western Hockey League in 1926. Although the WHA was not the first league since that time to attempt to challenge the NHL's supremacy, it was by far the most successful in the modern era.
The WHA tried to capitalize on the lack of hockey teams in a number of major American cities and mid-level Canadian cities, and also hoped to attract the best players by paying more than NHL owners would. The WHA successfully challenged the NHL's reserve clause, which had bound players to their NHL teams even without a valid contract, allowing players in both leagues greater freedom of movement. Sixty-seven players jumped from the NHL to the WHA in the first year, led by star forward Bobby Hull, whose ten-year, $2.75 million contract was a record at the time. The WHA took the initiative to sign European players, ushering in a new era in North American hockey.
The WHA had an acrimonious relationship with the NHL, resulting in numerous legal battles, as well as competition for control of players and markets. In spite of this, merger talks began almost immediately, as the WHA was constantly unstable, with franchises occasionally relocating or folding in the middle of the season. NHL owners voted down a 1977 plan to merge six WHA teams (the Edmonton Oilers, New England Whalers, Quebec Nordiques, Cincinnati Stingers, Houston Aeros, and Winnipeg Jets) into the NHL before a 1979 merger was approved.
As a result, the WHA ceased operations, and four teams joined the NHL for the 1979–80 season: the Edmonton Oilers, New England Whalers, Quebec Nordiques, and Winnipeg Jets. Of these four teams, two of the three Canadian teams — the Nordiques and Jets — eventually moved south to Denver and Phoenix, respectively, although the NHL would return to Winnipeg with the 2011 relocation of the Atlanta Thrashers, who would rename themselves the Winnipeg Jets upon their relocation. The Whalers later moved from Hartford to Raleigh, North Carolina. The Oilers are the only WHA merger team to retain both their original name and city. The final WHA game was played on May 20, 1979, as the Jets defeated the Oilers to win their third Avco World Trophy.
History
Founding
The World Hockey Association was founded in 1971 by American promoters Dennis Murphy and Gary Davidson. The men had previously been the founder and first president of the American Basketball Association, respectively. They quickly recruited Bill Hunter, president of the junior Western Canada Hockey League. Hunter and Murphy traveled across North America recruiting franchise owners, and by September 1971, had announced that the league would begin in 1972 with ten teams, each having paid $25,000 for their franchise.
The average NHL salary in 1972 was $25,000, the lowest of the four major sports, while each player was bound by a reserve clause, that automatically extended their contract by one year when it expired, tying them to their team for the life of their career. In October 1972, the WHA announced that it would not use the reserve clause, stating that "The reserve clause won't stand up to the scrutiny of ... players, players associations, the United States Congress, the public, and the Supreme Court." The WHA also promised much higher salaries than the NHL offered, and by the time the league began play, it had lured 67 former NHL players to its league, including Bernie Parent, Gerry Cheevers, Derek Sanderson, J. C. Tremblay, and Ted Green. The biggest name signed was former Chicago Black Hawks star Bobby Hull, who agreed to a ten-year, $2.7 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets, the largest in hockey history at the time, and one that lent the league instant credibility.
The NHL tried to block several of the defections. The Boston Bruins attempted to restrain Sanderson and Cheevers from joining the WHA, though a United States federal court refused to prohibit the signings. The Black Hawks were successful in having a restraining order filed against Hull and the Jets pending the outcome of legal action the Black Hawks were taking against the WHA. The new league was eager for the court action, intending to challenge the legality of the reserve clause.
In November 1972, Judge A. Leon Higginbotham Jr. of the U.S. District Court in Philadelphia placed an injunction against the NHL, preventing it from enforcing the reserve clause and freeing all players who had restraining orders against them, including Hull, to play with their WHA clubs. The decision effectively ended the NHL's monopoly on major league professional hockey talent.
Teams
On November 1, 1971, twelve teams were formally announced. They included cities without NHL teams such as the Miami Screaming Eagles, as well as teams in cities where the league's promoters believed there was room for more than one team, such as the Los Angeles Aces, Chicago Cougars, and New York Raiders. Two of the original twelve teams moved before the first season started: the Dayton Arrows became the Houston Aeros and the San Francisco Sharks became the Quebec Nordiques. The Los Angeles franchise then took the nickname Sharks to replace Aces. The Calgary Broncos and the Screaming Eagles folded outright, replaced by the Philadelphia Blazers and the Cleveland Crusaders.
Although the league had many players under contract by June 1972, including a few NHL stars such as Bernie Parent, many of them were career minor league and college players. The new league was not considered much of a threat, until Bobby Hull, arguably the NHL's top forward at the time, jumped over. Hull had not been thought to be seriously considering signing with the WHA, even though he was in contentious salary negotiations with the Chicago Black Hawks, and when he told reporters that he would only move to the WHA "for a million dollars", it was both intended by Hull and taken by his audience to be a joke since a million dollars at that time was considered to be a ridiculous amount of money for a hockey player. Nevertheless, the Winnipeg Jets offered Hull a five-year, one million dollar contract with a one million dollar signing bonus. Hull accepted the Jets' offer, sealing the deal in an elaborate signing ceremony at Portage and Main. Hull's move to the upstart league attracted a few other top stars such as Cheevers, Sanderson, and Tremblay.
The WHA officially made its debut on October 11, 1972, at the Ottawa Civic Centre, when the Alberta Oilers defeated the Ottawa Nationals 7–4. Although the quality of hockey was predictably below that of the NHL, the WHA had indeed made stars out of many players that had little or no playing time in the NHL.
The New England Whalers eventually won the WHA's inaugural championship, later renamed the Avco World Trophy when the Avco Financial Services Corporation became its main sponsor. However, the trophy had not yet been completed, and the Whalers skated their divisional championship trophy around the ice surface, much to the embarrassment of the WHA office.
Problems
Right from the start, the league was plagued with problems. Many teams often found themselves in financial difficulty, folding or moving from one city to another, sometimes mid-season. Citing arena troubles, two of the original twelve teams, the Dayton Arrows and the San Francisco Sharks, relocated before the first season began, becoming the Houston Aeros and Quebec Nordiques, respectively. The Calgary Broncos and the Miami Screaming Eagles, folded outright before the first puck dropped, being replaced by the Philadelphia Blazers and the Cleveland Crusaders.
The New York Raiders, initially intended to be the WHA's flagship team, suffered from numerous problems. While they planned to play in the brand new Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, Nassau County did not consider the WHA a major league and wanted nothing to do with the Raiders. The county recruited William Shea, leader of New York City's successful lobbying campaign to get baseball's National League to expand following the 1957 departures of the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants. Working with the NHL, Shea swiftly won over the initially reluctant president of the New York Rangers, Bill Jennings, who was persuaded that it would be better to accept competition from an NHL team that would at least be willing to pay his club compensation for sharing the Rangers' territory as opposed to a WHA team that would owe his franchise nothing. The NHL quickly awarded a franchise to Long Island, the New York Islanders, who locked up the Coliseum for their own use from 1972 onwards. The Raiders were first forced to rent space at Madison Square Garden, where they were tenants to the Rangers. The situation rapidly became untenable, with an onerous lease and poor attendance, so the three original owners defaulted and the league ended up taking control of the team midway through the season. The Raiders were sold after their inaugural season. They were renamed the New York Golden Blades for the 1972–73 season, but were forced into a Sundays-only home schedule due to the high price of rent and scheduling conflicts with other events at Madison Square Garden. This was not enough to save the team, and the league was forced to take over the franchise again 24 games into the second season. Realizing that it could not hope to compete with both the Rangers and the Islanders, the WHA moved the Golden Blades to New Jersey soon after taking control. Renamed the Jersey Knights, they played at the Cherry Hill Arena which had a slope in the ice surface, causing pucks to shoot upward from results of a pass or shot, chain link fencing instead of Plexiglas surrounding the rink, and inadequate, cramped changing and dressing facilities.
Ahead of the 1972–73 season, Toronto Maple Leafs owner Harold Ballard deliberately made the Toronto Toros' lease terms at Maple Leaf Gardens as difficult as possible after they moved from Ottawa. The Toros were owned by John F. Bassett, son of Canadian media mogul John Bassett. The older Bassett had formerly been part-owner of the Leafs with Ballard and Stafford Smythe before falling out with his two partners. At the time of the Toros' lease at Maple Leaf Gardens, Ballard was serving a lengthy prison term for fraud and tax evasion and was unable to intervene; but by the time the Toros played their first game, Ballard had been paroled and had regained control of the Gardens. Much to Bassett's outrage, the arena was dim for the first game. Ballard also ordered the cushions from the home bench removed for Toros' games (he told an arena worker, "Let 'em buy their own cushions!"). It was obvious that Ballard was angered at the WHA being figuratively in his backyard, and took out his frustration with the renegade league on the Toros. These terms compelled Bassett to move the team to Birmingham after three seasons.
In Denver, the Spurs, an established Western Hockey League team, were originally supposed to join the NHL in the same way the Vancouver Canucks and California Golden Seals had in the preceding decade. When the NHL reneged on the agreement, and Spurs owner Ivan Mullenix was unable to negotiate an early entry into the NHL, he accepted an offer to join the WHA for the 1975–76 season. Disastrous attendance in Denver was blamed largely on the city's rejection of the WHA's assertion that it was a major league, and halfway through the season, the team abruptly moved to become the Ottawa Civics; after seven games as the Civics, and 41 overall, the franchise folded. The NHL soon fulfilled its promise to Denver by moving the Kansas City Scouts to become the Colorado Rockies in the 1976 offseason.
Part of the financial trouble was attributed to the high player salaries. For instance, the Philadelphia Blazers signed Derek Sanderson for $2.6 million, which surpassed that of Brazilian soccer star, Pelé, making him the highest-paid athlete in the world at the time. Unfortunately, his play did not live up to the expectations of his salary, and between an early-season injury, intemperate remarks to the press, and Blazer financial troubles, Sanderson's contract was bought out before the end of the season.
As well, big stars lacked supporting players and the quality of the on-ice product suffered.
Talent competition
The WHA had won several key victories, including a court ruling that prevented the NHL from binding players to its teams via the reserve clause, and the signings of more NHL stars such as Gordie Howe, Andre Lacroix, Marc Tardif, and in later years, Frank Mahovlich and Paul Henderson.
In 1974, to broaden a depleted talent pool, the WHA began signing European players, which the NHL had largely ignored up to that time, in serious numbers, including stars such as Swedish Anders Hedberg and Ulf Nilsson and Slovak center Vaclav Nedomansky, who had just defected from Czechoslovakia. Winnipeg especially loaded up with Scandinavian players and became the class of the league, with Hedberg and Nilsson combining with Bobby Hull to form one of hockey's most formidable forward lines. Along with the mass import of European stars, Vancouver attempted unsuccessfully to lure Phil Esposito away from the NHL by offering a contract similar to that of Bobby Hull, with a million dollars upfront.
International play
The 1972 Summit Series, which pitted Team Canada against the Soviets, did not permit WHA players, due to the decision of series organizer Alan Eagleson, an NHL agent who was influential in forming the Canadian team. Bobby Hull, one of the best WHA players, was ruled ineligible to play because of his defection from the NHL, despite being initially selected by coach Harry Sinden. Dennis Hull initially planned to boycott the event as well as a show of support for his older brother, but Bobby persuaded him to stay on Team Canada. Other WHA stars turned down included Gerry Cheevers, J.C. Tremblay and Derek Sanderson. Some NHL owners also threatened not to free their players to participate if WHA players were permitted.
The WHA organized the 1974 Summit Series against the Soviets, giving an opportunity for Hull and 46-year-old Gordie Howe to play for Canada against the Soviet team, which the Soviets won 4-1-3.
In the 1976 Canada Cup, the NHL and NHLPA broadened the scope of the competition, inviting to the tournament a number of hockey countries and allowing each invited country to send the best possible team they could muster, so this time WHA players were permitted. WHA players played on four of the tournament's six teams.
In December 1976 and January 1977, the Super Series '76-77 tournament took place, opposing the HC CSKA Moscow (Red Army) and WHA teams. The Red Army won the series 6–2.
Decline and merger
By 1976, it had become evident that many of the WHA's franchises were teetering on the verge of financial collapse, and that the (at one time) combined 32 teams of the NHL and WHA had badly strained professional hockey's talent pool.
In 1977, merger discussions with the National Hockey League were first initiated, with Houston, Cincinnati, Winnipeg, New England, Quebec, and Edmonton applying for entry to the NHL, who voted the proposal down. Merger discussions resumed in 1978, but Houston was not part of the proposal this time. During the final series of talks, Aeros owner Kenneth Schnitzer suggested to the NHL that either his team be admitted as an expansion team independent of a merger, or he would attempt to purchase an existing club and relocate it to Houston. Neither came to fruition, and as a result the Aeros elected to fold on July 6, 1978. Another proposal had the Edmonton Oilers and the New England Whalers moving to the NHL, with the Winnipeg Jets following a year later, but this was also not accepted by the NHL.
The final two seasons of the WHA saw the debut of many superstars, some of whom became hockey legends in the NHL, including Wayne Gretzky, Mark Messier, Mike Liut, and Mike Gartner. The Birmingham Bulls alone featured future NHLers Rick Vaive, Michel Goulet, Rob Ramage, Ken Linseman, Craig Hartsburg, Rod Langway, Mark Napier, Pat Riggin and Gaston Gingras.
By the end of the final season, only six teams remained. Facing financial difficulty and unable to meet payrolls, the WHA finally came to an agreement with the NHL in early 1979. Under the deal, four WHA clubs – the Edmonton Oilers, New England Whalers (renamed the Hartford Whalers), Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets – joined the NHL. The other two WHA teams, the Cincinnati Stingers and Birmingham Bulls, were paid $1.5 million apiece in compensation. The NHL treated the new clubs' arrival as an expansion, not a merger, and refused to recognize any WHA records. While the four new clubs were allowed to stock their rosters through the expansion draft, NHL teams were allowed to reclaim players who had jumped to the WHA.
The WHA was able to extract three key concessions. First, the WHA teams were allowed to protect two goaltenders and two skaters to keep their rosters from being completely stripped clean by the NHL teams. Second, the NHL allowed all of the WHA's Canadian teams to be part of the deal. The NHL had originally been willing to take only the Oilers, Whalers, and Jets, but the WHA insisted that the Nordiques be included as well. Third, although the NHL had insisted on treating the deal as an expansion, it agreed to freeze the expansion fee for each team at $6 million U.S., the same fee paid by every other team that had joined the NHL in the 1970s. By comparison, when the Atlanta Flames were sold and moved to Calgary one year later, the sale was $16 million U.S.
The deal came up for a vote at the NHL Board of Governors meeting in Key Largo, Florida on March 8, 1979. The final tally was 12–5, one vote short of passage, as a three-quarters majority was required to permit a merger. The Boston Bruins, Los Angeles Kings, Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Maple Leafs and Vancouver Canucks voted against the deal. The Bruins were not pleased with having to share New England with the Whalers. Los Angeles and Vancouver feared losing home dates with NHL teams from the East. Montreal and Toronto were not enamored at the prospect of having to split revenue from Hockey Night in Canada broadcasts six ways rather than three.
When a second vote was held in Chicago on March 22, 1979, Montreal and Vancouver changed their votes, allowing the deal to go forward. Vancouver and Los Angeles were won over by the promise of a balanced schedule, with each team playing the others twice at home and twice on the road. The Canadiens' owners, Molson Breweries, were feeling the effects of a massive boycott that originated in Edmonton, Quebec City, and Winnipeg and spread across Canada. With the boycott severely hurting Molson's sales, the brewer reached agreement with the owners of the three Canadian WHA teams to have Molson replace their competitors (and Nordiques owners) Carling O'Keefe as the exclusive beer supplier for the Oilers' and Jets' arenas; it is probable that this concession was made in exchange for the Canadiens' vote.
The agreement officially took effect on June 22, 1979 (three months to the day after the deciding vote). On that day, the WHA folded and the NHL formally granted expansion franchises to Edmonton, Hartford, Quebec City, and Winnipeg.
Legacy of the WHA
On the ice, the WHA teams had proven themselves to be the NHL's competitive equals, winning more games than they lost in interleague exhibition games.
The WHA had many lasting effects on NHL hockey. The NHL used to recruit virtually all its players from Canada, but following the success of the Jets' Hedberg and Nilsson, scouts began looking overseas for the best players that Europe could offer. Teams such as the Whalers and Fighting Saints offered excellent opportunities for young American players, and several U.S.-born or -raised NHL stars of the early 1980s (such as Mark Howe, Rod Langway, Dave Langevin, Robbie Ftorek, and Paul Holmgren) had begun their pro careers in the WHA. As a result, the NHL evolved into a truly cosmopolitan league during the 1980s.
The WHA ended the NHL policy of paying its players only a fraction of the league's profits and, combined with the abolition of the reserve clause, led to much higher player salaries. Many great stars began their careers in the WHA, including Mark Howe, Wayne Gretzky, Mike Gartner, Mike Liut, and Mark Messier, who was the last WHA veteran to play in the NHL; he opened his professional career with 52 games with the Indianapolis Racers and Cincinnati Stingers in 1978–79, and played his last NHL game on April 3, 2004. The final active player and official in any on-ice capacity for the league was referee Don Koharski, who started as a linesman for the WHA and retired at the end of the 2008–09 NHL season.
The WHA instituted sudden death overtime for regular season games to break ties. If no team scored during a 10-minute overtime period, the game ended in a tie. In the 1983–84 season, the NHL then instituted a 5-minute sudden death overtime period to break regular season ties.
The WHA had experimented with blue colored pucks, which were supposedly easier for fans to see. The NHL did not adopt the blue pucks, but any remaining blue WHA pucks are highly sought after collectors' items.
Fate of surviving teams
The former WHA clubs, by the terms of the expansion, could protect only two goalies and two skaters each in the player dispersal draft. The Jets posted a dismal nine wins in their second season (second-fewest all-time for a season in the NHL), and finished last. The other WHA teams did respectably well in their first year, with the Whalers and Oilers earning playoff berths. The Oilers chose to protect Wayne Gretzky in the dispersal draft, which would prove fortuitous. Gretzky and the Whalers' Gordie Howe were selected to the mid-season All-Star Game, respectively the second-youngest and the oldest ever to play in the match.
The 1980s was a successful period for the former WHA teams. The Oilers shattered numerous NHL records and amassed a Stanley Cup dynasty, winning five Cups in its first ten seasons. The Jets of the 1980s, decimated by the dispersal draft, developed a solid nucleus of players that helped the club achieve respectable regular-season finishes. After missing the playoffs in their first NHL season, the Nordiques quickly became competitive, advancing as far as the third round of the playoffs in their third season. Quebec developed an intense rivalry with the Montreal Canadiens. The Whalers had similar rivalries with the Boston Bruins and New York Rangers, and skated to the 1986–87 Adams Division title.
In the 1990s, the former WHA clubs suffered from escalating player salaries (ironically, the same trend that was instigated by the WHA). The ex-WHA clubs based in Canada were also hit hard by the declining value of the Canadian dollar. The Nordiques moved to Denver in 1995 and became the Colorado Avalanche, the Winnipeg Jets moved to Phoenix in 1996 and became the Phoenix Coyotes, and the Hartford Whalers moved to North Carolina in 1997 and became the Carolina Hurricanes. The Oilers remain as the last WHA team still in its original city.
Hockey Hall of Fame members
List of WHA players and executives inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame:
Andy Bathgate, Vancouver Blazers
Gerry Cheevers, Cleveland Crusaders
Mike Gartner, Cincinnati Stingers
Michel Goulet, Birmingham Bulls
Wayne Gretzky, Indianapolis Racers, Edmonton Oilers
Gordie Howe, Houston Aeros, New England Whalers
Mark Howe, Houston Aeros, New England Whalers
Harry Howell, New York Golden Blades/Jersey Knights, San Diego Mariners, Calgary Cowboys
Bobby Hull, Winnipeg Jets
Dave Keon, Minnesota Fighting Saints, Indianapolis Racers, New England WhalersRod Langway, Birmingham Bulls
Frank Mahovlich, Toronto Toros/Birmingham Bulls
Mark Messier, Cincinnati Stingers, Indianapolis Racers
Václav Nedomanský, Toronto Toros/Birmingham Bulls
Bernie Parent, Philadelphia Blazers
Jacques Plante, Edmonton Oilers
Bud Poile, WHA executive vice-president
Marcel Pronovost, coach-Chicago Cougars
Maurice Richard, coach-Quebec Nordiques
Glen Sather, Edmonton Oilers
Norm Ullman, Edmonton Oilers
Trophies and awards
This is a list of the trophies and awards handed out annually by the World Hockey Association.
Avco World Trophy – Awarded to the playoff champion
Gary L. Davidson Award / Gordie Howe Trophy – Most valuable player of the regular season
Bill Hunter Trophy – Leading scorer of the regular season
Lou Kaplan Trophy – Rookie of the year
Ben Hatskin Trophy – Best goaltender
Dennis A. Murphy Trophy – Best defenseman
Paul Deneau Trophy – Most gentlemanly player
Howard Baldwin Trophy / Robert Schmertz Memorial Trophy – Coach of the year
WHA Playoff MVP – Most valuable player in the playoffs
Timeline of teams
Three Canadian teams completed all seven WHA seasons based in the same city, and were the same three Canadian teams that ultimately joined the NHL. The other WHA team to enter the NHL, the Whalers, were the only other WHA team to play all of its home games over seven seasons within a relatively small geographical area. Of the original 12 WHA franchises, only the Winnipeg Jets remained for all seven seasons without relocating, changing team names, or folding.
WHA All-Star Game
Every season of the World Hockey Association had an All-Star game, but the format changed with regularity.
1972–73 Eastern Division 6, Western Division 2 @ Quebec
1973–74 Eastern Division 8, Western Division 4 @ St. Paul
1974–75 Western Division 6, Eastern Division 4 @ Edmonton
1975–76 Canadian-based teams (5) 6, US-based teams (9)1 @ Cleveland
1976–77 Eastern Division 4, Western Division 2 @ Hartford
1977–78 AVCO Cup champion Quebec Nordiques 5, WHA All-Star team 4 @ Quebec
1978–79 WHA All-Star team vs Dynamo Moscow in a three-game series @ Edmonton. WHA won all 3 games 4–2, 4–2, 4–3
See also
List of ice hockey leagues
List of WHA head coaches
World Hockey Association (proposed)
References
Footnotes
General
External links
Internet Hockey Database – standings and statistics
WHA Hockey.com – unfinished, but still the most complete history of the league
WHA Hall of Fame
Sports leagues established in 1972
1979 disestablishments in Canada
Defunct ice hockey leagues in the United States
Defunct ice hockey leagues in Canada
1979 disestablishments in the United States
1972 establishments in Canada
1972 establishments in the United States
Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States | [
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|
240145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu%20Empire | Manchu Empire | Manchu Empire may refer to:
Qing Dynasty (大清帝國), 1644–1912; the last imperial dynasty of China
Manchukuo (大滿洲帝國), 1932–1945; Japanese puppet kingdom | [
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240146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol%20Empire | Mongol Empire | The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, extending northward into parts of the Arctic; eastward and southward into the Indian subcontinent, Mainland Southeast Asia and the Iranian Plateau; and westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan (–1227), whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West, and the Pacific to the Mediterranean, in an enforced Pax Mongolica, allowing the dissemination and exchange of trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies across Eurasia.
The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. A key reason for the split was the dispute over whether the Mongol Empire would become a sedentary, cosmopolitan empire, or would stay true to the Mongol nomadic and steppe-based lifestyle. After Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan, who fought each other in the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the Chagatayid and Ögedeid families.
During the reigns of Genghis and Ögedei, the Mongols suffered the occasional defeat when a less skilled general received the command. The Siberian Tumeds defeated the Mongol forces under Borokhula around 1215–1217; Jalal al-Din defeated Shigi-Qutugu at the Battle of Parwan in 1221; and the Jin generals Heda and Pu'a defeated Dolqolqu in 1230. In each case, the Mongols returned shortly after with a much larger army led by one of their best generals, and were invariably victorious. The Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee in 1260 marked the first time that the Mongols would not return to immediately avenge a defeat, due to a combination of the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, the Toluid Civil War between Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan, and Berke Khan of the Golden Horde attacking Hulagu Khan in Persia. Although the Mongols launched many more invasions of the Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors.
By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east, based in modern-day Beijing.
In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty.
In 1368, the Han-ruled Ming dynasty took over the Yuan capital of Dadu, marking the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in China proper. The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule the Mongolian Plateau as the Northern Yuan dynasty. The Ilkhanate disintegrated in the period 1335–1353. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and was defeated and thrown out of Russia in 1480 by the Grand Duchy of Moscow while the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687.
Name
The Mongol Empire referred to itself as yeke Mongγol ulus ( 'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or kür uluγ ulus ( the 'whole great nation') in Turkic.
After the 1260 to 1264 succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Kublai's power became limited to the eastern part of the empire, centred on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to name his realm Great Yuan (Dai Yuan, or Dai Ön Ulus) and to establish the Yuan dynasty. Some sources give the full Mongolian name as Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus.
History
Pre-empire context
The area around Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of North China had been controlled by the Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan, great-grandfather of Genghis Khan.
The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations (khanlig): Keraites, Khamag Mongol, Naiman, Mergid, and Tatar. The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule, encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143.
In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161.
During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly enhanced Mongol military strength.
Rise of Genghis Khan
Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain. As a young man he rose very rapidly by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. The most powerful Mongol leader at the time was Kurtait; he was given the Chinese title "Wang", which means King. Temujin went to war against Kurtait (now Wang Khan). After Temujin defeated Wang Khan he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin. The term Mongol came to be used to refer to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Khereid chieftain Toghrul, and Temujin's childhood anda (i.e. blood brother) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte, and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars.
Temujin forbade looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving it all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the khagan (Emperor) of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire.
Early organization
Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig, the imperial guard, was founded and divided into day (khorchin torghuds) and night (khevtuul) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans.
Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season.
He appointed his stepbrother Shikhikhutug as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy and the adaptation of the Uyghur script into what would become the Mongolian script of the empire, ordering the Uyghur Tata-tonga, who had previously served the khan of Naimans, to instruct his sons.
Push into Central Asia
Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai.
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.
Religious policies
Prior to the three western khanates' adoption of Islam, Genghis Khan and a number of his Yuan successors placed restrictions on religious practices they saw as alien. Muslims, including Hui, and Jews, were collectively referred to as Huihui. Muslims were forbidden from Halal or Zabiha butchering, while Jews were similarly forbidden from Kashrut or Shehita butchering. Referring to the conquered subjects as "our slaves," Genghis Khan demanded they no longer be able to refuse food or drink, and imposed restrictions on slaughter. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.
Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs.
Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)
Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea, an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.
Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs, Bulgars, and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars. In 1230, the great khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the Mongols captured Caizhou, the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and the Tangut general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍.
In the West Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire. The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were a number of Mongolian campaigns into Goryeo Korea, but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. Gojong, the king of Goryeo, surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island.
Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China
Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their withdrawal.
Batu Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the Bulgars, the Alans, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins, Chuvash, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan, the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River.
The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well.
Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:
Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with Güyük, Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri, the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan, remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent, temporarily investing Uchch, Lahore, and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir, though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongolian princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his kheshig with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.
Push into central Europe
The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the Poles, the Moravians, and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers, Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance at Legnica. The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern Albania, news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in the Mongols' decision to withdraw.
Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)
Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow Töregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük. But Batu, ruler of the Golden Horde, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the Mongolian climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire.
When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy.
Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder. He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü, the khan of the Chagatai Khanate, with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke, to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision.
Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The Hashshashins, former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered the Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Nizari Ismailis and conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq.
Death of Güyük (1248)
In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Russia.
Suspicious of Güyük's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in Xinjiang, possibly a victim of poison.
Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongolian heartland, members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated Möngke, a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Russia, the northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity.
Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and the other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan.
Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)
When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of the Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke.
Shiremun moved with his own forces toward the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed.
Möngke confiscated the estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui.
Administrative reforms
Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to the building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries, mosques, and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and Persian architecture. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher, a Parisian goldsmith.
Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258.
In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well.
Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan. Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of Đại Việt under the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times.
New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China
After stabilizing the empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China. Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army.
The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis, a well-known sect of Shiites. The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257, except for Girdkuh which held out until 1271.
The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph al-Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and captured by the Mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack, an event considered one of the most catastrophic events in the history of Islam, and sometimes compared to the rupture of the Kaaba. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.
His army advanced toward Ayyubid-ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan Al-Nasir Yusuf of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, the Armenians from Cilicia, the Seljuks from Rum and the Christian realms of Antioch and Tripoli submitted to Mongol authority, joining them in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others, such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.
Death of Möngke Khan (1259)
Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire as Batu suspected that Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's own dominance there.
In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army, but did not complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on 11 August 1259. This event began a new chapter in the history of the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new great khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new kurultai.
Disunity
Dispute over succession
Möngke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.
In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion in the Middle East, and the Mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than Syria.
In a separate part of the empire, Kublai Khan, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, heard of the great khan's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the Wuchang area of China, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariqboke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at Kaiping, and nearly all the senior princes and great noyans in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.
Mongolian Civil War
Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.
In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260. Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.
Hulagu died on 8 February 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son Abaqa as new Ilkhan, and nominated Batu's grandson Möngke Temür to lead the Golden Horde. Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on 21 August 1264.
Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294)
In the south, after the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as the Yuan dynasty and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China to win the control of the Chinese people. Kublai moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, the genesis for what later became the modern city of Beijing. His establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture.
The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against (Song) China, and the Chinese Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during his reign.
After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and successfully conquering China, Kublai pursued further expansion. His invasions of Burma and Sakhalin were costly, and his attempted invasions of Đại Việt (northern Vietnam) and Champa (southern Vietnam) ended in devastating defeat, but secured vassal statuses of those countries. The Mongol armies were repeatedly beaten in Đại Việt and were crushed at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288).
Nogai and Konchi, the khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling.
In 1274 and again in 1281, Kublai Khan invaded Japan on two separate occasions. However, he was not able to conquer Japan.
Disintegration into competing entities
Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan dynasty, died in 1294. He was succeeded by his grandson Temür Khan, who continued Kublai's policies. At the same time the Toluid Civil War, along with the Berke–Hulagu war and the subsequent Kaidu–Kublai war, greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol Empire and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, the Yuan dynasty and the three western khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire.
After the death of Kaidu, the Chatagai ruler Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ögedeids to submit to Temür Khan. In 1304, all of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted Yuan emperor Temür's supremacy. This established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates, which was to last for several decades. This supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier Khagans and each of the four khanates continued to develop separately and function as independent states.
Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the Pax Mongolica, and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. Communication between the Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions toward the West. Pope John XXII was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica: "... Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g., the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects." However, while the four khanates continued to interact with one another well into the 14th century, they did so as sovereign states and never again pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.
Development of the khanates
In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür established a tributary relationship with the war-like Shan people after his series of military operations against Thailand from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols.
When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan dynasty in the east. It was politically useful to advertise the great khan's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the Golden Horde in Russia had long made claims on nearby Georgia. Within four years, Ghazan began sending tribute to the Yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept Temür Khan as their overlord. He oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty in the following decades.
Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors' war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongolian advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, but he was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the Chagatai Khanate under its de facto ruler Kaidu, who was at war with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan dynasty.
Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan (r. 1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Russia, requested assistance from both Temür Khan and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces. Temür was amenable and attacked Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür's armies near the Zawkhan River in 1301, Kaidu died and was succeeded by Duwa.
Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids. Tokhta of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier. Tokhta died in 1312, though, and was succeeded by Ozbeg (r. 1313–41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed. Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan's envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg.
In the Chagatai Khanate, Esen Buqa I (r. 1309–1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Recognising the potential economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326. He strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths. By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, Abu Said Khan (r. 1316–35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian Chupan the title of commander-in-chief of all Mongol khanates, but Chupan died in late 1327.
Civil war erupted in the Yuan dynasty in 1328–29. After the death of Yesün Temür in 1328, Tugh Temür became the new leader in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu, leading to the civil war known as the War of the Two Capitals. Tugh Temür defeated Ragibagh, but the Chagatai khan Eljigidey (r. 1326–29) supported Kusala, elder brother of Tugh Temür, as great khan. He invaded with a commanding force, and Tugh Temür abdicated. Kusala was elected khan on 30 August 1329. Kusala was then poisoned by a Kypchak commander under Tugh Temür, who returned to power.
Tugh Temür (1304–32) was knowledgeable about Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the Mongol world, he sent Genghisid princes and descendants of notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said, and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year. Furthermore, Tugh Temür gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger.
Relict states of the Mongol Empire
With the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, Mongol rule faltered and Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor, and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the Jalayir, Qasarid Togha Temür (d. 1353), and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Georgians pushed the Mongols out of their territory, and the Uyghur commander Eretna established an independent state (Eretnids) in Anatolia in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the loyal vassal, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, received escalating threats from the Mamluks and were eventually overrun in 1375.
Along with the dissolution of the Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the Chagatai Khanate were also in turmoil. The plague known as the Black Death, which started in the Mongol dominions and spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing millions. Plague may have taken 50 million lives in Europe alone in the 14th century.
As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-Mongol leaders expanded their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Poland and Lithuania between 1342 and 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331 to 1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans in Transoxiana and Moghulistan. Janibeg Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in Azerbaijan, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control".
However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde after the assassination of his successor Berdibek Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler Toghan Temür (r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those troubles, a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a hyperinflationary spiral and the Han-Chinese people revolted due to the Yuan's harsh impositions. In the 1350s, Gongmin of Goryeo successfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.
Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces and in 1368 fled to their heartland in Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai Khanate were defeated by Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405), who founded the Timurid Empire. However, remnants of the Chagatai Khanate survived; the last Chagataid state to survive was the Yarkent Khanate, until its defeat by the Oirat Dzungar Khanate in the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr in 1680. The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power over four centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow, the Great Horde, survived until 1502, when one of its successors, the Crimean Khanate, sacked Sarai. The Crimean Khanate lasted until 1783, whereas khanates such as the Khanate of Bukhara and the Kazakh Khanate lasted even longer.
Military organization
The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate, but was at least 105,000 in 1206. The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the decimal system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, arbans (10 people), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000).
The Mongols were most famous for their horse archers, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military specialists from the lands they conquered. With experienced Chinese engineers and a bombardier corps which was expert at building trebuchets, catapults and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.
Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each other.
Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by Juvayni. These hunts were distinctive from hunts in other cultures, being the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the game within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to slaughter them all.
Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the Battle of Mohi (April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.
Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used naval power. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the Song dynasty of China, though their attempts to mount seaborne campaigns against Japan were unsuccessful. Around the Eastern Mediterranean, their campaigns were almost exclusively land-based, with the seas controlled by the Crusader and Mamluk forces.
All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.
Society
Law and governance
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties, e.g., the death penalty if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders. Under Yassa, chiefs and generals were selected based on merit. The empire was governed by a non-democratic, parliamentary-style central assembly, called kurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the great khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new great khan.
Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes.
The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China and sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, thus using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The Mongols were tolerant of other religions, and rarely persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought. Some historians of the 20th century thought this was a good military strategy: when Genghis was at war with Sultan Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight, as it was seen as a non-holy war between two individual powers.
Religions
At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found Mongol converts, from Buddhism to Christianity, from Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation and from public service.
Initially there were few formal places of worship because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrism, and Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.
Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of the local populations: the Mongol-ruled Chinese Yuan dynasty in the East (originally the Great Khan's domain) embraced Buddhism and Shamanism, while the three Western khanates adopted Islam.
Arts and literature
The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family some time after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.
Another classic from the empire is the Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy.
Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid; this is arguably its first known usage.
The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people.
Science
The Mongol Empire saw some significant developments in science due to the patronage of the Khans. Roger Bacon attributed the success of the Mongols as world conquerors principally to their devotion to mathematics. Astronomy was one branch of science that the Khans took a personal interest in. According to the Yuanshi, Ögedei Khan twice ordered the armillary sphere of Zhongdu to be repaired (in 1233 and 1236) and also ordered in 1234 the revision and adoption of the Damingli calendar. He built a Confucian temple for Yelü Chucai in Karakorum around 1236 where Yelü Chucai created and regulated a calendar on the Chinese model. Möngke Khan was noted by Rashid al-Din as having solved some of the difficult problems of Euclidean geometry on his own and written to his brother Hulagu Khan to send him the astronomer Tusi. Möngke Khan's desire to have Tusi build him an observatory in Karakorum did not reach fruition as the Khan died on campaign in southern China. Hulagu Khan instead gave Tusi a grant to build the Maragheh Observatory in Persia in 1259 and ordered him to prepare astronomical tables for him in 12 years, despite Tusi asking for 30 years. Tusi successfully produced the Ilkhanic Tables in 12 years, produced a revised edition of Euclid's elements and taught the innovative mathematical device called the Tusi couple. The Maragheh Observatory held around 400,000 books salvaged by Tusi from the siege of Baghdad and other cities. Chinese astronomers brought by Hulagu Khan worked there as well.
Kublai Khan built a number of large observatories in China and his libraries included the Wu-hu-lie-ti (Euclid) brought by Muslim mathematicians. Zhu Shijie and Guo Shoujing were notable mathematicians in Yuan China. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.
Ghazan Khan, able to understand four languages including Latin, built the Tabriz Observatory in 1295. The Byzantine Greek astronomer Gregory Chioniades studied there under Ajall Shams al-Din Omar who had worked at Maragheh under Tusi. Chioniades played an important role in transmitting several innovations from the Islamic world to Europe. These include the introduction of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe to Europe and a Greek description of the Tusi-couple, which would later have an influence on Copernican heliocentrism. Choniades also translated several Zij treatises into Greek, including the Persian Zij-i Ilkhani by al-Tusi and the Maragheh observatory. The Byzantine-Mongol alliance and the fact that the Empire of Trebizond was an Ilkhanate vassal facilitated Choniades' movements between Constantinople, Trebizond and Tabriz. Prince Radna, the Mongol viceroy of Tibet based in Gansu province, patronized the Samarkandi astronomer al-Sanjufini. The Arabic astronomical handbook dedicated by al-Sanjufini to Prince Radna, a descendant of Kublai Khan, was completed in 1363. It is notable for having Middle Mongolian glosses on its margins.
Mail system
The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam. It had lavishly furnished and well-guarded relay posts known as örtöö set up throughout the Empire. A messenger would typically travel from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later. The relay stations had attached households to service them. Anyone with a paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. Many merchants, messengers, and travelers from China, the Middle East, and Europe used the system. When the great khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.
Genghis and his successor Ögedei built a wide system of roads, one of which carved through the Altai mountains. After his enthronement, Ögedei further expanded the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.
Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays, that had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.
In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the Yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special Yam tax.
Silk Road
The Mongols had a history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for many goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own.
Mongol government and elites provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an ortoq (merchant partner) arrangement. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors were not constrained using uncoined precious metals and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Italian cities, including Marco Polo’s family. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would become known as the Silk Road.
Western explorer Marco Polo traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma made a comparably epic journey along the route, venturing from his home of Khanbaliq (Beijing) as far as Europe. European missionaries, such as William of Rubruck, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a Franco-Mongol alliance. It was rare, however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade, goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over such long distances fetched extravagant prices.
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the great khans gave the merchants tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.
Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the ortoq businesses. He decreed that all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high-ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued under the Yuan dynasty.
The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the route from the Byzantine Empire, sowing the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman Empire under the Sunni faith. In the East, the Han Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own Ming dynasty and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.
Legacy
The Mongol Empire — at its height of the largest contiguous empire in history — had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia, and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of their descendants adopted local religions; for example, the eastern khanate largely adopted Buddhism, and the three western khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence.
According to some interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in certain geographic regions, leading to changes in the demographics of Asia.
The non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire include the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the characters of the Old Uyghur, which is still used in Mongolia today.
Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:
Moscow rose to prominence while it was still under the rule of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some time after Russian rulers were accorded the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols meant that the Mongols themselves rarely visited the lands which they owned. The Russians eventually gained military power, and their ruler Ivan III completely overthrew the Mongols and formed the Russian Tsardom. After the Great stand on the Ugra river proved that the Mongols were vulnerable, the Grand Duchy of Moscow gained independence.
Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information which was brought back to it by ambassadors and merchants. When Columbus sailed in 1492, his mission was to reach Cathay, the land of the Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
Some studies indicate that the Black Death which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the Genoese possessor of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean Peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, from where it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone.
Western researcher R. J. Rummel estimated that 30 million people were killed by the Mongol Empire. Other researchers estimate that as many as 80 million people were killed, with 50 million deaths being the middle ground. The population of China fell by half during fifty years of Mongol rule. Before the Mongol invasion, the territories of the Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported that China's total population was roughly 60 million. While it is tempting to attribute this major decline in China's population solely to Mongol ferocity, today scholars have mixed opinions about this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to keep records rather than a de facto decrease, while others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population, and very debatably the Han Chinese population, to an invisible status through cancellation of the right to passports and denial of the right to direct land ownership. This meant that the Chinese had to depend on and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved recruitment into the Mongol army. Other historians such as William McNeill and David O. Morgan argue that the bubonic plague was the main factor behind China's demographic decline during this period.
The Islamic world was subjected to massive changes as a result of the Mongol invasions. The population of the Iranian plateau suffered from widespread disease and famine, resulting in the death of up to three-quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian Steven Ward estimates that Iran's population did not reach its pre-Mongol levels again until the mid-20th century.
David Nicole states in The Mongol Warlords, "terror and mass extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic." About half of the Russian population may have died during the invasion. However, Colin McEvedy in Atlas of World Population History, 1978 estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterward. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population were victims of the Mongol invasion. Historian Andrea Peto says that Rogerius, an eyewitness, said that "the Mongols killed everybody regardless of gender or age" and "the Mongols especially 'found pleasure' in humiliating women."
One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out urban populations that refused to surrender. During the Mongol invasion of Rus', almost all major cities were destroyed. If they chose to submit, the people were generally spared, though this was not guaranteed. For example, the city of Hamadan in modern-day Iran was destroyed and every man, woman, and child executed by Mongol general Subadai, after surrendering to him but failing to have enough provisions for his Mongol scouting force. Several days after the initial razing of the city, Subadai sent a force back to the burning ruins and the site of the massacre to kill any inhabitants of the city who had been away at the time of the initial slaughter and had returned in the meantime. Mongolian armies made use of local peoples and their soldiers, often incorporating them into their armies. Prisoners of war sometimes were given the choice between death and becoming part of the Mongol army to aid in future conquests. Due to the brutal methods employed to subdue their subjects, Mongols maintained long lasting resentment from those they conquered. This resentment towards the Mongol rule has been highlighted as a cause for the empire's rapid fracturing. In addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the empire was facilitated by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline.
The Kalmyks were the last Mongol nomads to penetrate European territory, having migrated to Europe from Central Asia at the turn of the 17th century. In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Kazakh and Kyrgyz enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached Dzungaria in northwest China.
See also
Mughal-Mongol genealogy
Tellurocracy
Xiongnu origin of Mongol
Destruction under the Mongol Empire
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
General surveys
Atwood, Christopher, P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire , New York: Facts on File (2004)
Bartold, Vasily. Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion (Trans. T. Minorsky & C.E. Bosworth), London: Luzac & Co. (1928)
Bartold, Vasily. Four Studies on Central Asia, vol. 1 (Trans. V, Minorsky and T. Minorsky), Leiden: Brill. (1956)
The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, (ed.) Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen J. Frank, Peter B. Golden
Chapter 2: P. Jackson. The Mongol age in Eastern Inner Asia, pp. 26–45
Chapter 3: M. Biran. The Mongols in Central Asia from Chinggis Khan's invasion to the rise of Temür: the Ögödeid and Chaghadaid realms, pp. 46–66
Chapter 4: I. Vásáry. The Jochid realm: the western steppe and Eastern Europe, pp. 67–86
Chapter 5: A.P. Martinez. Institutional development, revenues and trade, pp. 89–108
Chapter 6: P.B. Golden. Migrations, ethnogenesis, pp. 109–119
Chapter 7: D. Deweese. Islamization in the Mongol Empire, pp. 120–134
Chapter 8: T.T. Allsen. Mongols as vectors for cultural transmission, pp. 135–154
The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368, (ed.) Herbert Franke, Denis C. Twitchett
Chapter 4: T.T. Allsen. The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China, pp. 321–413
Chapter 5: M. Rossabi. The reign of Khubilai khan, pp. 414–489
Chapter 6: Hsiao Ch'i-ch'ing. Mid-Yüan politics, pp. 490–560
Chapter 7: J. Dardess. Shun-ti and the end of Yüan rule in China, pp. 561–586
Chapter 8: E. Endicott-West. The Yüan government and society, pp. 587–615
Chapter 9: F. W. Mote. The Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215–1368, pp. 616–664
The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, (ed.) J. A. Boyle
Chapter 4: J. A. Boyle. Dynastic and Political History of The Il-Khāns, pp. 303–421
Chapter 6: I. P. Petrushevsky. The Socio-Economic Condition of Iran Under The Īl-Khāns, pp. 483–537
Chapter 7: A. Bausani. Religion under the Mongols, pp. 538–549
Chapter 10: E. S. Kennedy. The Exact Sciences in Iran under the Saljuqs and Mongols, pp. 659–680
Buell, Paul. 'Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire, 1200-1370' 2003
Howorth, Henry. History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 1. The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks (1876)
Howorth, Henry. History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 2. The so-called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia, 2 divions (1880)
Howorth, Henry. History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 3. The Mongols of Persia (1880)
Morgan, David. The Mongols (2007)
Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion, Yale University Press (2017). isbn 9780300125337
Administration, Economy and Finance
Thomas, Allsen. (1989). Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200-1260. Asia Major, 2(2), third series, 83-126. Retrieved November 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41645437
Enkhbold, Enerelt. (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships", Central Asian Survey, 38:4, 531-547, DOI: 10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799
Kim, Hodong. "The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchange over Eurasia," Journal of Central Eurasian Studies 1 (2009): 15–42.
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Schurmann, Herbert. (1956). "Mongolian Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 19(3/4), 304-389. doi:10.2307/2718506]
[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718765?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Smith, John (1970). "Mongol and Nomadic Taxation," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 30, 46-85. doi:10.2307/2718765
Culture, Arts and Science
Biran, Michal (ed.). (2019). Mobility Transformations and Cultural Exchange in Mongol Eurasia, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 62(2-3).
Blair, Sh. Muslim-style Mausolea across Mongol Eurasia: Religious Syncretism, Architectural Mobility and Cultural Transformation, pp. 318–355
Jackson, P. Reflections on the Islamization of Mongol Khans in Comparative Perspective, pp. 356–387
Yang, Q. Like Stars in the Sky: Networks of Astronomers in Mongol Eurasia, pp. 388–427
Biran, M. Libraries, Books, and Transmission of Knowledge in Ilkhanid Baghdad, pp. 464–502
“Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission”, in : Yvonne Dold-Samplonius, Joseph W. Dauben, Menso Folkerts & Benno van Dalen, éds., From China to Paris. 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Series: Boethius 46, Stuttgart (Steiner), 2002, pp. 327–356.
Institutions
Allsen, Thomas T. (1986). Guard and Government in the Reign of The Grand Qan Möngke, 1251-59. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 46(2), 495-521. doi:10.2307/2719141
Allsen, Thomas T. (2011). "Imperial Posts, West, East and North: A Review Article: Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic Morld," Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, 17:1, 237-76
Atwood, Christopher P. "Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution," Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries, (ed.) Sneath, D. (Bellington WA, 2006), pp. 141–174 Google Scholar.
Jackson, Peter. "YĀSĀ," Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2013, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yasa-law-code (accessed on 20 September 2016)
Munkuyev, N.Ts. (1977). A NEW MONGOLIAN P'AI-TZŬ FROM SIMFEROPOL. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 31(2), 185-215. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23682673
Ostrowski, Donald. The tamma and the Dual-Administrative Structure of the Mongol Empire Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 61, no 2, 1998, p. 262-277 doi: 10.1017/S0041977X0001380X
Vasary, Istvan. (1976). THE GOLDEN HORDE TERM DARUĠA AND ITS SURVIVAL IN RUSSIA. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 30(2), 187-197. Retrieved November 9, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23657271
Biography, society and gender
Biran, Michal, Jonathan Brack & Francesca Fiaschetti (ed.). Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals. Univ of California Press, 2020
Paul Buell, “Some Royal Mongol Ladies: Alaqa-beki, *Ergene-Qatun and Others,” World History Connected, 2010
In the service of the Khan. Eminent personalities of the early Mongol-Yüan period (1200–1300). (ed.) Igor de Rachewiltz, Hok-Lam Chan, Ch'i-Ch'ing Hsiao and Peter W. Geier (Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993)
Diplomatic and military
Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511563485
Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan (2011). The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335). Leiden: Brill. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004192119
Fiaschetti, Francesca (ed.). (2019). Diplomacy in the Age of Mongol Globalization, Eurasian Studies 17(2)
Halperin, Charles (1988). Russia and The Golden Horde (Pennsylvania: Indiana University Press)
Henthorn, W.E. (1963). Korea: the Mongol invasions (Leiden: Brill)
Hsiao, Chi-chi'ng (1978). The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)
Jackson, Peter. (2005). The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (Harlow and New York: Pearson Longman)
May, Timothy (2007). The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System (Yardley: Westholme Publishing)
Vernadsky, George (1953). The Mongols and Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press)
External links
Genghis Khan and the Mongols
The Mongol Empire
Mongols
The Mongols in World History
The Mongol Empire for students
Paradoxplace Insight Pages on the Mongol Emperors
William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols
Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures)
Worldwide Death Toll
Mongol Empire Google Earth
Former monarchies of East Asia
Former monarchies of North Asia
History of Mongolia
Khanates
Empire
Mongol states
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
States and territories established in 1206
States and territories disestablished in 1368
1368 disestablishments in Asia
1206 establishments in Asia
Former countries in Asia
Former countries in East Asia
Former countries in North Asia
Former countries in Europe
Yuan dynasty
Historical transcontinental empires | [
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240147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing%20plan | Marketing plan | A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid marketing strategy is the foundation of a well-written marketing plan so that goals may be achieved. While a marketing plan contains a list of actions, without a sound strategic foundation, it is of little use to a business.
Summary
A marketing plan is a comprehensive document or blueprint that outlines the advertising and marketing efforts for the coming year. It describes business activities involved in accomplishing specific marketing objectives within a set time frame. A marketing plan also includes a description of the current marketing position of a business, a discussion of the target market and a description of the marketing mix that a business will use to achieve their marketing goals. A marketing plan has a formal structure, but can be used as a formal or informal document which makes it very flexible. It contains some historical data, future predictions, and methods or strategies to achieve the marketing objectives. Marketing plans start with the identification of customer needs through a market research and how the business can satisfy these needs while generating an acceptable return. This includes processes such as market situation analysis, action programs, budgets, sales forecasts, strategies and projected financial statements. A marketing plan can also be described as a technique that helps a business to decide on the best use of its resources to achieve corporate objectives. It can also contain a full analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of a company, its organization and its products.
The marketing plan shows the step or actions that will be utilized in order to achieve the plan goals. For example, a marketing plan may include a strategy to increase the business's market share by fifteen percent. The marketing plan would then outline the objectives that need to be achieved in order to reach the fifteen percent increase in the business market share. The marketing plan can be used to describe the methods of applying a company's marketing resources to fulfill marketing objectives. Marketing planning segments the markets, identifies the market position, forecast the market size, and plans a viable market share within each market segment. Marketing planning can also be used to prepare a detailed case for introducing a new product, revamping current marketing strategies for an existing product or put together a company marketing plan to be included in the company corporate or business plan.
Outline
A marketing plan should be based on where a company needs to be at some point in the future. These are some of the most important things that companies need when developing a marketing plan:
Market research: Gathering and classifying data about the market the organization is currently in. Examining the market dynamics, patterns, customers, and the current sales volume for the industry as a whole.
Competition: The marketing plan should identify the organization's competition and the marketing strategies they're employing. The plan should describe how the organization will stick out from its competition and what it will do to become a market leader.
Market plan strategies: Developing the marketing and promotion strategies that the organization will use. Such strategies may include advertising, direct marketing, training programs, trade shows, website, etc.
Marketing plan budget: Strategies identified in the marketing plan should be within the budget. Top managers need to revise what they hope to accomplish with the marketing plan, review their current financial situation, and then allocate funding for the marketing plan.
Marketing goals: The marketing plan should include attainable marketing goals. For example, one goal might be to increase the current client base by 100 over a three-month period.
Marketing Mix: The marketing plan should evaluate the appropriate marketing mix. This includes setting up the marketing 4 Ps: the product, price, place, and promotion. These four elements are modified until the best combination have been found that will cater the needs of the product's customer that would result to the maximum profitability of the company.
Monitoring of the marketing plan results: The marketing plan should include the process of analyzing the current position of the organization. The organization needs to identify the strategies that are working and those that are not working.
Purpose
One of the main purposes of developing a marketing plan is to set the company on a specific path in marketing. The marketing goals normally aligns itself to the broader company objectives, and the plan shows how they attempt to accomplish the objectives. For example, a new company looking to grow their business will generally have a marketing plan that emphasizes strategies to increase their customer base. There are two paths you can take while making a Marketing Plan and doing Market Research. You can either take it internally or externally. Internal research means that you are working on creating the experience and products better for existing customers, while external research is where you look to find out how to gain new customers. Acquiring marketing share, increasing customer awareness, and building a favorable business image are some of the objectives that can be related to marketing planning. The marketing plan also helps layout the necessary budget and resources needed to achieve the goals stated in the marketing plan. The marketing plan shows what the company is intended to accomplish within the budget and also to make it possible for company executives to assess potential return on the investment of marketing dollars. Different aspects of the marketing plan relate to accountability. The marketing plan is a general responsibility from company leaders and the marketing staff to take the company in a specific direction. After the strategies are laid out and the tasks are developed, each task is assigned to a person or a team for implementation. The assigned roles allows companies to keep track of their milestones and communicate with the teams during the implementation process. The marketing plan works as a blue print to achieve organisational goals. It shows the ways to accomplish objectives. Having a marketing plan helps company leaders to develop and keep an eye on the expectations for their functional areas. For example, if a company's marketing plan goal is to increase sales growth then the company leaders may have to increase their sales staff in stores to help generate more sales.
The marketing plan offers a unique opportunity for a productive discussion between employees and leaders of an organization. It provides good communication within the company. The marketing plan also allows the marketing team to examine their past decisions and understand their results in order to better prepare for the future. It also lets the marketing team to observe and study the environment that they are operating in.
Marketing planning aims and objectives
Though it's not clear, behind the corporate objectives, which in themselves offer the main context for the marketing plan, will lie the "corporate mission," in turn provides the context for these corporate objectives. In a sales-oriented organization, the marketing planning function designs incentive pay plans to not only motivate and reward frontline staff fairly but also to align marketing activities with corporate mission. The marketing plan basically aims to make the business provide the solution with the awareness with the expected customers.
This "corporate mission" can be thought of as a definition of what the organization is, or what it does: "Our business is ...". This definition should not be too narrow, or it will constrict the development of the organization; a too rigorous concentration on the view that "We are in the business of making meat-scales," as IBM was during the early 1900s, might have limited its subsequent development into other areas. On the other hand, it should not be too wide or it will become meaningless; "We want to make a profit" is not too helpful in developing specific plans.
Jacob Zimmerem suggested that the definition should cover three dimensions: "customer groups" to be served, "customer needs" to be served, and "technologies" to be used. Thus, the definition of IBM's "corporate mission" in the 1940s might well have been: "We are in the business of handling accounting information [customer need] for the larger US organizations [customer group] by means of punched cards [technology]."
Perhaps the most important factor in successful marketing is the "corporate vision." Surprisingly, it is largely neglected by marketing textbooks, although not by the popular exponents of corporate strategy—indeed, it was perhaps the main theme of the book by Peters and Waterman, in the form of their "Superordinate Goals." "In Search of Excellence" said: "Nothing drives progress like the imagination. The idea precedes the deed." If the organization in general, and its chief executive in particular, has a strong vision of where its future lies, then there is a good chance that the organization will achieve a strong position in its markets (and attain that future). This will be not least because its strategies will be consistent and will be supported by its staff at all levels. In this context, all of IBM's marketing activities were underpinned by its philosophy of "customer service," a vision originally promoted by the charismatic Watson dynasty. The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate picture.
A "traditional"—albeit product-based—format for a "brand reference book" (or, indeed, a "marketing facts book") was suggested by Godley more than three decades ago:
Financial data—Facts for this section will come from management accounting, costing and finance sections.
Product data—From production, research and development.
Sales and distribution data—Sales, packaging, distribution sections.
Advertising, sales promotion, merchandising data—Information from these departments.
Market data and miscellany—From market research, who would in most cases act as a source for this information. His sources of data, however, assume the resources of a very large organization. In most organizations they would be obtained from a much smaller set of people (and not a few of them would be generated by the marketing manager alone).
It is apparent that a marketing audit can be a complex process, but the aim is simple: "it is only to identify those existing (external and internal) factors which will have a significant impact on the future plans of the company." It is clear that the basic material to be input to the marketing audit should be comprehensive.
Accordingly, the best approach is to accumulate this material continuously, as and when it becomes available; since this avoids the otherwise heavy workload involved in collecting it as part of the regular, typically annual, planning process itself—when time is usually at a premium.
Even so, the first task of this annual process should be to check that the material held in the current facts book or facts files actually is comprehensive and accurate, and can form a sound basis for the marketing audit itself.
The structure of the facts book will be designed to match the specific needs of the organization, but one simple format—suggested by Malcolm McDonald—may be applicable in many cases. This splits the material into three groups:
Review of the marketing environment. A study of the organization's markets, customers, competitors and the overall economic, political, cultural and technical environment; covering developing trends, as well as the current situation.
Review of the detailed marketing activity. A study of the company's marketing mix; in terms of the 7 Ps (see below)
Review of the marketing system. A study of the marketing organization, marketing research systems and the current marketing objectives and strategies. The last of these is too frequently ignored. The marketing system itself needs to be regularly questioned, because the validity of the whole marketing plan is reliant upon the accuracy of the input from this system, and `garbage in, garbage out' applies with a vengeance.
* Portfolio planning. In addition, the coordinated planning of the individual products and services can contribute towards the balanced portfolio.
* 80:20 rule. To achieve the maximum impact, the marketing plan must be clear, concise and simple. It needs to concentrate on the 20 percent of products or services, and on the 20 percent of customers, that will account for 80 percent of the volume and 80 percent of the profit.
* 7 Ps: Product, Place, Price and Promotion, Physical Environment, People, Process. The 7 Ps can sometimes divert attention from the customer, but the framework they offer can be very useful in building the action plans.
It is only at this stage (of deciding the marketing objectives) that the active part of the marketing planning process begins. This next stage in marketing planning is indeed the key to the whole marketing process.
The "marketing objectives" state just where the company intends to be at some specific time in the future.
James Quinn succinctly defined objectives in general as: Goals (or objectives) state what is to be achieved and when results are to be accomplished, but they do not state "how" the results are to be achieved. They typically relate to what products (or services) will be where in what markets (and must be realistically based on customer behavior in those markets). They are essentially about the match between those "products" and "markets." Objectives for pricing, distribution, advertising and so on are at a lower level, and should not be confused with marketing objectives. They are part of the marketing strategy needed to achieve marketing objectives. To be most effective, objectives should be capable of measurement and therefore "quantifiable." This measurement may be in terms of sales volume, money value, market share, percentage penetration of distribution outlets and so on. An example of such a measurable marketing objective might be "to enter the market with product Y and capture 10 percent of the market by value within one year." As it is quantified it can, within limits, be unequivocally monitored, and corrective action taken as necessary.
The marketing objectives must usually be based, above all, on the organization's financial objectives; converting these financial measurements into the related marketing measurements. He went on to explain his view of the role of "policies," with which strategy is most often confused: "Policies are rules or guidelines that express the 'limits' within which action should occur. "Simplifying somewhat, marketing strategies can be seen as the means, or "game plan," by which marketing objectives will be achieved and, in the framework that appears here, are generally concerned with the 8 Ps. Examples are:
Price—The amount of money needed to buy products
Product—The actual product
Promotion (advertising)—Getting the product known
Placement—Where the product is sold
People—Represent the business
Physical environment—The ambiance, mood, or tone of the environment
Process—The Value-added services that differentiate the product from the competition (e.g. after-sales service, warranties)
Packaging—How the product will be protected
In principle, these strategies describe how the objectives will be achieved. The 7 Ps are a useful framework for deciding how a company's resources will be manipulated (strategically) to achieve its objectives. However, the 7 Ps are not the only framework, and may divert attention from other real issues. The focus of a business's strategies must be the objectives of the business— not the process of planning itself. If the 7 Ps fit the business's strategies, then the 7 Ps may be an acceptable framework for that business.
The strategy statement can take the form of a purely verbal description of the strategic options which have been chosen. Alternatively, and perhaps more positively, it might include a structured list of the major options chosen.
One aspect of strategy which is often overlooked is that of "timing." The timing of each element of the strategy is critical. Taking the right action at the wrong time can sometimes be almost as bad as taking the wrong action at the right time. Timing is, therefore, an essential part of any plan; and should normally appear as a schedule of planned activities. Having completed this crucial stage of the planning process, to re-check the feasibility of objectives and strategies in terms of the market share, sales, costs, profits and so on which these demand in practice. As in the rest of the marketing discipline, employ judgment, experience, market research or anything else which helps for conclusions to be seen from all possible angles.
At this stage, overall marketing strategies will need to be developed into detailed plans and program. Although these detailed plans may cover each of the 7 Ps (marketing mix), the focus will vary, depending upon the organization's specific strategies. A product-oriented company will focus its plans for the 7 Ps around each of its products. A market or geographically oriented company will concentrate on each market or geographical area. Each will base its plans upon the detailed needs of its customers, and on the strategies chosen to satisfy these needs. Brochures and Websites are used effectively.
Again, the most important element is, the detailed plans, which spell out exactly what programs and individual activities will carry at the period of the plan (usually over the next year). Without these activities the plan cannot be monitored. These plans must therefore be:
Clear—They should be an unambiguous statement of 'exactly' what is to be done.
Quantified—The predicted outcome of each activity should be, as far as possible, quantified, so that its performance can be monitored.
Focused—The temptation to proliferate activities beyond the numbers which can be realistically controlled should be avoided. The 80:20 Rule applies in this context too.
Realistic—They should be achievable.
Agreed—Those who are to implement them should be committed to them, and agree that they are achievable. The resulting plans should become a working document which will guide the campaigns taking place throughout the organization over the period of the plan. If the marketing plan is to work, every exception to it (throughout the year) must be questioned; and the lessons learnt, to be incorporated in the next year's .
Content of the marketing plan
A Marketing Plan for a small business typically includes Small Business Administration Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors
Description of the product or service, including special features
Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan
Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for marketing
Pricing strategy
Market Segmentation
Medium-sized and large organizations
The main contents of a marketing plan are:
Executive Summary
Situational Analysis
Opportunities / Issue Analysis—SWOT Analysis
Objectives
Marketing Strategy
Action Program (the operational marketing plan itself for the period under review)
Financial Forecast
Controls
In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:
Title Page
Executive Summary
Current Situation—Macroenvironment
Economic State
Legal State
Governmental State
Technological State
Ecological State
Sociocultural State
Supply chain State
Current Situation—Market Analysis
Market definition
Market size
Market segmentation
Industry structure and strategic groupings
Porter 5 forces analysis
Competition and market share
competitors' strengths and weaknesses
Market trends
Current Situation—Consumer Analysis
Nature of the buying decision
Participants
Demographics
Psychographics
Buyer motivation and expectations
Loyalty segments
Current Situation—Internal
Company Resources
Finances
People (workforce)
Time
Skills
Objectives
Mission statement and Vision statement
Corporate objectives
Financial objective
Marketing objectives
Long-term objectives
Description of the basic business philosophy
Corporate Culture (Organizational Culture)
Summary of Situation Analysis
External threats
External opportunities
Internal strengths
Internal weaknesses
Critical success factors in the industry
Sustainable competitive advantage
Marketing Research
Information requirements
Research methodology
Research results
Marketing Strategy–Product management
Unique selling proposition (USP)
Product mix
Product strengths and weaknesses
Perceptual mapping
Product life cycle management and new product development
Brand name, brand image, and brand equity
Augmented product
Product portfolio analysis
B.C.G. Analysis
Contribution margin analysis
G.E. Multi Factoral analysis
Quality Function Deployment
Marketing Strategy—segmented marketing actions and market share objectives
By product
By customer segment
By geographical market
By distribution channel
Marketing Strategy—Pricing
Pricing objectives
Pricing method (e.g.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing)
Pricing strategy (e.g.: skimming, or penetration)
Discounts and allowances
Price elasticity and customer sensitivity
Price zoning
break even analysis at various prices
Marketing Strategy—Promotion
Promotional goals
Promotional Mix
Advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and media
Sales force requirements, techniques, and management
Sales promotion
Publicity and public relations
Electronic Promotion (e.g.: web, or telephone)
Word of Mouth marketing
Viral Marketing
Marketing Strategy—Distribution
Geographical coverage
Distribution channels
Physical distribution and logistics
Electronic distribution
Implementation
Personnel requirements
Assigning responsibilities
Giving incentives
Training on selling methods
Financial requirements
Management information systems requirements
Month-by-month agenda
Gantt chart using PERT or critical path analysis systems
Monitoring results and benchmarks
Adjustment mechanism
Contingencies (what ifs)
Financial Summary
Assumptions
Pro-forma monthly income statement
Contribution margin analysis
Breakeven analysis
Monte Carlo method
ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence
Scenarios
Prediction of future scenarios
Plan of action for each scenario
Controls
Performance indicator
Feedback Mechanisms
Appendix
Pictures and specifications of products
Results from completed research
Measurement of progress
The final stage of any marketing planning process is to establish targets (or standards) so that progress can be monitored. Accordingly, it is important to put both quantities and timescales into the marketing objectives (for example, to capture 20 percent by value of the market within two years) and into the corresponding strategies. Marketers must be ready to update and adapt marketing plans at any time. The marketing plan should define how progress towards objectives will be measured. Managers typically use budgets, schedules and marketing metrics for monitoring and evaluating results. With budget, they can compare planned expenditures with actual expenditures for given period. Schedules allow management to see when tasks were supposed to be completed and when they actually were. Marketing metrics tracks actual outcomes of marketing programs to see whether the company is moving forward towards its objectives (P. Kotler, K.L. Keller).
Other than the above-included contents of a marketing plan, it is also vital to include a specific action plan because planning is not primarily about the plan itself rather its more about the results. The main purpose of a marketing plan is to assess or measure the produced results, as such building, a specific action plan enhances the ability to measure the specific, concrete plans and ensuring there is a follow up of the eventual results.
It is essential to realize that depending on the different types of marketing plans, a specific action plan is vital for it ensures that all the criteria are met from a comprehensive perspective. Case in point, if a firm is launching a new product, it is often vital to craft a marketing plan that will showcase the strategies that will be used in a bid to introduce the platform to the industry. Luckily, the integration of a specific action plan ensures that all the strategies integrated into the marketing plan are met effectively. Additionally, a specific action plan ensures that in the long run, the respective firm is able to assess and monitor the success of its approaches with regards to the new brand introduction.
Changes in the environment mean that the forecasts often have to be changed. Along with these, the related plans may well also need to be changed. Continuous monitoring of performance, against predetermined targets, represents a most important aspect of this. However, perhaps even more important is the enforced discipline of a regular formal review. Again, as with forecasts, in many cases the best (most realistic) planning cycle will revolve around a quarterly review. Best of all, at least in terms of the quantifiable aspects of the plans, if not the wealth of backing detail, is probably a quarterly rolling review — planning one full year ahead each new quarter. Of course, this does absorb more planning resource; but it also ensures that the plans embody the latest information, and — with attention focused on them so regularly — forces both the plans and their implementation to be realistic.
Plans only have validity if they are actually used to control the progress of a company: their success lies in their implementation, not in the writing'.
Performance analysis
The most important elements of marketing performance, which are normally tracked, are:
Sales analysis
Most organizations track their sales results; or, in non-profit organizations for example, the number of clients. The more sophisticated track them in terms of 'sales variance'—the deviation from the target figures—which allows a more immediate picture of deviations to become evident.
`Micro-analysis', which is simply the normal management process of investigating detailed problems, then investigates the individual elements (individual products, sales territories, customers and so on) which are failing to meet targets
Market share analysis
Few organizations track market share though it is often an important metric. Though absolute sales might grow in an expanding market, a firm's share of the market can decrease which bodes ill for future sales when the market starts to drop. Where such market share is tracked, there may be a number of aspects which will be followed:
overall market share
segment share — that in the specific, targeted segment
relative share
Expense analysis
The key ratio to watch in this area is usually the `marketing expense to sales ratio'; although this may be broken down into other elements (advertising to sales, sales administration to sales, and so on).
Expense analysis can be defined as a detailed report of all the expenses that a business incurs. It is produced on a monthly, quarterly and yearly basis. It can be dissected into small business subsets to determine how much money each area is costing the company.
In marketing, the marketing expense-to-sales ratio plays an important part in expense analysis because it is used to align marketing spend with industry norms. Marketing expense-to-sales ratio helps the company drive its marketing spend productivity. Marketing expense-to-sales analysis is also included with the sales analysis, market share analysis, financial analysis and market-based scorecard analysis as one of the five analysis tools marketers used to control and drive spending productivity. The marketing expense-to-sales ratio allows companies to track actual spending that is relative to the accepted budget and relative to sales goals as stated in the marketing plan.
Financial analysis
The "bottom line" of marketing activities should at least in theory, be the net profit (for all except non-profit organizations, where the comparable emphasis may be on remaining within budgeted costs). There are a number of separate performance figures and key ratios which need to be tracked:
gross contribution<>net profit
gross profit<>return on investment
net contribution<>profit on sales
There can be considerable benefit in comparing these figures with those achieved by other organizations (especially those in the same industry); using, for instance, the figures which can be obtained (in the UK) from `The Centre for Interfirm Comparison'. The most sophisticated use of this approach, however, is typically by those making use of PIMS (Profit Impact of Management Strategies), initiated by the General Electric Company and then developed by Harvard Business School, but now run by the Strategic Planning Institute.
The above performance analyses concentrate on the quantitative measures which are directly related to short-term performance. But there are a number of indirect measures, essentially tracking customer attitudes, which can also indicate the organization's performance in terms of its longer-term marketing strengths and may accordingly be even more important indicators. Some useful measures are:
market research — including customer panels (which are used to track changes over time)
lost business — the orders which were lost because, for example, the stock was not available or the product did not meet the customer's exact requirements
customer complaints — how many customers complain about the products or services, or the organization itself, and about what
Use of marketing plans
A formal, written marketing plan is essential; in that it provides an unambiguous reference point for activities throughout the planning period. However, perhaps the most important benefit of these plans is the planning process itself. This typically offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and productively focused discussions between the various managers involved. The plan, together with the associated discussions, then provides an agreed context for their subsequent management activities, even for those not described in the plan itself. Additionally, marketing plans are included in business plans, offering data showing investors how the company will grow and most importantly, how they will get a return on investment.
Budgets as managerial tools
The classic quantification of a marketing plan appears in the form of budgets. Because these are so rigorously quantified, they are particularly important. They should, thus, represent an unequivocal projection of actions and expected results. What is more, they should be capable of being monitored accurately; and, indeed, performance against budget is the main (regular) management review process.
The purpose of a marketing budget is to pull together all the revenues and costs involved in marketing into one comprehensive document. The budget is a managerial tool that balances what is needed to be spent against what can be afforded, and helps make choices about priorities. A budget can further be used to measure a business's performance in the general trends of a business's spending.
The marketing budget is usually the most powerful tool by which one can determine the relationship between desired results and available means. Its starting point should be the marketing strategies and plans, which have already been formulated in the marketing plan itself; although, in practice, the two will run in parallel and will interact. At the very least, a thorough budget may cause a change in the more optimistic elements of a company's business plans.
See also
Business plan
Marketing
Marketing management
Strategic management
Product differentiation
References
Further reading
H. A. Simon, "Rational decision making in business organisations," American Economic Review
J. Pfeffer and G. R. Salancik, The External Control of Organizations
K. Paolo Sumagaysay, "The oversaturated world"
Business planning
Marketing analytics | [
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240148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody%20Friday%20%281972%29 | Bloody Friday (1972) | Bloody Friday is the name given to the bombings by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Belfast, Northern Ireland on 21 July 1972, during the Troubles. At least twenty bombs exploded in the space of eighty minutes, most within a half hour period. Most of them were car bombs and most targeted infrastructure, especially the transport network. Nine people were killed: five civilians, two British soldiers, a Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist, and an Ulster Defence Association (UDA) member, while 130 were injured. The IRA said it sent telephoned warnings at least thirty minutes before each explosion and said that the security forces wilfully ignored some of the warnings for its own ends. The security forces said that was not the case and said they were overstretched by the sheer number of bombs and bomb warnings, some of which were hoaxes.
The bombings were partly a response to the breakdown of talks between the IRA and the British government. Since the beginning of its campaign in 1970, the IRA had carried out a bombing campaign against economic, military and political targets in Northern Ireland and less often elsewhere. It carried out 1,300 bombings in 1972. However, Bloody Friday was a major setback for the IRA and there was a backlash against the organization. Immediately after the bombings, the security forces carried out raids on the homes of republicans. Ten days later, the British Army launched Operation Motorman, in which it re-took the no-go areas controlled by Republicans. Loyalist paramilitaries also reacted to the bombings by carrying out 'revenge' attacks on Catholic civilians.
On the thirtieth anniversary of the bombings, the IRA formally apologized to the families of all the civilians it had killed and injured.
Background
In late June and early July 1972, a British government delegation led by Secretary of State for Northern Ireland William Whitelaw held secret talks with the Provisional IRA leadership. As part of the talks, the IRA agreed to a temporary ceasefire beginning on 26 June. The IRA leaders sought a peace settlement that included a British withdrawal from Northern Ireland by 1975 and the release of republican prisoners. However, the British refused and the talks broke down. The ceasefire came to an end on 9 July.
'Bloody Friday' was the IRA's response to the breakdown of the talks. According to the IRA's Chief of Staff, Seán Mac Stíofáin, the main goal of the bombing operation was to wreak financial harm. It was a "message to the British government that the IRA could and would make a commercial desert of the city unless its demands were met". The attack was carried out by the IRA's Belfast Brigade and the main organiser was Brendan Hughes, the brigade's Officer Commanding.
The bombings
The bombings happened during an 80-minute period on the afternoon of Friday 21 July. At least 24 bombs were planted; at least 20 exploded and the rest failed to detonate or were defused. At the height of the bombing, the middle of Belfast "resembled a city under artillery fire; clouds of suffocating smoke enveloped buildings as one explosion followed another, almost drowning out the hysterical screams of panicked shoppers". According to The Guardian: "for much of the afternoon, Belfast was reduced to near total chaos and panic. Thousands streamed out of the stricken city […] and huge traffic jams built up. All bus services were cancelled, and on some roads, hitch-hikers frantically trying to get away lined the pavements".
Nine people were killed and a further 130 injured, some of them horrifically mutilated. Of those injured, 77 were women and children. All of the deaths were caused by two of the bombs: at Oxford Street bus depot, and at Cavehill Road. The Oxford Street bomb killed two British soldiers and four Ulsterbus employees. One of these employees was a Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist; one was an Ulster loyalist paramilitary; and the other two were civilians. The Cavehill Road bomb killed three civilians.
Timeline
The accounts of the events that appeared in the first editions of local and national newspapers were, naturally enough, somewhat confused about the details of the events of the day. The timetable below is approximate and given in BST (GMT+1). The details are based on a number of accounts.
~2:10 pm (Smithfield bus station) A car bomb exploded in an enclosed yard at Smithfield bus station, destroying many buses and causing extensive damage to the surrounding area. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 3:10 pm.
~2:16 pm (Brookvale Hotel) A bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded at the Brookvale Hotel on Brookvale Avenue. The bomb was left in a suitcase by three men armed with sub-machine guns. The area had been cleared and there were no injuries. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 2:36 pm.
~2:23 pm (Railway station, York Road) A bomb (estimated at 30 pounds (14 kg) of explosive) exploded in a suitcase on the platform, wrecking the inside of the station and blowing the roof off. The station had not been fully cleared and there were some injuries. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 3:03 pm.
~2:40 pm (Ulster Bank, Limestone Road) A car bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded outside the Ulster Bank on Limestone Road. The area had not been cleared and several people were seriously injured. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 2:50 pm.
~2:45 pm (Crumlin Road) A car bomb exploded at the Star Taxis depot on Crumlin Road. Nearby were the houses of the Crumlin Road Prison warders and the prison itself. Some sources say that there were two bombs and that both exploded at 3:25 pm.
~2:48 pm (Railway station, Great Victoria Street) A van bomb exploded in the station's bus yard. Four buses were wrecked and 44 others damaged. The nearby Murray's Tobacco Factory in Sandy Row was also damaged.
~2:52 pm (Railway station, Botanic Avenue) A car bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded outside the station. There was much damage to property, including a hotel, but no serious injuries.
~2:55 pm (Queen Elizabeth Bridge) A car bomb (estimated at 160 pounds (73 kg) of explosive) exploded on the Queen Elizabeth Bridge. There was some damage to the structure of the bridge but no serious injuries.
~2:57 pm (Gas Department Offices, Ormeau Avenue) A car bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded outside the offices of the Gas Department, causing extensive damage but no serious injuries.
~2:59 pm (Garmoyle Street) A parcel bomb, which had been planted by armed men, exploded at the premises of John Irwin seed merchants. The building was destroyed.
~3:02 pm (Oxford Street bus station) A car bomb exploded at the Ulsterbus station on Oxford Street, one of the busiest bus stations in Northern Ireland, killing six and injuring almost forty. This was the highest number of casualties from any of the bombs. An Austin 1100 saloon car loaded with explosives had been driven in to the rear of the depot.
The car had been stolen from outside Inglis’ bakery in Eliza Street in the Markets area of Belfast between 6.15am and when the owner discovered it missing at 2.30pm on Friday, July 21, 1972, whilst the owner was at work in the bakery.
A telephoned warning was sent to the RUC 22 minutes before the bomb exploded. According to the RUC, the line to the station was busy, so they asked the Army to send a patrol. The patrol arrived in an armoured vehicle and began clearing the area. Rather than evacuating, some Ulsterbus workers had begun searching for the bomb. While this was ongoing, it exploded. Two British soldiers, Stephen Cooper (19) and Philip Price (27), were killed outright. Four Ulsterbus workers, all Protestants, were killed: Robert 'Jackie' Gibson (45), Thomas Killops (39), William Irvine (18) and William Crothers (15). Jackie Gibson was a bus driver and had joined the part-time RUC Reserve just a few weeks earlier he had finished his bus route minutes before the blast. Irvine was a member of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), a loyalist paramilitary group. Some of the victims' bodies were torn to pieces by the blast, which led authorities to give an initial estimate of 11 deaths. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 3:10 pm.
~3:02 pm (Liverpool ferry terminus, Donegall Quay) A car bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded at the Belfast–Liverpool ferry terminus at Donegall Quay. The nearby Liverpool Bar was badly damaged. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 2:57 pm.
~3:04 pm (M2 motorway bridge, Bellevue) A car bomb (estimated at 30 pounds (14 kg) of explosive) partially exploded on a road bridge over the M2 motorway at the Bellevue Arms in north Belfast. As the bomb only partially detonated, nearby buildings were not damaged.
~3:05 pm (Filling station, Upper Lisburn Road) A car bomb exploded at Creighton's filling station, setting the petrol pumps ablaze.
~3:05 pm (Electrical substation, Salisbury Avenue) A car bomb exploded at an electrical substation at the junction of Salisbury Avenue and Hughenden Avenue. The substation was badly damaged but there were no injuries.
~3:05 pm (Railway bridge, Finaghy Road North) A lorry bomb exploded on a road bridge over the railway line at Finaghy Road North.
~3:09 pm (Railway bridge, Windsor Park) A bomb (estimated at 30 pounds (14 kg) of explosive) exploded on a bridge over the railway line near Windsor Park football grounds. Some sources say the bomb exploded on a footbridge, while others say it exploded on Tate's Avenue road bridge. Concrete sleepers were blown on to the line, blocking it. One source gave the time of this bombing as 2:09 pm.
~3:12 pm (Eastwood's Garage, Donegall Street) A car bomb (estimated at 150 pounds (68 kg) of explosive) destroyed Eastwood's Garage on Donegall Street. There were several injuries.
~3:15 pm (Stewartstown Road) A bomb, thought to have been abandoned on the Stewartstown Road, exploded but caused no serious injuries.
~3:15 pm (Cavehill Road) A car bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded outside a row of single storey shops near the top of Cavehill Road, north Belfast. The shops were in a religiously-mixed residential area. A warning had been sent more than an hour before , but those in the area had not received the warning and the area had not been evacuated. Two women and a boy died in this blast. Margaret O'Hare (37), a Catholic mother of seven children, died in her car. Her 11-year-old daughter was with her in the car and was badly injured. Catholic Brigid Murray (65) and Protestant teenager Stephen Parker (14) were also killed. Many others were seriously injured. Parker had spotted the bomb shortly before it exploded and was attempting to warn people when he was killed. His father, the Reverend Joseph Parker, was only able to identify his son's body at the mortuary by the box of trick matches in his pocket, and the shirt and Scout belt he had been wearing. Some sources give the time of this bombing as 3:20 pm.
~3:30 pm (Grosvenor Road) A bomb (estimated at 50 pounds (23 kg) of explosive) exploded at the Northern Ireland Carriers depot on Grosvenor Road. There were no serious injuries.
Two other bombs were defused: one on the Albert Bridge and one on a road bridge over the Sydenham bypass.
There were also notable IRA bombings outside Belfast on Bloody Friday. In Derry, a 300lb van bomb exploded at Waterloo Place, near the city's RUC headquarters. It blasted the six-storey Embassy Court building and dislodged a British Army observation post on the roof. Another IRA bomb de-railed ten wagons of a goods train near Portadown. There were three other large car bombs that exploded in Derry city, however unlike in Belfast the Derry bombings did not cause a single injury.
Warnings
The IRA's Belfast Brigade claimed responsibility for the bombings and said that it had given warnings to the security forces before the bombs exploded. It said that the Public Protection Agency, the Samaritans and the press "were informed of bomb positions at least 30 minutes to one hour before each explosion". Mac Stíofáin said that "It required only one man with a loud hailer to clear each target area in no time" and alleged that the warnings for the two bombs that claimed lives were deliberately ignored by the British for "strategic policy reasons".
The Public Protection Agency said it received telephoned warnings of the two bombs that claimed lives, and immediately passed the warnings on to the security forces. It said it received a warning of the Cavehill Road bomb an hour and eight minutes before the explosion, and a warning of the Oxford Street bomb 22 minutes before the explosion. According to an article in The Guardian, a warning of the Oxford Street bomb was heard over military radio almost an hour before the explosion.
The security forces denied that they wilfully ignored warnings and said they were overstretched by the sheer number of bombs and bomb warnings. The security forces also received hoax warnings, which "added to the chaos in the streets". The RUC and British Army only effectively cleared a small number of areas before the bombs went off. Furthermore, because of the large number bomb threats in the confined area of Belfast city centre, people evacuated from the site of one bomb were mistakenly moved into the vicinity of other bombs.
Immediate aftermath
After the bombings there was a two-hour emergency meeting at Stormont Castle. It was attended by William Whitelaw, the British government's Secretary of State for Northern Ireland; Peter Carrington, Secretary of State for Defence; Harry Tuzo, the British Army's commander in Northern Ireland; David Corbett, the acting chief of the RUC; and other advisers. Whitelaw announced that immediate action would be taken against the IRA. Unionist politicians demanded a further wave of arrests and internment of IRA suspects.
On Friday night, 2,000 British troops began carrying out raids on the homes of IRA suspects in Belfast. They arrested 58 people and seized bomb-making equipment, explosives and ammunition. The raids sparked gun battles. In the Markets area, IRA member Joseph Downey (23) was shot dead and five other people were wounded. The British Army claim to have hit at least three gunmen. In Ardoyne, at least 900 shots were fired at soldiers and the British Army claim to have hit at least five gunmen. In Andersonstown, two soldiers were shot and they claim to have hit one gunman. Shots were also fired at the security force bases on Oldpark Road, Glenravel Street and York Street. The raids continued over the next three days. More than 100 people were arrested, weapons were seized in Belfast and Portadown, and barricades were demolished in Belfast and Armagh.
Loyalist paramilitaries also reacted to the bombings. On Friday night, members of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) took to the streets in Protestant areas and began carrying out 'patrols' and setting up checkpoints. Four Catholic civilians were killed by loyalists that night, allegedly in retaliation for the bombings. Joseph Rosato (59) was shot by gunmen who called at his home in the Oldpark district. Patrick O'Neill (26) and Rosemary McCartney (27) were found shot dead in a car on Forthriver Road. Another, Francis Arthurs (34) was found shot dead in a car on Liffey Street.
Reactions and consequences
According to former RUC officer Jack Dale, a large group of people in the republican Markets area had "jeered and shouted and yelled" as if each explosion was "a good thing".
Speaking in the House of Commons on 24 July, William Whitelaw called the bombings "appallingly bloodthirsty". He also drew attention to the Catholic victims, and mentioned the revulsion in the Republic of Ireland and elsewhere. Leader of the Opposition Harold Wilson described the events as "a shocking crime against an already innocent population". The Irish Times wrote, "The chief injury is not to the British Army, to the Establishment or to big business but to the plain people of Belfast and Ireland. Anyone who supports violence from any side after yesterday's events is sick with the same affliction as those who did the deed". Television images of fire-fighters shovelling body parts into plastic bags at the Oxford Street bus station were the most shocking of the day.
Twenty-five years later, a police officer who had been at Oxford Street bus station described to journalist Peter Taylor the scene he came upon in the wake of the bombing
The first thing that caught my eye was a torso of a human being lying in the middle of the street. It was recognisable as a torso because the clothes had been blown off and you could actually see parts of the human anatomy. One of the victims was a soldier I knew personally. He'd had his arms and legs blown off and some of his body had been blown through the railings. One of the most horrendous memories for me was seeing a head stuck to the wall. A couple of days later, we found vertebrae and a rib cage on the roof of a nearby building. The reason we found it was because the seagulls were diving onto it. I've tried to put it at the back of my mind for twenty-five years.
In The Longest War, author Kevin Kelley wrote that the IRA "had done irreparable damage to their cause – in Britain, abroad, and in their own communities. They had handed Britain a perfect propaganda opportunity – Bloody Friday could not be equated with Bloody Sunday. Nearly everyone was sickened by the slaughter".
Ten days after the bombings, the British Army launched Operation Motorman, in which it re-took IRA-controlled areas in Belfast and Derry. It was the biggest British military operation since the Suez Crisis of 1956. In his memoirs, Whitelaw wrote "The re-establishment of control required a major military operation. Fortunately […] the IRA leaders gave me further propaganda assistance. While the planning for [Operation Motorman] was in progress they unleashed a savage bombing operation in the centre of Belfast".
The City of Belfast Youth Orchestra set up the Stephen Parker Memorial Trust in memory of teenager Stephen Parker, who had been a music student and played the French horn in the orchestra at the time he was killed. Parker was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct as he had died while trying to warn others about the car bomb left outside the row of shops on Cavehill Road.
Irish republican reaction
For the IRA, it was "an operation gone awry". IRA Chief of Staff, Seán Mac Stíofáin, said the civilian casualties "compromised the intended effect" of the bombings. Brendan Hughes, Officer Commanding of the IRA's Belfast Brigade, viewed the attack as a disaster. He described his reaction in an interview organised by Boston College:
I was the operational commander of the "Bloody Friday" operation. I remember when the bombs started to go off, I was in Leeson Street, and I thought, "There's too much here". I sort of knew that there were going to be casualties, either [because] the Brits could not handle so many bombs or they would allow some to go off because it suited them to have casualties. I feel a bit guilty about it because, as I say, there was no intention to kill anyone that day. I have a fair deal of regret that "Bloody Friday" took place ... a great deal of regret ... If I could do it over again I wouldn't do it.
In July 2002, the Provisional IRA issued a statement of apology to An Phoblacht, which read:
See also
Timeline of Provisional Irish Republican Army actions
List of terrorist incidents, 1972
References
External links
Bloody Friday at the Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN)
List of dead, from Malcolm Sutton's "Index of Deaths from the Conflict in Ireland"
Northern Ireland Office news-sheet about the bombings
1972 in Northern Ireland
1972 murders in the United Kingdom
1970s in County Antrim
20th-century mass murder in Northern Ireland
Attacks on bank buildings
Attacks on bridges
Attacks on buildings and structures in 1972
Attacks on buildings and structures in Belfast
Attacks on bus stations
Attacks on hotels in Europe
Attacks on railway stations in Europe
Building bombings in Northern Ireland
Car and truck bombings in Northern Ireland
Improvised explosive device bombings in 1972
July 1972 crimes
July 1972 events in the United Kingdom
Mass murder in 1972
Mass murder in Belfast
Provisional IRA bombings in Belfast
Terrorist incidents in the United Kingdom in 1972
Terrorist incidents on railway systems in the United Kingdom | [
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240150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone%20therapy | Hormone therapy | Hormone therapy or hormonal therapy is the use of hormones in medical treatment. Treatment with hormone antagonists may also be referred to as hormonal therapy or antihormone therapy. The most general classes of hormone therapy are oncologic hormone therapy, hormone replacement therapy (for menopause), androgen replacement therapy (ART), oral contraceptive pills, and transgender hormone therapy.
Types
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT), also known as menopausal hormone therapy (MHT), is for people suffering from menopausal symptoms. It is based on the idea that the treatment may prevent discomfort caused by diminished circulating estrogen and progesterone hormones, or in the case of the surgically or prematurely menopausal, that it may prolong life and may reduce incidence of dementia. It involves the use of one or more of a group of medications designed to artificially boost hormone levels. The main types of hormones involved are estrogen, progesterone, or progestins, and sometimes, testosterone. It is often referred to as "treatment" rather than therapy.
Hormone replacement therapy for people with hypogonadism and intersex conditions (e.g., Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome)
Androgen replacement therapy (ART) in males with low levels of testosterone due to disease or aging. It is a hormone treatment often prescribed to counter the effects of male hypogonadism or who for men who have lost their testicular function to disease, cancer, or other causes. It is sometimes used for late-onset hypogonadism (so-called "andropause"), but the significance of a decrease in testosterone levels is debated and its treatment with replacement is controversial. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated in 2015 that neither the benefits nor the safety of testosterone have been established in older men with low testosterone levels.
Transgender hormone therapy for transgender people introduces sex steroids associated with the gender that the patient identifies with (notably testosterone for transgender men and estrogen for transgender women). Some intersex and non-binary people may also undergo hormone therapy. Cross-sex hormone treatment for transgender individuals is divided into two main types: feminizing hormone therapy and masculinizing hormone therapy.
Feminizing hormone therapy in sex reassignment therapy for transgender women
Masculinizing hormone therapy in sex reassignment therapy for transgender men
Hormonal therapy for cancer
Androgen deprivation therapy for men with prostate cancer
Estrogen deprivation therapy for women with estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer
High-dose estrogen therapy for women with estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer
Chemical castration of men or sex offenders with paraphilias or hypersexuality
Growth hormone therapy for growth hormone deficiency
Thyroid hormone replacement in hypothyroidism
Antithyroid therapy in hyperthyroidism
Glucocorticoid and/or mineralocorticoid replacement in conditions such as Addison's disease
Antiglucocorticoid therapy in Cushing's syndrome
Insulin therapy in Type 1 Diabetes
Oral contraceptive pills for various purposes including birth control
See also
Life extension
References
Medical treatments | [
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240151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%207%20Habits%20of%20Highly%20Effective%20People | The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People | The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, first published in 1989, is a business and self-help book written by Stephen R. Covey. Covey presents an approach to being effective in attaining goals by aligning oneself to what he calls "true north" principles based on a character ethic that he presents as universal and timeless.
Covey defines effectiveness as the balance of obtaining desirable results with caring for that which produces those results. He illustrates this by referring to the fable of the goose that laid the golden eggs. He further claims that effectiveness can be expressed in terms of the P/PC ratio, where P refers to getting desired results and PC is caring for that which produces the results.
Covey's best-known book has sold more than 25 million copies worldwide since its first publication. The audio version became the first non-fiction audio-book in U.S. publishing history to sell more than one million copies. Covey argues against what he calls the personality ethic, that he sees as prevalent in many modern self-help books. He promotes what he labels the character ethic: aligning one's values with so-called universal and timeless principles. In doing this, Covey distinguishes principles and values. He sees principles as external natural laws, while values remain internal and subjective. Our values govern our behavior, while principles ultimately determine the consequences. Covey presents his teachings in a series of habits, manifesting as a progression from dependence through independence on to interdependence.
The 7 Habits
Covey introduces the concept of paradigm shift and helps the reader understand that different perspectives exist, i.e. that two people can see the same thing and yet differ from each other.
Covey also introduces the maturity continuum. These are three successive stages of increasing maturity: dependence, independence, and interdependence. At birth, everybody is dependent, and characteristics of dependence may linger; this is the first and lowest stage of maturity.
Each of the first three habits is intended to help achieve independence. The next three habits are intended to help achieve interdependence. The final, seventh habit is intended to help maintain these achievements. Each of the seven habits has a chapter of the book (or a section of the videotape or DVD) devoted to it:
Independence
The first three habits surround moving from dependence to independence (i.e., self-mastery):
Habit 1: "Be proactive"
Proactivity is about taking responsibility for one's reaction to one's own experiences, taking the initiative to respond positively and improve the situation. Covey discusses recognizing one's circle of influence and circle of concern. Covey discusses focusing one's responses and focusing on the center of one's influence.
Habit 2: "Begin with the end in mind"
Covey discusses envisioning what one wants in the future (a personal mission statement) so one can work and plan towards it, and understanding how people make important life decisions. To be effective one needs to act based on principles and constantly review one's mission statements, says Covey. Covey asks: Are you—right now—who you want to be? What do you have to say about yourself? How do you want to be remembered? If habit 1 advises changing one's life to act and be proactive, habit 2 advises that "you are the programmer". Grow and stay humble, Covey says.
Covey says that all things are created twice: Before one acts, one should act in one's mind first. Before creating something, measure twice. Do not just act; think first: Is this how I want it to go, and are these the correct consequences?
Habit 3: "Put first things first"
Covey talks about what is important versus what is urgent. Priority should be given in the following order (in brackets are the corresponding actions from the Eisenhower matrix, which Dwight D. Eisenhower attributed to a former college president):
Quadrant I. Urgent and important (Do) – important deadlines and crises
Quadrant II. Not urgent but important (Plan) – long-term development
Quadrant III. Urgent but not important (Delegate) – distractions with deadlines
Quadrant IV. Not urgent and not important (Eliminate) – frivolous distractions
The order is important, says Covey: after completing items in quadrant I, people should spend the majority of their time on II, but many people spend too much time in III and IV. The calls to delegate and eliminate are reminders of their relative priority.
If habit 2 advises that "you are the programmer", habit 3 advises: "write the program, become a leader". Keep personal integrity by minimizing the difference between what you say versus what you do, says Covey.
Interdependence
The next three habits talk about interdependence (e.g., working with others):
Habit 4: "Think win–win"
Seek mutually beneficial win–win solutions or agreements in your relationships, says Covey. Valuing and respecting people by seeking a "win" for all is ultimately a better long-term resolution than if only one person in the situation had gotten their way. Thinking win–win isn't about being nice, nor is it a quick-fix technique; it is a character-based code for human interaction and collaboration, says Covey.
Habit 5: "Seek first to understand, then to be understood"
Use empathetic listening to genuinely understand a person, which compels them to reciprocate the listening and take an open mind to be influenced. This creates an atmosphere of caring, and positive problem-solving.
Habit 5 is expressed in the ancient Greek philosophy of three modes of persuasion:
Ethos is one's personal credibility. It's the trust that one inspires, one's "emotional bank account".
Pathos is the empathetic side, the alignment with the emotional trust of another person's communication.
Logos is the logic, the reasoning part of the presentation.
The order of the concepts indicates their relative importance, says Covey.
Habit 6: "Synergize"
Combine the strengths of people through positive teamwork, so as to achieve goals that no one could have done alone, Covey exhorts.
Continual improvement
The final habit is that of continuous improvement in both the personal and interpersonal spheres of influence.
Habit 7: "Sharpen the saw"
Covey says that one should balance and renew one's resources, energy, and health to create a sustainable, long-term, effective lifestyle. He primarily emphasizes exercise for physical renewal, good prayer, and good reading for mental renewal. He also mentions service to society for spiritual renewal.
Covey explains the "upward spiral" model. Through conscience, along with meaningful and consistent progress, an upward spiral will result in growth, change, and constant improvement. In essence, one is always attempting to integrate and master the principles outlined in The 7 Habits at progressively higher levels at each iteration. Subsequent development on any habit will render a different experience and one will learn the principles with a deeper understanding. The upward spiral model consists of three parts: learn, commit, do. According to Covey, one must be increasingly educating the conscience in order to grow and develop on the upward spiral. The idea of renewal by education will propel one along the path of personal freedom, security, wisdom, and power, says Covey.
Reception
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People has sold more than 25 million copies in 40 languages worldwide, and the audio version has sold 1.5 million copies, and remains one of the best selling nonfiction business books in history. In August 2011 Time listed 7 Habits as one of "The 25 Most Influential Business Management Books".
U.S. President Bill Clinton invited Covey to Camp David to counsel him on how to integrate the book into his presidency.
Abundance mentality
Covey coined the term abundance mentality, or abundance mindset, a way of thinking in which a person believes there are enough resources and successes to share with others. He contrasts it with the scarcity mindset (i.e., destructive and unnecessary competition), which is founded on the idea that if someone else wins or is successful in a situation, it means "you lose", because you are not considering the possibility of all parties "winning" in some way or another in a given situation. Individuals having an abundance mentality reject the notion of zero-sum games and are able to celebrate the success of others, rather than feel threatened by them. The author contends that the abundance mentality arises from having a high self-worth and security (see habits 1, 2, and 3), and leads to the sharing of profits, recognition and responsibility. Similarly, organizations may also apply an abundance mentality when doing business.
After The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People was published, the business press have discussed the idea.
Formats
In addition to the book and audiobook versions, a VHS version also exists.
Adaptations
Sean Covey, Stephen's son, has written a version of the book for teens, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Teens, which simplifies the 7 Habits for younger readers to make them easier to understand. In September 2006, Sean Covey published The 6 Most Important Decisions You Will Ever Make A Guide for Teens, which highlights key times in the life of a teen and gives advice on how to deal with them. In September 2008, Covey published The 7 Habits of Happy Kids, a children's book illustrated by Stacy Curtis which further simplifies the 7 Habits for children and teaches them through stories with anthropomorphic animal characters.
References
External links
Official Stephen Covey homepage
1989 non-fiction books
Business books
Self-help books
Personal development
Free Press (publisher) books
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|
240152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Lee%20Loomis | Alfred Lee Loomis | Alfred Lee Loomis (November 4, 1887 – August 11, 1975) was an American attorney, investment banker, philanthropist, scientist, physicist, inventor of the LORAN Long Range Navigation System and a lifelong patron of scientific research. He established the Loomis Laboratory in Tuxedo Park, New York, and his role in the development of radar and the atomic bomb contributed to the Allied victory in World War II. He invented the Aberdeen Chronograph for measuring muzzle velocities, contributed significantly (perhaps critically, according to Luis Alvarez) to the development of a ground-controlled approach technology for aircraft, and participated in preliminary meetings of the Manhattan Project.
Loomis also made contributions to biological instrumentation. Working with Edmund Newton Harvey he co-invented the microscope centrifuge, and pioneered techniques for electroencephalography. In 1937, he discovered the sleep K-complex brainwave. During the Great Depression, Loomis anonymously paid the Physical Review journal's fees for authors who could not afford them.
Early years
Born in Manhattan, Loomis was the son of Julia Josephine Stimson and Henry Patterson Loomis, and grandson of Alfred Lebbeus Loomis. There were prominent members of society on both sides of his family; primarily they were physicians. Alfred's parents separated when he was very young, and his father died when Alfred was in college. His first cousin was Henry Stimson, who held cabinet-level positions in the administrations of William Howard Taft, Herbert Hoover, Franklin Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman. From the boy's early years, Stimson exerted considerable influence on Loomis.
Loomis attended Phillips Academy and studied mathematics and science at Yale University. He graduated cum laude from Harvard Law School in 1912. Immediately following his graduation, Loomis married and began practicing corporate law in the firm of Winthrop and Stimson, where he was very successful.
His first wife was Ellen Holman Farnsworth of Dedham, Massachusetts, from a prominent Boston society family and a sister of Henry Weston Farnsworth, whom he wed on June 22, 1912. They had three sons: Alfred Lee Jr., William Farnsworth, and Henry.
In 1908 he became an hereditary member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati.
In 1917, Alfred Loomis and Landon K. Thorne, the wealthy husband of Loomis's sister Julia, purchased of Hilton Head Island, which they established as a private preserve for riding, boating, fishing, and hunting. The centerpiece of the property was the old Honey Horn Plantation. Loomis's hobbies included automobiles and yachting, including the racing of America's Cup yachts against the Vanderbilts and Astors.
Military service and career in finance
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, Loomis volunteered for military service. He was commissioned as a captain, and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. He worked in ballistics at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, where he invented the Aberdeen Chronograph, the first instrument to measure accurately the muzzle velocity of artillery shells, and portable enough to be used on the battlefield. At Aberdeen he met and worked with a Johns Hopkins physicist, Robert W. Wood, under whose influence Loomis's long-standing interest in inventing and gadgetry evolved into the serious pursuit of experimental and practical physics.
In the 1920s, Loomis collaborated with his brother-in-law, Landon K. Thorne, rather than returning to the practice of law. They acquired Bonbright and Company and brought it from the verge of bankruptcy to becoming a preeminent U. S. investment banking-house specializing in public utilities. They became very wealthy by financing electric companies as these began to establish the electrical infrastructure of rural America, and Loomis sat on the boards of several banks and electric utilities. Loomis and Thorne pioneered the concept of the holding company, consolidating many of the electric companies that operated on the East Coast of the United States. Loomis further increased his fortune via insider trading practices that now are illegal.
In 1928, anticipating the coming Wall Street Crash of 1929, he, his partner, and his firm had converted their investments into gold—having determined that the market had risen so dramatically that it was unsustainable and a crash was inevitable. Once the stock market crash had bankrupted the majority of speculators, while Wall Street floundered, he and his firm became even wealthier as a result of purchasing stocks cheaply after they had plummeted in value and few people had the cash to reinvest. While Senatorial hearings sought to tar him for the success of his prudent strategy, no substantive charges were ever brought. Loomis later worked closely with FDR and his administration in preparing the country's technological base for war, using his many contacts in New York finance, as well as generous sums from his own considerable fortune, to finance the early developments in radar, before government money could be provided.
Laboratory at Tuxedo Park
Taking advantage of his considerable wealth, Loomis increasingly indulged his interest in science. He established a personal laboratory near his mansion within the exclusive enclave of Tuxedo Park, New York. He and his small staff conducted pioneering studies in spectrometry, high-frequency sound and capillary waves, electro-encephalography, and the precise measurement of time, chronometry.
Eventually Loomis was elected to the National Academy of Sciences for his work in physics.
His laboratory was the best of its kind, containing equipment that few universities could afford. His reputation spread quickly, particularly in Europe, where money for science was scarce. Loomis often sent first-class tickets to famous European scientists so that they could travel to the United States to meet with their peers and collaborate on projects. They would be picked up at the airport or train station and brought to Tuxedo Park in his limousine. At first, some in the scientific community called him an "eccentric dabbler," but soon his laboratory became the meeting place for some of the most accomplished scientists of the time, such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, James Franck, and Enrico Fermi. Scientists who worked personally with him were convinced of his capability and industry. His wealth, connections, and charm all made him highly persuasive.
His Tuxedo Park laboratory was nicknamed the "Tower House", “The Loomis Lab” and "The Palace of Science". He turned this Tuxedo Park laboratory into a meeting place for the most visionary minds of the twentieth century; Albert Einstein, and the aforementioned scientists.
He was awarded the Franklin Institute's John Price Wetherill Medal in 1934 along with E. Newton Harvey.
In 1939, Loomis began a collaboration with Ernest Lawrence and was instrumental in financing Lawrence's project to construct a cyclotron. By this time, Loomis had become a prominent figure in experimental physics and had moved his Tuxedo Park operations to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he established a joint operation with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Additionally, Loomis's 1937 house in Tuxedo Park by architect William Lescaze is regarded as an early experiment in double-skin facade construction. This house included "an elaborate double envelope" with a 2-foot-deep air space conditioned by a separate system from the house itself. The object was to maintain high humidity levels inside.
World War II
In the late 1930s, Loomis's scientific team turned their attention to radio detection studies, building a crude microwave radar which they deployed in the back of a van. They drove it to a golf course and aimed it at the neighboring highway in order to track automobiles, then took it to the local airport, where they tracked small aircraft.
Loomis had visited the United Kingdom and knew many of the British scientists who were working on radar. Britain, at war with Germany, was being bombed nightly by the German Luftwaffe, while America was trying to stay out of the war. British scientists had developed the cavity magnetron, which allowed their radar to be made small enough for installation in aircraft. In 1940, the British Tizard Mission visited the United States, seeking help to mass-manufacture the technology they had invented.
On hearing that the British magnetron had a thousand times the output of the best American transmitter, Loomis invited its developers to Tuxedo Park. Because he had performed more work in this area than anyone else in the country, Loomis was appointed by Vannevar Bush to the National Defense Research Committee as chairman of the Microwave Committee and vice-chairman of Division D (Detection, Controls, Instruments). Within a month, he had selected a building on the MIT campus in which to equip a laboratory, dubbing it the MIT Radiation Laboratory, usually referred to as the Radiation Laboratory and later known simply as the Rad Lab. He pressed for the development of radar in spite of the Army's initial skepticism, and arranged funding for the Rad Lab until federal money was allocated.
The MIT Rad Lab was managed by its director, Lee DuBridge. Meanwhile, Loomis assumed his customary function of eliminating the obstacles to research and providing the encouragement that was needed at a time when success still remained elusive. The resulting 10-cm radar was a key technology that enabled the sinking of U-boats, spotted incoming German bombers for the British, and provided cover for the D-Day landing. Loomis took advantage of all his business acumen and industry contacts to ensure that no time was wasted in its development. DuBridge later commented, "Radar won the war; the atom bomb ended it."
Originally known as "LRN" for Loomis Radio Navigation, LORAN was a proposal of Loomis. It was the most widely used long-range navigation system until the advent of GPS. The system was developed at Rad Lab and is based on a pulsed hyperbolic system. A world network of stations once existed. The United States Coast Guard (USCG) and Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) ceased transmitting LORAN-C (and joint CHAYKA) signals in 2010.
Loomis also made a significant contribution to the development of ground-controlled approach technology, a precursor of today's instrument landing systems that use radar to enable ground controllers to "talk down" aircraft pilots and help them to land safely when poor visibility makes visual landings difficult or impossible.
Legacy and later years
President Roosevelt lauded the value of Loomis's work, describing him as being the civilian who was second perhaps only to Churchill, in facilitating the Allied victory in World War II.
Loomis was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1930, the National Academy of Sciences in 1940, and received several honorary degrees: from Wesleyan University he received a D.Sc. in 1932, from Yale University an M.Sc. in 1933, and from the University of California an LL.D. in 1941.
Loomis was married to Ellen Farnsworth for more than 30 years: beautiful, delicate and often suffered from debilitating depression, eventually developing dementia. They had three children: Alfred, Jr., a pioneering investor, two-time winner of the Bermuda Race and head of the winning America's Cup syndicate in 1977; Henry, head of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and Farnsworth, a physician and professor at Brandeis (Farnsworth's grandson is Reed Hastings, co-founder of Netflix).
Loomis had an affair with a colleague's wife, Manette Hobart, and in 1945 he divorced Ellen and immediately married Manette, scandalizing New York society. At this point he completely changed his lifestyle, eschewing his multiple residences and numerous servants and settling into a single household in which he and his wife shared a relationship that was characterized by its domesticity. They remained married until Alfred Loomis died more than 30 years later.
Loomis, always a very private person who avoided publicity, retreated from public life entirely after closing the ‘Rad Lab’ and finishing his related obligations in 1947. He retired to East Hampton, with Manette and never granted another interview.
Patents
External shoe tree, 1914
Net, 1916
Toy, 1917
Chronograph, 1921
Method and apparatus for forming emulsions and the like, 1929
Microscope centrifuge, 1933
Publications
Projectiles
The Measurement of Projectile Velocities.
Sound waves and ultrasound
A Sonic Interferometer for Liquids.
Spectra of High-frequency Discharges in Super-vacuum Tubes.
The physical and biological effects of high-frequency sound-waves of great intensity.
The chemical effects of high frequency sound waves I. A preliminary survey.
CXXII. The velocity of sound in liquids at high frequencies by the sonic interferometer.
Further observations on the effect of high frequency sound waves on living matter.
The destruction of luminous bacteria by high frequency sound waves.
The relation of frequency to the physiological effects of ultra-high frequency currents.
Dielectric Loss in Electrolyte Solutions in High Frequency
Animal studies
An attempt to induce mutation in Drosophila melanogaster by means of supersonic vibrations.
The intrinsic rhythm of the turtle's heart studied with a new type of chronograph, together with the effects of some drugs and hormones.
High speed photomicrography of living cells subjected to supersonic vibrations.
Miscellaneous
The pressure of aqueous vapour in the alveolar air.
Time measurement
Time, The precise measurement of.
Modern developments in precision clocks.
An apparent lunar effect in time determinations at Greenwich and Washington.
Further investigations of an apparent lunar effect in time determinations.
Brain and sleep studies
Potential rhythms of the cerebral cortex during sleep.
Further observations on the potential rhythms of the cerebral cortex during sleep.
Electrical potentials of the human brain.
Brain potentials during hypnosis.
Cerebral states during sleep, as studied by human brain potentials.
Changes in human brain potentials during the onset of sleep.
References
Further reading
hardcover: , paperback:
Video documentary
The Secret of Tuxedo Park, season 30 episode 2 of American Experience on PBS.
External links
– A review of Tuxedo Park in American Scientist pointing out a few errors and exaggerations in the book.
– A review of Tuxedo Park at SIAM news.
Booknotes interview with Jennet Conant on Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science that Changed the Course of World War II, June 9, 2002.
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
1887 births
1975 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
American financiers
Philanthropists from New York (state)
People from Manhattan
Medal for Merit recipients
Yale University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Wesleyan University people
Radar pioneers
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
People from Hilton Head, South Carolina
20th-century American philanthropists
Independent scientists
Fellows of the American Physical Society | [
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|
240153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley%20Forge%2C%20Pennsylvania | Valley Forge, Pennsylvania | The Village of Valley Forge is an unincorporated settlement located on the west side of Valley Forge National Historical Park at the confluence of Valley Creek and the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania, United States. The remaining village is in Schuylkill Township of Chester County, but once spanned Valley Creek into Montgomery County. The name Valley Forge is often used to refer to anywhere in the general vicinity of the park, and many places actually in King of Prussia, Trooper, Oaks, and other nearby communities will use the name, leading to some ambiguity on the actual location of the modern village.
There is a partial re-creation of the historic village from the time of the American Revolution that is located next door, and just within the outskirts of the park.
Valley Forge is known by travelers in the Philadelphia area as the westbound control city on Interstate 76 (the Schuylkill Expressway), as it is near where I-76 joins the Pennsylvania Turnpike. This remains, despite no exit being designated for Valley Forge, since the previous exit became the off-ramp to Mall Boulevard, serving King of Prussia.
Mount Joy & Valley Forges
In 1751 there was a forge for the conversion of pig-iron into bar-iron at the mouth of the East Valley creek, a tributary of the Schuylkill River, advertised for sale as the property of Daniel Walker, Stephen Evans, and Joseph Williams. It was then called Mount Joy forge. Some years afterward it came to be known as Valley Forge. The pig-iron used at Valley Forge was hauled from Warwick furnace. In September, 1777, the forge was burned by the British, and in December the army under Washington was entrenched on Montgomery County side of Valley creek, opposite Valley Forge. General Washington's headquarters were established at the substantial stone-house of Isaac Potts. After the Revolution another Valley Forge was built on the other side of Valley creek; it was in ruins in 1816.
American Revolutionary War encampment
Valley Forge is mostly known for the lending of its name to the encampment of George Washington's Continental Army during the winter of 1777 to 1778.
Notable people
Tory Burch
See also
Valley Forge
Washington Memorial Chapel
References
External links
Old Train station
Valley Forge
Unincorporated communities in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania
Populated places on the Schuylkill River | [
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|
240158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corked%20bat | Corked bat | In baseball, a corked bat is a specially modified baseball bat that has been filled with cork or other lighter, less dense substances to make the bat lighter. A lighter bat gives a hitter a quicker swing and may improve the hitter's timing. Despite popular belief that corking a bat creates a "trampoline effect" causing a batted ball to travel farther, physics researchers have shown that this is not the case. In Major League Baseball, modifying a bat with foreign substances and using it in play is illegal and subject to ejection and further punishment.
Construction
To cork a bat, a hole approximately 1/2-inch (12.5 mm) in diameter is drilled down through the thick end of the bat roughly six inches deep. Crushed cork, bouncy balls, sawdust, or other similar material is compacted into the hole and the end is typically patched up with glue and sawdust. However, this weakens the bat's structural integrity and makes it more susceptible to breakage, even more so if the cork is placed beyond roughly six inches into the bat. Corked bats are sometimes discovered when they break during the moment of impact upon hitting a baseball.
Major League Baseball
Using a corked bat in Major League Baseball is in violation of Rule 6.03 (a)(5), which states
A batter is out for illegal action when:
(5) He uses or attempts to use a bat that, in the umpire's judgment, has been altered or tampered with in such a way to improve the distance factor or cause an unusual reaction on the baseball. This includes bats that are filled, flat-surfaced, nailed, hollowed, grooved or covered with a substance such as paraffin, wax, etc.
It has been a popular belief that the material used to cork a bat creates a "trampoline effect", causing a ball hit with a corked bat to travel farther than one hit with an uncorked bat. Research has shown this not to be the case. Another perceived advantage of using a corked bat is its effect on the bat's weight. Corking a bat causes the bat to be lighter, which in turn allows the batter to swing it more quickly. However, the reduction in weight negatively affects the velocity of the ball as it leaves the bat, effectively cancelling out the advantage gained from a quicker bat speed. A lighter bat can, however, create an advantage by allowing the batter to delay a swing for a fraction of a second, which would allow for more accuracy.
History of use
Since 1970, six players have been caught using corked bats. The following table summarizes these events:
In addition, former player and Major League manager Phil Garner admitted in January 2010 on a Houston radio station that he used a corked bat against Gaylord Perry and "hit a home run" with it. Garner also admitted that the 2005 Houston Astros used corked bats during the 2005 MLB season and 2005 World Series.
In 2010, Deadspin reported that Pete Rose used corked bats during his 1985 pursuit of Ty Cobb's all-time hits record. Two sports memorabilia collectors who owned Rose's game-used bats from that season had the bats x-rayed and found the telltale signs of corking. Rose had previously denied using corked bats.
See also
Cheating in baseball
References
External links
Doctored bat infractions – ESPN.
What about corked bats?
Baseball terminology
Baseball bats
Cheating in baseball
Banned sports tactics
Major League Baseball controversies | [
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|
240166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20Israel | List of political parties in Israel | Israel's political system is based on proportional representation and allows for a multi-party system with numerous parties represented in the 120-seat Knesset.
A typical Knesset includes many factions represented. This is because of the low election threshold required for a seat–1 percent of the vote from 1949 to 1992, 1.5 percent from 1992 to 2003, 2 percent from 2003 to 2014, and 3.25 percent since 2015. In the 2015 elections, for instance, ten parties or alliances cleared the threshold, and five of them won at least ten seats. The low threshold, in combination with the nationwide party-list system, makes it all but impossible for a single party to win the 61 seats needed for a majority government. No party has ever won a majority of seats in an election, the most being 56, won by the Alignment grouping in the 1969 elections (the Alignment had briefly held a majority of seats before the elections following its formation in January 1969).
As a result, while only four parties (or their antecedents) have ever led governments, all Israeli governments have been coalitions comprising two or more parties.
Current parties
Parties represented in the Knesset
The following parties are represented following the March 2021 election:
Other parties
The following parties do not have Knesset seats at present:
Ahrayut
Ale Yarok
Am Shalem
Ani Veata (Me and You) - The Israeli People's Party
Bible Bloc
Brit Olam
Da'am Workers Party, Organization for Democratic Action
Derekh Eretz
Dor
Eretz Hadasha
HaYisraelim
Ihud Bnei HaBrit (United Allies)
The Jewish Home
Kadima (held seats from 2005 to 2015)
Koah HaKesef
Koah LeHashpi'a
Lazuz
Leader
Lehem
Lev LaOlim
Man's Rights in the Family Party
Magen Yisrael (Shield of Israel)
Mahane Yehuda-Monarchist Party of Israel
Meimad (held seats between 1999 and 2009 as part of One Israel alliance)
New Horizon
Or
Piratim-The Pirate Party of Israel
Rappeh, a new Israeli political party, against forced lockdowns, no coercion to vaccinate, and a return of human and personal medical rights for everyone.
Shavim (Community) - Founded in 2018 as an LGBT party
The Greens
Telem
Tzomet (held seats between 1987 and 1999; for the 1996 elections it formed a joint "National Camp List" with Likud and Gesher)
U'Bizchutan — founded in 2015 as an ultra-Orthodox Jewish women's party
Yachad
Yisrael Hazaka
Yisrael HaMithadeshet
Zehut
Former parties
Parties formerly represented in the Knesset
Parties that failed to win seats in the Knesset
Name changes
The following parties changed their names
Banai became Tehiya-Bnai, then Tehiya
Emunim became Tkuma
Equality in Israel-Panthers became the Unity Party
Flatto-Sharon became Development and Peace
Hitkhabrut became the Renewed Religious National Zionist Party, then Ahi
Israel in the Centre became the Centre Party
Meretz became Yachad, then Meretz-Yachad, then Meretz again
Movement for Change and Initiative became Shinui
Mizrachi-Hapoel HaMizrachi became the National Religious Front, then National Religious Party, then The Jewish Home
National Responsibility became Kadima
National Unity - National Progressive Alliance became Progressive National Alliance
Parliamentary Group of Bronfman and Tsinker became Makhar, then the Democratic Choice
Party for the Advancement of the Zionist Idea became the New Liberal Party
Rafi – National List became Ometz
Rakah became Maki
Secular Faction became Hetz
Social-Democratic Faction became the Independent Socialist Faction
Shinui - Centre Party became Shinui - the Secular Movement, then Shinui - Party for the Secular and the Middle Class, but is generally known as Shinui
Zionist youth movements
See also
Politics of Israel
List of political parties by country
Liberalism in Israel
Labor Zionism
Revisionist Zionism
References
External links
Parties participating in the 2006 elections Knesset website
All parliamentary groups Knesset website
Israel
Political parties
Israel
Political parties | [
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|
240169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phetchabun%20province | Phetchabun province | Phetchabun (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Loei, Khon Kaen, Chaiyaphum, Lopburi, Nakhon Sawan, Phichit, and Phitsanulok.
Geography and climate
Phetchabun is in the lower northern region of Thailand, in the area between the northern and the central region. The province lies in the broad fertile river valley of the Pa Sak River, with mountains of the Phetchabun mountain range to the east and west.
Khao Kho National Park, Nam Nao National Park, and Tat Mok National Park are all in the province, either entirely or partially. The total forest area is or 32.5 percent of provincial area.
Phetchabun especially Khao Kho is a place with good weather and cold all year round. Therefore, received the nickname "Switzerland of Thailand".
Toponymy
The word phetcha originates from the Sanskrit word vajra meaning "diamond" (or weapon of Indra), and the word bun from Sanskrit purna meaning "full", "perfect" or "whole". Hence the name of the province literally means "perfect diamond".
Initially, the province was called "Phe-cha-buth" as "Phuenchapura", which means the city that has plenty of crops. The reason is that the province is very fertile and has ample resources. Because of the fertility of the land, Phetchabun has always been agriculturally productive area.
History
Phetchabun was established by two kingdoms: the Sukhothai Kingdom, and the Ayutthaya Period of the King Narai.
In the Thesaphiban administrative reforms at the beginning of the 20th century, the province, together with Lom Sak province to the north, formed monthon Phetchabun. As it was the smallest monthon, it was also the first monthon to be dissolved in 1915, after being temporarily administered from Monthon Phitsanulok between 1903 and 1907. Lom Sak province was abolished and merged into Phetchabun in 1932.
During the period between 1968 and 1982 communist insurgents established bases in the mountains in the province. From hidden locations they fought occasional skirmishes against the Thai Army.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a diamond on a mountain, as diamonds are found in the province. In the foreground are tobacco plants, as it is one of the crops grown in the province. The provincial tree is the tamarind. Craspedacusta sowerbyi, a rare species of freshwater jellyfish is the provincial aquatic animal. Because Phetchabun is one of the few places in the world, that is the habitat of this species of invertebrates.
Economy
Tourism is considered the main industry of the province.
Phu Thap Boek, the highest mountain in the province. It is a well-known tourist destination and the largest cabbage growing place in the country.
Transport
Road
Phetchabun is 346 kilometres from Bangkok by using Route 1 and Route 21.
Air
Phetchabun is served by Phetchabun Airport. Nok Air serves the airport with flights to Bangkok.
Administrative divisions
The province is divided into 11 districts (amphoe). These are further divided into 117 subdistricts (tambon) and 1261 villages (muban).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Phetchabun Provincial Administration Organisation () and 25 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Phetchabun, Wichian Buri and Lom Sak have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 22 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 102 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Local products
Sweet tamarind
Arabica coffee
Khao lam
Black galingale
Stevia tea
Thai vermicelli rice noodles
Cabbage
Grilled chicken
Notable people
Saensak Muangsurin (b. 1950–2009), boxer
Khaosai Galaxy (b. 1959), boxer, member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame
Kaokor Galaxy (b. 1959), boxer
Chana Porpaoin (b. 1966), boxer
Songkram Porpaoin (b. 1966), boxer
Sujin Naknayom (b. 1979), footballer
Chakrit Buathong (b. 1985), footballer
Sittisak Tarapan (b. 1984), footballer
References
External links
Phetchabun Tourist information
Website of province (Thai)
Maps & attractions in Phetchabun
Provinces of Thailand | [
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240173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ride%20with%20the%20Devil%20%28film%29 | Ride with the Devil (film) | Ride with the Devil is a 1999 American Revisionist Western film directed by Ang Lee and starring Tobey Maguire, Skeet Ulrich, Jeffrey Wright, and Jewel in her feature film debut. Based on the novel Woe to Live On, by Daniel Woodrell, the film, set during the American Civil War, follows a group of men who join the First Missouri Irregulars, also known as the Bushwhackers—guerrilla units loyal to pro-Confederacy units of the state—and their attempt to disrupt and marginalize the political activities of Northern Jayhawkers allied with Union soldiers. Simon Baker, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Jonathan Brandis, Jim Caviezel, Mark Ruffalo, and Celia Weston are featured in supporting performances.
The film was a co-production between Universal Studios and Good Machine. Principal photography began on March 25, 1998. Theatrically, it was commercially distributed by the USA Films division of Universal, and premiered in only six theaters nationwide in the United States on November 26, 1999, and for only three days, grossing a total of $635,096. Taking into account its $38 million budget costs, the film was considered a major box office bomb.
Ride with the Devil has been noted for its thematic exploration of politics, violence and war. In 2010, The Criterion Collection released a restored high-definition digital transfer for the home media market, featuring an extended 148-minute director's cut of the film.
Plot
Jake Roedel and Jack Bull Chiles are friends in Missouri when the American Civil War breaks out; Roedel is a German American (born in Germany but raised by his immigrant father in Missouri) who suffers from sporadic anti-German suspicion from other Southerners, due to the German population in the state being largely sympathetic to the Union. During the mayhem, Chiles' father is murdered by Kansas pro-Union Jayhawkers. The two men join the First Missouri Irregulars (Bushwhackers) under Black John Ambrose, an informal unit loyal to pro-Confederacy units of Missouri in 1861. They later meet George Clyde and Daniel Holt, who most assume is Clyde's slave. But Clyde had "bought out" Holt from slavery after Holt, who Clyde had known since childhood, had joined the Bushwhackers along with Clyde after killing several Union soldiers who killed Clyde's father. Holt is considered a good scout and a good shot who is cool in combat and is known by the Confederates as "a good Yankee killer."
The Bushwhackers battle Jayhawkers using guerrilla warfare tactics while trying to evade capture. During their travels, Jake is notified that his father, also a German immigrant, has been murdered by Alf Bowden, a Unionist whose life Jake spared. The men manage to hide out in a coarsely-built shelter on the property of a pro-Confederacy family, the Evanses. A young widow in the household, Sue Lee Shelley, becomes romantically involved with Chiles. With Clyde off to visit a woman friend at nearby farm and Chiles occupied with Sue Lee, a friendship begins between Roedel and Holt. Soon after, Chiles is severely wounded during a skirmish with Union soldiers and they take him back to their hideout. With Union soldiers in the area, Clyde abandons the others on the pretext of finding a doctor but actually rejoins the Bushwhackers. Jake, Daniel and Sue Lee amputate Chiles' arm, but he dies of gangrene. After Chiles' death, Roedel and Holt escort Shelley to a refuge dwelling where another pro-Confederate kindred, the Brown family, reside. Roedel and Holt then rejoin the Bushwhackers where they find Clyde, who appears embarrassed to see them although they bear him no ill will.
Following the collapse and destruction of a makeshift prison holding the female relatives of guerrillas, a complementary clan of Bushwhackers led by William Quantrill plot a revenge attack against the Union and raid Lawrence, Kansas. After the Bushwhackers have overrun and killed the Union troops on the edge of town, they enter Lawrence, and commence to kill everyone they deem a Jayhawker, Federal, or supportive of them. Roedel and Holt do not engage in the killing of civilians, and enter an establishment to eat. Fellow Bushwhacker Pitt Mackeson –who has steadily grown to be jealous of Roedel due to him being viewed as intelligent by the commander of the group– also known as having predilection for vicious killing, enters the establishment and orders Roedel to bring out the family who owns the place so he can execute them in the street. Roedel refuses, and when Mackeson threatens Roedel with violence, Roedel draws his pistol and points it in Mackeson's face, daring him to carry out his threat, to which Mackeson backs down. Later, Union cavalry who were on the trail of Quantrill's band arrives to Lawrence and turn to attack. The Bushwackers first fall back and later draw the Union cavalry into a woodline and dismount to take cover and deliver volley fire into the Union cavalry, in subsequent lines, as they retreat. In an episode of more hostility, Mackeson purposely shoots Roedel in the leg during the action. Holt is also hit in the side in the battle. Clyde tries to pull Holt away from the danger, and then is himself hit in the throat, dying in Holt's arms. Roedel pulls Holt away to mount horses and escape the Union cavalry.
Once clear of the Union cavalry, Roedel and Holt make their way to Brown farm to have their wounds treated. The Brown family takes the two in, and they recuperate for a time. With both Chiles and Clyde gone, friendship grows between Roedel and Holt and they reflect on their futures. Roedel is less sure he will return to fight for the Confederate Cause, starting to think the war is going against the South. Holt confides that although he was not Clyde's slave, he felt he belonged with him and now felt free for the first time in his life and begins to comprehend he faces a life of his own choices. He confides in Roedel that he knew his mother was a slave who had been sold and taken to Texas, and was now the only person left of family he had.
Meanwhile, Shelley gives birth to Chiles's daughter. Holt and Roedel, both wounded, recover at the same residence that took in Shelley occupied by the Brown folk. The Browns, who mistakenly suppose Roedel is the child's father, pressure Roedel to marry her, which he is reluctant to do. However, after spending time with Shelley and the child, Roedel begins to have feelings for both of them. At the same time, Anderson and many other Bushwhackers have been killed, taken prisoner or otherwise rendered inactive. Pitt Mackeson has gathered some survivors into a gang which no longer fights the Yankees, but instead robs, murders and plunders Unionists and Southerners alike. Word comes from one of Roedel's compatriots that Mackeson and his gang are headed South and plan on visiting Roedel soon.
One day Mr. Brown takes Holt to town and they return with a reverend, with the sole purpose of marrying Shelley and Roedel. After realizing he does love Shelley and she him, Roedel marries her in an almost-abrupt wedding. Roedel's feelings toward Shelley are further deepened by a tender wedding night together. Later, proclaiming himself finished with war, Roedel gives up being a Bushwhacker and takes his new family to California. On the way, and while making camp, they meet Mackeson and the last of his men, Turner, who is now ragged and injured, with both of them on their last legs and on the run. Mackeson reveals that Black John and Quantrill are both dead. During a tense standoff between Mackeson, Roedel, Turner and Holt, Mackeson boasts of his plan to ride into Newport despite the fact the town is full of Federal soldiers and certain death awaits him and Turner. Mackeson's almost unhinged manners makes Roedel and Holt to hold guns on him and Turner in self-defense, but the two bandits ride off without violence, with Mackeson implicitly agreeing with Roedel that the war is lost and their personal feud is now over too.
Daniel Holt rides with Roedel and his family toward California, until their roads part. He bids Jake his farewell, while Shelley and the baby sleep. Holt leaves for Texas, now a truly free man, to find his long lost mother.
Cast
Analysis
Film scholar Stephen Teo notes that the film approaches themes of "domesticity, the role of women, homosociality, and violence... with great sensitivity."
Many critics have noted that the film does little to orient or guide its audience through the historical landscape in which it is set, and instead presents events in a manner that is "unremarkable," "undemonstrative," and "somewhat ghostly." Writer Andrew Patrick Nelson considers Ride with the Devil as being part of the revisionist Western tradition, though he concedes that it "has little of the self-consciousness that generally marks the form." Nelson asserts that director Ang Lee often forgoes excessive attention to historical details, and instead attempts to immerse the audience in an experience that "is responsive to the daily realities and rhythms that surround the characters." It is because of this that Nelson claims the film has more in common with "metaphysical" works of filmmakers such as Terrence Malick."
Production
Casting and set design
The leading actors were required to go through three weeks of boot camp to prepare them for their roles. During shooting, Maguire hesitated under the grueling heat and 16-hour workdays, but pressed on to complete the filming. The actors first trained shooting blank loads, and then live ammunition for action conflict scenes. More than 250 Civil War black-powder pistols were used during the production phase. Over 140 extras played Lawrence residents, and more than 200 Civil War re-enactors were brought in to relay their style of living to the filming sequences.
Principal photography began on March 25, 1998. Filming took place primarily on location in Sibley, Missouri, Kansas City, Kansas, and Kansas City, Missouri. Pattonsburg, Missouri also stood in as a primary filming set locale. The set design production team removed telephone poles and utilized truckloads of dirt to cover existing asphalt and concrete. Production designer Mark Friedberg created numerous indoor and outdoor sets of the time period to ensure and maintain historical accuracy.
Music and soundtrack
The original motion picture music for Ride with the Devil, was released by the Atlantic Records music label on November 23, 1999. The score for the film was orchestrated by Mychael Danna and Nicholas Dodd. Musical artist Jewel contributed vocals to the score with her song "What's Simple Is True", from her 1998 album Spirit.
Marketing
Novel
The basis for the film, Daniel Woodrell's novel Woe to Live On (originally published in 1987) was released as a movie tie-in edition, re-titled Ride With the Devil, by Pocket Books on November 1, 1999. The book dramatizes the events of the American Civil War during the 1860s, as depicted in the film. It expands on the inner-fighting between rebel Bushwhackers and Union Jayhawkers, with civilians caught in the crossfire. The story relates a coming of age experience for Roedel as he emotionally comprehends the losses of his best friend, father and comrades. On a separate front, Roedel expresses love for his best friend's widow, and learns about tolerance from his contact with a reserved black Irregular.
Release
Ride with the Devil received its world premiere at the 25th Deauville American Film Festival in France on September 9, 1999. The following day it had its North American premiere at the Toronto Film Festival in Canada. The film's UK premiere was at the opening night gala of the London Film Festival on November 3, 1999.
Box office
Ride with the Devil had an initial screening on November 24, 1999, in New York City, Kansas City, Missouri and Los Angeles. For most of its limited release, the film fluctuated between 11 and 60 theater screening counts. At its most competitive showing, the filmed ranked in 37th place for the December 17–19 weekend in 1999.
The film premiered in cinemas on November 26, 1999, in limited release throughout the United States. During that weekend, the film opened in 50th place grossing $64,159 in business showing at 11 locations. The film Toy Story 2 opened in 1st place during that weekend with $57,388,839 in revenue. The film's revenue dropped by almost 20% in its second week of release, earning $51,600. For that particular weekend, the film fell to 53rd place although with an increased theater count showing at 15 theaters. Toy Story 2 remained unchallenged in 1st place with $18,249,880 in box office business. During its final week in release, Ride with the Devil opened in 57th place grossing $39,806. For that weekend period, Stuart Little starring Geena Davis opened in 1st place with $11,214,503 in revenue. Ride with the Devil went on to top out domestically at $635,096 in total ticket sales through a 6-week theatrical run. For 1999 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 219.
Critical response
Among mainstream critics in the U.S., the film received generally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63% of 65 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 6.2 out of 10. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, Ride with the Devil received a score of 69 based on 29 reviews. The film failed to garner any award nominations for its acting or production merits from accredited film organizations.
Peter Stack, writing in the San Francisco Chronicle, said in outward positive sentiment, "Lee's approach mixes an unsettling grittiness with an appealing, often luminous elegance (thanks to Frederick Elmes' cinematography) in picturing a patch of America at war with itself." Left impressed, Stephen Hunter in The Washington Post, wrote that the film was "terrific" and that it contained the "most terrifying kind of close-in gunplay, with big, pulsing holes blown into human beings for a variety of reasons ranging from the political to the nonsensical." In a mixed to positive review, Stephen Holden of The New York Times, described the film's production aspects as being of "meditative quality and its attention to detail and the rough-hewn textures of 19th-century life are also what keep the story at a distance and make "Ride with the Devil" dramatically skimpy, even though the movie stirs together themes of love, sex, death and war." Wesley Morris of The San Francisco Examiner, commented that Ride with the Devil was "downright hot-blooded in the nameless violence going on west of marquee Civil War battles. Never has this war been filmed with such ragged glory. The boys grasping their rifles look like trigger-happy rock stars of the prairies, so much so that they threaten to transform the film into a great hair movie." In a slightly upbeat conviction, Andrew O'Hehir of Salon.com asserted that "for all its clumsy dialogue and loose plotting, this is historical filmmaking of a high order, both visually and thematically ambitious." Todd McCarthy of Variety, added to the exuberant tone by declaring, "Impressing once again with the diversity of his choices of subject matter and milieu, director Ang Lee has made a brutal but sensitively observed film about the fringes of the Civil War".
The film was not without its detractors. Writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert bluntly noted that the motion picture "does not have conventional rewards or payoffs, does not simplify a complex situation, doesn't punch up the action or the romance simply to entertain. But it is, sad to say, not a very entertaining movie; it's a long slog unless you're fascinated by the undercurrents." In a primarily negative review, Lisa Schwarzbaum writing for Entertainment Weekly, called the film "an oddly unengaging one, not because of any weak performances (even crooning poetess Jewel acquits herself pleasantly in her film debut), but because the waxy yellow buildup of earnest tastefulness (the curse of the Burns school of history) seals off every character from our access." Describing a favorable opinion, Russell Smith of The Austin Chronicle professed the film as exhibiting "unostentatious originality, psychological insight, and stark beauty". While following up, he stressed "There's an odd blend of stylization and extreme realism to this film. The dialogue is stilted, full of archaic $20-words and dime-novel flamboyance — all the more jarring when delivered by these teenaged bumpkin characters."
James Berardinelli of ReelViews proclaimed Ride with the Devil "takes us away from the big battles of the East and to a place where things are less cleanly defined." He also stated that "As was true almost everywhere else, idealogical gulfs often divided families. This is the terrain into which Lee has ventured, and the resulting motion picture offers yet another effective and affecting portrait of the United States' most important and difficult conflict." David Sterritt writing for The Christian Science Monitor reasoned, "The movie is longer and slower than necessary, but it explores interesting questions of wartime violence, personal integrity, and what it means to come of age in a society ripping apart at the seams." Film critic Steve Simels of TV Guide was consumed with the nature of the subject matter exclaiming, "A nicely ambiguous ending and terrific acting by the mostly young cast mostly makes up for the longeurs, however, and for the record, Jewel acquits herself well in a not particularly demanding role."
In 2013, the film was the subject of an essay in a collection of scholarly essays on Ang Lee's films, The Philosophy of Ang Lee.
Home media
Following its cinematic release in theaters, the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on July 18, 2000. Special features for the DVD include; Jewel music video: "What's Simple Is True", the Theatrical Trailer, Production notes, Cast and filmmakers extra, and a Universal web link.
The Criterion Collection released a restored special edition on DVD and Blu-ray on April 27, 2010. It includes a 148-minute extended cut of the film. Special features include; Two audio commentaries one featuring Lee and producer-screenwriter James Schamus and one featuring Elmes, sound designer Drew Kunin, and production designer Mark Friedberg; a new video interview with star Jeffrey Wright, and a booklet featuring essays by critic Godfrey Cheshire and Edward E. Leslie, author of The Devil Knows How to Ride: The True Story of William Clarke Quantrill and his Confederate Raiders.
The film is also available in video on demand formats, as well.
See also
Quantrill's Raiders
Lawrence Massacre
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Ride with the Devil: Apocalypse Then an essay by Godfrey Cheshire at the Criterion Collection
1999 films
1999 Western (genre) films
African Americans in the American Civil War
American Civil War films
American Western (genre) films
American epic films
American films
American war films
1990s English-language films
Films about American slavery
Films about race and ethnicity
Films based on American novels
Films based on Western (genre) novels
Films based on military novels
Films directed by Ang Lee
Films produced by James Schamus
Films scored by Mychael Danna
Films set in Missouri
Films set in the 1860s
Films shot in Kansas
Films shot in Missouri
Films with screenplays by James Schamus
Kansas in the American Civil War
Missouri in the American Civil War
Revisionist Western (genre) films
War films based on actual events
Guerrilla warfare in film | [
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240174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Ross | Ronald Ross | Sir Ronald Ross (13 May 1857 – 16 September 1932) was a British medical doctor who received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for his work on the transmission of malaria, becoming the first British Nobel laureate, and the first born outside Europe. His discovery of the malarial parasite in the gastrointestinal tract of a mosquito in 1897 proved that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, and laid the foundation for the method of combating the disease. He was a polymath, writing a number of poems, published several novels, and composed songs. He was also an amateur artist and natural mathematician. He worked in the Indian Medical Service for 25 years. It was during his service that he made the groundbreaking medical discovery. After resigning from his service in India, he joined the faculty of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, and continued as Professor and Chairman of Tropical Medicine of the institute for 10 years. In 1926 he became Director-in-Chief of the Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases, which was established in honour of his works. He remained there until his death.
Early life and education
Ross was born in Almora, then in the North-Western Provinces of India. He was the eldest of ten children of Sir Campbell Claye Grant Ross, a general in the British Indian Army, and Matilda Charlotte Elderton. At age eight, he was sent to England to live with his aunt and uncle on the Isle of Wight. He attended Primary schools at Ryde, and for secondary education he was sent to a boarding school at Springhill, near Southampton, in 1869. From his early childhood, he developed a passion for poetry, music, literature and mathematics. At fourteen years of age he won a prize for mathematics, a book titled Orbs of Heaven which sparked his interest in mathematics. In 1873, at sixteen, he secured first position in the Oxford and Cambridge local examination in drawing. Although he wanted to become a writer, his father arranged enrollment at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College in London, in 1874. Not fully committed, he spent most of his time composing music, and writing poems and plays. He left in 1880. In 1879 he had passed the examinations for the Royal College of Surgeons of England, and he worked as a ship's surgeon on a transatlantic steamship while studying for the licenciate of the Society of Apothecaries. He qualified on second attempt in 1881, and after a four-month training at Army Medical School, was appointed a surgeon in the Indian Medical Service on 2 April 1881, assigned to the Madras Presidency. Between June 1888 and May 1889 he took study leave to obtain the Diploma in Public Health from the Royal College of Physicians and Royal College of Surgeons, and took a course in bacteriology under Professor E. E. Klein.
Career
India
Ross embarked for India on 22 September 1881 on the troopship Jumma. Between 1881 and 1894 he was variously posted in Madras, Burma (now Myanmar), Baluchistan, Andaman Islands, Bangalore and Secunderabad. In 1883, he was posted as the Acting Garrison Surgeon at Bangalore during which he noticed the possibility of controlling mosquitoes by limiting their access to water. In March 1894 he had his home leave and went to London with his family. On 10 April 1894 he met Sir Patrick Manson for the first time. Manson who became Ross's mentor, introduced him to the real problems in malaria research. Manson always had a firm belief that India was the best place for the study. Ross returned to India on P&O ship Ballaarat on 20 March 1895 and landed in Secunderabad on 24 April. Even before his luggage was cleared in the custom office, he went straight for Bombay Civil Hospital, looking for malarial patients and started making blood films.
Discovery of malaria-causing mosquito
Ross made his first important step in May 1895 when he observed the early stages of malarial parasite inside a mosquito stomach. However, his enthusiasm was interrupted as he was deployed to Bangalore to investigate an outbreak of cholera. Bangalore had no regular cases of malaria. He confided to Manson stating, "I am thrown out of employment and have 'no work to do'." But in April he had a chance to visit Sigur Ghat near the hill station of Ooty, where he noticed a mosquito on the wall in a peculiar posture, and for this he called it "dappled-winged" mosquito, not knowing the species. In May 1896, he was given a short leave that enabled him to visit a malaria-endemic region around Ooty. In spite of his daily quinine prophylaxis, he was down with severe malaria three days after his arrival. In June he was transferred to Secunderabad. After two years of research failure, in July 1897, he managed to culture 20 adult "brown" mosquitoes from collected larvae. He successfully infected the mosquitoes from a patient named Husein Khan for a price of 8 annas (one anna per blood-fed mosquito!). After blood-feeding, he dissected the mosquitoes. On 20 August he confirmed the presence of the malarial parasite inside the gut of mosquito, which he originally identified as "dappled-wings" (which turned out to be species of the genus Anopheles). The next day, on 21 August, he confirmed the growth of the parasite in the mosquito. This discovery was published on 27 August 1897 in the Indian Medical Gazette and subsequently in the December 1897 issue of British Medical Journal. In the evening he composed the following poem for his discovery (originally unfinished, sent to his wife on 22 August, and completed a few days later):
This day relenting God
Hath placed within my hand
A wondrous thing; and God
Be praised. At His command,
Seeking His secret deeds
With tears and toiling breath,
I find thy cunning seeds,
O million-murdering Death.
I know this little thing
A myriad men will save.
O Death, where is thy sting?
Thy victory, O Grave?
Discovery of malaria transmission in birds
In September 1897, Ross was transferred to Bombay, from where he was subsequently sent to a malaria-free Kherwara in Rajputana (now Rajasthan). Frustrated of lack of work he threatened to resign from service as he felt that it was a death blow to his pursuit. It was only on the representation of Patrick Manson, that the government arranged for his continued service in Calcutta on a "special duty". On 17 February 1898 he arrived in Calcutta (now Kolkata), to work in the Presidency General Hospital. He immediately carried out research in malaria and Visceral leishmaniasis (also known as kala azar), for which he was assigned. He was given the use of Surgeon-Lieutenant-General Cunningham's laboratory for his research. He had no success with malarial patients because they were always immediately given medication. He built a bungalow with a laboratory at Mahanad village, where he would stay from time to time to collect mosquitoes in and around the village. He employed Mahomed (or Muhammed) Bux, Purboona (who deserted him after the first payday), and Kishori Mohan Bandyopadhyay as laboratory assistants. As Calcutta was not a malarious place, Manson persuaded him to use birds, as being used by other scientists such as Vasily Danilewsky in Russia and William George MacCallum in America. Ross complied but with a complaint that he "did not need to be in India to study bird malaria". By March he began to see results on bird parasites, very closely related to the human malarial parasites. Using more convenient model of birds (infected sparrows), by July 1898 he established the importance of culex mosquitoes as intermediate hosts in avian malaria. On 4 July he discovered that the salivary gland was the storage sites of malarial parasites in the mosquito. By 8 July he was convinced that the parasites are released from the salivary gland during biting. He later demonstrated the transmission of malarial parasite from mosquitoes (in this case Culex species) to healthy sparrows from an infected one, thus, establishing the complete life cycle of malarial parasite.
In September 1898 he went to southern Assam in (northeast India) to study an epidemic of Visceral leishmaniasis. He was invited to work there by Graham Col Ville Ramsay, the second Medical Officer of the Labac Tea Estate Hospital. (His microscope and medicals tools are still preserved, and his sketches of mosquitoes are still on display at the hospital.) However, he utterly failed as he believed that the kala-azar parasite (Leishmania donovani, the very scientific name he later gave in 1903) was transmitted by a mosquito, which he refers to as Anopheles rossi. (It is now known that kala azar is transmitted by sandflies.)
England
In 1899, Ross resigned from Indian Medical Service and went to England to join the faculty of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine as lecturer. He continued to work on prevention of malaria in different parts of the world, including West Africa, the Suez Canal zone, Greece, Mauritius, Cyprus, and in the areas affected by the First World War. He also initiated organisations, which proved to be well established, for fighting malaria in India and Sri Lanka. In 1902, Ross was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. He was appointed as Professor and Chair of Tropical Medicine of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine in 1902, which he held up to 1912. In 1912 he was appointed Physician for Tropical Diseases at King's College Hospital in London, and simultaneously hold the Chair of Tropical Sanitation in Liverpool. He remained in these posts until 1917 when he became (honorary) Consultant in Malariology in British War Office. He travelled to Thessaloniki and Italy in November to advise and on the way, "in a landlocked bay close to the Leucadian Rock (where Sappho is supposed to have drowned hers)", his ship escaped a torpedo attack. Between 1918 and 1926 he worked as Consultant in Malaria in the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance.
Ross developed mathematical models for the study of malaria epidemiology, which he initiated in his report on Mauritius in 1908. He elaborated the concept in his book The Prevention of malaria in 1910 (2nd edition in 1911) and further elaborated in a more generalised form in scientific papers published by the Royal Society in 1915 and 1916; some of his epidemiology work was developed with mathematician Hilda Hudson. These papers represented a profound mathematical interest which was not confined to epidemiology, but led him to make material contributions to both pure and applied mathematics.
Ross was one of the supporters of Sir William Osler in the founding of the History of Medicine Society in 1912, and in 1913 was the history of medicine section's vice-president.
Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases
The Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases was founded in 1926 and established at Bath House, a grand house with keeper's lodge and large grounds adjacent to Tibbet's Corner at Putney Heath. The hospital was opened by the then Prince of Wales, the future King Edward VIII. Ross assumed the post of Director-in-Chief until his death. The institute was later incorporated into the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine in Keppel Street. Bath House was later demolished and mansion flats built on the property. In memory of its history and owner the block was named Ross Court. Within the grounds an older dwelling, Ross Cottage, remains.
Nobel Prize
Ronald Ross was awarded a Nobel Prize for his discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite in birds. He did not build his concept of malarial transmission in humans, but in birds. Ross was the first to show that malarial parasite was transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, in his case the avian Plasmodium relictum. In 1897, an Italian physician and zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi, along with his colleagues, had established the developmental stages of malaria parasites in anopheline mosquitoes; and they described the complete life cycles of P. falciparum, P. vivax and P. malariae the following year. When the 1902 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was considered, the Nobel Committee initially intended the prize to be shared between Ross and Grassi, however Ross accused Grassi of deliberate fraud. The weight of favour ultimately fell on Ross, largely due to the influences of Robert Koch, the appointed neutral arbitrator in the committee; as reported, "Koch threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor".
Personal life and death
Ronald Ross was noted to be eccentric and egocentric, described as an "impulsive man". His professional life appeared to be in constant feud with his students, colleagues and fellow scientists. His personal vendetta with G.B. Grassi became a legendary tale in science. He was openly envious of his mentor Patrick Manson's affluence from private practices. This was largely due to his own ineptitude to compete with other physicians. His Memories of Sir Patrick Manson (1930) was a direct attempt to belittle Manson's influences on his works on malaria. He hardly had good ties with the administration of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, complaining of being underpaid. He resigned twice, and was eventually discharged without any pension.
Ross was frequently embittered by lack of government support (what he called "administrative barbarism") for scientists in medical research. In 1928 he advertised his papers for sale in the journal Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933), with a statement that the money was for financial support of his wife and family. Lady Houston bought them for £2000, and offered them to the British Museum, which turned her down for various reasons. The papers are now preserved by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow.
In 1889 Ross married Rosa Bessie Bloxam (d.1931). They had two daughters, Dorothy (1891–1947) and Sylvia (1893–1925), and two sons, Ronald Campbell (1895–1914) and Charles Claye (1901–1966). His wife died in 1931. Ronald and Sylvia pre-deceased him too: Ronald was killed at the Battle of Le Cateau on 26 August 1914. Ross died at the hospital of his namesake after a long illness and asthma attack. He was buried at the nearby Putney Vale Cemetery, next to his wife.
Legacy
A small memorial on the walls of SSKM Hospital commemorates Ross' discovery. The memorial was unveiled by Ross himself, in the presence of Lord Lytton, on 7 January 1927. The laboratory where Ross worked has been transferred into a malaria clinic named after him. There is also a plaque on the outer wall.
Sir Ronald Ross is one of 23 names to feature on the frieze of London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, pioneers chosen for their contributions to public health.
Books
Report on Cholera, General Sanitation, and the Sanitary Department and Regulations, in the C. & M. Station of Bangalore (1896)
Report on the Cultivation of Proteosoma Labbé, in Grey Mosquitoes (1898). Digitised version available from National Library of Scotland.
Report on the Nature of Kala-azar (1899). Digitised version available from National Library of Scotland.
Malarial Fever: Its Cause, Prevention and Treatment; Containing Full Details for the Use of Travellers, Sportsmen, Soldiers, and Residents in Malarious Places (1902)
First Progress Report of the Campaign Against Mosquitoes in Sierra Leone (with Charles Wilberforce Daniels) (1902)
Notes on the Parasites of Mosquitoes Found in India Between 1895 and 1899
Hygiene for Indian Scholars
Note on the Bodies Recently Described by Leishman and Donovan (1903)
Further Notes on Leishman's Bodies (1903)
Report on Malaria at Ismailia and Suez (1903)
Leishmania Donovani Found in Kala-azar (1904)
Researches on Malaria (1905)
Note on a Flagellate Parasite Found in Culex Fatigans (1906)
Malaria in Greece (1909)
Missionaries and the Campaign Against Malaria (1910)
A Case of Sleeping Sickness Studied by Precise Enumerative Methods: Regular Periodical Increase of the Parasites Disclosed (with David Thomson) (1910)
Discussion on the Treatment of Malaria (1918)
Mosquitoes and Malaria in Britain (1918)
Suggestions for the Care of Malaria Patients (1919)
Observations on malaria (1919)
Memoirs, with a Full Account of the Great Malaria Problem and Its Solution (1923)
Malaria-control in Ceylon Plantations (1926)
Solid Space-algebra: The Systems of Hamilton and Grassmann Combined (1929)
A Summary of Facts Regarding Malaria Suitable for Public Instruction (with Malcolm Watson) (1930)
Memories of Sir Patrick Manson (1930)
The solution of equations by iteration (with William Stott) (1930)
A Priori Pathometry (with Hilda Phoebe Hudson) (1931)
Mosquito Brigades and How to Organise Them
Literary works
Ross was a prolific writer. He habitually wrote poems on most of the important events in his life. His poetic works gained him wide acclaim and they reflect his medical service, travelogue, philosophical and scientific thoughts. Many of his poems are collected in his Selected Poems (1928) and In Exile (1931). Some of his notable books are The Child of Ocean (1899 and 1932), The Revels of Orsera, The Spirit of Storm, Fables and Satires (1930), Lyra Modulatu (1931), and five mathematical works (1929–1931). He also compiled an extensive account The Prevention of Malaria in 1910 and another Studies on Malaria in 1928. He published his autobiography Memoirs, with a Full Account of the Great Malaria Problem and its Solution (547 pages long) in 1923. He carefully saved virtually everything about himself: correspondence, telegrams, newspaper cuttings, drafts of published and unpublished material, and all manner of ephemera.
Awards and recognition
Ronald Ross was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it".
20 August is celebrated by London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine as World Mosquito Day to commemorate Ross's discovery in 1897. Additionally, Ross's name, along with 22 other pioneers of public health and tropical medicine, appears on the School's Frieze. The papers of Sir Ronald Ross are now preserved by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1901 and of the Royal College of Surgeons in the same year. He was appointed Vice-President of the Royal Society from 1911 to 1913. In 1902 he was appointed a Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath by King Edward VII. In 1911 he was promoted to the rank of Knight Commander of the same Order. He was also decorated with the title Officer of the Order of Leopold II of Belgium.
Ross received honorary membership of learned societies of most countries in Europe, and elsewhere. He got an honorary M.D. degree in Stockholm in 1910 at the centenary celebration of the Caroline Institute and his 1923 autobiography Memoirs was awarded that year's James Tait Black Memorial Prize. While his vivacity and single-minded search for truth caused friction with some people, he enjoyed a vast circle of friends in Europe, Asia and the United States who respected him for his personality as well as for his genius.
In India, Ross is remembered with great respect as a result of his work on malaria, the deadly epidemic which used to claim thousands of lives every year. There are roads named after him in many Indian towns and cities. In Calcutta the road linking Presidency General Hospital with Kidderpore Road has been renamed after him as Sir Ronald Ross Sarani. Earlier this road was known as Hospital Road. In his memory, the regional infectious disease hospital at Hyderabad was named Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Tropical and Communicable Diseases. The building where he worked and actually discovered the malarial parasite, located in Secunderabad near the Begumpet Airport, is a declared a heritage site and the road leading up to the building is named Sir Ronald Ross Road.
In Ludhiana, Christian Medical College has named its hostel as "Ross Hostel". The young medics often refer to themselves as "Rossians".
The University of Surrey, UK, has named a road after him in its Manor Park Residences.
Ronald Ross Primary School near Wimbledon Common is named after him. The school's crest includes a mosquito in one quarter.
Sir Ronald Ross Institute of Parasitology was established in memory of Ronald Ross in Hyderabad, under Osmania University.
In 2010 the University of Liverpool named its new biological science building "The Ronald Ross Building" in his honour. His grandson David Ross inaugurated it. The building is home to the university's facility for the Institute of Infection and Global Health.
See also
Mosquito-malaria theory
Albert Freeman Africanus King
Paul de Kruif
Plasmodium
History of malaria
References
Further reading
Malcolm Watson (1930). Ronald Ross, 1857–1932. Reprinted from Science Progress.
James Oram Dobson (1934). Ronald Ross, dragon slayer: a short account of a great discovery and of the man who made it. Student Christian Movement Press, p. 112
External links
History
Unveiling of a 'Blue Plaque' memorial to Ross at the University of Liverpool's Johnston Laboratories where he had worked
Commemorative inscription
Anecdotes from Ronald Ross' life
History
Royal Society citation (1901)
Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites
Ross's three part paper on the theory of epidemics is available on the web
1857 births
1932 deaths
19th-century British mathematicians
19th-century British poets
20th-century British mathematicians
20th-century British medical doctors
20th-century British novelists
20th-century British poets
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
Alumni of Queen Mary University of London
British Nobel laureates
British parasitologists
British public health doctors
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons
Indian Medical Service officers
Indian people of Scottish descent
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Malariologists
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
People from Almora
Medical doctors from Kolkata
Royal Medal winners
Scottish Nobel laureates
Manson medal winners
British tropical physicians
British male poets
British male novelists
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
19th-century Indian male writers
British people in colonial India | [
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240175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throgs%20Neck%20Bridge | Throgs Neck Bridge | The Throgs Neck Bridge is a suspension bridge in New York City, carrying six lanes of Interstate 295 (I-295) over the East River where it meets the Long Island Sound. The bridge connects the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx with the Bay Terrace section of Queens.
Opened on January 11, 1961, it is the newest bridge across the East River and was built to relieve traffic on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, to the west. The Throgs Neck Bridge is also the easternmost crossing of the East River. Due to this and its proximity to I-95, it is the closest route from Long Island to New Jersey via the George Washington Bridge, as well as points north.
The Throgs Neck Bridge is owned by the government of New York City and operated by the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA), an affiliate agency of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA).
Description
The Throgs Neck Bridge was designed by structural engineer Othmar Ammann, who also designed the George Washington, Bronx–Whitestone, Verrazzano-Narrows, and Triborough Bridges in New York City. It connects the boroughs of Queens to the south and the Bronx to the north, and is the third vehicular bridge to be constructed between Queens and the Bronx, after the Triborough and Bronx–Whitestone Bridges. The bridge is a suspension bridge with six lanes, three in each direction. Each three-lane roadway is wide, and the two directions of traffic are divided by a barrier. The roadway is paved with asphalt. There is no pedestrian or bicyclist access of any kind. The Throgs Neck Bridge is a toll bridge; it originally had tollbooths on the Bronx side, but they were replaced by open road tolling gantries in 2017.
Design
The Throgs Neck Bridge was not bound by any maritime constraints and as a result, did not need to be as long as other Ammann-designed bridges in New York City. The center span is , and the distance between each suspension tower and anchorage is , with an anchorage-to-anchorage total length of . The bridge contains two long approach ramps, one on either bank, because both the Bronx and Queens are located on low elevations. The Throgs Neck Bridge has a approach ramp in the Bronx, curving over the SUNY Maritime College at Fort Schuyler on the Throggs Neck peninsula, as well as a ramp directly east of Cryder's Point in Bay Terrace, Queens. Including approaches, the bridge spans more than .
The span is supported by two main cables, which suspend the deck and are held up by the suspension towers. Each main cable contains 37 strands, with each strand made of 296 individual wires, for a total of 10,952 wires per main cable. The main cables weigh each. At each end of the suspension span are two anchorages that hold the main cables, both of which are freestanding concrete structures measuring . The bridge's Bronx anchorage is at the tip of Throggs Neck, and the towers are located in the middle of the Long Island Sound. The Queens anchorage is located off the shore of Fort Totten, in the East River.
The suspension towers of the Throgs Neck Bridge are of closed-box construction with arched struts at the top of each tower. The tops of the suspension towers are sharp and blocky atop the struts, and there are flattened segmental arches on the underside of the struts. Both suspension towers are located on artificial concrete islands in the East River, which are above mean high water. Each suspension tower rises above the islands, or above mean high water. Peregrine falcons have lived high on a suspension tower since at least 1983, when they were first spotted. They are thought to have nested there because the tops of the towers resembled their natural habitat of high cliffs.
Instead of employing a rather streamlined-looking plate-girder system, Ammann constructed the Throgs Neck Bridge with stiffening transverse trusses under the deck. These served as counterweights to the bridge and allowed any wind to simply blow through, instead of against, the bridge. The asphalt roadway lies atop a deck, which consists of dozens of panels that lie directly above the trusses.
Road connections
The Throgs Neck Bridge was one of the few that were not part of the plans for the Belt Parkway around Queens and Brooklyn. Instead, the bridge was built along with the Clearview Expressway in Queens and the eastern part of the Cross Bronx Expressway in the Bronx.
The Throgs Neck Bridge carries Interstate 295 (I-295). On the Queens side, the bridge connects to the southbound Clearview Expressway (I-295) and the eastbound Cross Island Parkway. There is no direct connection to the westbound Cross Island Parkway or from the Cross Island Parkway service roads in either direction. On the Bronx side, there are connections to and from the community of Throggs Neck. The northbound entrance and exit leads to the Throgs Neck Expressway service road, while the southbound exit and entrance leads from the intersection of the Throgs Neck Expressway service road and Harding Avenue. Immediately afterward, the highway splits into the Throgs Neck Expressway (I-695), which connects to northbound I-95; and I-295, which connects to southbound I-95, westbound I-278, and northbound Hutchinson River Parkway at the Bruckner Interchange.
Traffic restrictions
, the Throgs Neck Bridge has a height limit of for southbound vehicles and for northbound vehicles. The maximum width of any vehicle is . Tractor-trailers exceeding 53 feet and traveling between Long Island and the Bronx are required to use the Throgs Neck Bridge. A weight limit is imposed on heavy vehicles traveling on the bridge. The MTA allows 6 and 7-axle trucks with less than of gross vehicle weight, and 5-axle trucks with less than of gross vehicle weight, if they have valid divisible-load permits. Trucks carrying less than may also use the bridge, but all heavy loads are speed-restricted to and must use the center lane of the bridge. Heavy trucks carrying more than 80,000 lb without permits are prohibited from using the Throgs Neck Bridge.
Name
The name of "Throgs Neck" in the bridge's name derives from John Throckmorton, who first settled Throggs Neck. The traditionally correct spelling is with two "g"s. Robert Moses—chairman of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA), which built the bridge—likely chose the variant with one "g" because it was easier to spell.
History
Planning
Plans for a bridge between Throggs Neck and Queens date to a 1932 study by engineer J. Franklin Perrine. However, he discarded the proposed Throggs Neck-to-Queens span because it would have required the construction of new highways at either end.
The Throgs Neck Bridge's construction was announced in January 1955, by the Port Authority and the TBTA as part of the Port Authority's Joint Study of Arterial Facilities, a $600million plan to improve highway access in the New York City area (equal to $ billion in ). The plan also included the construction of the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge, the addition of a second deck to the George Washington Bridge, and the completion of connecting highways in and around the city. The Throgs Neck Bridge was to cost $93million. The span was needed because of increasing congestion on the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge west, which was nearing its traffic capacity by the late 1950s. Traffic loads on the Triborough and Bronx–Whitestone Bridges had more than doubled on both bridges after World War II. The city and Port Authority came to a provisional agreement for the highway arterial plan in late March 1955, and the plan was officially approved by the New York state legislature two weeks later.
Initially, the bridge approach on the Queens side was controversial because of the number of people who would be displaced, and there were proposals to scrap the bridge entirely. In September 1956, Queens borough leaders agreed on the location for the Queens approach of the Throgs Neck Bridge. From the Queens anchorage, the approach would descend to a point east of the Clearview Golf Course, approximately between 206th and 207th Streets, and continue south as the Clearview Expressway. This routing would displace 421 homes, compared to 860 in the original plan.
Shortly after the arterial plan was approved, drivers on the Triborough and Bronx–Whitestone Bridges were surveyed in order to assess demand for the Throgs Neck Bridge. However, by February 1956, the funding for the Throgs Neck Bridge had not yet been acquired. In January 1957, the Port Authority provided $13million in funding for the New York City arterial plan, and the New York state government gave another $469million.
With funding secured, the Throgs Neck Bridge was ready for the start of construction. Then, at the end of March 1957, the New York state legislature suddenly changed the approach route for the Throgs Neck and Narrows Bridges without the city's knowledge. The city then decided to defer any decision on either bridge for a year because both bridges' approaches would require potentially controversial home relocations. One plan had the Throgs Neck Bridge approach in Queens connect directly to a road paralleling the Cross Island Parkway, rather than to the proposed Clearview Expressway. TBTA officials warned that the Throgs Neck Bridge could not be approved for construction until an approach route was finalized. The revised approach routes for both the Narrows and the Throgs Neck bridges were approved that June, which allowed construction on both crossings to begin. As a result of the revisions to the Clearview Expressway approach, the cost estimate for the Throgs Neck Bridge increased to $126million.
The city approved the construction of the bridge that July. A final obstacle was removed in August, when the United States Senate passed a bill stating that the construction of the proposed bridge over the SUNY Maritime College at Fort Schuyler was not a breach of a prior land conveyance, and authorized the United States Army to give the New York state government some land for the bridge's construction. The SUNY Maritime College would receive of land in exchange for an easement to allow the bridge to be constructed over the college.
Construction
TBTA chairman Moses commissioned Othmar Ammann for the construction of the Throgs Neck Bridge. This was Ammann's first long-span bridge project since 1931, which saw the dedication of the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River. A groundbreaking ceremony for the Throgs Neck Bridge occurred at the SUNY Maritime College on October 22, 1957. At the time, the approach roads alone were expected to cost $51million, nearly half of the total bridge cost. It was expected that the bridge would be complete by 1961. A month later, six construction contracts worth $42.5million were awarded, representing nearly half of the span's cost. The contract for the suspension towers' metal was awarded to Bethlehem Steel at a cost of $10.2million, and the contract for the towers' concrete went to Merrit, Chapman and Scott for $7.5million. The suspension cables would then be built by U.S. Steel for $6.3million.
Work on the Queens anchorage began in March 1958. The steel caissons for the Throgs Neck Bridge were shipped up the East River that summer. The steel assembly for the first of the two suspension towers were installed in April 1959. Afterward, the suspension towers were installed in pieces. Each piece measured tall by around. Work on the towers proceeded quickly; by September 1959, the Bronx suspension tower was fully completed, and the Queens tower was 60% completed. However, a steelworkers' strike in October 1959 threatened to delay further completion.
By January 1960, both towers of the Throgs Neck Bridge had been completed, and the first wire between the two suspension towers had been installed. This cable marked the location of the future bridge deck, but in the interim, it would be one of six wires that would support temporary catwalks between the suspension towers. The spinning of the main cables between the tops of each suspension tower began in March. The wires for the cables were spun from reels near the base of the bridge, and then pulled across to the opposite side by two wheels, one at each bridge tower. The cables were fully spun by June 1960, and the vertical suspender cables connecting the main cables with the deck were installed.
The steel girder sections that comprised the bridge deck were prefabricated at another location and then shipped to the site of the Throgs Neck Bridge. Each section measured and weighed . The sections were installed on the bridge at a rate of two per day. Installation of the deck started at each suspension tower and continued outward in either direction, extending toward the center and the approach viaducts on each side. Afterward, concrete was poured atop the steel sections. The steelwork for the roadway was completed in summer 1960, and work on constructing the Throgs Neck Bridge's approaches progressed simultaneously. The Queens approach viaduct had been completed up to the suspension span in September 1960. The final work on the bridge consisted of sheathing the main cables, as well as paving the roadway with asphalt. By December 1960, tollbooths for the bridge were being installed, and a definite opening date had been set for the next month.
Opening and early years
The Throgs Neck Bridge opened with a short ceremony on January 11, 1961; its total construction cost had been $92million. The bridge opened along with a segment of the Clearview Expressway southward to 73rd Avenue in Fresh Meadows, as well as the Cross Bronx and Throgs Neck Expressways in the Bronx. The bridge's opening was attended by Robert Moses, as well as mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr., lieutenant governor Malcolm Wilson, City Council president Abe Stark, and Queens borough president John T. Clancy. The opening of the Throgs Neck Bridge had been accelerated in advance of the start of the 1964 New York World's Fair at nearby Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. Immediately after the bridge's opening ceremony, the delegation attended the opening of a World's Fair attraction at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. The bridge's opening drew protests from homeowners in Queens who had been forced to relocate due to the construction of the Clearview Expressway. Several dozen women walked across the bridge, holding signs and attempting to block the first vehicles driving on the bridge.
It was expected that the Throgs Neck Bridge's opening would initially cause 15million vehicles annually to be diverted to the span from other bridges, and by 1981, the bridge would carry 37.5million vehicles annually. Within the first twelve hours of the bridge's opening, 20,000 vehicles had used the bridge. The Throgs Neck Bridge had carried 16.4million vehicles by the end of the year, and the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge recorded a corresponding 40% decline in traffic in 1961.
The Throgs Neck Bridge was originally designated as part of I-78, which extended south to Hillside Avenue (NY 25), the southern terminus of the Clearview Expressway. I-78 was to continue south and west across Queens, Brooklyn, and Manhattan to the Holland Tunnel. Ultimately, nearly all sections of I-78 between the Holland Tunnel and Hillside Avenue were canceled by Governor Nelson Rockefeller in 1971. This resulted in the renumbering of all of I-78 north of Hillside Avenue, including the Throgs Neck Bridge, to I-295 on January 1, 1970.
Later years
The Throgs Neck Bridge's deck was renovated in 1983. That July, the MTA initially signed a contract to use steel imported from Japan and South Korea, around the same time that Governor Mario Cuomo signed a "Buy American" law giving preference to American steel. The contract was controversial because, although importing Asian steel would have been $3.5million cheaper than buying American steel, it would have also disadvantaged American workers. Subsequently, Cuomo tried to get the MTA to reverse its decision. In September 1983, Cuomo signed an executive order mandating the use of American steel, and the MTA narrowly voted to reverse its prior decision.
The construction of the Throgs Neck Bridge's Queens approaches bisected Clearview Park (renamed Little Bay Park in 1973), which had been established by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in 1950. The park's athletic fields received a $666,000 refurbishment in 1998, and a bicycle path and roller hockey rink were installed in 1999 at a cost of $1.2million.
After a June 2005 inspection of the Throgs Neck Bridge, damage was found on the approach viaducts. The damage was found to be more severe away from the median barrier. As a result, heavy trucks carrying over 40 tons were permitted to use the bridge only between 11:00 p.m. and 5:00 a.m., when traffic was lightest. The program was canceled in 2007, and overweight vehicles were only allowed to use the bridge with a special permit. , heavy trucks carrying less than , as well as selected heavy trucks carrying more than 40tons with permits, may use the Throgs Neck Bridge; all other trucks are restricted. In 2019, the MTA started to replace the concrete deck with a steel deck as part of a $336 million project that would be completed in 2022.
Tolls
, drivers pay $10.17 per car or $4.28 per motorcycle for tolls by mail/non-NYCSC E-Z Pass. E-ZPass users with transponders issued by the New York E‑ZPass Customer Service Center pay $6.55 per car or $2.85 per motorcycle. Mid-Tier NYCSC E-Z Pass users pay $8.36 per car or $3.57 per motorcycle. All E-ZPass users with transponders not issued by the New York E-ZPass CSC will be required to pay Toll-by-mail rates.
Originally, the toll plaza of the Throgs Neck Bridge, located on the Bronx side, contained 14 toll lanes. By 1996, the year that E-ZPass was introduced, it had been expanded to 20 lanes. The initial rollout of E-ZPass at the Throgs Neck Bridge caused large delays, as some of the toll lanes were dedicated exclusively to E-ZPass users, unlike at other MTA crossings that did not have dedicated E-ZPass lanes. In February 1998, the MTA discontinued the sale of toll tokens on the Throgs Neck Bridge. Throggs Neck residents stated that they could not easily access the E-ZPass lanes from the Harding Avenue entrance to the bridge, as the E-ZPass lanes were located toward the center of the tollbooth, while the bridge entrance was on the far-right side.
Open-road cashless tolling began on September 30, 2017. The tollbooths, which were at the Bronx end of the bridge, have been gradually dismantled, and drivers are no longer able to pay cash at the bridge. Instead, cameras and E-ZPass readers are mounted on new overhead gantries near where the booths were located. A vehicle without E-ZPass has a picture taken of its license plate and a bill for the toll is mailed to its owner. For E-ZPass users, sensors detect their transponders wirelessly.
Historical tolls
Incidents
A bomb threat to the Throgs Neck Bridge was called on November 23, 1987; it was later deemed a hoax.
A truck with faulty brakes ran into the bridge's toll booths on May 31, 1995. The next day, the same truck ran into the tollbooths again. Only the driver was injured.
On July 10, 2009, during early-morning maintenance work to replace the deck, a construction worker's blow torch sparked a three-alarm fire on the bridge. The fire closed the bridge for much of the day, sending traffic in both directions to the nearby Whitestone Bridge. Three southbound lanes and two northbound lanes were quickly reopened, but the third lane remained closed for repairs for a month.
See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in New York
References
Further reading
External links
Throgs Neck Bridge at nycroads.com
Bayside, Queens
Bridges by Othmar Ammann
Bridges completed in 1961
Bridges in Queens, New York
Bridges in the Bronx
Bridges on the Interstate Highway System
Bridges over the East River
Historic American Engineering Record in New York City
Road bridges in New York City
Robert Moses projects
Suspension bridges in New York City
Throggs Neck, Bronx
Toll bridges in New York City
Tolled sections of Interstate Highways
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|
240181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Louis%20Alphonse%20Laveran | Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran | Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (18 June 1845 – 18 May 1922) was a French physician who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1907 for his discoveries of parasitic protozoans as causative agents of infectious diseases such as malaria and trypanosomiasis. Following his father, Louis Théodore Laveran, he took up military medicine as his profession. He obtained his medical degree from University of Strasbourg in 1867.
At the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, he joined the French Army. At the age of 29 he became Chair of Military Diseases and Epidemics at the École de Val-de-Grâce. At the end of his tenure in 1878 he worked in Algeria, where he made his major achievements. He discovered that the protozoan parasite Plasmodium was responsible for malaria, and that Trypanosoma caused trypanosomiasis or African sleeping sickness. In 1894 he returned to France to serve in various military health services. In 1896 he joined Pasteur Institute as Chief of the Honorary Service, from where he received the Nobel Prize. He donated half of his Nobel prize money to establish the Laboratory of Tropical Medicine at the Pasteur Institute. In 1908, he founded the Société de Pathologie Exotique.
Laveran was elected to French Academy of Sciences in 1893, and was conferred Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour in 1912.
Early life and education
Alphonse Laveran was born at Boulevard Saint-Michel in Paris, to parents Louis Théodore Laveran and Marie-Louise Anselme Guénard de la Tour Laveran. He was an only son with one sister. His family was in a military environment. His father was an army doctor and a Professor of military medicine at the École de Val-de-Grâce. His mother was the daughter of an army commander. At a young age his family went to Algeria to accompany his father's service. He was educated in Paris, and completed his higher education from Collège Sainte-Barbe and later from the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. Following his father he chose military medicine and entered the Public Health School at Strasbourg in 1863. In 1866 he became a resident medical student in the Strasbourg civil hospitals. In 1867 he submitted a thesis on the regeneration of nerves and earned his medical degree from the University of Strasbourg.
Career
Laveran was Medical Assistant-Major of the French Army at the time of Franco-Prussian War. He was posted to Metz, where the French were eventually defeated and the place occupied by Germans. He was sent to work at Lille hospital and then to the St Martin Hospital (now St Martin's House) in Paris. In 1874 he qualified a competitive examination by which he was appointed to the Chair of Military Diseases and Epidemics at the École de Val-de-Grâce, a position his father had occupied. His tenure ended in 1878 and he was sent to Algeria, where he remained until 1883. From 1884 to 1889 he was Professor of Military Hygiene at the École de Val-de-Grâce. In 1894 he was appointed Chief Medical Officer of the military hospital at Lille and then Director of Health Services of the 11th Army Corps at Nantes. By then he was promoted to the rank of Principal Medical Officer of the First Class. In 1896 he entered the Pasteur Institute as Chief of the Honorary Service to pursue a full-time research on tropical diseases.
Discoveries
In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Algeria, he discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan, after observing the parasites in a blood smear taken from a patient who had just died of malaria. He found the causative organism to be a protozoan which he named Oscillaria malariae, but later renamed Plasmodium. This was the first time that protozoans were shown to be a cause of disease of any kind. The discovery was therefore a validation of the germ theory of diseases.
Laveran later worked on the trypanosomes, particularly sleeping sickness, and showed once again that protozoans were responsible for the disease.
Awards and honours
Laveran was awarded the Bréant Prize (Prix Bréant) of the French Academy of Sciences in 1889 and the Edward Jenner Medal of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1902 for his discovery of the malarial parasite. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1907. He gave half the Prize for foundation of the Laboratory of Tropical Medicine at the Pasteur Institute. In 1908 he founded the Société de pathologie exotique, over which he presided for 12 years. He was elected to membership in the French Academy of Sciences in 1893, and was conferred Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour in 1912. He was Honorary Director of the Pasteur Institute in 1915 on his 70th birthday. He was elected President of the French Academy of Medicine in 1920. His work was commemorated philatelically on a stamp issued by Algeria in 1954.
Personal life and death
Laveran married Sophie Marie Pidancet in 1885. They had no children.
In 1922 he suffered from an unspecified illness for some months and died in Paris. He is interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris. He was an atheist.
Recognition
Laveran's name features on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the School building in Keppel Street when it was constructed in 1926.
Works
Laveran was a solitary but dedicated researcher and he wrote more than 600 scientific communications. Some of his major books are:
Nature parasitaire des accidents de l'impaludisme, description d'un nouveau parasite trouvé dans le sang des malades atteints de fièvre palustre. Paris 1881
Traité des fièvres palustres avec la description des microbes du paludisme. Paris 1884
Traité des maladies et épidémies des armées. Paris 1875
Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiases . Masson, Paris 1904 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
References
External links
including the Nobel Lecture on December 11, 1907 Protozoa as Causes of Diseases
CDC profile
Encyclopædia Britannica
Faqs.org profile
Encyclopedia of World Biography
Timeline of Laveran at Pasteur Institute
1845 births
1922 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
French atheists
French Nobel laureates
French tropical physicians
Malariologists
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
University of Strasbourg alumni
French parasitologists
Pasteur Institute
French Army officers
French military doctors | [
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240194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karabiner%2098k | Karabiner 98k | The Karabiner 98 kurz (; "carbine 98 short"), often abbreviated Karabiner 98k, Kar98k or K98k and also incorrectly sometimes referred to as a K98 (a K98 is a Polish carbine and copy of the Kar98a), is a bolt-action rifle chambered for the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge. It was adopted on 21 June 1935 as the standard service rifle by the German Wehrmacht. It was one of the final developments in the long line of Mauser military rifles.
Although supplemented by semi-automatic and fully automatic rifles during World War II, the Karabiner 98k remained the primary German service rifle until the end of the war in 1945. Millions were captured by the Soviets at the conclusion of World War II and were widely distributed as military aid. The Karabiner 98k therefore continues to appear in conflicts across the world as they are taken out of storage during times of strife.
History
In February 1934 the Heereswaffenamt (Army Weapons Agency) ordered the adoption of a new military rifle. The Karabiner 98k was derived from earlier rifles, namely the Mauser Standardmodell of 1924 and the Karabiner 98b, which in turn had both been developed from the Gewehr 98. Since the Karabiner 98k rifle was shorter than the earlier Karabiner 98b (the 98b was a carbine in name only, as it was in reality a version of the Gewehr 98 long rifle designated a carbine to adhere to the Treaty of Versailles; the 98b was additionally fitted with a tangent rear sight rather than the more claustrophobic "Lange" ramp sight), the new rifle was given the designation Karabiner 98 kurz, meaning "Carbine 98 Short". Just like its predecessor, the rifle was noted for its reliability, safety and an effective range of up to with iron sights and with an 8× telescopic sight.
The desire for adopting new shorter barreled rifles and the introduction of the Karabiner 98k, featuring a long barrel, were reasons for changing the standard German service ball rifle cartridge. The 1903 pattern 7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone produced excessive muzzle flash when fired from arms that did not have a long barrel like the Gewehr 98. It was found that the s.S. Patrone, originally designed for long range machine gun use, produced less muzzle flash out of rifles that had a shorter barrel and also provided better accuracy. Because of this the S Patrone was phased out in 1933 and the s.S. Patrone became the standard German service ball cartridge in the 1930s.
Design details
Features
The Karabiner 98k is a controlled-feed bolt-action rifle based on the Mauser M98 system. Its internal magazine can be loaded with five 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridges from a stripper clip or one-by-one. After loading, the empty clip is ejected when the bolt is closed. The straight bolt handle found on the Gewehr 98 bolt was replaced by a turned-down bolt handle on the Karabiner 98k. This change made it easier to rapidly operate the bolt, reduced the amount the handle projected beyond the receiver, and enabled mounting of aiming optics directly above the receiver. Each rifle was furnished with a short length of cleaning rod, fitted through the bayonet stud. The joined rods from 3 rifles provided one full-length cleaning rod.
The metal parts of the rifle were blued, a process in which steel is partially protected against rust by a layer of magnetite (Fe3O4). Such a thin black oxide layer provides only minimal protection against rust or corrosion, unless also treated with a water-displacing oil to reduce wetting and galvanic corrosion. From 1944 onwards phosphating/Parkerizing was introduced as a more effective metal surface treatment.
Sights
The impractical Langevisier or "rollercoaster" rear sight of the Mauser Gewehr 1898 was replaced with a conventional tangent leaf sight. The Karabiner 98k rear tangent sight was flatter compared to and does not obstruct the view to the sides during aiming as the Langevisier. Originally, the Karabiner 98k iron sight line had an open-pointed-post-type (barlycorn) front sight, and a tangent-type rear sight with a V-shaped rear notch. From 1939 onwards the post front sight was hooded to reduce glare under unfavourable light conditions and add protection for the post. These standard sight lines consisted of somewhat coarse aiming elements, making it suitable for rough field handling, aiming at distant area fire targets and low-light usage, but less suitable for precise aiming at distant or small point targets. It is graduated for 7.92×57mm Mauser s.S. Patrone cartridges loaded with 12.8 g (197 gr) s.S. (schweres Spitzgeschoß – "heavy pointed bullet") ball bullets from in increments. The sight line of early productions rifles have the ranging scale copied at the bottom of the tangent aiming element for setting the range whilst lying down. The Karabiner 98k has a sight radius. The sight lines were factory zeroed (Anschießen) as part of the acceptance process before issue. The non user adjustable windage was factory set by horizontally drifting the front sight in a dovetail. It was discouraged to (re)zero the iron sight line by non-armorers.
Stock
Early Karabiner 98k rifles had solid one-piece stocks. From 1937 onwards the rifles had laminated stocks, the result of trials that had stretched through the 1930s. Plywood laminates are stronger and resisted warping better than the conventional one-piece patterns, did not require lengthy maturing, and were cheaper. The laminated stocks were, due to their dense composite structure, somewhat heavier compared to one-piece stocks. In addition to the use of walnut and beech laminate, elm was used in small quantities. The butts of the semi-pistol grip Karabiner 98k stocks were not uniform. Until early 1940 the stocks had a flat buttplate. After 1940 some stocks had a cupped buttplate to prevent the separation of the butt stock. All stocks had a steel buttplate.
Accessories
When issued the Karabiner 98k came accompanied with assorted accessory items including a sling, a protective muzzle cover, and for field maintenance a Reinigungsgerät 34 ("Cleaning Kit 34") or RG34 kit. Introduced in 1934, the Reinigungsgerät 34 consisted of a flat wide by long sheet metal container with two hinged lids carried on the person, which held an oiler, a take down tool for removing the floorplate and cleaning the receiver of the rifle, an aluminum barrel pull-through chain, a cleaning and an oiling brush, and short lengths of tow used as cleaning patches. From 1905 until 1945 the German military used Ballistol intended for cleaning, lubricating, and protecting metallic, wooden and leather firearms parts.
The Karabiner 98k rifle was designed to be used with an S84/98 III bayonet. The S84/98 III had a blade length of and an overall length of and was accompanied by a bayonet frog. The Seitengewehr 42 or SG 42 was a shorter multi tool combat knife that could also be mounted as a bayonet on the Karabiner 98k rifle. The SG 42 was issued in small numbers.
Rifle grenade launcher
In 1942, an attachable rifle grenade launcher called the Gewehrgranatengerät or Schiessbecher ("shooting cup") was introduced that was developed based on rifle grenade launcher models designed during World War I. The 30 mm Schiessbecher cup-type rifle grenade launcher could be mounted on any Karabiner 98k and was intended to replace all previous rifle grenade launcher models. The rifle grenade launcher could be used against infantry, fortifications and light armored vehicles up to a range of 280 m (306 yd). For these differing tasks, several specialized grenades with accompanying special propelling cartridges were developed for the 1,450,113 produced Schiessbecher rifle grenade launchers. The rifle grenade-propelling cartridges fired a wooden projectile through the barrel to the rifle grenade that, upon impact, automatically primed the rifle grenade. The Schiessbecher could be mounted on the Karabiner 98a, G98/40, StG 44 and FG 42.
ZF41 long eye relief optical sight
Starting from 1941, the short 1.5× Zielfernrohr 41 (ZF41) long eye relief telescopic sight was fitted over the rear iron sight element to some Karabiner 98k rifles for designated marksman use. Adding the ZF41 to the rifle turned the Karabiner 98k essentially into an early somewhat big and heavy scout rifle, though that concept did not exist at that time. The ZF41 was in fact the first attempt to provide the ordinary infantryman with a rifle capable of being used for sharpshooting. Early production ZF41 were matched, zeroed and fitted on Karabiner 98k rifles selected for being exceptionally accurate at the factory before issue. After the development of a field replaceable mount the ZF41 sights were issued to be mounted on random Karabiner 98k rifles by field armorers. This led to an inevitable reduction in accuracy in lots of these field fitted rifles. By the end of the war in 1945, more than 100,000 Zf41 sights had been produced, the largest production of German optical sights during the war.
Suppressor
A removable, muzzle-mounted HUB-23 suppressor, visually resembling the Schießbecher, was manufactured for the Karabiner 98k. After several suppressor proposals from the firearms industry and the SS-Waffenakademie (SS Weapons Academy) the HUB-23 was produced based on a design proposal by Unteroffizier Schätzle. The HUB-23 weighs and is long. The maximum effective range of a Karbiner 98k with a HUB-23 mounted and firing special subsonic Nahpatrone ("near cartridge") reduced load ammunition with a muzzle velocity of was . The use of the HUB-23 suppressor and subsonic ammunition resulted in a sound signature reduction by 75%. The HUB-23 suppressor and the special subsonic ammunition were mainly used by special forces units such as the Brandenburgers and snipers.
Variants
Kriegsmodell
Starting in late 1944, Karabiner 98k production began transition to the ("war model") variant. This version was simplified to increase the rate of production, removing the bayonet lug, cleaning rod, stock disc (which functions as a bolt disassembly tool), and other features deemed unnecessary. Non-critical parts like the stock were finished to lower standards and metal parts like the nose cap, barrel band, floor plate and trigger guard (lacking the small locking screw provision) were simplified stamped parts and less elaborately mounted to the rifle. The M98 bolt was also simplified by no longer milling the two oval-shaped emergency gas relief holes in the bottom of the bolt. Instead, two emergency gas relief holes were drilled and the bolt guide was omitted from the bolt body. It had fewer serial numbered parts, a phosphate metal surface finish, and a hole at the bottom end of the butt plate that replaced the stock disk. At least two transitional variants existed, which incorporated only some features, and some factories never switched to production at all.
Sniper variant
For snipers, Karabiner 98k rifles selected for being exceptionally accurate during factory tests were fitted with a telescopic sight as sniper rifles. Karabiner 98k sniper rifles had an effective range of up to when used by a skilled sniper. The German Zeiss Zielvier 4× (ZF39) telescopic sight had bullet drop compensation in increments for ranges from or in some variations from . There were also Zeiss Zielsechs 6× and Zielacht 8× telescopic sights and sights by various other manufacturers like the Ajack 4× and 6×, Hensoldt Dialytan 4×, Kahles Heliavier 4× and Opticotechna Dialytan 4× with similar features employed on Karabiner 98k sniper rifles. Several different mountings produced by various manufacturers were used. The Karabiner 98k was not designed to accept telescopic sights. Attaching such sights to a Karabiner 98k required machining by a skilled armourer. A telescopic sight mounted low above the center axis of the receiver will not leave enough space between the rifle and the telescopic sight body for unimpaired operation of the bolt handle or the three-position safety catch lever. This ergonomic problem was solved by mounting the telescopic sight relatively high above the receiver and sometimes modifying or replacing the safety operating lever or using an offset mounting to position the telescopic sight axis to the left side in relation to the receiver center axis. A common minor modification was replacing the stock buttplate with a waffled anti-slip "sniper" buttplate. Approximately 132,000 of these sniper rifles were produced by Germany.
Paratrooper variants
Experimental versions of the Karabiner 98k intended for the German paratroopers that could be transported in shortened modes were produced. The standard Karabiner 98k was too long to be carried in a parachute drop. However, the German paratroopers made only limited combat drops after the 1941 Battle of Crete; there was therefore little need for these rifles. Specimens with folding stocks (Klappschaft) and with detachable barrels (Abnehmbarer Lauf) are known to have been produced at Mauser Oberndorf.
G40k
The G40k with a total length of and a barrel length of and weight was a shortened experimental version of the Karabiner 98k. The rear tangent sight of the G40k was graduated for s.S. Patrone cartridges from 100 m to 1000 m in 100 m increments. A batch of 82 G40k rifles was produced in 1941 at Mauser Oberndorf.
Mauser KKW cadet rifle
The Mauser KKW cadet rifle is a single shot, .22 caliber rifle that was introduced in 1938. Its operation is virtually identical to the Karabiner 98k. These cadet rifles were used by all German military, paramilitary and police organizations, especially the Hitler Youth.
Receiver codes
Karabiner 98k receivers were stamped with a factory code indicating date and location of manufacture. These codes were originally prefixed with "S/" and suffixed with "K" for 1934 or "G" for 1935. The intervening numeric code indicated location. The two- or four-digit year of manufacture was stamped on the receiver ring instead of a letter suffix after 1935. The numeric codes were:
27 for Erfurter Maschinen- und Werkzeugfabrik (ERMA) in Erfurt
42 for Mauser in Oberndorf am Neckar
147 for Sauer & Sohn in Suhl
237 for Berlin-Lübecker Maschinenfabrik in Lübeck
243 for Mauser in Borsigwalde
337 for Gustloff Werke in Weimar
660 for Steyr-Daimler-Puch in Steyr
945 for Waffenwerke Brünn in Brno
The "S/" prefix was dropped and letters were used for location codes beginning in 1937, although some manufacturers retained the numeric codes past that date. The letter codes were:
ar for Mauser in Borsigwalde
ax for Erma Werke
bcd for Gustloff Werke
bnz for Steyr-Daimler-Puch
BSW for Berlin-Suhler Waffen und Fahrzeugwerke (BSW is abbreviation not letter code
byf for Mauser in Oberndorf am Neckar
ce for Sauer & Sohn
dot for Waffenwerke Brünn in Brno
dou for Waffenwerke Brünn in Bystrica
duv for Berlin-Lübecker Maschinenfabrik
svw45 for Mauser 1945 production in Oberndorf am Neckar
swp45 for Waffenwerke Brünn 1945 production in Brno
Combined production by multiple manufacturers are indicated by two codes separated by a slash.
Usage history
Pre–World War II export
Though most Karabiner 98k rifles went to the German armed forces, the weapon was sold abroad in the years prior to World War II. In Portugal, a large quantity of Karabiner 98k rifles made by Mauser Werke were adopted as the Espingarda 7,92 mm m/937 Mauser infantry rifle. They were later used during the Portuguese Colonial War. Other pre-war exports of Karabiner 98ks were to China (an unknown number of rifles 1935 - 38), and 20,000 in 1937 to Japan. Exports of Karabiner 98ks decreased as war drew closer, as all available production capacity was needed to equip the German Armed Forces.
World War II use
The Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle was widely used by all branches of the armed forces of Germany during World War II. It saw action in every theatre of war involving German forces, including occupied Europe, North Africa, the Soviet Union, Finland, and Norway. Although comparable to the weapons fielded by Germany's enemies at the beginning of the War, its disadvantages in rate of fire became more apparent as American and Soviet armies began to field more semi-automatic weapons among their troops. Still, it continued to be the main infantry rifle of the Wehrmacht until the end of the War. Resistance forces in German-occupied Europe made frequent use of captured German Karabiner 98k rifles. The Soviet Union also made extensive use of captured Karabiner 98k rifles and other German infantry weapons due to the Red Army experiencing a critical shortage of small arms during the early years of World War II. Many German soldiers used the verbal expression "Kars" as the slang name for the rifle.
Sweden ordered 5,000 Karabiner 98ks that were provided from the regular production run in 1939 for use as light anti-tank rifles under the designation gevär m/39 (rifle m/39) but it was soon evident that the penetration offered by the 7.92×57mm Mauser was inadequate and thus the gevär m/39 were rechambered to the 8×63mm patron m/32, which was a more powerful 8 mm cartridge specifically designed for long-range machinegun fire. Accordingly, the Karabiner 98ks were rechambered in Sweden for the 8×63mm patron m/32 and the internal box magazine of the M 98 system was adapted to match the dimensionally larger 8×63mm patron m/32 cartridge, reducing the capacity to 4 rounds and accepted into service as pansarvärnsgevär m/40. A muzzle brake was installed to reduce the excessive free recoil, and the resulting weapon was designated gevär m/40 in Swedish service. They were however also found to be unsatisfactory and were soon withdrawn from service, and sold off after WW II.
Post–World War II use
Soviet capture
During World War II, the Soviet Union captured millions of Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles and re-furbished them in various arms factories in the late 1940s and early 1950s. These rifles, referred to by collectors as RC ("Russian Capture") Mausers, can be identified by an "X" stamp on the left side of the receiver. The Soviet arsenals made no effort to match the rifle's original parts by serial number when reassembling them, and some metal parts (the cleaning rod, sight hood, and locking screws) were omitted after rebuilding, and instead were melted down and recycled, presumably with the other parts that weren't suitable for re-use.
Many of these rifles (along with the Mosin–Nagant rifle) served in conflicts after World War II. One example of Soviet-captured Mauser Kar98k rifles being used in post-WWII conflicts is the Korean War, where a number of these rifles were provided by the Soviet Union (along with Soviet-made small arms) to Chinese Communist forces to supplement their supply of Type Zhongzheng rifles. Both the Soviet-capture Kar98k rifle and the Chinese Type Zhongzheng rifle were used extensively by the People's Volunteer Army throughout the course of the Korean War.
The Korean War would not be the only conflict where Soviet-capture Kar98k rifles and WWII German small arms were provided to the allies of the Soviet Union. The Vietnam War would become another example with Soviet-capture Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles being provided to North Vietnam by the USSR as military aid. Many Soviet-capture Karabiner 98k rifles (as well as some Karabiner 98k rifles that were left behind by the French after the First Indochina War and Type Zhongzheng rifles provided by the People's Republic of China) were found in the hands of Viet Cong guerrillas and People's Army of Vietnam (NVA) soldiers by US, South Vietnamese, South Korean, Australian and New Zealand forces alongside Soviet-bloc rifles like the Mosin–Nagant, the SKS, and the AK-47.
Post-occupation service
In the years after World War II, several European nations on both sides of the Iron Curtain that were invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany used the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle as their standard-issue infantry rifle, due to the large number of German weapons that were left behind by the Germans at the end of World War II.
Nations like France and Norway used the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle and other German weapons in the years after World War II. France produced a slightly modified version of the Kar 98k in the French occupation zone of Germany in the immediate post-war period. The new manufacture Kar 98ks equipped some French units that used them in Indochina for a limited time. Some of these rifles were also used by pro-French second-line units and Algerian independentists during Algerian War. French Police forces, the Paris Police Prefecture and the Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité, used 98ks from 1945 to 1992, to fire lachrymator and smoke grenades. These rifles were also used by West German border guards.
Norway's captured Karabiner 98k rifles were soon superseded as a standard issue weapon by the US M1 Garand, but remained in service as Norwegian Home Guard weapons until the 1990s, in which role they were rebarreled for the .30-06 Springfield round used by the M1, with a small cutout in the receiver so that the slightly longer US round could still be loaded with stripper clips. These Norwegian conversions had a section of the receiver flattened on the upper left side, where a new serial number (with a prefix denoting the branch of service) was stamped. Some of these rifles conversions were rechambered again to 7.62×51mm NATO, but this program was canceled with only a few thousand converted when Norway adopted the AG-3 (H&K G3) as a replacement for both the M1 and the K98k. Some actions from Mauser Karabiner 98k left by German armed forces in 1945 were used by Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk (currently Kongsberg Small Arms) for building both military and civilian sniper/target rifles under the Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk Skarpskyttergevær M59 - Mauser M59 and Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk Skarpskyttergevær M67 - Mauser M67 designations. These rifles were used by the Norwegian armed forces up to the 2000s. Karabiner 98k rifles rechambered to .30-06 Springfield are still used by the Svalbard Global Seed Vault security guards mainly as a last resort against polar bear attack.
In West Germany, the Karabiner 98k were issued to the Bundesgrenzschutz (BGS; ), which was originally organized along paramilitary lines and armed as light infantry; in the 1950s.
Former German Karabiner 98k rifles were widely distributed throughout the Eastern Bloc, some being refurbished two or three times by different factories. They were used by military and para-military forces (such as the East German Combat Groups of the Working Class), and were replaced by Soviet weapons in the 1960s.
During the Greek Civil War, the Greek pro-communist factions were equipped with large numbers of Kar 98k rifles, captured from the Germans or supplied by Yugoslavia. Later, during the Cyprus Emergency, the Cypriot EOKA smuggled several dozens of these rifles from Greece.
East German refurbished Karabiner 98ks featured Russian-style thicker blue finish, a 'sunburst' proof mark and sometimes had the factory designation '1001' applied, which was the factory where the refurbishment was carried out. Numbers were re-stamped to match the receiver and old numbers barred out. Numbers of East German and Czech refurbished Karabiner 98ks were exported to the West in the late 1980s and early 1990s and are now in the hands of collectors. Russian Capture Karabiner 98ks were exported to the West in large numbers in the early and mid-2000s.
Yugoslavian postwar refurbishment
Because of the lack of weapons after World War II, the Yugoslavian arms producer Crvena Zastava (Nowadays Zastava Arms) refurbished German Karabiner 98k rifles that were left over or captured during the war. These rifles are readily identifiable as the German factory code markings have been scrubbed from the receiver and replaced with the Yugoslavian communist crest and the marking "Preduzeće 44" on the receiver's ring. In addition to this, if the refurbishment took place after 1950, the marking "/48" was added to the "Mod. 98" originally present on the left side of the receiver, becoming "Mod. 98/48". The refurbished rifles were known also as Zastava M 98/48. The refurbished Prеduzeće 44 Karabiner 98k rifles were still being used in the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.
Accuracy potential
The following table lists minimum expected accuracy statistics for typical in service Karabiner 98k rifles firing s.S. Patrone ball service ammunition. The statistics were computed under the 1930-ties German method for determining accuracy, which is more complex than Western methods which usually involve firing a group of shots and then measuring the overall diameter of the group. The German method differs in that after a group of shots is fired into the target. Hits on the outer part of the target are disregarded, while only half of the hits on the inner part of the circles are counted (50% or R50), which significantly reduces the overall diameter of the groups. The vertical and horizontal measurements of the reduced groups are then used to measure accuracy. This circular error probable method used by the German and other European militaries cannot be converted and is not comparable to US military methods for determining rifle accuracy. When the R50 results are doubled the hit probability increases to 93.7%.
R50 means the closest 50 percent of the shot group will all be within a circle of the mentioned diameter.
R93.7 means the closest 93.7 percent of the shot group will all be within a circle of the mentioned diameter.
The Gewehr 98 and MG 13 in semi-automatic firing mode performed similar with s.S. Patrone 7.92×57mm service ammunition.
Acceptance standard
The minimum accuracy acceptance standard for the Karabiner 98k was putting three out of five shots inside a wide and high rectangle at a distance of during the factory zeroing (Anschießen) of the sight line and firing test with no marking or observation between rounds. If a fired round touched the edge of the rectangle it was considered inside. All five shots had to be inside a circle of diameter. The rifle manufacturer had two attempts to pass the accuracy acceptance standard and was allowed to correct the rifle between the attempts. If a rifle did not pass the first test firing submission, the unsatisfasctory target was kept to compare it to the second test firing submission.
To put the above figures into perspective a circle at equates to 4.1 MOA (Minute Of Angle). For comparison the minimum accuracy acceptance standard for the U.S. M1 Garand was at (4.8 MOA), and for the British Lee–Enfield No. 4 it was at (4.3 MOA). In summary a minimum accuracy acceptance standard of between 4 and 5 MOA for service rifles used in World War II was considered normal.
Post–World War II derivatives
Many of the liberated European countries continued production of rifles similar to the Karabiner 98k, for example Fabrique Nationale (FN) in Belgium and Česká Zbrojovka (CZ) in Czechoslovakia produced both their proprietary older models and brand new Karabiner 98k rifles, many of which were assembled from leftover German parts or using captured machinery.
As with post-Nazi occupation service post-war production of derivatives was a stop-gap solution until enough numbers of more modern automatic rifles could be developed and produced. The vast majority of the 98k pattern rifles were soon stored as reserve weapons or given for very low prices to various fledgling states or rebel movements throughout the developing world. For instance, between 1950 and 1952, a hybrid of Kar 98k and Vz 24 was produced by Zbrojovka Brno for Bolivia, as Fusil Modelo Boliviano Serie B-50.
Both FN and CZ utilized a modified design, with the cleaning rod and stock disk omitted, but the bayonet lug restored. In Czechoslovakia it was known as P-18 or puška vz.98N, the first being the manufacturer's cover designation of the type, the second official army designation - rifle model 98, N for německá - German.
Yugoslavian M48
From 1948 to 1965, Yugoslavian Zastava Arms produced a close copy of the Karabiner 98k imported between the wars from Fabrique Nationale called the Model 1948, which differed from the German rifle in that it had the shorter bolt-action of the Yugoslav M1924 series of rifles (not to be confused with the widely distributed Czech Vz 24, which had a standard length action), a thicker barrel profile (Yugoslavia had low chromium iron ore deposits, so they could not produce steel as hardened as the Krupp or Swedish steel used in other variants, and made up for it in adding extra material), and a rear sight enclosed in the wooden hand guard (the German-style hand guard began in front of the rear sight, unlike e.g. exports to South America that had a handguard and rear sight like the M48).
A hunting variant of the Yugoslavian M48 is still produced by Zastava Arms, it is designated as the Zastava Arms M70 Bolt Action Rifle now.
Spanish M43
The Spanish M43, produced in A Coruña from 1944 to 1958, was a variant of the Karabiner 98k with a straight bolt handle, a front sight guard and a handle groove in the front stock much like the earlier . It was chambered in 7.92×57mm Mauser calibre. It was the standard rifle of the Spanish units during the Ifni War. Some were rebuilt from Gewehr 98 or Republican wz. 29 rifles. The Spanish Air Force had a slightly modified version, the M44. When Spain began switching to the CETME automatic rifle, many M43 were converted to FR8 rifles for military training purposes and Guardia Civil service.
Israeli Mauser
A number of non-European nations used the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle as well as a few guerrilla organizations in conflicts to establish new nation-states. Israel issued Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles from the late 1940s until the 1970s, which are today sought after by collectors. Many were acquired under Operation Balak.
Many Jewish organizations in Palestine acquired them from post–World War II Europe to protect various Jewish settlements from Arab attack as well as to carry out guerrilla operations against British Army forces in Palestine.
The Haganah, which later evolved into the modern-day Israel Defense Forces, was one of the Jewish armed groups in Palestine that brought large numbers of Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles and other surplus arms (namely the British Lee–Enfield bolt-action rifle, which was used on a large scale by these groups) and the Mosin–Nagant from Europe after World War II. Many, though not all, Israeli-used German surplus Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles have had their Nazi Waffenamt markings and emblems stamped over with Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Hebrew arsenal markings.
As the Arab-Israeli conflict approached, the Haganah and other Jewish forces in Palestine tried to get hold of as many weapons as they could in the face of an arms embargo by British colonial authorities. One of the most important purchases was a secret January 14, 1948, $12,280,000 worth contract with Czechoslovak Government including 4,500 P-18 rifles, as well as 50,400,000 rounds of ammunition. Later, the newly established Israel Defense Forces ordered more Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles, produced this time by Fabrique Nationale. These have Israeli and Belgian markings on the rifle as well as the emblem of the IDF on the top of the rifle's receiver. The FN-made Karabiner 98k rifles with the IDF markings and emblem on the rifle were produced and sold to Israel after it established itself as an independent nation in 1948. At some point, Israel converted all other Mauser 98-pattern rifles in their inventory (most commonly Czechoslovak vz. 24 rifles, but small numbers of contract Mausers from sources ranging from Ethiopia to Mexico were also known to have come into Israeli hands) to the now standardized Karabiner 98k configuration. The original receiver markings of these conversions were not altered, making it easy for collectors to identify their origin. The Israeli Karabiner 98k utilized the same bayonet design as in German service, with a barrel ring added. Swedish Gevär m/40 rifles were converted to the 7.92×57mm Mauser round. The Israeli bayonets were a mix of converted German production and domestically produced examples.
During the late 1950s, the IDF converted the calibre of their Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles from the original German 7.92×57mm Mauser round to 7.62×51mm NATO following the adoption of the FN FAL rifle as their primary rifle in 1958. The Israeli Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles that were converted have "7.62" stamped on the rifle receiver. Rifles with original German stocks have "7.62" burned into the heel of the rifle stock for identification and to separate the 7.62×51mm NATO rifles from the original 7.92×57mm Mauser versions of the weapon still in service or held in reserve. Some Karabiner 98k rifles were fitted with new, unnumbered beech stocks of recent manufacture, while others retained their original furniture. All of these converted rifles were proof-fired for service. The IDF employed a 22 mm rifle grenade adapter for the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle.
The Karabiner 98k rifle was used by the reserve branches of the IDF well into the 1960s and 1970s and saw action in the hands of various support and line-of-communications troops during the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. After the rifle was retired from reserve military service, the Israeli Mauser Karabiner 98k was given to a number of third-world nations as military aid by Israel during the 1970s and 1980s, and sold as ex-military surplus on the open market, with many Israeli Mausers being exported to Australia (the Israeli Mauser is the most predominant variant of the Mauser Kar98k rifle on the Australian surplus firearms market today) and North America during the 1970s and 1980s. The Israeli Mausers provided to third world armies began to be exported for civilian sale, and tend to be in significantly worse condition than those sold directly out of Israeli storage.
Contemporary use
The Bundeswehr still uses the Karabiner 98k in the Wachbataillon for military parades and show acts. In 1995, remaining swastikas and other Nazi-era markings were removed from these rifles, after criticism regarding the presence of such symbols on Wachbataillon kit by the Social Democratic Party.
During the 1990s, the Yugoslavian Karabiner 98k rifles and the Yugoslavian M48 Mauser and M48A rifles were used alongside modern automatic and semi-automatic rifles by all the warring factions of the Yugoslav Wars. There are a number of photographs taken during the war in Bosnia, showing combatants and snipers using Yugoslavian-made Mauser rifles from high-rise buildings in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo.
After 2003, the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle (along with the Mosin–Nagant, the Lee–Enfield and the Yugoslavian M48) was encountered in Iraq by US and Allied forces with Iraqi insurgents making use of the Karabiner 98k and other bolt-action rifles alongside more modern infantry weapons like the AK-47 series rifles and the SKS carbine.
Many Third World nations still have Karabiner 98k rifles in their arsenals and it will most likely be encountered in regional conflicts for many years to come. For instance, Tuaregs of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Azawad used the rifle during the Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995).
Civil use
The Karabiner 98k rifles that were used by Germany during World War II are highly sought after collector's items in many circles. The Mauser Karabiner 98k rifle remains popular among many rifle shooters and military rifle collectors due to the rifle's historical background, as well as the availability of both new and surplus 7.92×57mm IS ammunition. , the Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles that were captured by the Soviets during World War II and refurbished during the late 1940s and early 1950s have appeared in large numbers on the military surplus rifle market. These have proven popular with buyers in the United States and Canada, ranging from ex-military rifle collectors to target shooters and survivalists, due to the unique history behind the Soviet capture of Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles.
The widespread availability of surplus Mauser 98k rifles and the fact that these rifles could, with relative ease, be adapted for hunting and other sport purposes made the Mauser 98k popular amongst civilian riflemen. When German hunters after World War II were allowed again to own and hunt with full bore rifles they generally started to "rearm" themselves with the then abundant and cheap former Wehrmacht service rifles. Civilian users changed these service rifles often quite extensively by mounting telescopic sights, aftermarket hunting stocks, aftermarket triggers and other accessories and changing the original military chambering. Gunsmiths rebarreled or rechambered Mauser 98K rifles for European and American sporting chamberings such as the 6.5×55mm Swedish Mauser, 7×57mm Mauser, 7×64mm, .270 Winchester, .308 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield, 8×60mm S, 8×64mm S, etc. The magnum hunting cartridges 6.5×68mm, 8×68mm S and 9.3×64mm Brenneke were even specially developed by German gunsmiths for the standard military Mauser 98 action.
Surplus Mauser 98K actions were used by Schultz & Larsen in Denmark as the basis for target rifles. The actions had the German markings removed, were refinished in gray phosphate, and new serial numbers and proof marks applied. The Schultz & Larsen M52 and M58 Target Rifles used shortened and refurbished Karabiner 98k stocks. Later versions had new target stocks fitted and were available in .30-06, 6.5×55mm and 7.62mm NATO. Some of these rifles are still in competitive use today although with the benefit of new barrels. Besides conversions of original Karabiner 98k rifles other sporter variants made by a number of manufacturers such as FN Herstal, Zastava, Santa Barbara (Spain) and many others have been available at various times in a wide variety of chamberings, but most are large-bore hunting calibres.
Modern civilian offspring
The Mauser-type action is widely held to be the pinnacle of bolt-action rifle design, and the vast majority of modern weapons of this type, both military and civilian, are still based on it to this day. The safety offered by its three-lug bolt and the added reliability of controlled feed (especially favored by dangerous game hunters) are considerable refinements not found in other designs.
Throughout the design's history, standard sized and enlarged versions of the Mauser M 98 system have been produced for the civil market.
John Rigby & Co. commissioned Mauser to develop the M 98 magnum action in the early 1900s. It was designed to function with the large sized cartridges normally used to hunt Big Five game and other species. For this specialized type of hunting, where absolute reliability of the rifle under adverse conditions is very important, the controlled-feed M 98 system remains the standard by which other action designs are judged. In 1911 John Rigby & Co. introduced the .416 Rigby cartridge that due to its dimensions could only be used in the M 98 magnum action.
Zastava Arms currently (2010) manufactures the M48/63 sporting rifle, which is a short-barreled variant of the Model 1948 military rifle and the Zastava M07 sniper rifle.
Since 1999 the production of Mauser M 98 and M 98 Magnum rifles has been resumed in Germany by Mauser Jagdwaffen GmbH (Mauser Huntingweapons Ltd.) according to original drawings of 1936 and the respective Mauser patents.
Users
: Used by Armée de Libération Nationale guerrillas
: Czech-made Modelo B-50
: The Chinese Nationalist Government imported Karabiner 98k rifle, as they had with the Mauser Standardmodell before it, also producing a licensed copy of it domestically.
Used by National Revolutionary Army, various Chinese Warlords and pro-Japanese Collaborationist Chinese Army
: Used by the People's Volunteer Army in the Korean War. Some of the Kar98k rifles the PVA used in Korea were provided as military aid by the USSR.
: Used in large numbers by both Ustaše Militia and Croatian Home Guard
: Used post-1945
: obtained from Czechoslovakia
: ordered 600 rifles with rifle grenade launchers during World War II as the Finns lacked a domestic rifle grenade launcher for their Mosin–Nagants. Only 100 were used in combat.
Vichy regime
French resistance
Post-war French armed forces and National Police
: Used by the Bundeswehr's Wachbataillon
German Democratic Republic: In standard use by the Landstreitkräfte until the 1960s, in occasional use after this. Some also used by the Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse, in addition to some being sent as aid to the Ethiopian Derg Government.
: some captured by Italian partisans
: Used by the Imperial Japanese Navy
: Used after World War II. Fielded by Libyan Rebels during Libyan Civil War
: The Grand Ducal Guard used captured German K98ks in 1945, later replaced by Ross rifles in the same year.
: used rifles captured from the Chinese forces
: Post-World War II use.
Some later converted to K98kF1
: (captured use)
designated m/937
: 27,000 received from Germany in 1943
: Kar 98k converted to 7.62 NATO bought before receiving surplus US weapons.
: bought 1,000 Kar 98ks in the 1960s, probably to supply proxy forces.
Government of National Salvation
First Slovak Republic
: (captured use)
: Imported 5,000 Kar 98k rifles in 1939.
Non-state users
Albanian Partisans
East Timor: Some Ex-Portuguese m/937s used by FALINTIL during the early stages of Indonesian Invasion of East Timor.
Ethiopian insurgents used captured K 98ks against the Italians from 1941 onwards.
Haganah (in Mandate Palestine)
Indonesian insurgents used Kar 98ks captured from the Dutch during the Indonesian National Revolution
Iraqi insurgents
Korean Liberation Army
People's Movement for the Liberation of Azawad
Viet Cong Some were ex-French leftovers from the Indochina War, others were Soviet aid provided during the Vietnam War.
Viet Minh
Yugoslav Partisans Some later had the receiver markings removed, and the SFRY crest applied postwar.
: Used by ISIL insurgents in 2019
FRELIMO delivery of 4,800 Karabiner 98k from the German Democratic Republic in 1967
Zimbabwe African People's Union delivery of 3,200 Karabiner 98k from the German Democratic Republic in 1967
MPLA delivery of 1,600 Karabiner 98k from the German Democratic Republic in 1967
See also
Kbk wz. 1929
M24 series
Chiang Kai-shek rifle
Zastava M48
References
External links
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1935
7.92×57mm Mauser rifles
Bolt-action rifles
Carbines
Mauser rifles
Rifles of Germany
Rifles of the Cold War
World War II infantry weapons of Germany
World War II infantry weapons of China | [
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|
240197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allvar%20Gullstrand | Allvar Gullstrand | Allvar Gullstrand (5 June 1862 – 28 July 1930) was a Swedish ophthalmologist and optician.
Life
Born at Landskrona, Sweden, Gullstrand was professor (1894–1927) successively of eye therapy and of optics at the University of Uppsala. He applied the methods of physical mathematics to the study of optical images and of the refraction of light in the eye. For this work, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1911.
Gullstrand is noted also for his research on astigmatism and for improving the ophthalmoscope and corrective lenses for use after removal of a cataract from the eye.
He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1905, and served on the Academy's Prize Committee for Physics. While serving on the committee, he used his position to block Albert Einstein from receiving a Nobel Prize in Physics for his theory of relativity, which Allvar believed to be wrong.
Gullstrand married Signe Breitholtz (1862–1946) in 1885.
Due to the mathematical content of Gullstand's writing, Horatio Burt Williams lamented in 1926 that "there are few ophthalmologists and not many physiologists who are able to read [Gullstrand's papers] and for the same reason that the chemists of Gibbs' day were unable to read his work."
Gullstrand died in Stockholm in 1930, where he was interred at Norra begravningsplatsen.
Works
1904: "Zur Kenntnis der Kreispunkte", Acta Mathematica 29:59–100.
1906: "Vie réelle optische Abbildung", Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 41
1908: "Die optische Abbildung im heterogenen Medien und die Dioptrik der Kristal-linse des Menschen", Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 43
1905: "Über Astigmatismus, Koma und Aberration", Annalen der Physik,(4), 18: 941-973
1907: "Tatsachen und Fiktionen in der Lehre von der optischen Abbildung", Archiv für Optik, vol.1 p. 2;
1911: Speech at the Nobel Banquet in Stockholm, December 10, 1911
1919: "Preparation of non spherical surfaces for optical instruments", Kgl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar, vol. 60: 155, abstracted in Zeitschrift für Instrumentenkunde, vol. 41 (1921), pp. 123–25
See also
Corneal topography
Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates
Optical aberration
Perceptual paradox
Slit lamp
References
including the Nobel Lecture December 11, 1911 How I Found the Mechanism of Intracapsular Accommodation
Maximilian Herzberger (1960) "Allvar Gullstrand", Journal of Modern Optics 7:237–41.
Ian R. Porteous (2001) Geometric Differentiation, pp 201,205,271,285, Cambridge University Press .
Frank Tsai (2009) Who was Allvar Gullstrand from Pearls in Ophthalmology.
External links
Nobel stamps
1862 births
1930 deaths
People from Landskrona Municipality
Swedish ophthalmologists
Swedish Nobel laureates
Opticians
Uppsala University alumni
Uppsala University faculty
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
19th-century Swedish physicians
20th-century Swedish physicians
Burials at Norra begravningsplatsen
Optical physicists | [
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|
240199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Sting | Charlotte Sting | The Charlotte Sting was a Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) team based in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States, one of the league's eight original teams. The team folded on January 3, 2007.
The Sting was originally the sister organization of the Charlotte Hornets, until that NBA team relocated to New Orleans in 2002. Robert L. Johnson, founder of Black Entertainment Television, purchased the team in January 2003, shortly after he was announced as the principal owner of an NBA expansion franchise that replaced the departing Hornets.
Uniforms:
1997–2003: on the road, teal with white and purple trim, Sting logo text on the chest. At home, white with teal and purple trim. Sting logo mascot on the shorts, similar to the Charlotte Hornets
2004–2006: on the road, orange with blue trim, Sting logo text on the chest. At home, white with orange trim. Sting logo mascot on the shorts, similar to the Charlotte Bobcats.
History
Early years
The Charlotte Sting was one of the eight original WNBA franchises that began play in 1997. The Sting were then the sister team to the Charlotte Hornets. The Sting finished their first season with a 15-13 record and qualified for the first WNBA playoffs, but lost to eventual champions Houston Comets in the one-game semifinal.
The 1998 Sting finished the season with an 18-12 record. In the playoffs, the Sting once again lost the Eastern Conference semifinals to the Houston Comets, and the Comets once again took home the championship. During the 1998 WNBA season, Sting player Kelly Boucher became the first Canadian to play in the league.
In the 1998–1999 offseason, with the folding of the American Basketball League, the Sting added former ABL guard Dawn Staley to an already impressive roster that featured Vicky Bullett and Andrea Stinson.
Their record, however, fell to 15-17 in 1999. It was still enough to qualify them for the playoffs, where they defeated the Detroit Shock in the opening round 60-54. In the Conference Finals, the Sting fell to the New York Liberty 2 games to 1.
The 2000 season was very disappointing for the Sting, with a final record of 8-24. They missed the playoffs for the first time in franchise history.
The 2001 Sting lost 10 of their first 11 games. But the team lost only 4 games after that, finishing with an 18-14 record. Although they had barely qualified for the playoffs as the #4 seed, no one wanted to face them. In the first round, the Sting upset first the #1 seeded Cleveland Rockers and then the #2 New York Liberty, beating each in 3 games. For the first time in franchise history, the Sting found themselves in the WNBA Finals. But the magic ended there for the Sting, as they were swept by the Los Angeles Sparks in 2 games.
The Sting posted a solid 18-14 record in the 2002 season, but were swept by the Washington Mystics in the first round of the playoffs.
After the 2001–2002 NBA season, the Charlotte Hornets relocated to New Orleans (see "New Orleans Hornets"). The Sting did not accompany the Hornets out to New Orleans. For one season (2003), the Sting had no brother team.
Late years
The NBA immediately announced, after the Hornets moved, that a new team would begin play in Charlotte starting in the 2004–2005 season. Shortly after, Robert L. Johnson was announced as owner of this new franchise. Johnson also bought the Sting to play as the sister team of the new Charlotte Bobcats.
The 2003 season saw yet another playoff appearance for the Sting. The franchise had posted an 18-16 record and tied with the Connecticut Sun for the #2 seed. The Sting played the same Sun in the playoffs, and were swept out in 2 games.
After the season, Johnson changed the Sting team colors from the Hornets' teal and purple to correspond with the Bobcats' blue and orange. There was some speculation that the team might get a new name, but a newly released mascot following the same Sting theme made that idea unlikely.
During the off-season, the team made several key roster additions to its established group of veterans. After trading Kelly Miller to the Indiana Fever in exchange for the 3rd overall pick in the WNBA Draft, the Sting drafted Stanford University standout Nicole Powell. The Sting made four picks overall – including the second round pick of Penn State standout Kelly Mazzante.
The Sting did not make the playoffs in the 2004 season, as they posted a 16-18 record and finished one game out of the #4 seed. After the season, the Sting continued to build for the future – trading with the Sacramento Monarchs for Tangela Smith and a second-round draft pick in the 2006 draft in a deal that saw Nicole Powell traded to Sacramento. Having won the first pick in the 2005 WNBA Draft, the Sting selected University of Minnesota Golden Gophers player Janel McCarville.
The new-look Sting suffered a terrible 2005 season, posting the league's worst record at 6-28. During the season, the Sting traded veteran Dawn Staley to the Houston Comets and named Charlotte basketball icon Muggsy Bogues as their new head coach late in the season. The season also saw the team play its last game in the Charlotte Coliseum, the team's home arena since 1997.
The Sting moved into the Bobcats' new home, Time Warner Cable Arena, for the 2006 season. The Sting had a better season in 2006 than 2005, posting an 11-23 record. The Sting had a new arena and were clearly making progress in the rebuilding. Despite the growing number of successes on the court, the 2006 season proved to be the Sting's final season in the league.
End of the Sting
On December 13, 2006, Bobcats Sports and Entertainment turned ownership of the team over to the league, citing low attendance in Charlotte (despite a new arena) and loss of revenue.
Attempted Move to Kansas City
An investment group in Kansas City had an interest in moving the Sting to Kansas City. The Sting were to play in the Sprint Center, which was due to open in the Fall of 2007. The city has not had an NBA team since the Kings' move to Sacramento, California after the 1984–85 season.
The Sting Fold
After months of talk and deliberation between the league and the investors, the plans ultimately fell through. On January 3, 2007, the Bobcats announced that the fundraising effort by a group seeking to move the team to Kansas City had failed. The team folded immediately, and the players went to the other teams in the league via a dispersal draft.
Season-by-season records
Notable facts
The Sting were the first team to play in a WNBA Finals and end up folding.
Players
Retired numbers
Notable players
Cass Bauer-Bilodeau
Vicky Bullett
Monique Currie
Edniesha Curry
Helen Darling
Shalonda Enis
Rhonda Mapp
Kelly Mazzante
Janel McCarville
Kelly Miller
Jia Perkins
Nicole Powell
Tracy Reid
Charlotte Smith
Tangela Smith
Dawn Staley
Andrea Stinson
Tammy Sutton-Brown
Tiffany Travis
Final roster
Coaches and others
Head coaches
Marynell Meadors (1997–1999)
Dan Hughes (1999)
T.R. Dunn (2000)
Anne Donovan (2001–2002) (Hall of Famer)
Trudi Lacey (2003–August 2, 2005)
Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues (August 3, 2005 – 2007)
General managers
Marynell Meadors (1997–99)
Bob Bass (1999-2003)
Bernie Bickerstaff (2003)
Trudi Lacey (2003–07)
Assistant coaches
Dan Hughes (1999)
References
External links
Bring Back the Charlotte Sting Instagram
Sports teams in Charlotte, North Carolina
Defunct Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 1997
Basketball teams disestablished in 2007
Basketball teams in North Carolina | [
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240204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Mystics | Washington Mystics | The Washington Mystics are an American professional basketball team based in Washington, D.C. The Mystics compete in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) as a member club of the league's Eastern Conference. The team was founded prior to the 1998 season, and is owned by Monumental Sports & Entertainment (led by Ted Leonsis), which also owns the Mystics' NBA counterpart, the Washington Wizards. The team plays in the Entertainment & Sports Arena in the Congress Heights neighborhood of Washington DC. Sheila C. Johnson, co-founder of BET and ex-wife of Charlotte Sting owner Robert L. Johnson, is the managing partner.
The Mystics have qualified for the WNBA Playoffs in 13 of its 23 seasons of existence, and the franchise has been home to such high-quality players as two-time WNBA MVP Elena Delle Donne, Tennessee standout Chamique Holdsclaw, athletic shooting guard Alana Beard, and nearby Maryland product Crystal Langhorne. Until 2018, the Mystics were the only current WNBA franchise that had never made it to the WNBA Finals. They lost in the semifinals twice, to New York in 2002 and to the eventual champion Minnesota Lynx in 2017. After reaching the WNBA Finals for the first time in 2018, they won their first championship in 2019.
Franchise history
One of the first, one of the worst (1998–2004)
The Washington Mystics were one of the first WNBA expansion franchises to be established. In 1998, their first season, they finished with a WNBA worst 3–27 record, despite being led by Olympian Nikki McCray. Although they did not make the playoffs that year, the team had high expectations after drafting University of Tennessee star Chamique Holdsclaw in 1999. Washington improved but again failed to make the playoffs as they finished with a 12–20 record. Holdsclaw would lead the team to the playoffs in 2000, making the playoffs with a record of 14–18, losing to the New York Liberty in a first-round sweep.
After being tied for the worst record in the WNBA in 2001 with a 10–22 record, coach Tom Maher and General Manager Melissa McFerrin both resigned. With the future of the franchise up in the air, Mystics assistant coach Marianne Stanley took over as head coach. With the duo of Holdsclaw and rookie guard Stacey Dales-Schuman, the Mystics made the playoffs in 2002 with a 17–15 record. They would sweep the Charlotte Sting in the first round, but lose to New York again in the Eastern Conference Finals 2 games to 1. This would be the only time the Mystics would win a playoff series until 2017.
In 2003, the Mystics would make a franchise second-worst record in franchise history with a 9–25 record, last in the Eastern Conference.
Rumors of Holdsclaw being unhappy playing in Washington came to a head in 2004 when the Mystics star was sidelined with an unspecified ailment, later revealed to be a bout with depression. With their all-star out, rookie and Duke University standout Alana Beard led a depleted Mystics team to a surprising playoff appearance, the third in Mystics history. They finished the 2004 season at 17–17, but lost in the first round to the Connecticut Sun in 3 games.
Changes in the organization (2005–2007)
The 2005 season saw deep changes in the Mystics organization. Former star Holdsclaw joined the Los Angeles Sparks and the team was sold by Washington Sports and Entertainment to Lincoln Holdings LLC, led by Ted Leonsis. In 2005, the team finished the regular season with a record of 16–18 and failed to make the playoffs.
In 2006, the Mystics posted an 18–16 record thriving under star guard Alana Beard who was drafted in 2004. The Mystics entered the playoffs as the 4th seed. In the first round, Washington was ultimately swept by the Connecticut Sun, the first-seeded team in the East.
The Mystics finished with a 16–18 record in 2007. In a more competitive conference, the team was satisfied by its near-.500 finish. However, at the end of the season, the Mystics had the same record as the New York Liberty. Since the Liberty won the regular-season series against the Mystics, Washington lost the tiebreaker and was eliminated from playoff contention.
At the bottom yet again (2008)
In 2008, the Mystics looked to build on their near-playoff appearance in a tough Eastern Conference. They drafted Crystal Langhorne of Maryland with the 6th pick in the 2008 WNBA Draft. Plagues again by coaches problems, the Mystics fell to the bottom of the East again, finishing only in front of the expansion Atlanta team. The Mystics had gone through 10 coaches in 11 years of existence, the most in the WNBA. The Mystics front office knew it needed to completely clean out the entire coaching and management staff.
Changes, part two (2009–2012)
During the 2008/2009 WNBA off-season, the Mystics released general manager Linda Hargrove (replaced by Angela Taylor) and interim coach Jessie Kenlaw (replaced by Julie Plank). Under the new general manager, underperforming players were waived as new players were signed. With the second pick in the Houston dispersal draft and the 2009 WNBA Draft, the Mystics selected Matee Ajavon and Marissa Coleman, respectively. The Mystics hoped to take advantage of the team changes and finally find consistency in their play.
By the time the season began, the Mystics surprisingly started 3–0. They went 13–18 since the first three games, but their 16–18 record was good enough to reach the playoffs. However, in their playoff comeback, the eventual conference champion Indiana Fever was too much for Washington to handle and the Mystics were swept in the first round. This would be the final season Alana Beard played a game for the Mystics, as she suffered two season-ending injuries in the 2009 and 2010 offseasons, respectively.
The Mystics had their best season ever in 2010. Led by Lindsey Harding, Katie Smith, and Crystal Langhorne, the Mystics took first place in the East with a record of 22–12. However, despite holding a 3–1 edge in regular-season games, they were swept in the first round, including a 24-point blowout in the elimination game, by the eventual WNBA Finals runner-up, the Atlanta Dream.
Prior to the 2011 season, the Mystics made many controversial changes. Coming off their best season in franchise history, many had hoped the team would finally see some consistency; this was not the case. General manager Angela Taylor could not reach an agreement on a new contract and after head coach Julie Plank refused a request to handle both coach and GM duties which was reported as a cost-cutting measure, Mystics assistant coach Trudi Lacey was named to both positions. When asked if the departure of Plank and Taylor was one of the mistakes she said she had learned from at the 2012 WNBA draft lottery, Mystics owner Sheila Johnson said she couldn't discuss that matter, citing ongoing "human resource issues". After the coach/GM change Harding and Smith both demanded trades to specific teams which were granted (to Atlanta and Seattle, respectively). In addition, starting small forward Monique Currie tore her ACL while playing in Europe in January and was lost for most of the WNBA season. As a result of this off-season turmoil, the Mystics record in 2011 fell to 6–28 from 22 to 12 the year before. Alana Beard also left in free agency, leaving Crystal Langhorne at center...and not much else.
After an even worse season in 2012 (5–29), Trudi Lacey was fired as the Mystics coach and GM. Although having the best odds of the four teams involved in the lottery held on September 26, 2012 for the 2013 WNBA draft, the Mystics ended up with the 4th pick, missing out on drafting one of the three highly touted players available in the 2013 WNBA Draft; which was Brittney Griner, Elena Delle Donne and Skylar Diggins.
Rebuilding, a bright future (2013–2016)
Despite missing out on a top 3 draft pick, the Mystics remained positive and continued their rebuilding phase while adding some young talent with future potential to their roster. Prior to the 2013 WNBA season, the Mystics drafted Tayler Hill and Emma Meesseman in the 2013 WNBA Draft. After the firing of Trudi Lacey, the Mystics hired Mike Thibault as their new head coach and GM.
In the 2013 WNBA season, the Mystics were 17-17 and made the playoffs losing in the first round.
Prior to the 2014 WNBA season, the Mystics drafted Bria Hartley and Stefanie Dolson in the 2014 WNBA Draft. In the 2014 WNBA season, Meesseman became the starting center for the Mystics. They finished 16-18 and made the playoffs but lost in the first round yet again.
In the 2015 WNBA season the Mystics made a change in their starting line-up by putting Dolson at center and Meesseman at power forward. The Big-women duo would have breakout seasons as they both were selected into the 2015 WNBA All-Star Game. Later on, in the season, the Mystics finished 18-16 and made the playoffs, but were once again a first-round exit.
Going into the 2016 WNBA season, the Mystics kept acquiring and developing young talent. They drafted Kahleah Copper in the 2016 WNBA Draft and put Hill in the starting line-up. Hill would have a breakout season, leading the Mystics in scoring with a career-high 15.4 ppg and was second place in voting for the WNBA Most Improved Player award. The Mystics would unfortunately not make the playoffs, finishing with a disappointing 13–21 record but showed signs of promise in the future. Meesseman continued to improve after her breakout season, averaging a career-high 15.2 ppg. Also on September 7, 2016, the Mystics scored a franchise record of 118 points along with 16 three-pointers (another franchise record) in a 118–81 victory over the Chicago Sky.
On September 28, 2016, they won the second overall pick in the 2017 WNBA draft.
The Delle Donne era (2017–present)
During the 2016–17 off-season, the Mystics were busy in the trade market. With enough trade assets, they were determined to make a trade for a superstar player. First, on January 30, the team executed a three-way deal with the New York Liberty and Seattle Storm, sending Bria Hartley and Kia Vaughn to the Liberty and receiving the Storm's #6 pick in the 2017 draft. This proved the prelude to an even larger deal as it freed up cap space to land a superstar on their team. Officially announced on February 2, the Mystics traded Kahleah Copper, Stefanie Dolson and the second overall pick in the 2017 WNBA draft to the Chicago Sky in exchange for 2015 league MVP Elena Delle Donne. Also during the off-season in free agency they would sign three-point specialist Kristi Toliver (who had just won a championship with the Los Angeles Sparks in the previous season), upgrading their roster into a championship contender. However, with Meesseman missing some games due to overseas commitment, and Tayler Hill out with a torn ACL midway through the season, the Mystics were the number 6 seed in the league with an 18–16 record. The Mystics defeated the Dallas Wings 86–76 in the first round elimination game. In the second round elimination game, the Mystics defeated the New York Liberty 82–68, advancing past the second round for the first time in franchise history, coming off a record-setting performance by Toliver, as she drained 9 three-pointers in the win. In the semi-finals, the Mystics were defeated by the Minnesota Lynx in a 3-game sweep, who would go on to win the 2017 WNBA championship.
In the 2018 WNBA season, the Mystics played without their starting power forward Emma Meesseman, who played for Team Belgium in the FIBA World Tournament. The Mystics made some adjustments in their starting lineup to compensate for her absence. One month into the season, Tayler Hill made her return to the team after recovering from her ACL injury, but she was traded a month later to the Dallas Wings in exchange for Aerial Powers. That trade helped the Mystics boost their roster's wing depth. The Mystics finished as the #3 seed in the league with a 22–12 record, receiving a bye to the second round. In the second-round elimination game, they defeated the Los Angeles Sparks 96–64, advancing to the semifinals for the second year in a row. In the semifinals, the Mystics defeated the #2 seeded Atlanta Dream in an intense five-game series, advancing to the WNBA Finals for the first time in franchise history. In the finals, they were swept by the Seattle Storm.
Meesseman returned in the 2019 WNBA season, and her return powered the Mystics towards achieving an unprecedented regular season record of 26–8, leading the entire league in total wins and losses and earning them the top spot in the playoffs. With a dogged determination to come back to the Finals and high hopes that a Finals title would at last be within their grasp, the Mystics began their playoff run skipping the two single-elimination rounds to a semifinal series against the Las Vegas Aces, just more than a year after Washington and Las Vegas's NHL teams, the Capitals and the Golden Knights, competed in the 2018 Stanley Cup Finals with the former emerging victorious. The Mystics held off the Aces on the first two home games for an insurmountable 2–0 series lead, before finishing them off in Game 4 after the Aces made a desperate bid to extend the series with a Game 3 defeat. The Mystics then returned to the Finals against the Connecticut Sun, a team that had the second-best record in the regular season that was no less hungry for a championship, having come a win short of one before. This time, the Mystics prevailed through five intense games, by winning the odd-numbered ones and losing the even-numbered ones, with the availability and health of playoffs MVP Elena Delle Donne becoming a crucial factor in the outcome. The Sun were able to tie the series twice by exploiting Donne's early exit in Game 2 due to a back injury, then drawing upon unrelenting resolve and willingness to learn from mistakes after a Game 3 loss to deny the Mystics an opportunity to close the series early on their home court. The Mystics finally earned their first-ever championship by erasing multiple deficits in the final tiebreaker game, before breaking through in the crucial final quarter to hold on to an 89–78 victory. Meesseman was honored as the Finals MVP.
Uniforms
1998–2010: white with black and gold outlines at home, dark blue with black and gold outlines on the road.
2011–2012: white with red and blue outlines at home, red with white and blue outlines on the road. Both jerseys display the Inova Health System name on the front.
2013–2014: A new number font was introduced; Inova retained as a jersey sponsor.
2015–present: Inova sponsorship expires, and the team name (home jerseys) and city name (road jerseys) return.
2016: As part of a league-wide initiative for its 20th season, all games featured all-color uniform matchups. The Mystics retired the white uniform for this season in favor of a red jersey, while retaining the blue jersey as its dark-colored uniform.
Attendance leaders
The Washington Mystics led the WNBA in home attendance in the years 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004 and 2009. To celebrate the fans turning out for games, six banners were hung from the Verizon Center rafters celebrating each year the Mystics were "Attendance Champions."
The banners were mocked for years before Ted Leonsis, CEO of Monumental Sports & Entertainment, announced in a 2010 blog that the banners would be taken down, reasoning that the "only banners we should display revolve around winning a division or conference or league championship."
The Mystics are now highly unlikely to lead the WNBA in attendance, since their current home of the Entertainment and Sports Arena seats only 4,200. It was the league's smallest arena during the 2019 season, the Mystics' first in the facility. For the 2020 season, the ESA was to be the WNBA's second-smallest arena following the offseason move of the Atlanta Dream to the 3,500-seat Gateway Center Arena, but instead had to play in Bradenton, FL. That had to be deferred to 2021.
Season-by-season records
Players
Current roster
Other rights owned
Former players
Nicky Anosike (2011)
Alana Beard (2004–2011)
Kiesha Brown (2002–2005)
Vicky Bullett (2000–2002)
Marissa Coleman (2009–2011)
Kahleah Copper (2016), now a member of the Chicago Sky
Monique Currie (2007–2014)
Stacey Dales (2002–2004)
Stefanie Dolson (2014–2016), now a member of the Chicago Sky
Lindsey Harding (2009–2010)
Bria Hartley (2014–2016), now a member of the Phoenix Mercury
Chamique Holdsclaw (1999–2004)
Asjha Jones (2002–2003)
Zuzana Žirková (2003)
Crystal Langhorne (2008–2013)
Kara Lawson (2014–2015)
Nikki McCray (1998–2001)
Taj McWilliams-Franklin (2008)
Chasity Melvin (2004–2007, 2009–2010), now an assistant coach of the Phoenix Mercury
Coco Miller (2001–2008)
DeLisha Milton-Jones (2005–2007)
Murriel Page (1998–2005)
Nakia Sanford (2003–2010)
Katie Smith (2010), now an assistant coach of the Minnesota Lynx
Nikki Teasley (2006–2007)
Kristi Toliver (2017–2019), now a member of the Los Angeles Sparks
Kia Vaughn (2013–2016), now a member of the Phoenix Mercury
Coaches and staff
Owners
Abe Pollin, owner of the Washington Wizards (1998–2005)
Monumental Sports & Entertainment/Ted Leonsis, owner of the Washington Wizards (2005–present)
Head coaches
General managers
Melissa McFerrin (1998–2001)
Judy Holland-Burton (2002–2005)
Linda Hargrove (2005–2008)
Angela Taylor (2009–2010)
Trudi Lacey (2011–2012)
Mike Thibault (2013–present)
Assistant coaches
Cathy Parson (1998)
Wes Unseld, Jr. (1998)
Melissa McFerrin (1999–2001)
Jenny Boucek (1999)
Tyrone Beaman (2000)
Marianne Stanley (2001, 2010–2019)
Linda Hill-MacDonald (2002–2003)
Ledell Eackels (2002–2003)
Linda Hargrove (2004)
Stephanie Ready (2004)
Marynell Meadors (2005–2006)
Jeff House (2005–2006)
Tree Rollins (2006–2007)
Crystal Robinson (2007–2008)
Jessie Kenlaw (2007–2008)
Lubomyr Lichonczak (2009)
Vanessa Nygaard (2009)
Vicky Bullett (2009)
Trudi Lacey (2009–2010)
Laurie Byrd (2011–2012)
Jennifer Gillom (2012)
Eric Thibault (2013–present)
Asjha Jones (2020–present)
Statistics
Media coverage
Some Mystics games are broadcast on NBC Sports Washington (NBCS-DC), a local television station for Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, Maryland. NBA TV usually picks up the feed from the local broadcast, which is shown nationally. Broadcasters for Mystics games are Meghan McPeak and Christy Winters Scott.
All games (excluding blackout games, which are available on ESPN3.com) are broadcast to the WNBA LiveAccess game feeds on the league website. Furthermore, some Mystics games are broadcast nationally on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC. The WNBA has reached an eight-year agreement with ESPN, which will pay right fees to the Mystics, as well as other teams in the league.
All-time notes
Regular season attendance
A sellout for a basketball game at Capital One Arena is 20,356.
A sellout for a game at the Entertainment and Sports Arena is 4,200.
Draft picks
1998 Expansion Draft: Heidi Burge (2), Penny Moore (4), Deborah Carter (6), Tammy Jackson (8)
1998: Murriel Page (3), Rita Williams (13), Angela Hamblin (23), Angela Jackson (33)
1999: Chamique Holdsclaw (1), Shalonda Enis (13), Andrea Nagy (25), Jennifer Whittle (37)
2000: Tausha Mills (2), Tonya Washington (18)
2001: Coco Miller (9), Tamara Stocks (25), Jamie Lewis (41), Elena Karpova (44)
2002: Stacey Dales-Schuman (3), Asjha Jones (4), LaNisha Cartwell (33), Teresa Geter (36)
2003 Miami/Portland Dispersal Draft: Jenny Mowe (8)
2003: Aiysha Smith (7), Zuzana Zirkova (21), Trish Juline (32), Tamara Bowie (36)
2004 Cleveland Dispersal Draft: Chasity Melvin (2)
2004: Alana Beard (2), Kaayla Chones (15), Evan Unrau (28)
2005: Temeka Johnson (6), Erica Taylor (19), Tashia Moorehead (32)
2006: Tamara James (8), Nikki Blue (19), Myriam Sy (33)
2007 Charlotte Expansion Draft: Teana Miller (6)
2007: Bernice Mosby (6), Megan Vogel (19), Gillian Goring (33)
2008: Crystal Langhorne (6), Lindsey Pluimer (19), Krystal Vaughn (33)
2009 Houston Dispersal Draft: Matee Ajavon (2)
2009: Marissa Coleman (2), Camille Lenoir (23), Jelena Milavanovic (24), Josephine Owino (28)
2010 Sacramento Dispersal Draft: Kristin Haynie (6)
2010: Jacinta Monroe (6), Jenna Smith (14), Shanavia Dowdell (18), Alexis Gray-Lawson (30)
2011: Victoria Dunlap (11), Karima Christmas (23), Sarah Krnjic (35)
2012: Natalie Novosel (8), LaSondra Barrett (10), Anjale Barrett (26), Briana Gilbreath (35)
2013: Tayler Hill (4), Nadirah McKenith (17), Emma Meesseman (19)
2014: Stefanie Dolson (6), Carley Mijovic (30), Kody Burke (32)
2015: Ally Malott (8), Natasha Cloud (15), Marica Gajić (32)
2016: Kahleah Copper (7), Lia Galdeira (19), Danaejah Grant (31)
2017: Shatori Walker-Kimbrough (6), Jennie Simms (18), Mehryn Kraker (27)
2018: Ariel Atkins (7), Myisha Hines-Allen (19), Rebecca Greenwell (31)
2019: Kiara Leslie (10), Sam Fuehring (34)
2020: Jaylyn Agnew (24), Sug Sutton (36)
All-Stars
1999: Chamique Holdsclaw, Nikki McCray
2000: Chamique Holdsclaw, Nikki McCray
2001: Chamique Holdsclaw, Nikki McCray
2002: Stacey Dales-Schuman, Chamique Holdsclaw
2003: Chamique Holdsclaw
2004: None
2005: Alana Beard
2006: Alana Beard
2007: Alana Beard, Delisha Milton-Jones
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Alana Beard
2010: Monique Currie, Lindsey Harding, Crystal Langhorne
2011: Crystal Langhorne
2012: No All-Star Game
2013: Crystal Langhorne, Ivory Latta
2014: Ivory Latta
2015: Stefanie Dolson, Emma Meesseman
2016: No All-Star Game
2017: Elena Delle Donne
2018: Elena Delle Donne, Kristi Toliver
2019: Elena Delle Donne, Kristi Toliver
2020: No All-Star Game
2021: Ariel Atkins, Tina Charles
Olympians
2000: Nikki McCray, Chamique Holdsclaw
2016: Leilani Mitchell (AUS)
2020: Ariel Atkins, Tina Charles, Leilani Mitchell (AUS)
Honors and awards
1999 Rookie of the Year: Chamique Holdsclaw
1999 All-WNBA Second Team: Chamique Holdsclaw
1999 Peak Performer (FG%): Murriel Page
2000 Peak Performer (FG%): Murriel Page
2001 All-WNBA Second Team: Chamique Holdsclaw
2002 Coach of the Year: Marianne Stanley
2002 Most Improved Player: Coco Miller
2002 All-WNBA Second Team: Chamique Holdsclaw
2002 Peak Performer (Scoring): Chamique Holdsclaw
2002 Peak Performer (Rebounds): Chamique Holdsclaw
2003 Peak Performer (Rebounds): Chamique Holdsclaw
2005 Rookie of the Year: Temeka Johnson
2005 All-Defensive Second Team: Alana Beard
2005 All-Rookie Team: Temeka Johnson
2006 All-WNBA Second Team: Alana Beard
2006 All-Defensive Second Team: Alana Beard
2007 All-Defensive First Team: Alana Beard
2009 Most Improved Player: Crystal Langhorne
2009 All-Defensive Second Team: Alana Beard
2009 All-Rookie Team: Marissa Coleman
2010 All-WNBA Second Team: Crystal Langhorne
2010 All-Defensive Second Team: Lindsey Harding
2013 Coach of the Year: Mike Thibault
2014 All-Rookie Team: Bria Hartley
2017 All-Rookie Team: Shatori Walker-Kimbrough
2018 All-WNBA First Team: Elena Delle Donne
2018 All-Rookie Team: Ariel Atkins
2018 All-Defensive Second Team: Ariel Atkins
2019 Most Valuable Player: Elena Delle Donne
2019 Finals MVP: Emma Meesseman
2019 All-WNBA First Team: Elena Delle Donne
2019 All-Defensive Second Team: Ariel Atkins
2019 All-Defensive Second Team: Natasha Cloud
2020 All-WNBA Second Team: Myisha Hines-Allen
2020 All-Defensive Second Team: Ariel Atkins
2021 Peak Performer (Points): Tina Charles
2021 All-Defensive Second Team: Ariel Atkins
2021 All-WNBA Second Team: Tina Charles
Hall of Famers
FIBA Hall of Famers
References
External links
Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 1998
Basketball teams in Washington, D.C.
1998 establishments in Washington, D.C. | [
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|
240212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Antonio%20Stars | San Antonio Stars | The San Antonio Stars were a professional basketball team based in San Antonio, Texas, playing in the Western Conference in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The team was founded in Salt Lake City, Utah, as the Utah Starzz before the league's inaugural 1997 season began; then moved to San Antonio before the 2003 season and became the San Antonio Silver Stars, then simply the San Antonio Stars in 2014. The team was owned by Spurs Sports & Entertainment, which also owned the San Antonio Spurs of the NBA. The team was sold to MGM Resorts International in 2017 and became the Las Vegas Aces for the 2018 season.
The Stars qualified for the WNBA Playoffs in seven of their fourteen years in San Antonio. The franchise has been home to many high-quality players such as all-star point guard Becky Hammon, solid power-forward Sophia Young, former first-overall draft pick Ann Wauters, and seven-foot-two-inch center Margo Dydek. In 2008, the Silver Stars went to the WNBA Finals but they were swept by Detroit.
The Stars played their games at AT&T Center.
Franchise history
The Utah Starzz years (1997–2002)
One of the eight original WNBA teams, the Utah Starzz (partially named after the old ABA team, the Utah Stars, but with the zz at the end like the Utah Jazz) never met the same success as their (former) counterpart in the NBA, the Utah Jazz. They held the distinction of having the worst record in the WNBA in 1997 and were the first team to select in the 1998 WNBA Draft. With their selection, they picked 7 ft. 2 in. center Margo Dydek, who easily became the tallest player in WNBA history. The pickup of Dydek did little to help their cause and they again finished near the bottom of the league in the 1998 & 1999 seasons. The Starzz finally posted a winning record in 2000, but did not make the playoffs. In 2001, the Utah Starzz made it to the playoffs for the first time, but they were quickly swept in the first round by the Sacramento Monarchs. In 2002, the Starzz made it to the playoffs again, and this time beat the Houston Comets in the Western Conference Semifinals 2 games to 1. Their playoff run ended in the Western Finals, however, as they were swept aside by the eventual champs, the Los Angeles Sparks.
Relocation to San Antonio
When the NBA divested itself of all of its WNBA franchises at the end of the 2002 season, the Utah Jazz ownership did not wish to retain ownership of the Starzz. The Starzz then looked for local Utah potential buyers, but none were found, leaving the franchise with the choices of either being sold to out-of-town investor(s) or folding.
The Starzz avoided being folded when the franchise was sold to Peter Holt (the owner of the NBA's San Antonio Spurs) and relocated to San Antonio, Texas. The team's name was changed to the San Antonio Silver Stars and would change its team colors to the silver and black motif used by the Spurs.
The Stars fall short (2003–2006)
Immediately after moving, the new Silver Stars made major roster moves, as they traded star Natalie Williams along with Coretta Brown to the Indiana Fever in exchange for Sylvia Crawley and Gwen Jackson. After losing seasons in 2003 and 2004, the team then traded away star Margo Dydek.
For the first four seasons (2003–2006) after moving to San Antonio, the franchise was unable to change its old losing trend and did not make the playoffs, in sharp contrast to their current NBA counterpart, the San Antonio Spurs. From 1997 to 2002, the Utah Starzz had a record of 87–99. From 2003 to 2006, the San Antonio Silver Stars record was 41–88.
Picking things up (2007–2008)
The 2007 season brought a lot of change for the Silver Stars. They acquired stars Becky Hammon, Ruth Riley, and Sandora Irvin in trades, selected Helen Darling in Charlotte Sting's dispersal draft, drafted Camille Little in the second round, signed Erin Buescher during the off-season, and retained key players, such as Marie Ferdinand-Harris, Vickie Johnson, Shanna Crossley, Kendra Wecker, and Sophia Young. The new-look Silver Stars became an instant contender in the Western Conference. On August 4, 2007 the Silver Stars clinched their first playoff berth since the franchise relocated to San Antonio in 2003. In the first round, the Silver Stars were matched up against the Sacramento Monarchs. After losing game 1 in Sacramento, the Silver Stars would win games 2 and 3 to advance to the Western Finals. The Silver Stars faced off against a strong Phoenix Mercury team, which had the number 1 seed in the Western Conference. The Silver Stars would lose Game 1 at home 102–100 on a controversial call by ref Lisa Mattingly. Mattingly called a foul on Shanna Crossley with 2.1 seconds left in the game and the score tied at 100. Replay showed that Crossley made no contact with Phoenix's Cappie Pondexter. However, Pondexter was sent to the line and made both free throws and Crossley's half-court shot to win the game nearly went in. On September 1, 2007 the Silver Stars' season came to an end after the Stars lost Game 2 98–92 in Phoenix.
Heading into 2008, the Silver Stars were regarded as a premiere contender and did not disappoint. After an average start, the Stars seized control of the Western Conference and rode to the best record in the West, and the #1 seed in the playoffs. In the first round, the Silver Stars once again faced off against the Sacramento Monarchs. Unlike 2007, the Stars won Game 1 on the road, 85–78. But the Monarchs would prove pesky, spoiling a potential clinch in Game 2 crushing the Silver Stars at home 84–67. Now the Silver Stars had to win game 3 or face an offseason of disappointment. In the Game, the Silver Stars would secure a 14-point lead and it seemed over. But a late rally by the Monarchs, including the last seven points in regulation, sent the game into overtime. In overtime, the Silver Stars clamped down and proved they were the better team, defeating the Monarchs 86–81, advancing to the Western Conference Finals for the second season in a row. In the West Finals, the Stars faced the resurgent Los Angeles Sparks team. In Game 1 in LA, the Stars took an early lead, but an 11–0 run by the Sparks into the half changed the tempo of the game and the Sparks took Game 1 85–70. In Game 2, the Silver Stars blew a 14-point lead in the final quarter, as the Sparks took a one-point lead with 1.3 seconds left. The Stars season was over unless there would be a miracle. However, Sophia Young delivered with a 14-foot turnaround shot to lift the Silver Stars to a 67–66 win. It came down to Game 3, with a trip to the WNBA Finals on the line. The two teams battled down the stretch, but the stellar play of Becky Hammon, who had 35 points and 4 crucial free throws, would lift the Silver Stars to their first WNBA Finals, defeating the Sparks 76–72. In the WNBA Finals, the Silver Stars faced the Detroit Shock, who were making their third WNBA Finals appearance in a row. In Game 1 at home, the Silver Stars fell behind early, but would tie the game at 69 with 2:15 left in the 4th quarter. But from there the Shock took control once again and won the game 77–69.
Struggling stars (2009–2010)
By the time the 2009 season opened, San Antonio were already on a struggling basis, being stuck in fourth place in the West throughout the year. However, the Silver Stars eventually started to rise a bit and later clinched a playoff berth, despite a sub-500 record of 15–19. After winning the first game against the Phoenix Mercury, the Silver Stars were unable to recover and lost the remaining two games to lose the series 2–1.
The 2010 season was not much different for the Stars. They finished with an unimpressive 14–20 record but sneaked into the third seed of the playoffs in a below-average Western Conference. The Silver Stars were swept in the first round of the playoffs by Phoenix and it was clear that some changes were needed.
Stars align in San Antonio (2011–2017)
In early 2011, it was announced that the Silver Stars would host the 2011 WNBA All-Star Game.
The Silver Stars started the 2011 season with a 7–3 record, led by the return of former head coach Dan Hughes. Along with the quality play from Becky Hammon and Sophia Young, three rookies made the Silver Stars' roster in 2011. Danielle Robinson, Danielle Adams, and Porsha Phillips were all drafted in 2011. Adams' play was so good that she was named Rookie of the Month for June, beating out top draft picks Maya Moore and Liz Cambage.
In the 2012 playoffs, the Silver Stars lost in the first round to the Los Angeles Sparks. The team would miss the playoffs in 2013. In the 2014 playoffs, the Stars would lose in the first round to the Minnesota Lynx. Hammon retired from the WNBA after 16 seasons (including spending the last eight with the Stars) afterwards.
Due to renovations at AT&T Center, the Stars played at Freeman Coliseum for the 2015 season. For the 2016 season, the Stars moved back to the AT&T Center after the renovations to the arena were completed.
Relocation to Las Vegas
The NBA and WNBA approved the sale of the Stars to MGM Resorts International on October 17, 2017, with the intention of relocating the team to Las Vegas and playing at the Mandalay Bay Events Center starting in the 2018 season.
Uniforms
2003–2006: At home, silver with black trim. Stars logo text is on the chest in black. Away from home, black with silver trim. Stars logo text is on the chest in white.
2007–2010: At home, silver with black stars down the side. Stars logo text is on the chest in black. Away from home, black with silver stars down the side. San Antonio text is on the chest in white. Player's names are beneath their numbers on the back of the uniform.
2011–2013: As part of the move to Adidas's Revolution 30 technology, the Silver Stars made subtle changes such as rounded numbers and team nickname on both uniforms. In the 2013 season, the numbers were slightly modified.
2014–2017: Uniform sponsor H-E-B was added, and the 'Stars' script was updated.
Season-by-season records
Players
Former players
Danielle Adams (2011–2015)
Chantelle Anderson (2005–2007)
Jayne Appel (2010–2016)
Jennifer Azzi (2000–2003)
Helen Darling (2007–2010)
Margo Dydek (1998–2004)
Shyra Ely (2005–2006)
Marie Ferdinand-Harris (2001–2007)
Adrienne Goodson (1999–2004)
Becky Hammon (2007–2014), now an assistant coach of the San Antonio Spurs
Chamique Holdsclaw (2010)
Shannon "Pee Wee" Johnson (2004–2006)
Vickie Johnson (2006–2009), now head coach for the Dallas Wings
DeLisha Milton-Jones (2013), now the head coach for Old Dominion
Wendy Palmer-Daniel (1997–1999, 2005)
Jia Perkins (2011–2015)
Erin Buescher Perperoglou (2007–2009)
Semeka Randall (2002–2004)
Ruth Riley (2007–2011)
Danielle Robinson (2011–2016), now a member of the Las Vegas Aces
Michelle Snow (2010)
LaToya Thomas (2004–2006)
Ann Wauters (2008–2009)
Sophia Young (2006–2015)
Shanna Zolman (2006–2007, 2009)
Tausha Mills (2003)
Shenise Johnson (2012-2014), now a member of the Minnesota Lynx
Retired numbers
FIBA Hall of Fame
Coaches and staff
Owners
Peter Holt, owner of the San Antonio Spurs (2003–2017)
Head coaches
General managers
Jay Francis (1997–2004)
Dan Hughes (2005–2015)
Ruth Riley (2016–2017)
Assistant coaches
Tammi Reiss (2001–2003)
Shell Dailey (2003–2004)
Vonn Read (2004)
Brian Agler (2005–2007)
Sandy Brondello (2005–2009)
Vanessa Nygaard (2008)
Olaf Lange (2008–2010)
Vickie Johnson (2011–2016)
Steve Shuman (2011–2012)
James Wade (2013–2016)
Joi Williams (2017)
Latricia Trammell (2017)
Statistics
Media coverage
Broadcasters for the Stars games were Andrew Monaco and Bob Weiss. While in San Antonio, some Stars games were broadcast on Fox Sports Southwest (FS-SW), which is a local television station for the state of Texas.
All-time notes
Regular season attendance
A sellout for a basketball game at AT&T Center (San Antonio) (2003–2014, 2016–2017) is 18,418.
A sellout for a basketball game at Freeman Coliseum (San Antonio) (2015) is 9,800.
Draft picks
2003 Miami/Portland Dispersal Draft: LaQuanda Barksdale (12)
2003: Coretta Brown (11), Ke-Ke Tardy (25), Brooke Armistead (40)
2004 Cleveland Dispersal Draft: LaToya Thomas (3)
2004: Cindy Dallas (21), Toccara Williams (34)
2005: Kendra Wecker (4), Shyra Ely (14), Catherine Kraayeveld (27)
2006: Sophia Young (4), Shanna Crossley (16), Khara Smith (30)
2007 Charlotte Dispersal Draft: Helen Darling (4)
2007: Camille Little (17), Nare Diawara (30)
2008: Chioma Nnamaka (21), Alex Anderson (39)
2009 Houston Dispersal Draft: selection waived
2009: Megan Frazee (14), Sonja Petrovic (26), Candyce Bingham (39)
2010 Sacramento Dispersal Draft: Laura Harper (5)
2010: Jayne Appel (5), Alysha Clark (17), Alexis Rack (29)
2011: Danielle Robinson (6), Danielle Adams (20), Porsha Phillips (30)
2012: Shenise Johnson (5)
2013: Kayla Alexander (8), Davellyn Whyte (16), Diandra Tchatchouang (20), Whitney Hand (32)
2014: Kayla McBride (3), Astou Ndour (16), Bri Kulas (28)
2015: Dearica Hamby (6), Dragana Stanković (30), Nikki Moody (33)
2016: Moriah Jefferson (2), Brittney Martin (25)
2017: Kelsey Plum (1), Nia Coffey (5), Schaquilla Nunn (25)
Trades
January 28, 2004: The Silver Stars traded the fourth, 16th, and 29th picks in the 2004 Draft to the Connecticut Sun in exchange for Shannon Johnson, the 21st and the 34th picks in the 2004 Draft.
July 19, 2004: The Silver Stars traded Gwen Jackson to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Adrian Williams.
April 16, 2005: The Silver Stars traded Margo Dydek to the Connecticut Sun in exchange for Katie Feenstra and a first-round pick in the 2006 Draft.
May 18, 2005: The Silver Stars traded Connecticut's first-round pick in the 2006 Draft to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for Chantelle Anderson.
February 21, 2007: The Silver Stars traded a second-round pick in the 2007 Draft to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Sandora Irvin.
February 22, 2007: The Silver Stars traded Katie Feenstra and the right to swap first-round picks in the 2008 Draft to the Detroit Shock in exchange for Ruth Riley.
April 4, 2007: The Silver Stars traded Jessica Davenport and a first-round pick in the 2008 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for Becky Hammon and a second-round pick in the 2008 Draft.
April 9, 2008: The Silver Stars traded Camille Little, Chioma Nnamaka, and a first-round pick in the 2009 Draft to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Ann Wauters, Morenike Atunrase, and a second-round pick in the 2009 Draft.
February 19, 2010: The Silver Stars acquired Roneeka Hodges from the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for the right to swap second-round picks in the 2011 Draft.
March 11, 2010: The Silver Stars acquired Michelle Snow from the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Dalma Ivanyi and the right to swap second-round picks in the 2011 Draft.
April 14, 2010: The Silver Stars traded Shanna Crossley to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Crystal Kelly.
April 20, 2011: The Silver Stars traded Michelle Snow to the Chicago Sky in exchange for Jia Perkins.
May 2, 2011: The Silver Stars traded second- and third-round picks in the 2012 Draft to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Scholanda Robinson.
March 1, 2012: The Silver Stars traded Roneeka Hodges to the Indiana Fever in exchange for Tangela Smith.
March 14, 2012: The Silver Stars traded Sonja Petrovic to the Chicago Sky in exchange for a third-round pick in the 2013 Draft.
March 12, 2015: The Stars traded Shenise Johnson and a second-round pick in the 2015 Draft to the Indiana Fever in exchange for a first- and third-round picks in the 2015 Draft.
April 16, 2015: The Stars traded the 9th overall pick in the 2015 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for Alex Montgomery.
July 5, 2015: The Stars traded a second-round pick in the 2016 Draft to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Samantha Logic.
April 14, 2016: The Stars traded Jia Perkins to the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for Jazmon Gwathmey.
May 9, 2016: The Stars traded a second-round pick in the 2017 Draft to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Monique Currie.
January 31, 2017: The Stars traded Danielle Robinson to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Isabelle Harrison and the 5th pick in the 2017 Draft.
February 27, 2017: The Stars traded Astou Ndour to the Chicago Sky in exchange for Clarissa Dos Santos.
May 9, 2017: The Stars traded Jazmon Gwathmey to the Indiana Fever in exchange for the Fever's 2018 3rd round pick.
June 28, 2017: The Stars traded Monique Currie to Phoenix Mercury for Shay Murphy, Sophie Brunner and Mercury's 2018 3rd Round Draft Pick.
All-Stars
2003: Margo Dydek, Marie Ferdinand-Harris
2004: Shannon Johnson
2005: Marie Ferdinand-Harris
2006: Sophia Young
2007: Becky Hammon, Sophia Young
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Becky Hammon, Sophia Young
2010: Jayne Appel, Becky Hammon, Michelle Snow, Sophia Young
2011: Danielle Adams, Becky Hammon
2012: No All-Star Game
2013: Danielle Robinson
2014: Danielle Robinson
2015: Kayla McBride, Danielle Robinson
2016: No All-Star Game
Olympians
2004: Shannon Johnson
2008: Becky Hammon (RUS)
2012: Becky Hammon (RUS)
2016: Astou Ndour (ESP)
Honors and awards
2005 All-Rookie Team: Katie Feenstra
2006 All-Rookie Team: Sophia Young
2007 All-WNBA First Team: Becky Hammon
2007 All-WNBA Second Team: Sophia Young
2007 All-Rookie Team: Camille Little
2007 Coach of the Year: Dan Hughes
2007 Peak Performer (Assists): Becky Hammon
2008 All-WNBA First Team: Sophia Young
2008 All-WNBA Second Team: Becky Hammon
2008 All-Defensive First Team: Sophia Young
2008 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Vickie Johnson
2009 All-WNBA First Team: Becky Hammon
2009 All-WNBA Second Team: Sophia Young
2011 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Ruth Riley
2011 All-Rookie Team: Danielle Adams
2011 All-Rookie Team: Danielle Robinson
2012 All-WNBA Second Team: Sophia Young
2012 All-Defensive Second Team: Danielle Robinson
2012 All-Defensive Second Team: Sophia Young
2013 Peak Performer (Assists): Danielle Robinson
2013 All-Defensive Second Team: Jia Perkins
2013 All-Defensive Second Team: Danielle Robinson
2014 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Becky Hammon
2014 All-WNBA Second Team: Danielle Robinson
2014 All-Defensive Second Team: Danielle Robinson
2014 All-Rookie Team: Kayla McBride
2016 All-Rookie Team: Moriah Jefferson
References
Basketball teams established in 2003
Basketball teams disestablished in 2017
Relocated Women's National Basketball Association teams
Spurs Sports & Entertainment
Basketball teams in Texas
2003 establishments in Texas
2017 disestablishments in Texas | [
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240213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle%20Storm | Seattle Storm | The Seattle Storm is an American professional basketball team based in Seattle, Washington. The Storm competes in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) as a member club of the league's Western Conference. The team was founded by Ginger Ackerley and her husband Barry ahead of the 2000 season. The team is currently owned by Force 10 Hoops LLC, which is composed of three Seattle businesswomen: Dawn Trudeau, Lisa Brummel, and Ginny Gilder.
The Storm have qualified for the WNBA Playoffs in sixteen of its twenty-one years in Seattle. The franchise has been home to many high-quality players such as former UConn stars Sue Bird, Swin Cash, and Breanna Stewart; 2004 Finals MVP Betty Lennox; and Australian power forward Lauren Jackson, a three-time league MVP. The Storm are four-time WNBA Champions, with victories in 2004, 2010, 2018, and 2020. They are one of two teams who have never lost a WNBA Finals, the defunct Houston Comets being the other.
The team cultivates a fan-friendly, family environment at home games by having an all-kid dance squad, which leads young fans in a conga line on the court during time-outs, to the music of "C'mon N' Ride It (The Train)" by the Quad City DJ's. Named for the rainy weather of Seattle, the team uses many weather-related icons: the team mascot is Doppler, a maroon-furred creature with a cup anemometer on its head; the theme song for Storm home games is AC/DC's "Thunderstruck"; and its newsletter is called Stormwatch.
The Storm were the sister team of the Seattle SuperSonics of the NBA prior to February 28, 2008, when the team was sold to Force 10 Hoops LLC.
Franchise history
A gloomy start (2000–2001)
The Storm's predecessor was the Seattle Reign, a charter member of the American Basketball League (ABL), operating from 1996 through December 1998, when the league folded. Luckier than most localities that had an ABL team, Seattle was quickly awarded a WNBA franchise and began to play less than two years later.
The Seattle Storm would tip off their first season (the 2000 WNBA season) in typical expansion fashion. Coached by Lin Dunn and led by guard Edna Campbell and Czech center Kamila Vodichkova, the team finished with a 6–26 record. The low record, however, allowed the Storm to draft a 19-year-old Australian standout Lauren Jackson. Though Seattle did not make the playoffs in the 2001 season, Jackson's impressive rookie performance provided a solid foundation for the franchise to build on.
Sue Bird's arrival and the road to the WNBA Finals (2002–2004)
In the 2002 draft, the Storm drafted UConn star Sue Bird, filling the Storm's gap at the point guard position. With Bird's playmaking ability and Jackson's scoring and rebounding, the team made the playoffs for the first time in 2002 but were swept by the Los Angeles Sparks.
Coach Anne Donovan was hired for the 2003 campaign. In Donovan's first year, Jackson would win the WNBA Most Valuable Player Award, but the team had a disappointing season (with Bird injured for much of the year), and the Storm missed the playoffs.
The 2004 Storm posted a then franchise-best 20–14 record. In the playoffs, the Storm made quick work of the Minnesota Lynx, sweeping them in the first round. The Storm then squared off against an up-and-coming Sacramento Monarchs team in the West Finals. The Storm would emerge victorious, winning the series 2–1. In the WNBA Finals, the Storm would finish off the season as champions, defeating the Connecticut Sun 2 games to 1. Betty Lennox was named MVP of the Finals. The win made Anne Donovan the first female head coach in WNBA history to win the WNBA Championship.
A consistent postseason contender (2005–2009)
Key players from the Storm's championship season were not on the team in 2005. Vodichkova, Tully Bevilaqua, and Sheri Sam moved on to other teams. Also, the pre-season injury of Australian star and new acquisition Jessica Bibby hampered the team's 2005 season. While they matched their 2004 record and made the playoffs, the Storm's title defense was stopped in the first round by the Houston Comets, 2 games to 1.
In 2006, the Storm would finish 18–16, good enough to make the playoffs. The Storm put up a good fight in the first round against the Sparks but would fall short 2–1. In 2007, the Storm would finish .500 (17–17), good enough to make the playoffs in a weak Western Conference. The Storm would be quickly swept out of the playoffs by the Phoenix Mercury.
On November 30, 2007, Anne Donovan resigned as head coach, and was replaced by Brian Agler on January 9, 2008.
Although most of Seattle's major sports teams endured poor seasons during 2008, the Storm would be the only standout team in Seattle that year, posting a franchise-best 22–12 record and finishing with a 16–1 record at home, also a franchise-best. But the No. 2 seeded Storm lost to the #3 Los Angeles Sparks in the first round of the playoffs in three games and ended Seattle's season at 23–14 overall.
In 2009, the Storm were 20–14 and finished second in the Western Conference for the second straight year. In the playoffs, the Storm again lost to the #3 Los Angeles Sparks in 3 games, which ended their season in the first round for the fifth consecutive season.
A second championship (2010)
In the 2010 season, the Storm was almost unstoppable with a record-tying 28 wins and 6 losses in the regular season, including a perfect 17–0 at KeyArena. This was the most home wins in the history of the WNBA.
Along the way, Lauren Jackson was named WNBA Western Conference Player of the Week five times, and Western Conference Player of the Month three times, on her way to being named WNBA MVP for the third time. Agler was also named Coach of the Year.
In the playoffs, the Storm dramatically reversed their fortunes from the previous five seasons. They started with a sweep of the Sparks, the team that previously knocked them out of the playoffs every time they met. Then they swept Diana Taurasi and the Phoenix Mercury in the conference finals, and the Atlanta Dream in the WNBA Finals. With two league championships, the Storm became Seattle's most successful pro sports team by that measure.
Postseason pains (2011–2014)
With the same lineup as the previous year, the Storm had much expectation for the 2011 WNBA season. But right in the second round a two-year home invincibility was broken by the Minnesota Lynx, who even left the Storm scoreless for the first seven minutes. Injuries hit multiple players, especially Lauren Jackson, who had to undergo hip surgery and missed most of the season. The regular starting five resumed play only in the last five games, but Sue Bird and Swin Cash kept the Storm competitive, finishing second in the WNBA with 21 wins and 13 losses. On the playoffs, a Mercury buzzer beater at the KeyArena eliminated the Storm in round 1.
In 2012, with Jackson absent for the early season training with the Australia national team and injuries to most of the team, including Bird, only Camille Little and Katie Smith played on all the games of the regular season. Upon her return, Jackson missed some games due to a hamstring injury but reached 6,000 points on her WNBA career playing against the San Antonio Silver Stars. The 16-18 record put the Storm fourth in the West, facing the Lynx, who posted the league's best record during the regular season, in the playoffs. While the Storm managed to force a game 3 by winning in the KeyArena at double overtime, a last-second attempt by Jackson went off the rim and the Lynx took the series-winning by just one point, 73-72.
After losing in the first round of the 2013 playoffs to the Lynx following a .500 regular season, the Storm missed the playoffs in 2014. This was the first time the Storm missed the playoffs since 2003.
Loyd/Stewart Era, third and fourth championships (2015–present)
Following seven-year head coach & GM Brian Agler's hiring in Los Angeles, the Storm elevated President Alisha Valavanis to President & GM, and two weeks later, hired Jenny Boucek as the fourth head coach in franchise history. Valavanis and Boucek promptly got to work, trading Shekinna Stricklen and Camille Little to the Connecticut Sun for the #3 and #15 2015 WNBA draft picks, along with Renee Montgomery. Storm free agent Tanisha Wright signed with the New York Liberty, and a month later, Valavanis shipped the #15 pick to the Mystics for Quanitra Hollingsworth and the #20 pick in the 2015 WNBA Draft. Valavanis also signed Australian forward Abby Bishop that month.
Fast forward to April 2015, the month of the WNBA Draft, where Seattle now held the #1, #3, #20 and #26 picks. Days before the draft, Notre Dame guard Jewell Loyd and Minnesota center Amanda Zahui B. shook up the draft order, both forgoing NCAA eligibility and declaring for the WNBA Draft. On April 16, 2015, Seattle drafted Jewell Loyd #1, UCONN sharpshooter Kaleena Mosqueda-Lewis #3, Vicky McIntyre #20 and Nneka Enemkpali #26 in the 2015 WNBA Draft. In the 2015 WNBA season, despite missing out on the playoffs with a 10-24 record, the number-one drafted Jewell Loyd would win the Rookie of the Year Award.
After having the worst record in the WNBA, the Storm ended up with the first overall pick again using it to select Breanna Stewart from the University of Connecticut. In the 2016 WNBA season, Stewart immediately emerged as one of the young rising stars in the league, winning Rookie of the Year, averaged an impressive 18.9 ppg and broke the record for most defensive rebounds in a regular season. Loyd would statistically improve, averaging 16.5 ppg, birthing a new, young dynamic tandem as the "Next Great Storm Duo" after Sue Bird and Lauren Jackson. This would lead the Storm back into playoff contention as they finished as the 6th seed with a 16-18 record under the league's new playoff format, but would lose to the Atlanta Dream in the first round elimination game.
In the 2017 season, both Loyd and Stewart continued to get better and lead the Storm into playoff contention. Loyd averaged 17.7 ppg and Stewart 19.9 ppg. Stewart would become an all-star for the first time in her career and was one of two all-stars representing the Storm in the 2017 WNBA All-Star Game along with Sue Bird. The Storm finished as the 8th seed with a 15-19 record but would lose yet again in the first round elimination game by the Phoenix Mercury.
In the 2018 season, the Storm would elevate from a mediocre playoff team to a title contender. In the offseason, they made some slight changes to the roster. They traded for Natasha Howard and drafted Jordin Canada. Bird, Loyd, and Stewart were all voted into the 2018 WNBA All-Star Game, creating a "big three" on the Storm's roster. Bird also broke records in 2018 by becoming the franchise leader in scoring and the league's all-time regular-season assists leader. With Bird's leadership and the continued development of Loyd and Stewart, the Storm finished 26-8 with the number 1 seed headed into the WNBA Playoffs. They would receive a double-bye to the semi-finals. Stewart who averaged 20.0 ppg and 8.8 RPG won the 2018 Most Valuable Player award. They faced the Phoenix Mercury in the semi-finals where Stewart averaged 24.0 ppg and Loyd added 11.0 ppg. They would defeat the Mercury in a hard-fought five-game series, advancing to the WNBA Finals for the first time since 2010. In the Finals, the Storm would sweep their opponent, the Washington Mystics, winning their first championship in eight years, Stewart was named Finals MVP.
Even before the season started, 2019 was a year defined by health issues for the Storm. On April 15, Stewart ruptured her Achilles tendon playing in a Euroleague game for Dynamo Kursk when she collided with Brittany Griner, putting her out for the entire 2019 season. Four days later, head coach Dan Hughes was diagnosed with a cancerous tumor in his colon; he had it removed in May and missed the entire season, with assistant Gary Kloppenburg taking over in an interim role Later that month, after the Storm finished their preseason schedule, it was announced that Bird would have to undergo knee surgery, sidelining her too for the year.
With Bird out, Canada stepped into the starting point guard role, finishing 2019 third in the WNBA in assists per game (5.5) and second in steals per game (2.3). Meanwhile, without Stewart an with Loyd missing seven games with an injury of her own, Howard became the focal point of the Seattle offense, scoring a career-high 18.1 points per game. The shorthanded Storm finished the season 18-16, earning the No. 6 seed in the 2019 WNBA playoffs. Seattle won its first-round matchup against the Minnesota Lynx, 84-74, and then lost in the second round to the Los Angeles Sparks, 92-69.
The 2020 WNBA season was atypical, played entirely inside Bradenton, Florida's IMG Academy, dubbed the "wubble," the WNBA's version of the NBA's Bubble. The Storm entered the wubble with Bird and Stewart back, but without head coach Dan Hughes, whose cancer diagnosis made him a health risk. Bird missed several games with a left knee bone bruise, but came back for the playoffs, in which the Storm didn't lose a single game. The Storm closed out the top-ranked Las Vegas Aces in three games en route to their fourth championship, with Stewart again named Finals MVP.
Name, logo and team colors
The Storm's name was chosen because of Seattle's reputation as a rainy city, as well as the aggressive nature implicit in the name. Though the team conducted an exhaustive trademark search for options, Storm was always their preferred choice. The name had once been trademarked by an amateur soccer club, FC Seattle Storm, in the mid-1980s, but by 2000 it was free for the WNBA to take ownership. The team had planned a formal announcement, along with a presentation of the logo and official team colors, at a January 2000 gala event for the inaugural season ticket holders. However, a Miami newspaper revealed the name two weeks early while announcing all four of that season's expansion franchises.
Logo
The original logo featured a rounded, stylized silhouette of the Space Needle, an iconic Seattle landmark, set against the backdrop of a green storm cloud. In dynamic font and fashion, the team name stretches in an angled rise from left to right. Pointed jags meant to evoke lightning bolts streak through the team name from right to left. A basketball orbits the Space Needle through the cloud.
In January 2016, the team revealed a branding update that eliminated the use of red. The team logos retained the same overall design, but used the simplified color scheme.
An alternate logo, which placed the S from the Storm wordmark on a green oval, was used on the team's jerseys on and off until 2020 in place of the more complicated primary mark.
In March 2021, the team released an entirely new logo and updated color scheme. The Space Needle, depicted in a new, more minimalist style, is interlinked with the ribs of a basketball and incorporates a small lightning bolt into the tower. The logo has a pointed shape, meant to evoke Mount Rainier. A sleeker modern font and the new color scheme of dark green, yellow, and bright green are used.
Team colors
Like several early WNBA teams, the Storm was owned by their NBA counterpart, the Seattle SuperSonics, and closely related to the team. Taking their cue from the Sonics' team colors at the time, known colloquially as the "wine and pine" era of the team, the Storm's original team colors were pine green, maroon red, bronze, and white. When a new ownership group led by Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz purchased the Sonics and Storm in 2001, the NBA club returned to the traditional green-and-golden yellow color scheme that the team had used for its first 28 years of existence. The Storm, however, retained their colors as a way to uniquely market the team. Following another change of ownership in 2006, the team was then sold to Force 10 Hoops LLC in 2008 when the Oklahoma City interests that owned the Sonics announced intentions to relocate the NBA club to Oklahoma City as the Thunder. Force 10 also retained the original colors.
The January 2016 branding update changed the official team colors. Adopting a scheme similar to their former NBA brother team, the updated colors were thunder green, a less saturated shade than before, and lightning yellow. White and thunder gray featured as accent colors.
The new 2021 design keeps the 2016–2020 colors of lightning yellow and dark thunder green, and replaces gray with the bright bolt green.
Off-court activity
2006 and 2008 sales
Following disagreements between the Basketball Club of Seattle (the former owners of the Sonics and Storm) and the city of Seattle concerning the need to renovate the KeyArena, the Seattle SuperSonics and the Seattle Storm were sold to an Oklahoma City group led by Clay Bennett on July 18, 2006. Bennett made it clear that the Sonics and Storm would move to Oklahoma City at some point after the 2007–08 NBA season, unless an arena for the Sonics was approved by Seattle leaders before October 31, 2007. During this period of uncertainty, the Storm announced that they would play their 2008 WNBA season in Seattle at KeyArena.
On January 8, 2008, Bennett sold the team to a Seattle group of women called Force 10 Hoops, LLC. The sale was given unanimous approval from the WNBA Board of Governors on February 28, 2008. This kept the team in Seattle and disconnected it from the Sonics. The Sonics moved to Oklahoma City in July, during the WNBA season.
Uniform sponsor
On April 21, 2010, the Storm and the WNBA announced a sponsor agreement with Bing, a search engine from Microsoft, to place the company's logo on their jerseys for the 2010 season. The Bing sponsorship ended after the 2013 season, and the Storm played without a sponsor for two seasons, before signing a new uniform deal with Swedish Medical Center for the 2016 season.
Championship ring for President
In June 2011, President of the United States Barack Obama invited the 2010 WNBA champion Seattle Storm to the White House. He stated that the franchise provided a good example for young girls with big dreams. He praised the Storm for the community service they perform and stated that being champions did not end when they step off the court. The Storm presented the President with a championship ring.
Temporary move to the University of Washington
With Climate Pledge Arena to be closed during its renovation into a venue suitable for the Seattle Kraken of the National Hockey League, the Storm were forced to seek a temporary venue for their 2019 season. After considering two suburban venues, ShoWare Center in Kent and Angel of the Winds Arena in Everett, the team announced in August 2018 that its primary home in 2019 would be in the city of Seattle at the University of Washington's Alaska Airlines Arena. While the arena will become the Storm's primary home during the renovation, there was no guarantee of its availability for Storm playoff games, and some home games might be played at other venues in the region, such as Tacoma Dome. Since Washington's arena lacks air conditioning, and the WNBA requires that all games be played in air-conditioned venues, portable air conditioning units will be used during Storm games. The team later announced that five of its 17 regular-season home games in 2019, including the home opener, would be at Angel of the Winds Arena. The 2020 season saw the Storm play their games in Bradenton, FL.
Season-by-season records
Players
Current roster
Former players
Retired numbers
Coaches and staff
Owners
Barry and Ginger Ackerley, owners of the Seattle SuperSonics (2000–2001)
Howard Schultz, owner of the Seattle SuperSonics (2001–2006)
Clay Bennett, owner of the Seattle SuperSonics (2007)
Force 10 Hoops LLC, composed of Dawn Trudeau, Lisa Brummel, Ginny Gilder (2008–present)
Head coaches
General managers
Lin Dunn (2000–2002)
Billy McKinney (2002–2003)
Karen Bryant (2004–2010)
Brian Agler (2011–2014)
Alisha Valavanis (2015–2021)
Talisa Rhea (2021–present)
Records and statistics
Season records
Regular season attendance
A sellout for a basketball game at Climate Pledge Arena is 17,072. For Storm games, reaching capacity of the lower bowl (9,686) is considered a sellout.
A sellout for a basketball game at the team's main home during the renovation of Climate Pledge Arena, Alaska Airlines Arena, is 10,000. A sellout at the team's secondary home, Angel of the Winds Arena, is 8,500.
All-Stars
2000: None
2001: Lauren Jackson
2002: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson
2003: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson
2004: Sue Bird
2005: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson
2006: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson
2007: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Sue Bird, Swin Cash, Lauren Jackson
2010: Sue Bird, Swin Cash, Lauren Jackson
2011: Sue Bird, Swin Cash
2012: No All-Star Game
2013: Tina Thompson
2014: Sue Bird
2015: Sue Bird
2016: No All-Star Game
2017: Sue Bird, Breanna Stewart
2018: Sue Bird, Jewell Loyd, Breanna Stewart
2019: Jewell Loyd, Natasha Howard
2020: No All-Star Game
2021: Sue Bird, Jewell Loyd, Breanna Stewart
Olympians
2004: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson (AUS)
2008: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson (AUS), Kelly Santos (BRA)
2012: Sue Bird, Lauren Jackson (AUS)
2016: Sue Bird, Breanna Stewart, Ramu Tokashiki (JPN)
2020: Sue Bird, Jewell Loyd, Breanna Stewart, Stephanie Talbot (AUS), Ezi Magbegor (AUS)
Honors and awards
2002 All-WNBA First Team: Sue Bird
2003 Most Valuable Player: Lauren Jackson
2003 Peak Performer (Scoring): Lauren Jackson
2003 All-WNBA First Team: Sue Bird
2003 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2004 Finals MVP: Betty Lennox
2004 Peak Performer (Scoring): Lauren Jackson
2004 All-WNBA First Team: Sue Bird
2004 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2005 All-WNBA First Team: Sue Bird
2005 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2005 All-Defensive Second Team: Lauren Jackson
2006 All-Decade Team: Sue Bird
2006 All-Decade Team: Lauren Jackson
2006 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2007 Most Valuable Player: Lauren Jackson
2007 Defensive Player of the Year: Lauren Jackson
2007 Peak Performer (Scoring): Lauren Jackson
2007 Peak Performer (Rebounds): Lauren Jackson
2007 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2007 All-Defensive First Team: Lauren Jackson
2008 All-WNBA Second Team: Sue Bird
2008 All-WNBA Second Team: Lauren Jackson
2008 All-Defensive Second Team: Lauren Jackson
2009 All-Star Game MVP: Swin Cash
2009 Peak Performer (Assists): Sue Bird
2009 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2009 All-Defensive First Team: Lauren Jackson
2009 All-Defensive First Team: Tanisha Wright
2010 Most Valuable Player: Lauren Jackson
2010 Finals MVP: Lauren Jackson
2010 Coach of the Year: Brian Agler
2010 All-WNBA First Team: Lauren Jackson
2010 All-WNBA Second Team: Sue Bird
2010 All-Defensive First Team: Tanisha Wright
2010 All-Defensive Second Team: Lauren Jackson
2011 All-Star Game MVP: Swin Cash
2011 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Sue Bird
2011 All-WNBA Second Team: Sue Bird
2011 All-Defensive First Team: Tanisha Wright
2011 All-Defensive Second Team: Swin Cash
2013 All-Defensive First Team: Tanisha Wright
2015 July Rookie of the Month: Jewell Loyd
2015 Rookie of the Year: Jewell Loyd
2015 All-Rookie Team: Jewell Loyd
2015 All-Rookie Team: Ramu Tokashiki
2016 Rookie of the Year: Breanna Stewart
2016 Peak Performer (Assists): Sue Bird
2016 All-Defensive Second Team: Breanna Stewart
2016 All-Rookie Team: Breanna Stewart
2017 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Sue Bird
2018 Most Valuable Player: Breanna Stewart
2018 Most Improved Player: Natasha Howard
2018 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Sue Bird
2018 Finals MVP: Breanna Stewart
2018 All-WNBA First Team: Breanna Stewart
2018 All-Defensive First Team: Natasha Howard
2019 Defensive Player of the Year: Natasha Howard
2019 All-WNBA First Team: Natasha Howard
2019 All-Defensive First Team: Jordin Canada
2019 All-Defensive Second Team: Alysha Clark
2020 Finals MVP: Breanna Stewart
2020 All-WNBA First Team: Breanna Stewart
2020 All-Defensive First Team: Alysha Clark
2020 All-Defensive Second Team: Breanna Stewart
2021 Commissioner's Cup MVP: Breanna Stewart
2021 All-Defensive Second Team: Breanna Stewart
2021 All-WNBA First Team: Jewell Loyd
2021 All-WNBA First Team: Breanna Stewart
Media coverage
Currently, most Storm home games are broadcast on JOEtv, which is a local television station for the area of Seattle. More often than not, NBA TV will pick up the feed from the local broadcast, which is shown nationally. Broadcasters for the Storm games are Dick Fain and Elise Woodward.
All games (excluding blackout games, which are available on ESPN3.com) are broadcast to the WNBA LiveAccess game feeds on the league website. Furthermore, some Storm games are broadcast nationally on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC. The WNBA has reached an eight-year agreement with ESPN, which will pay rights fees to the Storm, as well as other teams in the league.
Notes
References
External links
Women's National Basketball Association teams
Sports in Seattle
Basketball teams established in 2000
Basketball teams in Washington (state) | [
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|
240214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana%20Fever | Indiana Fever | The Indiana Fever is an American professional basketball team based in Indianapolis, Indiana, playing in the Eastern Conference in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). The team was founded before the inaugural 2000 season began. The team is owned by Herb Simon, who also owns the Fever's NBA counterpart, the Indiana Pacers, and Simon Malls.
The Fever has qualified for the WNBA Playoffs in 13 of its 21 seasons in Indiana. Some of the players who have helped define the history of the Fever include the American players Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas, and Tully Bevilaqua from Australia. In 2009, the Fever went to the WNBA Finals but fell short to Phoenix. On October 21, 2012, the Fever won the WNBA Championship with a win over the Minnesota Lynx. Tamika Catchings was named the series MVP.
Franchise history
Catching the Fever (2000–2004)
The Indiana Fever team began in 2000, when the state was granted an expansion franchise to coincide with the opening of Gainbridge Fieldhouse (then Conseco Fieldhouse). In their first two seasons, they were coached by women's basketball legends Anne Donovan and Nell Fortner. Led by center Kara Wolters, in their inaugural campaign the team posted a record of 9–23.
The Fever drafted University of Tennessee star Tamika Catchings in the 2001 WNBA Draft. The Fever went into the year with high expectations of a playoff berth, but Catchings tore her ACL during a college game and missed the entire WNBA season. The Fever posted a 10–22 record in 2001.
After missing the entire 2001 season, the 2002 season proved to be the breakout season for Tamika Catchings and the Fever. Catchings came out strong and became one of the most versatile players in the WNBA, easily winning Rookie of the Year honors as well as making the WNBA All-Star team. Her team competed well all year and would post a respectable 16–16 record, tying for the final playoff spot with the Orlando Miracle. Indiana would win the tiebreaker and earn their first playoff appearance in franchise history. They drew the #1 seed in the playoffs, the Liberty; with the Fever losing two games to one.
The 2002–2003 offseason brought a lot of change for the Fever. The team added Olympian Natalie Williams and Charlotte Sting star Kelly Miller before the 2003 season. During the offseason the original coach and GM Nell Fortner would resign. Kelly Krauskopf would replace Fortner as GM and immediately hire Brian Winters to be the head coach. On May 29, 2003, the Fever registered their first sellout of 18,345 and defeated the Washington Mystics on national television. The team would do better under the new coaching, but missed the playoffs, posting a 16–18 record.
The 2004 campaign was very similar to 2003's. The Fever finished with a 15–19 record. They missed the playoffs by one game in the Eastern Conference.
Heating Up (2005–2007)
In 2005, the Fever had their best season since joining the league, posting a 21–13 record, and making the playoffs for just the second time. In the first round, the Fever swept the New York Liberty two games to none, earning their first playoff series victory in franchise history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever faced the heavily favored Connecticut Sun. Game 1 came down to the final seconds when Katie Douglas hit a crucial three to win the game for the Sun. Game 2 went into overtime, with the Sun winning, thus sweeping the Fever two games to none.
In the 2005–2006 offseason, the Fever acquired All-Star Anna DeForge from the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Kelly Miller. Later that offseason the Fever made another All-Star addition by signing free agent Tamika Whitmore from the Los Angeles Sparks. In the 2006 WNBA Draft they selected athletic swing-forward La'Tangela Atkinson from the North Carolina Tar Heels along with Kasha Terry from the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets.
The Fever started the 2006 season off at 4–0 and jumped out to an early lead in the Eastern Conference standings. Teammates Tamika Catchings and Tully Bevilaqua led the league in steals, first and second respectively, the first time teammates led the league in one statistical category. The Fever posted a 21–13 record, making the playoffs for the second year in a row. In the first round, the Fever would face arch rival Detroit. Detroit won Game 1 in Indianapolis and held a one-game to nothing lead in the series. Game 2 in Detroit was a high-scoring affair with Tamika Whitmore scoring a WNBA Playoff record 41 points. Detroit won in the end, 98–83 and won the series two games to none.
Going into the 2006–2007 off-season, the Fever looked to improve their post play. In the Dispersal Draft, the Fever would add veteran forward Sheri Sam from the Charlotte Sting. Kelly Krauskopf and the front office then set their eyes on key Free Agent Center Tammy Sutton-Brown, signing her on March 22, 2007. The Fever would also select 6–7 center Alison Bales from Duke University in the 2007 WNBA Draft to go along with Sutton-Brown.
Going into the 2007 season, the Fever had their eyes set on the WNBA Finals. They started off the season strong, winning 16 out of their first 20 games, which was the best 20 game start in history of the Eastern Conference. Then on July 20, key player Tamika Catchings would injure her foot and would miss the rest of the regular season. The injury was later revealed as a partial tear of her plantar fascia. The Fever would finish 5–9 without Catchings. They managed to win the #2 seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs, beating out the Connecticut Sun. They played the same Sun team in first round of the playoffs. Game 1 in Connecticut was an epic battle, going three overtimes with the Sun hanging on to win Game 1, 93–88. The Fever would win Game 2 at home by double digits forcing a decisive Game 3. In game 3, the Fever would find themselves down by 22 points late halfway through the 3rd quarter. The Fever battled back to win Game 3 in overtime by the same score as Game 1 93–88. The 22-point comeback was the largest comeback in WNBA Playoff history. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Fever played their other hated rival, the Detroit Shock. The Fever would grab an early lead in the series, winning Game 1 at Conseco Fieldhouse. With the team just 1 game away from the WNBA Finals the Fever traveled to Detroit. In Game 2, the game would be close until the 2nd quarter, when the Shock would blow the game wide open with a 14–0 run, and would easily win the game. With a spot in the Finals up for grabs in Game 3, the Fever would start off the game with an early 17–3 lead. Then late in the first half Catchings went down with another injury; she had completely torn her Achilles tendon. The Shock ended up winning Game 3, 85–61.
Cooling Down (2008)
On October 26, 2007, the Fever announced that they declined the option for head coach Brian Winters, ending his four-year tenure in charge. He compiled a 78–58 regular season record with a 5–7 playoff record. On December 12, 2007, assistant coach Lin Dunn was named his successor to the job as head coach.
In one of the biggest trades in WNBA history, the Fever traded Tamika Whitmore and their first-round pick in the 2008 WNBA Draft for Indianapolis native, Katie Douglas on February 19, 2008.
The Fever were part of the Liberty Outdoor Classic, which was the first regular-season professional basketball game played outdoors. It was played between the Fever and New York Liberty at Arthur Ashe Stadium in Flushing, New York on July 19, 2008, with the Fever winning the game, 71–55.
During the 2008 season, the Fever struggled in comparison to the three previous seasons. They finished with a 17–17 record, good for fourth place in the playoffs. Meeting the Detroit Shock in the first round, the Fever lost in three games.
Feeling the Fever (2009–2012)
After a disappointing 2008 season, the Fever were looking to improve in 2009. Indiana Pacers owners had said the Fever have been losing money. The only thing to save the Fever from folding in the near future, the owners inferred, was for the Fever to be successful on the court and at the box office. The Fever took the owners' ultimatum to heart and reached the playoffs as the first seed overall in the Eastern Conference with a franchise best record of 22–12. In the first round, the Fever ousted the Washington Mystics in a sweep, marking their return to the conference finals. In the East finals, again facing their rival Detroit Shock, they reached their first ever WNBA Finals by defeating the Shock in three games. The Fever then lost in 5 games to the Phoenix Mercury in the WNBA Finals.
Because of the success in 2009, the Fever announced they would remain in Indianapolis for 2010. Their 2011 season in Indianapolis was also confirmed as well.
In 2012, the Fever advanced to the 2012 WNBA Finals. Indiana then defeated the Minnesota Lynx, 3 games to 1. It was the Fever's first WNBA title.
Continuing the Reign (2012–2016)
After the Fever won the 2012 WNBA championship, the ownership group took notice of their management – by promoting general manager Kelly Krauskopf to president of the franchise. Krauskopf has been giving additional duties within the franchise as well as a pay increase. The Fever competed for another title in 2015, reaching the finals for the third time in franchise history, but fell short losing to the Minnesota Lynx in five games. In 2016, the Fever made it to the playoffs for the 12th consecutive time (the current WNBA record for most consecutive playoff appearances by a team). However, the Fever were upset in the first round elimination game against the Phoenix Mercury after the league's new playoff format was in effect. This game also marked the final game of Tamika Catchings's playing career; she had been known as the Fever's franchise player since 2002.
Post-Catchings era (2016–present)
On November 18, 2016, it was announced that the Fever hired Pokey Chatman as their new head coach. In February 2017, the Fever traded for five-time all-star Candice Dupree along with the Mercury's 2017 first-round pick in a three-team deal that sent Camille Little and Jillian Alleyne to the Mercury and the Connecticut Sun receiving the 8th overall pick in the 2017 WNBA Draft along with Lynetta Kizer from the Fever. Despite acquiring a veteran all-star forward and a new head coach, the Fever would have one of the most disappointing seasons in franchise history. On August 12, 2017, the Fever were defeated 111–52 by the Minnesota Lynx, marking it the largest margin of defeat in WNBA history, in which they allowed a league record 37–0 scoring run during the game. The Fever finished with the second-worst record in the league of 9–25 in their first season after Catchings's retirement, ending their streak of 12 consecutive playoff seasons.
In 2018, disappointment continued for the Fever as they rebuilt their team. They finished in last place, this time with a 6–28 record. On March 4, 2019, Pacers Sports & Entertainment announced Allison Barber, a graduate of Tennessee Temple University and Indiana University, as the new president and chief operating officer of the Fever, while Catchings was named vice president of Fever Basketball Operations. They would wind up with the third selection in the 2019 WNBA draft, selecting Teaira McCowan from Mississippi State. The 2019 season saw some improvement, but the team nonetheless finished 13–21, two games behind the last playoff spot. After the season, coach and general manager Pokey Chatman was fired.
On November 27, 2019, Marianne Stanley was introduced as the head coach of the Indiana Fever, making her the seventh coach in the franchise's 20-year WNBA history. In addition, it was also announced that Catchings would be promoted to general manager.
Near the end of the 2019 season, the Fever announced that they would move their home games to Butler University's Hinkle Fieldhouse for the 2020 and 2021 seasons, plus at least part of the 2022 season, to accommodate renovations of Bankers Life Fieldhouse. The team plans to return to the renamed Gainbridge Fieldhouse upon project completion. However, the 2020 WNBA season has been played in IMG Academy in Bradenton, Florida, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For the 2021 season, the Fever played their first four home games at Bankers Life Fieldhouse, before playing the remaining home games at Indiana Farmers Coliseum.
Uniforms
2000–2006: The home jerseys were white with red, dark blue and yellow on the sides. On the front, Fever was written across. The road jersey were dark blue with red and yellow on the sides. Indiana in red letters trimmed with white on the chest.
2007–2010: Home jerseys are white with blue and yellow strips/trim from the neck down the side. Fever is written in red across the front and on the back the player name is written in all dark blue under the number also in red trimmed in dark blue. The new road jerseys are dark blue with yellow and white trim/strips. Indiana is written on the front in red with white trim and on the back the number is in red with white trim with the player's name underneath in all white. Each jersey has the Fever's alternate logo at the top on the back.
2011–2012: As part of the move to Adidas's Revolution 30 technology, the Fever made subtle changes to the uniforms. Home uniforms remain white, but the 'Fever' wordmark is now written in navy with red and yellow trim. Numbers are now rounded and in red. Away uniforms remain unchanged save for the striping patterns and rounded numbers.
2013–2015: On October 19, 2012, the Fever announced that Finish Line will be their uniform sponsor, beginning with the 2013 season. The uniform stayed the same aside from a new number scheme and the addition of the uniform sponsor.
2016: As part of a league-wide initiative for its 20th season, all games featured all-color uniform matchups. Therefore, the Fever unveiled a yellow jersey as a light-colored uniform to complement its standard navy uniform.
2019: The Fever announced Salesforce as their uniform sponsor, replacing Finish Line. Along with all other WNBA team uniforms, the front of the jersey prominently features both Salesforce and AT&T, a new partner for the WNBA. The number of the player is now just on the back of the jersey.
Season-by-season records
Players
Current roster
Former players
Tully Bevilaqua (2005–2010)
Tamika Catchings (2002–2016), now the team's general manager
Anna DeForge (2006–2007)
Katie Douglas (2008–2013)
Candice Dupree (2017–2020)
Yolanda Griffith (2009)
Ebony Hoffman (2004–2009)
Niele Ivey (2001–2004), currently the head coach of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish women's basketball team
Nikki McCray (2002–2003)
Kelly Miller (2004–2005)
Bridget Pettis (2002–2003)
Kristen Rasmussen (2003–2004)
Kelly Schumacher (2001–2005)
Olympia Scott (2001–2002, 2006)
Coquese Washington (2002–2003), currently an associate head coach for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish women's basketball team
Stephanie White (2000–2004), former head coach for the Vanderbilt Commodores women's basketball team
Tan White (2005–2008)
Tamika Whitmore (2006–2007)
Natalie Williams (2003–2005)
Kara Wolters (2000)
Shavonte Zellous (2010–2015), now a member of the Washington Mystics
Shyra Ely (2011)
Retired numbers
Coaches and staff
Owners
Herb Simon (2000–present), owner of the Indiana Pacers
Melvin Simon (2000–2009), former co-owner of the Indiana Pacers
Head coaches
General managers
Nell Fortner (2000–2003)
Kelly Krauskopf (2004–2017)
Pokey Chatman (2018–2019)
Tamika Catchings (2020–present)
Assistant coaches
Shelley Patterson (2000–2003)
Julie Plank (2000–2007)
Lin Dunn (2004–2007)
Jim Lewis (2008–2010)
Gary Kloppenburg (2008–2011, 2015–2016)
Stephanie White (2011–2014)
Mickie DeMoss (2012–2013)
Sylvia Crawley (2014)
Gail Goestenkors (2015)
Steven Key (2016–2017)
Jessica Miller (2017–2019)
Christie Sides (2018–2019)
Steve Smith (2020–present)
April (McDivitt) Schilling (2020)
Le'Coe Willingham (2020)
Jhared Simpson (2021–present)
Vicki Hall (2021–present)
Statistics
|-
| 2000
| K. Wolters (11.9)
| K. Wolters (5.3)
| R. Williams (3.2)
| 69.2 vs 71.6
| 29.1 vs 29.8
| .433 vs .449
|-
| 2001
| R. Williams (11.9)
| J. Streimikyte (5.1)
| R. Williams (3.6)
| 67.3 vs 70.3
| 29.2 vs 30.2
| .418 vs .449
|-
| 2002
| T. Catchings (18.6)
| T. Catchings (8.6)
| T. Catchings (3.7)
| 65.5 vs 66.5
| 29.6 vs 29.1
| .401 vs .442
|-
| 2003
| T. Catchings (19.7)
| T. Catchings (8.0)
| T. Catchings (3.4)
| 68.7 vs 68.3
| 29.1 vs 29.0
| .417 vs .439
|-
| 2004
| T. Catchings (16.7)
| T. Catchings (7.3)
| T. Catchings (3.4)
| 64.6 vs 66.0
| 32.4 vs 28.5
| .393 vs .431
|-
| 2005
| T. Catchings (14.7)
| T. Catchings (7.8)
| T. Catchings (4.2)
| 63.8 vs 62.7
| 29.8 vs 29.1
| .400 vs .431
|-
| 2006
| T. Catchings (16.3)
| T. Catchings (7.5)
| T. Catchings (3.7)
| 71.6 vs 68.1
| 32.2 vs 31.2
| .407 vs .432
|-
| 2007
| T. Catchings (16.6)
| T. Catchings (9.0)
| T. Catchings (4.7)
| 72.9 vs 69.7
| 33.9 vs 34.2
| .419 vs .402
|-
| 2008
| K. Douglas (15.6)
| E. Hoffman (7.8)
| T. Catchings (3.3)
| 72.7 vs 72.3
| 33.1 vs 34.4
| .402 vs .419
|-
| 2009
| K. Douglas (17.6)
| T. Catchings (7.2)
| T. Catchings (3.1)
| 76.6 vs 73.6
| 33.0 vs 34.3
| .402 vs .429
|-
|-
| 2010
| T. Catchings (18.2)
| T. Catchings (7.1)
| T. Catchings (4.0)
| 78.3 vs 74.1
| 32.5 vs 33.0
| .438 vs .416
|-
| 2011
| T. Catchings (15.5)
| T. Catchings (7.1)
| T. Catchings (3.5)
| 77.7 vs 73.8
| 31.6 vs 33.4
| .443 vs .424
|-
| 2012
| T. Catchings (17.4)
| T. Catchings (7.6)
| B. January (3.9)
| 78.3 vs 72.3
| 32.2 vs 34.4
| .418 vs .429
|-
| 2013
| T. Catchings (17.7)
| E. Larkins (7.8)
| B. January (3.7)
| 70.8 vs 70.5
| 32.0 vs 33.6
| .393 vs .437
|-
| 2014
| T. Catchings (16.1)
| E. Larkins (9.2)
| B. January (3.7)
| 74.1 vs 75.1
| 32.3 vs 31.9
| .418 vs .443
|-
| 2015
| T. Catchings (13.1)
| T. Catchings (7.1)
| B. January (3.4)
| 77.7 vs 75.8
| 32.4 vs 32.8
| .424 vs .440
|-
| 2016
| T. Catchings (12.9)
| E. Larkins (7.4)
| B. January (4.7)
| 80.5 vs 80.9
| 30.9 vs 31.5
| .447 vs .467
|-
| 2017
| C. Dupree (15.0)
| C. Dupree (5.8)
| E. Wheeler (4.1)
| 75.1 vs 84.3
| 28.2 vs 35.2
| .429 vs .473
|-
| 2018
| C. Dupree (14.2)
| N. Achonwa (6.9)
| E. Wheeler (4.1)
| 76.4 vs 85.7
| 33.0 vs 37.0
| .406 vs .473
|-
| 2019
| K. Mitchell (13.6)
| T. McCowan (9.0)
| E. Wheeler (5.0)
| 77.6 vs 80.3
| 35.1 vs 34.7
| .422 vs .422
|-
|-
| 2020
| K. Mitchell (17.9)
| T. McCowan (7.3)
| J. Allemand (5.8)
| 81.7 vs 89.5
| 33.7 vs 32.7
| .442 vs .472
|-
| 2021
| K. Mitchell (17.8)
| T. McCowan (9.8)
| D. Robinson (3.7)
| 75.3 vs 85.1
| 34.3 vs 33.4
| .416 vs .459
|-
Media coverage
Currently, Fever games are broadcast on Bally Sports Indiana (BS-I), and WNDY-TV. Select games may air nationally on ESPN, NBA TV, and CBS Sports Network. Broadcasters for the Fever games are Pat Boylan, Debbie Antonelli, and Tully Bevilaqua.
Chris Denari served as the team's Play-by-Play Announcer from 2000 to 2017 before stepping down.
All games (excluding blackout games, which are available on ESPN3.com) are broadcast to the WNBA League Pass game feeds on the league website. Furthermore, some Fever games are broadcast nationally on ESPN, ESPN2 and ABC. The WNBA has reached an eight-year agreement with ESPN, which will pay right fees to the Fever, as well as other teams in the league.
All-time notes
Regular season attendance
A sellout for a basketball game at Bankers Life Fieldhouse is:
18,345 from 2000 to 2006.
18,165 from 2007 to 2016.
17,923 from 2017 to 2021.
A sellout for a basketball game at Indiana Farmers Coliseum, the team's home from 2021, is 6,800.
A sellout for a basketball game at Hinkle Fieldhouse, the team's home from 2022, is 9,100.
Draft picks
2000 Expansion Draft: Gordana Grubin (1), Sandy Brondello (8), Nyree Roberts (9), Kara Wolters (16), Rita Williams (17), Chantel Tremitiere (24)
2000: Jurgita Streimikyte (26), Usha Gilmore (42), Latina Davis (50), Renee Robinson (58)
2001: Tamika Catchings (3), Kelly Schumacher (14), Niele Ivey (19), Marlene Williams (35), April Brown (51)
2002: Tawana McDonald (13), Zuzi Klimesova (17), Kelly Komara (34), LaKeisha Taylor (49), Jillian Danker (52)
2003 Miami/Portland Dispersal Draft: Sylvia Crawley (7)
2003: Gwen Jackson (6), DeTrina White (20), Ashley McElhiney (35)
2004 Cleveland Dispersal Draft: Deanna Jackson (5)
2004: Ebony Hoffman (9), Ieva Kublina (31)
2005: Tan White (2), Yolanda Paige (16), Ashley Earley (29)
2006: La'Tangela Atkinson (9), Kasha Terry (26), Jessica Foley (38), Marina Kuzina (40)
2007 Charlotte Dispersal Draft: selection waived
2007: Alison Bales (9), Lyndsey Medders (22), Ashley Key (35)
2008: Khadijah Whittington (26)
2009 Houston Dispersal Draft: selection waived
2009: Briann January (6), Christina Wirth (19), Danielle Campbell (32)
2010 Sacramento Dispersal Draft: selection waived
2010: Jene Morris (11), Armelie Lumanu (23), Joy Cheek (35)
2011: Jeanette Pohlen (9), Jori Davis (33)
2012: Sasha Goodlett (11), Courtney Hurt (34)
2014: Natasha Howard (5), Natalie Achonwa (9), Haiden Palmer (29)
2015: Chelsea Gardner (21)
2016: Tiffany Mitchell (9), Brene Moseley (21), Julie Allemand (33)
2017: Erica McCall (17),
2018: Kelsey Mitchell (2), Victoria Vivians (8), Stephanie Mavunga (14)
2019: Teaira McCowan (3), Paris Kea (25), Caliya Robinson (28)
2020: Lauren Cox (3), Kathleen Doyle (14), Kamiah Smalls (28)
2021: Kysre Gondrezick (4), Unique Thompson (19), Trinity Baptiste (24), Chelsey Perry (26), Florencia Chagas (31), Maya Caldwell (33)
Trades
December 15, 1999: The Fever acquired Monica Maxwell from the Washington Mystics in exchange for agreeing to select Nyree Roberts in the expansion draft.
December 15, 1999: The Fever traded Sandy Brondello and a first-round pick in the 2000 Draft to the Miami Sol in exchange for Stephanie White.
April 25, 2000: The Fever traded Latina Davis and Renee Robinson to the Houston Comets in exchange for Latavia Coleman.
April 11, 2001: The Fever traded Kara Wolters to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a first-round pick in the 2001 Draft.
May 27, 2001: The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2002 Draft to the Detroit Shock in exchange for Olympia Scott and a third-round pick in the 2002 Draft.
December 5, 2001: The Fever traded Angie Braziel to the Washington Mystics in exchange for Nikki McCray and the right to swap second- and fourth-round picks in the 2002 Draft.
March 4, 2002: The Fever traded Gordana Grubin to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Bridget Pettis and a first-round pick in the 2002 Draft.
July 20, 2002: The Fever traded Rita Williams to the Houston Comets in exchange for Coquese Washington.
May 1, 2003: The Fever traded Sylvia Crawley and Gwen Jackson to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Coretta Brown and Natalie Williams.
February 5, 2004: The Fever traded the 3rd overall and the 18th overall picks in the 2004 Draft to the Charlotte Sting in exchange for Kelly Miller and the 9th overall pick in the 2004 Draft.
February 3, 2006: The Fever traded Kelly Miller to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Anna DeForge.
February 24, 2006: The Fever traded Kelly Schumacher and the 12th overall pick in the 2006 Draft to the New York Liberty in exchange for the 9th overall pick in the 2006 Draft.
March 7, 2007: The Fever traded Olympia Scott to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Ann Strother.
March 23, 2007: The Fever traded La'Tangela Atkinson to the Sacramento Monarchs in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2008 Draft.
February 19, 2008: The Fever traded Tamika Whitmore, the 9th overall pick in the 2008 Draft and the rights to Jessica Foley to the Connecticut Sun in exchange for Katie Douglas.
May 14, 2008: The Fever traded K.B. Sharp to the Chicago Sky in exchange for Bernadette Ngoyisa.
July 4, 2008: The Fever traded Alison Bales to the Atlanta Dream in exchange for Kristen Mann.
May 27, 2010: The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Shavonte Zellous.
April 29, 2011: The Fever traded second- and third-round picks to the Seattle Storm and the Washington Mystics in exchange for Erin Phillips and Seattle's third-round pick in the 2012 Draft.
March 1, 2012: The Fever traded Tangela Smith to the San Antonio Silver Stars in exchange for Roneeka Hodges.
July 2, 2012: The Fever traded Roneeka Hodges to the Tulsa Shock in exchange for Karima Christmas.
March 11, 2014: The Fever traded Erin Phillips to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Lynetta Kizer.
May 12, 2014: The Fever traded a second-round pick in the 2015 Draft to the Phoenix Mercury in exchange for Maggie Lucas.
March 12, 2015: The Fever traded a first- and third-round picks in the 2015 Draft to the San Antonio Stars in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the second-round pick in the 2015 Draft.
February 2, 2016: The Fever traded Natasha Howard to the Minnesota Lynx in exchange for Devereaux Peters.
February 21, 2017: In a three-way trade, the Fever traded Lynetta Kizer and a first-round pick in the 2017 Draft to the Connecticut Sun. The Fever received Candice Dupree and a second-round pick in the 2017 Draft from the Phoenix Mercury.
February 1, 2018: The Fever acquired C Kayla Alexander and 2019 WNBA Draft third round pick via trade from Las Vegas Aces for 2019 WNBA Draft second round pick.
March 6, 2018: The Fever acquired 8th overall pick in the 2018 WNBA Draft via trade from Phoenix Mercury for Briann January.
March 6, 2020: The Fever acquired the 14th pick in the 2020 Draft and Minnesota's second round pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for Shenise Johnson and the 16th pick in the 2020 Draft.
February 8, 2021: The Fever acquired Lindsay Allen from Las Vegas and the 24th pick in the 2021 Draft in exchange for the 14th pick in the 2021 Draft.
February 15, 2021: The Fever acquired the Minnesota Lynx's 1st and 3rd round picks in the 2022 Draft, Odyssey Sims and negotiating rights to Temi Fagbenle in exchange for the Fever's 2nd round pick in the 2022 Draft.
All-Stars
2000: None
2001: Rita Williams
2002: Tamika Catchings
2003: Tamika Catchings, Natalie Williams
2004: Natalie Williams
2005: Tamika Catchings
2006: Tamika Catchings, Tamika Whitmore
2007: Tamika Catchings, Anna DeForge, Tammy Sutton-Brown
2008: No All-Star Game
2009: Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas
2010: Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas
2011: Tamika Catchings, Katie Douglas
2012: No All-Star Game
2013: Tamika Catchings, Shavonte Zellous
2014: Tamika Catchings, Briann January
2015: Tamika Catchings, Marissa Coleman
2016: No All-Star Game
2017: Candice Dupree
2018: None
2019: Candice Dupree, Erica Wheeler
2020: No All-Star Game
2021: None
Olympians
2000: Kara Wolters
2004: Tamika Catchings
2008: Tamika Catchings, Tully Bevilaqua (AUS)
2012: Tamika Catchings
2016: Tamika Catchings, Natalie Achonwa (CAN)
2020: Julie Allemand, (BEL)
Honors and awards
2002 Rookie of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2002 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2003 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2004 All-WNBA Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2004 Most Improved Player: Kelly Miller
2005 All-WNBA Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2005 Defensive Player of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2005 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2005 All-Defensive First Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2005 All-Rookie Team: Tan White
2006 All-Decade Team: Tamika Catchings
2006 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2006 Defensive Player of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2006 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2006 All-Defensive First Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2007 All-WNBA Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2007 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Tully Bevilaqua
2007 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2007 All-Defensive Second Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2008 Most Improved Player: Ebony Hoffman
2008 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2008 All-Defensive First Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2009 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2009 All-WNBA Second Team: Katie Douglas
2009 Defensive Player of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2009 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2009 All-Defensive First Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2010 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2010 All-WNBA Second Team: Katie Douglas
2010 Defensive Player of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2010 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Tamika Catchings
2010 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2010 All-Defensive Second Team: Tully Bevilaqua
2010 All-Defensive Second Team: Katie Douglas
2011 Most Valuable Player: Tamika Catchings
2011 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2011 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2011 All-Defensive Second Team: Katie Douglas
2012 Finals Most Valuable Player: Tamika Catchings
2012 Defensive Player of the Year: Tamika Catchings
2012 All-WNBA First Team: Tamika Catchings
2012 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2012 All-Defensive First Team: Briann January
2013 Most Improved Player: Shavonte Zellous
2013 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Tamika Catchings
2013 All-WNBA Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2013 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2013 All-Defensive Second Team: Briann January
2014 All-Defensive First Team: Briann January
2014 All-Defensive Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2015 All-Rookie Team: Natalie Achonwa
2015 All-Defensive First Team: Tamika Catchings
2015 All-Defensive First Team: Briann January
2015 All-WNBA Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2016 Kim Perrot Sportsmanship Award: Tamika Catchings
2016 All-Defensive First Team: Briann January
2016 All-Defensive Second Team: Tamika Catchings
2016 All-Rookie Team: Tiffany Mitchell
2018 All-Rookie Team: Kelsey Mitchell
2019 All-Star Game MVP: Erica Wheeler
2019 All-Rookie Team: Teaira McCowan
2020 All-Rookie Team: Julie Allemand
References
External links
Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 2000
Sports teams in Indianapolis
Basketball teams in Indiana
2000 establishments in Indiana | [
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|
240218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny | Robert Bárány | Robert Bárány (; ; 22 April 1876 – 8 April 1936) was an ethnic Hungarian otologist from Austria. He received the 1914 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus.
Life and career
Bárány was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary. He was the eldest of six children of Maria (née Hock), the daughter of a scientist, and Ignác Bárány, born 1842 in Várpalota, who was a bank official and estate manager. His father was a Hungarian Jew.
He attended medical school at Vienna University, graduating in 1900. As a doctor in Vienna, Bárány was syringing fluid into the external auditory canal of a patient to relieve the patient's dizzy spells. The patient experienced vertigo and nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) when Bárány injected fluid that was too cold. In response, Bárány warmed the fluid for the patient and the patient experienced nystagmus in the opposite direction. Bárány theorized that the endolymph was sinking when it was cool and rising when it was warm, and thus the direction of flow of the endolymph was providing the proprioceptive signal to the vestibular organ. He followed up on this observation with a series of experiments on what he called the caloric reaction. The research resulting from his observations made surgical treatment of vestibular organ diseases possible. Bárány also investigated other aspects of equilibrium control, including the function of the cerebellum. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is said to have been first described in medical texts by Bárány.
He served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I as a civilian surgeon and was captured by the Imperial Russian Army. When his Nobel Prize was awarded in 1914, Bárány was in a Russian prisoner of war camp. In response to his receiving the prize, Sigmund Freud wrote in 1915: "The granting of the Nobel Prize to Bárány, whom I refused to take as a pupil some years ago because he seemed to be too abnormal, has aroused sad thoughts about how helpless an individual is about gaining the respect of the crowd." Bárány was released from the prisoner of war camp in 1916 following diplomatic negotiations with Russia conducted by Prince Carl of Sweden and the Red Cross. He was then able to attend the Nobel Prize awards ceremony in 1916, where he was awarded his prize. Virtually as soon as he was awarded the Nobel Prize, in January 1917, he, with the automatic qualification for making such proposals that comes with being a Prize Winner, proposed to the Nobel Committee in Physiology or Medicine that Sigmund Freud should be awarded the Prize. From 1917 until his death he was professor at Uppsala University Faculty of Medicine.
Bárány died shortly before his sixtieth birthday in Uppsala. He was the father of physician and Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences member Ernst Bárány (1910–1991) and grandfather of physicist Anders Bárány, former secretary of the Nobel Committee for Physics.
See also
Bárány chair
List of Austrian scientists
List of famous Austrians
List of famous Hungarians
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
Spatial disorientation
Instrument flight
Instrument rating
References
Sources
External links
including the Nobel Lecture on September 11, 1916 Some New Methods for Functional Testing of the Vestibular Apparatus and the Cerebellum
1876 births
1936 deaths
Hungarian Nobel laureates
Austrian Nobel laureates
Austro-Hungarian Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Scientists from Vienna
Austrian Jews
Austrian neuroscientists
Austrian otolaryngologists
Hungarian emigrants to Sweden
Hungarian Jews
Jewish physicians
Swedish Jews
Otolaryngologists
Swedish surgeons
Uppsala University faculty | [
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|
240220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unilever | Unilever | Unilever PLC is a British multinational consumer goods company headquartered in London, England. Unilever products include food, condiments, ice cream, wellbeing vitamins, minerals and supplements, tea, coffee, breakfast cereal, cleaning agents, water and air purifiers, pet food, toothpaste, beauty products, and personal care. Unilever is the largest producer of soap in the world. Unilever's products are available in around 190 countries.
Unilever owns over 400 brands, with a turnover in 2020 of 51 billion euros, and thirteen brands with sales of over one billion euros: Axe/Lynx, Dove, Omo/Persil, Heartbrand (Wall's) ice creams, Hellmann's, Knorr, Lipton, Lux, Magnum, Rexona/Degree, Lifebuoy, Sunsilk and Sunlight.
Unilever is organised into three main divisions: Foods and Refreshments; Home Care; and Beauty & Personal Care. It has research and development facilities in China, India, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Unilever was founded on 2 September 1929, by the merger of the Dutch margarine producer Margarine Unie and the British soapmaker Lever Brothers. During the second half of the 20th century, the company increasingly diversified from being a maker of products made of oils and fats and expanded its operations worldwide. It has made numerous corporate acquisitions, including Lipton (1971), Brooke Bond (1984), Chesebrough-Ponds (1987), Best Foods (2000), Ben & Jerry's (2000), Alberto-Culver (2010), Dollar Shave Club (2016) and Pukka Herbs (2017). Unilever divested its specialty chemicals businesses to ICI in 1997. In the 2010s, under the leadership of Paul Polman, the company gradually shifted its focus towards health and beauty brands and away from food brands showing slow growth.
Unilever has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. Unilever has a secondary listing on Euronext Amsterdam and is a constituent of the AEX index. The company was also a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. Unilever also has a listing in the New York Stock Exchange. The completion of the unification of Unilever's Dutch and UK arms under a single London-based entity was announced on 30 November 2020.
History
1921–1940
In September 1929, Unilever was formed by a merger of the operations of Dutch Margarine Unie and British soapmaker Lever Brothers, with the name of the resulting company a portmanteau of the name of both companies.
In the 1930s, business grew and new ventures were launched in Africa and Latin America. During this time, Unilever acquired the United Africa Company, created from a merger of the African & Eastern Trade Corporation and the Royal Niger Company, which oversaw British trade interests in present-day Nigeria during the colonial era.
The Nazi occupation of Europe during the Second World War meant that Unilever was unable to reinvest its capital into Europe, so it instead acquired new businesses in the United Kingdom and the United States. In 1943, it acquired T. J. Lipton, a majority stake in Frosted Foods (owner of the Birds Eye brand) and Batchelors Peas, one of the largest vegetables canners in the United Kingdom. In 1944, Pepsodent was acquired.
In 1933, Unilever Indonesia was established in December as Lever Zeepfabrieken N.V. and has operations in Cikarang, West Java at Rungkut, East Java and North Sumatra.
1941–1960
After 1945, Unilever's once successful American businesses (Lever Brothers and T.J. Lipton) began to decline. As a result, Unilever began to operate a "hands-off" policy towards the subsidiaries and left American management to its own devices.
Sunsilk was first launched in the United Kingdom in 1954. Dove was first launched in the US in 1957. Unilever took full ownership of Frosted Foods in 1957, which it renamed Birds Eye. The US-based Good Humor ice cream business was acquired in 1961.
By the mid-1960s laundry soap and edible fats still contributed around half of Unilever's corporate profits. However, a stagnant market for yellow fats (butter, margarine, and similar products) and increasing competition in detergents and soaps from Procter & Gamble forced Unilever to diversify. In 1971, Unilever acquired the British-based Lipton Ltd from Allied Suppliers. In 1978, National Starch was acquired for $487 million, marking the largest ever foreign-acquisition of a US company at that point.
1961–1980
By the end of the 1970s through acquisitions, Unilever had gained 30 percent of the Western European ice cream market. In 1982, Unilever management decided to reposition itself from an unwieldy conglomerate to a more concentrated Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) company.
In 1984, Unilever acquired Brooke Bond (maker of PG Tips tea) for £390 million in the company's first successful hostile takeover. In 1986 Unilever strengthened its position in the world skin care market by acquiring Chesebrough-Ponds (merged from Chesebrough Manufacturing and Pond's Creams), the maker of Ragú, Pond's, Aqua-Net, Cutex, and Vaseline in another hostile takeover. In 1989, Unilever bought Calvin Klein Cosmetics, Fabergé, and Elizabeth Arden, but the latter was later sold (in 2000) to FFI Fragrances.
1981–2000
In 1992, Unilever Ghana was established in July following a merger of UAC Ghana Limited and Lever Brothers Ghana Limited.
In 1993, Unilever acquired Breyers from Kraft, which made the company the largest ice cream manufacturer in the United States.
In 1996, Unilever merged Elida Gibbs and Lever Brothers in its UK operations. It also purchased Helene Curtis, significantly expanding its presence in the United States shampoo and deodorant market. The purchase brought Unilever the Suave and Finesse hair-care product brands and Degree deodorant brand.
In 1997, Unilever sold its speciality chemicals division, including National Starch & Chemical, Quest, Unichema and Crosfield to Imperial Chemical Industries for £4.9 billion.
In 1998, Unilever established a sustainable agriculture programme.
In 2000, Unilever acquired the boutique mustard retailer Maille, Ben & Jerry's and Slim Fast for £1.63 billion, Bestfoods for £13.4 billion. The Bestfoods acquisition increased Unilever's scale in foods in America, and added brands including Knorr, Marmite, Bovril, and Hellmann's to its portfolio. In exchange for European regulatory approval of the deal, Unilever divested itself of Oxo, Lesieur, McDonnells, Bla Band, Royco, and Batchelors.
2001–2010
In 2001, Unilever split into two divisions: one for foods and one for home and personal care. In the UK, it merged its Lever Brothers and Elida Faberge businesses as Lever Faberge in January 2001.
In 2002, the company sold its specialty oils and fats division, known as Loders Croklaan, for RM814 million (€218.5 million) to IOI Corporation, a Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia-based oil palm company. As part of the deal, the Loders Croklaan name was maintained. Unilever sold the brands Mazola, Argo & Kingsfords, Karo, Golden Griddle, and Henri's, along with several of its Canadian brands, to ACH Food Companies, an American subsidiary of Associated British Foods.
In 2004, Unilever Bangladesh, which was established in 1964 changed its former name Lever Brothers Bangladesh Ltd to its present name in December 2004, is owned 60.4% by Unilever and 39.6% by the Government of Bangladesh.
In 2007, Unilever partnered with Rainforest Alliance to sustainably source all its tea.
In 2009, Unilever agreed to acquire the personal care business of Sara Lee Corporation, including brands such as Radox, Badedas and Duschdas. The Sara Lee acquisition was completed on 6 December 2010.
In 2010, Unilever acquired the Diplom-Is in Denmark, Unilever announced that it had entered into a definitive agreement to sell its consumer tomato products business in Brazil to Cargill, purchased Alberto-Culver, a maker of personal care and household products including Simple, VO5, Nexxus, TRESemmé, and Mrs. Dash, for US$3.7 billion. acquired EVGA's ice cream brands, which included Scandal, Variete and Karabola, and its distribution network in Greece, for an undisclosed amount.
2011–2020
In 2012, Unilever announced it would phase out the use of microplastics in the form of microbeads in their personal care products by 2015.
In 2014, Unilever agreed to acquire a majority stake in the China-based water purification company Qinyuan for an undisclosed price, acquired Talenti Gelato & Sorbetto, acquired Camay brand globally and the Zest brand outside of North America and the Caribbean from Procter & Gamble.
In 2015, Unilever acquired British niche skincare brand REN Skincare, This was followed in May 2015 by the acquisition of Kate Somerville Skincare LLC. The company also acquired the Italian premium ice cream maker GROM for an undisclosed amount. Uniliver also separated its food spreads business, including its Flora and I Can't Believe It's Not Butter! brands, into a standalone entity named Unilever Baking, Cooking and Spreading. The separation was first announced in December 2014 and was made in response to declining worldwide sales in that product category.
Unilever bought the United States-based startup company Dollar Shave Club for a reported $1b (£764m) in order to compete in the male grooming market. On 16 August 2016, Unilever acquired Blueair, a supplier of mobile indoor air purification technologies. In September 2016, Unilever acquired Seventh Generation Inc. for $700 million. On 16 December 2016, Unilever acquired Living Proof Inc, a hair care products business.
In 2017, significantly smaller Kraft Heinz made a $143 billion bid for Unilever. The deal was declined by Unilever. On 20 April 2017, Unilever acquired Sir Kensington's, a New York-based condiment maker. On 15 May 2017, the company acquired the personal care and home care brands of Quala, a Latin American consumer goods company. In June, the company acquired Hourglass, a colour cosmetics brand. In July, the company then announced that it had acquired the organic herbal tea business, Pukka Herbs. In September 2017, Unilever acquired Weis, an Australian ice cream business. Later that month Unilever acquired Remgro's interest in Unilever South Africa in exchange for the Unilever South Africa spreads business plus cash consideration. Even later that month, Unilever agreed to acquire Carver Korea, with 2.7billion USD, a skincare business brand of AHC in North Asia. In October 2017, Unilever acquired Brazilian natural and organic food business Mãe Terra. In November, Unilever announced an agreement to acquire the Tazo speciality tea brand from Starbucks. Later in November 2017, the company acquired Sundial Brands, a skincare company. In December 2017, Unilever acquired Schmidt's Naturals, a US natural deodorant and soap company. In December 2017, Unilever sold its margarine and spreads division to investment firm KKR for €6.8bn. The sale was completed in July 2018, and the new company was named Upfield. Upfield's notable brands include Flora, Stork, I Can't Believe It's Not Butter, Rama, Country Crock, Becel, and Blue Band.
Unilever announced that in order to help tackle the global COVID-19 pandemic, it would contribute over 100m through donations of soap, hand sanitiser, bleach and food.
2021–present
In August 2021, Florida governor Ron DeSantis placed Unilever on a list of "Scrutinized Companies that Boycott Israel" because it had "no current plan to prevent Ben & Jerry’s from terminating business activities in Israeli-controlled territories." The ice-cream brand has 90 days to stop engaging in "the BDS movement", or the state will no longer contract with the parent company Unilever or any of its subsidiaries.
In November 2021, Unilever agreed to sell most of its tea business under the Ekaterra division to investment firm CVC Capital Partners for €4.5 billion. This deal excluded the Unilever tea business in India, Indonesia and Nepal, and the Lipton Ice Tea joint-venture with PepsiCo.
Corporate operations
Legal structure
Unilever has a holding company Unilever PLC and N.V. with Anglo-Dutch structure, which has its registered office at Port Sunlight in Merseyside, United Kingdom and its head office at Unilever House in London, United Kingdom. The company has been restructured several times, for example in 2018 and 2020 (see "history").
In 2018, Unilever announced its intention to simplify this structure by centralising the duality of legal entities and keeping just one headquarters in Rotterdam, abandoning the London head office. Business groups and staff would have been unaffected, as would the dual listing. On 5 October 2018 the group announced it would cancel the restructuring due to concern that the United Kingdom shareholders would lose value if the company fell out of the London FTSE100. A shareholder vote was planned to decide for the listing of a new Unilever Dutch entity, which would have seen Unilever dropping out of the FTSE 100 Index. When it appeared that the vote would fail, due to uncertainty over the Netherlands dividend tax, the scheme was cancelled on 5 October 2018. In October 2018, it acquired a 75% stake in the Italian personal-care business Equilibra and acquired the high-end, eco-friendly laundry and household cleaning products company The Laundress for an undisclosed sum. In 2018, UK recruitment website Indeed, named Unilever as the United Kingdom's ninth best private sector employer based on millions of employee ratings and reviews.
In 2020, Unilever announced it has reviewed its corporate structure again and that the company was to merge Unilever N.V into Unilever PLC forming one holding company to be based in the United Kingdom. However, a Dutch 'exit tax' plan would require Unilever to reconsider this unification. In September 2020 Unilever's Dutch arm shareholders overwhelmingly voted for the N.V. to merge into the PLC. In October 2020 Unilever announced that 99 percent of shareholders in its UK arm agreed with the merger, i.e., voted to base the group in London. The completion of the unification was announced on 30 November 2020. Since then there is one class of shares.
Senior management
In January 2019, Alan Jope succeeded Paul Polman as the chief executive officer. The chief financial officer, Graeme Pitkethly, is executive director. Jope will be proposed as joint executive director at Unilever's 2019 AGM.
Previously, Paul Polman was CEO for ten years, succeeding Patrick Cescau in 2009.
In November 2019, Unilever announced that Nils Andersen would be replacing Chairman Marijn Dekkers, who stepped down after three years in the role.
Gallery of global assets
Financial data
Branding and advertising
Unilever's largest international competitors are Nestlé and Procter & Gamble.
Logo
In 1930, the logo of Unilever was in a sans-serif typeface and all-caps. The current Unilever corporate logo was introduced in 2004 and was designed by Wolff Olins, a brand consultancy agency. The 'U' shape is now made up of 25 distinct symbols, each icon representing one of the company's sub-brands or its corporate values. The brand identity was developed around the idea of "adding vitality to life."
Brands
Dove
Dove describes itself as being dedicated to "help ... women develop a positive relationship with the way they look – helping them raise their self-esteem and realize their full potential". Dove employs the use of advertising for its products to display its messages of positive self-esteem. In September 2004 Dove created a Real Beauty campaign, focusing predominately on women of all shapes and colour. Later in 2007, this campaign furthered itself to include women of all ages. This campaign consisted mostly of advertisements, shown on television and popularised by the internet. Dove fell under scrutiny from the general public as they felt the Dove advertisements described the opinion that cellulite was still unsightly and that women's aging process was something for which to be ashamed.
Lynx/Axe
Axe, known as Lynx in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand, is a toiletries brand marketed towards young men between the ages of 16 and 24. Its marketing is a "tongue-in-cheek take on the 'mating game'", suggesting that women are instantly drawn to men who use the products. Unlike Dove's long-running beauty campaign, Lynx advertising often creates mini-series of advertisements based around a singular product rather than communicating an overarching idea. Using images the company knows it will receive complaints garners the brand more free publicity and notoriety, often through controversy. A wide variety of these adverts have been banned in countries around the world. In 2012, Lynx's 'Clean Balls' advert was banned. In 2011, in the United Kingdom, Lynx's shower gel campaign was banned.
Both advertising campaigns make stark comparisons between how women and their sexuality are portrayed in advertising and sales efficiency. Lynx commonly portrays women as hypersexual, flawless and stereotypically attractive who are aroused by men, of all ages and stature, because of their use of the Lynx product.
Social media advertising
On 26 June 2020, Unilever said it would halt advertising to U.S. customers on social media giants Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter until at least the end of 2020 following a campaign started by various American civil-rights groups, such as the Anti-Defamation League and the NAACP, protesting Facebook's policies on hate speech and misinformation named "Stop Hate For Profit". though they did not formally sign on to the campaign. Unilever cited "our Responsibility Framework and the polarized atmosphere in the U.S." and said that "continuing to advertise on these platforms at this time would not add value to people and society."
Later that year in December Unilever revealed it would resume advertising on Facebook and its affiliated platforms, stating the company has made enough progress in changing their management to continue advertising with them. Executive vice president of global media for the company, Luis Di Como, released a statement clarifying: "We are encouraged by the commitments the platforms are making to build healthier environments for consumers, brands and society in alignment with the principles of the Global Alliance for Responsible Media. This is why we plan to end our social media investment pause in the U.S. in January. We will continue to reassess our position as necessary."
Sponsorships
On 6 September 2018 Unilever Bangladesh Limited, the Bangladeshi subsidiary of Unilever, became the official shirt sponsor of Bangladesh national cricket team for the period of 2018 to 2020.
Environmental record
Unilever has declared the goal of decoupling its environmental impact from its growth, by halving the environmental footprint of its products by 2030; helping 1 billion people improve their health and well-being; and sourcing all of its agricultural raw materials sustainably. In September 2019, Unilever announced that its sites across five continents are now powered by 100% renewable grid electricity, ahead of its 2020 target. In 2020, Unilever promised to become carbon neutral by 2039.
Mercury contamination
In 2001, a mercury thermometer factory operated by the Indian subsidiary of Unilever in the South Indian hilltown of Kodaikanal was shut down by state regulators after the company was caught dumping toxic mercury wastes in a densely populated part of town. By the company's own admissions, more than 2 tonnes of mercury were discharged into Kodaikanal's environment. A 2011 Government of India study on workers’ health concluded that many workers suffered from illnesses caused by workplace exposure to mercury. The scandal opened up a series of issues in India such as corporate liability, corporate accountability and corporate negligence.
In March 2016, Unilever reached an out of court settlement (for an undisclosed amount) with 591 ex-workers of the unit who had sued the company for knowingly exposing them to the toxic element.
Palm oil
In 2014, Unilever was criticised by Greenpeace for causing deforestation. In 2008, Greenpeace UK criticised the company for buying palm oil from suppliers that were damaging Indonesia's rainforests. By 2008, Indonesia was losing 2% of its remaining rainforest each year, having the fastest deforestation rate of any country. The United Nations Environmental Programme stated that palm oil plantations are the leading cause of deforestation in Indonesia.
Furthermore, Indonesia was the 14th largest emitter of greenhouse gases, largely due to the destruction of rainforests for the palm oil industry, which contributed to 4% of global green house gas emissions. According to Greenpeace, palm oil expansion was taking place with little oversight from central or local government as procedures for environmental impact assessment, land-use planning and ensuring a proper process for development of concessions were neglected. Plantations that were off-limits, by law, for palm oil plantations were being established as well as the illegal use of fire to clear forest areas was commonplace.
Unilever, as a founding member of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), responded by publicising its plan to obtain all of its palm oil from sources that are certified as sustainable by 2015. It claims to have met this goal in 2012 and is encouraging the rest of the industry to become 100% sustainable by 2020.
In Côte d'Ivoire, one of Unilever's palm oil suppliers was accused of clearing forest for plantations, an activity that threatened a primate species, Miss Waldron's red colobus. Unilever intervened to halt the clearances pending the results of an environmental assessment.
According to an Amnesty International report published in 2016, Unilever's palm oil supplier Wilmar International profited from child labour and forced labour. Some workers were extorted, threatened or not paid for work. Some workers suffered severe injuries from banned chemicals. In 2016 Singapore-based Wilmar International was the world's biggest palm oil grower.
Plastic pollution
In 2019, Unilever was cited by BreakFreeFromPlastic as one of the top ten global plastic polluters. Graham Forbes, Global Plastics Project Leader at Greenpeace, said Unilever's plans to tackle this were the most ambitious he'd seen from a massive conglomerate. He also said that Unilever should commit to more.
Nevertheless, in 2019, Unilever announced that it plans to halve its non-recycled plastic packaging by 2025. In 2020, Unilever joined 13 EU member states and more than 60 companies to sign a pact to use recycled plastic for all plastic packaging and single-use plastic products by 2025.
Rainforest Alliance
Unilever certifies its tea products by the Rainforest Alliance scheme. The company has stated that at least 50% of the tea in its products originates from certified farms, compared to the Alliance's 30% minimum entry point. Unilever decided on the scheme over Fairtrade, because according to the company's analysis, Fairtrade might "lack the scale and the organizational flexibility to certify industrial tea estates".
The Rainforest Alliance certification scheme has been criticised for not offering producers minimum or guaranteed price, therefore, leaving them vulnerable to market price variations. The alternative certificate, Fairtrade, has received similar criticism. The Rainforest Alliance certification has furthermore been criticised for allowing the use of the seal on products that contain only a minimum of 30% of certified content, which according to some endangers the integrity of the certification.
Salmonella contamination
In July 2016, rumours about salmonella contamination in cereals spread among Israeli consumers. Initially, Unilever did not provide public information about the subject and queries on the matter were rebuffed by the company as a non-story and nonsense. On 26 July 2016, Unilever had stopped transferring cornflakes to retailer chains. On 28 July, Yedioth Ahronoth reported tens of thousands of boxes of breakfast cereal had been destroyed. By 28 July, despite the company's assurances that nothing contaminated was released for consumption, many customers stopped buying Unilever products and started to throw away all cornflakes made by Unilever. The company withheld information about the affected production dates. Unilever had published more information about Telma cereals handled on the packaging line in which the contamination was discovered and that a Telma announcement had been made: "We again stress that all Telma products in the stores and in your homes are safe to eat. According to our company's strict procedures, every production batch is checked and put on hold. These products are not marketed until test results for this product series are returned, confirming that all is well. If any flaw is discovered, the batch is not marketed to stores, as was the case." In the following days the Health Minister, Yakov Litzman, threatened to pull Unilever's licence in Israel. He accused Unilever of lying to his ministry regarding salmonella-infected breakfast cereals.
On 7 August 2016, Globes reported that contamination may be sourced in pigeon faeces, the Health Ministry said that there might be other sources for the contamination and pigeon faeces are not the only possible source. Globes also said that the production line is automatic ("without human hands") and the possibility that the source is human is a very slim chance. On 8 August 2016, the Israeli Health minister suspended a manufacturing license until Unilever carry out several corrections; the action came after an inspection of the Arad plant, stating "This was a series of negligent mistakes and not an incident with malicious intent by the firm's management and quality control procedures." An investigation led by Prof. Itamr Grutto and Eli Gordon concluded that the event was caused by negligence. Reportedly the cereals produced between the 18th and 20th at the Arad plant had traces of salmonella.
Two class actions were filed in Israel, one for a sum of 1.2 million NIS (~$329K USD) against Unilever for hiding the contamination and misleading the public, and another for a sum of 76 million NIS (~$23m USD) against Unilever after a 15-year-old teen had been hospitalised for Salmonellosis after allegedly contracting it from Unilever products.
On 31 August 2016, Unilever stated that the Tehina products produced by RJM had been contaminated by salmonella.
Controversies
Price-fixing
In April 2011, Unilever was fined €104 million by the European Commission for establishing a price-fixing cartel for washing powder in Europe, along with Procter & Gamble and Henkel.
In 2016, Unilever and Procter & Gamble were both fined by Autorité de la concurrence in France in 2016 for price-fixing on personal hygiene products.
Hampton Creek lawsuit
In November 2014, Unilever filed a lawsuit against rival Hampton Creek. In the suit, Unilever claimed that Hampton Creek was "seizing market share" and the losses were causing Unilever "irreparable harm." Unilever used standard of identity regulations in claiming that Hampton Creek's Just Mayo products are falsely advertised because they don't contain eggs. The Washington Post headline on the suit read "Big Food's Weird War Over The Meaning of Mayonnaise." The Los Angeles Times began its story with "Big Tobacco, Big Oil, now Big Mayo?" A Wall Street Journal writer described that "Giant corporation generates huge quantities of free advertising and brand equity for tiny rival by suing it." In December 2014, Unilever dropped the claim.
Pressuring media to promote skin whiteners
Kinita Shenoy, an editor of the Sri Lanka edition of Cosmopolitan, refused to promote skin whiteners for a brand of Unilever. Unilever put pressure on Shenoy and asked Cosmopolitan to fire her.
Violence against striking workers
In 2019 security forces hired by Unilever attacked workers that were peacefully picketing at a Unilever facility in Durban in South Africa. Workers were shot at with rubber bullets, pepper spray and paint balls while attempting to walk to their cars parked on the premises. 4 workers were seriously injured.
See also
List of food companies
References
Further reading
Austin, James and James Quinn. Ben & Jerry’s: Preserving Mission and Brand within Unilever (Harvard Business School Publishing, 2005)
Fieldhouse, D. K. Unilever overseas: The anatomy of a multinational 1895-1965 (Hoover Institution Press, 1979).
Jones, Geoffrey. Renewing Unilever: Transformation and Tradition (2005) excerpt
Sitapati, Sudhir. The CEO Factory: Management Lessons from Hindustan Unilever (2019)
Wubs, Ben. International business and national war interests: Unilever between Reich and empire, 1939-45 (Taylor & Francis, 2008)
External links
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|
240221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kook | Kook | Kook or KOOK may refer to:
People
Kook, a synonym for crank (person), a pejorative term for a person who holds an unshakable belief that most others consider to be ludicrously false
Kook (surname)
Kook, a slave prominent in the 1811 German Coast Uprising
Kook (surfer), a term for a wanna-be surfer of limited skill
Media
KYKK (FM), a radio station (93.5 FM) licensed to serve Junction, Texas, United States, which held the call sign KOOK from 1998 to 2018
KOOK-TV, a television station now known as KTVQ
Kook TV, a Saraiki language TV Channel from Pakistan
Kooks, a 1988–1991 magazine and a 1994 book by Donna Kossy
Entertainment
KOOK (TV series), a hit music programme on BBC Persian TV
The Kooks, formed 2004, a British band
The Kooks (Sweden), a band formed in 1998
K.O.O.K., an album by German rock band Tocotronic
"Kooks" (song), a 1971 David Bowie song on Hunky Dory
The Kook, a 2011 American short film
See also
Cuckoo (disambiguation) | [
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|
240223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktology | Planktology | Planktology is the study of plankton, various small drifting plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit bodies of water. Planktology topics include primary production, energy flow and the carbon cycle.
Plankton drive the "biological pump", a process by which the ocean ecosystem transports carbon from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean's depths. Such processes are vital to carbon dioxide sinks, one of several possibilities for countering global warming. Modern planktology includes behavioral aspects of drifting organisms, engaging modern in situ imaging devices.
Some planktology projects allow the public to participate online, such as the Long-term Ecosystem Observatory.
Notable planktologists
Karl Banse
Sayed ElSayed
Paul Falkowski
Gotthilf Hempel
Victor Hensen
Uwe Kils
Johannes Krey
Jürgen Lenz
Vivienne Cassie Cooper
External links
Victor Hensen biography
Gotthilf Hempel
Paul Falkowski homepage
Subfields of zoology | [
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|
240224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20state | Standard state | In chemistry, the standard state of a material (pure substance, mixture or solution) is a reference point used to calculate its properties under different conditions. A superscript circle or a Plimsoll (⦵) character is used to designate a thermodynamic quantity in the standard state, such as change in enthalpy (ΔH°), change in entropy (ΔS°), or change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG°). (See discussion about typesetting below.)
In principle, the choice of standard state is arbitrary, although the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends a conventional set of standard states for general use. IUPAC recommends using a standard pressure p⦵ = . Strictly speaking, temperature is not part of the definition of a standard state. For example, as discussed below, the standard state of a gas is conventionally chosen to be unit pressure (usually in bar) ideal gas, regardless of the temperature. However, most tables of thermodynamic quantities are compiled at specific temperatures, most commonly or, somewhat less commonly, .
The standard state should not be confused with standard temperature and pressure (STP) for gases, nor with the standard solutions used in analytical chemistry. STP is commonly used for calculations involving gases that approximate an ideal gas, whereas standard state conditions are used for thermodynamic calculations.
For a given material or substance, the standard state is the reference state for the material's thermodynamic state properties such as enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, and for many other material standards. The standard enthalpy change of formation for an element in its standard state is zero, and this convention allows a wide range of other thermodynamic quantities to be calculated and tabulated. The standard state of a substance does not have to exist in nature: for example, it is possible to calculate values for steam at 298.15 K and , although steam does not exist (as a gas) under these conditions. The advantage of this practice is that tables of thermodynamic properties prepared in this way are self-consistent.
Conventional standard states
Many standard states are non-physical states, often referred to as "hypothetical states". Nevertheless, their thermodynamic properties are well-defined, usually by an extrapolation from some limiting condition, such as zero pressure or zero concentration, to a specified condition (usually unit concentration or pressure) using an ideal extrapolating function, such as ideal solution or ideal gas behavior, or by empirical measurements.
Gases
The standard state for a gas is the hypothetical state it would have as a pure substance obeying the ideal gas equation at standard pressure (, or 1 bar). No real gas has perfectly ideal behavior, but this definition of the standard state allows corrections for non-ideality to be made consistently for all the different gases.
Liquids and solids
The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of (or 1 bar). For most elements, the reference point of ΔHf⦵ = 0 is defined for the most stable allotrope of the element, such as graphite in the case of carbon, and the β-phase (white tin) in the case of tin. An exception is white phosphorus, the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only metastable.
Solutes
For a substance in solution (solute), the standard state is usually chosen as the hypothetical state it would have at the standard state molality or amount concentration but exhibiting infinite-dilution behavior (where there are no solute-solute interactions, but solute-solvent interactions are present). The reason for this unusual definition is that the behavior of a solute at the limit of infinite dilution is described by equations which are very similar to the equations for ideal gases. Hence taking infinite-dilution behavior to be the standard state allows corrections for non-ideality to be made consistently for all the different solutes. The standard state molality is , while the standard state molarity is .
Other choices are possible. For example, the use of a standard state concentration of 10-7 mol/L for the hydrogen ion in a real, aqueous solution is common in the field of biochemistry. In other application areas such as electrochemistry, the standard state is sometimes chosen as the actual state of the real solution at a standard concentration (often ). The activity coefficients will not transfer from convention to convention and so it is very important to know and understand what conventions were used in the construction of tables of standard thermodynamic properties before using them to describe solutions.
Adsorbates
For molecules adsorbed on surfaces there have been various conventions proposed based on hypothetical standard states. For adsorption that occurs on specific sites (Langmuir adsorption isotherm) the most common standard state is a relative coverage of , as this choice results in a cancellation of the configurational entropy term and is also consistent with neglecting to include the standard state (which is a common error). The advantage of using is that the configurational term cancels and the entropy extracted from thermodynamic analyses is thus reflective of intra-molecular changes between the bulk phase (such as gas or liquid) and the adsorbed state. There may be benefit to tabulating values based on both the relative coverage based standard state and in an additional column the absolute coverage based standard state. For 2D gas states, the complication of discrete states does not arise and an absolute density base standard state has been proposed, similar for the 3D gas phase.
Typesetting
At the time of development in the nineteenth century, the superscript Plimsoll symbol (⦵) was adopted to indicate the non-zero nature of the standard state. IUPAC recommends in the 3rd edition of Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry a symbol which seems to be a degree sign (°) as a substitute for the plimsoll mark. In the very same publication the plimsoll mark appears to be constructed by combining a horizontal stroke with a degree sign. A range of similar symbols are used in the literature: a stroked lowercase letter O (o), a superscript zero (0) or a circle with a horizontal bar either where the bar extends beyond the boundaries of the circle () or is enclosed by the circle, dividing the circle in half (). When compared to the plimsoll symbol used on vessels, the horizontal bar should extend beyond the boundaries of the circle; care should be taken not to confuse the symbol with the Greek letter theta (uppercase Θ or , lowercase θ ).
The use of a degree symbol (°) or superscript zero () has come into widespread use in general, inorganic, and physical chemistry textbooks in recent years, as suggested by Mills (vide supra).
See also
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure
Standard molar entropy
References
Thermodynamics
mk:Стандардна состојба
ur:معیاری حالات | [
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240225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leytonstone | Leytonstone | Leytonstone is an area in east London, England, within the London Borough of Waltham Forest. Situated north-east of Charing Cross, it adjoins Wanstead to the east, Forest Gate to the south-east, Stratford to the south-west, Leyton to the west, and Walthamstow to the north-west.
Historically, Leytonstone formed part of the ancient parish of Leyton in the Becontree hundred of Essex. The first documented evidence of settlement is from the 14th century, describing a hamlet at ‘Leyton-atte-stone’; a reference to the Roman milestone located within the area, that formed a northerm boundary of the parish. It remained largely rural until 1856, when it became part of the London postal district and a railway station was opened (now on the Central line). By the end of the 19th century, Leytonstone had become a dormitory town within the conurbation of London. When Greater London was created in 1965, Leytonstone became part of the then new London Borough of Waltham Forest.
At the northern end of Leytonstone High Road is The Green Man; a public house and road junction, under which the A12 runs. Leytonstone is noted for being the birthplace of Alfred Hitchcock, with a number of references to the filmmaker around the area, including painted murals, mosaics, a pub and a hotel.
History
Origins and Roman milestone
The main thoroughfare, Leytonstone High Road, is part of an ancient highway from Epping to London, on the borders of Epping Forest. A small hamlet at Leytonstone had existed since the early 14th century, when it formed part of the parish of Leyton St Mary. The name Leytonstone, originally "Leyton-atte-Stone", comes from nearby Leyton ("settlement (tun) on the River Lea") and the Roman milestone called the High Stone.
The milestone still stands at the junction of Hollybush Hill (the A1199 road with Woodford) and New Wanstead (the A113 road with Woodford Bridge), near the eastern bounds of the parish. It is a restored 18th-century obelisk set up on an earlier stump, traditionally described as a Roman milestone, possibly marking an extension of the Roman road from Dunmow to Chigwell into London. Two of the obelisk inscriptions are still just legible, others not:
"To Epping XI Miles through Woodford, Loughton"
"To Ongar XV Miles through Woodford Bridge, Chigwell, Abridge"
Other Roman archaeological features have been found in nearly by Leyton, including "a Roman cemetery south of Blind Lane, and massive foundations of some Roman building, with quantities of Roman brick... discovered in the grounds of Leyton Grange."
18th and 19th century
In 1722, author Daniel Defoe travelled through "Layton-stone, a place by some known, now as much, by the sign of the Green-Man". Leytonstone, along with Stratford, Leyton and Woodford, was one of the villages Defoe called as desirable country retreats for wealthy merchants and financiers within an easy ride of the City.
Leytonstone remained largely rural until the opening of the railway at Leytonstone station in 1856, which gave quick and easy access to Stratford and central London. This, with increased availability of office and industrial work, had transformed the area into a suburban dormitory town by the end of the 19th century.
However, the forest land in the north and east of Leytonstone escaped development following a prolonged public campaign, when the Epping Forest Act 1878 preserved more than 200 acres (80 hectares) of open space for public use.
In 1898 the department store Bearmans, opened by Frank Bearman to sell furniture and clothing, was the first store outside central London with an escalator.
20th century
In the mid-1990s, the M11 link road (A12) was built through the area, despite a long-running protest by locals and road protestors. This and other protests led to the policy, Roads for Prosperity, being abandoned. From 2001 to 2013, artists ran the 491 Gallery, a squatted social space in a building next the A12, that hosted events from exhibitions to gigs.
Areas of Leytonstone
Bushwood and Ferndale
Browning Road Conservation Area
Cann Hall
Cathall
Grove Green
Harrow Green
Upper Leytonstone
Wanstead Flats
Whipps Cross and Hollow Pond
Historic Areas
Holloway Down
Notable events
M11 Link Road Protest between 1993 and 1995.
The annual Leytonstone Festival was first held in 1995.
Mosaics of Hitchcock Movies unveiled at Leytonstone tube station in May 2001.
Leytonstone Arts Trail is an annual arts festival which started in 2008, where locals and artists display art in their windows and local venues.
Leytonstone tube station attack in December 2015.
The annual Leytonstone Loves Film with The Barbican was first held in 2019.
Notable buildings and landmarks
The Green Man roundabout and public house at the north edge of Leytonstone, with associated statue and mosaic; it remains a signposting-point on the A12.
Leytonstone is the birth place of Sir Alfred Hitchcock. The entrance to Leytonstone tube station has mosaics of scenes from his films. Next to his birth site at 517 Leytonstone High Road, the building has been painted with a mural of birds, repeated in the pavement outside. A pub at 692 Leytonstone High Road was renamed The Birds, in reference to his film The Birds.
Leytonstone tube station, a post-war modernist building from 1947; designed by Thomas Bilbow, an architect for London Transport, as part of the Central line extension.
Independent Buildings on Church Lane, an art deco building and clock constructed by a local newspaper in 1934, replacing the Gaiety Cinema. The adjoining Seascape House is of matching architectural style.
St John the Baptist's Church, Leytonstone is Grade II listed. Built in 1832 and consecrated in 1833, it is a landmark church at the junction of High Road Leytonstone and Church Lane. The churchyard is host to a vintage market and occasional screenings of Alfred Hitchcock films, as part of the annual Leytonstone Festival.
St Andrew's Church, Leytonstone, Grade II listed, was built in 1886–1893 as a memorial to the local philanthropist William Cotton and designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield.
Leytonstone and Wanstead Synagogue, a post-war building in the art deco style on the corner of Fillebrook Road and Drayton Road; built in 1954 by the local Jewish community.
Leytonstone Mosque, a 1970s adaptation of an 1880s church hall that was originally part of St John's, provides worship for up to 1000 male Sunni Muslims and a range of religious education for young boys.
Leytonstone House, built 1800 and Grade II-listed, was the home of Sir Edward Buxton, MP and conservationist, who with his brother played a big part in preserving Epping, Hainault and Hatfield forests. It housed Bethnal Green School for the juvenile poor from 1868 to 1936.
Leytonstone Library – a Grade II* listed art deco building built in 1934 to the design of James Ambrose Dartnall – underwent s £1.5 million refurbishment completed in 2015.
Harrow Green Library, an art deco building opened in 1939 and closed in 2011 due to funding cuts; now run as a volunteer library in the same building, renamed The Junction.
Leytonstone War Memorial and Gardens revealed in 1925 in remembrance of people of Leyton and Leytonstone who fought in The Great War and World War II; sited in the middle of Harrow Green, which is also the site of the modernist-style Wesleyan Christian Centre, built in 1959.
The Red Lion, which has had a public house on the site since 1670. The current building is from 1891, having been restored as craft beer pub, ballroom and hotel; currently owned by the pub group Antic London.
Whipps Cross University Hospital is set for redevelopment to include a brand-new hospital, along with new homes and other communal facilities. It was selected as one of six UK hospitals to receive a share of £2.7 billion of initial government funding in 2019.
Whipps Cross Lido was a swimming pool dug in 1905, updated to a chlorinated facility in 1937 and closed in 1982. Some remains of the building and access road can be found near Hollow Pond on Leyton Flats.
Leytonstone Fire Station, in Leytonstone High Road, was a Victorian building that was replaced in February 2016 by the current building.
Pastures and Good Shepherd Building in Davies Lane is the location of a 17th-century house and later Children's Home; now a Youth Centre and Sports Hall that was threatened with redevelopment but saved by community protest in April 2021.
West Ham Union Workhouse, whose buildings still remain in south Leytonstone, was originally part of the village of Holloway Down, located between Harrow Green and the Thatched House junction.
Epping Forest reaches Leytonstone in heath areas called Hollow Pond and Leyton Flats, and Wanstead Flats.
Governance
Leytonstone belonged originally to the ancient parish of Leyton in the Becontree Hundred of Essex. It became a separate ecclesiastical parish in 1845. The parish of Leyton formed part of the West Ham Poor law union. In 1894 it became part of Leyton Urban District, which was incorporated in 1926 as the Municipal Borough of Leyton.
Leytonstone became part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest in 1965 when Greater London was created. Within the borough, it divides into four council wards, each with three councillors: Forest ward (Whipps Cross area, parts of Upper Leytonstone as far as Grove Green), Leytonstone ward (the rest of Upper Leytonstone, the town centre, Bushwood and Ferndale areas), Cathall ward and Cann Hall ward (South Leytonstone areas).
The area forms part of the Leyton and Wanstead parliamentary constituency. , John Cryer has held the seat for the Labour Party. For elections to the London Assembly it is part of the North East constituency and the AM is Sem Moema of the Labour Party, who succeeded Jenette Arnold in 2021 .
Transport
Leytonstone tube station is in Travelcard Zones 3 and 4 on the Central line of the London Underground, and serves as the last stop before the line splits into the Fairlop Loop and the branch to Epping (Zone 6). Since 2016, night tube trains run on Friday and Saturdays on the Central line every 10 minutes between White City and Loughton (in Essex) or Hainault via Leytonstone. A series of tiled mosaics commemorating the local film director Alfred Hitchcock line the entrance passages to the station.
Leytonstone Bus Station stands either side of exits for Leytonstone tube station; key routes include the 257 to Stratford, the W15 to Hackney, and the night bus N8 to Tottenham Court Road.
Leytonstone High Road railway station is a London Overground railway station, located in the south of Leytonstone, serving the Gospel Oak to Barking line. In 2018, the line was electrified to allow for longer trains, with an additional capacity; after engineering and supply delays, these were introduced in June 2019.
Close to the southern end of Leytonstone ( south of the Cann Hall Road boundary) is Maryland railway station in Stratford; which is planned to be part of Crossrail on the Elizabeth Line.
From 25 October 2021, Leytonstone will be in London's Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ); which is to be expanding from central London up to the North Circular and South Circular roads.
Education
Leytonstone schools include:
Buxton School, an all-through school for ages 3–16 and Specialist Science College
Connaught School for Girls, a specialist language school
Davies Lane Primary School, first opened in 1901 as a board school. In 1948 it became a junior and infants school, merging into a single primary in 2004.
George Tomlinson Primary School
Gwyn Jones Primary School
Leytonstone School, a specialist business and enterprise school
Mayville Nursery and Primary School, from 2-10yo
Norlington School, a boys' school and mixed sixth form
Sports and fitness
Leytonstone Leisure Centre on Cathall Road provides a gym and 25-metre main pool, sports hall, fitness studios, and a children's soft-play area.
Wanstead Flats has 60 football pitches, including eight full size pitches. This facility is overseen by City of London Corporation and amateur football teams play every Sunday. and 5K Parkruns take place in Wanstead Flats every week.
The North Star on Browning Road is home to the North Star Velo cycling club.
Leytonstone was home to the former association football team Leytonstone F.C. before it merged with Redbridge Forest F.C. and then Dagenham & Redbridge football club.
In drama, film and television
In The Bed-Sitting Room (1969), Spike Milligan created the (fictional) closest heir to the British throne after the outbreak of nuclear war as "Mrs. Ethel Shroake" of 393A High Street, Leytonstone. She appears in the final scene of the play.
Deep End, a 1970 British-German drama starring Jane Asher with a soundtrack by Can, was partly shot on Cann Hall Road and Cathall Road Baths (built 1906, rebuilt later in 1977).
Small Potatoes was a 1999 TV sitcom made by Hat Trick Productions for Channel 4, about the young manager of a video shop in Leytonstone.
I Proud to Be an Indian was a 2004 Bollywood film, about an Indian family in late 1970s Leytonstone terrorised by skinheads.
In EastEnders, the fictional character Kim Fox is from Leytonstone.
Notable people
Damon Albarn (born 1968), singer-songwriter born in Fillebrook Road. A blue plaque was erected in 2014 after an impromptu performance of "Park Life" at the Red Lion, Leytonstone High Road.
Eric Ashby, Baron Ashby (1904–1992), botanist, was born in Leytonstone.
Roger Ashton-Griffiths (born 1957), actor
David Bailey (born 1939), CBE, photographer, was born in Leytonstone.
Reginald Poynton Baker (1896–1985), movie producer, father of the Conservative MP Peter Baker
Ashley Banjo (born 1988), dancer and choreographer, was born in Leytonstone.
David Beckham OBE (born 1975), footballer (England), was born in Leytonstone and grew up in Chingford.
James Bevan (1858-1938), captain of the Welsh rugby union team in its first international match, died in Leytonstone
Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964), author and orientalist
Alan Booth (1946–1993), travel writer
Patrick Brill OBE RA (born 1963) artist, writer and musician; known by the pseudonym Bob and Roberta Smith
Edward North Buxton (1840–1924), conservationist and liberal politician
Cornelius Cardew (1936–1981), composer
Carly Cole (born 1984), model, fitness trainer and wife of footballer Joe Cole
Fanny Cradock (1909–1994), TV chef and cookery writer born in Fairlop Road, Leytonstone
Curtis Davies (born 1985), footballer
Cartrain (born 1991), artist
Harris Dickinson (born 1996), actor
Frank Dobson (1886–1963), sculptor, lived in Cobden Road as a teenager in 1901
John Drinkwater (1882–1937), poet and dramatist, born in Leytonstone in 1882
Charles Eade (1903–1964), journalist, born in Leytonstone
Eamon Everall (born 1948), artist and educator
Ken Farnes (1911–1941), cricketer
Henry Charles Fehr (1867–1940), sculptor, lived and worked in Leytonstone in 1886–1891.
Joanne Fenn (born 1974), Olympic runner
Stuart Freeborn (1914–2013), Star Wars make-up artist who was most famous as the designer of Yoda; born in Grove Green Road, had a Blue Heritage Plaque placed on his former home in December 2015.
Graham Gooch (born 1953), OBE, cricketer, former captain of the England cricket team
Steve Harris (born 1956), founder and bassist of the band Iron Maiden
Sir Alfred Hitchcock (1899–1980), film director born and raised in the area.
Tom Hood (1935–1974), humorist and playwright
Sydney Horler (1888–1964), novelist
Gavin Hoyte (born 1990), footballer
Justin Hoyte (born 1984), footballer
Derek Jacobi (born 1938) CBE, actor
Jammer (born 1982), record producer
Colin Kazim-Richards (born 1986), footballer
Lucy Kirkwood (born 1983), playwright and screenwriter
Don Law (1902–1982), record producer
Natasha Little (born 1969), actor
Seán Mac Stíofáin (1928–2001), chief-of-staff of the Provisional IRA
Morell Mackenzie (1837–1892), research physician
Colin Matthews (born 1946), composer
Dominic McVey (born 1985), Britain's youngest self-made millionaire
Jozef Piłsudski (1867–1935), Polish statesman, stayed with the Wasilewski family while on the run from Russia in the 1900s
Jamie Porter (born 1993), cricketer
Redzz (born 1987), rapper, actor, songwriter and musician
Sir Tony Robinson (born 1946), comedian and broadcaster
Jonathan Ross (born 1960), broadcaster and comedian. Went to Davies Lane primary school.
Paul Ross (born 1956), broadcaster
June Sarpong (born 1977) MBE, television presenter
Rita Simons (born 1977), actress, singer and model
Talvin Singh (born 1970), composer and musician
Adam Smith (born 1991), footballer
Harold Spurr (1889–1962), English cricketer
Andros Townsend (born 1991), footballer
Halszka Wasilewska (1899–1961), soldier, daughter of Leon Wasilewski, spent her infancy here before becoming a decorated major in the Polish Armed Forces
Leon Wasilewski (1870–1936), Polish political activist and editor lived in Leytonstone in 1898–1903
Douglas Webb (1922–1996), dam buster and photographer
References
External links
The Leytonstoner – a community news magazine and review website
Archives relating to Leytonstone at The National Archives (United Kingdom)
Areas of London
Districts of the London Borough of Waltham Forest
Business improvement districts in London | [
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|
240226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami%20Sol | Miami Sol | The Miami Sol were a professional women's basketball team that was based in Miami, Florida and entered the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) in 2000. They played their games at American Airlines Arena as the sister team to the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The team folded after the 2002 season because of financial problems.
History
In their short history, the Miami Sol was coached for three seasons by Ron Rothstein. Players such as Debbie Black, Elena Baranova, Sandy Brondello, Ruth Riley, and Sheri Sam led them to the playoffs in 2001, but lost in the first round to the New York Liberty in three games, the only playoff appearance in franchise history. After losing to the New York Liberty in the playoffs, the Miami Sol finished the 2002 season with a 15–17 record. That season proved to be the Sol's last. Citing the inability to raise enough funds to continue operation under the WNBA's new restructuring agreement, the organization ceased operations. The team finished with a .500 franchise record of 48 wins and 48 losses. The other Florida team, the Orlando Miracle, ceased operations after the 2002 season and was relocated to Connecticut as the Connecticut Sun, adopting a nickname and logo very similar to the Miami Sol.
After the team's folding, its players found success elsewhere in the league. After being reassigned to the Detroit Shock, Ruth Riley won two WNBA championships in 2003 and 2006. Betty Lennox and Sandy Brondello won a WNBA championship with the Seattle Storm in 2004, with Lennox winning the WNBA Finals Most Valuable Player award.
Playoff history
2001 was Miami's only playoff appearance in three seasons of existence.
Uniforms
The Sol's road uniforms were fiery red, with the team name emblazoned in white on the chest and a WNBA ball in place of the hole in the letter "O". The home jerseys featured the same design, only with the colors inverted.
Name
The team's nickname, Sol, is Spanish and Portuguese for "sun". The name played off the Miami area's large Hispanic population and its "brother" NBA team, the Miami Heat.
Season-by-season records
Notable players
Marlies Askamp
Elena Baranova
Sandy Brondello
Katrina Colleton
Debbie Black
Milena Flores
Pollyanna Johns-Kimbrough
Betty Lennox
Carolyn Moos
Vanessa Nygaard
Kristen Rasmussen
Ruth Riley
Sheri Sam
Iziane Castro Marques
Coaches and others
Head Coaches:
Ron Rothstein (2000–02)
General Managers:
Ron Rothstein (2000–02)
Assistant Coaches
Tony Fiorentino (2000–02)
Jenny Boucek (2000–02)
TV Production
Marc Brody (2000–02)
External links
WNBA website
Defunct Women's National Basketball Association teams
Basketball teams established in 2000
Basketball teams disestablished in 2002
Basketball teams in Miami
2000 establishments in Florida
2002 disestablishments in Florida
Basketball teams in Florida | [
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|
240227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland%20Fire | Portland Fire | The Portland Fire were a professional basketball team in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) based in Portland, Oregon that joined the league in 2000 as the counterpart to the NBA’s Portland Trail Blazers. They played their games at the Rose Garden Arena. The team folded after the 2002 season, after just three seasons in the league. They were the only WNBA team that had never made the playoffs.
History
In its short, three-year history, the Portland Fire franchise held some of the more dubious distinctions among WNBA franchises. Founded in 2000, Portland Trail Blazers owner Paul Allen served as the team's chairman. Led by Vanessa Nygaard and Sylvia Crawley, the team managed a 10–22 win-loss record in their inaugural season. In the 2001 season, the team faced another losing season but found hope in the play of rookie guard Jackie Stiles, who would win the WNBA Rookie of the Year Award. However, in 2002 Stiles suffered a severe injury and was out for most of the season. Without their star player, the Fire finished with an even record.
The 2002 season proved to be the Portland Fire's swan song season, but most improved. After this season, the WNBA sold ownership of their franchises to owners of their counterpart NBA teams or to third parties. Portland Fire chairman Paul Allen's continued financial problems with what was seen league-wide as an underachieving Trail Blazers team put him out of the running to buy the Fire franchise and led to the Portland Fire folding in 2002. A group led by Clyde Drexler and Terry Emmert attempted to buy the franchise, but a deal was not made. With this, the Fire became the only WNBA franchise not to make the playoffs, and along with the Miami Sol, the WNBA franchise with the shortest lifespan.
Season-by-season records
Roster and coach
Players
Tully Bevilaqua, who went on to play with the San Antonio Silver Stars
Monique Cardenas, retired after rookie season and the Fire's folding in 2002.
Sylvia Crawley, now as assistant coach for the North Carolina Tar Heels women's basketball team.
Kristin Folkl, retired after the Fire's folding in 2002.
Melody Johnson, retired after rookie season and the Fire's folding in 2002.
Vanessa Nygaard: former assistant coach with the Washington Mystics and San Antonio Silver Stars.
Lynn Pride: Played for Portland in the inaugural expansion 2000 season before being traded to the Lynx, where she played for two and a half seasons (2001–03). She was waived by the Lynx before signing up with the Sparks, where she played the rest of the 2003 season before retiring.
Jackie Stiles: Selected fourth overall by the Portland Fire in the 2001 WNBA Draft, she was later voted the Rookie of the Year on August 16, 2001. But since that high point, Stiles has suffered numerous injuries, including 13 surgeries, which has greatly hampered her WNBA career (2001–03). After the Fire folded in 2002, Stiles was selected 14th by the Los Angeles Sparks to play for the Sparks in the 2003 season, but did not play due to spending rehabilitation time for her injuries. She retired from the WNBA after that season, though her WNBA rights are still owned by the last team she was with, the L.A. Sparks. After an injury-hampered WNBA career, in 2004, Stiles made her first comeback to basketball in a new league on a new basketball team and signed with the Lubbock Hawks (in Lubbock, Texas) of the National Women's Basketball League (NWBL), which proved unsuccessful for her. Stiles made her second comeback to basketball in a different league with a different team on September 29, 2006, when the Canberra Times reported that Stiles signed to play for the Canberra Capitals in the Women's National Basketball League in Australia.
Stacey Thomas: She was selected 23rd overall in the 2000 WNBA Draft by the Portland Fire. When she became a free agent after the Fire's folding following the 2002 season, she signed with Portland's I-5 rivals, the Seattle Storm, but was waived before she even played in a Storm uniform. She played for the Phoenix Mercury, the team that signed Thomas after the Storm let her go, the 2003 WNBA Championship Detroit Shock team, the Minnesota Lynx, and then the Charlotte Sting. After the 2006 Charlotte Sting season, Stacey Thomas decided to retire from the WNBA in 2006 because she thought it was time. Following her retirement, the Charlotte Sting folded on January 3, 2007, just a few months prior to the start of the next WNBA season.
Michele Van Gorp: An assistant coach at Colgate University since June 2007.
DeMya Walker: Signed a free agent contract with the Portland Fire in 2000 after being released by the Minnesota Lynx a few months back, and played with them for all three seasons of their existence. The WNBA held a Dispersal draft on April 24, 2003, which Walker was a part of, that involved various former players from the newly-defunct Portland Fire and Miami Sol franchises that were chosen by the existing WNBA teams. The Sacramento Monarchs selected Walker as the fifth overall pick in the 2003 WNBA Dispersal Draft. Walker played the next several seasons with the Monarchs (2003–08), and helped the team win the 2005 WNBA Finals by defeating the Connecticut Sun, three games to one. Walker was waived by the Monarchs on May 15, 2008. Walker was re-signed by the team on July 21, 2008, making her a free agent or another WNBA retiree who started their career with the dubious Portland Fire.
Sophia Witherspoon: Played a total of 7 seasons in the WNBA. Two of them with the Portland Fire (The first two seasons in franchise history; 2000 & 2001). Before that, she played with the New York Liberty from 1997-99. After her 2000–01 stint with the Fire, she played her last two seasons with the Los Angeles Sparks in 2002-03 before retiring.
Head coach
Linda Hargrove was the head coach and general manager of the Portland Fire from 2000 to 2002. She also served as general manager of the Washington Mystics from 2005 until 2008.
References
Basketball teams established in 2000
Basketball teams disestablished in 2002
Defunct Women's National Basketball Association teams
Defunct basketball teams in Oregon
Fire
2000 establishments in Oregon
2002 disestablishments in Oregon | [
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|
240228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological%20pump | Biological pump | The biological pump, also known as the marine carbon pump, is, in its simplest form, the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere and land runoff to the ocean interior and seafloor sediments. It is the part of the oceanic carbon cycle responsible for the cycling of organic matter formed mainly by phytoplankton during photosynthesis (soft-tissue pump), as well as the cycling of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) formed into shells by certain organisms such as plankton and mollusks (carbonate pump).
Budget calculations of the biological carbon pump are based on the ratio between sedimentation (carbon export to the ocean floor) and remineralization (release of carbon to the atmosphere).
The biological pump is not so much the result of a single process, but rather the sum of a number of processes each of which can influence biological pumping. Overall, the pump transfers about 11 gigatonnes of carbon every year into the ocean's interior. This takes carbon out of contact with the atmosphere for several thousand years or longer. An ocean without a biological pump would result in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels about 400 ppm higher than the present day.
Overview
The biological pump depends on the fraction of primary produced organic matter that survives degradation in the euphotic zone and that is exported from surface water to the ocean interior, where it is mineralized to inorganic carbon, with the result that carbon is transported against the gradient of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) from the surface to the deep ocean. This transfer occurs through physical mixing and transport of dissolved and particulate organic carbon (POC), vertical migrations of organisms (zooplankton, fish) and through gravitational settling of particulate organic carbon.
The biological pump can be divided into three distinct phases, the first of which is the production of fixed carbon by planktonic phototrophs in the euphotic (sunlit) surface region of the ocean. In these surface waters, phytoplankton use carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and other trace elements (barium, iron, zinc, etc.) during photosynthesis to make carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Some plankton, (e.g. coccolithophores and foraminifera) combine calcium (Ca) and dissolved carbonates (carbonic acid and bicarbonate) to form a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) protective coating.
Once this carbon is fixed into soft or hard tissue, the organisms either stay in the euphotic zone to be recycled as part of the regenerative nutrient cycle or once they die, continue to the second phase of the biological pump and begin to sink to the ocean floor. The sinking particles will often form aggregates as they sink, greatly increasing the sinking rate. It is this aggregation that gives particles a better chance of escaping predation and decomposition in the water column and eventually making it to the sea floor.
The fixed carbon that is decomposed by bacteria either on the way down or once on the sea floor then enters the final phase of the pump and is remineralized to be used again in primary production. The particles that escape these processes entirely are sequestered in the sediment and may remain there for millions of years. It is this sequestered carbon that is responsible for ultimately lowering atmospheric CO2.
The diagram immediately above illustrates the components of the biological pump. Biology, physics and gravity interact to pump organic carbon into the deep sea. The processes of fixation of inorganic carbon in organic matter during photosynthesis, its transformation by food web processes (trophodynamics), physical mixing, transport and gravitational settling are referred to collectively as the biological pump.
The biological pump is responsible for transforming dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) into organic biomass and pumping it in particulate or dissolved form into the deep ocean. Inorganic nutrients and carbon dioxide are fixed during photosynthesis by phytoplankton, which both release dissolved organic matter (DOM) and are consumed by herbivorous zooplankton. Larger zooplankton - such as copepods - egest fecal pellets which can be reingested and sink or collect with other organic detritus into larger, more-rapidly-sinking aggregates. DOM is partially consumed by bacteria (black dots) and respired; the remaining refractory DOM is advected and mixed into the deep sea. DOM and aggregates exported into the deep water are consumed and respired, thus returning organic carbon into the enormous deep ocean reservoir of DIC. About 1% of the particles leaving the surface ocean reach the seabed and are consumed, respired, or buried in the sediments. There, carbon is stored for millions of years. The net effect of these processes is to remove carbon in organic form from the surface and return it to DIC at greater depths, maintaining the surface-to-deep ocean gradient of DIC. Thermohaline circulation returns deep-ocean DIC to the atmosphere on millennial timescales.
Primary production
The first step in the biological pump is the synthesis of both organic and inorganic carbon compounds by phytoplankton in the uppermost, sunlit layers of the ocean. Organic compounds in the form of sugars, carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are synthesized during the process of photosynthesis:
CO2 + H2O + light → CH2O + O2
In addition to carbon, organic matter found in phytoplankton is composed of nitrogen, phosphorus and various trace metals. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen and phosphorus varies from place to place, but has an average ratio near 106C:16N:1P, known as the Redfield ratio. Trace metals such as magnesium, cadmium, iron, calcium, barium and copper are orders of magnitude less prevalent in phytoplankton organic material, but necessary for certain metabolic processes and therefore can be limiting nutrients in photosynthesis due to their lower abundance in the water column.
Oceanic primary production accounts for about half of the carbon fixation carried out on Earth. Approximately 50–60 Pg of carbon are fixed by marine phytoplankton each year despite the fact that they comprise less than 1% of the total photosynthetic biomass on Earth. The majority of this carbon fixation (~80%) is carried out in the open ocean while the remaining amount occurs in the very productive upwelling regions of the ocean. Despite these productive regions producing 2 to 3 times as much fixed carbon per area, the open ocean accounts for greater than 90% of the ocean area and therefore is the larger contributor.
Forms of carbon
Dissolved and particulate carbon
Phytoplankton supports all life in the ocean as it converts inorganic compounds into organic constituents. This autotrophically produced biomass presents the foundation of the marine food web. In the diagram immediately below, the arrows indicate the various production (arrowhead pointing toward DOM pool) and removal processes of DOM (arrowhead pointing away), while the dashed arrows represent dominant biological processes involved in the transfer of DOM. Due to these processes, the fraction of labile DOM decreases rapidly with depth, whereas the refractory character of the DOM pool considerably increases during its export to the deep ocean. DOM, dissolved organic matter.
Calcium carbonate
Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) usually takes the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and plays a key part in the ocean carbon cycle. This biologically fixed carbon is used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). Calcium carbonate is also excreted at high rates during osmoregulation by fish, and can form in whiting events. While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO2 and then responsible for removing this carbon via sequestration.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3−
Ca2+ + 2HCO3− → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
While this process does manage to fix a large amount of carbon, two units of alkalinity are sequestered for every unit of sequestered carbon. The formation and sinking of CaCO3 therefore drives a surface to deep alkalinity gradient which serves to raise the pH of surface waters, shifting the speciation of dissolved carbon to raise the partial pressure of dissolved CO2 in surface waters, which actually raises atmospheric levels. In addition, the burial of CaCO3 in sediments serves to lower overall oceanic alkalinity, tending to raise pH and thereby atmospheric CO2 levels if not counterbalanced by the new input of alkalinity from weathering. The portion of carbon that is permanently buried at the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record. Calcium carbonate often forms remarkable deposits that can then be raised onto land through tectonic motion as in the case with the White Cliffs of Dover in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried coccolithophores.
Oceanic carbon cycle
Three main processes (or pumps) that make up the marine carbon cycle bring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into the ocean interior and distribute it through the oceans. These three pumps are: (1) the solubility pump, (2) the carbonate pump, and (3) the biological pump. The total active pool of carbon at the Earth's surface for durations of less than 10,000 years is roughly 40,000 gigatons C (Gt C, a gigaton is one billion tons, or the weight of approximately 6 million blue whales), and about 95% (~38,000 Gt C) is stored in the ocean, mostly as dissolved inorganic carbon. The speciation of dissolved inorganic carbon in the marine carbon cycle is a primary controller of acid-base chemistry in the oceans.
Solubility pump
The biological pump is accompanied by a physico-chemical counterpart known as the solubility pump. This pump transports significant amounts of carbon in the form of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) from the ocean's surface to its interior. It involves physical and chemical processes only, and does not involve biological processes.
The solubility pump is driven by the coincidence of two processes in the ocean:
The solubility of carbon dioxide is a strong inverse function of seawater temperature (i.e. solubility is greater in cooler water)
The thermohaline circulation is driven by the formation of deep water at high latitudes where seawater is usually cooler and denser
Since deep water (that is, seawater in the ocean's interior) is formed under the same surface conditions that promote carbon dioxide solubility, it contains a higher concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon than might be expected from average surface concentrations. Consequently, these two processes act together to pump carbon from the atmosphere into the ocean's interior. One consequence of this is that when deep water upwells in warmer, equatorial latitudes, it strongly outgasses carbon dioxide to the atmosphere because of the reduced solubility of the gas.
Carbonate pump
The carbonate pump is sometimes referred to as the “hard tissue” component of the biological pump. Some surface marine organisms, like coccolithophores, produce hard structures out of calcium carbonate, a form of particulate inorganic carbon, by fixing bicarbonate. This fixation of DIC is an important part of the oceanic carbon cycle.
Ca2+ + 2 HCO3− → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
While the biological carbon pump fixes inorganic carbon (CO2) into particulate organic carbon in the form of sugar (C6H12O6), the carbonate pump fixes inorganic bicarbonate and causes a net release of CO2. In this way, the carbonate pump could be termed the carbonate counter pump. It works counter to the biological pump by counteracting the CO2 flux into the biological pump.
Continental shelf pump
The continental shelf pump is proposed as operating in the shallow waters of the continental shelves as a mechanism transporting carbon (dissolved or particulate) from the continental waters to the interior of the adjacent deep ocean. As originally formulated, the pump is thought to occur where the solubility pump interacts with cooler, and therefore denser water from the shelf floor which feeds down the continental slope into the neighbouring deep ocean. The shallowness of the continental shelf restricts the convection of cooling water, so the cooling can be greater for continental shelf waters than for neighbouring open ocean waters. These cooler waters promote the solubility pump and lead to an increased storage of dissolved inorganic carbon. This extra carbon storage is further augmented by the increased biological production characteristic of shelves. The dense, carbon-rich shelf waters then sink to the shelf floor and enter the sub-surface layer of the open ocean via isopycnal mixing. As the sea level rises in response to global warming, the surface area of the shelf seas will grow and in consequence the strength of the shelf sea pump should increase.
Processes in the biological pump
In the diagram on the right, phytoplankton convert CO2, which has dissolved from the atmosphere into the surface oceans (90 Gt yr−1), into particulate organic carbon (POC) during primary production (~ 50 Gt C yr−1). Phytoplankton are then consumed by copepods, krill and other small zooplankton grazers, which in turn are preyed upon by higher trophic levels. Any unconsumed phytoplankton form aggregates, and along with zooplankton faecal pellets, sink rapidly and are exported out of the mixed layer (< 12 Gt C yr−1 14). Krill, copepods, zooplankton and microbes intercept phytoplankton in the surface ocean and sinking detrital particles at depth, consuming and respiring this POC to CO2 (dissolved inorganic carbon, DIC), such that only a small proportion of surface-produced carbon sinks to the deep ocean (i.e., depths > 1000 m). As krill and smaller zooplankton feed, they also physically fragment particles into small, slower- or non-sinking pieces (via sloppy feeding, coprorhexy if fragmenting faeces), retarding POC export. This releases dissolved organic carbon (DOC) either directly from cells or indirectly via bacterial solubilisation (yellow circle around DOC). Bacteria can then remineralise the DOC to DIC (CO2, microbial gardening).
The biological carbon pump is one of the chief determinants of the vertical distribution of carbon in the oceans and therefore of the surface partial pressure of CO2 governing air-sea CO2 exchange. It comprises phytoplankton cells, their consumers and the bacteria that assimilate their waste and plays a central role in the global carbon cycle by delivering carbon from the atmosphere to the deep sea, where it is concentrated and sequestered for centuries. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton lowers the partial pressure of CO2 in the upper ocean, thereby facilitating the absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere by generating a steeper CO2 gradient. It also results in the formation of particulate organic carbon (POC) in the euphotic layer of the epipelagic zone (0–200 m depth). The POC is processed by microbes, zooplankton and their consumers into fecal pellets, organic aggregates (“marine snow”) and other forms, which are thereafter exported to the mesopelagic (200–1000 m depth) and bathypelagic zones by sinking and vertical migration by zooplankton and fish. Although primary production includes both dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC and POC respectively), only POC leads to efficient carbon export to the ocean interior, whereas the DOC fraction in surface waters is mostly recycled by bacteria. However, a more biologically resistant DOC fraction produced in the euphotic zone (accounting for 15–20% of net community productivity), is not immediately mineralized by microbes and accumulates in the ocean surface as biologically semi-labile DOC. This semi-labile DOC undergoes net export to the deep ocean, thus constituting a dynamic part of the biological carbon pump. The efficiency of DOC production and export varies across oceanographic regions, being more prominent in the oligotrophic subtropical oceans. The overall efficiency of the biological carbon pump is mostly controlled by the export of POC.
Marine snow
Most carbon incorporated in organic and inorganic biological matter is formed at the sea surface where it can then start sinking to the ocean floor. The deep ocean gets most of its nutrients from the higher water column when they sink down in the form of marine snow. This is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic material. A single phytoplankton cell has a sinking rate around one metre per day. Given that the average depth of the ocean is about four kilometres, it can take over ten years for these cells to reach the ocean floor. However, through processes such as coagulation and expulsion in predator fecal pellets, these cells form aggregates. These aggregates, known as marine snow, have sinking rates orders of magnitude greater than individual cells and complete their journey to the deep in a matter of days.
In the diagram on the right, phytoplankton fix CO2 in the euphotic zone using solar energy and produce particulate organic carbon (POC). POC formed in the euphotic zone is processed by microbes, zooplankton and their consumers into organic aggregates (marine snow), which is thereafter exported to the mesopelagic (200–1000 m depth) and bathypelagic zones by sinking and vertical migration by zooplankton and fish. Export flux is defined as the sedimentation out of the surface layer (at approximately 100 m depth) and sequestration flux is the sedimentation out of the mesopelagic zone (at approximately 1000 m depth). A portion of the POC is respired back to CO2 in the oceanic water column at depth, mostly by heterotrophic microbes and zooplankton, thus maintaining a vertical gradient in concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). This deep-ocean DIC returns to the atmosphere on millennial timescales through thermohaline circulation. Between 1% and 40% of the primary production is exported out of the euphotic zone, which attenuates exponentially towards the base of the mesopelagic zone and only about 1% of the surface production reaches the sea floor.
Of the 50–60 Pg of carbon fixed annually, roughly 10% leaves the surface mixed layer of the oceans, while less than 0.5% of eventually reaches the sea floor. Most is retained in regenerated production in the euphotic zone and a significant portion is remineralized in midwater processes during particle sinking. The portion of carbon that leaves the surface mixed layer of the ocean is sometimes considered "sequestered", and essentially removed from contact with the atmosphere for many centuries. However, work also finds that, in regions such as the Southern Ocean, much of this carbon can quickly (within decades) come back into contact with the atmosphere.
Budget calculations of the biological carbon pump are based on the ratio between sedimentation (carbon export) and remineralization (release to the atmosphere). It has been estimated that sinking particles export up to 25% of the carbon captured by phytoplankton in the surface ocean to deeper water layers. About 20% of this export (5% of surface values) is buried in the ocean sediments mainly due to their mineral ballast. During the sinking process, these organic particles are hotspots of microbial activity and represent important loci for organic matter mineralization and nutrient redistribution in the water column.
Biomineralization
Ballast minerals
Observations have shown that fluxes of ballast minerals (calcium carbonate, opal, and lithogenic material) and organic carbon fluxes are closely correlated in the bathypelagic zones of the ocean. A large fraction of particulate organic matter occurs in the form of marine snow aggregates (>0.5 mm) composed of phytoplankton, detritus, inorganic mineral grains, and fecal pellets in the ocean. Formation and sinking of these aggregates drive the biological carbon pump via export and sedimentation of organic matter from the surface mixed layer to the deep ocean and sediments. The fraction of organic matter that leaves the upper mixed layer of the ocean is, among other factors, determined by the sinking velocity and microbial remineralisation rate of these aggregates. Recent observations have shown that the fluxes of ballast minerals (calcium carbonate, opal, and lithogenic material) and the organic carbon fluxes are closely correlated in the bathypelagic zones of the ocean. This has led to the hypothesis that organic carbon export is determined by the presence of ballast minerals within settling aggregates.
Mineral ballasting is associated with about 60% of the flux of particulate organic carbon (POC) in the high-latitude North Atlantic, and with about 40% of the flux in the Southern Ocean. Strong correlations exist also in the deep ocean between the presence of ballast minerals and the flux of POC. This suggests ballast minerals enhance POC flux by increasing the sink rate of ballasted aggregates. Ballast minerals could additionally provide aggregated organic matter some protection from degradation.
It has been proposed that organic carbon is better preserved in sinking particles due to increased aggregate density and sinking velocity when ballast minerals are present and/or via protection of the organic matter due to quantitative association to ballast minerals. In 2002, Klaas and Archer observed that about 83% of the global particulate organic carbon (POC) fluxes were associated with carbonate, and suggested carbonate was a more efficient ballast mineral as compared to opal and terrigenous material. They hypothesized that the higher density of calcium carbonate compared to that of opal and the higher abundance of calcium carbonate relative to terrigenous material might be the reason for the efficient ballasting by calcium carbonate. However, the direct effects of ballast minerals on sinking velocity and degradation rates in sinking aggregates are still unclear.
A 2008 study demonstrated copepod fecal pellets produced on a diet of diatoms or coccolithophorids show higher sinking velocities as compared to pellets produced on a nanoflagellate diet. Carbon-specific respiration rates in pellets, however, were similar and independent of mineral content. These results suggest differences in mineral composition do not lead to differential protection of POC against microbial degradation, but the enhanced sinking velocities may result in up to 10-fold higher carbon preservation in pellets containing biogenic minerals as compared to that of pellets without biogenic minerals
Minerals seem to enhance the flocculation of phytoplankton aggregates and may even act as a catalyst in aggregate formation. However, it has also been shown that incorporation of minerals can cause aggregates to fragment into smaller and denser aggregates. This can potentially lower the sinking velocity of the aggregated organic material due to the reduced aggregate sizes, and, thus, lower the total export of organic matter. Conversely, if the incorporation of minerals increases the aggregate density, its size-specific sinking velocity may also increase, which could potentially increase the carbon export. Therefore, there is still a need for better quantitative investigations of how the interactions between minerals and organic aggregates affect the degradation and sinking velocity of the aggregates and, hence, carbon sequestration in the ocean.
Remineralisation
Remineralisation refers to the breakdown or transformation of organic matter (those molecules derived from a biological source) into its simplest inorganic forms. These transformations form a crucial link within ecosystems as they are responsible for liberating the energy stored in organic molecules and recycling matter within the system to be reused as nutrients by other organisms. What fraction does escape remineralisation varies depending on the location. For example, in the North Sea, values of carbon deposition are ~1% of primary production while that value is <0.5% in the open oceans on average. Therefore, most of nutrients remain in the water column, recycled by the biota. Heterotrophic organisms will utilize the materials produced by the autotrophic (and chemotrophic) organisms and via respiration will remineralise the compounds from the organic form back to inorganic, making them available for primary producers again.
For most areas of the ocean, the highest rates of carbon remineralisation occur at depths between in the water column, decreasing down to about 1,200 m where remineralisation rates remain pretty constant at 0.1 μmol kg−1 yr−1. This provides the most nutrients available for primary producers within the photic zone, though it leaves the upper surface waters starved of inorganic nutrients. Most remineralisation is done with dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Studies have shown that it is larger sinking particles that transport matter down to the sea floor while suspended particles and dissolved organics are mostly consumed by remineralisation. This happens in part due to the fact that organisms must typically ingest nutrients smaller than they are, often by orders of magnitude. With the microbial community making up 90% of marine biomass, it is particles smaller than the microbes (on the order of ) that will be taken up for remineralisation.
Key role of phytoplankton
Marine phytoplankton perform half of all photosynthesis on Earth and directly influence global biogeochemical cycles and the climate, yet how they will respond to future global change is unknown. Carbon dioxide is one of the principal drivers of global change and has been identified as one of the major challenges in the 21st century. Carbon dioxide (CO2) generated during anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels for energy generation rapidly dissolves in the surface ocean and lowers seawater pH, while CO2 remaining in the atmosphere increases global temperatures and leads to increased ocean thermal stratification. While CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is estimated to be about 270 ppm before the industrial revolution, it has currently increased to about 400 ppm and is expected to reach 800–1000 ppm by the end of this century according to the "business as usual" CO2 emission scenario.
Marine ecosystems are a major sink for atmospheric CO2 and take up similar amount of CO2 as terrestrial ecosystems, currently accounting for the removal of nearly one third of anthropogenic CO2 emissions from the atmosphere. The net transfer of CO2 from the atmosphere to the oceans and then sediments, is mainly a direct consequence of the combined effect of the solubility and the biological pump. While the solubility pump serves to concentrate dissolved inorganic carbon (CO2 plus bicarbonate and carbonate ions) in the deep oceans, the biological carbon pump (a key natural process and a major component of the global carbon cycle that regulates atmospheric CO2 levels) transfers both organic and inorganic carbon fixed by primary producers (phytoplankton) in the euphotic zone to the ocean interior and subsequently to the underlying sediments. Thus, the biological pump takes carbon out of contact with the atmosphere for several thousand years or longer and maintains atmospheric CO2 at significantly lower levels than would be the case if it did not exist. An ocean without a biological pump, which transfers roughly 11 Gt C yr−1 into the ocean's interior, would result in atmospheric CO2 levels ~400 ppm higher than present day.
Passow and Carlson defined sedimentation out of the surface layer (at approximately 100 m depth) as the "export flux" and that out of the mesopelagic zone (at approximately 1000 m depth) as the "sequestration flux". Once carbon is transported below the mesopelagic zone, it remains in the deep sea for 100 years or longer, hence the term “sequestration” flux. According to the modelling results of Buesseler and Boyd between 1% and 40% of the primary production is exported out of the euphotic zone, which attenuates exponentially towards the base of the mesopelagic zone and only about 1% of the surface production reaches the sea floor. The export efficiency of particulate organic carbon (POC) shows regional variability. For instance, in the North Atlantic, over 40% of net primary production is exported out of the euphotic zone as compared to only 10% in the South Pacific, and this is driven in part by the composition of the phytoplankton community including cell size and composition (see below). Exported organic carbon is remineralized, that is, respired back to CO2 in the oceanic water column at depth, mainly by heterotrophic microbes and zooplankton. Thus, the biological carbon pump maintains a vertical gradient in the concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), with higher values at increased ocean depth. This deep-ocean DIC returns to the atmosphere on millennial timescales through thermohaline circulation.
In 2001, Hugh et al. expressed the efficiency of the biological pump as the amount of carbon exported from the surface layer (export production) divided by the total amount produced by photosynthesis (overall production). Modelling studies by Buesseler and Boyd revealed that the overall transfer efficiency of the biological pump is determined by a combination of factors: seasonality; the composition of phytoplankton species; the fragmentation of particles by zooplankton; and the solubilization of particles by microbes. In addition, the efficiency of the biological pump is also dependent on the aggregation and disaggregation of organic-rich aggregates and interaction between POC aggregates and suspended “ballast” minerals. Ballast minerals (silicate and carbonate biominerals and dust) are the major constituents of particles that leave the ocean surface via sinking. They are typically denser than seawater and most organic matter, thus, providing a large part of the density differential needed for sinking of the particles. Aggregation of particles increases vertical flux by transforming small suspended particles into larger, rapidly-sinking ones. It plays an important role in the sedimentation of phytodetritus from surface layer phytoplankton blooms. As illustrated by Turner in 2015, the vertical flux of sinking particles is mainly due to a combination of fecal pellets, marine snow and direct sedimentation of phytoplankton blooms, which are typically composed of diatoms, coccolithophorids, dinoflagellates and other plankton. Marine snow comprises macroscopic organic aggregates >500 µm in size and originates from clumps of aggregated phytoplankton (phytodetritus), discarded appendicularian houses, fecal matter and other miscellaneous detrital particles, Appendicularians secrete mucous feeding structures or “houses” to collect food particles and discard and renew them up to 40 times a day . Discarded appendicularian houses are highly abundant (thousands per m3 in surface waters) and are microbial hotspots with high concentrations of bacteria, ciliates, flagellates and phytoplankton. These discarded houses are therefore among the most important sources of aggregates directly produced by zooplankton in terms of carbon cycling potential.
The composition of the phytoplankton community in the euphotic zone largely determines the quantity and quality of organic matter that sinks to depth. The main functional groups of marine phytoplankton that contribute to export production include nitrogen fixers (diazotrophic cyanobacteria), silicifiers (diatoms) and calcifiers (coccolithophores). Each of these phytoplankton groups differ in the size and composition of their cell walls and coverings, which influence their sinking velocities. For example, autotrophic picoplankton (0.2–2 µm in diameter)—which include taxa such as cyanobacteria (e.g., Prochlorococcus spp. and Synechococcus spp.) and prasinophytes (various genera of eukaryotes <2 µm)—are believed to contribute much less to carbon export from surface layers due to their small size, slow sinking velocities (<0.5 m/day) and rapid turnover in the microbial loop. In contrast, larger phytoplankton cells such as diatoms (2–500 µm in diameter) are very efficient in transporting carbon to depth by forming rapidly sinking aggregates. They are unique among phytoplankton, because they require Si in the form of silicic acid (Si(OH)4) for growth and production of their frustules, which are made of biogenic silica (bSiO2) and act as ballast. According to the reports of Miklasz and Denny, the sinking velocities of diatoms can range from 0.4 to 35 m/day. Analogously, coccolithophores are covered with calcium carbonate plates called 'coccoliths', which are central to aggregation and ballasting, producing sinking velocities of nearly 5 m/day. Although it has been assumed that picophytoplankton, characterizing vast oligotrophic areas of the ocean, do not contribute substantially to the particulate organic carbon (POC) flux, in 2007 Richardson and Jackson suggested that all phytoplankton, including picoplankton cells, contribute equally to POC export. They proposed alternative pathways for picoplankton carbon cycling, which rely on aggregation as a mechanism for both direct sinking (the export of picoplankton as POC) and mesozooplankton- or large filter feeder-mediated sinking of picoplankton-based production.
Zooplankton grazing
Sloppy feeding
In addition to linking primary producers to higher trophic levels in marine food webs, zooplankton also play an important role as “recyclers” of carbon and other nutrients that significantly impact marine biogeochemical cycles, including the biological pump. This is particularly the case with copepods and krill, and is especially important in oligotrophic waters of the open ocean. Through sloppy feeding, excretion, egestion, and leaching of fecal pellets, zooplankton release dissolved organic matter (DOM) which controls DOM cycling and supports the microbial loop. Absorption efficiency, respiration, and prey size all further complicate how zooplankton are able to transform and deliver carbon to the deep ocean.
Excretion and sloppy feeding (the physical breakdown of food source) make up 80% and 20% of crustacean zooplankton-mediated DOM release respectively. In the same study, fecal pellet leaching was found to be an insignificant contributor. For protozoan grazers, DOM is released primarily through excretion and egestion and gelatinous zooplankton can also release DOM through the production of mucus. Leaching of fecal pellets can extend from hours to days after initial egestion and its effects can vary depending on food concentration and quality. Various factors can affect how much DOM is released from zooplankton individuals or populations.
Fecal pellets
The fecal pellets of zooplankton can be important vehicles for the transfer of particulate organic carbon (POC) to the deep ocean, often making large contributions to the carbon sequestration. The size distribution of the copepod community indicates high numbers of small fecal pellets are produced in the epipelagic. However, small fecal pellets are rare in the deeper layers, suggesting they are not transferred efficiently to depth. This means small fecal pellets make only minor contributions to fecal pellet fluxes in the meso- and bathypelagic, particularly in terms of carbon. In a study is focussed on the Scotia Sea, which contains some of the most productive regions in the Southern Ocean, the dominant fecal pellets in the upper mesopelagic were cylindrical and elliptical, while ovoid fecal pellets were dominant in the bathypelagic. The change in fecal pellet morphology, as well as size distribution, points to the repacking of surface fecal pellets in the mesopelagic and in situ production in the lower meso- and bathypelagic, which may be augmented by inputs of fecal pellets via zooplankton vertical migrations. This suggests the flux of carbon to the deeper layers within the Southern Ocean is strongly modulated by meso- and bathypelagic zooplankton, meaning that the community structure in these zones has a major impact on the efficiency of the fecal pellet transfer to ocean depths.
Absorption efficiency (AE) is the proportion of food absorbed by plankton that determines how available the consumed organic materials are in meeting the required physiological demands. Depending on the feeding rate and prey composition, variations in AE may lead to variations in fecal pellet production, and thus regulates how much organic material is recycled back to the marine environment. Low feeding rates typically lead to high AE and small, dense pellets, while high feeding rates typically lead to low AE and larger pellets with more organic content. Another contributing factor to DOM release is respiration rate. Physical factors such as oxygen availability, pH, and light conditions may affect overall oxygen consumption and how much carbon is loss from zooplankton in the form of respired CO2. The relative sizes of zooplankton and prey also mediate how much carbon is released via sloppy feeding. Smaller prey are ingested whole, whereas larger prey may be fed on more “sloppily”, that is more biomatter is released through inefficient consumption. There is also evidence that diet composition can impact nutrient release, with carnivorous diets releasing more dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and ammonium than omnivorous diets.
Microbial loop
Bacterial lysis
The microbial loop describes a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via its incorporation into bacterial biomass, and then coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton. The term microbial loop was coined by Farooq Azam, Tom Fenchel et al. in 1983 to include the role played by bacteria in the carbon and nutrient cycles of the marine environment. In general, dissolved organic carbon is introduced into the ocean environment from bacterial lysis, the leakage or exudation of fixed carbon from phytoplankton (e.g., mucilaginous exopolymer from diatoms), sudden cell senescence, sloppy feeding by zooplankton, the excretion of waste products by aquatic animals, or the breakdown or dissolution of organic particles from terrestrial plants and soils. Bacteria in the microbial loop decompose this particulate detritus to utilize this energy-rich matter for growth. Since more than 95% of organic matter in marine ecosystems consists of polymeric, high molecular weight (HMW) compounds (e.g., protein, polysaccharides, lipids), only a small portion of total dissolved organic matter (DOM) is readily utilizable to most marine organisms at higher trophic levels. This means that dissolved organic carbon is not available directly to most marine organisms; marine bacteria introduce this organic carbon into the food web, resulting in additional energy becoming available to higher trophic levels.
Viral shunt
As much as 25% of the primary production from phytoplankton in the global oceans may be recycled within the microbial loop through viral shunting. The viral shunt is a mechanism whereby marine viruses prevent microbial particulate organic matter (POM) from migrating up trophic levels by recycling them into dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can be readily taken up by microorganisms. The DOM recycled by the viral shunt pathway is comparable to the amount generated by the other main sources of marine DOM. Viruses can easily infect microorganisms in the microbial loop due to their relative abundance compared to microbes. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic mortality contribute to carbon nutrient recycling through cell lysis. There is evidence as well of nitrogen (specifically ammonium) regeneration. This nutrient recycling helps stimulates microbial growth.
Macroorganisms
Jelly fall
Jelly-falls are marine carbon cycling events whereby gelatinous zooplankton, primarily cnidarians, sink to the seafloor and enhance carbon and nitrogen fluxes via rapidly sinking particulate organic matter. These events provide nutrition to benthic megafauna and bacteria. Jelly-falls have been implicated as a major “gelatinous pathway” for the sequestration of labile biogenic carbon through the biological pump. These events are common in protected areas with high levels of primary production and water quality suitable to support cnidarian species. These areas include estuaries and several studies have been conducted in fjords of Norway.
Whale pump
Whales and other marine mammals also enhance primary productivity in their feeding areas by concentrating nitrogen near the surface through the release of flocculent fecal plumes. For example, whales and seals may be responsible for replenishing more nitrogen in the Gulf of Maine's euphotic zone than the input of all rivers combined. This upward whale pump played a much larger role before industrial fishing devastated marine mammal stocks, when recycling of nitrogen was likely more than three times the atmospheric nitrogen input.
The biological pump mediates the removal of carbon and nitrogen from the euphotic zone through the downward flux of aggregates, feces, and vertical migration of invertebrates and fish. Copepods and other zooplankton produce sinking fecal pellets and contribute to downward transport of dissolved and particulate organic matter by respiring and excreting at depth during migration cycles, thus playing an important role in the export of nutrients (N, P, and Fe) from surface waters.
Zooplankton feed in the euphotic zone and export nutrients via sinking fecal pellets, and vertical migration. Fish typically release nutrients at the same depth at which they feed. Excretion for marine mammals, tethered to the surface for respiration, is expected to be shallower in the water column than where they feed.
Marine mammals provide important ecosystem services. On a global scale, they can influence climate, through fertilization events and the export of carbon from surface waters to the deep sea through sinking whale carcasses. In coastal areas, whales retain nutrients locally, increasing ecosystem productivity and perhaps raising the carrying capacity for other marine consumers, including commercial fish species. It has been estimated that, in terms of carbon sequestration, one whale is equivalent to thousands of trees.
Vertical migrations
Diel vertically migrating krill, salps, smaller zooplankton and fish can actively transport carbon to depth by consuming POC in the surface layer at night, and metabolising it at their daytime, mesopelagic residence depths. Depending on species life history, active transport may occur on a seasonal basis as well.
Without vertical migration the biological pump wouldn't be nearly as efficient. Organisms migrate up to feed at night so when they migrate back to depth during the day they defecate large sinking fecal pellets. Whilst some larger fecal pellets can sink quite fast, the speed that organisms move back to depth is still faster. At night organisms are in the top 100 metres of the water column, but during the day they move down to between 800 and 1000 metres. If organisms were to defecate at the surface it would take the fecal pellets days to reach the depth that they reach in a matter of hours. Therefore, by releasing fecal pellets at depth they have almost 1000 metres less to travel to get to the deep ocean. This is something known as active transport. The organisms are playing a more active role in moving organic matter down to depths. Because a large majority of the deep sea, especially marine microbes, depends on nutrients falling down, the quicker they can reach the ocean floor the better.
Zooplankton and salps play a large role in the active transport of fecal pellets. 15–50% of zooplankton biomass is estimated to migrate, accounting for the transport of 5–45% of particulate organic nitrogen to depth. Salps are large gelatinous plankton that can vertically migrate 800 metres and eat large amounts of food at the surface. They have a very long gut retention time, so fecal pellets usually are released at maximum depth. Salps are also known for having some of the largest fecal pellets. Because of this they have a very fast sinking rate, small detritus particles are known to aggregate on them. This makes them sink that much faster. So while currently there is still much research being done on why organisms vertically migrate, it is clear that vertical migration plays a large role in the active transport of dissolved organic matter to depth.
Lipid pump
The lipid pump sequesters carbon from the ocean's surface to deeper waters via lipids associated with overwintering vertically migratory zooplankton. Lipids are a class of hydrocarbon rich, nitrogen and phosphorus deficient compounds essential for cellular structures. The lipid associated carbon enters the deep ocean as carbon dioxide produced by respiration of lipid reserves and as organic matter from the mortality of zooplankton. Compared to the more general biological pump, the lipid pump also results in a lipid shunt, where other nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus that are consumed in excess must be excreted back to the surface environment, and thus are not removed from the surface mixed layer of the ocean. This means that the carbon transported by the lipid pump does not limit the availability of essential nutrients in the ocean surface. Carbon sequestration via the lipid pump is therefore decoupled from nutrient removal, allowing carbon uptake by oceanic primary production to continue. In the Biological Pump, nutrient removal is always coupled to carbon sequestration; primary production is limited as carbon and nutrients are transported to depth together in the form of organic matter. The contribution of the lipid pump to the sequestering of carbon in the deeper waters of the ocean can be substantial: the carbon transported below 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) by copepods of the genus Calanus in the Arctic Ocean almost equals that transported below the same depth annually by particulate organic carbon (POC) in this region. A significant fraction of this transported carbon would not return to the surface due to respiration and mortality. Research is ongoing to more precisely estimate the amount that remains at depth. The export rate of the lipid pump may vary from 1–9.3 g C m−2 y−1 across temperate and subpolar regions containing seasonally-migrating zooplankton. The role of zooplankton, and particularly copepods, in the food web is crucial to the survival of higher trophic level organisms whose primary source of nutrition is copepods. With warming oceans and increasing melting of ice caps due to climate change, the organisms associated with the lipid pump may be affected, thus influencing the survival of many commercially important fish and endangered marine mammals. As a new and previously unquantified component of oceanic carbon sequestration, further research on the lipid pump can improve the accuracy and overall understanding of carbon fluxes in global oceanic systems.
Bioluminescent shunt
Luminous bacteria in light organ symbioses are successively acquired by host (squid, fish) from the seawater while they are juveniles, then regularly released into the ocean.
In the diagram on the right, depending on the light organ position, luminous bacteria are released from their guts into fecal pellets or directly into the seawater (step 1). Motile luminous bacteria colonize organic matter sinking along the water column. Bioluminescent bacteria colonising fecal pellets and particles influence zooplankton consumption rates. Such visual markers increase detection (“bait hypothesis”), attraction and finally predation by upper trophic levels (step 2). In the mesopelagic, zooplankton and their predators feed on sinking luminous particles and fecal pellets, which form either aggregates (repackaging) of faster sinking rates or fragment organic matter (due to sloppy feeding) with slower sinking rates (step 3).
Filter feeders also aggregate sinking organic matter without particular visual detection and selection of luminous matter. Diel (and seasonal) vertical migrators feeding on luminous food metabolize and release glowing fecal pellets from the surface to the mesopelagic zone (step 4). This implies bioluminescent bacteria dispersion at large spatial scales, for zooplankton or even some fish actively swimming long distances. Luminous bacteria attached to particles sink down to the seafloor, and sediment can be resuspended by oceanographic physical conditions (step 5) and consumed by epi-benthic organisms. Instruments are (a) plankton net, (b) fish net, (c) Niskin water sampler, (d) bathyphotometer, (e) sediment traps, (f) autonomous underwater vehicles, (g) photomultiplier module, (h) astrophysics optical modules ANTARES and (i–j) remotely operated vehicles.
Quantification
The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.
As the biological pump plays an important role in the Earth's carbon cycle, significant effort is spent quantifying its strength. However, because they occur as a result of poorly constrained ecological interactions usually at depth, the processes that form the biological pump are difficult to measure. A common method is to estimate primary production fuelled by nitrate and ammonium as these nutrients have different sources that are related to the remineralisation of sinking material. From these it is possible to derive the so-called f-ratio, a proxy for the local strength of the biological pump. Applying the results of local studies to the global scale is complicated by the role the ocean's circulation plays in different ocean regions.
Anthropogenic changes
Changes in land use, the combustion of fossil fuels, and the production of cement have led to an increase in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. At present, about one third (approximately 2 Pg C y−1 = 2 × 1015 grams of carbon per year) of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 may be entering the ocean, but this is quite uncertain. Some research suggests that a link between elevated CO2 and marine primary production exists.
Climate change may affect the biological pump in the future by warming and stratifying the surface ocean. It is believed that this could decrease the supply of nutrients to the euphotic zone, reducing primary production there. Also, changes in the ecological success of calcifying organisms caused by ocean acidification may affect the biological pump by altering the strength of the hard tissues pump. This may then have a "knock-on" effect on the soft tissues pump because calcium carbonate acts to ballast sinking organic material.
The second diagram on the right shows some possible effects of sea ice decline and permafrost thaw on Arctic carbon fluxes. On land, plants take up carbon while microorganisms in the soil produce methane and respire CO2. Lakes are net emitters of methane, and organic and inorganic carbon (dissolved and particulate) flow into the ocean through freshwater systems. In the ocean, methane can be released from thawing subsea permafrost, and CO2 is absorbed due to an undersaturation of CO2 in the water compared with the atmosphere. In addition, multiple fluxes are closely associated to sea ice. Current best estimates of atmospheric fluxes are given in Tg C year−1, where available. Note that the emission estimate for lakes is for the area North of ~50º N rather than the narrower definition of arctic tundra for the other terrestrial fluxes. When available, uncertainty ranges are shown in brackets. The arrows do not represent the size of each flux.
The biological pump is thought to have played significant roles in atmospheric CO2 fluctuations during past glacial-interglacial periods. However, it is not yet clear how the biological pump will respond to future climate change. For such predictions to be reasonable, it is important to first decipher the response of phytoplankton, one of the key components of the biological pump to future changes in atmospheric CO2. Due to their phylogenetic diversity, different phytoplankton taxa will likely respond to climate change in different ways. For instance, a decrease in the abundance of diatom is expected due to increased stratification in the future ocean. Diatoms are highly efficient in transporting carbon to depths by forming large, rapidly sinking aggregates and their reduced numbers could in turn lead to decreased carbon export.
Further, decreased ocean pH due to ocean acidification may thwart the ability of coccolithophores to generate calcareous plates, potentially affecting the biological pump; however, it appears that some species are more sensitive than others. Thus, future changes in the relative abundance of these or other phytoplankton taxa could have a marked impact on total ocean productivity, subsequently affecting ocean biogeochemistry and carbon storage. A 2015 study determined that coccolithophore concentrations in the North Atlantic have increased by an order of magnitude since the 1960s and an increase in absorbed CO2, as well as temperature, were modeled to be the most likely cause of this increase. In a 2017 study, Jensen et al. used species distribution modelling (SDM) to predict the future global distribution of two phytoplankton species important to the biological pump: the diatom Chaetoceros diadema and the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. They employed environmental data described in the IPCC Representative Concentration Pathways scenario 8.5, which predicts radiative forcing in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values. Their modelling results predicted that the total ocean area covered by C. diadema and E. huxleyi would decline by 8% and 16%, respectively, under the examined climate scenario. They predicted changes in the range and distribution of these two phytoplankton species under these future ocean conditions, if realized, might result in reduced contribution to carbon sequestration via the biological pump. In 2019, a study indicated that at current rates of seawater acidification, we could see Antarctic phytoplanktons smaller and less effective at storing carbon before the end of the century.
Needed research
Multidisciplinary observations are still needed in the deep water column to properly understand the biological pump:
Physics: stratification affects particle sinking; understanding the origin of the particles and the residence time of the DIC from particle remineralization in the deep ocean requires measurement of advection and mixing.
Biogeochemistry: export/mixing down of particulate and dissolved organic matter from the surface layer determines labile organic matter arriving at the seafloor, which is either respired by seafloor biota or stored for longer times in the sediment.
Biology and ecosystems: zooplankton and microorganisms break down and remineralize sinking particles in the water column. Exported organic matter feeds all water column and benthic biota (zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, microbes) sustaining their biomass, density, and biodiversity.
See also
f-ratio (oceanography)
Lysocline
Mooring (oceanography)
Ocean acidification
Apparent oxygen utilisation
References
Aquatic ecology
Biological oceanography
Carbon cycle
Chemical oceanography | [
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|
240232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDD | KDD | KDD may refer to:
Khuzdar Airport (IATA code: KDD)
Knowledge discovery in databases, a form of data mining
KDD – Kriminaldauerdienst (Berlin Crime Squad), a German television series broadcast from 2007 to 2010
KDD Group, a Ukrainian real estate development company
KDDI, a Japanese telecommunications company, formerly known as KDD
Khuzdar Airport (IATA: KDD), Balochistan, Pakistan
Yankunytjatjara dialect (ISO 639:kdd)
See also
Special Interest Group on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (SIGKDD) | [
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|
240233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MG%2030 | MG 30 | The Maschinengewehr 30, or MG 30 was a German-designed machine gun that saw some service with various armed forces in the 1930s. It was also modified to become the standard German aircraft gun as the MG 15 and MG 17. It is most notable as the design pattern that led to the MG 34 and MG 42, and thus is one of the major ancestors of many of the weapons in service which would later find widespread use into the 21st century.
History
Development of the MG 30 took place under the direction of Louis Stange at Rheinmetall's Sömmerda office. However actual production of machine guns was prohibited in Germany under the Versailles Treaty. Rheinmetall circumvented the provisions by acquiring the majority shareholding of the Swiss manufacturer Waffenfabrik Solothurn AG and relocating production there. The goal was to acquire orders for the rearmament of the Reichswehr, which was modernizing its arsenal.
The design was rejected by the German Reichswehr which adopted the MG 13. Rheinmetall then turned to other companies and licensed the design to Solothurn in Switzerland and Steyr-Daimler-Puch in Austria. Production soon followed, entering the armed forces of both countries as the Solothurn S2-200 and Maschinengewehr Solothurn 1930, or MG 30, respectively. 2000–3000 were also purchased by Hungary, where it was known as the Solothurn 31.M Golyószóró.
Design
The gun is an air-cooled, recoil-operated design, firing standard 7.92×57mm Mauser ammunition, fed from a slightly curved 30-round magazine inserted in the left side of the weapon. It uses a locking ring, which is located at the end of the barrel extension, to lock the bolt. Inside the locking ring, there are six sets of locking lugs, arranged as an interrupted thread, which mate with lugs cut at the rear of the bolt. Rotation of the ring, which locks and unlocks the bolt, is controlled in a mount on the outside of the ring. The gun is of relatively simple design, with most parts having a round cross-section. The tubular receiver is an extension of the barrel jacket. The butt hosts a tube which contains the return spring and its guide.
The MG 30 fired both in semi-automatic and full automatic mode depending on how far the two-stage trigger is pulled, with a rate of fire between 600 and 800 rounds per minute in full-auto. It included a folding bipod attached two-thirds down the barrel.
Variants
Rheinmetall's Borsig office modified the MG 30 design for use as an aircraft gun, producing the Flugzeugmaschinengewehr 15, or MG 15 machine gun. The primary changes were the use of a double-drum magazine holding 75 rounds, and the removal of the stock for use inside the cramped quarters of a bomber.
Further modification in 1936 led to the MG 17, which included provisions for belt-fed ammo in addition to the drums, increased the rate of fire to about 1,200 rpm, and with its design incorporating a closed-bolt firing cycle, was suitable for use on a synchronization gear system-equipped aircraft for shooting through the aircraft's own propeller.
7.92×57mm weapons were no longer considered useful by the Luftwaffe once enough MG 131s were available. The partial armour protection of most new military aircraft had caught up with the 7.92×57mm SmK cartridge by 1940. Many MG 15, MG 17 and more modern 7.92 mm MG 81 were then used by forces on the ground, especially since 1944. Many were modified with a bipod and simple metal stock, and other belt-fed MG 17 and MG 81 were built into dedicated anti-air machine gun twin and quad mounts.
Forty-seven of these machine guns were made in 7×57mm Mauser for El Salvador.
Users
: Solothurn 31.M Golyószóró
See also
Kg/1940 Light machine gun
MG 3, successor of MG 42.
MG 13, predecessor
MG 15, developed from the MG 30.
MG 34, direct successor of MG 30.
MG 42, successor of MG 34 still largely based on original MG 30.
MG 710, also known as MG 55.
MG 81 machine gun
Rheinmetall
Steyr-Daimler-Puch
Weapons employed in the Slovak-Hungarian War
References
External links
8 mm machine guns
7.92×57mm Mauser machine guns
Light machine guns
Machine guns of Austria
Machine guns of Switzerland
World War II infantry weapons of Germany
World War II machine guns
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s | [
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|
240234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20think%20tanks | List of think tanks | This article is a list of notable think tanks sorted by country.
United Nations
United Nations University (UNU)
European Union
European Council on Foreign Relations
Leap2020
OneEurope
Albania
Albanian Institute for International Studies
Argentina
Balseiro Institute
Institute of Scientific and Technical Research for Defense
Leloir Institute
National Agricultural Technology Institute
National Atomic Energy Commission
National Institute of Industrial Technology
National Scientific and Technical Research Council
Australia
Australia Institute (TAI)
Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA)
Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI)
Brisbane Institute
Committee for Economic Development of Australia
Centre for Independent Studies
Centre for Policy Development
Development Policy Centre
East Asian Bureau of Economic Research (EABER)
Evatt Foundation
Grattan Institute
H.R. Nicholls Society
Institute of Public Affairs (Australia) (IPA)
Lowy Institute for International Policy
Mannkal Economic Education Foundation
The McKell Institute
Menzies Research Centre
Per Capita
Prosper Australia
Sydney Institute
Strategic and Defence Studies Centre (SDSC)
United States Studies Centre
Western Australia Policy Forum
Azerbaijan
Center for Economic and Social Development (CESD)
Center for Strategic Studies under the President of Azerbaijan
Bangladesh
Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS)
Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs (BILIA)
Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies (BIPSS)
Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD)
Making Our Economy Right (MOER)
Belgium
Bruegel
Centre for European Policy Studies
Centre for the New Europe
Egmont
European Centre on the International Political Economy
European Policy Centre
Friends of Europe
International Crisis Group
Itinera Institute
Liberales
Nova Civitas
Vlaamse Volksbeweging
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Foreign Policy Initiative BH
Brazil
Fundação Getúlio Vargas
Institute of Applied Economic Research
Canada
Atlantic Institute for Market Studies
Atlantic Provinces Economic Council
Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada
Broadbent Institute
Canada West Foundation
Caledon Institute of Social Policy
Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives
Canadian Global Affairs Institute
Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
Canadian International Council
Canadian Tax Foundation
Centre for International Governance Innovation
Conference Board of Canada
Council of Canadians
C. D. Howe Institute
Fraser Institute
Frontier Centre for Public Policy
Institute for Liberal Studies
Institute for Research on Public Policy
International Institute for Sustainable Development
Justice Centre for Constitutional Freedoms
Macdonald-Laurier Institute
Montreal Economic Institute
Mowat Centre
North-South Institute
Pembina Institute
Public Policy Forum
Wellesley Institute
Chile
Centro de Estudios Públicos
Libertad y Desarrollo
China
China Center for International Economic Exchanges
China Development Institute
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences
State Information Center of China
Taihe Institute
Costa Rica
Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales
Czech Republic
Institute for Social and Economic Analyses
CEVRO
Denmark
CEPOS
Copenhagen Institute
Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies
Egypt
Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies
Finland
Crisis Management Initiative
Demos Helsinki
European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats
Finnish Institute of International Affairs
Research Institute of the Finnish Economy
Åland Islands Peace Institute
France
Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales (CEPII)
Cercle de l'Oratoire
Conférence Olivaint
European Union Institute for Security Studies
Gracques
Groupement de recherche et d'études pour la civilisation européenne
Institut Choiseul for International Politics and Geoeconomics
Institut français des relations internationales (IFRI)
Institut Montaigne
Jacques Delors Institute
Mont Pelerin Society
Saint-Simon Foundation
Sport and Citizenship
Georgia
Georgian Foundation for Strategic and International Studies
New Economic School – Georgia
Germany
Atlantic Community
Bundesakademie für Sicherheitspolitik
Bonn International Center for Conversion
Centre for European Policy
Deutsche Gesellschaft für auswärtige Politik
Friedrich Naumann Foundation
Friedrich Ebert Foundation
German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU)
German Institute for Economic Research (DIW)
German Institute for International and Security Affairs
German Institute of Global and Area Studies
Hanns Seidel Foundation
Heinrich Böll Foundation
Ifo Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (IFO)
Konrad Adenauer Foundation
Peace Research Institute Frankfurt
Rosa Luxemburg Foundation
Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP)
Stiftung Neue Verantwortung (SNV)
Walter Eucken Institut
Greece
Centre of Planning and Economic Research (KEPE)
Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP)
International Centre for Black Sea Studies (ICBSS)
Hong Kong
Bauhinia Foundation Research Centre
Central Policy Unit – a government department
Civic Exchange
HKGolden50
Hong Kong Democratic Foundation
The Lion Rock Institute
New Century Forum
One Country Two Systems Research Institute
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|
240237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quack | Quack | Quack, The Quack or Quacks may refer to:
People
Quack Davis, American baseball player
Hendrick Peter Godfried Quack (1834–1917), Dutch economist and historian
Joachim Friedrich Quack (born 1966), German Egyptologist
Johannes Quack (born 1959), German ethnologist
Martin Quack (born 1948), German physical chemist
Niels Quack (born 1980), Swiss and German engineer
Sigrid Quack (born 1958), German social scientist
Film
Quacks (TV series), a British comedy series about quackery
The Quack (), a 1982 Polish drama film
Znachor (1937 film), a Polish drama film
O. K. Quack, a character in the Scrooge McDuck universe
Quack, a duck in Peep and the Big Wide World, a children's TV series
Music
Quack (album), an album by the American-Canadian group Duck Sauce
The Quack (EP), a 2013 album by Australian electronic music project What So Not
Sport
Quack (horse) (1969–1995), an American Thoroughbred racehorse
The Quack (horse), a 19th-century Australian Thoroughbred racehorse
Other uses
Quack (medicine), a person who practices quackery, the promotion of unproven or fraudulent medical practices
Quack (sound), onomatopoeia for the sound made by ducks
Quack grass (Elymus repens), a species of grass
Quack.com, a company based in Silicon Valley
Quack, a portmanteau of queen and jack; see Glossary of contract bridge terms § Q | [
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|
240241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone%20%28Canada%29 | Allophone (Canada) | In Canada, an allophone is a resident whose mother tongue or home language is neither French nor English. The term parallels anglophone and francophone, which designate people whose mother tongues are English and French, respectively. Native speakers of aboriginal languages are generally not treated as allophones.
Origin of term
The word "allophone" (from Greek "speaking a foreign tongue") is formed from the Greek roots (), meaning "other", and (), meaning "sound" or "voice".
The term became popularized during the Quiet Revolution as French Canadian society in Quebec sought to integrate immigrants, most of whom had traditionally integrated into the English-speaking community. As integrating immigrants was deemed essential to assure the survival of French-speaking Quebec in light of plummeting birth rates, demographers devised this category to monitor the integration of immigrants into French- and English-speaking communities. Because allophones often adopt English, French or both languages at home or learn one language before another, they can be grouped into English or French communities based on home language or first official language learned.
Demographics
In 2006, 20% of the population of Canada was allophone.
Ontario
In 2001, 24.2% of the population of Ontario was allophone.
Quebec
Allophones constitute an increasing share of the Quebec population and are the main source of population increase in the province, reflecting both increased levels of immigration, declining birthrates among established anglophone and francophone populations, and a shift in immigration from English-speaking countries to Asia and the Americas. In 1971, allophones were 6.6% of the population; by 2001, this had increased to 10.0%. Speakers of Arabic, Spanish and Haitian Creole experienced the greatest growth from 1996 to 2001.
Increasing numbers of allophones speak French at home: about 20.4% of allophones in the province reported that they spoke French most often at home in 2001, compared with 16.6% in 1996 and 15.4% in 1991. Most allophones live in Montreal, Quebec's largest metropolitan area. They tend to migrate out of the province: between 1996 and 2001, over 19,170 migrated to other provinces; 18,810 who migrated to Ontario.
Most allophone students in Quebec attend francophone schools.
See also
Official bilingualism in Canada
Languages of Canada
Notes
External links
Government of Canada, Secretariat for Official Language Minority Communities
Political terminology in Canada
Languages of Canada
Sociolinguistics | [
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|
240244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological%20interaction | Biological interaction | In ecology, a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like pollination and predation, or long-term; both often strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis. Symbioses range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, harmful to both partners. Interactions can be indirect, through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies. This type of relationship can be shown by net effect based on individual effects on both organisms arising out of relationship.
Several recent studies have suggested non-trophic species interactions such as habitat modification and mutualisms can be important determinants of food web structures. However, it remains unclear whether these findings generalize across ecosystems, and whether non-trophic interactions affect food webs randomly, or affect specific trophic levels or functional groups.
History
Although biological interactions, more or less individually, were studied earlier, Edward Haskell (1949) gave an integrative approach to the thematic, proposing a classification of "co-actions", later adopted by biologists as "interactions". Close and long-term interactions are described as symbiosis; symbioses that are mutually beneficial are called mutualistic.
Short-term interactions
Short-term interactions, including predation and pollination, are extremely important in ecology and evolution. These are short-lived in terms of the duration of a single interaction: a predator kills and eats a prey; a pollinator transfers pollen from one flower to another; but they are extremely durable in terms of their influence on the evolution of both partners. As a result, the partners coevolve.
Predation
In predation, one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or smell. Many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency. Predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, causing them to develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage and defensive spines and chemicals. Predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least the Cambrian period.
Over the last several decades, microbiologists have discovered a number of fascinating microbes that survive by their ability to prey upon others. Several of the best examples are members of the genera Daptobacter (Epsilonproteobacteria), Bdellovibrio, and Vampirococcus.
Bdellovibrios are active hunters that are vigorously motile, swimming about looking for susceptible Gram-negative bacterial prey. Upon sensing such a cell, a bdellovibrio cell swims faster until it collides with the prey cell. It then bores a hole through the outer membrane of its prey and enters the periplasmic space. As it grows, it forms a long filament that eventually forms septae and produces progeny bacteria. Lysis of the prey cell releases new bdellovibrio cells. Bdellovibrios will not attack mammalian cells, and Gram-negative prey bacteria have never been observed to acquire resistance to bdellovibrios.
This has raised interest in the use of these bacteria as a "probiotic" to treat infected wounds. Although this has not yet been tried, one can imagine that with the rise in antibiotic-resistant pathogens, such forms of treatments may be considered viable alternatives.
Pollination
In pollination, pollinators including insects (entomophily), some birds (ornithophily), and some bats, transfer pollen from a male flower part to a female flower part, enabling fertilisation, in return for a reward of pollen or nectar. The partners have coevolved through geological time; in the case of insects and flowering plants, the coevolution has continued for over 100 million years. Insect-pollinated flowers are adapted with shaped structures, bright colours, patterns, scent, nectar, and sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and deposit pollen, and reward them for the service. Pollinator insects like bees are adapted to detect flowers by colour, pattern, and scent, to collect and transport pollen (such as with bristles shaped to form pollen baskets on their hind legs), and to collect and process nectar (in the case of honey bees, making and storing honey). The adaptations on each side of the interaction match the adaptations on the other side, and have been shaped by natural selection on their effectiveness of pollination.
Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living (biotic) vectors like birds. Seeds can be dispersed away from the parent plant individually or collectively, as well as dispersed in both space and time. The patterns of seed dispersal are determined in large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as migration patterns and species interactions. There are five main modes of seed dispersal: gravity, wind, ballistic, water, and by animals. Some plants are serotinous and only disperse their seeds in response to an environmental stimulus. Dispersal involves the letting go or detachment of a diaspore from the main parent plant.
Symbiosis: long-term interactions
The six possible types of symbiosis are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, neutralism, amensalism, and competition. These are distinguished by the degree of benefit or harm they cause to each partner.
Mutualism
Mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit, for example an increased carrying capacity. Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation. Mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism. One or both species involved in the interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the other species. Though mutualism has historically received less attention than other interactions such as predation, it is an important subject in ecology. Examples include cleaning symbiosis, gut flora, Müllerian mimicry, and nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the root nodules of legumes.
Commensalism
Commensalism benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. It occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with another organism by which the host organism is not affected. A good example is a remora living with a manatee. Remoras feed on the manatee's faeces. The manatee is not affected by this interaction, as the remora does not deplete the manatee's resources.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The parasite either feeds on the host, or, in the case of intestinal parasites, consumes some of its food.
Neutralism
Neutralism (a term introduced by Eugene Odum) describes the relationship between two species that interact but do not affect each other. Examples of true neutralism are virtually impossible to prove; the term is in practice used to describe situations where interactions are negligible or insignificant.
Amensalism
Amensalism (a term introduced by Haskell) is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself. Amensalism describes the adverse effect that one organism has on another organism (figure 32.1). This is a unidirectional process based on the release of a specific compound by one organism that has a negative effect on another. A classic example of amensalism is the microbial production of antibiotics that can inhibit or kill other, susceptible microorganisms.
A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.
Amensalisms can be quite complex. Attine ants (ants belonging to a New World tribe) are able to take advantage of an interaction between an actinomycete and a parasitic fungus in the genus Escovopsis. This amensalistic relationship enables the ant to maintain a mutualism with members of another fungal genus, Leucocoprinus. Amazingly, these ants cultivate a garden of Leucocoprinus fungi for their own nourishment. To prevent the parasitic fungus Escovopsis from decimating their fungal garden, the ants also promote the growth of an actinomycete of the genus Pseudonocardia, which produces an antimicrobial compound that inhibits the growth of the Escovopsis fungi.
Competition
Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Competition is often for a resource such as food, water, or territory in limited supply, or for access to females for reproduction. Competition among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition. According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources should either adapt or die out. According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a critical role in natural selection.
Non-trophic interactions
Some examples of non-trophic interactions are habitat modification, mutualism and competition for space. It has been suggested recently that non-trophic interactions can indirectly affect food web topology and trophic dynamics by affecting the species in the network and the strength of trophic links. A number of recent theoretical studies have emphasized the need to integrate trophic and non-trophic interactions in ecological network analyses. The few empirical studies that address this suggest food web structures (network topologies) can be strongly influenced by species interactions outside the trophic network. However these studies include only a limited number of coastal systems, and it remains unclear to what extent these findings can be generalized. Whether non-trophic interactions typically affect specific species, trophic levels, or functional groups within the food web, or, alternatively, indiscriminately mediate species and their trophic interactions throughout the network has yet to be resolved. Some studies suggest sessile species with generally low trophic levels seem to benefit more than others from non-trophic facilitation, while other studies suggest facilitation benefits higher trophic and more mobile species as well.
A 2018 study by Borst et al. tested the general hypothesis that foundation species — spatially dominant habitat-structuring organisms – modify food webs by enhancing their size as indicated by species number, and their complexity as indicated by link density, via facilitation of species, regardless of ecosystem type (see diagram). Additionally, they tested that any change in food web properties caused by foundation species occurs via random facilitation of species throughout the entire food web or via targeted facilitation of specific species that belong to certain trophic levels or functional groups. It was found that species at the base of the food web are less strongly, and carnivores are more strongly facilitated in foundation species' food webs than predicted based on random facilitation, resulting in a higher mean trophic level and a longer average chain length. This indicates foundation species strongly enhance food web complexity through non-trophic facilitation of species across the entire trophic network.
Although foundation species are part of the food web like any other species (e.g. as prey or predator), numerous studies have shown that they strongly facilitate the associated community by creating new habitat and alleviating physical stress. This form of non-trophic facilitation by foundation species has been found to occur across a wide range of ecosystems and environmental conditions. In harsh coastal zones, corals, kelps, mussels, oysters, seagrasses, mangroves, and salt marsh plants facilitate organisms by attenuating currents and waves, providing aboveground structure for shelter and attachment, concentrating nutrients, and/or reducing desiccation stress during low tide exposure. In more benign systems, foundation species such as the trees in a forest, shrubs and grasses in savannahs, and macrophytes in freshwater systems, have also been found to play a major habitat-structuring role. Ultimately, all foundation species increase habitat complexity and availability, thereby partitioning and enhancing the niche space available to other species.
See also
Altruism
Animal sexual behaviour
Biological pump – interaction between marine animals and carbon forms
Cheating (biology)
Collective animal behavior
Detritivory
Epibiont
Food chain
Kin selection
Microbial cooperation
Microbial loop
Quorum sensing
Spite (game theory)
Swarm behaviour
Notes
References
Further reading
Snow, B. K. & Snow, D. W. (1988). Birds and berries: a study of an ecological interaction. Poyser, London
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|
240245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20Resources%20Inc. | Data Resources Inc. | Data Resources Inc or DRI was co-founded in 1969 by Donald Marron and Otto Eckstein. Marron is best known as the former CEO of PaineWebber and founder of Lightyear Capital. Eckstein was a Harvard University economics professor, economic consultant to Lyndon Baines Johnson and member of the Council of Economic Advisors; he is best known for the development of the theory of core inflation.
DRI became the largest non-governmental distributor of economic data in the world. The company also built the largest macroeconometric model of its era. Allen Sinai was a leading architect. Richard Hokenson did much of the maintenance work.
DRI was a major customer of Burroughs Computer. During the 1970s era of rapid expansion, DRI used the Burroughs 6700 and 7700 mainframes. DRI also developed innovative software, including the PRIMA and AID database languages; EPL Econometric Programming Language; MODSIM for solving models; and MODEL for solving econometric models in particular. Later the functionality of all these programs was merged into the EPS Econometric Programming System by the chief architect of all this software, Robert P. Lacey. Other programmers in this effort included John Ahlstrom, Greg George, and Joe Polak.
The DRI Review was published monthly and summarized what the models said for the economic outlook. This information was presented in outlook conferences. DRI also held educational seminars.
General corporate timeline
1979: Eckstein and Marron sold DRI to McGraw-Hill for over $100 million Joseph Kasputys was named president in 1981.
1984: After Eckstein's death, DRI was slow to adopt new technology. DRI was wed to mainframe computers when the industry was moving this kind of analytic work to personal computers.
1987: Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates (WEFA) merged with Chase Econometrics, a competitor to DRI and WEFA.
2001: DRI merged with WEFA to form Global Insight.
2008: Global Insight was bought by IHS Inc., thus inheriting 50 years of experience and more than 200 full-time economists, country risk analysts, and consultants.
External links
McGraw-Hill company website
Global Insight company website
Otto Eckstein C.V. at the New School NYC
References
Defunct companies of the United States
Financial data vendors
Defunct financial data vendors
Research and analysis firms
Defunct research and analysis firms
Defunct economics consulting firms | [
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|
240246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus%20Minucius%20Felix | Marcus Minucius Felix |
Marcus Minucius Felix (died c. 250 AD in Rome) was one of the earliest of the Latin apologists for Christianity.
Nothing is known of his personal history, and even the date at which he wrote can be only approximately ascertained as between AD 150 and 270. Jerome's De Viris Illustribus No. 58 speaks of him as "Romae insignis causidicus" [one of Rome's notable solicitors], but in that he is probably only improving on the expression of Lactantius who speaks of him as "non-ignobilis inter causidicos loci" [not unknown among solicitors].
Octavius
He is now exclusively known by his Octavius, a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis and the Christian Octavius Januarius. Written for educated non-Christians, the arguments are borrowed chiefly from Cicero, especially his De natura deorum ("Concerning the Nature of the Gods"), and Christian material, mainly from the Greek Apologists.
The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian's Quod idola dei non-sint, which borrows from it; how much earlier can be determined only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian's Apologeticum.
The name Caecilius Natalis contains the nomen Caecilius and cognomen Natalis, which may refer to the gens Caecilia, a plebeian family at Rome.
The name Octavius Januarius contains the nomen Octavius and cognomen Januarius, which may refer to the gens Octavia – the family name of Emperor Augustus.
Minucia Gens
The name of Marcus Minucius Felix indicates his association with the Minucia gens.
Stoic Influence
Stoic influences can also be seen in his work.
Notes
References
External links
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes
250 deaths
2nd-century Romans
2nd-century writers
3rd-century Latin writers
3rd-century Romans
Ancient Roman writers
Christian apologists
Christians in the Roman Empire
Latin-language writers
Felix, Marcus
Post–Silver Age Latin writers
Year of birth unknown | [
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|
240248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Ashton%20Holden | Hubert Ashton Holden | Hubert Ashton Holden (12 May 1822 – 1 December 1896) was an English classical scholar.
Biography
He was born in Birmingham into an old Staffordshire family. He was educated at King Edward's College, Birmingham, under Francis Jeune (afterwards bishop of Peterborough), and subsequently under James Prince Lee (afterwards bishop of Manchester).
He proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, and in his first year of residence, 1842, gained the first Bell university scholarship.
He graduated B.A. in 1845, being senior classic, and junior optime in the mathematical tripos, and was fellow of Trinity College from 1847 to 1854; he was LL.D. in 1863.
In 1848, he was ordained deacon, and took priest's orders in 1859.
He discharged the duties of assistant tutor and classical lecturer of his college from 1848 until 1853, when he was appointed vice-principal of Cheltenham College, and continued in that post until 1858.
From 1858 to 1883, he was headmaster of Queen Elizabeth's School, Ipswich. In 1890, he was appointed by the crown to a fellowship of the university of London, in which he had been classical examiner from 1869 till 1874, and examiner in Greek from 1886 till 1890. In 1892 the degree of Litt.D. was conferred on him by Dublin University. He died on 1 Dec. 1896, at 20 Redcliffe Square, London, in his seventy-fifth year, and was buried on 5 December in the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery.
In addition to several school editions of portions of Cicero, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch, he published an expurgated text of Aristophanes with a useful onomasticon (re-issued separately, 1902) and larger editions of Cicero's De officiis (revised ed., 1898) and of the Octavius of Minucius Felix (1853).
He married Letitia Lofft and was the father of Brig.-Gen. Sir Capel Lofft Holden.
Works
Those by which he was best known are 'Foliorum Silvula : Selections for Translation into Latin and Greek Verse, chiefly from the University and College Examination Papers,' Cambridge, 1852 (four parts : pt. i. 2nd ed. 1888 ; pt. ii. 4th ed. 1890 ; pt. iii. 3rd ed. 1864) ; 'Foliorum Centuriæ,' 1852 (10th ed. 1888), a similar collection of pieces for translation into Latin and Greek prose, and 'Folia Silvulæ, sive Eclogæ Poetarum Anglicorum in Latinum et Græcum conversæ' (Cambridge, vol. i. 1865 ; vol. ii. 1870), containing select translations, by various hands, of pieces from the preceding volumes.
All these were edited for the syndics of the Cambridge University Press.
For the same body he edited Cicero's 'De Officiis' (1869 ; 6th ed. 1886 ; revised edition, 1898), and 'Pro Gnteo Plancio Oratio ad Judices' (1881) ; Xenophon's 'Cyropædeia' (3 vols. 1887–90) ; Plutarch's ' Lives of the Gracchi' (1885), 'Lucius Cornelius Sulla' (1885), 'Nicias' (1887), 'Timoleon' (1889), and 'Demosthenes' (1893); the 'Octavius' of Minucius Felix : the text newly revised from the original manuscript (1853) ; 'Thucydides, book vii.' (1891) ; the comedies of Aristophanes' (1848). He published, in collaboration with Richard Dacre Archer Hind, 'Sabrinæ Corolla in Hortulis Regiæ Scholæ Salopiensis continuerunt tres Viri Floribus Legendis' (1850; 4th ed. 1890), a collection of poetical extracts with translations into Latin or Greek. Holden edited also the following works for Macmillan's 'Classical Series:' Plutarch's 'Lives' of Pericles (1894) and Themistocles (1881 ; 3rd ed. enlarged, 1892); Xenophon's 'Hieron' (1883; 3rd ed. 1888) and 'Œconomicus' (1884; 4th ed. 1889); and Cicero's 'Pro Public Sestio' (1883 ; 3rd ed. 1889).
References
Attribution
1822 births
1896 deaths
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
English classical scholars
People educated at Shrewsbury School
Scholars of Latin literature
Scholars of ancient Greek literature | [
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|
240250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20Insight | Global Insight | Global Insight is an economics forecasting organization, serving over 3,800 clients in industry, finance and government, with revenues of over $95 million (in 2006) and employing more than 600 staff in 23 offices in 13 countries. It is a division of IHS.
History
Global Insight was formed in March 2001 from the merger of WEFA (formerly Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates) and DRI (formerly Data Resources Inc), together with Primark Decision Economics (later called Decision Economics, Inc.), Primark Poland (later GlobalInTech, sp. z o.o.) and the French company DAFSA; it estimated 2008 revenues at $120 million.
It since acquired several other companies, including PlanEcon, CIEMEX, Reebie Associates, and London-based World Markets Research Centre.
On November 2, 2007, Global Insight acquired SupplierBusiness.
Ownership and management
Global Insight was privately held, and founded by Joseph E. Kasputys, who served as its president and CEO. On September 18, 2008, IHS Inc. agreed to purchase Global Insight for $200 million.
See also
Economy.com
External links
IHS Global Insight web site
SupplierBusiness web site
References
2001 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Massachusetts
Companies established in 2001
Economics consulting firms | [
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|
240258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20of%20Economic%20Advisers | Council of Economic Advisers | The Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) is a United States agency within the Executive Office of the President established in 1946, which advises the President of the United States on economic policy. The CEA provides much of the empirical research for the White House and prepares the publicly-available annual Economic Report of the President.
Activities
Economic Report of the President
The report is published by the CEA annually in February, no later than 10 days after the Budget of the US Government is submitted. The president typically writes a letter introducing the report, serving as an executive summary and used for press coverage. The report proceeds with several hundred pages of qualitative and quantitative research by reviewing the impact of economic activity in the previous year, outlining the economic goals for the coming year (based on the President's economic agenda), and making numerical projections of economic performance and outcomes. Public criticism usually accompanies its release, sometimes attacking the importance placed or not placed on particular data or goals. The data referenced or directly used in the report are from the Bureau of Economic Analysis and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
History
Establishment
The Truman administration established the Council of Economic Advisers via the Employment Act of 1946 to provide presidents with objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues. It was a step from an "ad hoc style of economic policy-making to a more institutionalized and focused process". The act gave the council the following goals:
In 1949 Chairman Edwin Nourse and member Leon Keyserling argued about whether the advice should be private or public and about the role of government in economic stabilization. Nourse believed a choice had to be made between "guns or butter" but Keyserling argued for deficit spending, asserting that an expanding economy could afford large defense expenditures without sacrificing an increased standard of living. In 1949, Keyserling gained support from Truman advisors Dean Acheson and Clark Clifford. Nourse resigned as chairman, warning about the dangers of budget deficits and increased funding of "wasteful" defense costs. Keyserling succeeded to the chairmanship and influenced Truman's Fair Deal proposals and the economic sections of NSC 68 that, in April 1950, asserted that the larger armed forces America needed would not affect living standards or risk the "transformation of the free character of our economy."
1950s–80s
During the 1953–54 recession, the CEA, headed by Arthur Burns deployed non-traditional neo-keynesian interventions, which provided results later called the "steady fifties" wherein many families stayed in the economic "middle class" with just one family wage-earner. The Eisenhower Administration supported an activist contracyclical approach that helped to establish Keynesianism as a possible bipartisan economic policy for the nation. Especially important in formulating the CEA response to the recession—accelerating public works programs, easing credit, and reducing taxes—were Arthur F. Burns and Neil H. Jacoby.
Until 1963, during its first seven years the CEA made five technical advances in policy making, including the replacement of a "cyclical model" of the economy by a "growth model," the setting of quantitative targets for the economy, use of the theories of fiscal drag and full-employment budget, recognition of the need for greater flexibility in taxation, and replacement of the notion of unemployment as a structural problem by a realization of a low aggregate demand.
The 1978 Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment Act required each administration to move toward full employment and reasonable price stability within a specific time period. It has been criticized for making CEA's annual economic report highly political in nature, as well as highly unreliable and inaccurate over the standard two or five year projection periods.
1980–present
Since 1980, the CEA has focused on sources of economic growth, the supply side of the economy, and on international issues. In the wake of the Great Recession of 2008–2009, the Council of Economic Advisers played a significant role in supporting the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.
Organization
The council's chairman is nominated by the president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The members are appointed by the president. As of July 2017, the Council's 18 person staff consisted of a chief of staff (Director of Macroeconomic Forecasting), 15 economists (5 senior, 4 research, 4 staff economists, 2 economic statisticians) and 2 operations staff. Many of the staff economists are academics on leave or government economists on temporary assignment from other agencies.
Composition
Chairs
Members
John D. Clark 1946–1953
Roy Blough 1950–1952
Leon Keyserling 1950–1953
Robert C. Turner 1952–1953
Karl A. Fox 1953–1955
Neil H. Jacoby 1953–1955
Asher Achinstein 1954–1956
Walter W. Stewart 1953–1955
Joseph S. Davis 1955–1958
Paul W. McCracken 1956–1959
Karl Brandt 1958–1961
Henry C. Wallich 1959–1961
James Tobin 1961–1962
Kermit Gordon 1961–1962
John P. Lewis 1963–1964
Otto Eckstein 1964–1966
James S. Duesenberry 1966–1968
Merton J. Peck 1968–1969
Warren L. Smith 1968–1969
Hendrik S. Houthakker 1969–1971
Herbert Stein 1969–1971
Ezra Solomon 1971–1973
Marina von Neumann Whitman 1972–1973
Gary L. Seevers 1973–1975
William J. Fellner 1973–1975
Paul. W. MacAvoy 1975–1976
Burton G. Malkiel 1975–1977
William D. Nordhaus 1977–1979
Lyle E. Gramley 1977–1980
George C. Eads 1979–1981
Stephen Goldfeld 1980–1981
William A. Niskanen 1981–1985
Jerry L. Jordan 1981–1982
William Poole 1982–1985
Thomas Gale Moore 1985–1989
Michael L. Mussa 1986–1988
John B. Taylor 1989–1991
Richard L. Schmalensee 1989–1991
David F. Bradford 1991–1993
Paul Wonnacott 1991–1993
Alan S. Blinder 1993–1994
Carolyn Fischer 1994-1995
Joseph Stiglitz 1993–1995
Martin N. Baily 1995–1996
Alicia H. Munnell 1996–1997
Jeffrey A. Frankel 1997–1999
Rebecca M. Blank 1998–1999
Robert Z. Lawrence 1999–2001
Kathryn L. Shaw 2000–2001
Mark B. McClellan 2001–2002
Randall S. Kroszner 2001–2003
Kristin J. Forbes 2003–2005
Harvey S. Rosen 2003–2005
Katherine Baicker 2005–2007
Matthew J. Slaughter 2005–2007
Donald B. Marron Jr. 2008–2009
Cecilia Rouse 2009–2011
Carl Shapiro 2011–2012
Katharine Abraham 2011–2013
James H. Stock 2013–2014
Betsey Stevenson 2013–2015
Maurice Obstfeld 2014–2015
Jay Shambaugh 2015–2017
Sandra Black 2015–2017
Richard Burkhauser 2017–2019
Tomas J. Philipson 2017–2020
Tyler Goodspeed 2019–2021
Heather Boushey 2021–present
Jared Bernstein 2021–present
References
Sources
External links
List of recent reports by the Council of Economic Advisors
Records of the Office of the Council of Economic Advisors, 1953–61, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Papers of Arthur F. Burns, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Papers of Raymond J. Saulnier, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Economic Report of the President:
Economic Report of the President White House
Economic Reports 1947 to present on FRASER, St. Louis Federal Reserve
U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) US Gvt
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Economic Report of the President (1995–present) United States Government Publishing Office
Executive Office of the President of the United States
United States economic policy
United States national commissions
1946 establishments in the United States
Government agencies established in 1946 | [
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|
240261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Eckstein | Otto Eckstein | Otto Eckstein (August 1, 1927 – March 22, 1984) was a German-American economist. He was a key developer and proponent of the theory of core inflation , which proposed that in determining accurate metrics of long run inflation, the transitory price changes of items subject to volatile pricing, such as food and energy, are to be excluded from computation.
Eckstein was born in Germany in 1927 to a Jewish business family.
In 1938, when he was 11 years old, he and several other family members fled the Nazi regime, first emigrating to England, and then, a year later, moving to the United States, where he made his permanent home. He held an A.B. from Princeton University and a Ph.D. from Harvard University and became a Harvard University economics professor, an economic consultant to President Lyndon Baines Johnson, and a member of the President's Council of Economic Advisers from 1964 to 1966. In 1969, he and Donald Marron co-founded Data Resources Inc., the largest non-governmental distributor of economic data in the world, which built and maintained the largest macroeconometric model of the era. In 1975 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. In 1979 he sold DRI for over $100 million to McGraw Hill.
Eckstein was married and had three children. He died of cancer in 1984, at the age of 56.
Bibliography
"Water and Resource Development," 1958
"Inflation, the Wage-Price Spiral and Economic Growth", 1958, in Relationship of Prices to Economic Stability and Growth
"Staff Report on Employment, Growth and Price Levels," 1959.
"A Simulation of the U.S. Economy in Recession", with J. S. Duesenberry and G. Fromm, 1960, Econometrica
"The Determination of Money Wages in American Industry", with T. Wilson, 1962, QJE
"The Price Equation", with G. Fromm, 1968, AER
"The Inflation Process in the United States", with R. Brinner, 1972,
"Industry Price Equations", with D. Wyss, 1972, in Eckstein, editor, Econometrics of Price Determination
"The Data Resources Model: Uses, structure, and the analysis of the US economy", with E.W. Green and A. Sinai, 1974, in Klein and Burmeister, editors, Econometric Model Performance
"Econometric Models and the Formation of Business Expectations", 1976, Challenge
"National Economic Information Systems for Developed Countries", 1977, in Perlman, editor, Organization and Retrieval of Economic Knowledge
"The Great Recession," 1978
"Long-Term Properties of the Price-Wage Mechanism in the United States, 1891 to 1977", with J. Girola, 1978, REStat
"Public Finance," 1979.
"Econometric Models for Forecasting and Policy Analysis: The present state of the art", 1981, in Kmenta, editor "Large-Scale Macroeconometric Models"
References
External links
Otto Eckstein, 1927-1984 profile at the New School
NBER tribute by Allen Sinai
1927 births
1984 deaths
United States Council of Economic Advisers
German emigrants to the United States
Harvard University faculty
Harvard University alumni
20th-century American economists
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Princeton University alumni | [
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|
240265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Goldberger | Arthur Goldberger | Arthur Stanley Goldberger (November 20, 1930 – December 11, 2009) was an econometrician and an economist. He worked with Nobel Prize winner Lawrence Klein on the development of the Klein–Goldberger macroeconomic model at the University of Michigan. He died at the age of 79.
He spent most of his career at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he helped build the Department of Economics. He wrote classic graduate and undergraduate econometrics textbooks, including Econometric Theory (1964), A Course in Econometrics (1991) and Introductory Econometrics (1998). Among his many accomplishments, he published a number of articles critically evaluating the literature on the heritability of IQ and other behavioral traits.
In 1968 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.
Selected publications
(1964) Goldberger and Lawrence Klein. Econometric Model of the U. S., Nineteen Twenty-Nine to Nineteen Fifty-Two.
(1964) Goldberger. Econometric Theory (Wiley Publications in Applied Statistics) .John Wiley & Sons Inc.. .
(1970) Goldberger. Impact Multipliers and Dynamic Properties of the Klein-Goldberger Model (Contributions to Economic Analysis). North-Holland Publishing Company. .
(1981) Goldberger. A Course in Econometrics. Harvard University Press. .
References
Sources
1930 births
2009 deaths
University of Michigan alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Econometricians
21st-century American economists
20th-century American economists
University of Michigan faculty
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association | [
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|
240267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Michael%20Hall | Anthony Michael Hall | Michael Anthony Hall (born April 14, 1968), known professionally as Anthony Michael Hall, is an American actor best known for his movies with John Hughes, which include the teen classics Sixteen Candles, The Breakfast Club, and Weird Science.
He diversified his roles to avoid becoming typecast as his geek persona, joining the cast of Saturday Night Live (1985–1986) and starring in films such as Out of Bounds (1986), Johnny Be Good (1988), Edward Scissorhands (1990) and Six Degrees of Separation (1993). After a series of minor roles in the 1990s, he starred as Microsoft's Bill Gates in the 1999 television film Pirates of Silicon Valley. He had the leading role in the USA Network series The Dead Zone from 2002 to 2007. In 2008, he appeared in a minor role in The Dark Knight. In 2020, he appeared in ABC's The Goldbergs. Additionally, he starred in the slasher film Halloween Kills (2021).
Early life
Hall was born on Easter Sunday, April 14, 1968, in the West Roxbury neighborhood of Boston. He is the only child of blues-jazz singer Mercedes Hall's first marriage. She divorced Hall's father, Larry, an auto-body-shop owner, when their son was six months old. When Hall was three, he and his mother relocated to the West Coast, where she found work as a featured singer. After a year and a half, they returned to the East, eventually moving to New York City, where Hall grew up. Hall's ancestry is Irish and Italian. He has one half-sister, Mary Chestaro, from his mother's second marriage to Thomas Chestaro, a show business manager. His half-sister is pursuing a career as a singer under the name of Mary C. Hall uses the name Anthony, rather than Michael. He transposed his first and middle names when he entered show business because there was another actor named Michael Hall who was already a member of the Screen Actors Guild. Hall attended St. Hilda's & St. Hugh's School of New York before moving on to Manhattan's Professional Children's School. Hall began his acting career at age eight and continued throughout high school. "I did not go to college," he has said, "but I'm an avid reader in the ongoing process of educating myself." Through the 1980s, Hall's mother managed his career, eventually relinquishing that role to her second husband.
Career
1970s-1980s
At the age of seven, Hall started his career in commercials. He was the Honeycomb cereal kid and appeared in several commercials for toys and Bounty. His stage debut was in 1977, when he was cast as the young Steve Allen in Allen's semi-autobiographical play The Wake. He went on to appear in the Lincoln Center Festival's production of St. Joan of the Microphone, and in a play with Woody Allen. In 1980, he made his screen debut in the Emmy-winning TV movie The Gold Bug, in which he played the young Edgar Allan Poe. In 1981 he started as Huck Finn in Rascals and Robbers: The Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn but it was not until the release of the 1982 Kenny Rogers film Six Pack that he gained real notice.
The following year, Hall landed the role of Rusty Griswold, Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo's son, in National Lampoon's Vacation, catching the attention of the film's screenwriter John Hughes, who was about to make the jump to directing. "For [Hall] to upstage Chevy, I thought, was a remarkable accomplishment for a 13-year-old kid," said Hughes. The film was a significant box office hit in 1983, grossing over $61 million in the United States. After Vacation, Hall moved on to other projects and declined to reprise his role in the 1985 sequel.
Hall's breakout role came in 1984, when he was cast as Farmer Ted, the scrawny, braces-wearing geek who pursued Molly Ringwald's character in John Hughes' directing debut Sixteen Candles. Hall tried to avoid the clichés of geekiness. "I didn't play him with 100 pens sticking out of his pocket," he said. "I just went in there and played it like a real kid. The geek is just a typical freshman." Hall landed a spot on the promotional materials along with co-star Ringwald. Reviews of the film were positive for Hall and his co-stars, and one for People Weekly even claimed that Hall's performance "pilfer[ed] the film" from Ringwald. Despite achieving only moderate success at the box office, the film made overnight stars of Ringwald and Hall.
In 1985, Hall starred in two additional teen-oriented films written and directed by Hughes. He was cast as Brian Johnson, "the brain," in The Breakfast Club, co-starring Emilio Estevez, Judd Nelson, Ally Sheedy, and Molly Ringwald. Film critic Janet Maslin praised Hall, stating that the 16-year-old actor and Ringwald were "the movie's standout performers." Hall and fellow co-star Molly Ringwald dated for a short period after filming The Breakfast Club. Later that year, Hall portrayed Gary Wallace, another likable misfit, in Weird Science. Critic Sheila Benson from the Los Angeles Times said Hall was "the role model supreme" for the character, but she also acknowledged that "he [was] outgrowing the role" and "[didn't] need to hold the patent on the bratty bright kid." Weird Science was a moderate success at the box office but was generally well received by critics. Those roles established him as the 80s "nerd-of-choice," as well as a member of Hollywood's Brat Pack. Hall, who portrayed Hughes' alter egos in Sixteen Candles, The Breakfast Club and Weird Science, credits the director for putting him on the map and giving him those opportunities as a child. "I had the time of my life," he said. "I'd consider [working with Hughes again] any day of the week."
Hall joined the cast of Saturday Night Live (SNL) during its 1985–86 season at the age of 17. He was, and remains, the youngest cast member in the show's history. His recurring characters on the show were Craig Sundberg, Idiot Savant, an intelligent, talented teenager with a vacant expression and stilted speech, and Fed Jones, half of the habitually high, hustling pitchmen known as The Jones Brothers. Art Garfunkel, Edd Byrnes, Robert F. Kennedy, and Daryl Hall were among Hall's celebrity impersonations. Hall had admired the show and its stars as a child, but he found the SNL environment to be far more competitive than he had imagined. "My year there, I didn't have any breakout characters and I didn't really do the things I dreamed I would do," he said, "but I still learned a lot and I value that. I'll always be proud of the fact that I was a part of its history." Hall was one of six cast members (the others being Joan Cusack, Robert Downey, Jr., Randy Quaid, and Terry Sweeney) who were dismissed at the end of that season.
To avoid being typecast, Hall turned down roles written for him by John Hughes in Ferris Bueller's Day Off (Cameron Frye) and Pretty in Pink (Phil "Duckie" Dale), both in 1986. Instead, he starred in the 1986 film Out of Bounds, Hall's first excursion into the thriller and action genre. The film grossed only $5 million domestically and was a critical and financial disappointment. Critic Roger Ebert described Out of Bounds as "an explosion at the cliché factory," and Caryn James from The New York Times claimed that not even "Hall, who made nerds seem lovable in John Hughes' Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club, [could] do much to reconcile" the disparate themes of the movie.
Hall was offered the starring role in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket in a conversation with Stanley Kubrick, but after an eight-month negotiation, a financial agreement could not be reached. "It was a difficult decision, because in that eight-month period, I read everything I could about the guy, and I was really fascinated by him," Hall said when asked about the film. "I wanted to be a part of that film, but it didn't work out. But all sorts of stories circulated, like I got on set and I was fired, or I was pissed at him for shooting too long. It's all not true." He was replaced with Matthew Modine. His next film was 1988's Johnny Be Good, in which he worked with Uma Thurman and fellow Saturday Night Live cast member Robert Downey, Jr. The film was a critical failure, and some reviewers panned Hall's performance as a high school football star, stating that he, the movies' reigning geek, was miscast in the role. A review for The Washington Post claimed that the film was "crass, vulgar, and relentlessly brain-dead."
1990s
After a two-year break due to a reported drinking problem, Hall returned to acting by starring opposite Johnny Depp and Winona Ryder in Tim Burton's 1990 hit Edward Scissorhands, this time as the film's villain. By then in his 20s, he shifted to more mature roles, trying to establish himself as an adult actor. After Scissorhands, he appeared in a series of low-budget films, including the 1992 comedy Into the Sun, where he starred as a visiting celebrity at a military air base. Film critic Janet Maslin praised his performance, writing that "Hall, whose earlier performances (in films like National Lampoon's Vacation and Sixteen Candles) have been much goofier, remains coolly funny and graduates to subtler forms of comedy with this role." The following year, he played a gay man who teaches down-and-out Will Smith to dupe rich people in the critically acclaimed film Six Degrees of Separation; Hall claimed that it was "the hardest role [he] ever had."
In 1994, Hall starred in and directed his first feature film, a low-budget Showtime comedy titled Hail Caesar about a would-be rock star who works in a pencil eraser factory. The film also co-starred Samuel L. Jackson, Robert Downey, Jr., and Judd Nelson. In addition, he produced the soundtrack for the film with composer Herbie Tribino. The film featured songs written and performed by Hall.
After a series of appearances in low-budget films and guest roles on TV series in the mid and late 1990s, he gained media attention once again in the 1999 Emmy-nominated TNT original movie Pirates of Silicon Valley, co-starring Noah Wyle as Apple Computer's Steve Jobs. Hall was widely praised for his portrayal of Microsoft billionaire Bill Gates. "I really fought for this part because I knew it would be the role of a lifetime," Hall said. "It was a thrill and a daunting challenge to play someone of his stature and brilliance." Hall described his physical appearance as 20-year-old Gates to the San Francisco Chronicle:
2000s
After making a cameo appearance as himself in the 2000 comedy film Happy Accidents, Hall appeared in several made-for-TV films. He starred opposite Sheryl Lee as a cheating husband in the 2001 USA Network cable movie Hitched. In the same year, he played renowned music producer Robert "Mutt" Lange in VH1's movie Hysteria: The Def Leppard Story and starred as legendary lefty baseball pitcher Whitey Ford in Billy Crystal's highly-acclaimed HBO film, 61*.
On the big screen, Hall took on supporting roles in the mystery-drama The Caveman's Valentine (2001) opposite Samuel L. Jackson, the critically panned Freddy Got Fingered (2001) opposite Tom Green, and the action-comedy All About the Benjamins (2002) opposite Ice Cube.
Hall began his first regular series role in 2002, starring as Johnny Smith in USA Network's supernatural drama The Dead Zone, a TV series adapted from Stephen King's best-selling novel. He was cast in the show after executive producer Michael Piller saw his performance in Pirates of Silicon Valley. The show debuted on June 16, 2002, and drew higher ratings for a premiere than any other cable series in television history with 6.4 million viewers. The Dead Zone quickly developed a loyal audience, with the show and Hall receiving strong reviews. The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review wrote that "Hall's Johnny flashes the qualities - comic timing, great facial expressions - that made him a star in the 1980s movies Sixteen Candles and The Breakfast Club." The Dead Zone, Hall said, "has transformed my career." The show proved to be one of USA Network's top shows and one of the highest-rated programs on basic cable.
The Dead Zone opening credits list Hall as co-producer (seasons 1–3), producer (seasons 5) and co-executive producer (season 6). Hall also directed an episode from season three, "The Cold Hard Truth," guest starring standup comic Richard Lewis. "['The Cold Hard Truth'], I feel, is my best work as a director, because I had this great crew that knows me well and has been working with me," said Hall. "I also had the best script that I've had an opportunity to direct." The show's sixth and final season premiered on June 17, 2007. USA Network officially canceled The Dead Zone in December 2007.
Hall appeared in the tenth episode of Criss Angel Mindfreaks fourth season.
Hall develops film and television projects under his production company banner AMH Entertainment. Hall starred in Aftermath, a 2010 independent crime-drama film, with Tony Danza and Frank Whaley. In 2008, Hall appeared as Gotham City television reporter/anchor Mike Engel in The Dark Knight.
2010–present
Hall made guest appearances in two episodes of the sitcom Community.
Hall reprised his role as Rusty Griswold in 2012 in a series of Old Navy holiday commercials featuring the Griswold family. In 2011, he played the main antagonist in Season 3 of Warehouse 13. He played Walter Sykes, a man who once benefited from the use of an artifact but harboured a deep-seated anger towards the Warehouse and its agents when the artifact was taken from him (episodes 3.09, 3.11, 3.12). He also guest-starred in Z Nation in the role of Gideon, a former communications manager leading a group of zombie apocalypse survivors (only episode 2.11).
In 2016, Hall plays himself as the customer being serviced in an AT&T Mobile commercial. The same year, Hall was cast in a recurring role on the TNT drama series Murder in the First.
Hall assists at-risk youth through his literacy program, The Anthony Michael Hall Literacy Club, in association with Chapman University. The club provides an opportunity for the students to improve their literacy skills by exploring genres not typically used to enhance literacy, such as films, music and lyrics, scripts, and novels with audio. Following family tradition, Hall pursues his other passion, music. He is the lead singer and songwriter for his band, Hall of Mirrors, formed in 1998. The band released an album, Welcome to the Hall of Mirrors, through Hall's own RAM Records label in 1999, with collaborations from former Guns N' Roses guitarist Gilby Clarke and Prince's former keyboard player Tommy Barbarella.
On August 26, 2019, it was announced that Hall would join the cast as Tommy Doyle in the Halloween sequel, Halloween Kills.
Hall appeared as "Rusty" the security guard (original role played by John Candy) at the amusement park visited by the Goldberg family in the TV series The Goldbergs in their 2019 season premiere spoof of National Lampoon's Vacation.
In the media
Hall became a regular subject of tabloid media after New York magazine named him a member of the "Brat Pack", the group of young actors who became famous in the 1980s and frequently starred together. In the late 1980s, Hall's drinking problem, which began in his early teens, made headlines. Hall eventually quit drinking and became fully sober by 1990. "The truth is, I had my partying nights, but I never really bounced at the bottom," he said. "I never went to rehab...I was able to govern myself and continue my work."
In 1990, Hall's physical appearance in Edward Scissorhands caught audiences off guard. His more muscular image provoked rumors of steroids, but Hall later said that "the weight gain was natural."
Hall's role in the 1993 film Six Degrees of Separation made news not because of what occurred onscreen, but rather what failed to occur. Hall played a gay love interest to Will Smith, who had previously agreed to a kissing scene between the two. However, on the day of the shoot, Smith backed off. Smith told the press that he called Denzel Washington for advice, who told him that an onscreen same-sex kiss was a bad career move. When asked about the incident during an interview, Hall said, "I didn't care. I wasn't that comfortable with it, either, and ultimately, we used a camera trick."
Recognition
The 2001 film Not Another Teen Movie pays tribute to Hall's numerous appearances in the teen-oriented, 1980s comedy films parodied by the movie. A brief shot of the sign over the door of a high school cafeteria reveals that the facility is named the Anthony Michael Dining Hall. In 2006, Hall was ranked #4 in VH1's list of the "100 Greatest Teen Stars" and #41 in "100 Greatest Kid Stars."
In June 2005, The Breakfast Club was rewarded with the Silver Bucket of Excellence Award at the MTV Movie Awards, in honor of the film's twentieth anniversary. For the show, MTV attempted to reunite the original cast. Sheedy, Ringwald, and Hall appeared together on stage, and Paul Gleason gave the award to his former castmates. Estevez could not attend because of family commitments, and Nelson appeared earlier on the red carpet, but left before the on-stage reunion, for reasons unknown. Hall joked that the two were "in Africa with Dave Chappelle."
2016 assault charges
On November 17, 2016, the Los Angeles District Attorney charged Hall with felony assault with serious bodily injury following a September 13 confrontation with a neighbor at Hall's Playa del Rey condominium complex.
Personal life
, Hall lives in the Playa del Rey neighborhood of Los Angeles. He is godfather to Robert Downey Jr.'s son, Indio Falconer Downey.
In 2019, Hall became engaged to Slovak-Canadian actress Lucia Oskerova.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
Bibliography
Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 372.
External links
1968 births
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American comedians
21st-century American male actors
American film directors of Italian descent
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of Irish descent
American people of Italian descent
American sketch comedians
Comedians from New York City
Comedy film directors
Film directors from New York City
Living people
Male actors from Boston
Male actors from New York City
People from West Roxbury, Boston
Television producers from New York City | [
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|
240270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20SCSI%20Programming%20Interface | Advanced SCSI Programming Interface | In computing, ASPI (Advanced SCSI Programming Interface) is an Adaptec-developed programming interface which standardizes communication on a computer bus between a SCSI driver module on the one hand and SCSI (and ATAPI) peripherals on the other.
ASPI structure
The ASPI manager software provides an interface between ASPI modules (device drivers or applications with direct SCSI support), a SCSI host adapter, and SCSI devices connected to the host adapter. The ASPI manager is specific to the host adapter and operating system; its primary role is to abstract the host adapter specifics and provide a generic software interface to SCSI devices.
On Windows 9x and Windows NT, the ASPI manager is generic and relies on the services of SCSI miniport drivers. On those systems, the ASPI interface is designed for applications which require SCSI pass-through functionality (such as CD-ROM burning software).
The primary operations supported by ASPI are discovery of host adapters and attached devices, and submitting SCSI commands to devices via SRBs (SCSI Request Blocks). ASPI supports concurrent execution of SCSI commands.
History
Originally inspired by a driver architecture developed by Douglas W. Goodall for Ampro Computers in 1983, ASPI was developed by Adaptec around 1990. It was initially designed to support DOS, OS/2, Windows 3.x, and Novell NetWare. It was originally written to support SCSI devices; support for ATAPI devices was added later. Most other SCSI host adapter vendors (for example BusLogic, DPT, AMI, Future Domain, DTC) shipped their own ASPI managers with their hardware.
Adaptec also developed generic SCSI disk and CD-ROM drivers for DOS (ASPICD.SYS and ASPIDISK.SYS).
Microsoft licensed the interface for use with Windows 9x series. At the same time Microsoft developed SCSI Pass Through Interface (SPTI), an in-house substitute that worked on the NT platform. Microsoft did not include ASPI in Windows 2000/XP, in favor of its own SPTI. Users may still download ASPI from Adaptec. A number of CD/DVD applications also continue to offer their own implementations of ASPI layer.
To support USB drives under DOS, Panasonic developed a universal ASPI driver (USBASPI.SYS) that bypasses the lack of native USB support by DOS.
Driver
ASPI was provided by the following drivers.
See also
SCSI Pass-Through Direct (SPTD)
SCSI Pass Through Interface (SPTI)
References
External links
ASPI drivers for DOS
Adaptec ASPI drivers
Panasonic USB ASPI driver
ASPI drivers for Windows
Adaptec ASPI driver
Adaptec ASPI driver (older)
Nero ASPI driver
Nero ASPI driver (older)
Frog ASPI driver
Mekugi ASPI driver for Windows 7 64-bit
VOB Computersysteme GmbH ASAPI driver
Technical information
Technical reference (ASPI for Win32)
ASPI Layer Setup
Tips
Bart's page about ASPI
Application programming interfaces
SCSI
AT Attachment
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|
240289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEA | UEA | UEA may stand for:
Universities
University of East Africa, established in June 1963 and split, in 1970, into:
Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda
University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania
University of Nairobi in Kenya
University of East Anglia, established in 1963 in Norwich, England
Amazonas State University (), a university in Manaus, Brazil, established in 2001
University of East Asia, established in 1981 and renamed the University of Macau in 1991
Other uses
Universal Esperanto Association, (), the worldwide organization of the Esperanto movement
Universal enveloping algebra, a mathematical object
Utah Education Association, the teachers' union in Utah
Uea, a Melanesian island in the Rotuma group, a dependency of Fiji
In biology, an abbreviation for "Ulex europaeus agglutinin" (or "Ulex europaeus lectin"), the lectin of the gorse species Ulex europaeus
Chengdu Airlines (also known as United Eagle Airlines) with ICAO code UEA.
Uea Point, an area on Tutuila Island in American Samoa | [
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240294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urizen | Urizen | In the mythology of William Blake, Urizen () is the embodiment of conventional reason and law. He is usually depicted as a bearded old man; he sometimes bears architect's tools, to create and constrain the universe; or nets, with which he ensnares people in webs of law and conventional society. Originally, Urizen represented one half of a two-part system, with him representing reason and Los, his opposition, representing imagination. In Blake's reworking of his mythic system, Urizen is one of the four Zoas that result from the division of the primordial man, Albion, and he continues to represent reason. He has an Emanation, or paired female equivalent, Ahania, who stands for Pleasure. In Blake's myth, Urizen is joined by many daughters with three representing aspects of the body. He is also joined by many sons, with four representing the four elements. These sons join in rebellion against their father but are later united in the Last Judgment. In many of Blake's books, Urizen is seen with four books that represent the various laws that he places upon humanity.
Character
In Blake's original myth, Urizen, the representation of abstractions and an abstraction of the human self, is the first entity. He believes himself holy and he sets about establishing various sins in a book of brass that serves as a combination of various laws as discovered by Newton, given to Moses, and the general concept of deism, which force uniformity upon mankind. The rest of the Eternals in turn become indignant at Urizen turning against eternity, and they instill these essences of sin within Urizen's creation. This torments Urizen, and Los soon after appears. Los' duty within the work is to watch over Urizen and serve as his opposition.
In terms of Blake's Orc cycle, Urizen serves as a Satanic force similar to Milton's Satan. After Urizen defeats the serpent/Orc figure in the Garden of Eden story, the Orc figure, in the form of Urizen's son Fuzon, battles against him in a story based on Exodus. Urizen, as a pillar of cloud that hinders the Israelites in their journey home, battles against Fuzon, as a pillar of fire that guides them by night. Eventually, Urizen is able to destroy his rebellious son and impose laws upon the Israelites in the form of the Ten Commandments. This also leads to a death of the Israeli society, and the Israelites under Urizen are imprisoned in a similar manner to how they were under the Egyptians. Symbolically, the Orc cycle describes how Urizen and Orc are part of one unified whole with Urizen representing the destructive and older essence while Orc is the young and creative essence.
In Blake's later myth, Urizen is one of the four Zoas, the fourfold division of the central god. The other three represent aspects of the trinity and he represents the fallen, Satanic figure although he is also the creator figure. Among the Zoas, he represents the south and the concept of reason. He is described as what binds and controls the universe through creating laws. He is connected to his Emanation known as Ahania, the representation of pleasure, and he is opposed to the Zoa named Urthona, the representation of Imagination. His name can mean many things, from "Your Reason" or a Greek word meaning "to limit". Urizen originates in the beginning of Blake's version of Genesis. He was the entity created when a voice said that light should be born, and he was the fourth child of the characters Albion and Vala. He is said to represent the Heavenly host, but he experiences a Satanic fall in that he desired to rule. He is motivated by his pride and becomes a hypocrite. When Albion asks for him, Urizen refuses and hides, which causes him to experience his fall. After his fall, Urizen set about creating the material world and his jealousy of mankind brought forth both Wrath and Justice.
In the material world, he had Steeds and a Chariot of Day that were stolen from him by Luvah. This occurred because he, reason, sought to take over the Northern lands of Luvah, Imagination. After setting to take over Imagination, Luvah's stealing of the horses, which represented instruction, showed how emotion could dominate over reason. After Luvah falls and becomes Orc, Urizen tries to regain his horses but can only witness them bound. Eventually, the horses are returned to him after the Final Judgment.
Within the early works, Urizen represents the chains of reason that are imposed on the mind. Urizen, like mankind, is bound by these chains. Additionally, these works describe how Newtonian reason and the enlightenment view of the universe traps the imagination. The poems emphasize an evolutionary development within the universe, and this early version of a "survival of the fittest" universe is connected to a fallen world of tyranny and murder.
Urizen's daughters started as the children of light and are possible images of either the planets or of the stars. After his fall, they gain human form. Three of his daughters are Eleth, Uveth and Ona, which represent the three parts of the human body. Together, they also organize the waters of Generation, they are the creators of the Bread of Sorrow, and read from the Book of Iron. At the Last Judgment, they watch over Ahania. His sons are differently organised, in different poems: as Thiriel, Utha, Grodna, Fuzon, aligned with the four classical elements; or as twelve, aligned with the signs of the Zodiac, and builders of the Mundane Shell and seek to keep mankind from falling. In Blake's early myths, they dwell in various cities and do not abide by Urizen's laws; Fuzon directly rebels against Urizen, is able to cut Urizen's loins, and is crucified for his actions. In later versions of the children, they are wise and dwell with Urizen. They, with Urizen, fall after Luvah takes over Urizen's realm. After their fall, they are tortured in hell, and Urizen's creation of science is seen as his domination over them. However, the four sons are placed in charge of Urthona's armies and rebel against Urizen's rule. During the Last Judgment, the sons get rid of their weapons and celebrate Urizen's return to the plow, and they join together for the harvest.
Urizen is described as having multiple books: Gold, Silver, Iron, and Brass. They represent science, love, war, and sociology, which are four aspects of life. The books are filled with laws that seek to overcome the seven deadly sins. He constantly adds to the works, even when he faces his opposition in Orc, but the books are destroyed in the Last Judgment. The Book of Brass sets forth Urizen's social beliefs that seek to remove all pain and instill peace under one rule. The attempt to force love through law encouraged the Eternals to put forth the Seven Deadly Sins that Urizen hoped to prevent. The Book of Iron was lost in the Tree of Mystery, and represents how Urizen can create wars but cannot control them.
Appearances
The character Urizen is first directly mentioned in Blake's "A Song of Liberty" (1793) where he is first described in his dispute with Orc. He is described as a "starry king". In To Nobodaddy, he is given the title "Father of Jealousy" and he is an enslaver. In America a Prophecy, he is the evil God who rules during the Enlightenment. The work also describes how Urizen created the world. This was followed by the Songs of Experience (1794) where he appears as the creator of the Tyger and in many of the poems: "Earth's Answer", "The Tyger", "The Human Abstract" and "A Divine Image". He is mentioned later that year in Europe a Prophecy and it is in the work that Urizen is freed from his bounds and he opens the Book of Brass in response to the American revolution.
In the Book of Urizen, Urizen is an eternal self focused being that creates itself out of eternity, and, it is only Urizen, the representation of abstractions and is an abstraction of the human self that exists in the beginning. Eventually, he creates the rest of creation but is tormented from the rest of the Eternal essence. Urizen is seen as the essence of the eternal priest and is opposed by Los, the eternal prophet. Parts of the story were later revised in The Book of Los and The Book of Ahania: The Book of Ahania describes Urizen's relationship with his son Fuzon, and the Book of Los (1795) describes Urizen's creations from Los's viewpoint. The Song of Los (1795) describes how Urizen's laws are given to humanity and their destructive effects. The work ends with Orc's appearance and Urizen weeping.
Urizen appears within Blake's illustrations of Job as an image of Apollo. He and his realm are described in Blake's Milton a Poem, and he is said to have a throne of silver/love. His realm included his children and was surrounded by justice and eternal science. The work also describes Urizen's Satanic fall. The Urizen of Milton is in the form of reason, and it is he that Milton follows. He appears again in the image "Milton's Dream" as illustrated for Il Penseroso. In the image, Urizen is with images of despair and is interfering with the image of the true God.
In Vala, or The Four Zoas, Urizen was said to have been born as the son of Albion and Vala, and is the fourth son. He was made the leader of Heaven's host and commanded the material sun. The work also describes his fall. Urizen appears in Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion in a form similar to the previous works. Urizen is the organiser of the universe while Los is the forger. He creates Natural Religion, and, in his returned form after Albion awakes, he is a farmer.
Derivation
Urizen has clear similarities with the creature called the Demiurge by Gnostic sects, who is likewise largely derived of the Old Testament god (more specifically, like Blake's Urizen, the demiurge is a radical remodelling of that figure achieved by expanding that figure's original contextual setting, or by removing him to one that is almost completely new). Speculative Freemasonry is another possible source of Blake's imagery for Urizen; Blake was attracted to the Masonic and Druidic speculations of William Stukeley. The compass and other drafting symbols that Blake associates with Urizen borrow from Masonic symbolism for God as the "Great Architect of the Universe".
Notes
References
Bentley, G. E. (Jr). The Stranger From Paradise. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.
Bloom, Harold. The Visionary Company. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993.
Damon, S. Foster. A Blake Dictionary. Hanover: University Press of New England, 1988.
Frye, Northrop. Fearful Symmetry. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Stuart Peterfreund, William Blake in a Newtonian World: Essays on Literature as Art and Science (Univ. Oklahoma Press, 1998).
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|
240302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20de%20la%20Broce | Pierre de la Broce | Pierre de la Broce or de la Brosse (died 30 June 1278) was a royal favorite and councilor during the early reign of Philip III of France.
De la Broce was from a family of petty nobility in Touraine, and was a minor household official for Louis IX. After Louis' death in 1270, de la Broce quickly became a favorite of the new king. He accumulated a substantial fortune, built from Philip's largesse and from gifts from those hoping to cultivate his influence with the king.
This influence was greatly resented by many of the nobility and by associates of the Queen. In 1277 letters allegedly written by de la Broce were presented to Philip, which caused the king to have de la Broce arrested. He was finally hanged six months later. No trial was held, and the evidence was apparently suppressed, so the contents of the letters are unknown. Evidence has been put forward that de la Broce was framed.
Divine Comedy
De la Broce appears in Dante's Purgatory, in Canto VI, with the other spirits of those who, though redeemed, were prevented from making a final confession and reconciliation due to having died by violence:
I saw the soul
cleft from its body out of spite and envy—
not, so it said, because it had been guilty—
I mean Pier de la Brosse,
and may the Lady of Brabant [the Queen of France]
while she's still in this world, watch
her ways—or end among a sadder flock
from Allen Mandelbaum's translation
Further reading
Hélary, Xavier (2006). "Pierre de La Broce, seigneur féodal, et le service militaire sous Philippe III: L'ost de Sauveterre (1276)." Journal des savants (2): 275–305.
1278 deaths
13th-century French people
People executed by France by hanging
Executed French people
People executed by the Ancien Régime in France
Year of birth unknown
Executed people from Centre-Val de Loire
13th-century executions | [
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|
240306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amboise | Amboise | Amboise (; ) is a commune in the Indre-et-Loire department in central France. It lies on the banks of the river Loire, east of Tours. Today a small market town, it was once home of the French royal court. The town of Amboise is also only about away from the historic Château de Chenonceau, situated on the river Cher near the small village of Chenonceaux.
Population
Sights
The city is famous for the Clos Lucé manor house where Leonardo da Vinci lived (and ultimately died) at the invitation of King Francis I of France, whose Château d'Amboise, which dominates the town, is located just away. The narrow streets contain some good examples of timbered housing.
Just outside the city is the Pagode de Chanteloup, a tall Chinese Pagoda built in 1775 by the Duke of Choiseul. The Pagoda is seven levels high, with each level slightly smaller than the last one. An interior staircase to reach all levels is open to the public.
The Musée de la Poste (in the Hôtel Joyeuse) is a museum tracing the history of the postal delivery service.
A 20th-century fountain by Max Ernst stands in front of the market place.
History
Clovis I (c. 466–511) and the Visigoths signed a peace treaty of alliance with the Arvernians in 503, which assisted him in his defeat of the Visigothic kingdom in the Battle of Vouillé in 507.
Joan of Arc passed through in 1429 on her way to Orleans to the Battle of Patay.
Château du Clos Lucé was the residence of Leonardo da Vinci between 1516 and his death in 1519. Leonardo died in the arms of King Francis I, and he was buried in a crypt near the Château d'Amboise. The house has lost some of its original parts, but it still stands today containing a museum of Leonardo's work and inventions, and has a beautiful view of the river Loire.
The Amboise conspiracy was the conspiracy of Condé and the Huguenots in 1560 against Francis II, Catherine de' Medici, and the Guises.
The Château at Amboise was home to Mary Stewart, Queen of Scots, for much of her early life, being raised there at the French court of Henry II. She arrived in France from Scotland in 1548, aged six, via the French king's favourite palace at Saint Germain en Laye near Paris, and remained in France until 1561, when she returned to her homeland - sailing up the Firth of Forth to Edinburgh on 15 August that year.
The Edict of Amboise (1563) conceded the free exercise of worship to the Protestants.
Here was born in 1743 Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, French philosopher, known as Le Philosophe Inconnu (d. 1803).
Abd el Kader Ibn Mouhi Ad-Din (c. 1807–83) was imprisoned at the Château d'Amboise.
During 2019, the 500th anniversary of Da Vinci's death, Amboise held many events celebrating the master's life and his work completed in the town. The number of visitors to Château du Clos Lucé, for example, was estimated as 500,000 in 2019, a 30% increase over the typical annual number.
International relations
Amboise is twinned with:
Boppard, Germany
Fana, Mali
Suwa (prefecture of Nagano), Japan
Vinci, Italy
Baleni (province of Galati), Romania
Gallery
See also
Communes of the Indre-et-Loire department
Colin Biart, 15th/16th-centuries French architect
References
External links
Architecture of Amboise
Monument Historique de la Loire : La Pagode Chanteloup
Château Gaillard, Amboise
Communes of Indre-et-Loire
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240307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal%20Tasmanians | Aboriginal Tasmanians | The Aboriginal Tasmanians (Palawa kani: Palawa or Pakana) are the Aboriginal people of the Australian island of Tasmania, located south of the mainland. For much of the 20th century, the Tasmanian Aboriginal people were widely, and erroneously, thought of as being an extinct cultural and ethnic group that had been intentionally exterminated by white settlers. Contemporary figures (2016) for the number of people of Tasmanian Aboriginal descent vary according to the criteria used to determine this identity, ranging from 6,000 to over 23,000.
First arriving in Tasmania (then a peninsula of Australia) around 40,000 years ago, the ancestors of the Aboriginal Tasmanians were cut off from the Australian mainland by rising sea levels c. 6000 BC. They were entirely isolated from the rest of the human species for 8,000 years until European contact.
Before British colonisation of Tasmania in 1803, there were an estimated 3,000–15,000 Palawa. The Palawa population suffered a drastic drop in numbers within three decades, so that by 1835 only some 400 full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal people survived, most of this remnant being incarcerated in camps where all but 47 died within the following 12 years. No consensus exists as to the cause, over which a major controversy arose. The traditional view, still affirmed, held that this dramatic demographic collapse was the result of the impact of introduced diseases, rather than the consequence of policy. Geoffrey Blainey, for example, wrote that by 1830 in Tasmania: "Disease had killed most of them but warfare and private violence had also been devastating." Henry Reynolds attributed the depletion to losses in the Black War. Keith Windschuttle claimed that in addition to disease, the prostitution of women in a society already in decline, explained the extinction. Many specialists in the history of colonialism and genocide, such as Ben Kiernan, Colin Tatz, and Benjamin Madley state that the Tasmanian decimation qualifies as genocide in terms of the definition set forth by Raphael Lemkin and adopted in the UN Genocide Convention.
By 1833, George Augustus Robinson, sponsored by Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur, had persuaded the approximately 200 surviving Aboriginal Tasmanians to surrender themselves with assurances that they would be protected, be provided for and eventually have their lands returned to them. These "assurances" were false; there is no suggestion that Robinson or Lieutenant-Governor Arthur intended anything else but exile to the Furneaux Islands, and the assurances were given by Robinson in order to facilitate the removal of the Aboriginal people from mainland Tasmania. The survivors were moved to Wybalenna Aboriginal Establishment on Flinders Island, where diseases continued to reduce their numbers even further. In 1847, the last 47 living inhabitants of Wybalenna were transferred to Oyster Cove, south of Hobart. Two individuals, Truganini (1812–1876) and Fanny Cochrane Smith (1834–1905), are separately considered to have been the last people solely of Tasmanian descent.
The complete Aboriginal Tasmanian languages have been lost; some original Tasmanian language words remained in use with Palawa people in the Furneaux Islands, and there are some efforts to reconstruct a language from the available wordlists. Today, some thousands of people living in Tasmania describe themselves as Aboriginal Tasmanians, since a number of Palawa women bore children to European men in the Furneaux Islands and mainland Tasmania.
History
Before European settlement
People crossed into Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between the island and the rest of mainland Australia, during the Last Glacial Period. According to genetic studies, once the sea level rose, flooding the Bassian Plain, the people were left isolated for approximately 8,000 years, until the time of European exploration, during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Until the 1980s, it was thought that Tasmania was only occupied relatively recently, but the discovery of 19,000-year-old deposits at Kutikina (or Fraser) Cave demonstrated the Ice Age occupation of the highlands. In 1990, archaeologists excavated material in the Warreen Cave in the Maxwell River valley of the south-west, proving Aboriginal occupation from as early as 34,000 BP, making Aboriginal Tasmanians the southernmost population in the world during the Pleistocene era. Modern digs in southwest and central Tasmania turned up very abundant finds, affording "the richest archaeological evidence from Pleistocene Greater Australia" covering the period from 35,000 to 11,000 BP.
Migration chronology
Tasmania was colonised by successive waves of Aboriginal people from southern Australia during glacial maxima, when the sea was at its lowest. The archeological and geographic record suggests a period of drying, with the colder glacial period, with a desert extending from southern Australia into the midlands of Tasmania – with intermittent periods of wetter, warmer weather. People migrating from southern Australia into peninsular Tasmania would have crossed stretches of seawater and desert, and finally found oases in the King highlands (now King Island).
The archeological, geographic and linguistic record suggests a pattern of successive occupation of Tasmania, and coalescence of three ethnic or language groups into one broad group. Evidence for contest over territory is reflected for example, by the presence of Nara (the broad language group of Western Tasmania) toponymy in Mara (the broad Eastern Tasmanian language group) territory – suggesting a pattern of occupation and hostile takeover that mirrors traditional hostilities during colonial times.
Colonial settlers found two main language groups in Tasmania upon their arrival, which correlates with the broader nation or clan divisions.
Pleistocene Palawa language group – the first ethnic and language group in Tasmania; absorbed or displaced by successive invasions except for remnant group on Tasman peninsula. Absorbed population in Eastern Tasmania combined with Victorian speakers to form Mara language group across broader eastern Tasmania
Furneaux speakers displace Palawa in north-east Tasmania as far south as Orford. Themselves disappear or are absorbed into Mara language group – the Mara language group, a composite of Pleistocene Palawa, Furneaux, and Victorian
Nara speakers invade, but are pushed back to Western Tasmania. Correlates with Western nation of Tasmanian Aboriginal people.
After the sea rose to create Bass Strait, the Australian mainland and Tasmania became separate land masses, and the Aboriginal people who had migrated from mainland Australia became cut off from their cousins on the mainland. Archeological evidence suggests remnant populations on the King and Furneaux highlands being stranded by rising waters – later to die out.
Early European contact
Abel Jansen Tasman, credited as the first European to discover Tasmania (in 1642) and who named it Van Diemen's Land, did not encounter any of the Aboriginal Tasmanians when he landed.
In 1772, a French exploratory expedition under Marion Dufresne visited Tasmania. At first, contact with the Aboriginal people was friendly; however the Aboriginal Tasmanians became alarmed when another boat was dispatched towards the shore. It was reported that spears and stones were thrown and the French responded with musket fire, killing at least one Aboriginal person and wounding several others. Two later French expeditions led by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux in 1792–93 and Nicolas Baudin in 1802 made friendly contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians; the d'Entrecasteaux expedition doing so over an extended period of time.
The Resolution under Captain Tobias Furneaux (part of an expedition led by Captain James Cook) had visited in 1773 but made no contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians although gifts were left for them in unoccupied shelters found on Bruny Island. The first known British contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians was on Bruny Island by Captain Cook in 1777. The contact was peaceful. Captain William Bligh also visited Bruny Island in 1788 and made peaceful contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians.
Contact with sealers, and the formation of the Bass Strait community
More extensive contact between Aboriginal Tasmanians and Europeans resulted when British and American seal hunters began visiting the islands in Bass Strait as well as the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania from the late 1790s. Shortly thereafter (by about 1800), sealers were regularly left on uninhabited islands in Bass Strait during the sealing season (November to May). The sealers established semi-permanent camps or settlements on the islands, which were close enough for the sealers to reach the main island of Tasmania in small boats and so make contact with the Aboriginal Tasmanians.
Trading relationships developed between sealers and Tasmanian Aboriginal tribes. Hunting dogs became highly prized by the Aboriginal people, as were other exotic items such as flour, tea and tobacco. The Aboriginal people traded kangaroo skins for such goods. However, a trade in Aboriginal women soon developed. Many Tasmanian Aboriginal women were highly skilled in hunting seals, as well as in obtaining other foods such as seabirds, and some Tasmanian tribes would trade their services and, more rarely, those of Aboriginal men to the sealers for the seal-hunting season. Others were sold on a permanent basis. This trade incorporated not only women of the tribe engaged in the trade but also women abducted from other tribes. Some may have been given to incorporate the new arrivals into Aboriginal society through marriage.
Sealers engaged in raids along the coasts to abduct Aboriginal women and were reported to have killed Aboriginal men in the process. By 1810 seal numbers had been greatly reduced by hunting so most seal hunters abandoned the area, however a small number of sealers, approximately fifty mostly "renegade sailors, escaped convicts or ex-convicts", remained as permanent residents of the Bass Strait islands and some established families with Tasmanian Aboriginal women.
Some of the women were taken back to the islands by the sealers involuntarily and some went willingly, as in the case of a woman called Tarenorerer (Eng: Walyer). Differing opinions have been given on Walyer's involvement with the sealers. McFarlane writes that she voluntarily joined the sealers with members of her family, and was responsible for attacking Aboriginal people and white settlers alike. Ryan comes to a different conclusion, that Walyer had been abducted at Port Sorell by Aboriginal people and traded to the sealers for dogs and flour. Walyer was later to gain some notoriety for her attempts to kill the sealers to escape their brutality. Walyer, a Punnilerpanner, joined the Plairhekehillerplue band after eventually escaping and went on to lead attacks on employees of the Van Diemen's Land Company. Walyer's attacks are the first recorded use of muskets by Aboriginal people. Captured, she refused to work and was banished to Penguin Island. Later imprisoned on Swan Island she attempted to organise a rebellion. Although Aboriginal women were by custom forbidden to take part in war, several Aboriginal women who escaped from sealers became leaders or took part in attacks. According to Lyndall Ryan, the women traded to or kidnapped by sealers became "a significant dissident group" against European/white authority.
Historian James Bonwick reported Aboriginal women who were clearly captives of sealers but he also reported women living with sealers who "proved faithful and affectionate to their new husbands", women who appeared "content" and others who were allowed to visit their "native tribe", taking gifts, with the sealers being confident that they would return. Bonwick also reports a number of claims of brutality by sealers towards Aboriginal women including some of those made by Robinson. An Aboriginal woman by the name of Bulrer related her experience to Robinson, that sealers had rushed her camp and stolen six women including herself "the white men tie them and then they flog them very much, plenty much blood, plenty cry." Sealing captain James Kelly wrote in 1816 that the custom of the sealers was to each have "two to five of these native women for their own use and benefit". A shortage of women available "in trade" resulted in abduction becoming common, and in 1830 it was reported that at least fifty Aboriginal women were "kept in slavery" on the Bass Strait islands.
There are numerous stories of the sealers' brutality towards the Aboriginal women; with some of these reports originating from Robinson. In 1830, Robinson seized 14 Aboriginal women from the sealers, planning for them to marry Aboriginal men at the Flinders Island settlement. Josephine Flood, an archaeologist specialising in Australian mainland Aboriginal peoples, notes: "he encountered strong resistance from the women as well as sealers". The sealers sent a representative, James Munro, to appeal to Governor George Arthur and argue for the women's return, on the basis that they wanted to stay with their sealer husbands and children rather than marry Aboriginal men unknown to them. Arthur ordered the return of some of the women. Shortly thereafter, Robinson began to disseminate stories, told to him by James Munro, of atrocities allegedly committed by the sealers against Aboriginal people, and against Aboriginal women in particular. Brian Plomley, who edited Robinson's papers, expressed scepticism about these atrocities and notes that they were not reported to Archdeacon William Broughton's 1830 committee of inquiry into violence towards Tasmanians. Abduction and ill-treatment of Aboriginal Tasmanians certainly occurred, but the extent is debated.
The raids for and trade in Aboriginal women contributed to the rapid depletion of the numbers of Aboriginal women in the northern areas of Tasmania – "by 1830 only three women survived in northeast Tasmania among 72 men" – and thus contributed in a significant manner to the demise of the full-blooded Aboriginal population of Tasmania. However, a mixed-race community of partial Tasmanian Aboriginal descent formed on the Islands, where it remains to the present, and many modern day Aboriginal Tasmanians trace their descent from the 19th century sealer communities of Bass Strait.
After European settlement
Between 1803 and 1823, there were two phases of conflict between the Aboriginal people and the British colonists. The first took place between 1803 and 1808 over the need for common food sources such as oysters and kangaroos, and the second between 1808 and 1823, when only a small number of white females lived among the colonists, and farmers, sealers and whalers took part in the trading, and the abduction, of Aboriginal women as sexual partners. These practices also increased conflict over women among Aboriginal tribes. This in turn led to a decline in the Aboriginal population. Historian Lyndall Ryan records 74 Aboriginal people (almost all women) living with sealers on the Bass Strait islands in the period up to 1835.
By 1816, kidnapping of Aboriginal children for labour had become widespread. In 1814, Governor Thomas Davey issued a proclamation expressing "utter indignation and abhorrence" in regards to the kidnapping of the children and in 1819 Governor William Sorell not only re-issued the proclamation but ordered that those who had been taken without parental consent were to be sent to Hobart and supported at government expense.
A number of young Aboriginal children were known to be living with settlers. An Irish sealer named Brien spared the life of the baby son of a native woman he had abducted, explaining, "as (he) had stolen the dam he would keep the cub." When the child grew up he became an invaluable assistant to Brien but was considered "no good" by his own people as he was brought up to dislike Aboriginal people, whom he considered "dirty lazy brutes." Twenty-six were definitely known (through baptismal records) to have been taken into settlers' homes as infants or very small children, too young to be of service as labourers. Some Aboriginal children were sent to the Orphan School in Hobart. Lyndall Ryan reports fifty-eight Aboriginal people, of various ages, living with settlers in Tasmania in the period up to 1835.
Some historians argue that European disease did not appear to be a serious factor until after 1829. Other historians including Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle, point to introduced disease as the main cause of the destruction of the full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal population. Keith Windschuttle argues that while smallpox never reached Tasmania, respiratory diseases such as influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and the effects of venereal diseases devastated the Tasmanian Aboriginal population whose long isolation from contact with the mainland compromised their resistance to introduced disease. The work of historian James Bonwick and anthropologist H. Ling Roth, both writing in the 19th century, also point to the significant role of epidemics and infertility without clear attribution of the sources of the diseases as having been introduced through contact with Europeans. Bonwick, however, did note that Tasmanian Aboriginal women were infected with venereal diseases by Europeans. Introduced venereal disease not only directly caused deaths but, more insidiously, left a significant percentage of the population unable to reproduce. Josephine Flood, archaeologist, wrote: "Venereal disease sterilised and chest complaints – influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis – killed."
Bonwick, who lived in Tasmania, recorded a number of reports of the devastating effect of introduced disease including one report by a Doctor Story, a Quaker, who wrote: "After 1823 the women along with the tribe seemed to have had no children; but why I do not know.". Later historians have reported that introduced venereal disease caused infertility amongst the Aboriginal Tasmanians. Bonwick also recorded a strong Aboriginal oral tradition of an epidemic even before formal colonisation in 1803. "Mr Robert Clark, in a letter to me, said: 'I have gleaned from some of the Aborigines, now in their graves, that they were more numerous than the white people were aware of, but their numbers were very much thinned by a sudden attack of disease which was general among the entire population previous to the arrival of the English, entire tribes of natives having been swept off in the course of one or two days' illness.'" Such an epidemic may be linked to contact with sailors or sealers.
Henry Ling Roth, an anthropologist, wrote: "Calder, who has gone more fully into the particulars of their illnesses, writes as follows ...: 'Their rapid declension after the colony was founded is traceable, as far as our proofs allow us to judge, to the prevalence of epidemic disorders....'" Roth was referring to James Erskine Calder who took up a post as a surveyor in Tasmania in 1829 and who wrote a number of scholarly papers about the Aboriginal people. "According to Calder, a rapid and remarkable declension of the numbers of the Aborigines had been going on long before the remnants were gathered together on Flinders Island. Whole tribes (some of which Robinson mentions by name as being in existence fifteen or twenty years before he went amongst them, and which probably never had a shot fired at them) had absolutely and entirely vanished. To the causes to which he attributes this strange wasting away ... I think infecundity, produced by the infidelity of the women to their husbands in the early times of the colony, may be safely added ... Robinson always enumerates the sexes of the individuals he took; ... and as a general thing, found scarcely any children amongst them; ... adultness was found to outweigh infancy everywhere in a remarkable degree ..."
Robinson recorded in his journals a number of comments regarding the Aboriginal Tasmanians' susceptibility to diseases, particularly respiratory diseases. In 1832 he revisited the west coast of Tasmania, far from the settled regions, and wrote: "The numbers of Aborigines along the western coast have been considerably reduced since the time of my last visit [1830]. A mortality has raged amongst them which together with the severity of the season and other causes had rendered the paucity of their number very considerable."
Between 1825 and 1831 a pattern of guerilla warfare by the Aboriginal Tasmanians was identified by the colonists. Rapid pastoral expansion, a depletion of native game and an increase in the colony's population triggered Aboriginal resistance from 1824 onwards when it has been estimated by Lyndall Ryan that 1000 Aboriginal people remained in the settled districts. Whereas settlers and stock keepers had previously provided rations to the Aboriginal people during their seasonal movements across the settled districts, and recognised this practice as some form of payment for trespass and loss of traditional hunting grounds, the new settlers and stock keepers were unwilling to maintain these arrangements and the Aboriginal people began to raid settlers' huts for food.
The official Government position was that Aboriginal people were blameless for any hostilities, but when Musquito was hanged in 1825, a significant debate was generated which split the colonists along class lines. The "higher grade" saw the hanging as a dangerous precedent and argued that Aboriginal people were only defending their land and should not be punished for doing so. The "lower grade" of colonists wanted more Aboriginal people hanged to encourage a "conciliatory line of conduct." Governor Arthur sided with the "lower grade" and 1825 saw the first official acceptance that Aboriginal people were at least partly to blame for conflict.
In 1826 the Government gazette, which had formerly reported "retaliatory actions" by Aboriginal people, now reported "acts of atrocity" and for the first time used the terminology "Aborigine" instead of "native". A newspaper reported that there were only two solutions to the problem: either they should be "hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed" or they should be removed from the settled districts. The colonial Government assigned troops to drive them out. A Royal Proclamation in 1828 established military posts on the boundaries and a further proclamation declared martial law against the Aboriginal people. As it was recognised that there were fixed routes for seasonal migration, Aboriginal people were required to have passes if they needed to cross the settled districts with bounties offered for the capture of those without passes, £5 (around 2010:$1,000) for an adult and £2 for children, a process that often led to organised hunts resulting in deaths. Every dispatch from Governor Arthur to the Secretary of State during this period stressed that in every case where Aboriginal people had been killed it was colonists that initiated hostilities.
Though many Aboriginal deaths went unrecorded, the Cape Grim massacre in 1828 demonstrates the level of frontier violence towards Aboriginal Tasmanians.
The Black War of 1828–32 and the Black Line of 1830 were turning points in the relationship with European settlers. Even though many of the Aboriginal people managed to avoid capture during these events, they were shaken by the size of the campaigns against them, and this brought them to a position whereby they were willing to surrender to Robinson and move to Flinders Island.
Aboriginal Tasmanians and settlers mentioned in literature 1800–1835
European and Aboriginal casualties, including the Aboriginal residents who were captured, may be considered as reasonably accurate. The figures for the Aboriginal population shot is likely a substantial undercount.
Resettlement of the Aboriginal population
In late 1831 Robinson brought the first 51 Aboriginals to a settlement on Flinders Island named The Lagoons, which turned out to be inadequate as it was exposed to gales, had little water and no land suitable for cultivation.
Supplies to the settlement were inadequate and if sealers had not supplied potatoes, the Aboriginal people would have starved. The Europeans were living on oatmeal and potatoes while the Aboriginal people, who detested oatmeal and refused to eat it, survived on potatoes and rice supplemented by mutton birds they caught. Within months 31 Aboriginal people had died. Roth wrote:
By January 1832 a further 44 captured Aboriginal residents had arrived and conflicts arose between the tribal groups. To defuse the situation, Sergeant Wight took the Big River group to Green island, where they were abandoned and he later decided to move the rest to Green Island as well. Two weeks later Robinson arrived with Lieutenant Darling, the new commander for the station, and moved the Aboriginal people back to The Lagoons. Darling ensured a supply of plentiful food and permitted "hunting excursions." In October 1832, it was decided to build a new camp with better buildings (wattle and daub) at a more suitable location, Pea Jacket Point. Pea Jacket Point was renamed Civilisation Point but became more commonly known as Wybalenna, which in the Ben Lomond language meant 'black men's houses'.
Robinson befriended Truganini, learned some of the local language and in 1833 managed to persuade the remaining 154 "full-blooded" people to move to the new settlement on Flinders Island, where he promised a modern and comfortable environment, and that they would be returned to their former homes on the Tasmanian mainland as soon as possible. At the Wybalenna Aboriginal establishment on Flinders Island, described by historian Henry Reynolds as the "best equipped and most lavishly staffed Aboriginal institution in the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century", they were provided with housing, clothing, rations of food, the services of a doctor and educational facilities. Convicts were assigned to build housing and do most of the work at the settlement including the growing of food in the vegetable gardens. After arrival, all Aboriginal children aged between six and 15 years were removed from their families to be brought up by the storekeeper and a lay preacher. The Aboriginal people were free to roam the island and were often absent from the settlement for extended periods on hunting trips as the rations supplied turned out to be inadequate. By 1835 the living conditions had deteriorated to the extent that in October Robinson personally took charge of Wybalenna, organising better food and improving the housing. However, of the 220 who arrived with Robinson, most died in the following 14 years from introduced disease and inadequate shelter. As a result of their loss of freedom, the birth rate was extremely low and few children survived infancy.
In 1839, Governor Franklin appointed a board to inquire into the conditions at Wybalenna that rejected Robinson's claims regarding improved living conditions and found the settlement to be a failure. The report was never released and the government continued to promote Wybalenna as a success in the treatment of Aboriginal people. In March 1847 six Aboriginals at Wybalenna presented a petition to Queen Victoria, the first petition to a reigning monarch from any Aboriginal group in Australia, requesting that the promises made to them be honoured. In October 1847, the 47 survivors were transferred to their final settlement at Oyster Cove station. Only 44 survived the trip (11 couples, 12 single men and 10 children) and the children were immediately sent to the orphan school in Hobart. Although the housing and food was better than Wybalenna, the station was a former convict station that had been abandoned earlier that year due to health issues as it was located on inadequately drained mudflats. According to the guards, the Aboriginal people developed "too much independence" by trying to continue their culture which they considered "recklessness" and "rank ingratitude." Their numbers continued to diminish, being estimated in 1859 at around a dozen and, by 1869, there was only one, who died in 1876.
Commenting in 1899 on Robinson's claims of success, anthropologist Henry Ling Roth wrote:
Anthropological interest
The Oyster Cove people attracted contemporaneous international scientific interest from the 1860s onwards, with many museums claiming body parts for their collections. Scientists were interested in studying Aboriginal Tasmanians from a physical anthropology perspective, hoping to gain insights into the field of paleoanthropology. For these reasons, they were interested in individual Aboriginal body parts and whole skeletons.
Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into craniofacial anthropometry. Truganini herself entertained fears that her body might be exploited after her death and two years after her death her body was exhumed and sent to Melbourne for scientific study. Her skeleton was then put up for public display in the Tasmanian Museum until 1947, and was only lay to rest, by cremation, in 1976. Another case was the removal of the skull and scrotum – for a tobacco pouch – of William Lanne, known as King Billy, on his death in 1869.
However, many of these skeletons were obtained from Aboriginal "mummies" from graves or bodies of the murdered. Amalie Dietrich for example became famous for delivering such specimens.
Aboriginal people have considered the dispersal of body parts as being disrespectful, as a common aspect within Aboriginal belief systems is that a soul can only be at rest when laid in its homeland.
20th century to present
Body parts and ornaments are still being returned from collections today, with the Royal College of Surgeons of England returning samples of Truganini's skin and hair (in 2002), and the British Museum returning ashes to two descendants in 2007.
During the 20th century, the absence of Aboriginal people of solely Aboriginal ancestry, and a general unawareness of the surviving populations, meant many non-Aboriginal people assumed they were extinct, after the death of Truganini in 1876. Since the mid-1970s Tasmanian Aboriginal activists such as Michael Mansell have sought to broaden awareness and identification of Aboriginal descent.
A dispute exists within the Tasmanian Aboriginal community, however, over what constitutes Aboriginality. The Palawa, mainly descendants of white male sealers and Tasmanian Aboriginal women who settled on the Bass Strait Islands, were given the power to decide who is of Tasmanian Aboriginal descent at the state level (entitlement to government Aboriginal services). Palawa recognise only descendants of the Bass Strait Island community as Aboriginal and do not consider as Aboriginal the Lia Pootah, who claim descent, based on oral traditions, from Tasmanian mainland Aboriginal communities. The Lia Pootah feel that the Palawa controlled Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre does not represent them politically.
Since 2007 there have been initiatives to introduce DNA testing to establish family history in descendant subgroups. This is strongly opposed by the Palawa and has drawn an angry reaction from some quarters, as some have claimed "spiritual connection" with Aboriginality distinct from, but not as important as the existence of a genetic link. The Lia Pootah object to the current test used to prove Aboriginality as they believe it favours the Palawa, a DNA test would circumvent barriers to Lia Pootah recognition, or disprove their claims to Aboriginality.
In April 2000, the Tasmanian Government Legislative Council Select Committee on Aboriginal Lands discussed the difficulty of determining Aboriginality based on oral traditions. An example given by Prof. Cassandra Pybus was the claim by the Huon and Channel Aboriginal people who had an oral history of descent from two Aboriginal women. Research found that both were non-Aboriginal convict women.
The Tasmanian Palawa Aboriginal community is making an effort to reconstruct and reintroduce a Tasmanian language, called palawa kani out of the various records on Tasmanian languages. Other Tasmanian Aboriginal communities use words from traditional Tasmanian languages, according to the language area they were born or live in.
Tasmanian Aboriginal nations
The social organisation of Aboriginal Tasmanians had at least two hierarchies: the domestic unit or family group and the social unit or clan - which had a self-defining name with 40 to 50 people. It is contentious whether there was a larger political organisation, hitherto described as a "tribe" in the literature (and by colonial observers), as there is no evidence in the historical literature of larger political entities above that of the clan. Robinson, who gathered ethnographic data in the early 1800s, described Aboriginal political groups at the clan level only. Nevertheless, clans that shared a geographic region and language group are now usually classified by modern ethnographers, and the Palawa, as a nation.
Estimates made of the combined population of Aboriginal people of Tasmania, before European arrival in Tasmania, are in the range of 3,000 to 15,000 people. Genetic studies have suggested much higher figures which is supported by oral traditions that Aboriginal people were "more numerous than the white people were aware of" but that their population had been greatly reduced by a sudden outbreak of disease before 1803. It is speculated that early contacts with sealers before colonisation had resulted in an epidemic. Using archaeological evidence, Stockton (I983:68) estimated 3,000 to 6,000 for the northern half of the west coast alone, or up to six times the commonly accepted estimate, however he later revised this to 3,000 to 5,000 for the entire island, based on historical sources. The low rate of genetic drift indicates that Stockton's original maximum estimate is likely the lower boundary and, while not indicated by the archaeological record, a population as high as 100,000 can "not be rejected out of hand". This is supported by carrying capacity data indicating greater resource productivity in Tasmania than the mainland.
Aboriginal Tasmanians were primarily nomadic people who lived in adjoining territories, moving based on seasonal changes in food supplies such as seafood, land mammals and native vegetables and berries. They socialised, intermarried and fought "wars" against other clans.
According to Ryan, the population of Tasmania was aligned into nine nations composed of six to fifteen clans each, with each clan comprising two to six extended family units who were relations. Individual clans ranged over a defined nation boundary with elaborate rites of entry required of visitors.
There were more than 60 clans before European colonisation, although only 48 have been located and associated with particular territories.
The location and migratory patterns discussed below come from the work of Jones (cited in Tindale). Ryan used Jones' work in her seminal history of Aboriginal Tasmanians but Taylor discusses in his thesis how Jones' original work is uncited and possibly conjectural. Moreover, Jones published his work without recourse to Plomley's later extensive descriptions of Tasmanian Aboriginal clan groups. Given this, the clan boundaries and nomadic patterns discussed below should be taken with caution unless referenced from primary documents.
Oyster Bay (Paredarerme)
The Paredarerme was estimated to be the largest Tasmanian nation with ten clans totalling 700 to 800 people. The members of the Paredarerme nation had good relations with the Big River nation, with large congregations at favoured hunting sites inland and at the coast. Relations with the North Midlands nation were mostly hostile, and evidence suggests that the Douglas-Apsley region may have been a dangerous borderland rarely visited (Ferguson 1986 pg22). Generally, the clans of the Paredarerme ranged inland to the High Country for spring and summer and returned to the coast for autumn and winter, but not all people left their territory each year with some deciding to stay by the coast. Migrations provided a varied diet with plentiful seafood, seals and birds on the coast, and good hunting for kangaroos, wallabies and possums inland. The High Country also provided opportunities to trade for ochre with the North-west and North people, and to harvest intoxicating gum from Eucalyptus gunnii, found only on the plateau. The key determinant of camp sites was topography. The majority of camps were along river valleys, adjacent north facing hill slopes and on gentle slopes bordering a forest or marsh (Brown 1986).
North East
The North East nation consisted of seven clans totalling around 500 people. They had good relations with the Ben Lomond nation - granted seasonal access to the resources of the north-east coast.
North
The Northern nation consisted of four clans totalling 200–300 people. Their country contained the most important ochre mines in Tasmania, accessed by well defined roads kept open by firing. They traded the ochre with nearby clanspeople. They would spend part of the year in the country of the North West nation to hunt seals and collect shells from Robbins Island for necklaces. In return, the North West nation had free access to the ochre mines Relatively isolated, the region was first explored by Europeans in 1824 with the Van Diemen's Land Company being given a grant of , which included the greater part of the clan hunting grounds. The settlement was a failure, with the inland areas described as "wet, cold and soggy", while the coastal region was difficult to clear, as Superintendent Henry Hellyer noted the "forest [was] altogether unlike anything I have seen in the Island". However, in 1827 a port was established at Emu Bay. In 1828 Tarerenorerer (Eng:Walyer), a woman who had escaped from sealers, became the leader of the Emu Bay people and attacked the settlers with stolen weapons, the first recorded use of muskets by Aboriginal people.
Big River
The Big River nation numbered 400–500 people consisting of five clans. Little is known of their seasonal movements although it is believed that four of the five clans moved through Oyster Bay territory along the Derwent River to reach their coastal camps near Pitt Water. The Oyster Bay People had reciprocal movement rights through Big River territory.
North Midlands
The North Midlands nation occupied the Midland plains, a major geographical area formed in a horst and graben valley which was also subject to previous major freshwater lacustrine inundation.
The result being a relatively flat and fertile landscape that supported a large biomass, thus being a major food source for the Aboriginal peoples.
The North Midlands nation is likely to have consisted of several clans but there are three accepted major clan divisions described in the ethnographic literature today. The total population of the North Midlands nation has been estimated to be between 300 and 500 and, although migratory, the archeological and historical record infers seasonal residency in locations adjacent to permanent water sources in the Midlands valley.
Boundaries of the North Midlands nation
The North Midlands nation was circumscribed by the geographical constraints of the Midlands valley. To the west the nation was bounded by the escarpment of the Great Western Tiers, to the north-east the boundaries are less certain; with the eastern Tamar appearing to have been occupied by the Letteremairrener as far east as Piper's River: where the Poremairrenerner clan of the North-east nation were resident.
The occupation of the western Tamar is open to dispute – the ethnographic record suggests that it was the province of the Pallitorre and Parnillerpanner clans of the North nation; or the Leterrmairrener; or a hitherto unnamed clan of the North Midlands nation. It is likely that the west Tamar valley, or the Meander river valley formed the NNW boundaries of the North Midlands nation – with the arc of highlands formed by Cluan Tier and Dry's Bluff forming the nor-western extremity of their country.
To the east the natural boundary was the South-Esk River and, running northwards, the high tier of Mts Barrow, Arthur and Tippogoree Hills: beyond which lay the North-east nation. Running south past the eastern bend of the South-Esk it appears that the North Midlands Nation held land to some extent along the south bank of the Esk, at least as far as Avoca and possibly as far as the natural boundary of the St Pauls River, beyond which the Oyster Bay nation were resident.
To the south their country was constrained by the uplands beyond Tunbridge, as the plains narrow towards Big River and Oyster Bay country.
Language of the North Midlands nation
The North Midlands language is classified as "mairremenner" and was spoken by the Ben Lomond and North-east nations and also the Luggermairrenerpairer clan of the Central Highlands. This language group is likely to be a derivation of three other Tasmanian languages.
Clans of the North Midlands nation
Three major national divisions are generally ascribed to the North Midlands nation although it is likely that more clans existed and Ryan (2012) asserts the possibility of another two clan territories. What is known of the composition of the North Midlands nation derives from settler description (who ascribed simple tribal divisions based upon locality), direct attribution from contemporary Aboriginal Tasmanians (recorded by Robinson collated by Plomley) and later research by Rhys Jones. From this we can be certain that there were three major clan divisions, described by colonials as the Port Dalrymple tribe (Leterrermairrener clan), at the Tamar River; Pennyroyal Creek tribe (Panninher), at Norfolk Plains; and the Stony Creek tribe (Tyrrernotepanner), at Campbell Town.
Letteremairrener "Port Dalrymple" clan
The Letteremairrener (Letter-ramare-ru-nah) clan occupied country from Low Head to modern day Launceston. In colonial times reports were made of clusters of huts, up to ten in number, in the Tamar valley and there are extensive archeological remains of occupation on both sides of the Tamar river and north coastal country.
Toponymy
Little is recorded of the toponymy of their country but some local placenames have survived and are likely to be of the "Nara" language group.
Tamar River: kunermurluker, morerutter, ponrabbel
Low Head: Pilerwaytackenter
Georgetown area: Kennemerthertackenloongentare
Launceston (Port Dalrymple): Taggener, Lorernulraytitteter
North-Esk River: Lakekeller
Mt Barrow: Pialermaligena
Significant sites
Little is known of specific sites of significance to the Letteremairrener, but contemporary Palawa assert the significance of the Cataract Gorge
as a place of ceremony and significance. Certainly, in 1847, when a surviving Aboriginal "chief" was temporarily returned to Launceston from exile in Wybalenna, he requested to be taken to the Cataract Gorge and was described as being jubilant at return to the Gorge, followed with apparent lamentation at what had been lost to him.
There are no recorded significant archeological remains in the Gorge precinct, although the area was subject to significant seasonal flooding before damming.
The Letteremairrener had been recorded to have specific meeting places at Paterson's Plains (near modern-day St Leonards) and groups as large as 150 had been recorded in colonial times in this vicinity. The clan country overlapped with that of the Panninher and Tyrrernotepanner and it is likely that, at times, the clans shared resources across clan borders.
Colonial contact
The Letteremairrener were among the first Aboriginal peoples to be affected by the impact of colonisation by the British as colonial occupation commenced at Port Dalrymple and progressed to Launceston, with settlers progressively occupying land up the Tamar valley.
By the early 1800s the Letteremairrener had been involved in skirmishes with exploratory parties of colonials, in the second decade of that century they had reached some accommodation with the interlopers; and were observed practicing spear throwing near present-day Paterson Barracks and watching colonial women wash clothes at Cataract Gorge.
Between 1811 and 1827 several Aboriginal children were baptised in Launceston, either abducted or the progeny of settler/Aboriginal liaisons. By 1830 the people of the Letteremairenner had largely disappeared from their homeland and the survivors were waging a desperate guerrilla war with colonial British, living a fringe existence in Launceston or living life on the margin at the peripheries of their traditional land.
By 1837 the Letteremairrenner had disappeared completely from the Tamar Valley and would eventually die in the squalor of Wybalenna or Oyster Cove.
Panninher "Pennyroyal Creek" clan
The Panninher (parn-in-her) were known to colonial people as the Penny Royal Creek tribe, named eponymously from the river that comes off the Western Tiers south of Drys Bluff (which is now called the Liffey River). The Panninher named the Liffey river tellerpanger and Drys Bluff, the mountain rearing above their homeland, was taytitkekitheker. Their territory broadly covered the north plains of the midlands from the west bank of the Tamar River across to what is now Evandale and terminating at the Tyerrernotepanner country around modern day Conara.
The Panninher also freely moved from the Tamar to the central highlands and brokered trade in ochre from the Toolumbunner mine to neighbouring clans.
Robinson describes the road used by the Panninher from their home up to the Central Highlands, via the gully of the Liffey river, and the South road along the base of the Western Tiers – up the Lake River to modern day Interlaken.
Significant sites
Whilst sites of ritual significance to the Panninher are not known, the Panninher were known to frequent Native Point, on the South Esk River between modern day Perth and Evandale, where flint quarries were located and clans met for celebration. Here local historians believe that cemetery (hollowed) trees were used to inter the dead.
Similarly, Reibey's Ford, near modern-day Hadspen, was a known "resort of the natives" and they named this site moorronnoe. Archaeological evidence shows also indicates signs of continuous occupation at permanent lagoons near Cleveland, which was known historically as a clan meeting place.
The Panninher were affected early by settlement around Norfolk Plains and aggressive assertion of property rights by settlers at first hindered their hunting and migration through their country and, subsequently, led to outright hostility from both parties. Captain Ritchie, an early settler near Perth, tolerated, or fostered, forays by his assigned men against the Panninher and this culminated in a massacre by settlers near modern-day Cressy.
The Panninher, or their neighbouring clansmen, retaliated in various attacks against settlers at Western Lagoon and in remote country up the Lake River, reaching a peak in aggression against the colonial interlopers by 1827.
In 1831 a war party of "100 or 150 stout men" attacked settlers at the base of the Western Tiers and up the Lake River but it is unclear whether this was the action of the Panninher alone or a confederation of warriors from remnant North Tasmanian nations. The colonial settlers made little discrimination between Panninher and members of the "Stony Creek tribe" and it is likely that the North Midlands nation had disintegrated and the amalgamated band was known under the overarching name of "Stony Creek tribe" by this time. This notwithstanding, it seems that the Panninher were resourceful enough to survive in some numbers until late in the Black War.
The Tyerrernotepanner "Stony Creek" clan
The Tyerrernotepanner (Chera-noti-pana) were known to colonial people as the Stony Creek tribe, named eponymously from the small southern tributary of the South Esk at Llewellyn, west of modern-day Avoca.
The clan Tyerrernotepanner were centred at Campbell Town and were one of up to four clans in the south central Midlands area.
Nevertheless, this clan name is now used as a general term for all Aboriginal peoples of this region. The ethnographic and archaeological evidence describes areas of significance to the south central Midlands clans: modern day Lake Leake, Tooms Lake, Windfalls farm, Mt Morriston, Ross township and the lacustrine regions of the midlands all show evidence of tool knapping, middens and records of hut construction consistent with occupation.
Significant sites
Lake Leake (previously Kearney's Bogs), Campbell Town, Ellinthorpe Plains (near modern day Auburn) and Tooms Lake were described as "resorts of the natives" by settlers and showed substantial evidence of seasonal occupation. Furthermore, several small lagoons in the midlands area all show substantial archeological evidence of regular occupation consistent with tool-making and semi-nomadic use. Aboriginal roads, markenner, are described as passing up the Eastern Tiers to Swanport, up the Western Tier to Interlaken and up the Lake River to Woods Lake and thence to the Central Highlands.
The clan divisions of the southern central Midlands are suggested below. Caution must be exercised as to the provenance of the names and the complete accuracy of attributing discrete geographical regions.
tyrrernotepanner: clan at Northern Campbell Town/Lake river/ South Fingal Valley
marwemairer: clan at Ross/Mt Morriston region
peenrymairmener: clan at Glen Morriston/Lake Leake
rolemairre: clan at Tunbridge area
The Tyerrernotepanner are described consistently in contemporary records as a "fierce tribe" and the records describe consistent and concerted violence by the Tyerrernotepanner during the Black War. The Tyeerrernotepanner, along with clansmen from other remnant tribes, conducted raids across the midlands during the Black War and, until "conciliated" by Robinson, were the subject of fearful reminiscence by colonial people.
The famed Aboriginal leader Umarrah was a member of this clan and he was noted for his aggression and sustained campaign against European interlopers - although he was raised by colonials himself.
Ben Lomond
The Ben Lomond nation consisted of at least three clans totalling 150–200 people. They occupied the 260 km2 of country surrounding the Ben Lomond plateau. Three clan names are known but their locations are somewhat conjectural – the clans were recorded as Plangermaireener, Plindermairhemener and Tonenerweenerlarmenne.
The Plangermaireener clan is recorded as variously inhabiting the south-east aspect of the Ben Lomond region and also has been associated with the Oyster Bay or Cape Portland clans to the east - indeed the chief Mannalargenna is variously described as a chief of the Oyster Bay, Cape Portland and Ben Lomond nations.
Plangermaireener is also used as a blanket term for the Ben Lomond nation, which reflects the suffix "mairreener"; meaning "people".
The Plindermairhemener are recorded in association with the south and south-western aspects of the region and the location of the Tonenerweenerlarmenne is uncertain, but were probably centred in the remaining Ben Lomond nation territory from White Hills to the headwaters of the North and South-Esk rivers or the upper South-Esk Valley.
This notwithstanding, the Palawa were a nomadic people and likely occupied these lands seasonally.
The Ben Lomond nation is sometimes described as the Ben Lomond/Pennyroyal Creek nation from an entry in Robinson's journal:
'(Mannalargenna) ... said that "the smoke...was that of the Ben Lomond-Pennyroyal Creek natives"'
This is a misnomer, as the Pennyroyal Creek was the original European name for the Liffey River and the Pennyroyal Creek tribe was the contemporary name of the Panninher clan of the North Midlands nation.
Mannalargenna would be familiar with the clans neighbouring his own traditional country and could be relied upon to report accurately the composition of the clanspeople in question. It is plausible that when Robinson was writing in 1830 the remnant peoples of the Ben Lomond nation had federated with that of the Panninher and this was the provenance of the conjoined title.
Seasonal movement
The clans of the Ben Lomond nation were nomadic, and the Aboriginal residents hunted along the valleys of the South Esk and North Esk rivers, their tributaries and the highlands to the northeast; as well as making forays to the plateau in summer. There are records of Aboriginal huts or dwellings around the foothills of Stacks Bluff and around the headwaters of the South Esk River near modern-day Mathinna. On the plateau there is evidence of artifacts around Lake Youl that suggests regular occupation of this site by Aboriginal peoples after the last ice age. The clans of the Ben Lomond nation had close enough relationships with neighbouring clans of the East Coast and North Midlands that they enjoyed seasonal foraging rights to these adjoining territories. John Batman describes the seasonal movement of the Plangermaireener in his diary of May 1830:
"...the tribe travels around Ben Lomond from South Esk to North Esk – and from thence to St. Patricks Head – Georges Bay and round the East Coast"
Batman further describes the relationship between the clans of the Ben Lomond nation and the North East nation:
"...there is (sic) two tribes... they (the 'chiefs' ) are upon friendly terms and often stop and meet and talk 10 days together..."
North West
The North West nation numbered between 400 and 600 people at time of contact with Europeans and had at least eight clans. They had good relations with the North nation, who were allowed access to the resources of the north-west coast. First explored by Europeans in 1824, the region was considered inhospitable and only lightly settled, although it suffered a high rate of Aboriginal dispossession and killings.
South West Coast
South East
Risdon Cove, the first Tasmanian settlement, was located in south-east country. There is eyewitness evidence that the South East nation may have consisted of up to ten clans, totalling around 500 people. However, only four groups totalling 160–200 people were officially recorded as the main source by Robinson, whose journals begin in 1829. By this time, Europeans had settled in most of the South East tribe's country, with the country dispossessed and food resources depleted. Their country contained the most important silcrete, chert and quartzite mines in Tasmania.
The South East people had a hostile relationship with the Oyster Bay people whom they frequently raided, often to kidnap women.
Truganini was a Nuenonne from Bruny Island, which they called Lunawanna-Alonnah. The first two European towns built on the island were named Lunawanna and Alonnah, and most of the island's landmarks are named after Nuenonne people. The island was the source of the sandstone used to build many of Melbourne's buildings, such as the Post Office and Parliament House.
Tasmanian Aboriginal culture
Aboriginal culture was disrupted severely in the 19th century after dispossession of land and incarceration of Aboriginal people on Wybalenna and Oyster Cove. Much traditional knowledge has irrevocably disappeared and what remains has been nurtured over several generations starting with the Aboriginal wives of sealers on the Furneaux Islands.
But, as the Aboriginal writer Greg Lehman states, "Aboriginal culture (is not) past tense." Aboriginal people, in a variety of forms, continue to express their culture in unique ways – expressing themes that lament the past but also celebrate endurance and continuity of culture into the future.
Pre-colonial contact
Contemporary accounts of the ceremonial and cultural life of the Tasmanian Aboriginal people are very limited. There were no observers trained in the social sciences after the French expeditions in the 18th century had made formal study of Tasmanian Aboriginal culture. Moreover, those who wrote most comprehensively of Aboriginal life in the 19th century did so after colonial contact, and the ensuing violence and dislocation, had irrevocably altered traditional Aboriginal culture. Those that most closely observed Aboriginal cultural practices either did not write accounts of what they observed or, if they did, observed culture through the ethnocentric lens of religious and proselytising 19th century European men.
Mythology
The mythology of the Aboriginal Tasmanians appears to be complex and possibly specific to each clan group. One of their creation myths refers to two creator deities, Moinee and Droemerdene; the children of Parnuen, the sun, and Vena, the moon.
Moinee appears as the primeval creator, forming the land and rivers of Tasmania and fashioning the first man, Parlevar – embodied from a spirit residing in the ground. This form was similar to a kangaroo, and Aboriginal people consequently take the kangaroo as a totem. Similarly, Moinee then created the kangaroo, who emerged, like the first man, from the soil.
Droemerdene appears as the star Canopus who helped the first men to change from their kangaroo-like form. He removed their tails and fashioned their knee joints "so that they could rest" and thus man achieved differentiation form the kangaroo.
Moinee fought with his brother Droemerdene, and many "devils", after Droemerdene changed the shape of the first men and Moinee was finally hurled to his death from the sky to take form as a standing stone at Cox Bight. Droemerdene subsequently fell into the sea at Louisa Bay.
Toogee Low (Port Davey) remained in mythology as a residence of many "devils".
Tasmanian Aboriginal mythology also records in their oral history that the first men emigrated by land from a far-off country and the land was subsequently flooded – an echo of the Tasmanian people's migration from mainland Australia to (then) peninsular Tasmania, and the submergence of the land bridge after the last ice age.
Spirituality
Little has been recorded of traditional Tasmanian Aboriginal spiritual life. Colonial British recorded that Aboriginal people describe topographical features, such as valleys and caves, as being inhabited by spiritual entities recorded by contemporaries as "sprites". Furthermore, Robinson recorded members of some clans as having animistic regard for certain species of tree within their domain.
Robinson recorded several discussions regarding spiritual entities that his companions describe as having agency or a source of interpretive power to aid their navigation of their physical world. Tasmanian Aboriginal people would describe these entities as "devils" and related that these spiritual beings as walking alongside Aboriginal people "carrying a torch but could not be seen".
Mannarlargenna, in particular, described consulting his "devil" which seems to be a resident personal spirituality that provided prognostic or oracular powers.
The "devil" might also be used to describe malevolent spiritual entities in the Aboriginal cosmos.
Aboriginal people recounted that there was a prime malevolent spirit called rageowrapper, who appeared as a large black (Aboriginal?) man and is associated with the darkness. Rageowrapper might appear borne on a strong wind or be the source of severe illness
this malign spirit might be released from a sick individual by cutting the skin to "let him out".
Several researchers assert that there was belief in a kind of manichean cosmos with a "good" and "bad" spirit – delineated by day and night – although this may reflect the cultural bias of the observers. Milligan (a contemporary at Wyballenna) described a creator spirit called tiggana marrabona – translating as "twilight man" but as referred to above there are a number of supernatural beings associated with creation.
Etymological study of Milligan's ethnographic data describes a pantheon of spiritual beings associated with environmental or supernatural phenomena:
nama burag – or "the ghost of the thunderstorm"
ragi roba – (see rageowrapper) the "revered spirit" – frequently connoted to awesome/revered/dreaded and a signifier of ghosts/phantoms of the departed when connected with signifier ragi
laga robana – "awful spirit of the dead" i.e. the dead man, some kind of dreaded spirit, malevolent phantom
maian ginja – "the killer" – translates also to fiend/demon: bringer of death
muran bugana luwana – "the bright spirit of the night" – a kind of benign or ebullient entity, often described of female form "clothed in grass"
wara wana – "the spirit being" – also warrawah translates to transcendental/ethereal/spirit of dead associated with celestial bodies- may be malevolent
badenala – "shadow man" – ghost or spirit
kana tana – "the bone man" – Western Nation language term for spirit of the dead
nangina – "shadow/ghost" – contemporary association with "fairy" or "elf" – a supernatural entity dwelling "in the hill – dancing (and) fond of children"
buga nubrana – "the man's eye" – associated with the sun – possibly a benign entity
Traditional Aboriginal Tasmanians also related beliefs of a spiritual afterlife. One such belief, related by an Aboriginal person from the west coastal nation, was that the spirit of the dead travelled to a place over the sea: to the far north-west, called Moo-ai. This possibly reflects the ancestral memory of the Mara language group, resident in Western Tasmania, who are believed to have settled Tasmania from the Warrnambool region in modern day Victoria, but other Tasmanians state that after death their spirits would have a post-corporeal existence in their traditional lands. Other references are made to an Island of the Dead, tini drini, described as "an island in Bass Strait" where the dead would be reincarnated or "jump up white men". White here does not refer to European, but rather the skeletal or phantasmic nature of returned dead.
Funeral customs
The dead might be cremated or interred in a hollow tree or rock grave, dependent on clan custom.
Aboriginal people were also recorded to keep bones of dead people as talismans or amulets. The bones might be worn on a kangaroo sinew string bare around the neck or enclosed in a kangaroo skin bag.
Cosmology
Traditional Tasmanian Aboriginals saw the night sky as residence of creator spirits (see above) and also describe constellations that represent tribal life; such as figures of fighting men and courting couples.
Material culture
Use of fire
Tasmanian Aboriginal peoples preferred to store coals in wrapped bark for the purpose of starting fires. This was likely due to the difficulty in creating fire in Tasmania's wet maritime climate. When this source of flame was extinguished they would seek to gain fire from neighbouring hearths or clans but also were likely to have created fire by friction methods and possibly by mineral percussion. This practice gave rise to the myth that the native Tasmanians had "lost" the ability to make fire. Tasmanian Aboriginal people extensively employed fire for cooking, warmth, tool hardening and clearing vegetation to encourage and control macropod herds. This farming may have caused the buttongrass plains in southwest Tasmania to develop to their current extent.
Hunting and diet
Approximately 4,000 years ago, Aboriginal Tasmanians largely dropped scaled fish from their diet, and began eating more land mammals, such as possums, kangaroos, and wallabies. Aboriginal Tasmanians had employed bone tools, but it appears that they switched from worked bone tools to sharpened stone tools, as the effort to make bone tools began to exceed the benefit they provided. The significance of the disappearance of bone tools (believed to have been primarily used for fishing related activities) and fish in the diet is heavily debated. Some argue that it is evidence of a maladaptive society, while others argue that the change was economic, as large areas of scrub at that time were changing to grassland, providing substantially increased food resources. Fish were never a large part of the diet, ranking behind shellfish and seals, and with more resources available, the cost/benefit ratio of fishing may have become too high.
Archaeological evidence indicates that around the time these changes took place, the Tasmanian people began expanding their territories, a process that was still continuing when Europeans arrived.
Basket making
Basket making is a traditional craft which has been carried through into contemporary art. Baskets had many uses, including carrying food, women's and men's tools, shells, ochre, and eating utensils. Basket-like carriers were made from plant materials, kelp, or animal skin. The kelp baskets or carriers were used mainly to carry water and as drinking vessels.
Plants were carefully selected to produce strong, thin, narrow strips of fibre of suitable length for basket making.
Several different species of plant were used, including white flag iris, blue flax lily, rush and sag, some of which are still used by contemporary basket makers, and sometimes shells are added for ornamental expression.
Tasmanian Aboriginal shell necklace art
Making necklaces from shells is a significant cultural tradition among Tasmanian Aboriginal women.
Necklaces were used for adornment, as gifts and tokens of honour, and as trading objects. Dating back at least 2,600 years, necklace-making is one of the few Palawa traditions that has remained intact and has continued without interruption since before European settlement. A number of shell necklaces are held in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.
The necklaces were initially only made out of the shells of the Phasianotrochus irisodontes snail, commonly known as the rainbow kelp and usually referred to as maireener shells. There are three other species of maireeners found in Tasmanian waters. In the past 20 years, there has been a decline in the number of shells, since the decline in kelp and seaweed growth around Flinders Island, Cape Barren and Big Dog islands due to climate change, which has led to erosion of the sea bed.
Ochre
Ochre is an important cultural resource for the Tasmanian Aboriginal community. Traditionally, Aboriginal women had the exclusive role of obtaining ochre. Today, many Tasmanian Aboriginal men continue to respect the traditional cultural custom by obtaining ochre from women only.
Tasmanian ochre ranges in colour from white through yellow to red. It has many uses, including ceremonial body marking, colouring wood craft products, tie-dyeing and various other uses in crafts and arts. Tasmanian Aboriginal people consider ochre to be a special cultural resource.
Traditionally Aboriginal peoples have sourced ochre from sites throughout Tasmania. The most celebrated site is Toolumbunner in the Gog Range in NW Tasmania. This site lies in the traditional lands of the Pallitorre clan and was a significant site of ochre mining, tribal meeting, celebration and trading.
Ceremony
Colonial settlers describe various ceremonies enacted by Aboriginal people. Tasmanians would gather for ceremony that contemporaries called "corobery", although that is a mainland Aboriginal word adopted by British settlers. Dance and singing was a feature of these ceremonies and dance would encompass reenactment of traditional tales and also recent events.
Robinson describes reenactment of a horseman hunting an Aboriginal person via the display of the "horse-dance" as well as the sensual "devil-dance" performed by women from the Furneaux islands
Battle and funeral was also the time for painting the body with ochre or black paint. The important ceremonial meaning of painting the body can be inferred by record of discussion at the funeral for the Aboriginal man "Robert", in Launceston, where an Aboriginal mourner was asked by a settler why he painted his body for the funeral and he replied "what do you wear fine clothes for?"
Visual art
Contemporary colonial settlers relate several examples of pictorial art drawn on the insides of huts or on remnants of discarded paper. These designs are generally circular or spiral motifs that represent celestial bodies or figures of clans-people. Robinson related that one design in an Aboriginal hut was very accurately drawn and was created via the use of a kind of wooden compass.
The most enduring art form left by Tasmanians are petroglyphs, or rock art. The most elaborate site is at Preminghana on the West Coast, although other significant sites exist at the Bluff in Devonport and at Greenes Creek. Smaller sites include the cupules at meenamatta Blue Tier and isolated circle motifs at Trial Harbour.
Aboriginal people inhabited Tasmania's South-west from the last glacial maximum and hand stencils and ochre smears are found in several caves, the oldest of which is dated to 10000 years ago.
Modern Tasmanian Aboriginal culture
Visual art
Tasmanian Aboriginal people are asserting their identity and culture through the visual arts. The art expresses the Aboriginal viewpoint on colonial history, race relations and identity. Themes consistent in modern Tasmanian Aboriginal art are loss, kinship, narratives of dispossession but also survival. The art is modern, using textiles, sculpture and photography but often incorporates ancient motifs and techniques such as shell necklaces and practical artifacts.
Photographer Ricky Maynard has had his work exhibited internationally and his documentary style "brings to light the stories of Aboriginal people where they have previously been absent or distorted. His photographs mark historical sites, events and figures of great significance to Tasmanian and mainland Aboriginal people, and speak to their struggle in a subtle, poetic, and powerful way."
Modern painting in Tasmania is starting to use techniques shared by Aboriginal art in mainland Australia but incorporating traditional Tasmanian motifs, such as spirals and celestial representation.
This shows that, like mainland Australia, Aboriginal art is dynamic and evolving from established post-colonial preconceptions.
Tasmanian Aboriginal women have traditionally collected Maireener shells to fashion necklaces and bracelets.
This practice continues by Aboriginal women whose families survived on the Furneaux Islands, handed down by elder women to maintain an important link with traditional lifestyle.
Late in the nineteenth century a number of women aimed to keep this part of their traditional culture alive in order to allow their daughters and granddaughters to participate in their cultural heritage. Today, there are only a few Tasmanian Aboriginal women who maintain this art, but they continue to hand down their knowledge and skills to younger women in their community. Shell necklace manufacture continues to maintain links with the past but is expressed as a modern art form.
Writing
The earliest publication attributed to Tasmanian authors, predating the journalism of David Unaipon by a century, was The Aboriginal/Flinders Island Chronicle, written between September 1836 and December 1837, though it is unclear to what degree its composition was influenced by "The Commandant", George Robinson.
Tasmanian Aboriginal authors in the past century have written history, poetry, essays and fiction. Authors such as Ida West have written autobiographies recounting their experiences growing up within white society; Phyllis Pitchford, Errol West and Jim Everett have written poetry, while Everett and Greg Lehman have explored their tradition as essayists.
Legislated definition
In June 2005, the Tasmanian Legislative Council introduced an innovated definition of Aboriginality into the Aboriginal Lands Act.
The bill was passed to allow Aboriginal Lands Council elections to commence, after uncertainty over who was "Aboriginal", and thus eligible to vote.
Under the bill, a person can claim "Tasmanian Aboriginality" if they meet all of the following criteria:
Ancestry
Self-identification
Community recognition
Government compensation for "Stolen Generations"
On 13 August 1997 a Statement of Apology (specific to removal of children) was issued – which was unanimously supported by the Tasmanian Parliament – the wording of the sentence was:
There are many people currently working in the community, academia, various levels of government and NGOs to strengthen what has been termed as the Tasmanian Aboriginal culture and the conditions of those who identify as members of the descendant community.
In November 2006 Tasmania became the first Australian state or territory to offer financial compensation for the Stolen Generations, Aboriginal people forcibly removed from their families by Australian government agencies and church missions between about 1900 and 1972. Up to 40 Aboriginal Tasmanians' descendants are expected to be eligible for compensation from the $5 million package.
Notable Aboriginal Tasmanians
Tunnerminnerwait
Trugernanner (Truganini) and Fanny Cochrane Smith, who both claimed to be the last "full blooded" Palawa.
William Lanne or "King Billy"
Michael Mansell, lawyer and activist
Mannalargenna
Arra-Maida
Literature and entertainment
The play The Golden Age by Louis Nowra
The novel English Passengers by Matthew Kneale
Historical novel Doctor Wooreddy's Prescription for Enduring the Ending of the World by Mudrooroo
The poem Oyster Cove by Gwen Harwood
The AFI Award-winning 1980 film Manganinnie, based on Beth Roberts's novel.
The Novel The Roving party by Rohan Wilson – fictional account of Manarlagenna and William "Black Bill" Ponsonby during the Black War.
The AACTA Award-winning film The Nightingale, written, directed, and co-produced by Jennifer Kent.
The play At What Cost by Nathan Maynard at Belvoir (theatre company)
See also
First Australians, TV documentary series, featuring Aboriginal Tasmanians in Episode 2
Further reading
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Records Relating to Tasmanian Aboriginal People from the Archives Office of Tasmania "Brief Guide No. 18". Retrieved from Internet Archive 13 December 2013.
Statistics – Tasmania – occupation (from the Australian Bureau of Statistics)
The Lia Pootah People Home Page
Reconciliation Australia
1984 Review of Tom Haydon's documentary "The Last Tasmanian" (1978)
A history from the Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission.
National Museum of Australia
List of multiple killings of Aborigines in Tasmania: 1804–1835 by Lyndall Ryan, 5 March 2008
Australian Aboriginal culture | [
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|
240308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore%20Stallions | Baltimore Stallions | The Baltimore Stallions (known officially as the "Baltimore Football Club" and previously as the "Baltimore CFL Colts" in its inaugural season) were a Canadian Football League team based in Baltimore, Maryland, in the United States, which played the 1994 and 1995 seasons. They were the most successful American team in the CFL's generally ill-fated southern expansion effort into the United States, and by at least one account, the winningest expansion team in North American professional sports history at the time. They had winning records in each season, winning two division titles. In 1995, they became the only American franchise to win the Grey Cup.
Only a month after the Stallions' Grey Cup triumph, the state's Maryland Stadium Authority and the City of Baltimore announced that they had reached an agreement with Art Modell, the long-time owner of the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League, (NFL) to move his franchise to Baltimore for the 1996 season. Knowing they could not begin to compete with an overwhelmingly more popular brand in their home country, the Stallions' ownership group re-located their football organization to Montreal, reviving the dormant franchise based there as the third and current iteration of the Montreal Alouettes. The Stallions franchise was dissolved, thus becoming one of three Grey Cup champions in the modern era to subsequently fold (the others being the Ottawa Rough Riders and the original Alouettes). The CFL considers the Stallions to be a separate franchise from the Alouettes.
History
For some 30 years, Baltimore had been home to the Baltimore Colts, a popular NFL team that suddenly moved literally overnight to Indianapolis in 1984. The former Philadelphia Stars of the United States Football League (USFL) nominally represented Baltimore in spring 1985. However, after being blocked from Memorial Stadium, the Colts' old home, due to objections from the Major League Baseball Baltimore Orioles, they were forced to play well outside the city bounds in College Park. The Stars had planned to move to Memorial Stadium in fall 1986, but the league failed before this could happen.
In the years after the Colts left, Baltimore made two serious bids to get another NFL team. It heavily wooed the St. Louis Cardinals football team owned by the Bidwill family, but they ultimately moved to Phoenix, Arizona as the Phoenix (later Arizona) Cardinals. In 1993, an ownership group failed to win an NFL expansion franchise, the Baltimore Bombers.
Soon after the expansion effort failed, entrepreneur and former Washington Redskins assistant Jim Speros was granted a CFL expansion franchise for Baltimore that would play in Memorial Stadium. Attempting to trade on the city's love for its long-lost Baltimore Colts, Speros adopted a color scheme that added silver to the Baltimore Colts' traditional colors of blue and white, as well as a stylized horse's head logo. He also invited the old Baltimore Colts Marching Band, which had stayed together along with the old team's uniformed cheerleaders for over a decade, to play at his games. He recruited the remaining Baltimore Colts football fan clubs ("Colt Corrals") to follow and support the new CFL franchise. He initially called the team the "Baltimore CFL Colts". However, the NFL went to court and successfully obtained a legal injunction against the franchise's use of any version of "Colts" in their name just hours before the team was to play its first game. Speros not only had to discard tons of purchased merchandise and souvenirs along with an advertising campaign, but also had to quickly change the franchise's official name to the "Baltimore Football Club" (which some just called the "Baltimore CFL's") while keeping the team's distinctive horse's head logo.
Local fans tended to continue referring to the team as the "Baltimore Colts" anyway, and team officials tacitly encouraged this. For example, for most of the 1994 season, Memorial Stadium's public address announcer, Jack Taylor, would announce the team as "your Baltimore CFL..." – followed by a pause, during which time the crowd shouted "COLTS!" – after which he would conclude, "...football team."
Number 19 was never issued out of respect to the Baltimore Colts' great Johnny Unitas.
1994 season
Speros's approach to building the team was simple. He knew Canadian football was very different from the American game, so he made a point of hiring personnel and players with CFL experience. In contrast, the other American CFL teams stocked their rosters with former NFL players, former college football players, and locally-known players. Speros hired career CFL assistant Jim Popp as general manager, and named longtime CFL coach Don Matthews as head coach. Popp and Matthews, in turn, brought in experienced CFL players like QB Tracy Ham, RB Mike Pringle, LB O. J. Brigance, DT Jearld Baylis, DE Elfrid Payton. One of the more prominent NFL castoffs was K Donald Igwebuike; the team also offered a tryout to former Super Bowl XXII MVP Timmy Smith, who had been out of football several years by that point, but Smith failed to make the regular season roster. It also helped that Memorial Stadium had been originally built to accommodate baseball as well as football. Using Memorial Stadium's baseball seating configuration gave it a field large enough to accommodate the full 150-yard length and 65-yard width of a regulation CFL field.
Even though they lacked an official name, the team finished second in the CFL East Division, with a 12–6 regular season record – more wins than any CFL expansion team before or since. In addition, the team was ranked third in the entire CFL in team scoring, and second in team defense.
Mike Pringle was the team's offensive standout. Among other accomplishments, he earned the league's leading rushing title with a record 1,972 yards and thirteen touchdowns. Pringle also returned 38 kicks for 814 yards, which made him a CFL All-Star, Eastern All-Star, and a Terry Evanshen Trophy winner.
In the playoffs, Baltimore hosted the Toronto Argonauts in the East semifinals at Memorial Stadium and won the game, 34–15. After the semifinal game, Baltimore ended up defeating the favored Winnipeg Blue Bombers at Winnipeg Stadium 14–12 to become the first (and only) American and expansion team to make it to the Grey Cup.
In the Grey Cup game, Baltimore was up against the B.C. Lions at BC Place Stadium in what amounted to a road game. Baltimore had the upper hand against the Lions, leading 17–10 at halftime and silencing the Lions' faithful; however, the Lions came back in the second half, winning by a score of 26–23 on a last-second Lui Passaglia field goal.
1995 season
After the 1994 season, the CFL announced that the League's five U.S. teams—Baltimore, the San Antonio Texans (the former Sacramento Gold Miners), the Shreveport Pirates and the expansion Memphis Mad Dogs and Birmingham Barracudas—would be placed in a new South Division, while the Canadian teams would reside in the North Division. Just before the start of the 1995 season, a name-the-team fan poll was held to decide a new team name. After the team finished the first week of its second season still calling itself "the Baltimore Football Club", the fan poll ended; Speros publicly announced that Baltimore's team would be known as the "Baltimore Stallions". The name change was a convenient one in that it allowed Baltimore's logo and colors to remain unchanged from the 1994 season.
Despite the changes to their name and team re-alignment, the Stallions returned with virtually the same roster for their next season. The exception was the signing of former Posse kicker Carlos Huerta to replace Igwebuike, who moved on to play with Memphis. With essentially the same team from the 1994 season, optimism and Grey Cup expectations were high for the Stallions. Optimism became reality as Baltimore continued their on-field dominance from the previous season. They started the season 2–3, but did not lose another game for the rest of the season. They ultimately finished with a 15–3 regular season record – first place in the South Division, and tying the Calgary Stampeders for the best record in the CFL.
Quarterback Tracy Ham with Mike Pringle and Robert Drummond were the most potent backfield in the CFL. Chris Armstrong became the team's top receiver and the defense continued dominating opponents by allowing only 369 points-against, ranking the squad third in team defense. Mike Pringle had a slight drop-off from his 1994 numbers by rushing for 1,791 yards, being named the CFL's Most Outstanding Player.
After defeating Winnipeg 36–21 in the divisional semifinals, the Stallions defeated the Texans 21–11 in the South final in what is (as of the 2019 season) the last meaningful CFL game played in the United States. This vaulted them to the Grey Cup final for the second straight season. They traveled to Regina's Taylor Field to face the 15–3 North Division champion Stampeders, who were led by coach Wally Buono, QB Doug Flutie, and his two top receivers, Allen Pitts and Dave Sapunjis. During the game, the winds at Taylor Field were particularly strong and gusted up to 85 km/h (52.8 mph). That did not slow down the Stallions, as they defeated the Stampeders, 37–20 to become the first American team to win the Grey Cup, with Tracy Ham becoming the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player. Counting the playoffs, the Stallions ended the season on a 16-game winning streak.
Fan support
In addition to being the most successful of the U.S. CFL teams on the field, Baltimore was far and away the most successful of the CFL's American teams at the box office. It had significant fan support and strong attendance – averaging 37,347 in 1994 (best in the CFL), and 30,112 in 1995 (second best).
Fan support in Baltimore was driven by a number of factors not present in the CFL's other U.S. markets. Their success on the field was one obvious factor. However many fans were motivated to support the CFL out of antipathy towards the NFL, which had not only backed the re-location of the NFL Colts to Indianapolis, but had subsequently spurned several attempts to return an NFL franchise to the city. Another major factor in Baltimore's success at the gate was the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, which wiped out the last two months of the Orioles' season. Baltimore was also a significantly more heavily populated market than the other CFL American markets and the only one to have previously hosted an NFL team, giving the Stallions a larger base from which to draw fans.
In the end
After the 1995 season, the CFL decided to disband three of its five American franchises and return to its traditional east–west divisional alignment for the 1996 season. The two remaining American teams, Baltimore and San Antonio, were to be placed in the CFL's East Division.
However, this strategy collapsed on the week of the South Division final, when longtime Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell announced he would be moving his team to Baltimore. Speros had initially not believed the rumors of Modell courting Baltimore when they cropped up in September. However, as soon as the move was announced, local support for the Stallions dried up almost overnight. The loss of support was so dramatic that the Stallions were forced to basically give away tickets for the South Division final. The Grey Cup victory celebration at Inner Harbor went almost unnoticed in the local media.
Speros and CFL officials soon realized that while the Stallions had been a runaway hit, they could not even begin to go head-to-head with an NFL team. Although city officials as high as Mayor Kurt Schmoke harbored hope that the Stallions could coexist with Modell's team–which was eventually reconstituted as the Baltimore Ravens–it soon became apparent that there wasn't enough advertising revenue or fan support to go around. Additionally, continuing to use Memorial Stadium would have been a logistical nightmare once the NFL season began in September, and no other stadium in the Baltimore area was suitable or large enough even for temporary use. Rather than risk being reduced to "minor league" status in Baltimore, Speros announced plans to move the franchise. He was actually very close to moving the franchise to Houston, Texas, to take the place of the NFL's recently departed Houston Oilers in the Astrodome, with then-Houston Astros owner Drayton McLane as a minority partner.
However, under prodding from CFL officials who believed the American experiment was a lost cause, Speros began talks with officials in Montreal. CFL commissioner Larry Smith believed the defending CFL champions would be a better vehicle for bringing the CFL back to Montreal rather than what would have essentially been an expansion team. At a league meeting on February 2, 1996; Speros was granted permission to move the Stallions to Montreal, effectively ending the American experiment. Although Speros seriously considered whether to keep the Stallions name, he ultimately decided to give up the Stallions franchise and reconstitute his organization as the third and current incarnation of the Montreal Alouettes. Speros kept the Alouettes for only one year before selling the franchise to Robert C. Wetenhall in 1997.
Sixteen former Baltimore Stallions players earned tryouts for NFL teams in 1996.
Historical note
The CFL does not officially consider the Stallions to be part of the Alouettes' history. According to official league records, Speros canceled the Stallions franchise after the 1995 season and reclaimed the dormant Alouettes franchise. Consequently, when Speros moved the team to Montreal, all of the Stallions players were released from their contracts, though Popp managed to re-sign many of them. The current Alouettes claim the history of the 1946–1986 Alouettes as their own, and the CFL has retconned the Alouettes as having suspended operations from 1987 to 1995.
As of the end of the 2016 season, team president Mark Weightman is the only remaining link between the Stallions and Alouettes. General manager Jim Popp followed the team to Montreal as general manager and guided the franchise to 8 Grey Cup Finals, winning 3 of them – giving him a total of 10 Grey Cup Finals appearances and 4 Grey Cups with the Stallions/Alouettes organization. Popp resigned as general manager at the end of the team's 2016 season. Weightman served as an operations intern for the Stallions in 1995 and then joined the Alouettes as an operations staffer in 1996.
Roster and accomplishments
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
8 Tracy Ham, inducted in 2010, Quarterback 1994–1995, won 83rd Grey Cup
27 Mike Pringle, inducted in 2008, Running back 1994–1995, won 83rd Grey Cup
56 Elfrid Payton, inducted in 2010, Defensive end 1994–1995, won 83rd Grey Cup
Don Matthews, inducted in 2011, Head Coach 1994–1995, won 83rd Grey Cup
Awards and accomplishments
1994
Divisional Awards
Most Valuable Player of the East Division – Mike Pringle (RB)
Most Outstanding Rookie of the East Division – Matt Goodwin (DB)
Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award of the East Division – Shar Pourdanesh (OT)
CFL Awards
CFL's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award – Shar Pourdanesh (OT)
CFL's Most Outstanding Rookie Award – Matt Goodwin (DB)
CFLPA's Most Outstanding Community Service Award – O. J. Brigance (LB)
CFL's Coach of the Year – Don Matthews
Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player – Karl Anthony (CB)
1994 Eastern All-Stars
Offense
Mike Pringle (RB)
Peter Tuipulotu (FB)
Chris Armstrong (SB)
Nick Subis (C)
Shar Pourdanesh (OT)
Defense
Irvin Smith (CB)
Michael Brooks (DS)
Special Teams
Josh Miller (P)
1994 CFL All-Stars
Offense
Mike Pringle (RB)
Shar Pourdanesh (OT)
Defense
Irvin Smith (CB)
Special Teams
Josh Miller (P)
1995
Divisional Awards
Most Valuable Player of the East Division – Mike Pringle (RB)
Most Outstanding Rookie of the East Division – Chris Wright (WR)
Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award of the East Division – Mike Withycombe (OG)
CFL Awards
CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award – Mike Pringle (RB)
CFL's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award – Mike Withycombe (OG)
CFL's Coach of the Year – Don Matthews
Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player – Tracy Ham (QB)
1995 Southern All-Stars
Offense
Mike Pringle (RB)
Chris Armstrong (SB)
Mike Withycombe (OG)
Shar Pourdanesh (OT)
Neal Fort (OT)
Defense
Jerald Baylis (DT)
Elfrid Payton (DE)
Tracy Gravely (LB)
O. J. Brigance (LB)
Irvin Smith (CB)
Charles Anthony (DB)
Special Teams
Josh Miller (P)
Chris Wright (ST)
1995 CFL All-Stars
Offense
Mike Pringle (RB)
Mike Withycombe (OG)
Neal Fort (OT)
Defense
Jerald Baylis (DT)
O. J. Brigance (LB)
Irvin Smith (CB)
Charles Anthony (DB)
Special Teams
Josh Miller (P)
Chris Wright (ST)
Television and radio announcers
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1994 CFL season
1995 CFL season
82nd Grey Cup
83rd Grey Cup
References
External links
Baltimore Stallions CFL Historical page
1994 establishments in Maryland
1995 disestablishments in Maryland
Defunct Canadian Football League teams | [
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|
240309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caprinae | Caprinae | The subfamily Caprinae, also sometimes referred to as the tribe Caprini, is part of the ruminant family Bovidae, and consists of mostly medium-sized bovids. A member of this subfamily is called a caprine, or, more informally, a goat-antelope (although they are not considered antelopes).
Within this tribe, a prominent clade includes sheep and goats. Some earlier taxonomies considered Caprinae a separate family called Capridae (with the members being caprids), but now it is usually considered either a subfamily within the Bovidae, or a tribe within the subfamily Antilopinae of the family Bovidae, with caprines being a type of bovid.
Characteristics
Although most goat-antelopes are gregarious and have fairly stocky builds, they diverge in many other ways – the muskox (Ovibos moschatus) is adapted to the extreme cold of the tundra; the mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) of North America is specialised for very rugged terrain; the urial (Ovis orientalis) occupies a largely infertile area from Kashmir to Iran, including much desert country. The Armenian mouflon (Ovis gmelini gmelini) is thought to be the ancestor of the modern domestic sheep (Ovis aries).
Many species have become extinct since the last ice age, probably largely because of human interaction. Of the survivors:
Five are classified as endangered,
Eight as vulnerable,
Seven as of concern and needing conservation measures, but at lower risk, and
Seven species are secure.
Members of the group vary considerably in size, from just over long for a full-grown grey goral (Nemorhaedus goral), to almost long for a musk ox, and from under to more than . Musk oxen in captivity have reached over .
The lifestyles of caprids fall into two broad classes: 'resource-defenders', which are territorial and defend a small, food-rich area against other members of the same species; and 'grazers', which gather together into herds and roam freely over a larger, usually relatively infertile area.
The resource-defenders are the more primitive group: they tend to be smaller in size, dark in colour, males and females fairly alike, have long, tessellated ears, long manes, and dagger-shaped horns. The grazers (sometimes collectively known as tsoan caprids, from the Hebrew tso'n meaning sheep and goats) evolved more recently. They tend to be larger, highly social, and rather than mark territory with scent glands, they have highly evolved dominance behaviours. No sharp line divides the groups, but a continuum varies from the serows at one end of the spectrum to sheep, true goats, and musk oxen at the other.
Evolution
The goat-antelope, or caprid, group is known from as early as the Miocene, when members of the group resembled the modern serow in their general body form. The group did not reach its greatest diversity until the recent ice ages, when many of its members became specialised for marginal, often extreme, environments: mountains, deserts, and the subarctic region.
The ancestors of the modern sheep and goats (both rather vague and ill-defined terms) are thought to have moved into mountainous regions – sheep becoming specialised occupants of the foothills and nearby plains, and relying on flight and flocking for defence against predators, and goats adapting to very steep terrain where predators are at a disadvantage.
Internal relationships of Caprinae based on mitochondrial DNA.
Species
Phylogeny based on Hassanin et al., 2009 and Calamari, 2021.
Family Bovidae
Subfamily Caprinae or Tribe Caprini
Tribe Caprini or subtribe Caprina
Genus Ammotragus
Barbary sheep, Ammotragus lervia
Genus Arabitragus
Arabian tahr, Arabitragus jayakari
Genus Budorcas
Takin, Budorcas taxicolor
Genus Capra
Wild goat, Capra aegagrus
Bezoar ibex, Capra aegagrus aegagrus
Sindh ibex, Capra aegagrus blythi
West Caucasian tur, Capra caucasica
East Caucasian tur, Capra cylindricornis
Markhor, Capra falconeri
Domestic goat, Capra hircus
Alpine ibex, Capra ibex
Nubian ibex, Capra nubiana
Iberian ibex, Capra pyrenaica
Western Spanish ibex, Capra pyrenaica victoriae
Southeastern Spanish ibex, Capra pyrenaica hispanica
†Portuguese ibex, Capra pyreneaica lusitanica
†Pyrenean ibex, Capra pyreneaica pyrenaica
Siberian ibex, Capra sibirica
Walia ibex, Capra walie
Genus Hemitragus
Himalayan tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus
Genus Nilgiritragus
Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiritragus hylocrius
Genus Oreamnos
Mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus
Genus Ovis
Argali, Ovis ammon
Marco Polo sheep, Ovis ammon polii
Domestic sheep, Ovis aries
Bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis
Dall sheep, Ovis dalli
Mouflon, Ovis gmelini
Snow sheep, Ovis nivicola
Urial, Ovis vignei
Genus Pseudois
Bharal (Himalayan blue sheep), Pseudois nayaur
Genus Rupicapra
Pyrenean chamois, Rupicapra pyrenaica
Alpine chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra
Tribe Ovibovini or subtribe Ovibovina
Genus Capricornis
Japanese serow, Capricornis crispus
Chinese serow, Capricornis milneedwardsii
Red serow, Capricornis rubidus
Sumatran serow, Capricornis sumatraensis
Taiwan serow, Capricornis swinhoei
Himalayan serow Capricornis thar
Genus Nemorhaedus
Red goral, Nemorhaedus baileyi
Long-tailed goral, Naemorhedus caudatus
Grey goral, Nemorhaedus goral
Chinese goral, Nemorhaedus griseus
Genus Ovibos
Muskox, Ovibos moschatus
Tribe Pantholopini or subtribe Pantholopina
Genus Pantholops
Tibetan antelope, Pantholops hodgsonii
Fossil genera
The following extinct genera of Caprinae have been identified:
Tribe Caprini
Genus Myotragus †
Myotragus balearicus†
Tribe Ovibovini
Genus Bootherium †
Bootherium bombifrons†
Genus Euceratherium †
Euceratherium collinum†
Genus Makapania †
Makapania broomi†
Genus Megalovis †
Genus Soergelia †
Soergelia mayfieldi†
Genus Tsaidamotherium †
Tsaidamotherium brevirostrum†
Tsaidamotherium hedini†
Unsorted
†Benicerus
†Boopsis
†Capraoryx
†Caprotragoides
†Criotherium
†Damalavus
†Gallogoral
†Lyrocerus
†Mesembriacerus
†Neotragocerus
†Nesogoral
†Norbertia
†Numidocapra
†Oioceros
†Olonbulukia
†Pachygazella
†Pachytragus
†Palaeoreas
†Palaeoryx
†Paraprotoryx
†Parapseudotragus
†Parurmiatherium
†Praeovibos
†Procamptoceras
†Prosinotragus
†Protoryx
† Protovis
†Pseudotragus
†Qurliqnoria
†Samotragus
†Sinocapra
†Sinomegoceros
†Sinopalaeoceros
†Sinotragus
†Sivacapra
†Sporadotragus
†Tethytragus
†Tossunnoria
†Turcocerus
†Urmiatherium
References
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray
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|
240310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham%20Barracudas | Birmingham Barracudas | The Birmingham Barracudas were a Canadian football team that played the 1995 season in the Canadian Football League. The Barracudas were part of a failed attempt to expand the CFL into the United States.
Franchise history
In the beginning
Insurance tycoon, former high school football coach and motivational speaker Art Williams was awarded a CFL expansion franchise in Birmingham. He wanted a nickname for the team that would "scare the spit out of people," and chose Barracudas.
The Barracudas hired an experienced head coach in Jack Pardee, who had coached at the college level with the University of Houston and at the professional level with the WFL, USFL, and NFL. (Pardee is perhaps better known as one of the few six-man football players to have ever made it to the professional leagues; his knowledge of that wide-open game proved to serve him well in the similarly wide-open CFL.) The Barracudas were also led by veteran CFL quarterback Matt Dunigan, who had his greatest season while in Birmingham.
During the season
Birmingham competed in the Southern Division along with the San Antonio Texans, Baltimore Stallions, Memphis Mad Dogs, and Shreveport Pirates. After losing their two pre-season games, they played their first game July 4, 1995, versus the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in Winnipeg. They won 38–10, and would lose to the Tiger-Cats in Hamilton 31–13. They would get their revenge a week later at home by beating the Cats 51–28 in front of 31,000 fans.
The biggest home game of the season came against the Baltimore Stallions. It also proved to be the biggest disappointment, as the Barracudas lost 36–8.
Attendance at Legion Field was very good at first. The Birmingham crowds were some of the largest in the league. However, the CFL traditionally plays on Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays, largely to avoid competing on television (both in its native country and the U.S.) with the National Football League. Realizing that this would cause serious attendance problems once high school and college football season started, Williams persuaded the league to let the 'Cudas play their September and October home games on Sundays so as not to compete directly against high school teams on Fridays and Alabama or Auburn on Saturdays. Because Alabamians in general are not loyal to any one NFL team, Williams reckoned that competing with that league on television was the more sensible risk to take. Despite this, attendance still fell through the floor as most Birmingham-area fans stayed home to watch the NFL on TV. Their last four home games did not attract more than 9,000 people, and looked even smaller than that since Legion Field seated over 83,000 people at the time. The Memphis Mad Dogs were plagued by similar attendance problems.
In the team's final home game, against the Edmonton Eskimos, Matt Dunigan left the game due to a shoulder injury, and Birmingham was forced to turn to back-up quarterback Jimmy Klingler. Despite the loss, the Barracudas still had a chance to claim home-field advantage in the playoffs. However, they lost a shootout of a season finale in San Antonio, finishing third in the Southern Division. They returned to San Antonio the following week for the Southern Division Semi-Final, but were whipped by the Texans 52–9, ending their first and only playoff run.
After the season
Owner Art Williams estimated that he had spent $10 million to launch the Barracudas, and had probably lost at least that, if not more, during the season. He also began criticizing the Canadian Football League, and its unique concept. Along with other U.S. owners, Williams wanted several changes made:
Reducing the size of a CFL field to American football standards.
Allowing only 11 players on each side of the ball, rather than 12.
Changing the name of the league to show more of a U.S. presence.
The biggest change Williams wanted, however, was to move the season to the spring; he was not willing to risk another season of going head-to-head with college football. When the league refused to go along, Williams decided to get out. A day after losing in the South semifinals, he announced that the 'Cudas would not return to Birmingham in 1996, if they returned at all. In January 1996, he sold the team for $750,000—a significant loss, based on his own estimates—to a group of investors called Ark-La-Tex Football Association, who intended to move the team to Shreveport as a replacement for the Shreveport Pirates, who had collapsed under the mismanagement of infamous CFL owner Bernard Glieberman. The Pirates had been barely competitive on the field (winning only eight games in two years) and hamstrung by Glieberman off it, but nevertheless had managed to attract a fairly consistent and numerous fan base comparable with the established CFL teams that didn't disappear when college football season started. Although Shreveport was far smaller than Birmingham, it was thought that moving the 'Cudas there would match a team that had made a good showing in its first season with a market that was at least potentially capable of supporting it. The relocation, which hinged upon league approval, would have been part of a plan to keep at least three American teams in the CFL, all in or near Texas: the Baltimore Stallions would have moved to Houston, while the San Antonio Texans would stay where they were.
By the end of January, it became clear that the league was no longer interested in playing in the United States. The league rejected the sale of the Barracudas and ordered them shut down along with the Texans. The Stallions ownership group was concurrently awarded the remains of the inactive Montreal Alouettes franchise, which started play in 1996. Without a second American team, Anderson was unwilling to go it alone and folded the Texans, ending the CFL's American experiment. Williams would go on to purchase the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League in 1998, and sell the club a year later.
Seasons
Players and builders of note
Shonte Peoples
Reggie Slack
Scott Player (played 10 years in the NFL and 1 year in the UFL)
Canadian Football Hall of Famers
Matt Dunigan
Eddie Davis
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1995 CFL season
References
External links
Birmingham Barracudas at BhamWiki.com
Birmingham Barracudas at BirminghamProSports.com
Birmingham Barracudas team profile
Uniforms
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
American football teams in Birmingham, Alabama
American football teams in Alabama
Canadian football teams in the United States | [
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240312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Vegas%20Posse | Las Vegas Posse | The Las Vegas Posse were a Canadian Football League (CFL) team that played the 1994 season as part of the CFL's short-lived American expansion. The Posse was one of the least successful CFL teams, both on the field and off.
History
On the field
The Posse had notable football talent such as KR Tamarick Vanover, RB Jon Volpe, LB Greg Battle, LB Shonte Peoples, DB/QB Darian Hagan and K Carlos Huerta, and also had rookie quarterback Anthony Calvillo, who would later go on to become the all-time leader in passing yards in all of professional football.
The franchise also had an experienced coaching staff with Head Coach Ron Meyer, who had previous coaching experiences with UNLV and in the NFL, and also had future Winnipeg Blue Bombers coach Jeff Reinebold as one of their Assistant Coaches. Carlos Huerta won the Jackie Parker Trophy as the Most Outstanding Rookie of the West Division that year.
The Posse started with wins over the Sacramento Gold Miners and Saskatchewan Roughriders, but things quickly went downhill, in part due to a lack of familiarity with the Canadian game.
For instance, during a game against the BC Lions, Vanover signaled for a fair catch, not knowing that there is no fair catch in Canadian football, with the ball rolling into the Posse end zone, which the Lions promptly recovered it for a touchdown. Players also openly complained about the apathy of their coaches and teammates.
The Posse finished the season 5–13, finishing last in the West Division and next-to-last in the CFL.
Off the field
When the Posse started the 1994 season, it was clear that CFL football would not last in Las Vegas. They were owned by a publicly held corporation whose largest shareholder was Cleveland, Ohio-based Nick Mileti, former owner of MLB's Cleveland Indians, the NBA's Cleveland Cavaliers and the AHL's Cleveland Barons. Although Mileti was the public face of the ownership group, he had little direct involvement in team operations, with chairman Glenn Golenberg having more active involvement in team affairs.
The team played at Sam Boyd Stadium in suburban Whitney. As was the case with many of the other playing fields of the American CFL teams, the end zones at the stadium were only 15 yards long, instead of the usual 20 yards needed for the Canadian game. In addition, the stadium was uncovered and offered no protection from the infamous Las Vegas summer heat. Head coach Ron Meyer was seen at many practices running drills with no shirt on in the sweltering heat.
The Posse practiced on a smaller-than-regulation field (only 70 yards long) at the Riviera Casino and Resort, where a sign read "Field of ImPOSSEable Dreams." With no marketing assistance from the league and a glut of other entertainment options, local interest was virtually nonexistent.
The most memorable moment for the franchise occurred on July 8, 1994, when the team played the Sacramento Gold Miners in the first ever CFL match involving two American based teams. The Posse defeated the Gold Miners 32–26 at Sacramento's Hornet Stadium.
There were also several infamous moments. At the team's first home game against Saskatchewan, the singer of the national anthems, Dennis K.C. Parks (singing under the pseudonym "Greg Bartholomew"), had only a vague knowledge of the Canadian anthem "O Canada" and when he sang it, the song sounded similar to "O Christmas Tree". Two weeks later he was brought to a game in Hamilton where he sang it properly. On another occasion, Posse head coach Ron Meyer asked the "Showgirls" to loiter behind the bench of the BC Lions in an attempt to distract the opposition. The scheme did not work and Las Vegas lost the game 39–16.
The Posse's attendance figures were never good to begin with, but significantly tailed off as the summer wore on. Management unsuccessfully tried to sell tickets by employing tactics such as:
Reducing ticket prices to US$9 for each seat. The few who bought season tickets for about US$750 (in more expensive categories) were given extra tickets to make up for the price difference.
Advertising their scantily-clad cheerleaders, the "Showgirls", and by staging halftime bikini contests.
The Posse's penultimate home game against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers had an announced attendance of only 2,350 people, the lowest recorded attendance in CFL history. Several hundred of those in attendance were fans who made the trip from Winnipeg. Just before the team's last scheduled home game, against the Edmonton Eskimos, Mileti announced the team would disband due to massive losses.
The CFL, however, does not allow teams to fold in midseason. Instead, it moved the game to Edmonton's Commonwealth Stadium, citing the Posse's meager gate. Several Eskimo season ticket holders had already arrived in Las Vegas when the game was moved, and were forced to watch the game in a ballroom at the Imperial Palace when Air Canada was unable to fly them back to Edmonton on such short notice. The Posse's average attendance was a dismal 8,953.
Seasons
In the end
After the season, Mileti entered talks with a group from Milwaukee led by Marvin Fishman looking to move the Posse there. These talks very nearly came to fruition before the Milwaukee Brewers, who objected to sharing Milwaukee County Stadium with a team that played nine home games with many of them in the summer (it had tolerated late-season games hosted by the Green Bay Packers each year from 1935 to 1994 as that team played mostly outside baseball season) and wanted as few objections as possible to that stadium's eventual replacement, blocked the signing of the lease. Even after the failure of the proposed Posse move, the CFL still wanted to bring a team to Milwaukee, as it was far more ideal in terms of proximity to Canada than its other teams.
After the failure of the Milwaukee plans, a group led by singer and business mogul Jimmy Buffett attempted to buy and relocate the franchise to Jackson, Mississippi. Buffett had gone so far as to begin assembling a front office (led by general manager Eric Tillman) and coaching staff (led by John Payne), and the CFL included the Jackson team in its 1995 draft schedule. Buffett's first managing partner, William L. Collins, had a sale contract written up before the Posse's board of directors unexpectedly raised the price of the team, prompting Collins to drop his bid. The CFL considered revoking the franchise and awarding a new expansion team to Collins, only to be threatened with a lawsuit from the Posse board of directors. Another investor for Jackson, Norton Herrick, offered an even higher price than Collins but backed out when he could not secure the money to fund the team through its expected losses. By this time, league officials had become increasingly cool toward moving to Jackson. The CFL was pressing for a U. S. television contract, and league officials did not feel that placing a team in such a small market would aid that cause.
The league then voted to suspend the Posse franchise and gave the Mileti group until December 1995 to sell the team. A dispersal draft was held for its players in 1995. Defensive end Derrell Robertson, who had been killed in a December 1994 car accident, was included; the league was unaware of Robertson's death and included him in the pool of potential draftees, and the Ottawa Rough Riders selected him. It was only after making inquiries about Robertson that the Rough Riders and the CFL discovered that Robertson had died. According to Riders coach Jim Gilstrap in a June 1995 Sports Illustrated article, "the league didn't know he was dead until we told them, and we didn't know until we couldn't find him."
The failure of the Posse also affected the team's geographically closest rival, the Sacramento Gold Miners. Before the Posse's arrival, the Miners had been nearly away from their nearest opponent, the BC Lions. The Posse's failure meant that the Gold Miners again faced the prospect of traveling extremely long distances for away games. This, along with dissatisfaction with Hornet Stadium, prompted the Miners to become the San Antonio Texans for 1995.
After the dispersal draft another group from Miami tried to purchase the remains of the Posse and move the team to Miami. The deal called for the franchise would return for the 1996 season as the Miami Manatees. In order to introduce the Miami fans to the CFL game, a pre-season game was played at the Orange Bowl between the Baltimore Stallions and the Birmingham Barracudas in 1995 (Baltimore won the game by a score of 37–0 in front of 20,216 fans). Unlike the Mississippi proposals, the Manatees would have retained the services of Meyer as head coach. However, the deal fell apart when the CFL ended its American experiment after the 1995 season. The last active player from the Las Vegas Posse (or any American CFL franchise) was quarterback Anthony Calvillo, who last played for the Montreal Alouettes in 2013.
After the Posse
The Posse was the first attempt by one of the major professional sports leagues in North America to place a team in Las Vegas proper. Las Vegas had only ascended to major-city status in the 1980s, and even after that most major leagues traditionally avoided it due in part to its gambling reputation. Future professional football leagues would place teams in Las Vegas, with the XFL's Las Vegas Outlaws, the Arena League's Las Vegas Sting, Las Vegas Gladiators and Las Vegas Outlaws, and the UFL's Las Vegas Locomotives all residing in the city. The XFL Outlaws and Locomotives did somewhat better drawing fans to Sam Boyd Stadium than the Posse did, although both experienced steep declines as the years went on (to the point where the Locomotives were drawing fewer than the Posse by the end of their run). They also had better on-field performance, particularly the Locomotives, who played in all three championship games the UFL had and won two of them. In the early 2000's, Las Vegas was briefly considered by Major League Baseball as a potential new home for the Montreal Expos (who were soon to relocate) but in the end they would move to Washington to become the Washington Nationals, in 2016 however Rob Manfred (current Commissioner of the MLB) said the city was a "viable alternative" for a potential expansion team.
Major league sports interest in Las Vegas would ultimately culminate when the National Hockey League 21 years later awarded the city an expansion team that began play for the 2017-18 NHL season, and the NFL's Oakland Raiders relocated to Las Vegas and began play in the city in 2020 playing in a new stadium that replaced Sam Boyd.
Players and builders of note
Retired
Ron Meyer (head coach)
Jon Volpe
Greg Battle
Shonte Peoples
Darian Hagan
Carlos Huerta
Tamarick Vanover
Anthony Calvillo
Dan SileoActive in the CFL
Jeff Reinebold
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1994 CFL season
References
External links
1994 Las Vegas Posse Roster
Las Vegas Posse team profile
Las Vegas Posse Historical
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
American football teams in the Las Vegas Valley
Canadian football teams in the United States
Sam Boyd Stadium | [
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|
240315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa%20Renegades | Ottawa Renegades | The Ottawa Renegades were a Canadian Football League franchise based in Ottawa, Ontario founded in 2002, six years after the storied Ottawa Rough Riders folded. After four seasons, the Renegades franchise was suspended indefinitely by the league due to financial instability, and its players were absorbed by the other teams in a dispersal draft.
After two years in limbo, the Renegades franchise was awarded to Jeff Hunt, best known as the owner of the Ottawa 67's, in March 2008. The new franchise was revived in 2014 and rebranded as the Ottawa Redblacks. For historical purposes, the CFL classifies the Redblacks, Renegades and Rough Riders as one discontinuous franchise.
History
The Ottawa Renegades returned Canadian Football League action to Canada's capital in 2002. Ottawa had been without a team since 1996, when the Ottawa Rough Riders folded. The logo chosen draws similarities to the logo used by the Rough Riders for much of their existence up until 1992. The Renegades played four seasons and never qualified for the playoffs. In May 2005, Bernard Glieberman (former owner of the Rough Riders and the CFL USA's Shreveport Pirates) took ownership of the team, and made his son Lonie Glieberman team president, and many of the same names they had employed during the unsuccessful years of Glieberman's ownership of their previous teams started reappearing (for example, Björn Nittmo, by this point severely brain-damaged, almost 39 years old and out of football since 2001, was brought in as a potential kicker in the 2005 season). The team's only head coach was Joe Paopao. On November 7, 2005, the Ottawa Renegades announced John Jenkins as head coach and General Manager for 2006, with Forrest Gregg serving as the team's Executive VP for football. However, this did not occur because of the suspension of the team's operations.
On March 3, 2006, Lonie Glieberman resigned from day-to-day operations of the team, acknowledging that he made mistakes during his tenure.
With the team losing $3.8 million in 2005, and the possibility of losing an additional $2.3 million to $5.8 million in 2006, the organization requested financial assistance from the CFL, which the league was not willing to provide. On March 22, 2006, Bernie Glieberman decided to stop funding the Renegades. While the CFL previously took over operations of the Toronto Argonauts and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in 2003, on April 9, 2006, the CFL's board of governors decided against doing the same for the Renegades, instead choosing to look for a new owner. The CFL would move its easternmost-West Division team, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, back to the East Division for the third time in its history to take Ottawa's place and to balance out the divisions (the Bombers played in the East from 1987–94, 1997–2001 and this time from 2006–13).
The players of the Ottawa Renegades were dispersed to the remaining eight CFL teams in a dispersal draft, with QB Kerry Joseph going #1 to the Saskatchewan Roughriders.
Steelback Brewery president Frank D'Angelo announced in April 2006 that he was exploring opportunities to revive the team. The announcement was not cleared with the Canadian Football League, who indicated that they had had only one informal conversation with D'Angelo, in which no decision was made.
On May 15, 2007, the CFL announced that it had ended discussions with a group led by William Palmer regarding the return of a CFL team to Ottawa for the 2008 season.
CFL Commissioner Mark Cohon stated "[s]everal parties have expressed interest regarding a franchise for Ottawa, and we have decided to concentrate efforts on these new opportunities. The CFL remains committed to the City of Ottawa, and we remain determined to return a franchise to the nation’s capital only at a time and under circumstances that will ensure strength and stability in the long run".
However, in September 2007, the lower south side of Frank Clair Stadium was closed, due to cracks in the concrete structure. Ottawa mayor Larry O'Brien was quoted at the time that this was an opportunity to do a review of the usage and the facilities of Lansdowne Park.
On March 25, 2008, the league ended the team's indefinite limbo by awarding the franchise to Jeff Hunt, owner of the Ottawa 67's. The team began play in 2014, and did not retain the name Renegades because of its troubled history (and could not use the Rough Riders name due to objections from the Saskatchewan Roughriders), instead being called the Ottawa Redblacks.
Seasons
Players
As of the start of the 2018 CFL season, Kyries Hebert was the last active former Renegade player still on a CFL team roster. He is also the only former Renegade to have played for the Ottawa Redblacks. Former Renegades Korey Banks, Kerry Joseph, Yo Murphy, Marc Parenteau, and Markus Howell have also gone on to be Grey Cup champions.
Dan Crowley was the team's first starting quarterback. Throughout 2002, backup quarterbacks, Chuck Clements and Oteman Sampson, also saw some starting time. However, in 2003, Kerry Joseph, would be the quarterback to ultimately succeed Crowley. During 2003, Romaro Miller also started at quarterback. During 2004 and 2005, Joseph functioned as the primary starting quarterback. However, backups Darnell Kennedy and Brad Banks also saw time as the starter, in relief of Joseph.
See also
Ottawa Renegades all time records and statistics
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
Lansdowne Park
List of Canadian Football League seasons
Ottawa Rough Riders
Ottawa Redblacks
References
External links
Ottawa Renegades website at SlamSports
Official online home of Renegade Nation
Ottawa Renegades Football Journal
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
Sports clubs established in 2002
Sports clubs disestablished in 2008
Ren | [
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240317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis%20Mad%20Dogs | Memphis Mad Dogs | The Memphis Mad Dogs were a Canadian football team that played the 1995 season in the Canadian Football League. The Mad Dogs were part of a failed attempt to expand the CFL into the United States. They played at Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium.
The team's principal owner was Fred Smith, founder of FedEx.
Franchise history
Prior to the Mad Dogs, Smith fronted an ownership group (along with such entities as former Memphis Showboats owner William Dunavant and the estate of Elvis Presley) that tried to get a National Football League team into Memphis in 1993. The Memphis Hound Dogs, as the proposed team was to be called, was one of five teams to be considered, but was passed over in favor of the Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars. Smith, after briefly considering a proposed "new league" backed by CBS, then turned to the CFL. The league was very impressed with Smith; his group was the richest in CFL history at the time. It seriously considered selling either the Hamilton Tiger-Cats or Calgary Stampeders to Smith. After those teams resolved their ownership situations, Smith's group was granted an expansion franchise for 1995. With Presley's estate no longer involved, the team eschewed "Hound Dogs" in favor of "Mad Dogs," ostensibly through a name-the-team contest.
On the field
The Mad Dogs hired Pepper Rodgers, a Memphis native, as their first head coach. Rodgers was familiar to Memphis pro football fans as he was the head coach of one of the city's previous pro football team, the Memphis Showboats of the USFL; the Mad Dogs had also hired Steve Erhart, the Showboats' general manager, in the same capacity. Erhart had been trying since 1987 to get the CFL to expand into the United States. The team's mascot was a black Labrador retriever named Alien, who was known for charging the field and retrieving the kicking tee following each kickoff.
The Mad Dogs tried to copy the Baltimore Stallions' blueprint by getting staff and players who had previous CFL experience. As part of that blueprint, the Mad Dogs hired former CFL coach Adam Rita to become their new offensive coordinator. Rita had coached the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos to Grey Cup championships in 1991 and 1993. The Mad Dogs then signed veteran QB Damon Allen, who won the Grey Cup with the Eskimos in 1987 and 1993 (the latter with Rita), earning Grey Cup MVP honors in both years. Other notable players on offense included Eddie Brown (SB), Joe Horn (WR) and former NFL kicker Donald Igwebuike.
However, the offense was only able to score a total of 346 points, last in the CFL behind the Ottawa Rough Riders. On a positive note, the Mad Dogs were known for their strong defense that was rated second, behind Edmonton, in the CFL for giving up the fewest points with 364, due in large part to the strong defensive play of Tim Cofield and Rodney Harding.
One of the reasons for poor offense and great defense was the size of the field. The Liberty Bowl was not as well suited to the Canadian game, as the stands were very close to the field of play, making it difficult to reconfigure the field to CFL standards. As a result, even with the addition of AstroTurf cutouts to widen and lengthen the field, it was still narrower and shorter than all other CFL fields, including other US fields which were not regulation. In order to shoehorn even an approximation of a Canadian field onto the playing surface, the end zones became half-grass/half-Astroturf pentagons that were only nine yards long in the middle and seven yards long at the sidelines. CFL rules call for a 20-yard end zone, and no other stadium had end zones shorter than 15 yards. The stands jutted into the corners of the end zones, creating a clear safety hazard. In addition, the Liberty Bowl grounds crew had marked the field with 33 inch yards.
Memphis ended the 1995 CFL season with a 9–9–0 regular season record, which placed them fourth in the South Division and one game out of the playoffs.
Off the field
Pepper Rodgers was known around the football world as a likable man. However, he often made uncomplimentary remarks about the Canadian Football League, which also showed signs that the CFL's foray into the United States was doomed to failure from the start.
The team drew relatively well during the first two months of the season. While the crowds were not nearly as large as those the Showboats or Southmen had drawn, they were still comparable to those for the established CFL franchises. However, the Mad Dogs had their legs cut out from under them by quirks in the CFL schedule. The CFL traditionally plays on Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays — the same days as high school and college football games in the United States - largely to avoid competing on television (both in its native country and the U.S.) with the National Football League. Smith knew that the Mad Dogs could not hope to draw respectable crowds if they had to go head-to-head with high school games on Fridays and Tennessee Volunteers and Ole Miss Rebels football on Saturdays. The Birmingham Barracudas faced the same problem. With this in mind, Smith and Barracudas owner Art Williams persuaded the CFL to let their teams play late-season home games on Sundays. They apparently believed that attempting to compete with NFL broadcasts in markets that did not support any one NFL team in particular was the more sensible risk to take. It did not work; several late season games in Memphis drew crowds of fewer than 10,000, dropping the team's average attendance to around 14,550 by the end of the season. As early as September, Smith was blaming community indifference and outright hostility from the media for the team's steep decline at the gate.
Tim Cofield became the only Mad Dogs player to win the James P. McCaffrey Trophy as the Most Outstanding Defensive Player of the South Division.
In the end
Due to massive losses and the late-season attendance collapse, the Mad Dogs folded at the December 1995 CFL meetings. It is likely they would have been forced out of town in any event by the impending arrival of the NFL's Houston Oilers, who were planning to play at the Liberty Bowl while their new stadium in Nashville was being built. Sharing the Liberty Bowl with the Oilers would have caused serious logistical problems in September and October, and no other stadium in the Memphis area was suitable even for temporary use. The Stallions faced a similar situation when the arrival of the Baltimore Ravens forced them to move out of town after winning the Grey Cup.
By February 1996, the Barracudas, Texans and Shreveport Pirates had also folded while the Stallions had reconstituted themselves as the third incarnation of the Montreal Alouettes, ending the CFL's three-year experiment south of the border.
Besides financial and attendance problems, the Mad Dogs were hobbled by the promotional efforts of the CFL itself. The league positioned itself directly against the NFL when it attempted to move south of the border. The CFL adopted the marketing slogan, "Longer, Wider, Faster" to appeal to the American football market. Rodgers had expressed frustration in the efforts to market the Mad Dogs and Canadian football to the Mid-South.
After the Mad Dogs
The city of Memphis would go on to host several more professional football franchises. The most notable was the Liberty Bowl's hosting of the NFL's Tennessee Oilers for the 1997 season. The plan was for the Oilers, who were to be based in Nashville once a new stadium was ready, to play two full seasons in Memphis because the city had the state's only stadium that was ideally sized for the NFL at the time. The largest stadium in Nashville at the time, Vanderbilt Stadium, seated only 41,000 people and was deemed too small even for temporary use. The state's largest stadium, Neyland Stadium in Knoxville, seated over 102,000 people, far too large to sell out in time to avoid local blackouts. If successful, it could have set Memphis up to make another bid on the expansion franchise that was to be awarded in the wake of the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy (what eventually became the Houston Texans).
However, like the Mad Dogs, the Oilers proved to be an attendance disaster in Memphis. Due to Memphians' unwillingness to support a lame-duck team and Nashvillians' reluctance to travel across Interstate 40 to see "their" team play, Oilers games didn't draw much more than the Mad Dogs had drawn even on a good day and often drew more opponents' fans than Oilers fans. The Oilers backed out of the Memphis arrangement after only one season and played the 1998 season at Vanderbilt.
The Memphis Pharaohs played two seasons in the Arena Football League, their first concurrent with the Mad Dogs, in 1995 and 1996. In 2001, Memphis would host the XFL's Memphis Maniax, the AAF's Memphis Express and the AF2's Memphis Xplorers. The Xplorers would last for six seasons. Memphis would also have success in other professional sports, landing another Canadian export with the relocation of the Vancouver Grizzlies in 2001, which became the Memphis Grizzlies that have been playing there ever since.
Seasons
Players of note
Gary Anderson, running back
Derrick Atterberry, cornerback
Eddie Brown
Bobby Dawson, defensive back
Alex Gordon, linebacker
Joe Horn, wide receiver
Donald Igwebuike
Canadian Football Hall of Famers
Damon Allen, quarterback
Greg Battle, linebacker
Rodney Harding, defensive tackle
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1995 CFL season
References
External links
Memphis Mad Dogs team profile, including game results
American football teams established in 1995
American football teams disestablished in 1995
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
American football teams in Tennessee
American football teams in Memphis, Tennessee
Canadian football teams in the United States
1995 establishments in Tennessee
1995 disestablishments in Tennessee | [
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|
240318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Suit%20Gundam%20ZZ | Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ | is the third installment in Sunrise's long running Gundam franchise and the last TV series in the franchise released in Japan's Shōwa period. A direct follow up to Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam, it is directed and written by Yoshiyuki Tomino, and he assembled a new team consisting of character designer Hiroyuki Kitazume, who had been one of Zeta Gundam's animation directors, and mechanical designers Makoto Kobayashi, Yutaka Izubuchi and Mika Akitaka. Initially airing on Nagoya Broadcasting Network and affiliated ANN stations in Japan, the series was later aired by the anime satellite television network, Animax, across Japan and its respective networks worldwide, including Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, South Asia, and other regions. The defunct video streaming website Daisuki had the rights to stream the series worldwide. Sunrise themselves released the series on home video via Right Stuf Inc. to North America in 2015.
Overview
Gundam ZZ was conceived as a sequel to Zeta Gundam, featuring a mostly all-new cast. Its broadcast immediately followed that of Zeta Gundam and continues to follow a major plotline from Zeta involving Haman Karn, regent to Mineva Lao Zabi, and also continues to follow Captain Bright Noa and the ship, Argama, as well as introducing the new characters led by Judau Ashta.
This sequel to Zeta Gundam sometimes struck a much lighter, often comical, tone, in contrast to its predecessor's brooding drama. For example, in the second episode, the protagonist Judau Ashta attempts to help Yazan Gable by throwing oranges at the Argama. This is contrasted in the same episode however when Yazan kills the technician Saegusa, and Judau then attempts to pilot the Zeta Gundam to go after Yazan but is incredibly poor at combat in his first battle. The whimsical first opening theme song Anime Ja Nai (lit. "It's Not Anime") set the tone for the first half of the series. The second half of the series sports a more somber opening theme song Silent Voice to accompany a change in tone to the more serious.
Plot summary
As the continuation of Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam, this series once again follows the story of the Anti Earth Union Group (AEUG) battleship Argama after Mobile Suit Zeta Gundams final episode. To fight off the Axis Zeon, now called the Neo Zeon, Captain Bright Noa recruits a group of teenage junk collectors led by the loudmouthed but powerful Newtype Judau Ashta to pilot the Argamas mobile suits. Now sporting a line-up of the behemoth ZZ Gundam and the returning Zeta Gundam, Gundam Mk-II and the Hyaku Shiki, the group is nicknamed the Gundam Team. As such, this became the first of a number of Gundam series where a team of Gundam mobile suits fight alongside each other regularly. The climax takes place at Side 3 in the Battle of Axis.
Out of the major Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam characters, Captain Bright Noa and Axis leader Haman Karn are featured prominently in Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ; Hayato Kobayashi, Kamille Bidan, Fa Yuiry, Wong Lee, Yazan Gable, Mineva Lao Zabi, and the children Shinta and Qum are featured in various episodes as well; Sayla Mass, who had appeared in the first series but had no speaking role in Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam, also appeared in several episodes of Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ; Char Aznable's planned appearance was canceled when Tomino was given the go-ahead to do the Mobile Suit Gundam: Char's Counterattack film. Yoshiyuki Tomino's original plan for the show which involved Char's return was never revealed, nor does Tomino himself remember it. Also, aside from the openings and story recap/preview episode, Amuro Ray does not make an appearance in the series either.
Reception
The series remains one of the more polarizing series in the franchise due to its lighthearted and campy tone in its first half when compared to Zeta Gundam's grittier one.
References
External links
Official Website
1986 anime television series debuts
ZZ
Sunrise (company) | [
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|
240319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Antonio%20Texans | San Antonio Texans | The San Antonio Texans were a Canadian Football League (CFL) team that played in the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas, in the 1995 CFL season. They had relocated from Sacramento, California, where the team had been called the Sacramento Gold Miners. After relocating, the team still had the same ownership in Fred Anderson and the same staff, including President Tom Bass and Head Coach/General Manager Kay Stephenson. The Gold Miners/Texans franchise played three seasons (five if the Texans' WLAF iteration, the Sacramento Surge, is also counted) before folding in 1995. They were the southernmost team in CFL history and the only team in CFL history to have ever officially relocated from another market (the Baltimore Stallions and Montreal Alouettes are considered separate teams by the league).
Franchise history
Before the 1993 season, the CFL granted expansion franchises to the owners of two WLAF teams, the Sacramento Surge and San Antonio Riders. The Riders changed their name to the Texans to avoid confusion with the Ottawa Rough Riders and Saskatchewan Roughriders. However, the original Texans franchise folded without ever playing a down when its owner, Larry Benson, ran out of money and was forced to withdraw. In a second attempt to place a team in San Antonio, Larry Ryckman threatened to move the Calgary Stampeders to San Antonio for the 1995 season if Calgary fans did not buy 16,000 season tickets; the tickets were purchased, though Ryckman was forced to sell the team a year later.
The Surge changed their name to the Gold Miners, and played the 1993 and 1994 seasons in Sacramento. However, their home stadium, Sacramento State's Hornet Stadium, was completely inadequate as a professional football venue. At the time, it consisted mostly of temporary-style bleacher seats, had few amenities and did not have permanent bathrooms. Additionally, it was uncovered, and thus offered no protection from Sacramento's blistering summer heat. They were also relatively isolated from the rest of the league; for their first two seasons, their nearest opponent was the BC Lions, north.
Unable to persuade Sacramento State to upgrade Hornet Stadium to something approaching CFL standards, Anderson tried to build a new stadium, but those plans fizzled. Neither of the other two stadiums in the Sacramento area, Toomey Field and Charles C. Hughes Stadium, offered anything significantly better; like Hornet Stadium, they were both inadequate even for temporary use. The failure of the Las Vegas Posse after only one season left the Gold Miners once again isolated from the rest of the league. Faced with an inadequate stadium and an unsustainable travel situation, Anderson reluctantly opted to move the team to San Antonio as the Texans. The move brought the Texans closer to the league's three Southern teams—the Birmingham Barracudas, Memphis Mad Dogs and Shreveport Pirates.
On the field
The Texans were unique in that their stadium, the Alamodome, had a playing surface large enough to accommodate a regulation Canadian football field. Although the facility had been designed primarily with American football in mind, its sideline seats could be retracted to create a playing surface wide enough for the full 65-yard width of a CFL field, and its end zone seating could be retracted to accommodate the full 150-yard length of a CFL field.
In their third season in the CFL and their first as the Texans, the team had the second-highest scoring offence in the league, which was led by veteran quarterback David Archer. The franchise finished the 1995 CFL season with a 12–6 record, finishing in second place of the South Division, which sent them to their first playoff berth.
In the playoffs, the Texans soundly defeated the Barracudas, 52–9, in the Southern Semi-Final at the Alamodome, in what was the only CFL playoff game ever held in an American city other than Baltimore. However, their playoff run would end with a loss to the eventual Grey Cup champion Baltimore Stallions in the Southern Final by a score of 21–11. As it turned out, it would be the last game the Texans would ever play, and (as of the 2015 season) the last meaningful CFL game ever played in the United States.
San Antonio's two backup quarterbacks had connections to the National Football Leagues (NFL) Buffalo Bills. The first was 45-year-old former Bills quarterback Joe Ferguson, who had retired five years earlier and came out of retirement when Dave Archer, the Texans' long-time starting quarterback, suffered an injury. The second was Jimmy Kemp, son of Bills quarterback (and politician) Jack Kemp. Head coach Kay Stephenson was Jack Kemp's backup on the Bills squad in 1968 and served as head coach of the Bills during Ferguson's last season with the team in 1984.
Off the field
The San Antonio Texans had respectable attendance, with the average being 15,855. In one of their games at the Alamodome, attendance reached 22,043, in a 38–32 loss to the Calgary Stampeders. The turmoil surrounding most of the other American CFL teams was not a significant factor in San Antonio.
The end
Anderson was heavily committed to the American CFL experiment. Indeed, by most accounts, he and the Baltimore Stallions' Jim Speros were the only truly dedicated American-based owners. When the experiment appeared to be in jeopardy near the end of the 1995 season, Anderson attempted to orchestrate a plan to save it. Under the plan, the Stallions, who were about to be forced out of Baltimore due to the pending establishment of the NFL's Baltimore Ravens, would have moved to Houston, a city that was about to lose their NFL team, the Oilers, and Speros would have sold a minority stake to Houston Astros owner Drayton McLane. Meanwhile, the Barracudas would have been sold to a new investment group and relocated to Shreveport to take the place of the Pirates. This would have matched up a team that made a good account of itself in its first season with a market that at least had the potential to support it. The 'Cudas' attendance had dwindled to unsustainable levels once college football season started. In contrast, while Shreveport was the smallest American market in the league, it had proven it could support CFL football for a full season despite being saddled with one of the league's worst teams both on and off the field. The plan would have concentrated the CFL's American experiment in the Southwest, and the three cities would have been close enough to make both it and the three teams more viable. The proposal would likely have meant the end of the CFL's South Division. The most likely alignment would have been to place the three U.S. teams in a re-constituted East Division, while the Winnipeg Blue Bombers would have returned to the West Division.
However, only two months after the Grey Cup, the Mad Dogs and Pirates had both folded. The Barracudas were about to be euthanized as well, as by then it was obvious the CFL would not approve their proposed sale and relocation to Shreveport. Speros was seriously considering moving his team to Montreal, in response to pressure from the league office. Anderson was not enamored at the prospect of being the only American owner in the CFL once again. He believed that the league needed at least three more American teams for the Texans to be viable in the long term. However, he was willing to play another season in San Antonio provided the Stallions stuck to their initial plan to move to Houston.
On February 3, 1996, the Stallions received formal approval to move to Montreal (they later reconstituted themselves as the third incarnation of the Montreal Alouettes) and the Texans were shuttered along with the Mad Dogs, Pirates and Barracudas. Anderson had little choice but to accept the euthanization of his team; earlier he had stated that he'd lost $6 million in 1995—far too much to make it worth the effort to go it alone. With the Stallions' move to Montreal, his nearest opponent would have been in Hamilton, over 1,400 miles away. With the Stallions opting to move to Montreal, there was no longer a viable place for Anderson to relocate had he decided to follow the Stallions' example. Although several other markets in Canada had expressed interest in joining the CFL, none had a stadium at the time that was suitable even for temporary use.
Malcolm Frank was the last remaining player from the Texans to play in the Canadian Football League when he was a member of the Edmonton Eskimos in 2006. He retired after that season.
Seasons
Players and builders of note
Tom Bass
Greg Korn - Assistant GM - Business Operations
Mike Kiselak
Kay Stephenson
David Archer
Joe Ferguson
Jimmy Kemp
Malcolm Frank
Judd Garrett
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1995 CFL season
Sacramento Gold Miners
References
External links
CFL Texans Shrine
San Antonio Texans History
American football teams established in 1993
American football teams disestablished in 1995
1993 establishments in Texas
1995 disestablishments in Texas
Defunct American football teams in Texas
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
Canadian football teams in the United States
Defunct sports teams in Texas | [
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240320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento%20Gold%20Miners | Sacramento Gold Miners | The Sacramento Gold Miners were a Canadian football team based in Sacramento, California. The franchise was the first American team in the Canadian Football League. The Gold Miners inherited a home stadium, front office staff and much of the roster of the Sacramento Surge from the defunct World League of American Football. The team played its home games at Hornet Stadium.
History
On the field
1993 season
When the WLAF suspended operations in 1992, Surge owner Fred Anderson received a franchise in the CFL after that league expanded to the United States in 1993. The two teams could be seen as one and the same. The two entities had the same colors (aqua and yellow) and head coach (Kay Stephenson). Additionally, several players and administrators made the switch from the WLAF to the CFL. These players included starting quarterback David Archer, Carl Parker (WR), Rod Harris (WR), George Bethune (DT), Mike Oliphant (RB) and Mike Pringle (RB). One notable team administrator was Jack Youngblood, who was the Gold Miners' Director of Marketing in 1993 and 1994, which was a similar post he held with the Surge in 1991 and 1992. Rick Mueller, the team's wide receivers coach (after serving as a defensive assistant with the Surge) and later director of player personnel, later would become general manager of the Omaha Nighthawks in the United Football League.
When the 1993 CFL season started, the Gold Miners, with an all-US staff, took some time to learn the intricacies of Canadian football. But the team was fortunate enough to have leadership from Archer and got great plays from Harris. In their first season, the Sacramento Gold Miners entered the CFL history books by:
Becoming the first American team to play in the CFL.
Becoming the first American team to host a CFL game, against the Calgary Stampeders (losing 38–36) on July 17.
Becoming the first American team to record a win in the CFL, against the Saskatchewan Roughriders (winning 37–26) on July 24. (However, they were not the first American team to win against a CFL team—see below.)
It is sometimes stated that the Gold Miners were the first American team to play against a Canadian team and to play on Canadian soil when they were the guests of the Ottawa Rough Riders (losing 32–23) on July 7. However, in the 1950s and 1960s the National Football League and the CFL (and the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union, forerunner of the CFL's East Division) played a series of exhibition games, all in Canada, with the NFL team winning all of those matches. The American Football League also played one game in Canada against a CFL team in 1961, with CFL's Hamilton defeating AFL's Buffalo, 38–21. Prior to that, the Columbus Bullies of the American Football League (1940) played the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in 1941 in a three-game series, which Columbus won, 2 games to 1.
The Gold Miners also entered the CFL record books by recording the most wins by an expansion team with 6 wins (the record was broken the following year by the Baltimore Stallions). The Gold Miners finished the season with a 6–12 record, which placed them in last place of the West Division. The positives for the franchise were the facts that they had a 5–4 home record and were ranked 5th in team defense. Harris was also selected as a member of the 1993 CFL All-Star Team, which showed signs that the team had a good mix of players and staff to improve on for the following season.
1994 season
In their second season, the Gold Miners were no longer the lone American team as the CFL introduced three new teams: the Las Vegas Posse, the Shreveport Pirates and the Baltimore Stallions (who were known as the CFLers when the NFL did not allow the Colts name to be used). The Gold Miners were once again a part of CFL history when they played against the Las Vegas Posse in Sacramento on July 8, 1994. The game was the first-ever game that involved two American-based teams in the CFL. Las Vegas won the game, 32–26.
The Gold Miners made a decided improvement from their 1993 inaugural season with a 9–8–1 record. They had a 5–3–1 home record and a 4–5 road mark. Sacramento was ranked fourth in team defense, behind Calgary, Edmonton and Baltimore — the teams with the three best records in the league. But the record was only good enough for fifth place in the tough West Division. The Miners would have finished fourth with a 10–7–1 record, if not for a poor call by the officials in the team's last game of the season in Edmonton. Archer appeared to throw a game-winning touchdown pass to Freeman Baysinger, but the officials ruled that it had short-hopped into Baysinger's hands. Replays showed that Baysinger had caught the ball cleanly. As it was, the Gold Miners finished one point behind the 10-8 Saskatchewan Roughriders for the last playoff spot in the West. As it turned out, this would be the last game the team would play in Sacramento.
Off the field
Despite a mediocre on-field record, the Gold Miners represented a serious attempt to form a viable professional football organization. Anderson and Baltimore Stallions owner Jim Speros were considered the only truly dedicated US CFL owners. Anderson's longtime sidekick Tom Bass handled the day-to-day operations, while coach Kay Stephenson and GM Tom Huiskens handled the football side. As with the team, it took Stephenson some time to adapt to the Canadian game, but he was eventually successful.
However, the Gold Miners were hobbled by substantial off-the-field problems that ultimately proved too much to overcome. Since the San Antonio club that was also supposed to be a part of the 1993 expansion had folded, the Gold Miners were the only American team in the CFL during the 1993 season. Their nearest opponent was the BC Lions, over away. They had to market themselves, receiving no assistance from the CFL. This distance was partially lessened when the CFL added the Las Vegas Posse for the 1994 season, but that team's collapse after only one season left the Gold Miners once again far isolated from even their American competitors (the only other American teams, Shreveport and Baltimore, were away, respectively).
Another drag on attendance was Hornet Stadium, which was well below the standards expected for a professional football team. At the time, it was made up mostly of temporary-style bleacher seats. It only had threadbare amenities, and fans were forced to use port-a-potties. The stadium was also uncovered, and offered no protection from Sacramento's often oppressive summer heat. One area in which Hornet Stadium would prove to be ideal was field size; because it was built with a running track, it was relatively easy to accommodate the full length and width of the larger Canadian field (110 yards x 65 yards [with 20 yard endzones] vs 100 yards x yards [with 10 yard endzones] for the American field) within the track and only cut small portions of the corners, a situation accommodated at a few other Canadian stadiums as well. Attendance did hover around 15,000 per game, but it was widely known that as many as 2,000 of those 15,000 were given free tickets. In 1993 the average home attendance was 16,979, but in 1994 the average home attendance fell to 14,226.
Unable to persuade Sacramento State to upgrade Hornet Stadium to something approaching professional standards, Anderson tried to get the city to build a new stadium for the Gold Miners and his minor-league baseball club, the Modesto A's. He planned to complete a project that had been started several years earlier to lure the then-Los Angeles Raiders to Sacramento, but had ended up being mothballed. Anderson, however, could not come to terms with the local governments. Years later, Sacramento State would upgrade Hornet Stadium to professional standards to accommodate the Sacramento Mountain Lions and the stadium would later be named after Anderson.
Move to San Antonio
Deciding that Hornet Stadium was inadequate even for temporary use, Anderson decided to look for a new home for the Gold Miners. However, the only other football stadiums in the area, Sacramento City College's Charles C. Hughes Stadium (where the Surge had played in 1991) and UC Davis' Toomey Field, were similarly unacceptable. Hughes Stadium was ruled out because it was used by several high schools; the CFL plays many games on Friday nights, the same night as most American high school football games. Toomey Field seated just over 10,000 people—only half the minimum capacity for a CFL stadium. Even if it could have been expanded, it was only connected to Sacramento by way of the narrow Yolo Causeway. In any event, the CFL frequently plays on Saturdays.
Faced with an unsustainable travel situation and the lack of a suitable facility, Anderson moved the team to San Antonio as the Texans for the 1995 CFL season. San Antonio had the benefits of having a brand-new stadium, the Alamodome, and was geographically close to the American CFL clubs in Shreveport, Memphis, and Birmingham, greatly reducing travel burdens. The Texans only played one season in San Antonio before the CFL exited the American market.
Seasons
Radio and television
Gold Miners games were broadcast on KFBK radio and KRBK-TV with Tim Roye and Lee Grosscup on radio and Grant Napear and Jack Youngblood on television. Roye replaced Youngblood as TV analyst in 1994 and former San Francisco Giants announcer David Glass became the Miners' radio play-by-play announcer.
Players and builders of note
David Archer
Tom Bass
Kerwin Bell
George Bethune
Tony Burse
David Diaz-Infante
Malcolm Frank
Bill Goldberg
Rod Harris
Bobby Humphery
Carl Parker
Mike Kiselak
Paul Liggett
Troy Mills
Mike Oliphant
Mike Pringle
James Pruitt
Kay Stephenson
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1993 CFL season
1994 CFL season
San Antonio Texans
1993 establishments in California
1995 disestablishments in California
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
Defunct American football teams in California
Canadian football teams in the United States
Defunct sports teams in California | [
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|
240323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreveport%20Pirates | Shreveport Pirates | The Shreveport Pirates were a Canadian Football League team, playing at Independence Stadium in Shreveport, Louisiana, United States, in 1994 and 1995. Despite a relatively strong fan base, they were one of the least successful of the CFL's American franchises on and off the field.
History
The Pirates were created when Bernard Glieberman and his son Lonnie, owners of the Ottawa Rough Riders, expressed a desire to move the struggling franchise to the United States. The CFL rejected this move, but engineered a deal in which the Rough Riders were essentially split in two. The Gliebermans received an expansion franchise in Shreveport, while a new ownership group took over the Rough Riders name, colours, and history.
General manager J. I. Albrecht hired John Huard as head coach, but the Gliebermans overruled him and installed Forrest Gregg as coach before the team took its first snap. They needed until week 15 to record their first victory, a 24–12 win over the Sacramento Gold Miners. After the historic victory, the team won two out of their last three games, but they still finished last in the CFL East Division with a 3–15 record. Albrecht resigned and sued Glieberman and the Pirates.
Top performers were wide receiver Charles Thompson with 641 yards receiving and three touchdowns and running back Martin Patton was the team leading rusher with 659 yards and eight touchdowns. Terrence Jones had 1,046 yards passing with four touchdowns and nine interceptions and Mike Johnson, of the University of Akron, passed for 1,259 yards and four touchdowns with 12 interceptions. The club averaged 17,871 fans per game (second-highest of the American teams, behind only Baltimore), and once the team snapped its losing streak, attendance rose near the end of the season, with a high of 32,011 for their season-ending victory over the Ottawa Rough Riders, a single-game attendance record for the American teams outside of Baltimore.
Shreveport averaged more than 26 points per game in 1995, but gave up more than 28 en route to a 5–13 record. Billy Joe Tolliver completed 252 of 429 passes for 3,440 yards and 14 touchdowns. His favorite target was fellow Texas Tech product Wayne Walker, who caught 51 passes for 790 yards. Curtis Mayfield led the team in receptions with 58 for 846 receiving yards and two touchdowns. The team's leading rusher was former University of Miami player Martin Patton, who ran for 1,040 yards, third in the league. Kicker Björn Nittmo finished 46 of 53 in field goals and was sixth in the league in scoring.
Fan support
Despite their dreadful on-field record and the Gliebermans' mismanagement, the Pirates had a very loyal following. The Shreveport market had four major college teams with large fan bases in the region–LSU, Texas, Texas A&M, and Arkansas. On paper, this should have resulted in attendance severely dropping off once college football started, as was the case with the CFL's other Southern teams, the Memphis Mad Dogs and Birmingham Barracudas. However, Shreveport was far enough away from the campuses of LSU, Texas, Texas A&M, and Arkansas that high school football was the Pirates' biggest sports competition in the second half of the season. As such, despite winning only eight games in their history, the Pirates' attendance remained roughly comparable with the established Canadian teams throughout their run.
Demise
The problems continued off the field as the Gliebermans tried to relocate the team to Norfolk, Virginia. However, officials there broke off talks after learning that Glieberman faced several lawsuits in Shreveport. Notable about the move to Virginia was "the Great Tucker Caper" when the City of Shreveport tried to seize Bernard Glieberman's 1948 Tucker (which was on loan to a classic automobile museum in downtown Shreveport) for defaulting on debts related to the Pirates' lease at Independence Stadium, including payments for the scoreboard. Glieberman's lawyer, Mark Gilliam, tried to escape with the car and hide the vintage auto, but he ran out of gas along the way. The police spotted him, and took the car back to the museum where it was being stored until the case could be settled. Norfolk was not interested in the team in any event due to the Gliebermans' poor business record.
By the end of 1995, anticipating that the Pirates would not continue beyond that season, a group of investors dubbing itself the "Ark-La-Tex Football Association" proposed purchasing the Barracudas and moving them to Shreveport. The Barracudas had compiled a winning record and made the playoffs, winning two more games than the Pirates had won in their entire existence. However, owner Art Williams had decided not to bring the team back to Birmingham after attendance flatlined late in the season. The Ark-La-Tex Football association bought the 'Cudas from Williams for a significant discount, provided that the league approve the sale. The sale would have brought the team closer to the San Antonio Texans and what would have been the Houston Stallions (as Baltimore had proposed moving to Houston after the season) and created a three-team nucleus that would have made the CFL's long-term presence in the U.S. viable. It would have also matched a team that made a good account of itself on the field with a market that was at least potentially capable of supporting it off the field.
Instead, on February 2, 1996, the CFL euthanized four of its American franchises and allowed the owners of the fifth, the Stallions, to resurrect the Montreal Alouettes, ending the CFL's experiment south of the border.
Aftermath
The Gliebermans eventually re-emerged in the CFL owning the Ottawa Renegades. Like their previous efforts, the Renegades were a failure.
Some notable players include former New Orleans Saints running back Gill Fenerty and defensive end Dexter Manley. Kicker Björn Nittmo was also a fan favorite, both for making some very long field goals and for being friendly to the fans, often attending meetings of their booster club. Jon Heidenreich played two seasons with the club, and later became popular as a wrestler (WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship). Curiously, two players, Joe Montford and Elfrid Payton, later went on to fame as winners of the CFL's Most Outstanding Defensive Player Award (added to this pair is Greg Stumon, who was a former winner of the same award). Uzooma Okeke went on to become one of the best linemen in the history of the Montreal Alouettes and won the 1999 CFL Most Outstanding Lineman award. He became a scout with the Alouettes in 2007.
The Pirates booster club was formed during the team's first season to support the team, and remained active long after the team became defunct, spearheading various later attempts to get another professional football team in the Shreveport area.
Seasons
See also
CFL USA all-time records and statistics
Comparison of Canadian and American football
1994 CFL season
1995 CFL season
References
External links
Shreveport Pirates team profile
Defunct Canadian Football League teams
American football teams in Louisiana
Canadian football teams in the United States
1994 establishments in Louisiana
1995 disestablishments in Louisiana | [
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|
240324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa%20Rough%20Riders | Ottawa Rough Riders | The Ottawa Rough Riders were a Canadian Football League team based in Ottawa, Ontario, founded in 1876. Formerly one of the oldest and longest-lived professional sports teams in North America, the Rough Riders won the Grey Cup championship nine times. Their most dominant era was the 1960s and 1970s, in which they won five Grey Cups. The team's fortunes waned in the 1980s and 1990s, and they ultimately ceased operations following the 1996 season. Five years later, a new CFL team known as the Ottawa Renegades was founded, though they suspended operations in 2006. The Ottawa Redblacks, which own the Rough Riders intellectual properties, joined the league in 2014.
Team facts
Founded: 1876
Folded: 1996
Formerly known as: Ottawa Football Club (1876–1897), Ottawa Rough Riders (1898–1913, 1931–1996), Ottawa Senators (1925–1930).
Nickname: The Red and Black (French: Le Rouge et Noir)
Home stadium: Frank Clair Stadium, formerly called Lansdowne Park until 1993
Uniform colours: Red, black, and white
Helmet design: Black background with a face of a Rough Rider with a log driver's (rough rider's) pike in the background.
Ontario Rugby Football Union regular season championships: 3 — 1898, 1900, 1902
Quebec Rugby Football Union regular season championships: 1 — 1905
Eastern regular season championships: 19 — 1908, 1925, 1926, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1945, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1951, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1978
Canadian Dominion Football Championship appearances: 4 — 1898 (won), 1900 (won), 1902 (won), 1905 (lost)
Grey Cup finals appearances: 15 — 1925 (won), 1926 (won), 1936 (lost), 1939 (lost), 1940 (won), 1941 (lost), 1948 (lost), 1951 (won), 1960 (won), 1966 (lost), 1968 (won), 1969 (won), 1973 (won), 1976 (won), 1981 (lost)
History
1876 – 1930
The Ottawa Football Club was organized on Wednesday, September 20, 1876, where they won the first game they played on September 23 against the Aylmer Club at Jacques-Cartier Square. The team's colours were cerise, grey, and navy blue. The club adopted the name Ottawa Rough Riders on Friday, September 9, 1898, and changed its team colours to red and black. Since then, red and black have been Ottawa's traditional sporting colours. Although in later years the name was said to derive from logging (or more specifically, the logdrivers who guided timber down the rivers), the team based its colours on Teddy Roosevelt's regiment in the Spanish–American War, which, with the date of the renaming, suggests that the name also comes from the war. The team changed its nickname to Ottawa Senators from 1925 to 1930.
Ottawa's first Canadian championship came in 1898. The Ottawa Football Club transferred from the Quebec Union to the Ontario League that season. The Riders defeated the Hamilton Tigers 15–8 for the Ontario championship, then defeated Toronto Varsity, the Intercollegiate champions 7–3 and defeated Ottawa College 11–1 to win the Canadian championship. In those days, Ottawa athletes played in multiple sports and the Riders had athletes famous in other sports, such as Harvey Pulford and Frank McGee. The Riders and Ottawa College were the Canadian champions for the next several years, with the Riders defeating Brockville 17–10 in 1900, and defeating Ottawa College 5–0 in 1902, College being the 1901 Canadian champions. The Riders moved back to the Quebec Union, winning the 1903 Quebec championship, in a year where there was no playoff for the Canadian title. In 1905, Ottawa won the Quebec title, only to lose to the Toronto Varsity team 11–9 in the Canadian championship.
The club absorbed the Ottawa St. Pats when the Riders helped found the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union in 1907. The Riders would win the IRFU championship in 1909 over the Hamilton Tigers, but lost in the Canadian final in Toronto to Toronto Varsity. The Riders declined and became uncompetitive during the 1910s, attributed to the First World War, and the lure of salaries in professional ice hockey meaning athletes chose hockey over football in Ottawa.
During the decline of the Riders, another Ottawa team, Ottawa St. Brigids, was on an ascent. St. Brigids, which played in the Ottawa City league, and later the Ontario league, was developing top talent. In 1923, St. Brigids and the Riders merged, with St. Brigids manager Jim McCaffery becoming the manager of the Riders. McCaffery would be a member of the Riders executive for several decades. The team won the Grey Cup in 1925 and 1926, a time when they were known as the Ottawa Senators. In 1925, Ottawa defeated three-time defending champion Queen's in the Eastern semi-final. Ottawa then defeated Winnipeg 24–1 in the championship, held in Ottawa, and defeated Toronto Varsity 10–7 in Toronto in 1926. The team was led by top players such as Eddie Emerson, Joe Tubman, Joe Miller, Jess Ketchum, Jack Pritchard, Harold Starr and Don Young.
1930 – 1950
The Riders went back into a decline after the championships. Again, another Ottawa team, the Ottawa Rangers, was developing talent and enjoying success, winning the Quebec title. The Riders absorbed the Rangers in 1933, getting Rangers stars Andy Tommy, Arnie Morrison and "Fat Quinn'. That same year the Riders added more talent, bringing in American imports "Windy" O'Neil and Lorne Johnson. In 1935, the Riders added Roy Berry who was be mysterious about his origins. The Riders defeated the Toronto Argonauts in the final two games of the Big Four schedule to deny Toronto the Big Four championship. On November 19, 1935, Toronto's The Mail and Empire accused the Riders of using an illegal player in those matches. Editor Edwin Allen stated "Roy Berry" was an alias for Bohn Hilliard, a Texas Longhorns footballer who had played semi-professional baseball. In February 1936, Amateur Athletic Union of Canada president W. A. Fry announced the suspension of nine members of the Ottawa team due to the Roy Berry incident.
In 1936, the Riders won the Big Four title defeating the Hamilton Tigers 3–2. The team progressed to the Eastern final against the Sarnia Imperials. The Imperials won the game 26–20 in a frozen battle held at Toronto's Varsity Stadium. Since there was no western challenge that year, the Imperials became Canadian champions. The highlight of Rough Rider Joe Zelikovitz's football career came in the Big Four game in Hamilton against the Hamilton Tigers on October 15, 1938 when he set the Big Four record with seven interceptions. A record that still stands unofficially compared to the CFL. The Riders would next win the Big Four and Eastern title in 1939, but lose to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 8–7 in the Grey Cup game, held in Ottawa. In 1940, the Riders would win the Big Four and Eastern titles, defeating Toronto Balmy Beach. The win over Balmy Beach carried the Canadian title, as the west refused the Canadian Rugby Union code.
The Big Four went out of existence during the Second World War, but the Riders were able to field a club in the Eastern Rugby Football Union, along with Balmy Beach, Montreal and the Argonauts. The Riders won the 1942 ERFU title over the Argonauts, but again lost to the Blue Bombers in the Canadian final, 18–16 at Varsity Stadium.
The ERFU folded and the Riders continued in the Ottawa City league until 1945 when the Big Four was restarted. During the Riders' time in the Ottawa City league, another team from Ottawa, the Trojans won the Ontario title, and in 1948 the Trojans were absorbed into the Riders.
The 1950s
The Rough Riders were pioneers in international play in the 1950s. In 1950 and 1951, Ottawa hosted the New York Giants in exhibition games; the Giants won both times, and NFL-CFL matches would not be attempted again until 1959. In the first season of the CFL, the Ottawa Rough Riders and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats made history when they played the first regular season CFL game at Philadelphia's Franklin Field on August 23, 1958. This was the only time that two Canadian football teams would play a regular-season game on American soil. Hamilton defeated Ottawa, 13–7. (The Toronto Argonauts played the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in Buffalo in 1951, the Argonauts would later face the Calgary Stampeders in another exhibition game in Portland, Oregon in 1992, and several CFL games with at least one Canadian team occurred in the United States during the CFL USA era of the early/mid 1990s.)
The 1960s and 1970s
The 1960s and 1970s were the Rough Riders' glory years. With General Manager Red O'Quinn and Coach Frank Clair at the helm along with players Russ Jackson, Whit Tucker, Ron Stewart, Tom Clements, and Tony Gabriel, the Riders were one of the CFL's best teams. Winning the Grey Cup in 1968 & 69 to finish out the decade and then 3 more under Clair's helm as GM including their last victory in 1976, where Tony Gabriel made the game-winning touchdown catch in the end zone in a 23–20 win over the Saskatchewan Roughriders. The Rough Riders' final appearance in the Grey Cup game was 1981 against the heavily favoured Edmonton Eskimos. The game started out as a shocker when the Riders jumped out to a 20–1 halftime lead over the Eskimos. But a controversial double interference call against Riders receiver Tony Gabriel late in the game proved to be costly, as the Eskimos, led by backup quarterback Tom Wilkinson, came from behind to beat the Riders 26–23 on a game-winning field goal by kicker Dave Cutler, giving the Eskimos their fourth (out of five) consecutive Grey Cup championship.
1980s and 1990s
Throughout most of the 1980s and 1990s, except for two even (.500) records (8–8 in 1983 and 9–9 in 1992), the Riders struggled with losing seasons, poor ownership, mismanagement, and decreased fan support. In 1988, Jo-Anne Polak was named the co-General Manager of the Rough Riders. She became the first woman in CFL history to be appointed to an executive post, and the first female General Manager of any professional sports franchise in North America. Three years later, the team would be purchased by Detroit businessman Bernard Glieberman and his son Lonie Glieberman, who would serve as team president, for a dollar. The team changed its logo from a simple block "R" to a double flaming red and silver "RR", and added silver to their traditional red and black colours. Despite a promising year in 1992 the bottom fell out in 1993, when the Gliebermans began making noise about moving the Rough Riders to the United States. The CFL, obviously, did not take kindly to Glieberman's suggestion, but allowed him to split the Rough Riders into American and Canadian halves. The American half became an expansion franchise known as the Shreveport Pirates under Glieberman's ownership. The Canadian half retained the Rough Riders name, colours and history under the ownership of modern Ottawa Senators co-founder Bruce Firestone. This arrangement is similar to the arrangement made by Art Modell and the Cleveland Browns made later in the 1990s.
For the 1994 season the team unveiled its final logo design with the team colours changing from black, silver, and red, to dark navy, red, and gold. The colour changes proved to be unpopular as the team dropped dark navy in favour of a return to black for the 1996 season. Despite the ownership changes, neither Ottawa nor Shreveport played well. In 1995, after a lengthy bankruptcy process in ownership, the Riders were purchased by Chicago businessman and minor league sports entrepreneur Horn Chen, who did not attend a single Riders game. In the dispersal draft of Las Vegas Posse players, Ottawa management drafted Derrell Robertson, who had died the previous December. Following the 1996 season, years of poor ownership and mismanagement took a toll on the Rough Riders franchise that ultimately led to its folding after a storied 120 years. After the Rough Riders folded, the CFL moved its easternmost-West Division team, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, back to the East Division for a second time to take Ottawa's place and to balance out the divisions (they played in the East from 1987 to 1994, and the Bombers would stay in the East Division from 1997 to 2001; it would return there upon the folding of the Renegades from 2006 to 2013).
Two Riders
For much of the team's history, it played in the same league as the Saskatchewan Roughriders, confusing many, and also attracting general ridicule to the CFL for being a league with only eight or nine teams, but two of them being named "rough riders" (spelled identically although configured differently; also, the Saskatchewan team's nickname has a well-documented derivation that has nothing to do with the Spanish–American War or logging). For a time, both clubs shared the same colours of red and black until 1948, when the Saskatchewan team became green and white, which remain their colours to this day. The teams had historically belonged to separate leagues ('unions') until the CFL was formed in 1958. When the CFL was formed, they were allowed to keep their long-standing names; Ottawa was frequently known as the "Eastern Riders" while Saskatchewan was referred to as either the "Western Riders" or "Green Riders". On four occasions, the two teams met in the Grey Cup (1951, 1966, 1969, and 1976); Ottawa won all but the 1966 meeting, which was also Saskatchewan's first Grey Cup in team history. The Riders vs. Riders matchups were often confusing for fans. Errors would occasionally be made on the official scoreboard and commentators would often get confused.
Ottawa Renegades
A CFL franchise in Ottawa was absent for the next five years until 2002, when the city regained a CFL team, named the Renegades. Although sentiment arose toward resurrecting the Rough Riders name, Chen expected payment for the rights to it; the new franchise declined the request, and went with a 'fresh' name for the new team. The team also faced financial problems, ceasing play after the 2005 CFL season.
The Saskatchewan Roughriders opposed the CFL's application to register "Ottawa Rough Riders" as a trademark, and the league abandoned the application in 2016.
Ottawa Redblacks
In 2008, a partnership of five Ottawa business leaders acquired the Ottawa CFL franchise rights with the intent of relaunching professional football in Ottawa. The CFL also acquired the Rough Riders intellectual properties from Chen. Because the Saskatchewan Roughriders enforced their trademark on the Rough Riders name, Ottawa's new franchise was required to choose a new name. It took the field in 2014 as the Ottawa Redblacks.
Despite being denied the use of the Rough Riders nickname, the Redblacks do pay homage to the Rough Riders. The Redblacks' primary logo is a stylized version of the block "R" used by the Rough Riders from 1975 to 1991. The currently-used "R" is set within the outline of a saw which is an acknowledgement of Ottawa's logging heritage. In the Redblacks' first home game, they retired the 10 player numbers that the Rough Riders had retired.
For a few years, the CFL did not acknowledge the Redblacks (or for that matter, the Renegades) as the Rough Riders' successor in the same way it considered all three incarnations of the Montreal Alouettes as a single franchise. However, according to the 2017 CFL Guide and Record Book, the CFL now recognizes all three Ottawa-based clubs that played in the CFL or its predecessors–the Rough Riders, the Renegades, and the Redblacks–as "a single entity" dating to 1876 for record-keeping purposes, with "two intervals of non-participation (1997–2001 and 2006–2013)."
Seasons
Players of note
Retired numbers
Canadian Football Hall of Famers
Damon Allen
Less Browne
Jerry "Soupy" Campbell
Tom Clements
Abe Eliowitz
Eddie Emerson
Tony Gabriel
Tony Golab
Condredge Holloway
Russ Jackson
Ron Lancaster
Ken Lehmann
Dave McCann (player, coach)
Rudy Phillips
Silver Quilty
Moe Racine
Bob Simpson
David Sprague
Ron Stewart
Dave Thelen
Andrew Tommy
Joe Tubman
Whit Tucker
Kaye Vaughan
Other stars
Margene Adkins
Danny Barrett
Billy Joe Booth
Dan Dever
Edward M. Joyner Jr.
Tom Laputka
Marc Lewis
Donnie Little
Dexter Manley
Rohan Marley
Gary Mccoy
James A. McGee
James A. McKinstry
Shawn Moore
Bo Scott
Ron Simmons
Alvin Walker
Vic Washington
J. C. Watts
Head coaches
Tom Clancy (1904–1911, 1913, 1921–1922)
Doc Galvin (1912)
Reverend Father Stanton (1913)
Eddie Gerard (1914)
Frank Shaughnessy (1915)
Dave McCann (1919, 1924–1927, 1931–1932)
Silver Quilty (1920, 1923)
Walter Gilhooley (1928)
Joe Miller (1929)
Dr. Andy Davies (1930)
Wally Masters (1933–1934, 1948–1950)
Billy Hughes (1935–1936)
Ross Trimble (1937–1941, 1945)
George Fraser (1942, 1946)
Sammy Fox (1947)
Clem Crowe (1951–1954)
Chan Caldwell (1955)
Frank Clair (1956–1969)
Jack Gotta (1970–1973)
George Brancato (1974–1984)
Joe Moss (1985–1986)
Tom Dimitroff (1986)
Fred Glick (1987–1988)
Bob Weber (1988)
Steve Goldman (1989–1991)
Joe Faragalli (1991)
Ron Smeltzer (1992–1993)
Adam Rita (1994)
Jim Gilstrap (1995–1996)
John Payne (1996)
General managers
Jimmy McCaffrey (1923–1959)
George Terlep (1960–1962)
Red O'Quinn (1963–1969)
Frank Clair (1970–1978)
Jake Dunlap (1979–1982)
Don Holtby (1983–1986)
Paul Robson (1987–1988)
Jo-Anne Polak (1989–1991)
Dan Rambo (1992–1993)
Ron Smeltzer (1993)
Phil Kershaw (1994)
Garney Henley (1995–1996)
Leo Cahill (1996)
Media personnel
Ottawa Journal sports editor Bill Westwick poked fun at the team rather than criticize during their struggles in the mid-1950s. When coach Chan Caldwell suggested that the team could practice on a train ride to an away game by attaching a railway flatcar filled with dirt, Westwick played along with the joke although the plan never happened. A fellow journalist recalled that and Westwick reported on the idea with "brilliant clarity and memorable hilarity".
Newspaper journalist Eddie MacCabe regularly reported on the Rough Riders, travelled with the team, and was the link between the players and the Ottawa community, and was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.
Notable radio broadcasters for the Rough Riders include Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductees Ernie Calcutt and John Badham.
See also
Ottawa Rough Riders all-time records and statistics
List of Canadian Football League stadiums
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
List of Canadian Football League seasons
Comparison of American and Canadian football
References
Rou
Sports clubs established in 1876
Sports clubs disestablished in 1996
1876 establishments in Canada | [
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|
240326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BC%20Lions | BC Lions | The BC Lions are a professional Canadian football team based in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Lions compete in the West Division of the Canadian Football League (CFL), and play their home games at BC Place.
The Lions played their first season in 1954, and have played every season since. As such, they are the oldest professional sports franchise in the city of Vancouver and in the province of British Columbia. They have appeared in the league's Grey Cup championship game 10 times, winning six of those games, with their most recent championship occurring in 2011.
The Lions were the first Western Canadian team to have won the Grey Cup at home, having done so in 1994 and 2011, before Saskatchewan won in 2013, while also becoming the only team to beat an American-based franchise in a championship game, a feat accomplished in 1994. The Lions hold the second-longest playoff streak in CFL history, making the playoffs every season from 1997 to 2016, failing to make the playoffs for the first time in over 20 seasons in 2017 (only the Edmonton Elks have had a longer playoff streak; theirs lasted for 34 seasons from 1972 to 2005). With the Winnipeg Blue Bombers Grey Cup win in 2019 after a 29-year wait, the Lions currently have the longest Grey Cup drought of the West Division teams, last winning in 2011.
Team facts
Founded: 1954
Name: the team is named for the Lions, a pair of mountain peaks overlooking the team's home city of Vancouver
Helmet design: black background, with an orange mountain lion's head
Uniform colours: orange and black
Nickname: Leos
Mascot: Leo the Lion
Fight song: "Roar, You Lions, Roar" composed by Dal Richards and His Orchestra
Stadiums: Empire Stadium (1954–1982), Empire Field (2010–2011) and BC Place Stadium (1983–2009, 2011–present)
Main rivals: Montreal Alouettes (Labour Day Classic) and Saskatchewan Roughriders
Western Division 1st place: 13—1963, 1964, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2011, and 2012
Western Division championships: 10—1963, 1964, 1983, 1985, 1988, 1994, 2000, 2004, 2006, and 2011
Grey Cup championships: 6—1964, 1985, 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2011
2021 regular season record: 5 wins, 9 losses
Ownership
The BC Lions Football Club is owned by businessman Amar Doman, who was introduced as the club's owner on August 18, 2021. As of late 2020, the BC Lions Football Club executive committee consisted of two people:
Rick LeLacheur, team president
George Chayka, vice president of business
Franchise history
Before the Lions
Compared to the rest of the country, senior football arrived late in British Columbia. Rugby unions had been organized in all of the Prairie provinces by 1907 and the Western Canada Rugby Football Union had been formed in 1911. However, it would not be until 1926 (after the sudden collapse of the Western Hockey League) that the British Columbia Rugby Football Union was formed, and not until 1930 that the BCRFU would challenge for the right to represent the West in the Grey Cup. The Vancouver Meralomas were the most successful British Columbian team of the era. They played in the Western Final in 1930 and again in 1934, only to lose on both occasions to the Regina Roughriders of the Saskatchewan Rugby Football Union.
The BCRFU stopped challenging for the Grey Cup following the formation of the Western Interprovincial Football Union. After the BCRFU disbanded in 1941, the Vancouver Grizzlies joined the WIFU. They played only one season, finishing 1–7, before the WIFU suspended operations for the duration of the Second World War. The Grizzlies did not return after the war.
Origin of the Lions
In 1951, a group led by Ken Stauffer and Tiny Radar were inspired by Vancouver Sun columnist Andy Lytle's article to start a new football team in Vancouver that would play in the WIFU. The ownership group sent Radar and Orville Burke to represent them at the off-season WIFU meetings to initiate Vancouver's bid for a team. Radar and Burke were told to return to the meetings the following year with a $25,000 good-faith bond if they could generate sufficient interest in the Vancouver area. The first meetings were held at the Arctic Club in November and a committee headed by Burke and Harry Spring of the Meraloma Rugby Club, set out to sell memberships for $20 each.
Though Burke, Vic Spencer, and John Davidson offered the good-faith bond to the WIFU in 1952, the idea of having a Vancouver team was rejected when both Winnipeg and Saskatchewan voted against the idea of a fifth team. The group in Vancouver, however, did not give up their efforts to have a franchise in the WIFU.
On January 22, 1953, the first annual meeting of the club was held. In that meeting, Arthur E. Mercer was hired as the club's first president. Later in the year, Mercer, Bill Morgan, Bill Ralston, and Whit Matthews went back to the WlFU meetings. One of the founding members included Indo-Canadian businessman, Jab Sidhoo. This time, they sold the idea of a fifth Western team, and Vancouver was granted a conditional franchise. They were required to provide a 15,000-seat stadium, sell at least 6,500 season tickets, and guarantee travel expenses for the visiting teams.
All the pieces began to fall into place when it was announced that Vancouver would host the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. That entailed the building of Empire Stadium, which seated 32,300 people and would be more than suitable for the new WIFU team once the Games concluded. By Easter of 1953, Annis Stukus was then lured away from the Toronto Argonauts to return to the West to become the first public relations manager, general manager, and head coach of the franchise.
Naming the team
During the rest of 1953, a fan contest was held by all of the local media to pick the team's new name. The nickname was chosen because it represented a local landmark and legend of the area. The nickname of the team was based on the Lions, twin mountain peaks that can be seen toward the north of Vancouver. The twin mountain peaks name was based on legend that the mountains looked like two lions guarding the city. Through this landmark and legend, the "Lions" nickname became the winner in the fan contest to become the new name of the franchise.
After the fan contest, the Vancouver label was revealed to not be part of the team name. Though the franchise was based in Vancouver and the "Lions" name was based on a local landmark and legend, Stukus decided to reject the idea of naming the team as the Vancouver Lions. Instead, he decided that the team should represent and embrace the entire province of British Columbia. In the end, Stukus introduced the team to the entire Canadian football world as the BC Lions.
The mountain lion has a strong connection to the name of the team, as it appears in the BC Lions' logo. The mountain lion (or cougar) had an influence on the name of the team because it is renowned for its speed, courage and strength and is carefully respected by British Columbia's citizens as a remarkable but dangerous predator. The new team also adopted the black and orange colours of the Meralomas.
Notable seasons
The BC Lions have won 13 Western Conference/West Division regular-season championships and played for the Grey Cup 10 times, winning six.
First seasons (1954–1960)
In their 1954 inaugural season, Stukus sold football fever on the streets of Vancouver and put together a team that made history when they stepped on the field of Empire Stadium for their first home game, against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, on Saturday, August 28, 1954. In that game, fullback Byron (By) Bailey scored the first touchdown in franchise history in an 8–6 loss to the Blue Bombers. The Lions were only able to manage a 1–15–0 record in their inaugural season. The team recorded their first franchise win, against the Calgary Stampeders, on September 18, 1954, at Empire Stadium, with Bailey scoring the winning touchdown in a 9–4 Lions victory; it was also their only win in their first season. On that night, the win caused the BC faithful to celebrate in the streets. However, celebrations like this were not common for Lions fans during the 1950s.
In 1955, during their second year as a franchise, the Lions again failed to make the playoffs. Though a playoff appearance did not materialize, the team was still able to show signs of improvement, finishing with a 5–11–0 regular-season record. Despite this, Lions fans were surprised at the move of the team directors to ask Stukus to step down as the team's head coach in October 1955. While fan reaction to his dismissal was loud and divided, Stukus still asked the fans to continue their support of the BC Lions. Stukus' assistant Clem Crowe was later named as the new head coach for the upcoming 1956 season.
In the 1956 season, the Lions finished fourth in the West, posting a 6–10–0 record in Crowe's first season. Although this was a one-game improvement from the 1955 season, they were still not able to make the playoffs.
After the 1956 season, Bill McMahan assumed the role as team president. One of his first duties involved him bringing back Kelowna native Herb Capozzi from the Montreal Alouettes and hiring him as the new general manager. However, BC continued to struggle on the field, finishing the 1957 season with a 4–11–1 record, missing the playoffs for the fourth straight year.
A year later, the on-field performance went from bad to worse for the Lions as they opened the 1958 season with five straight losses. The team's on-field struggles caused Capozzi to fire Crowe as the head coach and replace him with Danny Edwards, who returned after playing with the club during the 1957 season. The team was only able to manage three wins during the year, causing them to miss the playoffs once again. Although it was a season to forget, rookies Tom Hinton and Sonny Homer showed promising signs of being future football stars.
During the off-season, Capozzi improved the team for the 1959 season, first by hiring Wayne Robinson from the Winnipeg Blue Bombers to become the new head coach, then bringing in a corps of veteran players to add more experience to the team. This was followed by the signing of rookie running back Willie "the Wisp" Fleming to the team, adding more youth to play alongside Hinton and Homer. Capozzi's moves proved successful in the end. In 1959, the Lions managed their first winning season with a 9–7–0 record and were able to make their first playoff appearance with a final-game triumph over the Calgary Stampeders at Empire Stadium. The Lions' first playoff appearance ended with two straight losses to the Edmonton Eskimos. However, the team's future looked bright heading into the 1960s.
The high hopes of the Lions heading into the 1960 season faded when the team finished with a disappointing 5–9–2 record, which again eliminated them from playoff contention. It was disappointing considering the team added rookie talents Steve Cotter, Lonnie Dennis, Jim Carphin, and Neal Beaumont to a team that had a strong core of veteran and young players from the previous season. The only positive for the Lions happened at the end of the season, when Beaumont won WIFU Outstanding Rookie of the Year honors, becoming the first Lions player to win a major CFL award.
Dave Skrien and the first Grey Cup title (1961–1967)
The Lions started the 1961 season by signing former Minnesota Golden Gopher Tom Brown to a contract, but the team continued performing poorly on the field. In September, the team made a major trade with the Calgary Stampeders, which was considered to be a major gamble. In the trade, the Lions got quarterback Joe Kapp in the deal in exchange, while four Lions' players were sent to the Stampeders. A week later, Robinson was relieved of his duties as head coach and was replaced by assistant coach Dave Skrien. The year ended with a 1–13–2 record.
In 1962, Skrien made an immediate impact in his first full season as head coach. The Lions finished the season with a 7–9 record, but improvements were noticeable. After eight years of hard work, the Lions were on the verge of success for the first time.
1963 Grey Cup finalists
Before the start of the 1963 season, new optimism was voiced at the chances that the Lions would not only make the playoffs, but also contend for the Grey Cup. With a veteran roster headlined by Kapp and Fleming, the Lions surged to their first regular-season conference title with a 12–4 record. After a 2–1 series victory over the Saskatchewan Roughriders in the Western Conference finals, the Lions lined up in the 51st Grey Cup game against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, which was played at Empire Stadium. However, their momentum stalled as a series of injuries affected the team's performance in the championship game.
In the Grey Cup game, star running back Fleming was injured after he received a late, out-of-bounds hit by Tiger-Cat defensive tackle Angelo Mosca. This proved to be a huge blow to the Lions' chances of victory. Hamilton took the Grey Cup with a 21–10 victory, but the following year, the Lions would get their revenge.
After the season, Kapp became the first BC Lion to receive the Jeff Nicklin Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the Western Conference and Tom Brown became the first Lion to win the CFL's Most Outstanding Defensive Player Award. In addition, Skrien became the first Lions head coach to receive the Annis Stukus Trophy as coach of the year, and fullback-kicker Peter Kempf also became the second Lion to win the Dr. Beattie Martin Trophy for rookie of the year honours in the Western Conference.
1964 Grey Cup champions
After achieving an 11–2–3 regular-season record in 1964, and defeating the Calgary Stampeders in a three-game series in the Western Conference finals, the Lions advanced to meet the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in a Grey Cup rematch at Toronto's Exhibition Stadium. In the rematch, BC got their revenge as Kapp, Fleming, and Bill Munsey, who gave a two-touchdown, two-way starring effort, helped the Lions to their first Grey Cup victory. With the addition of two field goals and an extra touchdown by the field goal unit, the Lions won the Grey Cup for the first time in franchise history with a 34–24 victory. The win ended 11 years of waiting for the British Columbia faithful. At the end of the 1964 season, defensive lineman Tom Brown was named a CFL All-Star, a back-to-back Schenley Award winner as CFL's Most Outstanding Lineman Award, and won the Jeff Nicklin Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player in the Western Conference. Joining Brown as All-Stars on defence were Mike Cacic, Dick Fouts, and Munsey. Kapp and tackle Lonnie Dennis were named CFL All-Stars on offence.
Any hopes of the BC Lions becoming a dynasty team after their Grey Cup championship season quickly disappeared in 1965, as the team started to recede back to the basement of the Western Conference. Before the beginning of the season, Bailey left the team and the entire roster was starting to age as the Lions finished the season with a 6–9–1 regular-season record. As a result, the team missed the playoffs one year after being on top of the CFL world. It was clear that head coach Skrien would never again experience the same success as he achieved the previous two seasons.
The situation for the Lions went from bad to worse in the 1966 season, as the team posted a 5–11 record. Due to the team's performance, Capozzi was fired as the Lions' general manager after nine seasons as and just two years after taking the franchise to consecutive Grey Cup appearances. In addition, Fleming and Tom Hinton decided to retire, and Kapp left the team to continue his playing career in the NFL with the Minnesota Vikings.
In the 1967 season, Denny Vietch became the new general manager of the club. Veitch's first move was to fire Skrien after the Lions lost their first three games of the season. Veitch named Jim Champion as head coach, and the Lions ended up finishing the season with a 3–12–1 record. The only two positives for the club were two rookies; wide receiver Jim Young and kicker Ted Gerela, who ended up winning the Dr. Beattie Martin Trophy as the Western Conference's rookie of the year.
Instability at coach (1968–1976)
Following Skrien's departure, the Lions went through five head coaches between 1968 and 1976 while only qualifying for the playoffs three times. Champion remained as head coach in 1968 season, where CFL legend Jackie Parker was hired as an assistant coach for the Lions and even came out of retirement to suit up in a Lions uniform for eight games as the quarterback. However, the Lions finished the season with a 4–11–1 record, again missing the playoffs.
Eleven games into the 1969 season, after a 1–10 record, Champion was fired as head coach and replaced by assistant Jackie Parker. The Lions responded by winning four of their last five games. Although they finished with a 5–11 record, they were able to squeeze into the playoffs after sweeping the Edmonton Eskimos, allowing them to take the last Western playoff spot on a tiebreaker. However, they were beaten in Calgary by the Stampeders in the semi-finals by a score of 35–21. Individually, Dave Easley won CFL and Western Division rookie of the year honours, and Young was a Schenley finalist.
In 1970, the first artificial turf field in Canada was installed, at Empire Stadium (3M's Tartan Turf). Young became the first Lion to win the Schenley Outstanding Canadian Award, while the team finished fourth place in the Western Conference at 6–10, and missed the playoffs.
The 1971 season began with a major off-season restructuring that saw head coach Parker elevated to general manager, and replaced by former Saskatchewan coach Eagle Keys. Don Moorhead was recruited at quarterback, and a total of fifty-three different players put on a Lions uniform in a year of change, including movie and TV personality Carl Weathers at linebacker. Running back Jim Evenson finished the season with 1,237 yards to lead the Western Conference in rushing, and won the Eddie James Memorial Trophy. The Lions again finished the season at fourth place in the West Division with a 6–9–1 record, missing the playoffs for a second consecutive year. Parker became the first Lion player inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.
In 1972, the Lions added new players such as defensive back Rocky Long, running back Johnny Musso, linebacker Ray Nettles and centre Al Wilson, but finished fifth in their division with a 5–11 record. Young won his second Schenley Award as outstanding Canadian.
The Lions' fortunes improved during the 1973 season, as they posted a 5–9–2 record, good enough for a third-place finish in the Western Conference and a playoff berth, their first in four years. The Lions lost in the semi-finals to the Saskatchewan Roughriders 33–13. Linebacker Nettles won the CFL's Outstanding Defensive Player Award.
In 1974, the Lions showed continued improvement in posting an 8–8 record, and returned to the playoffs for the second straight year. They faced familiar foe Saskatchewan in the semi-finals, where they lost again, 24–14. Second-year running back Lou Harris replaced injured Musso to lead the Lions in both rushing and receiving, winning CFL All-Star honours in the process. Stukus became the first Lion inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame as a builder.
The Lions began the 1975 season with a change at quarterback, as Eric Guthrie and Peter Liske platooned at the position, replacing Moorhead. They lost five of their first six games before a major change was announced in August. General manager Parker and head coach Keys were both dismissed, with Bob Ackles moving up from his assistant general manager post and Cal Murphy elevated to head coach. The Lions played .500 football the rest of the season, but finished in fifth place in their division with a 6–10 record.
The Lions' 1976 season concluded with a 5–9–2 fourth-place finish. Individually, Sciarra became the second Lion to win the Schenley Award as the CFL's most outstanding rookie, while Bill Baker won the Schenley Defensive Player Award. Harry Spring became the second Lion inducted into the Hall of Fame as a builder. Rookies and local talents, linebacker Glen Jackson and punter-kicker Lui Passaglia were two other bright spots in an otherwise disappointing season.
Returning to contention (1977–1982)
A complete off-season overhaul in the coaching staff brought Edmonton assistant Vic Rapp in as the 10th head coach of the Lions as they opened their 1977 season. A revamped Leos lineup included rookies Leon Bright, John Blain, Ken Hinton, and quarterback Jerry Tagge, as well as several newly acquired veterans. The Lions last-minute heroics earned them the nickname, the "Cardiac Kids." They finished with a 10–6 record, good enough for second place in the Western Division—the first time the Lions had finished with a winning record since the Grey Cup year of 1964. BC opened the playoffs with a 33–32 upset of the Winnipeg at home before being trounced 38–1 in Edmonton by the Eskimos in the Western Division final. Wide receiver Leon Bright captured the CFL's Most Outstanding Rookie award, and Al Wilson became the first Lion to win the CFL's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman Award.
In 1978, the Lions finished the season at 7–7–2 and in fourth place in their division. Rookie running backs John Henry White and Larry Key provided a much improved rushing game, but depth was still the missing ingredient, as the Leos missed the playoffs. 1978 also saw the emergence of rookie quarterback Joe Paopao, the "Throwin' Samoan."
The Lions' 1979 season began with Tagge at quarterback, but his season—and his career—were ended by a knee injury. Led by Joe Paopao, the Lions skidded down the stretch, losing five games in a row. Despite this, the team finished third in the Western Conference with a 9–6–1 record, making the playoffs. In the semi-finals, the Lions were blasted 37–2 by the Calgary Stampeders. Jim Young retired at the end of the season, and Norm Fieldgate became the second Lions player to be inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. Rising costs and an aging Empire Stadium cast a shadow over future prospects. To head off a crisis, the directors, led by past-president Jack Farley, developed a plan to sell stock and seek a strong partnership with a major corporate sponsor to keep operations viable while waiting for the construction of a new stadium in downtown Vancouver.
The Lions failed to make the playoffs in 1980, despite a winning record of 8–7–1. Off the field, the decision was made to begin construction of a new indoor stadium in downtown Vancouver.
In 1981, the Lions returned to the playoffs with a third-place divisional finish and a 10–6 record. The team qualified for the playoffs on the final weekend of the season with a victory over the Saskatchewan Roughriders in a driving rainstorm at Empire Stadium. The key play was a late fourth-quarter fumble by Saskatchewan fullback Greg Fieger at the Rider two-yard line which the Lions recovered. The Lions turned this into a touchdown two plays later to take the lead for good after Saskatchewan had led for most of the game up to that point. In the playoffs, the Lions again upset the Blue Bombers 15–11 in the semi-finals before losing 22–16 in the Western Division final to eventual Grey Cup champion Edmonton. Paopao and second-year quarterback Roy Dewalt had wide-out Ty Grey as their deep-threat receiver, while rookie defensive back Larry Crawford led the CFL in interceptions. The Labatt Brewing Company became the Lions' major sponsor in a marketing agreement that brought much-needed financial stability to the team.
Standout wide receiver "Swervin'" Mervyn Fernandez was among the rookies who joined the Lions in 1982, winning the Jackie Parker Trophy as the Western Division's most outstanding rookie. Despite a 9–7 record, the Lions finished fourth in their division and failed to make the playoffs. As in the previous four seasons, the Lions got off to a fast start only to stumble badly after Labour Day. In most cases after this point in the season, the Lions would lose crucial divisional games by a very large margin. Due to this disturbing trend, head coach Vic Rapp and his entire coaching staff were dismissed at the end of the season. Lions' running back great Willie "The Wisp" Fleming was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.
A New Home, the New Western powerhouse (1983-1987)
In January 1983, former Edmonton defensive coordinator Don Matthews was named BC's new head coach. The Lions also moved into the domed BC Place Stadium, their new home stadium, which opened in June 1983. The quarterback-receiver combination of Dewalt to Fernandez led the Lions' attack, while the defence set a new CFL record of 42 interceptions. The Lions finished 11–5 for the second-best record in team history and returned to first place for the first time since the 1964 season. They stormed into the playoffs, defeating Winnipeg in the Western Division finals, 39–21. The Western Division champions hosted the Toronto Argonauts in the 71st Grey Cup, ending a 19-year absence from the classic. BC Place fans watched the Argonauts defeat their hometown team in a taut 18–17 contest.
In 1984, the Lions' biggest trade since the Joe Kapp deal brought CFL All-Star James "Quick" Parker to their defence from Edmonton. The Lions again finished first in the Western Division with a league-leading 12–3–1 record, but the second straight first-place finish was dampened by the late-season loss of quarterback Roy Dewalt to injury. In a repeat Western finals matchup at BC Place, Winnipeg triumphed 31–14 and went on to win their first Grey Cup since 1962. Average crowds in excess of 40,000 in each of the first two years at BC Place reversed the team's financial fortunes, with stockholders receiving early repayment. Lions greats Joe Kapp and linebacker Tom Brown were inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.
1985 Grey Cup champions
The Lions' 1985 season began with much promise. Mervyn Fernandez shattered several team receiving records and second-year receiver Jim Sandusky broke the 1,000 yard mark. Rookie defensive tackle Mike Gray was the most visible of several rookies. With depth and few injuries, the final season record of 13–3 was the best in team history, bringing the Lions their third consecutive first-place divisional finish. The Lions avenged their prior year's playoff defeat by beating Winnipeg 42–22. One week later, the same Lions line-up met Hamilton at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal. Twenty-one years of waiting ended with a 37–24 Grey Cup championship victory over the Tiger-Cats in the 73rd Grey Cup. Quarterback Roy Dewalt won the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player award on offence, while defensive end James "Quick" Parker took home the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player award on defence. Kicker Lui Passaglia was named the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Canadian. Don Matthews won his first CFL Coach of the Year award. Mervyn Fernandez became the first Lion to win the CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award and defensive tackle Mike Gray won both the CFL's Most Outstanding Rookie award and the Jackie Parker Trophy. Linebacker Tyrone Crews won the first of two consecutive CFL Players Association Outstanding Community Service Awards. The CFL champions returned to Vancouver for a victory celebration that swept across the entire province.
Defending their championship in 1986 proved even harder than winning it the year before, as the Lions battled the Eskimos, Blue Bombers, injuries, and the CFL's newly extended 18-game regular season. The Lions reached the halfway mark at 7–2 losing at Edmonton, and at home to Calgary. The Lions then ran their record to 9–2 before hitting a four-game losing streak, started by back-to-back losses to Edmonton. The Lions rebounded to win back-to-back games against Winnipeg to finish the season 12–6, and second in the Western Division. Under the new playoff format, the Lions met the Bombers for a third straight week, winning the Semi-Finals 21–14, before travelling to Edmonton for the Lions' first Western final road game in four years. The Lions lost their fourth game of the year to the Eskimos 41–5, ending the Lions' hopes of defending their title in front of a home crowd at BC Place. The 1985 Grey Cup title, the prospect of defending the title at home, and the excitement in the area generated from Expo 86 helped the Lions outdraw the Vancouver Canucks in total attendance in 1986, despite the fact the Lions had only nine regular-season home games compared to the Canucks' 40. Off the field, the big news of the year was the departure of general manager Bob Ackles to the NFL's Dallas Cowboys, ending Ackles' 33-year association with the Lions (he would return in 2002). Ackles was replaced by former Montreal general manager Joe Galat in August 1986.
The Lions began their 1987 campaign without the services of stand-out wide receiver Mervyn Fernandez, who left during the offseason to join the Los Angeles Raiders. The season began with a four-game winning streak, but the team seemed to lose focus through the middle of the season, looking invincible in one game and lethargic the next. Entering the last half of the year, the Lions were still in contention for first place but not playing like a team driving for a title. When the team suffered a three-game losing streak, general manager Joe Galat fired Don Matthews, the winningest coach in Lions history with just four games to go. The Lions instantly responded to new coach Larry Donovan, winning the final four games including a thrilling come-from-behind 33–32 victory over Edmonton at Commonwealth Stadium that many observers called the CFL's greatest comeback ever. The win gave the Lions first place in the Western Division for the fourth time in five years with a 12–6 record. Home field advantage at BC Place in the Western final was not enough however, as the Lions fell to the eventual Grey Cup champion Eskimos, 31–7.
Fading into mediocrity (1988–1992)
The CFL's competition cap forced the Lions to start the 1988 season with 22 new faces in their lineup, one of which was star quarterback Matt Dunigan, acquired in a trade with Edmonton. Despite the large number of new players, the Lions jelled and finished the regular season with a 10–8 record. The Lions entered the playoffs with momentum and were touted as Grey Cup favourites. The Leos managed hard-earned playoff victories on the road at Saskatchewan, beating the Roughriders, 42–18 in the semi-final, before defeating the Eskimos in the Western Division final at Commonwealth Stadium, 37–19; it marked their first playoff win over the Eskimos in their history. That set the stage for the 76th Grey Cup Championship Game against the Blue Bombers, in front of a crowd in excess of 50,000 in unseasonably mild but windy conditions at Ottawa. The lead changed hands several times during the hard-fought contest. The Leos drove to the Winnipeg seven-yard line in the final minutes only to have Matt Dunigan's pass deflected by two defenders and intercepted to snuff out the drive. The Bombers went on to win the Cup, 22–21.
Buoyed by their Grey Cup appearance the previous season, the Lions entered the 1989 season with much optimism. However, the team opened the campaign with a loss to Edmonton in Commonwealth Stadium, followed by three more losses before coach Larry Donovan was fired and replaced by general manager Joe Galat. After dropping their fifth straight game to the Eskimos, the Lions put together a four-game winning streak, fuelling playoff hopes. The Winnipeg Blue Bombers shattered those hopes in back-to-back games, rolling over the Leos 53–34 in Winnipeg, and then edging the Lions 24–20 in an overtime contest in Vancouver. Prior to the Winnipeg home game on September 16, new owner Murray Pezim (who had bought the team from community ownership on September 7) and his minority partners, ex-NFL all-star Mark Gastineau and his wife Brigitte Nielsen were introduced to the home fans. The Lions never did get back on track, finishing the year with a disappointing 7–11 record, and missing the playoffs for the first time since 1982. Bright spots included running back Darrell Wallace, who won the Western Division's Jackie Parker Trophy as Most Outstanding Rookie (Wallace was second in the CFL in total offensive yardage), and quarterback Matt Dunigan who won the CFL Players Association Outstanding Community Service Award. Dunigan was traded (in another seven-to-one trade) to the Toronto Argonauts after the 1989 season ended.
In 1990, Pezim's first full season as owner, he would make big changes to the look of the team. The team ditched its predominantly orange and white uniform design to black with silver helmets and pants. Under new head coach Lary Kuharich and general manager Joe Kapp, the Lions generated a good deal of preseason hype in 1990 with the signings of West Virginia University quarterback Major Harris, who was fourth in 1989 Heisman Trophy balloting, and quarterback Doug Flutie. Minority owner Mark Gastineau even returned to active duty, but was released after playing only four games. However, the publicity did not translate into on-field victories and turmoil plagued the team. Two coaches left early in the season amid controversy. The Lions tied their first game against Calgary in the dying seconds of the contest as Doug Flutie tossed a "hail Mary" pass to Ray Alexander in the end zone. The Lions kept close in every game, winning a tight one against Winnipeg at home on a last-second Passaglia field goal, while losing to Hamilton in the final seconds in the next contest. The eastern road trip to Ottawa and Toronto, during which the Lions lost both games, spelled the beginning of the end for the new coach and general manager. The following week, the Leos dropped another one to the Argos, 49–19, and one week after that, another former Lions great, Jim "Dirty Thirty" Young, was behind the bench as interim head coach. Bob O'Billovich took over as vice president of football operations and head coach on September 14, 1990, and promptly guided the team to a strong 34–4 victory over Hamilton. The Lions gained stability as the season wore on, and although they missed the playoffs, "Obie's" charges went 4–3 over the last seven games of the season, and their strong finish fuelled hopes for a much brighter 1991 season. Highlights of the year included Lui Passaglia's new professional football scoring record, as he booted his 2,238th point, finishing the year with 2,312 points. Lui also became the longest-playing Lion in history, appearing in a total of 236 games, overtaking Al Wilson's previous mark of 233 games.
The 1991 season opened with promise. Although the team dropped a 39–34 decision to Calgary at BC Place, the game was tight and the Lions were in the contest to the very end. It was a harbinger as Bob O'Billovich's young team with 12 rookies in the lineup, turned virtually every contest into a nail-biter, playing in a CFL record six overtime contests, winning three and losing three. Behind the outstanding quarterbacking of Doug Flutie, the powerful running of rookie Jon Volpe, the receiving of rookie Matt Clark and veteran Ray Alexander, the Lions were capable of beating any team in the CFL. On August 1, 1991, the 2–1 Lions faced the undefeated Toronto Argonauts featuring Raghib "the Rocket" Ismail, at BC Place Stadium. A huge crowd of 53,527 was on hand. After falling behind 21–3 in the first quarter, the Lions battled back and took control of the game in the final quarter. Toronto managed to tie the game but in overtime, but an electrifying kickoff return for a touchdown by Raymond Ethridge and terrific play by the Lions' special teams spelled the difference. The Lions triumphed 52–41 in overtime. However, the following week, Calgary stopped the Leos, 34–30 in overtime. The Lions offence led the CFL in 11 different categories and the team was in a three-way battle with Calgary and Edmonton for first place in the Western Division, right down to the end of the season. In the last game, the Lions hosted the 2–15 Hamilton Tiger-Cats, needing a win to clinch first place. However, the Lions lost and finished third with an 11–7 record. In the Western semi-final in Calgary, the Leos took a commanding 31–15 lead by the end of the first half. Although the Lions had never lost a game all year when leading at the half, Calgary stormed back with an incredible third quarter, scoring four touchdowns, and holding off the Lions to win, 43–41. The disappointing loss was at least partially offset by the awarding of three Lions with outstanding player awards. Doug Flutie was named the CFL's Outstanding Player, Jon Volpe won the CFL's Outstanding Rookie award as well as the West Division's Jackie Parker Trophy and the Eddie James Memorial Trophy for leading the division in rushing. Offensive tackle Jim Mills became the CFL's Outstanding Offensive Lineman and the West Division's DeMarco-Becket Memorial Trophy award winner for the second consecutive year. Although quarterback Doug Flutie signed as a free agent with the Stampeders in the post-season, the acquisition of his replacement from Calgary, Danny Barrett, prior to training camp, brought hope of good things to come in 1992.
The Lions entered training camp in 1992 with high expectations. Despite the loss of Doug Flutie, two-time Grey Cup finalist quarterback Danny Barrett was counted on to be an able replacement. In the season opener against Edmonton, however, Barrett struggled, eventually giving way to back-up Tony Kimbrough in the second half. The Eskimos went on to win, 37–26. The following week, the Lions' fortunes continued to spiral downward, this time, on the road, as the Toronto Argonauts crushed the Leos, 61–20. In the third game of the year against Doug Flutie and the Calgary Stampeders, Barrett, who had regained his starting job at quarterback, went down in the third quarter with a separated shoulder. Flutie then guided Calgary to a 37–19 win, and the Lions slid further downhill from there. The team lost eight straight before finally edging out Ottawa 33–27 on September 3, 1992, with Danny Barrett back at the helm. To add insult to injury, off-season and off-field problems emerged to swing focus from football to ownership, as Lions' owner Murray Pezim declared bankruptcy, and the CFL was forced to take over the team. Three weeks later, a new owner was found, as The Brick Furniture Store owner Bill Comrie purchased the Lions from the CFL on September 23, 1992. The team on the field did not respond to the newfound ownership stability, losing the final seven games of the year to finish the season with a disappointing 3–15 record. Head coach O'Billovich and his staff were fired at season's end, and on December 12, 1992, new General Manager Eric Tillman announced the hiring of Ottawa defensive coordinator Dave Ritchie, as the new head coach of the Lions.
Another Grey Cup (1993–1995)
The "new" 1993 edition of the BC Lions, under the guidance of head coach Dave Ritchie and general manager Eric Tillman signed a number of proven CFL veterans, including Danny McManus, James "Wild" West, Rob Smith, Less Browne, Tyrone Jones, Sean Foudy and CFL All-Star Vic Stevenson, winner of the 1992 DeMarco-Beckett Trophy as the Outstanding Offensive Lineman in the West Division. The team also added promising rookies, such as running back Cory Philpot, draft pick Tom Europe, and Derek Grier. A contract dispute with Jon Volpe kept him from training camp, but he was back in the fold by the second game of the season. The Lions struck quickly with wins over Saskatchewan and Toronto before grinding to a halt in Winnipeg after only three days rest between road games. However, the Leos would only lose two more games through July, August, and mid-September, cruising to an 8–3 record, the Lions' best start since 1987. Quarterback Danny Barrett broke the CFL's single-game passing yard record, completing 30 passes for 601 yards, eclipsing the previous mark of 586 yards set back in 1954 by Alouettes legend, Sam "The Rifle" Etcheverry. The Lions entered the September 18, 1993 game against Calgary in a battle for first place in the Western Division. However, Doug Flutie and the Stamps prevailed, 40–21. The Lions would go on to win only two of the next seven games, sliding to a 64–27 pounding against Sacramento in the regular-season finale, for a 10–8 finish. Nevertheless, the Lions made the playoffs after a one-year absence, facing Calgary in the West Division semi-final game on November 14, 1993. Despite generating twice as much offence as the Stamps, the Leos could not score a touchdown and fell 17–9.
1994 Grey Cup champions
The Lions entered the 1994 campaign with a new quarterback, Kent Austin, at the helm. Off-season trades with Ottawa provided offensive guard Denny Chronopoulos, defensive lineman Andrew Stewart, and rush linebacker Angelo Snipes. A group of young, unknown, and aggressive linebackers emerged at training camp, Henry Newby, Tyrone Chatman, and Virgil Robertson, while the secondary was strengthened with the additions of Charles Gordon and Enis Jackson. The Lions opened the season at B.C. Place and gave the fans a taste of things to come with a hard-fought 24–20 victory over Winnipeg. The Lions offensive power was amply demonstrated the following week with a 57–18 thumping of the Ottawa Rough Riders. By the end of August, 1994, the Lions were 7–1–0, and had broken several single-game offensive records, including a 67–15 point record win over Shreveport. The Leos' secondary was further bolstered by the signing of former NFL stars James Jefferson (who was also a one-time CFL star) and Barry Wilburn. The team endured a dry spell at the season's midpoint, losing close games to Winnipeg, Edmonton, Saskatchewan, and Baltimore. A late-season win over Las Vegas (45–7) and a close 24–23 loss to Calgary, gave the Lions new hope heading into the playoffs, as well as an 11–6–1 regular-season finish. The team travelled to Edmonton for the Western Division Semi-Finals, where the Lions had only managed one playoff victory at Commonwealth Stadium. With just over four minutes left in the game, defensive back Charles Gordon's miraculous end-zone interception stopped the Eskimos in their tracks and gave new life to the Lions. Quarterback Kent Austin, replacing an injured Danny McManus who had started the game, mounted a Lions' drive which ate up the clock and the field. Lui Passaglia kicked the winning field goal with 30 seconds left to give the Lions a tough 24–23 come-from-behind victory. The following week, in one of the most memorable CFL games ever, the Lions and the Doug Flutie led Stampeders traded touchdowns and field goals all night at McMahon Stadium. In the swirling snow with two minutes left in the game, Calgary, who led by 5 points, set up to kick a field goal. Lions' wide receiver Ray Alexander leapt up and made an amazing block, giving the Lions renewed hope and decent field position. Danny McManus, who had replaced Kent Austin in the second half after Austin re-injured a separated shoulder, staged a furious last-minute drive, hitting receivers all the way down the field to the Stampeder's four-yard line. With Calgary leading 36–31, with four seconds left in the game, McManus found receiver Darren Flutie alone in the end zone to give the Lions their first playoff victory over Calgary in 30 years, and a berth in the Grey Cup against Baltimore at B.C. Place. The dramatics continued the following week in the 82nd Grey Cup. With 55,097 cheering fans looking on, the Lions and Stallions staged another thriller with both teams playing great football. Baltimore took a 17–10 lead at halftime, and extended their lead to 20–10 early in the third quarter. Lions' quarterback Danny McManus entered the game and staged a second-half rally. Seemingly stalled at the Baltimore 30 yard line, Lui Passaglia and Darren Flutie staged a fake field goal to gain a big first down, which changed the momentum of the game. McManus ran in from the two-yard line to tie the score at 20–20. After the teams traded field goals to make the score 23–23, McManus engineered another late-game drive to the Baltimore 37 yard line. Passaglia missed the field goal with just over one minute remaining, but the Lions' defence rose up to deny Baltimore and stop them cold within their own five-yard line. After a punt and a couple of runs to set up another field goal try, Passaglia converted a field goal with no time remaining on the clock to give the Lions an incredible 26–23 victory, the third Grey Cup championship in the team's history. Passaglia went on to win a well-deserved Grey Cup Most Valuable Canadian award for his heroics.
The 1995 season began with Grey Cup hero Danny McManus named as starting quarterback, replacing Kent Austin, who was traded to Toronto. Shelton Quarles was added to a strong linebacker corps. The season started with an exciting, late come-from-behind 37–34 victory over the Baltimore Stallions at BC Place. The Lions won their first three games before suffering a setback in Calgary. The Leos got back on track with a strong performance over Ottawa, and went on to a 7–1 record, challenging the Stampeders in the North Division. Injuries to key players during a three-game, 10-day road trip resulted in a late-season swoon that the Lions could not recover from. A victory over Saskatchewan at B.C. Place in the regular-season finale solidified 3rd place in the rugged Northern Division with a 10–8 record and a trip to Edmonton for the playoffs. The Lions' 1995 season came to an end with a 26–15 loss to the Eskimos in the semi-finals. Individually, Lions' running back Cory Philpot broke the CFL record for touchdowns in a season with 22, and won the Eddie James Memorial Trophy for the second year in a row as the Northern Division's leading rusher. Lui Passaglia ended the season with 3,160 career points. Jamie Taras won the DeMarco-Becket Memorial Trophy as the Northern Division's Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman.
Staying in contention (1996–2002)
1996 was a season of turmoil for the Lions, both on and off the field. Former Lions' quarterback and fan favourite Joe Paopao returned to the team from the Edmonton Eskimos as the new head coach, replacing Dave Ritchie. On March 11, 1996, Lions' owner Bill Comrie announced that the club had been sold to a group of 10 local businessmen headed by Nelson Skalbania (who once owned the Montreal Alouettes) and Michael Jensen. The Lions held training camp at UBC with over a hundred players invited. Mike McCarthy arrived in Vancouver to become the Lions new VP of football operations. On the field, the Lions started the season with 18 new faces in the line-up, including heralded Heisman Trophy winner Andre Ware at quarterback. The Lions started the season at 0–4, and quarterback Damon Allen was signed to replace Ware. As the team stumbled on the field, attendance plummeted. Stability in the front office proved short-lived, as Skalbania and his ownership group lost control of the team, and the Lions (again) went into receivership, with the CFL taking over the team once more, just as they had in 1992. The bright spot of the season was an exciting and improbable, 35–11 victory over Doug Flutie and the Toronto Argonauts, in September, 1996. On October 31, 1996, Hamilton businessman David Braley announced his intention to buy the team. November 2, 1996 marked the end of the season as the Lions defeated Ottawa 35–24 in what was the Rough Riders' final game in club history.
David Braley's ownership and a coaching change brought the Lions much-needed stability as they entered the 1997 season, and some of that stability seemed to have translated to success on the field. Joe Paopao resigned prior to the season's start, and was replaced as head coach by Adam Rita. The Lions made the playoffs for the 20th time in their 43-year club history, despite an 8–10, fourth place divisional finish. The Leos' 1997 playoff appearance marked the first time in CFL history that a West Division team participated in an East Division semi-final, under a newly established "cross-over rule" (where the fourth-place team from one division qualified for the playoffs, as long as the team earned more points than the 3rd place team from the opposing division. Once so qualified, the fourth-place team would then "cross-over" to the other division to play the second-place team in the opposing division). The Lions thus faced Montreal in the Eastern semi-finals, eventually losing to the Alouettes, 45–35, in a spirited contest. Fullback Sean Millington was awarded the CFL's Outstanding Canadian Award at season's end, while linebacker B.J. Gallis won the Jackie Parker Trophy as the West Division's top rookie.
The Lions started the 1998 season off on the wrong foot, losing their first three games, before finally beating Saskatchewan in week four. The defence held their own, but the offence struggled. The low point of the year occurred on August 9, 1998, when the eventual Grey Cup champion Calgary Stampeders came into B.C. Place and beat the hometown Leos 55–9. With a record of 3–6–0, head coach Adam Rita resigned, and was replaced by Greg Mohns. The no-nonsense approach of Mohns seemed to spark the team, as the Lions embarked on a memorable, six-game winning streak (which the team had not done since 1986) heading into the playoffs. The Lions, who finished 9–9 on the year, lost in the semi-finals to Edmonton in heartbreaking fashion, but showed promise for the upcoming season. Kicker Lui Passaglia won the Dave Dryburgh Memorial Trophy as the top scorer in the West Division.
Expectations for the Lions were high as the 1999 season began, following the team's promising finish a year earlier, and with the announcement that the Grey Cup game would be played in Vancouver. Quality free agents such as slotback Don Blair and cornerback Eric Carter were brought in to add depth to an already impressive lineup, and with the likes of Robert Drummond and Jimmy "The Jet" Cunningham back in form following injury-plagued 1998 seasons, the Lions were primed for a successful season. The Lions started fast out of the gate, winning their first three games to set a new club record with nine straight regular-season wins. The Lions either held sole possession of first place or were tied with Calgary throughout the season. The Lions ended the regular season with two straight wins, finishing first in the division with a 13–5 record, the Lions' best record since 1985, and the first divisional championship since 1987. the Lions' dream season came to a premature and heartbreaking end, as the Stamps beat the Lions 26–24 in the Lions' first home playoff game in 12 years. The Lions appeared to be driving toward a chance to kick a game-winning field goal in the last minute before Damon Allen fumbled the ball at mid-field, allowing the Stamps to kill off the remaining time. The Lions fielded three CFL All-Stars in 1999: slotback Jimmy Cunningham, centre Jamie Taras, and defensive tackle Johnny Scott. Linebacker Paul Lacoste was voted the CFL's top rookie, and was also awarded the Jackie Parker Trophy. Defensive end Daved Benefield was named the Western Division's top defensive player, while Jamie Taras won the DeMarco-Becket Memorial Trophy as the West's most outstanding offensive lineman, as well as the CFL Player's Association Outstanding Community Service Award.
2000 Grey Cup champions
The Lions began the 2000 campaign with only one goal in mind: win the Grey Cup. Six months later, the Lions would fulfill that destiny, but the path to the 88th Grey Cup was one of the most adventurous, unpredictable, and memorable ever in CFL history. The year started well enough, with victories over Hamilton and Saskatchewan, but a 35–2 loss to Calgary began a four-game losing streak and a lot of finger-pointing. A win over the Toronto Argonauts halted the slide, but following the game, head coach Greg Mohns resigned to join the upstart XFL. Long-time CFL coach Steve Buratto, who joined the club only two weeks earlier as a receivers coach, was promoted to the top job, and got instant results with a huge 51–4 win over the Argos in the second of back-to-back games. Despite a promising start, the Lions only won one of their next five games to sit at 5–9 on Thanksgiving. Nevertheless, the Lions came together when it counted the most, winning three of their last four heading into the playoffs, and the offence gelling to become the best in the CFL that season. Quarterback Damon Allen broke Ron Lancaster's CFL record for career passing yardage. Lui Passaglia played in a memorable, "Luv Ya Lui" night at his final game at B.C. Place, and also set a CFL record for single-season field goal percentage. The Lions finished the year 8–10 and in third place in the Western Division, but were the team other teams did not want to face in the playoffs. A snarly defence started to show its grit, and the Lions roared confidently into Edmonton and emerged with a 34–32 Western semi-final victory, thanks to a Passaglia field goal on the final play. The Lions next faced Calgary in the Western finals, and the Lions steamrolled to a decisive 37–23 win. The Leos' Cinderella season came to a close on November 26, 2000, in the Grey Cup at McMahon Stadium in Calgary, as the Lions won their fourth championship in team history with a nail-biting 28–26 victory over the Montreal Alouettes. Running back Robert Drummond won the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player award, while backfield teammate Sean Millington took home the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Canadian trophy. The Lions' triumph marked the first time a team with a sub-.500 regular season record won the Grey Cup, and it signalled a marvellous end to Lui Passaglia's outstanding, 25-year CFL career.
Expectations were high for the CFL champion Lions in 2001, but the team ultimately never seemed to jell. Quarterback Damon Allen struggled, and the team hovered around the 0.500 mark all season. Finishing at 8–10, the Lions did make the playoffs, but were immediately bounced by Calgary in the Western Division semi-finals, 28–19. Matt Kellett became only the second full-time field goal kicker in 26 years, as he replaced the legendary Lui Passaglia. Rookie middle linebacker Barrin Simpson led the team in tackles and was named a first-team CFL All-Star, as well as the CFL's Rookie of the Year and Jackie Parker Trophy winner. Cornerback Eric Carter was also named to the CFL's 2001 All-Star team.
Bob Ackles returned to the Lions as president and CEO before the 2002 season, which saw the Lions finish at 10–8 for a third-place finish in the Western Division, and the return of Adam Rita as head coach. The Lions faced Winnipeg in the Western semi-finals, falling 30–3 to the Bombers. Individually, Eric Carter and Barrin Simpson repeated as CFL All-Stars, while slotback Jason Clermont won CFL's most outstanding rookie award, as well as the Western Division's Jackie Parker Trophy. Fullback Sean Millington won the Dr. Beattie Martin Trophy as the outstanding Canadian Western Division player, for the 3rd time. This would be the last season that Damon Allen would play for the Lions, as he finished as the franchise's all-time leader in passing yards, pass completions and passing touchdowns.
Buono era (2003–2011)
The 2003 season marked the beginning of a new era, as Wally Buono replaced Adam Rita as head coach and GM. The Lions also acquired former Stampeders and NFL QB Dave Dickenson through free agency, which prompted Lions QB Damon Allen to leave for the Toronto Argonauts. The Lions finished in a 3-way, 2nd place tie at 11–7 with Western Division foes, Winnipeg and Saskatchewan, and faced the Eastern Division's Toronto Argonauts by way of the CFL's "cross-over rule." The Lions closed out the season with a 28–7 loss to the Argos in the Eastern Division semi-finals. Barrin Simpson appeared as a CFL All-Star for the 3rd year in a row, joined by newcomers Ray Jacobs on defence, and electrifying slotback Geroy Simon on offence. Wide receiver Frank Cutolo won the CFL and Western Division rookie of the year awards. Offensive tackle Steve Hardin won the CFL Player's Association Outstanding Community Service Award.
The 2004 season marked one of the Lions' best regular-season records in club history. Going 13–5 and finishing 1st in the division, the Lions set a team record of 8 consecutive wins in a single season. In addition to club records, the season brought an array of individual performances to the forefront. Quarterback Casey Printers set a CFL record for highest single-game completion average of 90.9% (completing 20 of 22 passing attempts) during an August, 2004 game against Hamilton. Outstanding slot back Geroy Simon tied three team records by catching four touchdown passes in the same game. After the conclusion of the regular season, Printers was named the CFL's Most Outstanding Player, while Jason Clermont won the Most Outstanding Canadian award. Printers and Simon joined 4-time All-Star linebacker Barrin Simpson as 2004 CFL All-Stars. The Lions, receiving a bye in the first round of the playoffs by virtue of their first-place divisional finish, faced one of their biggest rivals, the Saskatchewan Roughriders. In a closefinish, the Lions defeated the Roughriders 27–25, in overtime. The Lions were then pitted against the Toronto Argonauts in the 92nd Grey Cup Championship, a rematch of the 2003 semi-finals. The Lions did not exact their revenge, losing 27–19. Jason Clermont won the Grey Cup Most Valuable Canadian award in the effort. The game was marked with controversy for the Lions, as Dave Dickenson got the start over Casey Printers, who had led the team through most of the season as Dickenson was injured.
Before and during the 2005 season there was controversy as to which quarterback should be the starter, Casey Printers or Dave Dickenson. Printers was the CFL's 2004 season Most Outstanding Player, but Dickenson was a veteran star destined for the Canadian Football Hall of Fame. The team ultimately chose to go with Dickenson, despite his having been somewhat injury-prone. The Lions came out of the gate roaring. Led by Dickenson and an outstanding receiving corps, the team strung together 11 consecutive wins. The final game of the win streak came on September 17, 2005, when the Leos squeaked past the Montreal Alouettes by a score of 27–26 when Don Matthews elected to go for a two-point conversion rather than tie the game. The Lions bid for an undefeated season came to a halt the very next week on September 24, 2005, when the Edmonton Eskimos defeated the Lions 37–20 at Commonwealth Stadium. Dickenson sustained a season-ending concussion and Printers took over as starting QB. The Lions won only one of their remaining seven games of the regular season. On November 20, 2005, the Lions lost in the Western Finals to the eventual Grey Cup champion Eskimos at B.C. Place. The game ended with a controversial "non-call" on the last play of the game; as what would have been Printers' game-winning pass to slotback Geroy Simon appeared to have been interfered with by a defending Eskimo, and was ruled incomplete. Defensive end Brent Johnson was named a 2005 CFL All-Star, and won the Outstanding Canadian Award.
2006 Grey Cup champions
The 2006 season saw Casey Printers go off to the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs; however, a new quarterback controversy of sorts threatened to develop. During the off-season 2005s third-stringer, Buck Pierce won the back-up role and early season injuries to Dave Dickenson forced him into action. Pierce's best game as the starter was on October 6 against the Calgary Stampeders, where he threw 25 for 31 for 297 yards, 1 touchdown, and 1 interception. He began the game with one incomplete pass, and then hit his next 14.
The Lions in the off-season also acquired former Roughrider Paul McCallum to stabilize the kicking game which had not recovered from Lui Passaglia's retirement in 2000. After a sluggish 2–3 start in 2006, coach Buono signalled that no starting job was safe by releasing runningback Antonio Warren and defensive back Sam Young. The team responded by winning the next six games. New running back Joe Smith ran for over 100 yards in his first game. Brent Johnson, Barron Miles, and Mark Washington led a dominant defence; 10 different defenders scored touchdowns on turnovers. They also held opposing offences to 17 points or less on 6 occasions. Receiver Geroy Simon dominated opposing defensive backs in a manner not seen since Mervyn Fernandez in the 1980s, and broke the club record for single-season receiving yardage for the second straight year. The Lions clinched first place on October 6, earning a third straight bye into the Western Final at home, and tied a team record with a 13–5 mark for the season. 50,084 (league-best for 2006) saw BC crush the Roughriders 45–18 in the West final. Looking fully recovered from earlier concussions, Dickenson went 27 for 37 with three touchdowns and no interceptions. Paris Jackson made two circus catches for TDs, Jason Clermont bulled his way to 98 yards on 6 catches, Joe Smith scored twice and ran for 116 yards, McCallum was 5 for 5 in field goals, and the BC defence dominated Saskatchewan all afternoon.
On November 19, the BC Lions captured their first Grey Cup Championship since 2000 by defeating the Montreal Alouettes 25–14 at Canad Inns Stadium in Winnipeg. Dave Dickenson was named the Most Valuable Player of the game, while Paul McCallum was named the Most Valuable Canadian. In the post-game exuberance, the team snapped the Grey Cup off the lower base with the engraved names, but it was repaired the following Monday. The game is also noted for kicker Paul McCallum going 6 for 6 in field goals, making him a perfect 11 for 11 in the postseason. Coach Buono also used all three quarterbacks in the game: Dickenson, Pierce and third-string Jarious Jackson all took snaps.
The record-setting season was capped off with Buono's third CFL Coach of the Year Award. The Lions nearly swept the annual player awards, with Brent Johnson, Geroy Simon, Rob Murphy, Mark Washington, and Aaron Hunt (BC's sixth Outstanding Rookie in nine years) all taking home hardware.
In 2007 offensive coordinator Jacques Chapdelaine left for the Edmonton Eskimos in the off-season, becoming their offensive coordinator and assistant head coach. The Lions' play-calling duties for the 2007 season would be handled by quarterbacks coach Steff Kruck, with play design by offensive line coach Dan Dorazio. Veteran linebacker Carl Kidd announced his retirement at the Grey Cup ring ceremony held just prior to training camp, while Bobby Singh was cut and soon picked up by the Calgary Stampeders. John Hufnagel guest-coached at training camp, having previously worked under Buono as offensive coordinator in Calgary in the 1990s.
2007 proved to be one of the best seasons for the Lions, having set a new franchise record for the most regular-season wins in club history. The season started off on a 5-game winning streak, including dominating wins over Edmonton (29–9) and Saskatchewan (42–12). However, the streak came to a halt on August 3, 2007, when the Leos suffered a 21–9 loss to the Saskatchewan Roughriders. The Lions had a little trouble getting back on track, as they suffered a loss to Winnipeg and a tie with Calgary. A 40–7 win over Toronto moved the Lions back into 1st place in the West Division, due to a Saskatchewan loss to Calgary. On September 22, 2007, the Lions battled their biggest foe, the Saskatchewan Roughriders, for the 1st place spot in the West Division. The Saskatchewan lead increased and decreased several times throughout the game. However, with Saskatchewan leading by 4, the Lions never gave up in the dying minutes of the game, and QB Jarious Jackson was able to find Geroy Simon in the endzone and pass the ball for a game-winning 33 yard touchdown. The final result was an unexpected come-from-behind 37–34 victory for the Lions. The Lions went on to win all the rest of their games of the regular season and captured 1st place in the West Division for a fourth consecutive year. The Lions also finished with a regular-season record of 14–3–1, The best in club history. The Lions felt confident heading into the Western Final, but their dreams of second consecutive Grey Cup title came to an end in a heartbreaking 26–17 loss to the eventual Grey Cup champions, the Saskatchewan Roughriders.
Just before the 2008 season, the Lions' Josh Boden was cut due to being arrested. Also, Mark Washington became the secondary coach due to salary cap issues. Quarterback star Dave Dickenson was released in the final year of his contract of $400k/yr and was picked up by the Calgary Stampeders. Jacques Chapdelaine came back from the Edmonton Eskimos after being fired as offensive coordinator and assistant head coach in his one year with the club. Defensive coordinator Dave Ritchie retired after the 2007 season and Mike Benevides was promoted to his position. As well, director of player personnel Bob O'Billovich left to become general manager of the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and former Saskatchewan Roughriders general manager Roy Shivers filled his position.
The season started off on low notes, both on and off the field. After losing their first two games to Calgary and Saskatchewan, the BC Lions and the entire CFL community was shocked to hear that Lions president and CEO Bobby Ackles had suffered a heart attack and died on July 6, 2008. The Lions held a memorial ceremony at the next home game against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and would wear an orange paw on their helmets with BOB on the inside to commemorate Ackles.
In their first game of the season, against Calgary, starter Buck Pierce left the game with injury, meaning Jarious Jackson would take over as starter. After losing their next game to the Roughriders, the Lions won three straight, synonymous with Stefan Logan's debut with the Lions and Joe Smith sitting these games out. On July 25, Geroy Simon surpassed Jim "Dirty 30" Young as the Lions' all-time receiving yards leader, in a game against the Montreal Alouettes. After electing not to attend Bob Ackles' memorial, Joe Smith began to estrange himself from the organization and only played in four of the first nine games of the season. While also posting unimpressive numbers, the Lions saw fit to trade their former star running back to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers for their former star running back, Charles Roberts on Sept 1, 2009. Shortly after, Roberts reached the 10,000 rushing yard mark for his career on Sept 13, 2009, against the Saskatchewan Roughriders in his first game as a Lion.
After a Labour Day loss to the Montreal Alouettes, the Lions won five straight under a healthy Buck Pierce. Since Buono had become head coach in 2003, the Lions had won at least four in a row each year, a streak that ended in 2009. The Lions finished the regular season with an 11–7 record, including a loss at Calgary in the last regular-season game. After going 3–0–1 against Calgary in the previous season, the Lions were swept by Calgary for the first time since the 2000 season. After amassing 23 sacks, Cameron Wake won the Most Outstanding Defensive Player Award for the second consecutive year. In the playoffs, the Lions defeated the Saskatchewan Roughriders at Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field 33–12, but lost, yet again, to the Calgary Stampeders, this time in the Western final.
The 2009 season saw a team that would be decidedly different from the previous seasons' roster. While the coaching staff remained completely intact, the playing roster saw a number of notable players released or traded and some leaving for the NFL. Outstanding Defensive Player Cameron Wake signed with the Miami Dolphins, Team Rookie of the Year, Stefan Logan, signed with the Pittsburgh Steelers, Rob Murphy signed with the Toronto Argonauts and Jason Clermont and Charles Roberts were released. Otis Floyd and Tyrone Williams were later released and Jason Pottinger was traded to the Argonauts. They signed all-star linebacker Anton McKenzie, while trying to fill holes in their roster with their depth players from last year and new recruits from the US.
The season was notable for the team's use of five different quarterbacks – Buck Pierce started the year but gave way after injury to Jarious Jackson. When Jackson was injured, 3rd string QB Travis Lulay was pressed into action. Former Lion and league MVP Casey Printers then signed to the practice roster on October 8, and suited up as the third-string QB on October 9 in a game versus the Edmonton Eskimos. He then became the starting quarterback on October 24, in a 33–30 overtime loss to the Saskatchewan Roughriders. In the season finale on November 6 against Edmonton, Printers was knocked out of the game with a broken thumb. In the last regular-season game 5th string quarterback Zac Champion played more than two quarters when Buck Pierce also went down.
Losing to each of the other 3 Western teams in successive games meant BC finished fourth and last. However, Hamilton defeated Winnipeg in their last game of the season, enabling the Lions to cross over to the Eastern Division's play-off format (ahead of both Winnipeg and Toronto). The Lions faced the Tiger-Cats in the Eastern semi-final in Hamilton on November 15 and won in overtime. The Lions then advanced the Eastern final against the Montreal Alouettes, but lost 56–18.
The 2009–10 offseason saw the club lose even more veterans, many who were cut by Buono, and others who left for the NFL. Quarterback Buck Pierce was released on March 9, 2010 after the return of Casey Printers meant that the injury-prone Pierce was expendable. The Lions also released former Special Teams Player of the Year Ian Smart, linebacker Javier Glatt and defensive back Lavar Glover, each of whom played a major role in the Lions' 2006 Grey Cup win. The team also lost Rolly Lumbala and Ryan Grice-Mullen to the NFL's Miami Dolphins, while rookie phenom Martell Mallett signed with the Philadelphia Eagles. Despite this, the club signed a number of proven CFL players, including Davis Sanchez and Keron Williams from the Montreal Alouettes, Jamal Robertson from the Toronto Argonauts and exiled former Bomber Derick Armstrong.
The 2010 BC Lions played all of their home games at their former site at the Pacific National Exhibition grounds at Empire Field while BC Place Stadium had a retractable roof installed. The Lions also staged their training camp in Kamloops, BC – the first of three over the next three years – as a part of the club's desire to represent the entire province.
The season started out well for the Lions, with a win against Edmonton, but that success would be short lived as the Lions lost their next seven consecutive games. Quarterback Casey Printers suffered a knee injury in game 3 against the Montreal Alouettes, which forced backup quarterback Travis Lulay to start the next three games. After losing to Toronto and the previously winless Eskimos, Lulay was replaced by Jarious Jackson in the fourth quarter in the August 7, 2010, contest against Calgary after demonstrating poor play and inexperience.
After the bye week, Printers returned and won three out of the five games he started, but due to his turnover-filled back-to-back performances, he was replaced with Lulay as the starter in game 13 against Winnipeg, which the Lions won. After Lulay had a minor injury in the following game, again against Winnipeg, Printers came into the game to protect a 21-point lead. The Blue Bombers stormed back to tie the game and force overtime, which was decided by Printers' game-clinching interception. It was Casey's last game with the Lions as Buono released him soon after the game. Consequently, Lulay became the starting quarterback, finishing the season 4–5 as a starter. The Lions won their last three games to qualify for the playoffs after Edmonton lost their final game of the season, but lost in double overtime to the Saskatchewan Roughriders in the West semi-final game.
2011 Grey Cup champions
The 2011 BC Lions season marked what would be known as perhaps one of the greatest season turnarounds in CFL history. The Lions entered the 2011 campaign with a lot of question marks. The team had almost exactly the same coaching staff as they had the year before, which had been criticized by many fans the past season. The team also lost a few key players, most notably Emmanuel Arceneaux to the NFL. As well, the team opted to go with inexperienced third-year QB Travis Lulay at quarterback.
Despite a questionable lineup, the Lions, as well as many fans and critics alike, believed that the team was good enough to win the Grey Cup, especially since the game was scheduled to be played in Vancouver at the newly renovated BC Place Stadium. However, the season started out with five straight losses which forced changes to be made. The Lions signed two notable CFL players; defensive back Tad Kornegay, who had just been released by Saskatchewan, and wide receiver Arland Bruce, who was acquired in a trade with Hamilton. The Lions got their first win of the season when they beat the Saskatchewan Roughriders 24–11 in week 6, but the following week, the Lions were swept by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers for the first time in ten years. Now sitting at 1–6, many fans and critics started to doubt the Lions playoff hopes, but after a convincing 36–1 win over the Edmonton Eskimos, the Lions went on a remarkable 8-game winning streak, skyrocketing the Leos all the way to the top of a very competitive West Division. The Lions winning streak ended after a 42–10 loss to Hamilton in week 17, but after that, the Lions won their last two games of the season, which included a 43–1 clobbering of the two-time defending Grey Cup champions Montreal Alouettes in the regular-season finale. After starting the season 0–5, the Lions rebounded to win 11 of their last 13 games to clinch 1st place in the West Division with an 11–7 record, as well as a bye in the first round of the playoffs and a home playoff game.
In the West Division Final, the Lions faced the Edmonton Eskimos, the same team that beat the Lions in the 2005 West final, which denied the Lions a home game in the Grey Cup, since Vancouver hosted the Grey Cup that year. However, in 2011, a home game in the Grey Cup is what the Lions would get, as the Leos dominated the Eskimos 40–23 as the Lions advanced to the big game for the first time in five years. In the Grey Cup, the Lions were up against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers for only the second time in Grey Cup history. Although Winnipeg won both regular-season meetings with BC, the Lions would go on to beat the Bombers 34–23 in front of a home crowd to win their 6th Grey Cup championship in franchise history. Travis Lulay was named Grey Cup Most Valuable Player, while Winnipeg native Andrew Harris was named Most Valuable Canadian. With the Grey Cup win, the BC Lions became the first team to start a season 0–5 and win the Grey Cup.
Head coach Wally Buono announced shortly after the Grey Cup that he would step down as head coach but would remain as vice president and general manager. The BC Lions were named The Canadian Press Team of the Year for 2011 in voting by sports editors and broadcasters across Canada.
Missed opportunities and near-misses (2012–2019)
Defensive coordinator Mike Benevides was promoted and announced as the team's new head coach on December 13, 2011.
Several veteran players left the team or were released prior to the start of the 2012 season. Defensive back Tad Kornegay was released by the Lions while all-star linebacker Solomon Elimimian and defensive tackle Aaron Hunt signed with the Minnesota Vikings and the Montreal Alouettes, respectively. The Lions did, however, manage to resign veteran cornerbacks Dante Marsh and Ryan Phillips during the free-agency period, as well as all-star defensive back Lin-J Shell and cornerback Byron Parker.
On December 19, 2014, Jeff Tedford was named the 25th head coach in franchise history after Mike Benevides had been let go November 20. The 2015 season saw the emergence of rookie quarterback Jonathan Jennings, who took over as the starter from Travis Lulay midway through the season. The 2015 season was the only one for Tedford, as he resigned after only one season where he led the lions to a 7–11 record, finishing third in the west and losing to Calgary in the playoffs. Upon Tedford's resignation, Wally Buono announced that he would return as head coach in 2016.
In Buono's first season back at the helm of the Lions, he guided the team to its first second-place finish in the West since 1986, with a 12–6 record, and defeated the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the West Semi-Final, only to lose to Calgary in the West Final. The following season, the Lions missed the playoffs for the first time since 1996, finishing in 5th and last place in the West with a 7–11 record. On November 30, 2017, Buono stepped down from his position as general manager, being replaced in that stead by Ed Hervey. Buono stayed on as head coach in 2018, but he also announced it would be his last season as coach for the team. The team finished 9–9, returning to the playoffs as a crossover team, losing to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in the East Semi-Final 48–8. On December 18, 2018, DeVone Claybrooks was named Buono's successor at head coach for the Lions. He lasted only one season, finishing in 5th and last place in the West with a 5–13 mark, with Claybrooks fired on November 5. Former Ottawa Redblacks coach Rick Campbell was named the new head coach of the Lions on December 2, 2019.
A new era, a new owner (2020–present)
In October 2020, owner David Braley died, but left in his will funds for the BC Lions so that the team could continue to operate for several seasons. On August 18, 2021, the BC Lions were bought by Amar Doman, who runs two private companies in British Columbia, Futura Corporation and CanWel. After the cancellation of the 2020 CFL season, the Lions returned to play along with the rest of the CFL in 2021. However, the team languished in the shortened season, with a seven-game losing streak in the second half proving fatal to the team's season, and they finished 5–9, good for fourth in the West.
Current roster
Current coaching staff
Players and builders of note
Retired numbers
The BC Lions have ten retired jersey numbers, second only to the Montreal Alouettes for the most in the Canadian Football League.
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
BC Sports Hall of Fame
BC Lions Wall of Fame
Located at Level 2 Inner Concourse between Sections 11 and 10 at BC Place Stadium.
1954 Team
1964 Team
1985 Team
1994 Team
Bob Ackles
Damon Allen
Ken Appleby
Byron (BY) Bailey
Neal Beaumont
John Blain
Tom Brown
Eric Carter
Mike Cacic
Herb Capozzi
Jim Carphin
Roy Cavallin
Bill Clancey
Pat Claridge
Jason Clermont
Larry Crawford
Tyrone Crews
Lonnie Dennis
Roy Dewalt
Jim Evenson
Jack Farley
Mervyn Fernandez
Norm Fieldgate
Willie "The Wisp" Fleming
Darren Flutie
Joe Fourqurean
Dick Fouts
Nick Hebeler
Lynn "Lefty" HendricksonPaul Higgins
Tom Hinton
Sonny Homer
Glen Jackson
Brent Johnson
Ron Jones
Joe Kapp
Kato Kasuya
Carl Kidd
Rick Klassen
Kevin Konar
Don Mackenzie
Cory Mantyka
Don Matthews
Allan McEachern
Sean Millington
Jim Mills
Mack Moore
Bill Munsey
Ray Nettles
Creighton O'Malley
John Pankratz
Joe Paopao
James "Quick" Parker
Lui Passaglia
Vic Rapp
Bill Recheilt
Dal Richards
Gerald Roper
Geroy Simon
Ian Sinclair
Dave Skrien
Victor Spencer
Harry Spring
Annis Stukus
Ken Sugarman
Jamie Taras
John Henry White
Al Wilson
Jim Young
Football operations history
Head coaches
Annis Stukus (1954–1955)
Clem Crowe (1956–1958)
Danny Edwards (1958)
Wayne Robinson (1959–1961)
Dave Skrien (1961–1967)
Jim Champion (1967–1969)
Jackie Parker (1969–1970)
Eagle Keys (1971–1975)
Cal Murphy (1975–1976)
Vic Rapp (1977–1982)
Don Matthews (1983–1987)
Larry Donovan (1987–1989)
Joe Galat (1989)
Lary Kuharich (1990)
Jim Young (1990)
Bob O'Billovich (1990–1992)
Dave Ritchie (1993–1995)
Joe Paopao (1996)
Adam Rita (1997–1998)
Greg Mohns (1998–2000)
Steve Buratto (2000–2002)
Adam Rita (2002)
Wally Buono (2003–2011, 2016–2018)
Mike Benevides (2012–2014)
Jeff Tedford (2015–2016)
DeVone Claybrooks (2019)
Rick Campbell (2020–present)
General managers
Phil Webb (1954–1956)
Herb Capozzi (1957–1966)
Denny Veitch (1967–1970)
Jackie Parker (1971–1975)
Bob Ackles (1975–1985)
Joe Galat (1986–1989)
Joe Kapp (1990)
Jim Young (1990)
Bob O'Billovich (1990–1992)
Eric Tillman (1993–1994)
Dave Ritchie (1995)
George Chayka (1996)
Adam Rita (1997–2002)
Wally Buono (2003–2017)
Ed Hervey (2017–2020)
Owners
Community Ownership (1954–1989)
Murray Pezim (1990–1992)
Canadian Football League (1992)
Bill Comrie (1993–1996)
Nelson Skalbania (1996)
David Braley (1997–2020)
Amar Doman (2021–present)
Team presidents
Arthur E. Mercer (1953)
Don Mackenzie (1954–1956)
Bill McMahan (1957)
Harry Spring (1958–1959)
Ralph Henderson (1960–1961)
C. B. Delbridge (1962–1964)
Alan Eyre (1965–1966)
Allan McEachern (1967–1969)
Ian Barclay (1970)
Wes Munsie (1970–1974)
Bill McEwen (1975)
Doug Johnston (1975–1976)
Jack Farley (1977–1978)
Paul Higgins (1979–1982)
Ron Jones (1983–1985)
Grant MacLaren (1986)
Charles Walker (1986–1987)
James O'Leary Hogan (1988)
Norm Fieldgate (1989)
Joe Kapp (1990)
Frank Gigliotti (1991–1992)
Bill Comrie (1993)
Peter Classon (1994)
Doug Bodie (1995)
Michael P. McCarthy (1996)
Glen Ringdal (1997–2001)
Bob Ackles (2002–2008)
David Braley (2009, 2017)
Dennis Skulsky (2010–2016) (stepped down in 2016, became vice chair)
Rick LeLacheur (2018–present)
50th Anniversary Dream Team
Selected by fan balloting in 2003
Offence
QB—Doug Flutie—1990–1991—34 games
RB—Willie Fleming—1959–1966—124 games
FB—Sean Millington—1991–1997 and 2000–2002—148 games
SB—Darren Flutie—1991–1995—73 games
TE—Harry Holt—1978–1982—54 games
WR—Mervyn Fernandez—1982–1986 and 1994—83 games
WR—Jim Young—1967–1979—197 games
C—Al Wilson—1972–1986—233 games
OG—Tom Hinton—1958–1966—136 games
OG—Jamie Taras—1987–2002—265 games
OT—John Blain—1977–1987—174 games
OT—Jim Mills—1986–1993, 1995—129 gamesDefence
DT—Mike Cacic—1957–1958 and 1960–1967—117 games
DT—Rick Klassen—1981–1987 and 1990—142 games
DE—James "Quick" Parker—1984–1989—87 games
DE—Nick Hebeler—1979–1985—86 games
LB—Glen Jackson—1976–1987—192 games
LB—Tom Brown—1961–1967—97 games
LB—Norm Fieldgate—1954–1967—223 games
CB—Joe Fourqurean—1973–1981—122 games
CB—Eric Carter—1999–2003—86 games
DB—Larry Crawford—1981–1989—130 games
DB—Andre Francis—1986–1988 and 1992–1993—76 games
S—Bill Munsey—1963–1967—76 gamesSpecial teams
P/K—Lui Passaglia—1976–2000—408 games
KR—Leon Bright—1977–1980—56 gamesCoach
Don Matthews—1983–1987
Season-by-season records
Radio
The BC Lions radio network consists of 15 stations:
CHMJ Vancouver (Flagship Station, 730 AM)
CFAX Victoria (1070 AM)
CKFR Kelowna (1150 AM)
CHNL Kamloops (610 AM)
CJNL Merritt (1230 AM)
CINL Ashcroft/Cache Creek (1340 AM)
CHNL-1 Clearwater (1400 AM)
CHNL-FM Sorrento/Shuswap (107.1 FM)
CHNL Logan Lake (106.7 FM)
CHNL Blue River/Valemount
CFNR Terrace/Thornhill (92.1 FM)
CFNR Kitimat/Nass Valley/Queen Charlotte Islands (96.1 FM)
CFNR Prince Rupert (98.1 FM)
Notable broadcasters for the BC Lions include Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductee John Badham.
Mascot
Leo the Lion is the mascot for the BC Lions.
See also
BC Lions all-time records and statistics
Canadian Football Hall of Fame
Canadian football
Comparison of Canadian and American football
List of Canadian Football League seasons
References
External links
BC Lions official site
BC Lions page at Vancouver Sun Online
BC Lions page at TSN.ca
BCLionsDen.ca—Lions Fans Feast Here
LionBackers.com – an Essential site for BC Lions Fans
TSN Radio 1040 BC Lions Broadcaster
BC Lions Official Merchandise
BC Lions page at Slam.canoe.ca
BC Lions page at Oursportscentral.com
Official Facebook Page
Official Twitter Account
BC Lions page at The Pro Football Archives
Sports clubs established in 1954
Canadian Football League teams
Canadian football teams in Vancouver
1954 establishments in British Columbia | [
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|
240331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncheon | Truncheon | Truncheon may refer to:
Club (weapon)
Baton (law enforcement)
Cutting (plant), means of plant propagation used by gardeners
, a British submarine commissioned during World War II and later sold to Israel
Shaft of a spear (obsolete usage, but found in Walter Scott and in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings) | [
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|
240332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightstick | Nightstick | Nightstick or night stick may refer to:
Club (weapon), a short staff or stick wielded as a weapon
Baton (law enforcement), a compliance tool and defensive weapon used by law-enforcement officers
Nightstick (band), an American sludge metal band from Weymouth, Massachusetts
Nightstick (film), a 1987 Canadian-American made for television action film
Nightstick (Transformers), a character from the Transformers franchise | [
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240335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Turn%20of%20the%20Screw | The Turn of the Screw | The Turn of the Screw is an 1898 horror novella by Henry James which first appeared in serial format in Collier's Weekly (January 27 – April 16, 1898). In October 1898, it was collected in The Two Magics, published by Macmillan in New York City and Heinemann in London. The novella follows a governess who, caring for two children at a remote estate, becomes convinced that the grounds are haunted. The Turn of the Screw is considered a work of both Gothic and horror fiction.
In the century following its publication, critical analysis of the novella has undergone several major transformations. Initial reviews regarded it only as a frightening ghost story, but, in the 1930s, some critics suggested that the supernatural elements were figments of the governess' imagination. In the early 1970s, the influence of structuralism resulted in an acknowledgement that the text's ambiguity was its key feature. Later approaches incorporated Marxist and feminist thinking.
The novella has been adapted numerous times, including a Broadway play (1950), a chamber opera (1954), two films (in 1961 and 2020), and a miniseries by Netflix (2020).
Plot
On Christmas Eve, an unnamed narrator and some of their friends are gathered around a fire. One of them, Douglas, reads a manuscript written by his sister's late governess. The manuscript tells the story of her hiring by a man who has become responsible for his young niece and nephew following the deaths of their parents. He lives mainly in London but also has a country house in Bly, Essex. The boy, Miles, is attending a boarding school, while his younger sister, Flora, is living in Bly, where she is cared for by Mrs. Grose, the housekeeper. Flora's uncle, the governess's new employer, is uninterested in raising the children and gives her full charge, explicitly stating that she is not to bother him with communications of any sort. The governess travels to Bly and begins her duties.
Miles returns from school for the summer just after a letter arrives from the headmaster, stating that he has been expelled. Miles never speaks of the matter, and the governess is hesitant to raise the issue. She fears there is some horrible secret behind the expulsion, but is too charmed by the boy to want to press the issue. Soon after, around the grounds of the estate, the governess begins to see the figures of a man and woman whom she does not recognize. The figures come and go at will without being seen or challenged by other members of the household, and they seem to the governess to be supernatural. She learns from Mrs. Grose that the governess's predecessor, Miss Jessel, and another employee, Peter Quint, had had a close relationship. Before their deaths, Jessel and Quint spent much of their time with Flora and Miles, and the governess becomes convinced that the two children are aware of the ghosts' presence.
Without permission, Flora leaves the house while Miles is playing music for the governess. The governess notices Flora's absence and goes with Mrs. Grose in search of her. They find her on the shore of a nearby lake, and the governess is convinced that Flora has been talking to the ghost of Miss Jessel. When the governess finally confronts Flora, the girl denies seeing Miss Jessel, and asks not to see the new governess again. Mrs. Grose takes Flora away to her uncle, leaving the governess with Miles, who that night at last talks to her about his expulsion. The ghost of Quint appears to the governess at the window. The governess shields Miles, who attempts to see the ghost. The governess tells Miles he is no longer controlled by the ghost, and then finds that Miles has died in her arms.
Genre
Gothic fiction
As a piece of Gothic fiction, critics highlight the influence of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (1847) on the novella. The Turn of the Screw borrows both from Jane Eyre's themes of class and gender, and from its mid-nineteenth century setting. The novella alludes to Jane Eyre in tandem with an explicit reference to Ann Radcliffe's Gothic novel The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), wherein the governess wonders if there might be a secret relative hidden in the attic at Bly. One critic writes that the only "definite event" in the novel that does not "belong" in Gothic fantasy is Miles' expulsion from school.
Although the influence of the Gothic on the novella is clear, it cannot only be characterised as one. James' ghosts differ from those of traditional Gothic tales – frightening, often bound in chains – by appearing like their living selves. Similarly, the novella foregoes major devices associated with Gothic novels, such as digressions, as in Frankenstein (1818) and Dracula (1897), instead relating one whole, continuous narrative.
Ghost story and horror fiction
For the story's publication in Collier's Weekly, James was contracted to write a ghost story. As a result, some critics have regarded it in that tradition. L. Andrew Cooper observed that The Turn of the Screw might be the best-known example of a ghost story which exploits the ambiguity of a first-person narrative. Citing James' reference to the work as his "designed horror", Donald P. Costello suggested that the effect of a given scene varies depending on who represents the action. In scenes where the governess directly reports on what she sees, the effect is horror, but in those where she merely comments, the effect is "mystification". In his 1983 nonfiction survey of the horror genre, author Stephen King described The Turn of the Screw and The Haunting of Hill House (1959) as the only two great supernatural works of horror in a century. He argued that both contain "secrets best left untold and things left best unsaid", calling that the basis of the horror genre. Another author, Gillian Flynn, called the novella one of the most chilling ghost stories ever written.
Several biographers have indicated that James was familiar with spiritualism, and at the very least regarded it as entertainment. His brother, William, was an active researcher of supernatural phenomena. Scientific inquiry at the time was curious about the existence of ghosts, and James' description of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel—dressed in black with severe expressions—resemble the ghosts found in scientific literature rather than those of fictional narratives. The character of Douglas describes himself as a student of Trinity College, where James knew research into the supernatural occurred. It is unknown whether James believed in ghosts.
Background
Biographical context and composition
By the 1890s, James' readership had dwindled since the success of Daisy Miller (1878), and he had encountered financial troubles. His health had also worsened, with advancing gout, and several of his close friends had died: his sister and diarist Alice James, and writers Robert Louis Stevenson, and Constance Fenimore Woolson. In a letter from October 1895, James wrote: "I see ghosts everywhere". In an entry in his journal from January 12, 1895, James recounts a ghost story told to him by Edward White Benson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, while visiting him for tea at his home two days earlier. The story bears a striking resemblance to what would eventually become The Turn of the Screw, with depraved servants corrupting young children before and after their deaths.
Towards the end of 1897, James was contracted to write a twelve-part ghost story for Collier's Weekly, an illustrated magazine. Having just signed a twenty-one year lease on a house in Rye, East Sussex, James —thankful for the additional income—accepted the offer. Collier's Weekly paid James US$900 () for the serial rights. A year earlier, in 1897, The Chap-Book paid him US$150 () for serial and book rights to What Maisie Knew.
James found it difficult to write by hand, reserving that for his journals. The Turn of the Screw was dictated to his secretary, William MacAlpine, who took shorthand notes and returned with typed notes the following day. Finding such a delay frustrating, James purchased his own Remington typewriter and dictated directly to MacAlphine. In December 1897, James wrote to his sister-in-law: "I have, at last, finished my little book."
Publication and later revisions
The Turn of the Screw was first published in the magazine Collier's Weekly, serialised in 12 installments (27 January – 16 April 1898). The title illustration by John La Farge depicts the governess with her arm around Miles. Episode illustrations were by Eric Pape.
In October 1898 the novella appeared with the short story "Covering End" in a volume titled The Two Magics, published by Macmillan in New York City and by Heinemann in London.
Ten years after publication, James revised The Turn of the Screw for the New York Edition of the text. James made many changes, but most were minor, such as changing "utter" to "express"; the narrative was unchanged. The New York Editions most important contribution was the retrospective account of the influences and writing of the novella James gave in his preface. James indicated, for example, that he was aware of research into the supernatural. In his preface, James only briefly mentions the story's origin in a magazine. In 2016, Kirsten MacLeod, citing James' private correspondence, indicated that he had a strong dislike for the serial form.
Reception
Early criticism
Early reviews emphasised the novella's power to frighten, and most saw the tale as a brilliant, if simple, ghost story. According to scholar Terry Heller, most early reviewers saw the novel as a formidable piece of Gothic fiction.
An early review of The Turn of the Screw was in The New York Times Saturday Review of Books and Art, saying it was worthy of being compared to Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886). The reviewer noted it as a successful study of evil, in reference to the ghosts' influence over the children and the governess. Scholar Terry Heller notes that the children featured prominently in early criticism because the novella violated a Victorian presumption of childhood innocence.
Conceptions of the text wherein the ghosts are real entities are often referred to as the "apparitionist interpretation"; consequently, a "non-apparitionist" holds the opposite perspective. In a 1918 essay, Virginia Woolf wrote that Miss Jessel and Peter Quint possessed "neither the substance nor independent existence of ghosts". Woolf did not suggest that the ghosts were hallucinations, but—in a similar fashion to other early critics—said they represented the governess' growing awareness of evil in the world. The power of the story, she argued, was in forcing readers to realise the dark places fiction could take their minds.
Psychoanalytic interpretations
In 1934, literary critic Edmund Wilson posited that the ghosts were hallucinations of the governess, who he suggested was sexually repressed. As evidence, Wilson points to her background as the daughter of a country parson, and suggests that she is infatuated with her employer. Prior to Wilson's article, another critic—Edna Kenton—had written to similar effect, but Wilson's fame as a literary critic shifted the discourse around the novella completely. Wilson drew heavily from Kenton's writing, but applied explicitly Freudian terminology. For example, he pointed to Quint first being sighted by the governess on a phallic tower. A book-length close reading of the text was produced in 1965 using Wilson's Freudian analysis as a foundation; it characterised the governess as increasingly mad and hysterical. Leon Edel, James' most influential biographer, wrote that it is not the ghosts who haunt the children, but the governess herself.
While many supported Wilson's theory, it was by no means authoritative. Robert B. Heilman was a prominent advocate for the apparitionist interpretation; he saw the story as a Hawthornesque allegory about good and evil, and the ghosts as active agents to that effect. Scholars critical of Wilson's essay pointed to Douglas' positive account of the governess's character in the prologue, long after her death. Most crucially, they indicated that the governess's description of the ghost enabled Mrs Grose to identify him as Peter Quint before the governess knew he existed. The second point led Wilson to "retract his thesis (temporarily"); in a later revision of his essay, he argued the governess had been made aware of another male at Bly by Mrs Grose.
More recent critics of the non-apparitionist approach include Andrea Gencheva, who focuses on the character and attributes of the governess in her argument that the ghosts are meant to be interpreted as being real. Gencheva concedes that the governess can be unclear and ambiguous about the events she describes in her narrative (specifically noting her frequent use of "I felt" rather than "I saw"), but she argues that, rather than being taken as proof of her volatile state of mind, this could be taken as proof of her sanity. Gencheva asserts that the governess presents much of her experiences as "impressions" rather than facts, but someone truly insane would not be able to tell the difference between impression and reality. "A deranged person would insist on her version as the only plausible one, because other versions would make her seem insane", she writes.
Structuralism
In the 1970s, critics began to apply structuralist Tzvetan Todorov's notion of the fantastic to The Turn of the Screw. Todorov emphasised the importance of "hesitation" in stories with supernatural elements, and critics found an abundance of them within James' novella. For example, the reader's sympathy may hesitate between the children or the governess, and the text hesitates between supporting the ghosts' existence, and rejecting them. Christine Brooke-Rose argued in a three-part essay that the ambiguity so frequently argued over was a foundational part of the text that had been ignored. From the 1980s onwards, critics increasingly refused to ask questions about diegetic elements of the text, instead acknowledging that many elements simply cannot be known definitively.
Focus shifted away from whether the ghosts were real and onto how James generated and then sustained the text's ambiguity. A study into revisions James made to two paragraphs in the novella concluded that James was not striving for clarity, but to create a text which could not be interpreted definitively in either direction.
This is still a position held by many critics, such as Giovanni Bottiroli, who argues that evidence for the intended ambiguity of the text can be found at the beginning of the novella, where Douglas tells his fictional audience that the governess had never told anyone but himself about the events that happened at Bly, and that they “would easily judge” why. Bottiroli believes that this address to Douglas’ fictional audience is also meant as an address to the reader, telling them that they will “easily judge” whether or not the ghosts are real.
Marxist and feminist approaches
After the debate over the reality of the ghosts quietened in literary criticism, critics began to apply other theoretical frameworks to The Turn of the Screw. Marxist critics argued that the emphasis placed by academics on James' language distracted from class-based explorations of the text. The children's uncle, who featured largely only in the psychoanalytic interpretations as an obsession of the governess, was regarded by some as symbolising a selfish upper-class. Heath Moon notes how he abandoned his orphaned niece, nephew, and their ancestral home to instead live in London as a bachelor. Mrs Grose's distaste for the relationship between Quint and Miss Jessel was noted to be part of a Victorian dislike for relationships that were between different social classes. The death of Miles and Flora's parents in India became a fixture of postcolonial explorations of the text, given the status of India as a British colony during James' lifetime.
Explorations of the governess have become a mainstay of feminist writing on the text. Priscilla Walton noted that James' account of the story's origin disparaged the ability of women to tell stories, and framed The Turn of the Screw as James thus telling it on their behalf. Others see James in a more positive light. Paula Marantz Cohen positively compares James' treatment of the governess to Sigmund Freud's writing about a young woman named Dora. Cohen likens the way that Freud transforms Dora into merely a summary of her symptoms to how critics such as Edmund Wilson reduced the governess to a case of neurotic sexual repression.
Adaptations
The Turn of the Screw has been the subject of a range of adaptations and reworkings in a variety of media. Many of these have, themselves, been analysed in the academic literature on Henry James and neo-Victorian culture.
Stage
The novella was adapted to an opera by Benjamin Britten, which premiered in 1954, and the opera has been filmed on multiple occasions. The novella was adapted as a ballet score (1980) by Luigi Zaninelli, and separately as a ballet (1999) by Will Tucket for the Royal Ballet. Harold Pinter directed The Innocents (1950), a Broadway play which was an adaptation of The Turn of the Screw. An adaptation by Jeffrey Hatcher, using the title The Turn of the Screw, premiered in Portland, Maine, in 1996 and was produced off-Broadway in 1999. Another adaptation of the same title by Rebecca Lenkiewicz was presented in a co-production with Hammer at the Almeida Theatre, London, in January 2013.
Films
There have been numerous film adaptations of the novel. The critically acclaimed The Innocents (1961), directed by Jack Clayton, and Michael Winner's prequel The Nightcomers (1972) are two notable examples. Other feature film adaptations include Rusty Lemorande's 1992 eponymous adaptation (set in the 1960s); 's Spanish language (The Turn of the Screw, 1985); Presence of Mind (1999), directed by Atoni Aloy; and In a Dark Place (2006), directed by Donato Rotunno. The Others (2001) is not an adaptation but has some themes in common with James's novella. In 2018, director Floria Sigismondi filmed an adaptation of the novella, called The Turning, on the Kilruddery Estate in Ireland.
Television films have included a 1959 American adaptation as part of Ford Startime directed by John Frankenheimer and starring Ingrid Bergman; the West German Die sündigen Engel (The Sinful Angel, 1962), a 1974 adaptation directed by Dan Curtis, adapted by William F. Nolan; a French adaptation entitled Le Tour d'écrou (The Turn of the Screw, 1974); a Mexican miniseries entitled Otra vuelta de tuerca (The Turn of the Screw, 1981); a 1982 adaptation directed by Petr Weigl primarily starring Czech actors lip-synching; a 1990 adaptation directed by Graeme Clifford; The Haunting of Helen Walker (1995), directed by Tom McLoughlin; a 1999 adaptation directed by Ben Bolt; a low-budget 2003 version written and directed by Nick Millard; the Italian-language Il mistero del lago (The Mystery of the Lake, 2009); and a 2009 BBC film adapted by Sandy Welch, starring Michelle Dockery, Dan Stevens and Sue Johnston.
Literature
Literary references to and influences by The Turn of the Screw identified by the James scholar Adeline R. Tintner include The Secret Garden (1911), by Frances Hodgson Burnett; "Poor Girl" (1951), by Elizabeth Taylor; The Peacock Spring (1975), by Rumer Godden; Ghost Story (1975) by Peter Straub; "The Accursed Inhabitants of House Bly" (1994) by Joyce Carol Oates; and Miles and Flora (1997)—a sequel—by Hilary Bailey. Further literary adaptations identified by other authors include Affinity (1999), by Sarah Waters; A Jealous Ghost (2005), by A. N. Wilson; and Florence & Giles (2010), by John Harding. Young adult novels inspired by The Turn of the Screw include The Turning (2012) by Francine Prose and Tighter (2011) by Adele Griffin. Ruth Ware's 2019 novel The Turn of the Key sets the story in the 21st century.
Television
The Turn of the Screw has also influenced television. In December 1968, the ABC daytime drama Dark Shadows featured a storyline based on The Turn of the Screw. In the story, the ghosts of Quentin Collins and Beth Chavez haunted the west wing of Collinwood, possessing the two children living in the mansion. The story led to a year-long story in the year 1897, as Barnabas Collins travelled back in time to prevent Quentin's death and stop the possession. In early episodes of Star Trek: Voyager ("Cathexis", "Learning Curve" and "Persistence of Vision"), Captain Kathryn Janeway is seen on the holodeck acting out scenes from the holonovel Janeway Lambda one, which appears to be based on The Turn of the Screw. On February 21, 2019, Netflix announced that the novella would be adapted as The Haunting of Bly Manor for the second season of its newly-announced anthology series that began with The Haunting of Hill House.
Notes
References
External links
The Turn of the Screw at Project Gutenberg (1898 book version)
Author's preface to the New York Edition text of The Turn of the Screw (1908)
1898 American novels
1898 British novels
Frame stories
British novellas
American horror novels
American gothic novels
Ghost novels
Novels adapted into operas
American novels adapted into television shows
British novels adapted into television shows
American novellas
American novels adapted into films
Fiction with unreliable narrators
1898 fantasy novels
Novels set in Essex
American novels adapted into plays
Works originally published in Collier's
Novels by Henry James
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into ballets
Novels first published in serial form
British horror novels
British Gothic novels
Works set in country houses | [
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|
240336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20warthog | Common warthog | The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is a wild member of the pig family (Suidae) found in grassland, savanna, and woodland in sub-Saharan Africa. In the past, it was commonly treated as a subspecies of P. aethiopicus, but today that scientific name is restricted to the desert warthog of northern Kenya, Somalia, and eastern Ethiopia.
Subspecies
Nolan warthog (P. a. africanus) Gmelin, 1788 – Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Chad, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan
Eritrean warthog (P. a. aeliani) Cretzschmar, 1828 – Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia
Central African warthog (P. a. massaicus) Lönnberg, 1908 – Kenya, Tanzania
Southern warthog (P. a. sundevallii) Lönnberg, 1908 – Angola, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe
Description
The common warthog is a medium-sized species, with a head-and-body length ranging from , and shoulder height from . Females, at , are typically slightly smaller and lighter in weight than males, at . A warthog is identifiable by the two pairs of tusks protruding from the mouth and curving upwards. The lower pair, which is far shorter than the upper pair, becomes razor-sharp by rubbing against the upper pair every time the mouth is opened and closed. The upper canine teeth can grow to long and have a wide elliptical cross section, being about deep and wide. A tusk will curve 90° or more from the root, and will not lie flat on a table, as it curves somewhat backwards as it grows. The tusks are not used for digging, but are used for combat with other hogs, and in defense against predators – the lower set can inflict severe wounds.
Common warthog ivory is taken from the constantly growing canine teeth. The tusks, particularly the upper set, work in much the same way as elephant tusks with all designs scaled down. Tusks are carved predominantly for the tourist trade in east and southern Africa.
The head of the common warthog is large, with a mane down the spine to the middle of the back. Sparse hair covers the body. Its color is usually black or brown. Tails are long and end with a tuft of hair. Common warthogs do not have subcutaneous fat and the coat is sparse, making them susceptible to extreme environmental temperatures.
Ecology
The common warthog is the only pig species that has adapted to grazing and savanna habitats. Its diet is omnivorous, composed of grasses, roots, berries and other fruits, bark, fungi, insects, eggs and carrion. The diet is seasonably variable, depending on availability of different food items. During the wet seasons, warthogs graze on short perennial grasses. During the dry seasons, they subsist on bulbs, rhizomes, and nutritious roots.
Warthogs are powerful diggers, using both their snouts and feet. When feeding, they often bend their front feet backwards and move around on the wrists. Calloused pads that protect the wrists during such movement form quite early in the development of the fetus. Although they can dig their own burrows, they commonly occupy abandoned burrows of aardvarks and other animals. The common warthog commonly reverses into burrows, with its head facing the opening and ready to burst out if necessary. Common warthogs will wallow in mud to cope with high temperatures and huddle together to cope with low temperatures.
Although capable of fighting (males aggressively fight each other during mating season), the common warthog's primary defense is to flee by means of fast sprinting. When threatened, Warthogs can run speeds of up to 48 km/h (30 mph), will run with their tails sticking up and will enter their dens rear first with tusks facing out. The common warthog's main predators are humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs, crocodiles, wild dogs and hyenas. Birds of prey such as Verreaux's eagle owls and martial eagles sometimes prey on piglets. However, if a female common warthog has any piglets, she will defend them very aggressively. On occasion, common warthogs have been observed charging and even wounding large predators. Common warthogs have also been observed allowing banded mongooses and vervet monkeys to groom them to remove ticks.
Social behavior and reproduction
Common warthogs are not territorial, but instead occupy a home range. Common warthogs live in groups called sounders. Females live in sounders with their young and with other females. Females tend to stay in their natal groups, while males leave, but stay within the home range. Subadult males associate in bachelor groups, but live alone when they become adults. Adult males only join sounders with estrous females. Warthogs have two facial glands: the tusk gland and the sebaceous gland. Common warthogs of both sexes begin to mark around six to seven months old. Males tend to mark more than females. They mark sleeping and feeding areas and waterholes. Common warthogs use tusk marking for courtship, for antagonistic behaviors, and to establish status.
Common warthogs are seasonal breeders. Rutting begins in the late rainy or early dry season and birthing begins near the start of the following rainy season. The mating system is described as "overlap promiscuity"; the males have ranges overlapping several female ranges, and the daily behavior of the female is unpredictable. Boars employ two mating strategies during the rut. With the "staying tactic", a boar will stay and defend certain females or a resource valuable to them. In the "roaming tactic", boars seek out estrous sows and compete for them. Boars will wait for sows to emerge outside their burrows. A dominant boar will displace any other boar that also tries to court his female. When a sow leaves her den, the boar will try to demonstrate his dominance and then follow her before copulation. For the "staying tactic", monogamy, female-defense polygyny, or resource-defense polygyny is promoted, while the "roaming tactic" promotes scramble-competition polygyny.
The typical gestation period is five to six months. When they are about to give birth, sows temporarily leave their families to farrow in a separate hole. The litter is 2–8 piglets, with 2–4 typical. The sow will stay in the hole for several weeks, nursing her piglets. Common warthog sows have been observed to nurse foster piglets if they lose their own litter. This behavior, known as allosucking, makes them cooperative breeders. Allosucking does not seem to be a case of mistaken identity or milk theft, and may be a sign of kin altruism. Piglets begin grazing at about two to three weeks and are weaned by six months. Piglets quickly attain mobility and stay close to their mothers for defense.
Conservation status
As of 1999, the common warthog population in southern Africa is estimated to be about 250,000. Typical densities range between one and 10 per km2 in protected areas, but local densities of 77 per km2 were found on short grass in Nakuru National Park. The species is susceptible to drought and hunting (especially with dogs), which may result in localized extinctions. The common warthog is present in numerous protected areas across its extensive range.
Related species
Metridiochoerus – extinct giant warthog
Wild boar
References
External links
common warthog
Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa
common warthog
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
el:Φακόχοιρος
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|
240338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hannah%20%28actor%29 | John Hannah (actor) | John David Hannah (born 23 April 1962) is a Scottish film and television actor. He came to prominence in Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994), for which he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role as Matthew. His other film appearances include Sliding Doors (1998) and The Mummy trilogy (1999–2008). His television roles include: Dr Iain McCallum in McCallum (1995–1998); D.I. John Rebus in Rebus (2000–2001); Jack Roper in New Street Law (2006–2007); Jake Osbourne in Cold Blood (2007–2008), Quintus Lentulus Batiatus in Spartacus (2010–2011), Jack Cloth in A Touch of Cloth (2012–14), Jason's father (Aeson) in the BBC series Atlantis (2013–15), Dr Holden Radcliffe in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (2016–2017), Colin in Overboard (2018), and Archie Wilson in the BBC series Trust Me.
Early life
Hannah was born in East Kilbride in Lanarkshire, the youngest of three children; he has two older sisters. His mother, Susan, was a cleaner at Marks & Spencer, and his father, John, a toolmaker. He attended Heathery Knowe Primary School then Claremont High School in East Kilbride and went on to an apprenticeship as an electrician. In East Kilbride, he participated in the East Kilbride Rep Theatre Club. At the suggestion of a colleague, after completing his apprenticeship he then attended the prestigious Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama.
Career
After graduation, Hannah had parts in theatre productions, films and television, which included leading roles. He broke into the "big-time" with his appearance as Matthew in Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994). Since this breakthrough role, he has played a psychopathic killer alongside Helen Baxendale in Truth or Dare and a mystery-solving pathologist in McCallum. He was a karaoke-mad dead-beat dad in The James Gang, the alcoholic, pilfering but endearing, lovable comic-relief brother of the female lead in The Mummy (1999), The Mummy Returns (2001) and The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008) and a Monty Python-quoting romantic comedy love interest in Sliding Doors (1998). Hannah also starred in the axed U.S. series MDs (2002), as well as making guest appearances in Alias (2001), Carnivàle (2002) and Frasier (2003). In 2006 he starred in the drama series New Street Law. In 2007–08, he played a starring role in the ITV crime drama Cold Blood.
On 24 December 1997, Hannah and Scottish Films producer Murray Ferguson established a production company called Clerkenwell Films. Clerkenwell's first big production was the Rebus series, including Black And Blue and The Hanging Garden. However, Rebus was later taken in-house by STV Productions, and Hannah was replaced in the leading role in the series by Ken Stott.
He is the voice of the Co-operative Group adverts in Europe. He played the part of Quintus Lentulus Batiatus, the owner of a gladiator training house, in Spartacus: Blood and Sand and the prequel Spartacus: Gods of the Arena.
Hannah played the recurring role of scientist Holden Radcliffe on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in a recurring role during season three and got promoted to series regular during season four.
Personal life
Hannah married actress Joanna Roth on 20 January 1996. The pair met several years before during a studio production of Shakespeare's Measure for Measure. In many of his interviews, he mentions stories from their relationship, such as the visit to London's 'Sri Siam' restaurant where he proposed to her in writing on the tablecloth. They live in Richmond, London with their two children.
Filmography
References
External links
John Hannah on Mellow Magic
1962 births
Living people
Scottish male film actors
Scottish male television actors
People from East Kilbride
Scottish male stage actors
Scottish male Shakespearean actors
People educated at Claremont High School (East Kilbride) | [
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|
240339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luc%C3%ADa%20M%C3%A9ndez | Lucía Méndez | Lucía Leticia Méndez Pérez (born January 26, 1955) is a Mexican telenovela and film actress, top model and singer. Méndez was born in León, Guanajuato, Mexico.
Career
In 2011, Lucía starred in Mexico the telenovela Esperanza del Corazón ("Hoping Heart"), with Fernando Allende and the Mexican Broadway star Bianca Marroquín. Also in 2011, she was inducted into the Paseo de las Luminarias (Plaza of the Stars) for her work as a recording artist and in television.
Albums
2018: Feel My Body
2017: En Escena (en vivo)
2015: Bailan
2013: Lo Esencial de Lucía Méndez 40 Aniversario
2010: Canta un Homenaje a Juan Gabriel
2009: Otra Vez Enamorada... con un Nuevo Amanecer
2004: Vive
2001: 20 Grandes Éxitos
2000: Golpe Bajo (Original Soundtrack)
1999: Dulce Romance
1998: Todo o Nada
1994: Señora Tentación
1993: Se Prohibe
1992: Marielena (Original Soundtrack)
1991: Bésame
1990: Amor de Nadie (Single)
1989: Luna Morena
1988: Mis Íntimas Razones
1987: Acapulco, Acapulco (Single)
1986: Castígame
1986: Lo Mejor de Lucía Méndez
1985: Te Quiero
1984: Sólo Una Mujer
1983: Enamorada
1982: Cerca de Tí
1980: Regálame Esta Noche ... Colorina
1979: Sé Feliz
1978: Viviana (Original Soundtrack)
1977: La Sonrisa del Año
1977: No Te Buscaré (Single)
1976: Lucía Méndez
1975: Siempre estoy Pensando en Tí
Filmography
Film
Television
Singles
Te Vas O Te Quedas (2014)
Esperanza del Corazón / Cerca (2011)
Amor Eterno (2010)
¿Por qué Me Haces Llorar? (2010)
Amor de un Rato (2010)
Un Nuevo Amanecer (2009)
Enamorada (2009)
Aunque Me Duela el Alma / El Cubano está Loco(2004)
La Pareja Dispareja (2004)
Golpe Bajo / Rehilete (2000)
Perdóname(1999)
Corazón de Acero (1998)
Todo o Nada (1998)
Ya la pagarás (1998)
Señora Tentación / Pecadora (1994)
Pobre Corazón (1994)
Vete (1993)
Se Acabó / Se Me Antoja (1992)
Bésame / La que Más Te ha Querido (1992)
Amor de Nadie / Amor de Nadie (Instrumental) (1990)
Tormenta de Verano / Luna Morena (Creo en el Amor) (1990)
Juntos por Costumbre / No Hay Hombres (1990)
Nos Aburriremos Juntos / ¿Quién Será? (1989)
Aventurero (1988)
Un Alma en Pena (1988)
Morir un Poco (1988)
Acapulco, Acapulco (1987)
Yo No Sé Quererte Más / Amor por Amor (1987)
Castígame / Mariposa (1986)
Amor Impossible / No, No Más (1986)
Infinitamente / México (1985)
Te Quiero / La Ola de Amor (1985)
Corazón de Piedra / Don Corazón (1984)
Solo una Mujer / La Luna de Cancún (1984)
Mi Amor, Amor / Cobarde (1983)
Enamorada / Super Miedo (1983)
Te Tengo en Mis Manos / Contigo o sin Ti (1982)
Culpable o Innocente / ¿Qué Clase de Hombre Eres Tú? (1982)
Atada a Nada / Amo Todo de Ti (1982)
Colorina / Regálame Esta Noche (1980)
Amor de Madrugada / Paloma Blanca (1979)
Verte una Vez Más / Tengo Sed (1979)
Viviana / Viviana (Instrumental) (1978)
Asómate a Mi Alma / La Estrella (1977)
La Sonrisa del Año / Presentimiento (1977)
No Te Buscaré / Yo Sé que Está en Tu Corazón (1977)
Hay que Saber Perder / Cariño Nuevo (1976)
Frente a Frente / Mi Vida está Rosa (1976)
No Me lo Tomes a Mal / Te Solté la Rienda (1975)
¿Por qué Me Haces Llorar? / La Última Canción (1975)
Siempre Estoy Pensando en Ti / ¿Qué Pasó Corazoncito? (1975)
Video clips
Te Vas O Te Quedas (2014)
Cerca (2011)
Amor de un Rato (2010)
La Pareja Dispareja (2004)
Perdóname (1999)
Ya la Pagarás (1998)
Señora Tentación (1994)
Vete (1993)
Se Acabó (1992)
La que Más Te ha Querido (1992)
Un Poquito de Sabor (1991)
Tormenta de Verano (1991)
Amor de Nadie (1990)
Devuélveme el Amor (1990)
Secreto (1990)
Juntos por Costumbre (Versión 2) (1990)
Luna Morena (1990)
Juntos por Costumbre (Versión 1) (1990)
Nube Viajera (1990)
No Hay Hombres (1990)
¿Quién Será? (1989)
Nos Aburriremos Juntos (1989)
Aventurero (1988)
Un Alma en Pena (1988)
Yo No Sé Quererte Más (Versión 2) (1987)
Yo No Sé Quererte Más (Versión 1) (1987)
Castígame (1986)
Amor Impossible (1986)
La Ola de Amor (1985)
Te Quiero (1985)
Don corazón (1984)
Corazón de Piedra (1984)
La Luna de Cancún (1984)
Sólo una Mujer (1984)
Amor a Dos (1983)
Corazón de Fresa (1983)
Cobarde (1983)
Márchate de Aquí (1983)
Parte de Mí (1983)
Margarita (1983)
Amor Volcánico (1983)
Enamorada (1983)
Escúchame (1982)
Contigo o sin Ti (1982)
¿Qué Clase de Hombre Eres Tú? (1982)
Culpable o Innocente (1982)
Estrellita del Sur (1977)
Frente a Frente (1976)
¿Qué Pasó Corazoncito? (1975)
References
External links
Lucía Méndez official Web Site in English & Spanish
1955 births
Living people
Mexican telenovela actresses
Mexican television actresses
Mexican film actresses
Mexican women singers
Actresses from Guanajuato
Singers from Guanajuato
Mexican emigrants to the United States
American expatriates in Mexico
20th-century Mexican actresses
21st-century Mexican actresses
People from León, Guanajuato
Women in Latin music | [
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240340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%20Jacquet | Illinois Jacquet | Jean-Baptiste "Illinois" Jacquet (October 30, 1922 – July 22, 2004) was an American jazz tenor saxophonist, best remembered for his solo on "Flying Home", critically recognized as the first R&B saxophone solo.
Although he was a pioneer of the honking tenor saxophone that became a regular feature of jazz playing and a hallmark of early rock and roll, Jacquet was a skilled and melodic improviser, both on up-tempo tunes and ballads. He doubled on the bassoon, one of only a few jazz musicians to use the instrument.
Early life
Jacquet's parents were Creoles of color, named Marguerite Trahan and Gilbert Jacquet, When he was an infant, his family moved from Louisiana to Houston, Texas, and he was raised there as one of six siblings. His father was a part-time bandleader. As a child he performed in his father's band, primarily on the alto saxophone. His older brother Russell Jacquet played trumpet and his other brother Linton played drums.
At 15, Jacquet began playing with the Milton Larkin Orchestra, a Houston-area dance band. In 1939, he moved to Los Angeles, California, where he met Nat King Cole. Jacquet would sit in with the trio on occasion. In 1940, Cole introduced Jacquet to Lionel Hampton who had returned to California and was putting together a big band. Hampton wanted to hire Jacquet, but asked the young Jacquet to switch to tenor saxophone.
Career
In 1942, at age 19, Jacquet soloed on the Hampton Orchestra's recording of "Flying Home", one of the first times a honking tenor sax was heard on record. The record became a hit. The song immediately became the climax for the live shows and Jacquet became exhausted from having to "bring down the house" every night. The solo was built to weave in and out of the arrangement and continued to be played by every saxophone player who followed Jacquet in the band, including Arnett Cobb and Dexter Gordon, who achieved almost as much attention as Jacquet in playing it. It is one of the few jazz solos to have been memorized and played very much the same way by everyone who played the song. He left the Hampton band in 1943 and joined Cab Calloway's Orchestra. Jacquet appeared with Calloway's band in Lena Horne's movie Stormy Weather (1943). In the earlier years of Jacquet's career, his brother Linton Jacquet managed him on the chitlin circuit Linton's daughter Brenda Jacquet-Ross sang in jazz venues in the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1990s to early 2000s, with a band called the Mondo Players.
In 1944, Illinois Jacquet returned to California and started a small band with his brother Russell and a young Charles Mingus. It was at this time that he appeared in the Academy Award-nominated short film Jammin' the Blues with Lester Young. He also appeared at the first Jazz at the Philharmonic concert. In 1946, he moved to New York City, and joined the Count Basie orchestra, replacing Lester Young. In 1952, Jacquet co-wrote "Just When We're Falling in Love"; Illinois Jacquet (m) Sir Charles Thompson (m) S. K. "Bob" Russell (l). Jacquet continued to perform (mostly in Europe) in small groups through the 1960s and 1970s. He led the Illinois Jacquet Big Band from 1981 until his death. Jacquet became the first jazz musician to be an artist-in-residence at Harvard University, in 1983. He played "C-Jam Blues" with President Bill Clinton on the White House lawn during Clinton's inaugural ball in 1993. Jacquet's final performance was on July 16, 2004, at the Lincoln Center in New York.
Personal life
Jacquet was married to Jacqueline Jacquet.
His marriage to socialite Barbara Jacquet ended in divorce. Together they had a daughter, Pamela Jacquet Davis.
Jacquet died in his home in Queens, New York, of a heart attack on July 22, 2004. He was 81 years of age. He is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.
Influence
His solos of the early and mid-1940s and his performances at the Jazz at the Philharmonic concert series, influenced rhythm and blues and rock and roll saxophone style, but also continue to be heard in jazz. His honking and screeching emphasized the lower and higher registers of the tenor saxophone. Despite a superficial rawness, the style is heard in jazz players like Arnett Cobb, who also became known for playing "Flying Home" with Hampton, as well as Sonny Rollins, Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Jimmy Forrest.
Activism
Jacquet pushed back against Jim Crow laws in Houston. After booking his band to play at the Rice Hotel, he protested against management's rule that African Americans should enter the premises through an alley door. He issued an ultimatum: either allow his all-black orchestra to access the hotel through the main entrance or he would cancel the engagement. The Rice Hotel agreed to suspend the Jim Crow rule for Jacquet's band.
After leaving Houston to tour the United States and several other countries, Jacquet contemplated the manner in which he would return:
Jazz producer Norman Granz, who had been a social activist himself, made arrangements for the star-studded Philharmonic band to play an engagement at Houston's Music Hall on October 5, 1955. Jacquet played saxophone, accompanying Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, and Buddy Rich. Granz and Jacquet collaborated to eliminate Jim Crow customs from the event. There were no advanced sales of tickets, while Granz removed all of the "white" and "black" signs which indicated segregated facilities within the venue and hired some off-duty Houston police officers for security. The band played before a non-segregated audience, though not completely free of trouble. Despite Granz's precaution, five officers of the Houston Vice Squad stormed Ella Fitzgerald's dressing room with firearms drawn. Jacquet and Gillespie were playing dice games, which the Vice Squad used as a pretext for arresting Jacquet, Gillespie, Ella Fitzgerald and her assistant. This was a performance within a performance, however, as the quartet was whisked to the police station, where there were waiting photographers. After paying their fines, they all returned to the Music Hall where the band played the second set with the audience none the wiser.
Memorial
In 2008, The Chapel of the Sisters in Prospect Cemetery was restored and re-dedicated as the Illinois Jacquet Performance Space on the grounds of York College in Jamaica, Queens.
Discography
As leader
1951 Battle Of The Saxes (Aladdin LP-701 [10"]) – with Lester Young
1951 Illinois Jacquet: Collates (Mercury/Clef MGC-112 [10"])
1952 Illinois Jacquet: Collates, No. 2 (Mercury/Clef MGC-129 [10"])
1953 Jazz By Jacquet (Clef MGC-167 [10"])
1953 Jazz Moods By Illinois Jacquet (Clef MGC-622)
1954 Illinois Jacquet And His Tenor Sax (Aladdin LP-708 [10"]; Aladdin LP-803 [rel. 1956]; Imperial LP-9184/LP-12184 [rel. 1962])
1954 The Kid and the Brute (Clef MGC-680; Verve MGV-8065) – with Ben Webster
1955 Illinois Jacquet [septet] (Clef MGC-676; Verve MGV-8061) – with Harry "Sweets" Edison
1956 Jazz Moode (Clef MGC-700; Verve MGV-8084) compilation of MGC-112, MGC-129, MGC-622
1956 Port Of Rico (Clef MGC-701; Verve MGV-8085) compilation of MGC-129, MGC-167, MGC-622
1956 Groovin' with Jacquet (Clef MGC-702; Verve MGV-8086) compilation of MGC-112, MGC-129, MGC-167, MGC-622
1956 Swing's the Thing (Clef MGC-750; Verve MGV-8023) -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10228)
1959 Illinois Jacquet Flies Again (Roulette SR-52035) -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10229)
1962 Illinois Jacquet And His Orchestra (Epic BA-17033) – with Roy Eldridge -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10229)
1963 The Message (Argo LPS-722) – with Kenny Burrell -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10230)
1964 Desert Winds (Argo LPS-735) – with Kenny Burrell -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10230)
1964 Bosses of the Ballad: Illinois Jacquet And Strings Play Cole Porter (Argo LPS-746) -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10231)
1965 Spectrum (Argo LPS-754) -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10231)
1966 Go Power! [recorded live at 'Lennie's On-The-Turnpike' in West Peabody, MA] (Cadet LPS-773) – with Milt Buckner, Alan Dawson -note: reissued on CD in 2005 by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10232)
1968 Bottoms Up: Illinois Jacquet On Prestige! (Prestige PR-7575) (CD reissue: Original Jazz Classics OJC-417)
1968 The King! (Prestige PR-7597) (CD reissue: Original Jazz Classics OJC-849)
1969 The Soul Explosion (Prestige PR-7629) (CD reissue: Original Jazz Classics OJC-674)
1969 The Blues; That's Me! (Prestige PR-7731) – with Tiny Grimes (CD reissue: Original Jazz Classics OJC-614)
1971 Genius At Work! (Recorded Live At The Ronnie Scott Club, London) (Black Lion BL-146) -note: reissued on CD as The Comeback (Black Lion BLCD-760160)
1973 Volume 1: Jazz At Town Hall (J.R.C. Records 11433) – with Arnett Cobb
1973 The Blues From Louisiana (J.R.C. Records 11433; Classic Jazz CJ-???) -note: this is a reissue of Jazz At Town Hall
1973 Illinois Jacquet With Wild Bill Davis (Disques Black And Blue 33.044; Classic Jazz CJ-112 [rel. 1978]) -note: reissued on CD as The Man I Love (Black & Blue BB-865)
1973 Illinois Jacquet With Wild Bill Davis, Vol. 2 (Disques Black And Blue 33.082)
1974 Illinois Jacquet With Milt And Jo (Disques Black And Blue 33.070) – with Milt Buckner, Jo Jones -note: reissued on CD as Bottoms Up (Black & Blue BB-893)
1975 Volume 2: Birthday Party (J.R.C. Records 11434) – with James Moody -note: reissued on CD in 1999 by Groove Note Records
1976 Here Comes Freddy (Sonet SNTF-714) – with Howard McGhee (CD reissue: Sonet SNTCD-714)
1976 Jacquet's Street (Disques Black And Blue 33.112; Classic Jazz CJ-146 [rel. 1981]) (CD reissue: Black & Blue BB-972)
1978 God Bless My Solo (Disques Black And Blue 33.167) (CD reissue: Black & Blue BB-941)
1982 The Cool Rage [2LP compilation that also includes 4 previously unreleased tracks from 1958 with Wild Bill Davis and Kenny Burrell] (Verve VE2-2544) -note: the 4 tracks from the 1958 session are reissued on CD by Lone Hill Jazz (LHJ-10228)
1983 Jazz At The Philharmonic: Blues In Chicago 1955 (Verve 815155) – with Oscar Peterson, Herb Ellis
1988 Jacquet's Got It! (Atlantic 81816)
1988 The Black Velvet Band [recorded 1947-1950] (Bluebird/RCA 6571-1-RB)
1989 Banned In Boston (Portrait/CBS RJ-44391) -note: this is a reissue of Illinois Jacquet And His Orchestra (BA-17033)
1991 Loot To Boot (LRC [Lester Radio Corporation] 9034) -note: this is a reissue of The Last Blues Album, Volume 1 (Groove Merchant GM-3303) with 3 tracks from Illinois Jacquet With Wild Bill Davis (Classic Jazz CJ-112) added on.
1994 Flying Home: The Best Of The Verve Years (Verve 521644)
1994 Jazz At The Philharmonic: The First Concert [recorded 1944] (Verve 521646) – with Nat "King" Cole, Les Paul, J. J. Johnson
1994 Illinois Jacquet And His All Star New York Band [recorded 1980] (JSP 212)
1996 The Complete Illinois Jacquet Sessions 1945-1950 [all his Philo/Aladdin, Apollo, ARA, Savoy, and RCA Victor material] (Mosaic MD4-0165) -4-CD box set
2002 The Illinois Jacquet Story [recorded 1944-1951] (Proper BOX 49) -4-CD box set
2002 Jumpin' At Apollo [recorded 1945-1947] (Delmark DE-538)
2003 Live At Schaffhausen, Switzerland: March 18, 1978 (Storyville Records; UPC: 4526180360506)
2006 Swingin' Live With Illinois Jacquet: His Final Performance [recorded 2004] (Jacquet Records; UPC: 837101208147) -2CD
2013 Toronto 1947 (Uptown Records; UPC: 026198277321) – with Leo Parker
2014 Live In Berlin 1987 (Squatty Roo Records; UPC: 686647021204)
2014 Live In Burghausen 1996 (Squatty Roo Records; UPC: 686647022102)
As sideman
With Count Basie
String Along with Basie (Roulette, 1960)
Half a Sixpence (Dot, 1967)
With Kenny Burrell
Bluesin' Around (Columbia, 1962 [released 1983])
With Joey DeFrancesco
Where Were You? (Columbia, 1990)
With Modern Jazz Quartet
MJQ & Friends: A 40th Anniversary Celebration (Atlantic, 1994)
With Buddy Rich
The Last Blues Album Volume 1 (Groove Merchant, 1974)
With Sonny Stitt
What's New!!! (Roulette, 1966)
With Buddy Tate
Buddy Tate and His Buddies (Chiaroscuro, 1973)
References
Further reading
Morrison, Nick (2011) "Five Titans Of Texas Tenor Sax". NPR.Org.
NPR Radio (2008) "Illinois Jacquet: King Of The Screeching Tenor". NPR Radio. November 5, 2008.
Scherick, Carol (2011) "Biography by Illinois Jacquet for Press".
USA TODAY (2004) "Jazz saxophonist Illinois Jacquet dies"
External links
The Illinois Jacquet Foundation
The Chapel of Sisters / Illinois Jacquet Performance Space
Illinois Jacquet Interview NAMM Oral History Library (1995)
1922 births
2004 deaths
People from Broussard, Louisiana
African-American saxophonists
American jazz bassoonists
American male jazz musicians
American jazz tenor saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent
Bebop saxophonists
Count Basie Orchestra members
Harvard University staff
Jump blues saxophonists
Louisiana Creole people
Musicians from Houston
Prestige Records artists
Swing saxophonists
Verve Records artists
RCA Records artists
Atlantic Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Epic Records artists
American rock saxophonists
Apollo Records artists
African-American rock musicians
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Mercury Records artists
Roulette Records artists
20th-century saxophonists
Jazz musicians from Louisiana
Black Lion Records artists
Black & Blue Records artists
Aladdin Records artists
The Cab Calloway Orchestra members
20th-century American male musicians | [
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240342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market%20segmentation | Market segmentation | In marketing, market segmentation is the process of dividing a broad consumer or business market, normally consisting of existing and potential customers, into sub-groups of consumers (known as segments) based on some type of shared characteristics.
In dividing or segmenting markets, researchers typically look for common characteristics such as shared needs, common interests, similar lifestyles, or even similar demographic profiles. The overall aim of segmentation is to identify high yield segments – that is, those segments that are likely to be the most profitable or that have growth potential – so that these can be selected for special attention (i.e. become target markets). Many different ways to segment a market have been identified. Business-to-business (B2B) sellers might segment the market into different types of businesses or countries, while business-to-consumer (B2C) sellers might segment the market into demographic segments, such as lifestyle, behavior, or socioeconomic status.
Market segmentation assumes that different market segments require different marketing programs – that is, different offers, prices, promotion, distribution, or some combination of marketing variables. Market segmentation is not only designed to identify the most profitable segments, but also to develop profiles of key segments in order to better understand their needs and purchase motivations. Insights from segmentation analysis are subsequently used to support marketing strategy development and planning. Many marketers use the S-T-P approach; Segmentation → Targeting → Positioning to provide the framework for marketing planning objectives. That is, a market is segmented, one or more segments are selected for targeting, and products or services are positioned in a way that resonates with the selected target market or markets.
Definition and brief explanation
Market segmentation is the process of dividing up mass markets into groups with similar needs and wants. The rationale for market segmentation is that in order to achieve competitive advantage and superior performance, firms should: "(1) identify segments of industry demand, (2) target specific segments of demand, and (3) develop specific 'marketing mixes' for each targeted market segment. " From an economic perspective, segmentation is built on the assumption that heterogeneity in demand allows for demand to be disaggregated into segments with distinct demand functions.
History
The business historian, Richard S. Tedlow, identifies four stages in the evolution of market segmentation:
Fragmentation (pre-1880s): The economy was characterized by small regional suppliers who sold goods on a local or regional basis
Unification or mass marketing (1880s–1920s): As transportation systems improved, the economy became unified. Standardized, branded goods were distributed at a national level. Manufacturers tended to insist on strict standardization in order to achieve scale economies to penetrate markets in the early stages of a product's lifecycle. e.g. the Model T Ford
Segmentation (1920s–1980s): As market size increased, manufacturers were able to produce different models pitched at different quality points to meet the needs of various demographic and psychographic market segments. This is the era of market differentiation based on demographic, socio-economic, and lifestyle factors.
Hyper-segmentation (post-1980s): a shift towards the definition of ever more narrow market segments. Technological advancements, especially in the area of digital communications, allow marketers to communicate with individual consumers or very small groups. This is sometimes known as one-to-one marketing.
The practice of market segmentation emerged well before marketers thought about it at a theoretical level. Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age traders segmented trade routes according to geographical circuits. Other evidence suggests that the practice of modern market segmentation was developed incrementally from the 16th century onwards. Retailers, operating outside the major metropolitan cities, could not afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively, yet retailers needed to find ways to separate the wealthier clientele from the "riff raff". One simple technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into vogue from the late sixteenth century, was to invite favored customers into a back-room of the store, where goods were permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in the shopkeeper's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. The eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs, Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, both staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls to which only the upper classes were invited while Wedgewood used a team of itinerant salesmen to sell wares to the masses.
Evidence of early marketing segmentation has also been noted elsewhere in Europe. A study of the German book trade found examples of both product differentiation and market segmentation in the 1820s. From the 1880s, German toy manufacturers were producing models of tin toys for specific geographic markets; London omnibuses and ambulances destined for the British market; French postal delivery vans for Continental Europe and American locomotives intended for sale in America. Such activities suggest that basic forms of market segmentation have been practiced since the 17th century and possibly earlier.
Contemporary market segmentation emerged in the first decades of the twentieth century as marketers responded to two pressing issues. Demographic and purchasing data were available for groups but rarely for individuals and secondly, advertising and distribution channels were available for groups, but rarely for single consumers. Between 1902 and 1910, George B Waldron, working at Mahin's Advertising Agency in the United States used tax registers, city directories, and census data to show advertisers the proportion of educated vs illiterate consumers and the earning capacity of different occupations, etc. in a very early example of simple market segmentation. In 1924 Paul Cherington developed the 'ABCD' household typology; the first socio-demographic segmentation tool. By the 1930s, market researchers such as Ernest Dichter recognized that demographics alone were insufficient to explain different marketing behaviours and began exploring the use of lifestyles, attitudes, values, beliefs and culture to segment markets. With access to group-level data only, brand marketers approached the task from a tactical viewpoint. Thus, segmentation was essentially a brand-driven process.
Wendell R. Smith is generally credited with being the first to introduce the concept of market segmentation into the marketing literature in 1956 with the publication of his article, "Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies." Smith's article makes it clear that he had observed "many examples of segmentation" emerging and to a certain extent saw this as a "natural force" in the market that would "not be denied." As Schwarzkopf points out, Smith was codifying implicit knowledge that had been used in advertising and brand management since at least the 1920s.
Until relatively recently, most segmentation approaches have retained a tactical perspective in that they address immediate short-term decisions; such as describing the current “market served” and are concerned with informing marketing mix decisions. However, with the advent of digital communications and mass data storage, it has been possible for marketers to conceive of segmenting at the level of the individual consumer. Extensive data is now available to support segmentation at very narrow groups or even for the single customer, allowing marketers to devise a customised offer with an individual price which can be disseminated via real-time communications. Some scholars have argued that the fragmentation of markets has rendered traditional approaches to market segmentation less useful.
Criticisms
The limitations of conventional segmentation have been well documented in the literature. Perennial criticisms include:
That it is no better than mass marketing at building brands
That in competitive markets, segments rarely exhibit major differences in the way they use brands
That it fails to identify sufficiently narrow clusters
Geographic/demographic segmentation is overly descriptive and lacks sufficient insights into the motivations necessary to drive communications strategy
Difficulties with market dynamics, notably the instability of segments over time and structural change which leads to segment creep and membership migration as individuals move from one segment to another
Market segmentation has many critics. But in spite of its limitations, market segmentation remains one of the enduring concepts in marketing and continues to be widely used in practice. One American study, for example, suggested that almost 60 percent of senior executives had used market segmentation in the past two years.
Market segmentation strategy
A key consideration for marketers is whether to segment or not to segment. Depending on company philosophy, resources, product type, or market characteristics, a business may develop an undifferentiated approach or differentiated approach. In an undifferentiated approach, the marketer ignores segmentation and develops a product that meets the needs of the largest number of buyers. In a differentiated approach the firm targets one or more market segments, and develops separate offers for each segment.
In consumer marketing, it is difficult to find examples of undifferentiated approaches. Even goods such as salt and sugar, which were once treated as commodities, are now highly differentiated. Consumers can purchase a variety of salt products; cooking salt, table salt, sea salt, rock salt, kosher salt, mineral salt, herbal or vegetable salts, iodized salt, salt substitutes, and many more. Sugar also comes in many different types - cane sugar, beet sugar, raw sugar, white refined sugar, brown sugar, caster sugar, sugar lumps, icing sugar (also known as milled sugar), sugar syrup, invert sugar, and a plethora of sugar substitutes including smart sugar which is essentially a blend of pure sugar and a sugar substitute. Each of these product types is designed to meet the needs of specific market segments. Invert sugar and sugar syrups, for example, are marketed to food manufacturers where they are used in the production of conserves, chocolate, and baked goods. Sugars marketed to consumers appeal to different usage segments – refined sugar is primarily for use on the table, while caster sugar and icing sugar are primarily designed for use in home-baked goods.
A number of factors are likely to affect a company's segmentation strategy:
Company resources: When resources are restricted, a concentrated strategy may be more effective.
Product variability: For highly uniform products (such as sugar or steel) undifferentiated marketing may be more appropriate. For products that can be differentiated, (such as cars) then either a differentiated or concentrated approach is indicated.
Product life cycle: For new products, one version may be used at the launch stage, but this may be expanded to a more segmented approach over time. As more competitors enter the market, it may be necessary to differentiate.
Market characteristics: When all buyers have similar tastes or are unwilling to pay a premium for different quality, then undifferentiated marketing is indicated.
Competitive activity: When competitors apply differentiated or concentrated market segmentation, using undifferentiated marketing may prove to be fatal. A company should consider whether it can use a different market segmentation approach
Segmentation, targeting, positioning
The process of segmenting the market is deceptively simple. Seven basic steps describe the entire process including segmentation, targeting, and positioning. In practice, however, the task can be very laborious since it involves poring over voluminous data, and requires a great deal of skill in analysis, interpretation, and some judgment. Although a great deal of analysis needs to be undertaken, and many decisions need to be made, marketers tend to use the so-called S-T-P process, that is Segmentation→ Targeting → Positioning, as a broad framework for simplifying the process. Segmentation comprises identifying the market to be segmented; identification, selection, and application of bases to be used in that segmentation; and development of profiles. Targeting comprises an evaluation of each segment's attractiveness and selection of the segments to be targeted. Positioning comprises the identification of optimal position and development of the marketing program.
Perhaps the most important marketing decision a firm makes is the selection of one or more market segments on which to focus. A market segment is a portion of a larger market whose needs differ somewhat from the larger market. Since a market segment has unique needs, a firm that develops a total product focused solely on the needs of that segment will be able to meet the segment’s desires better than a firm whose product or service attempts to meet the needs of multiple segments.
Identifying the market to be segmented
The market for a given product or service known as the market potential or the total addressable market (TAM). Given that this is the market to be segmented, the market analyst should begin by identifying the size of the potential market. For existing products and services, estimating the size and value of the market potential is relatively straightforward. However, estimating the market potential can be very challenging when a product or service is totally new to the market and no historical data on which to base forecasts exists.
A basic approach is to first assess the size of the broad population, then estimate the percentage likely to use the product or service and finally to estimate the revenue potential.
Another approach is to use a historical analogy. For example, the manufacturer of HDTV might assume that the number of consumers willing to adopt high definition TV will be similar to the adoption rate for Color TV. To support this type of analysis, data for household penetration of TV, Radio, PCs, and other communications technologies is readily available from government statistics departments. Finding useful analogies can be challenging because every market is unique. However, analogous product adoption and growth rates can provide the analyst with benchmark estimates, and can be used to cross-validate other methods that might be used to forecast sales or market size.
A more robust technique for estimating the market potential is known as the Bass diffusion model, the equation for which follows:
N(t) – N(t−1) = [p + qN(t−1)/m] × [m – N(t−1)]
Where:
N(t)= the number of adopters in the current time period, (t)
N(t−1)= the number of adopters in the previous time period, (t-1)
p = the coefficient of innovation
q = the coefficient of imitation (the social contagion influence)
m = an estimate of the number of eventual adopters
The major challenge with the Bass model is estimating the parameters for p and q. However, the Bass model has been so widely used in empirical studies that the values of p and q for more than 50 consumer and industrial categories have been determined and are widely published in tables. The average value for p is 0.037 and for q is 0.327.
Bases for segmenting consumer markets
A major step in the segmentation process is the selection of a suitable base. In this step, marketers are looking for a means of achieving internal homogeneity (similarity within the segments), and external heterogeneity (differences between segments). In other words, they are searching for a process that minimizes differences between members of a segment and maximizes differences between each segment. In addition, the segmentation approach must yield segments that are meaningful for the specific marketing problem or situation. For example, a person's hair color may be a relevant base for a shampoo manufacturer, but it would not be relevant for a seller of financial services. Selecting the right base requires a good deal of thought and a basic understanding of the market to be segmented.
In reality, marketers can segment the market using any base or variable provided that it is identifiable, substantial, responsive, actionable and stable.
Identifiability refers to the extent to which managers can identify or recognize distinct groups within the marketplace
Substantiality refers to the extent to which a segment or group of customers represents a sufficient size to be profitable. This could mean sufficiently large in number of people or in purchasing power
Accessibility refers to the extent to which marketers can reach the targeted segments with promotional or distribution efforts
Responsiveness refers to the extent to which consumers in a defined segment will respond to marketing offers targeted at them
Actionable – segments are said to be actionable when they provide guidance for marketing decisions.
For example, although dress size is not a standard base for segmenting a market, some fashion houses have successfully segmented the market using women's dress size as a variable. However, the most common bases for segmenting consumer markets include: geographics, demographics, psychographics, and behaviour. Marketers normally select a single base for the segmentation analysis, although, some bases can be combined into a single segmentation with care. For example, geographics and demographics are often combined, but other bases are rarely combined. Given that psychographics includes demographic variables such as age, gender, and income as well as attitudinal and behavioural variables, it makes little logical sense to combine psychographics with demographics or other bases. Any attempt to use combined bases needs careful consideration and a logical foundation.
The following sections provide a detailed description of the most common forms of consumer market segmentation.
Geographic segmentation
Geographic segmentation divides markets according to geographic criteria. In practice, markets can be segmented as broadly as continents and as narrowly as neighborhoods or postal codes. Typical geographic variables include:
Country Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, UK, US
Region North, North-west, Mid-west, South, Central
Population density: central business district (CBD), urban, suburban, rural, regional
City or town size: under 1,000; 1,000–5,000; 5,000–10,000 ... 1,000,000–3,000,000 and over 3,000,000
Climatic zone: Mediterranean, Temperate, Sub-Tropical, Tropical, Polar
The geo-cluster approach (also called geodemographic segmentation) combines demographic data with geographic data to create richer, more detailed profiles. Geo-cluster approaches are a consumer classification system designed for market segmentation and consumer profiling purposes. They classify residential regions or postcodes on the basis of census and lifestyle characteristics obtained from a wide range of sources. This allows the segmentation of a population into smaller groups defined by individual characteristics such as demographic, socio-economic, or other shared socio-demographic characteristics.
Geographic segmentation may be considered the first step in international marketing, where marketers must decide whether to adapt their existing products and marketing programs for the unique needs of distinct geographic markets. Tourism Marketing Boards often segment international visitors based on their country of origin.
A number of proprietary geo-demographic packages are available for commercial use. Geographic segmentation is widely used in direct marketing campaigns to identify areas that are potential candidates for personal selling, letter-box distribution, or direct mail. Geo-cluster segmentation is widely used by Governments and public sector departments such as urban planning, health authorities, police, criminal justice departments, telecommunications, and public utility organizations such as water boards.
Demographic segmentation
Segmentation according to demography is based on consumer- demographic variables such as age, income, family size, socio-economic status, etc.
Demographic segmentation assumes that consumers with similar demographic profiles will exhibit similar purchasing patterns, motivations, interests, and lifestyles and that these characteristics will translate into similar product/brand preferences. In practice, demographic segmentation can potentially employ any variable that is used by the nation's census collectors. Typical demographic variables and their descriptors are as follows:
Age: Under 5, 5–8 years, 9–12 years, 13–17 years, 18–24, 25–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60+
Gender: Male, Female
Occupation: Professional, self-employed, semi-professional, clerical/ admin, sales, trades, mining, primary producer, student, home duties, unemployed, retired
Socio-economic: A, B, C, D, E, or I, II, III, IV or V (normally divided into quintiles)
Marital Status: Single, married, divorced, widowed
Family Life-stage: Young single; Young married with no children; Young family with children under 5 years; Older married with children; Older married with no children living at home, Older living alone
Family size/ number of dependants: 0, 1–2, 3–4, 5+
Income: Under $10,000; 10,000–20,000; 20,001–30,000; 30,001–40,000, 40,001–50,000 etc.
Educational attainment: Primary school; Some secondary, Completed secondary, Some university, Degree; Post graduate or higher degree
Home ownership: Renting, Own home with mortgage, Home owned outright
Ethnicity: Asian, African, Aboriginal, Polynesian, Melanesian, Latin-American, African-American, American Indian, etc.
Religion: Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, Other
In practice, most demographic segmentation utilizes a combination of demographic variables.
The use of multiple segmentation variables normally requires analysis of databases using sophisticated statistical techniques such as cluster analysis or principal components analysis. These types of analysis require very large sample sizes. However, data collection is expensive for individual firms. For this reason, many companies purchase data from commercial market research firms, many of whom develop proprietary software to interrogate the data.
The labels applied to some of the more popular demographic segments began to enter the popular lexicon in the 1980s. These include the following:
DINK: Double (or dual) Income, No Kids, describes one member of a couple with above-average household income and no dependent children, tend to exhibit discretionary expenditure on luxury goods and entertainment and dining out
GLAM: Greying, Leisured and Moneyed. Retired older persons, asset rich, and high income. Tend to exhibit higher spending on recreation, travel, and entertainment
GUPPY: (aka GUPPIE) Gay, Upwardly Mobile, Prosperous, Professional; blend of gay and YUPPY (can also refer to the London-based equivalent of YUPPY)
MUPPY: (aka MUPPIE) Mid-aged, Upwardly Mobile, Prosperous, Professional
Preppy: (American) Well educated, well-off, upper-class young persons; a graduate of an expensive school. Often distinguished by a style of dress.
SITKOM: Single Income, Two Kids, Oppressive Mortgage. Tend to have very little discretionary income, struggle to make ends meet
Tween: Young person who is approaching puberty, aged approximately 9–12 years; too old to be considered a child, but too young to be a teenager; they are 'in between'.
WASP: (American) White, Anglo-Saxon Protestant. Tend to be high-status and influential white Americans of English Protestant ancestry.
YUPPY: (aka yuppie) Young, Urban/ Upwardly-mobile, Prosperous, Professional. Tend to be well-educated, career-minded, ambitious, affluent, and free spenders.
Psychographic segmentation
Psychographic segmentation, which is sometimes called psychometric or lifestyle segmentation, is measured by studying the activities, interests, and opinions (AIOs) of customers. It considers how people spend their leisure, and which external influences they are most responsive to and influenced by. Psychographics is a very widely used basis for segmentation, because it enables marketers to identify tightly defined market segments and better understand consumer motivations for product or brand choice.
While many of these proprietary psychographic segmentation analyses are well-known, the majority of studies based on psychographics are custom designed. That is, the segments are developed for individual products at a specific time. One common thread among psychographic segmentation studies is that they use quirky names to describe the segments.
Behavioural segmentation
Behavioural segmentation divides consumers into groups according to their observed behaviours. Many marketers believe that behavioural variables are superior to demographics and geographics for building market segments and some analysts have suggested that behavioural segmentation is killing off demographics. Typical behavioural variables and their descriptors include:
Purchase/Usage Occasion: regular occasion, special occasion, festive occasion, gift-giving
Benefit-Sought: economy, quality, service level, convenience, access
User Status: First-time user, Regular user, Non-user
Usage Rate/Purchase Frequency: Light user, heavy user, moderate user
Loyalty Status: Loyal, switcher, non-loyal, lapsed
Buyer Readiness: Unaware, aware, intention to buy
Attitude to Product or Service: Enthusiast, Indifferent, Hostile; Price Conscious, Quality Conscious
Adopter Status: Early adopter, late adopter, laggard
Scanner data from super market or credit card information data
Note that these descriptors are merely commonly used examples. Marketers customize the variable and descriptors for both local conditions and for specific applications. For example, in the health industry, planners often segment broad markets according to 'health consciousness' and identify low, moderate, and highly health conscious segments. This is an applied example of behavioural segmentation, using attitude to product or service as a key descriptor or variable which has been customized for the specific application.
Purchase/usage occasion
Purchase or usage occasion segmentation focuses on analyzing occasions when consumers might purchase or consume a product. This approach customer-level and occasion-level segmentation models and provides an understanding of the individual customers’ needs, behaviour, and value under different occasions of usage and time. Unlike traditional segmentation models, this approach assigns more than one segment to each unique customer, depending on the current circumstances they are under.
Benefit-sought
Benefit segmentation (sometimes called needs-based segmentation) was developed by Grey Advertising in the late 1960s. The benefits-sought by purchasers enables the market to be divided into segments with distinct needs, perceived value, benefits sought, or advantage that accrues from the purchase of a product or service. Marketers using benefit segmentation might develop products with different quality levels, performance, customer service, special features, or any other meaningful benefit and pitch different products at each of the segments identified. Benefit segmentation is one of the more commonly used approaches to segmentation and is widely used in many consumer markets including motor vehicles, fashion and clothing, furniture, consumer electronics, and holiday-makers.
Loker and Purdue, for example, used benefit segmentation to segment the pleasure holiday travel market. The segments identified in this study were the naturalists, pure excitement seekers, escapists.
Attitudinal segments
Attitudinal segmentation provides insight into the mindset of customers, especially the attitudes and beliefs that drive consumer decision-making and behaviour. An example of attitudinal segmentation comes from the UK's Department of Environment which segmented the British population into six segments, based on attitudes that drive behaviour relating to environmental protection:
Greens: Driven by the belief that protecting the environment is critical; try to conserve whenever they can
Conscious with a conscience: Aspire to be green; primarily concerned with wastage; lack awareness of other behaviours associated with broader environmental issues such as climate change
Currently constrained: Aspire to be green but feel they cannot afford to purchase organic products; pragmatic realists
Basic contributors: Skeptical about the need for behaviour change; aspire to conform to social norms; lack awareness of social and environmental issues
Long-term resistance: Have serious life priorities that take precedence before a behavioural change is a consideration; their everyday behaviours often have a low impact on the environment, but for other reasons than conservation
Disinterested: View greenies as an eccentric minority; exhibit no interest in changing their behaviour; may be aware of climate change but have not internalized it to the extent that it enters their decision-making process.
Other types of consumer segmentation
In addition to geographics, demographics, psychographics, and behavioural bases, marketers occasionally turn to other means of segmenting the market, or to develop segment profiles.
Generational segments
A generation is defined as "a cohort of people born within a similar span of time (15 years at the upper end) who share a comparable age and life stage and who were shaped by a particular span of time (events, trends, and developments)." Generational segmentation refers to the process of dividing and analyzing a population into cohorts based on their birth date. Generational segmentation assumes that people's values and attitudes are shaped by the key events that occurred during their lives and that these attitudes translate into product and brand preferences.
Demographers, studying population change, disagree about precise dates for each generation. Dating is normally achieved by identifying population peaks or troughs, which can occur at different times in each country. For example, in Australia the post-war population boom peaked in 1960, while the peak occurred somewhat later in the US and Europe, with most estimates converging on 1964. Accordingly, Australian Boomers are normally defined as those born between 1945–1960; while American and European Boomers are normally defined as those born between 1946–64. Thus, the generational segments and their dates discussed here must be taken as approximations only.
The primary generational segments identified by marketers are:
Builders: born 1920 to 1945
Baby boomers: born about 1946–1964
Generation X: born about 1965–1980
Generation Y, also known as Millennials; born about 1981–1996
Generation Z, also known as Zoomers; born 1997–2012
Cultural segmentation
Cultural segmentation is used to classify markets according to the cultural origin. Culture is a major dimension of consumer behaviour and can be used to enhance customer insight and as a component of predictive models. Cultural segmentation enables appropriate communications to be crafted for particular cultural communities. Cultural segmentation can be applied to existing customer data to measure market penetration in key cultural segments by product, brand, channel as well as traditional measures of recency, frequency, and monetary value. These benchmarks form an important evidence-base to guide strategic direction and tactical campaign activity, allowing engagement trends to be monitored over time.
Cultural segmentation can be combined with other bases, especially geographics so that segments are mapped according to state, region, suburb, and neighborhood. This provides a geographical market view of population proportions and may be of benefit in selecting appropriately located premises, determining territory boundaries, and local marketing activities.
Census data is a valuable source of cultural data but cannot meaningfully be applied to individuals. Name analysis (onomastics) is the most reliable and efficient means of describing the cultural origin of individuals. The accuracy of using name analysis as a surrogate for cultural background in Australia is 80–85%, after allowing for female name changes due to marriage, social or political reasons, or colonial influence. The extent of name data coverage means a user will code a minimum of 99 percent of individuals with their most likely ancestral origin.
Online customer segmentation
Online market segmentation is similar to the traditional approaches in that the segments should be identifiable, substantial, accessible, stable, differentiable, and actionable. Customer data stored in online data management systems such as a CRM or DMP enables the analysis and segmentation of consumers across a diverse set of attributes. Forsyth et al., in an article 'Internet research' grouped current active online consumers into six groups: Simplifiers, Surfers, Bargainers, Connectors, Routiners, and Sportsters. The segments differ regarding four customers' behaviours, namely:
The amount of time they actively spend online,
The number of pages and sites they access,
The time they spend actively viewing each page,
And the kinds of sites they visit.
For example, Simplifiers make over 50 percent of all online transactions. Their main characteristic is that they need easy (one-click) access to information and products as well as easy and quickly available service regarding products. Amazon.com is an example of a company that created an online environment for Simplifiers. They also 'dislike unsolicited e-mail, uninviting chat rooms, pop-up windows intended to encourage impulse buys, and other features that complicate their on- and off-line experience'. Surfers like to spend a lot of time online, thus companies must have a variety of products to offer and constant update, Bargainers are looking for the best price, Connectors like to relate to others, Routiners want content and Sportsters like sport and entertainment sites.
Selecting target markets
Another major decision in developing the segmentation strategy is the selection of market segments that will become the focus of special attention (known as target markets). The marketer faces a number of important decisions:
What criteria should be used to evaluate markets?
How many markets to enter (one, two or more)?
Which market segments are the most valuable?
When a marketer enters more than one market, the segments are often labeled the primary target market, secondary target market. The primary market is the target market selected as the main focus of marketing activities. The secondary target market is likely to be a segment that is not as large as the primary market, but has growth potential. Alternatively, the secondary target group might consist of a small number of purchasers that account for a relatively high proportion of sales volume perhaps due to purchase value or purchase frequency.
In terms of evaluating markets, three core considerations are essential:
Segment size and growth
Segment structural attractiveness
Company objectives and resources.
Criteria for evaluating segment attractiveness
There are no formulas for evaluating the attractiveness of market segments and a good deal of judgment must be exercised. Nevertheless, a number of considerations can be used to assist in evaluating market segments for overall attractiveness. The following lists a series of questions that can be asked.
Segment size and growth
How large is the market?
Is the market segment substantial enough to be profitable? (Segment size can be measured in the number of customers, but superior measures are likely to include sales value or volume)
Is the market segment growing or contracting?
What are the indications that growth will be sustained in the long term? Is any observed growth sustainable?
Is the segment stable over time? (Segment must have sufficient time to reach desired performance level)
Segment structural attractiveness
To what extent are competitors targeting this market segment?
Do buyers have bargaining power in the market?
Are substitute products available?
Can we carve out a viable position to differentiate from any competitors?
How responsive are members of the market segment to the marketing program?
Is this market segment reachable and accessible? (i.e., with respect to distribution and promotion)
Company objectives and resources
Is this market segment aligned with our company's operating philosophy?
Do we have the resources necessary to enter this market segment?
Do we have prior experience with this market segment or similar market segments?
Do we have the skills and/or know-how to enter this market segment successfully?
Developing the marketing program and positioning strategy
When the segments have been determined and separate offers developed for each of the core segments, the marketer's next task is to design a marketing program (also known as the marketing mix) that will resonate with the target market or markets. Developing the marketing program requires a deep knowledge of key market segment's purchasing habits, their preferred retail outlet, their media habits, and their price sensitivity. The marketing program for each brand or product should be based on the understanding of the target market (or target markets) revealed in the market profile.
Positioning is the final step in the S-T-P planning approach; Segmentation → Targeting → Positioning; a core framework for developing marketing plans and setting objectives. Positioning refers to decisions about how to present the offer in a way that resonates with the target market. During the research and analysis that forms the central part of segmentation and targeting, the marketer will have gained insights into what motivates consumers to purchase a product or brand. These insights will form part of the positioning strategy.
According to advertising guru, David Ogilvy, "Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offering and image to occupy a distinctive place in the minds of the target market. The goal is to locate the brand in the minds of consumers to maximize the potential benefit to the firm. A good brand positioning helps guide marketing strategy by clarifying the brand’s essence, what goals it helps the consumer achieve, and how it does so in a unique way."
The technique known as perceptual mapping is often used to understand consumers' mental representations of brands within a given category. Traditionally two variables (often, but not necessarily, price and quality) are used to construct the map. A sample of people in the target market are asked to explain where they would place various brands in terms of the selected variables. Results are averaged across all respondents, and results are plotted on a graph, as illustrated in the figure. The final map indicates how the average member of the population views the brand that makes up a category and how each of the brands relates to other brands within the same category. While perceptual maps with two dimensions are common, multi-dimensional maps are also used.
There are a number of different approaches to positioning:
Against a competitor
Within a category
According to product benefit
According to product attribute
For usage occasion
Along price lines e.g. a luxury brand or premium brand
For a user
Cultural symbols e.g. Australia's Easter Bilby (as a culturally appropriate alternative to the Easter Bunny).
Basis for segmenting business markets
Segmenting business markets is more straightforward than segmenting consumer markets. Businesses may be segmented according to industry, business size, business location, turnover, number of employees, company technology, purchasing approach, or any other relevant variables. The most widely used segmentation bases used in business to business markets are geographics and firmographics.
The most widely used bases for segmenting business markets are:
Geographic segmentation occurs when a firm seeks to identify the most promising geographic markets to enter. Business can tap into business census type products published by Government departments to identify geographic regions that meet certain predefined criteria.
Firmographics (also known as emporographics or feature based segmentation) is the business community's answer to demographic segmentation. It is commonly used in business-to-business markets (an estimated 81% of B2B marketers use this technique). Under this approach the target market is segmented based on features such as company size, industry sector or location usage rate, purchase frequency, number of years in business, ownership factors and buying situation.
Key firmographic variables: standard industry classification (SIC); company size (either in terms of revenue or number of employees), industry sector or location (country and/or region), usage rate, purchase frequency, number of years in business, ownership factors and buying situation
Use in customer retention
The basic approach to retention-based segmentation is that a company tags each of its active customers on four axes:
Risk of customer cancellation of company service
One of the most common indicators of high-risk customers is a drop off in usage of the company's service. For example, in the credit card industry, this could be signaled through a customer's decline in spending on his or her card.
Risk of customer switching to a competitor
Many times customers move purchase preferences to a competitor brand. This may happen for many reasons those of which can be more difficult to measure. It is many times beneficial for the former company to gain meaningful insights, through data analysis, as to why this change of preference has occurred. Such insights can lead to effective strategies for winning back the customer or on how not to lose the target customer in the first place.
Customer retention worthiness
This determination boils down to whether the post-retention profit generated from the customer is predicted to be greater than the cost incurred to retain the customer and includes evaluation of customer lifecycles.
This analysis of customer lifecycles is usually included in the growth plan of a business to determine which tactics to implement to retain or let go of customers. Tactics commonly used range from providing special customer discounts to sending customers communications that reinforce the value proposition of the given service.
Segmentation: algorithms and approaches
The choice of an appropriate statistical method for the segmentation depends on a number of factors including, the broad approach (a-priori or post-hoc), the availability of data, time constraints, the marketer's skill level, and resources.
A-priori segmentation
A priori research occurs when "a theoretical framework is developed before the research is conducted". In other words, the marketer has an idea about whether to segment the market geographically, demographically, psychographically or behaviourally before undertaking any research. For example, a marketer might want to learn more about the motivations and demographics of light and moderate users in an effort to understand what tactics could be used to increase usage rates. In this case, the target variable is known – the marketer has already segmented using a behavioural variable – user status. The next step would be to collect and analyze attitudinal data for light and moderate users. The typical analysis includes simple cross-tabulations, frequency distributions and occasionally logistic regression or one of a number of proprietary methods.
The main disadvantage of a-priori segmentation is that it does not explore other opportunities to identify market segments that could be more meaningful.
Post-hoc segmentation
In contrast, post-hoc segmentation makes no assumptions about the optimal theoretical framework. Instead, the analyst's role is to determine the segments that are the most meaningful for a given marketing problem or situation. In this approach, the empirical data drives the segmentation selection. Analysts typically employ some type of clustering analysis or structural equation modeling to identify segments within the data. Post-hoc segmentation relies on access to rich datasets, usually with a very large number of cases and uses sophisticated algorithms to identify segments.
The figure alongside illustrates how segments might be formed using clustering; however, note that this diagram only uses two variables, while in practice clustering employs a large number of variables.
Statistical techniques used in segmentation
Marketers often engage commercial research firms or consultancies to carry out segmentation analysis, especially if they lack the statistical skills to undertake the analysis. Some segmentation, especially post-hoc analysis, relies on sophisticated statistical analysis.
Common statistical approaches and techniques used in segmentation analysis include:
Clustering algorithms – overlapping, non-overlapping and fuzzy methods; e.g. K-means or other Cluster analysis
Conjoint analysis
Ensemble approaches – such as random forests
Chi-square automatic interaction detection – a type of decision-tree
Factor analysis or principal components analysis
Latent Class Analysis – a generic term for a class of methods that attempt to detect underlying clusters based on observed patterns of association
Logistic regression
Multidimensional scaling and canonical analysis
Mixture models – e.g., EM estimation algorithm, finite-mixture models
Model-based segmentation using simultaneous and structural equation modeling e.g. LISREL
Other algorithms such as artificial neural networks.
Data sources used for segmentation
Marketers use a variety of data sources for segmentation studies and market profiling. Typical sources of information include:
Internal sources
Customer transaction records e.g. sale value per transaction, purchase frequency
Patron membership records e.g. active members, lapsed members, length of membership
Customer relationship management (CRM) databases
In-house surveys
Customer self-completed questionnaires or feedback forms
External sources
Commissioned research (where the business commissions a research study and maintains exclusive rights to the data; typically the most expensive means of data collection)
Data-mining techniques
Census data (population and business census)
Observed purchase behaviours
Government agencies and departments
Government statistics and surveys (e.g. studies by departments of trade, industry, technology, etc.)
Omnibus surveys (a standard, regular survey with a basic set of questions about demographics and lifestyles where an individual can add specific sets of questions about product preference or usage; generally lower cost than commissioned survey methods)
Professional/Industry associations/Employer associations
Proprietary surveys or tracking studies (also known as syndicated research; studies carried out by market research companies where business can purchase the right to access part of the data set)
Proprietary databases/software
Companies (proprietary segmentation databases)
Acorn – geo-demographic segmentation
Claritas Prizm – geo-demographic segmentation
CanaCode Lifestyle Clusters - geo-demographic and psychographic segmentation
Experian – geo-demographic segmentation
Mosaic – geo-demographic segmentation
Roy Morgan Research Values Segments -psychographic/ psychometric
VALS-psychographic/ psychometric
Values Modes-psychographic/ psychometric
See also
References
External links
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240347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre%20art | Genre art | Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Such representations (also called genre works, genre scenes, or genre views) may be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist. Some variations of the term genre art specify the medium or type of visual work, as in genre painting, genre prints, genre photographs, and so on.
Rather confusingly, the normal meaning of genre, covering any particular combination of an artistic medium and a type of subject matter (as, for example, in the romance novel), is also used in the visual arts. Thus, genre works, especially when referring to the painting of the Dutch Golden Age and Flemish Baroque painting—the great periods of genre works—may also be used as an umbrella term for painting in various specialized categories such as still-life, marine painting, architectural painting, and animal painting, as well as genre scenes proper where the emphasis is on human figures. Painting was divided into a hierarchy of genres, with history painting at the top, as the most difficult and therefore prestigious, and still life and architectural painting at the bottom. But history paintings are a genre in painting, not genre works.
The following concentrates on painting, but genre motifs were also extremely popular in many forms of the decorative arts, especially from the Rococo of the early 18th century onwards. Single figures or small groups decorated a huge variety of objects such as porcelain, furniture, wallpaper, and textiles.
Genre painting
Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of everyday life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. One common definition of a genre scene is that it shows figures to whom no identity can be attached either individually or collectively—thus distinguishing petit genre from history paintings (also called grand genre) and portraits. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known person—a member of his family, say—as a model. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have been intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist. Because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre themes appear in nearly all art traditions. Painted decorations in ancient Egyptian tombs often depict banquets, recreation, and agrarian scenes, and Peiraikos is mentioned by Pliny the Elder as a Hellenistic panel painter of "low" subjects, such as survive in mosaic versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii: "barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects". Medieval illuminated manuscripts often illustrated scenes of everyday peasant life, especially in the Labours of the Months in the calendar section of books of hours, most famously Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.
To 1800
The Low Countries dominated the field until the 18th century, and in the 17th century both Flemish Baroque painting and Dutch Golden Age painting produced numerous specialists who mostly painted genre scenes. In the previous century, the Flemish Renaissance painter Jan Sanders van Hemessen painted innovative large-scale genre scenes, sometimes including a moral theme or a religious scene in the background in the first half of the 16th century. These were part of a pattern of "Mannerist inversion" in Antwerp painting, giving "low" elements previously in the decorative background of images prominent emphasis. Joachim Patinir expanded his landscapes, making the figures a small element, and Pieter Aertsen painted works dominated by spreads of still life food and genre figures of cooks or market-sellers, with small religious scenes in spaces in the background. Pieter Brueghel the Elder made peasants and their activities, very naturalistically treated, the subject of many of his paintings, and genre painting was to flourish in Northern Europe in Brueghel's wake.
Adriaen and Isaac van Ostade, Jan Steen, Adriaen Brouwer, David Teniers, Aelbert Cuyp, Johannes Vermeer and Pieter de Hooch were among the many painters specializing in genre subjects in the Low Countries during the 17th century. The generally small scale of these artists' paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a genre painting was based on a popular emblem from an emblem book. This can give the painting a double meaning, such as in Gabriel Metsu's The Poultry seller, 1662, showing an old man offering a rooster in a symbolic pose that is based on a lewd engraving by Gillis van Breen (1595–1622), with the same scene. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, whether making music at home or just drinking in a tavern. Other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities ("kermesse"), or soldiers in camp.
In Italy, a "school" of genre painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname "Il Bamboccio" and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, and Giuseppe Maria Crespi among many others.
Louis le Nain was an important exponent of genre painting in 17th-century France, painting groups of peasants at home, where the 18th century would bring a heightened interest in the depiction of everyday life, whether through the romanticized paintings of Watteau and Fragonard, or the careful realism of Chardin. Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805) and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting.
In England, William Hogarth (1697–1764) conveyed comedy, social criticism and moral lessons through canvases that told stories of ordinary people full of narrative detail (aided by long sub-titles), often in serial form, as in his A Rake's Progress, first painted in 1732–33, then engraved and published in print form in 1735.
Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators. At the height of the Spanish Empire and the beginning of its slow decline, many picaresque genre scenes of street life—as well as the kitchen scenes known as bodegones—were painted by the artists of The Spanish Golden Age, notably Velázquez (1599–1660) and Murillo (1617–82). More than a century later, the Spanish artist Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) used genre scenes in painting and printmaking as a medium for dark commentary on the human condition. His The Disasters of War, a series of 82 genre incidents from the Peninsular War, took genre art to unprecedented heights of expressiveness.
19th century
With the decline of religious and historical painting in the 19th century, artists increasingly found their subject matter in the life around them. Realists such as Gustave Courbet (1819–77) upset expectations by depicting everyday scenes in huge paintings—at the scale traditionally reserved for "important" subjects—thus blurring the boundary which had set genre painting apart as a "minor" category. History painting itself shifted from the exclusive depiction of events of great public importance to the depiction of genre scenes in historical times, both the private moments of great figures, and the everyday life of ordinary people. In French art this was known as the Troubador style. This trend, already apparent by 1817 when Ingres painted Henri IV Playing with His Children, culminated in the pompier art of French academicians such as Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) and Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier (1815–91). In the second half of the century interest in genre scenes, often in historical settings or with pointed social or moral comment, greatly increased across Europe.
William Powell Frith (1819–1909) was perhaps the most famous English genre painter of the Victorian era, painting large and extremely crowded scenes; the expansion in size and ambition in 19th-century genre painting was a common trend. Other 19th-century English genre painters include Augustus Leopold Egg, Frederick Daniel Hardy, George Elgar Hicks, William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais. Scotland produced two influential genre painters, David Allan (1744–96) and Sir David Wilkie (1785–1841). Wilkie's The Cottar's Saturday Night (1837) inspired a major work by the French painter Gustave Courbet, After Dinner at Ornans (1849). Famous Russian realist painters like Pavel Fedotov, Vasily Perov, and Ilya Repin also produced genre paintings.
In Germany, Carl Spitzweg (1808–85) specialized in gently humorous genre scenes, and in Italy Gerolamo Induno (1825–90) painted scenes of military life. Subsequently, the Impressionists, as well as such 20th-century artists as Pierre Bonnard, Itshak Holtz, Edward Hopper, and David Park painted scenes of daily life. But in the context of modern art the term "genre painting" has come to be associated mainly with painting of an especially anecdotal or sentimental nature, painted in a traditionally realistic technique.
The first true genre painter in the United States was the German immigrant John Lewis Krimmel, who learning from Wilkie and Hogarth, produced gently humorous scenes of life in Philadelphia from 1812 to 1821. Other notable 19th-century genre painters from the United States include George Caleb Bingham, William Sidney Mount, and Eastman Johnson. Harry Roseland focused on scenes of poor African Americans in the post-American Civil War South, and John Rogers (1829–1904) was a sculptor whose small genre works, mass-produced in cast plaster, were immensely popular in America. The works of American painter Ernie Barnes (1938–2009) and those of illustrator Norman Rockwell (1894–1978) could exemplify a more modern type of genre painting.
Genre in other traditions
Japanese ukiyo-e prints are rich in depictions of people at leisure and at work, as are Korean paintings, particularly those created in the 18th century.
Gallery of Flemish genre paintings
Gallery of Dutch 17th-century genre paintings
Genre photography
While genre painting began, in the 17th century, with representations by Europeans of European life, the invention and early development of photography coincided with the most expansive and aggressive era of European imperialism, in the mid-to-late 19th century, and so genre photographs, typically made in the proximity of military, scientific and commercial expeditions, often also depict the people of other cultures that Europeans encountered throughout the world.
Although the distinctions are not clear, genre works should be distinguished from ethnographic studies, which are pictorial representations resulting from direct observation and descriptive study of the culture and way of life of particular societies, and which constitute one class of products of such disciplines as anthropology and the behavioural sciences.
The development of photographic technology to make cameras portable and exposures instantaneous enabled photographers to venture beyond the studio to follow other art forms in the depiction of everyday life. This category has come to be known as street photography.
See also
Illustration
Notes
References
Ayers, William, ed., Picturing History: American Painting 1770-1903,
Banta, Melissa. 'Life of a Photograph : Nineteenth-Century Photographs of Japan from the Peabody Museum and Wellesley College Museum'. In A Timely Encounter: Nineteenth-Century Photographs of Japan (ex. cat.; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum Press, 1988), 12.
Banta, Melissa, and Susan Taylor, eds. A Timely Encounter: Nineteenth-Century Photographs of Japan (ex. cat.; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum Press, 1988).
Painting
Photography by genre
Visual arts genres
Netherlandish Gothic art
Netherlandish Renaissance art
Art of the Dutch Golden Age
Flemish art | [
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|
240348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20Romanow | Roy Romanow | Roy John Romanow (born August 12, 1939) is a Canadian politician and the 12th premier of Saskatchewan from 1991 to 2001.
Early life
Romanow was born in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, to Tekla and Michael Romanow, who were Ukrainian immigrants from Ordiv, Radekhiv Raion, Ukraine. His first language as a child was Ukrainian.
He studied at the University of Saskatchewan, earning a B.A. in Political Science and a LL.B. while involving himself heavily and early on in student politics.
Political career
Electoral record
Romanow had considerable electoral success, being elected to the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan eight times in the nine general elections from 1967 to 1999, as a member of the Saskatchewan New Democratic Party.
He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan in the 1967 provincial election in the riding of Saskatoon Riversdale. He was re-elected in the general elections of 1971, 1975 and 1978. In the 1982 general election he was defeated by Jo-Ann Zazelenchuk, a 22-year-old retail employee, but easily defeated Zazelenchuk in a 1986 rematch, taking over 68 percent of the vote. He was re-elected in the general elections of 1991, 1995 and 1999. He resigned his seat in 2001.
Member of the Blakeney government
Romanow served in the cabinet of Premier Allan Blakeney from 1971 to 1982. At various times, Romanow served as deputy premier and Attorney General for Saskatchewan.
During the 1981 discussions over patriation of the Canadian constitution, the federal Minister of Justice, Jean Chrétien, the Ontario Attorney General, Roy McMurtry, and Romanow worked out the final details of Canada's new constitutional provisions, resulting in the famous late-night Kitchen Accord. Romanow objected strongly to any protections on private property in the new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and none were included.
Premier of Saskatchewan
On November 7, 1987, Romanow replaced Allan Blakeney as leader of the Saskatchewan New Democratic Party and Leader of the Official Opposition. When the NDP won a majority of seats in the 1991 provincial election, he became Premier of Saskatchewan.
Romanow's government was more conservative than previous NDP administrations, and was considered a practitioner of Third Way policies. Romanow, who inherited a $14 billion debt from the previous Conservative government, eliminated the annual budgetary deficit by closing rural hospitals, cutting services and raising taxes. Romanow's government also had the benefit of substantially lower interest rates at a national level than did his predecessor in the 1980s. The Romanow NDP explained the cutbacks to the left wing of the party by claiming Romanow's range of political action was limited by the large debt accumulated by previous governments.
In the 1999 provincial election, the NDP was re-elected to a third consecutive term, but was reduced to a minority of seats in the legislature. Romanow along with Dwain Lingenfelter negotiated an agreement to form a coalition government with the Saskatchewan Liberal Party, appointing several Liberals to Cabinet. Romanow retired in 2001, and was replaced as leader of the NDP and Premier by Lorne Calvert.
Life after politics
Refusal to enter federal politics
Romanow was well-acquainted with Pierre Trudeau, Liberal Prime Minister from 1968–1979 and 1980–1984. He remains a close friend of Jean Chrétien, who was a Liberal prime minister from 1993 to 2003.
The federal Liberals, and especially Jean Chrétien, had long tried to encourage Romanow to run federally as a Liberal, but he always refused.
Federal Royal commission on the future of health care in Canada
On April 4, 2001, Romanow was appointed to head the Royal Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada by Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. He released the Romanow Report in 2002, which outlined suggestions to improve the health care system.
Honours
On November 13, 2003 he was sworn in as a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada by Governor General Clarkson, again on the advice of Prime Minister Chrétien.
In 2003, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was awarded the Saskatchewan Order of Merit. Romanow's official portrait was unveiled at Saskatchewan's Legislative Assembly in 2005, when he received the Commemorative Medal for the Centennial of Saskatchewan from Lieutenant Governor Lynda Haverstock.
Academic position
Romanow is currently Chancellor of University of Saskatchewan , at which he is also Senior Policy Fellow at the College of Arts and Sciences.
References
External links
Article on Saskatchewan Order of Merit Appointment
1939 births
Attorneys-General of Saskatchewan
Canadian people of Ukrainian descent
Canadian Queen's Counsel
Lawyers in Saskatchewan
Leaders of the Saskatchewan CCF/NDP
Living people
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Politicians from Saskatoon
Premiers of Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party MLAs
University of Saskatchewan alumni
University of Saskatchewan College of Law alumni
20th-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian politicians
Members of the Executive Council of Saskatchewan | [
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|
240354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound%20verb | Compound verb | In linguistics, a compound verb or complex predicate is a multi-word compound that functions as a single verb. One component of the compound is a light verb or vector, which carries any inflections, indicating tense, mood, or aspect, but provides only fine shades of meaning. The other, "primary", component is a verb or noun which carries most of the semantics of the compound, and determines its arguments. It is usually in either base or [in Verb + Verb compounds] conjunctive participial form.
A compound verb is also called a "complex predicate" because the semantics, as formally modeled by a predicate, is determined by the primary verb, though both verbs appear in the surface form. Whether Noun+Verb (N+V) compounds are considered to be "compound verbs" is a matter of naming convention. Generally, the term complex predicate usually includes N+V compounds, whereas the term compound verb is usually reserved for V+V compounds. However, several authors [especially Iranists] refer to N+V compounds as compound verbs.
Compound verbs are to be distinguished from serial verbs which typically signify a sequence of actions, and in which the verbs are relatively equal in semantic and grammatical weight. They are also to be distinguished from sequences of main plus auxiliary verbs.
Structure
Thus, there are two classes of complex predicates:
V+V compounds: One type of compound verb, where the second verb (rarely the first...) is a "light verb" (LV) is preceded by (rarely followed by ...) a primary or "heavy verb". With a few exceptions all V+V compound verbs alternate with their simple counterparts. That is, removing the light verb / vector does not affect grammaticality at all nor the meaning very much: निकल गया – نِکَل گَیا "nikal gayā" {exit + WENT} versus निकला – نِکلا nikalā {exited}, both meaning '(I/you/he) went out.' In a few languages both components of the compound verb can be finite forms: Kurukh kecc-ar ker-ar lit. "died-3pl went-3pl" '(They) died.'
N+V compounds: A compound with Noun+verb, converting the noun into a verbal structure; the arguments and the semantics are determined by the N and the tense markers / inflections are carried by the V, especially with LVs such as "do," "take," "give," etc. Examples in English include stretched verb examples like take a walk or commit suicide. Some of the verbs participating in N+V compounds also participate as LVs in V+V compounds. [However, the common verb "do" rarely participates as LV in V+V compounds.] Unlike V+V compounds, N+V compounds appear in almost all languages of the world.
Languages with compound verbs
Compound verbs of both types (V+V and N+V) are very common in all the languages of India, though V+V compounds are more frequent in the northern Indo-Aryan languages than in Dravidian languages. In addition to South Asian languages, V+V compounds occur in Turkic languages like Uzbek, Kyrgyz and Uyghur, in Tibeto-Burman languages like Limbu and Newari, in Korean and Japanese, in northeast Caucasian languages like Tsez and Avar, and in Quichua, a variety of Quechua. The Indo-European language Greek also possesses some verb–verb compounds. V+V compounds do not occur in Iranian languages. What are called "compound verbs" by Iranists are N+V compounds.
English
The English lexicon contains a few true compound verbs, such as stirfry, kickstart and forcefeed. These are not serial verbs – though, as with many compounds, they may be spelled as two words (or hyphenated). Rather, the first verb expresses how the action expressed by the second verb is carried out. The second verb is the only one which may express tense. English also expresses fine distinctions as to the beginning, duration, completion, or repetition of an action using auxiliaries or other lexical mechanisms. Examples here include was starting, had lived, had been seen, etc. These sequences function in place of morphologically complex predicates like the inchoative or inceptive stems of Latin (, 'I love'; , 'I'm starting to love', 'I'm falling in love'; , 'to flower'; , 'to start flowering'; etc.), and of Russian (, , 'to laugh'; , 'to start laughing').
Though verb + verb compounds are rare in English, one may illustrate the form with the example "went crashing [through the door]". In some interpretations, one may consider "went" as a light verb, which carries markers like tense. However, the main part of the meaning, as well as the arguments of "went crashing", i.e. answers to questions such as who? (agent), or what was it that "went crashing"? (object) are determined by the second, semantically primary verb, "crash". "Go" may also modify the meaning or the semantics, by focusing on the direction of the "crashing". "Go" carries plural/tense markers (they go | he goes crashing), whereas "crashing" appears in this fixed form, and does not change with tense, number, gender, etc.
Whether gerundive forms like "went crashing" are compound verbs is controversial in English; many linguists prefer to treat "crashing" as a nominal in its gerundive form. However, the compound verb treatment may have some advantages, particularly when it comes to semantic analysis. For example, in response to She went crashing, the question "Where did she go?" is less revealing than "Where did she go crashing?".
English has many examples of noun + verb compound predicates, called stretched verbs, which combine a light verb with an "eventive" noun (an action-describing noun which can also operate as a verb, though it may have become an uncommon one), or with a noun phrase composed of such a noun and one or more prepositions. Common examples include: to offer [one's] condolences, to take a bite out of, and to get rid of (while to rid and to condole are infrequent).
Sometimes examples labeled serial verbs turn out to be compound verbs, as in "What did you go and do that for?" and "Your business might just get up and leave."
Another variety of open-compound verb is common in English, German, and some other languages: The phrasal verb is in one in which a verb word and a preposition, particle, or both act together as a unit which does not convey what the words would indicate when taken literally. Examples include to think something over, to look forward to something, and to look up something in a dictionary (contrast the literal and non-compound look up the chimney).
A dictionary comparison reveals that compound verbs of some sorts are more frequent in American English than in British English.
Hindi-Urdu
Compound verbs are very common in Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani and Panjabi, where as many as 20% of the verb forms in running text may be compounds.
For example, in Hindi-Urdu, nikal gayā (निकल गया, نِکَل گَیا, lit. "exit went") means 'went out', while nikal paṛā (निकल पड़ा, نِکَل پَڑا, lit. "exit fell") means 'departed' or 'was blurted out'. In these examples nikal (निकल, نِکَل, lit. "exit") is the primary verb, and gayā (गया, گَیا, lit. "went") and paṛā (पड़ा, پَڑا, lit. "fell") are the vectors or "light verbs". Compound verbs in Hindi-Urdu have the additional property of alternation. That is, under partly specifiable conditions [such as negation] compound verbs like nikal gayā and nikal paṛā are replaced with a non-compound counterpart [niklā, निकला, نِکلا ] with little or no change in meaning. However, the phenomenon of alternation is not found in all languages that have compound verbs.
The Noun + Verb complex predicates are a quite different matter. There is no alternation with a simplex counterpart and in approximately half of all Hind-Urdui N+V compound verbs karnā ( करना, کَرنا, lit. "to do") is the light verb, and in another 20% use hōnā (होना, ہونا, lit. "to be") is the light verb. A significant number use khānā (खाना, کهانا, lit. "to eat"). However, the verb karnā and khānā never occur as second elements in a Verb + Verb compound.
Persian
Persian makes extensive use of N+V compound verbs. The meaning of compound verbs in Persian is sometimes distinct from the connotation of either the verbal or non-verbal component. The most common verbal element used in Persian compound verbs is كردن kardan ('to do/make'), e.g. فكر كردن fekr kardan ('to think'). Other common verbal elements include دادن dādan ('to give'), e.g. انجام دادن anjām dādan ('to perform'); گرفتن gereftan ('to take'), e.g. جشن گرفتن jashn gereftan ('to celebrate'); زدن zadan ('to hit'), e.g. حرف زدن harf zadan ('to speak'); and داشتن dāshtan ('to have'), e.g. دوست داشتن dust dāshtan ('to like').
The verbal element of Persian compound verbs takes inflection for person, tense, and mood.
Japanese
Japanese has many compound verbs, reflecting the agglutinative nature of modern as well as Old Japanese.
In both English start reading and Japanese 読み始める yomihajimeru "read-CONJUNCTIVE-start" "start reading," the phasal verbs start and 始める hajimeru "start" change according to tense, negation, and the like while the main verbs reading and 読み yomi "reading" usually remain the same. An exception to this is the passive voice, in which both English and Japanese modify the main verb: start to be read and 読まれ始める yomarehajimeru lit. "read-PASSIVE-(CONJUNCTIVE)-start" start to be read. Of course, "hajimeru" still changes according to tense, mood, negation, and the like.
Some Japanese compounds have undergone grammaticalisation, as reflected in the orthography. Many Japanese serial verbs are formed by connecting two verbs, as in , and in Japanese orthography lexical items are generally written with kanji (here 行く and 聞く), while grammatical items are more likely to be written with hiragana [as in the compound verb . Serial verbs are thus generally written with a kanji for each constituent verb, but some of the second verbs in other compounds, having become grammaticalized, are often written using hiragana, such as , from , as in and , from , as in .
Only native Japanese verbs (yamato kotoba verbs) can be used as light verbs or vectors in this way. Such verbs comprise a small closed class. Borrowed words, which can be used as verbs by combining them with the auxiliary verb , do not occur as the second element in compound verbs. For example, the Sino-Japanese verb itself can be modified, as in , but it does not combine with another verb as its second or modifying element.
Japanese i-adjectives, which function grammatically as non-finite verbs, can also compound, functioning as compound modifiers, but that is less common than for verbs. (See Japanese adjectives for details.)
Kichwa-influenced Spanish
Under the influence of a Kichwa substrate, speakers living in the Ecuadorian Altiplano have innovated compound verbs in Spanish.
De rabia puso rompiendo la olla.'In anger (he/she) smashed the pot.'(Lit. from anger put breaking the pot)
Botaremos matándote.'We will kill you.'(Lit. [we] will throw kill-you,n Kichwa: huañuchi-shpa shitashun)
In conformity with the SVO language word order of Spanish, the vector precedes the main verb while in SOV language Kichwa, the vector follows the main verb.
Greek (modern)
The compound verbs of modern Greek are formed as other compounds in the language, creating a compound stem by prefixing the stem of a second verb to another verb with the compounding interfix -o-. Although only the second verb is inflected, the typical Greek compound verb is a coordinative compound formed by two semantically opposed, equal verbs, and in semantic terms neither can be nominated the compound head with the other as a dependent. The action expressed by the verb is semantically equal to using both verbs individually, linked by a conjunction.
Examples: μπαίν-ω ['beno] 'I go in' + βγαίν-ω ['vjeno] 'I come out' = μπαινοβγαίνω [beno'vjeno] 'I go in and out'; ανάβ-ω [a'navo] 'I light up' σβήν-ω ['zvino] 'I put out (a light)' = αναβοσβήνω [anavo'zvino] 'I flash on and off'. These compound verbs are of the dvandva type. Semantically they equal the phrases μπαίνω και βγαίνω 'I go in and go out', ανάβω και σβήνω 'I light up and put out'.
Israeli Hebrew
Unlike Classical Hebrew, Israeli Hebrew is abundant with V+N compound verbs. Consider the following pairs in which the first is an Israeli Hebrew compound verb and the last is a Classical Hebrew synthetic form:
שם צעקה sam tseaká “shouted” (which literally means “put a shout”) vis-à-vis צעק tsaák “shouted”
נתן מבט natán mabát “looked” (which literally means “gave a look”) or העיף מבט heíf mabát “looked” (literally “flew/threw a look”; cf. the English expressions cast a glance, threw a look and tossed a glance) vis-à-vis the Hebrew-descent הביט hibít “looked at”.
According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the Israeli V+N compound verb is employed here for the desire to express swift action, and stems from Yiddish. He compares the Israeli periphrasis to the following Yiddish expressions all meaning “to have a look”:
געבן א קוק gébņ a kuk, which literally means “to give a look”
טאן א קוק ton a kuk, which literally means “to do a look”
the colloquial expression כאפן א קוק khapņ a kuk, which literally means “to catch a look”.
Zuckermann argues that the Israeli V+N compound verbs “are not nonce, ad hoc lexical calques of Yiddish. The Israeli system is productive and the lexical realization often differs from that of Yiddish”. He provides the following Israeli examples:
הרביץ hirbíts “hit, beat; gave”, yielded
הרביץ מהירות hirbíts mehirút “drove very fast” (מהירות mehirút meaning “speed”), and
הרביץ ארוחה hirbíts arukhá “ate a big meal” (ארוחה arukhá meaning “meal”), cf. English hit the buffet “eat a lot at the buffet”; hit the liquor/bottle “drink alcohol”.
The Israeli Hebrew compound verb דפק הופעה dafák hofaá, which literally means “hit a show”, actually means “dressed smartly”.
Historical processes and grammaticalization
As languages change, the vector or light verb may retain its original meaning or it may undergo different degrees of bleaching, part of the process of grammaticalization.
Thus, in the Hindi-Urdu compound nikal paṛā (exit fell), paṛ- has almost none of its "fall" meaning, though some of the finality of "fall" also is transferred as a perfective aspect (through the ending -ā).
On the other hand, the Japanese retains a good deal of its independent word meaning even in the compound. Contrast this with the grammaticalization of , as in 愛してしまった ai shite shimatta ("I mistakenly fell in love"). A deeper degree of grammaticalization may lead to phonological changes, too - usually some kind of shortening: 愛しちゃった ai shi chatta ("Damned if I didn't fall in love!") where 〜てしま -te shima- has been replaced by ちゃ 〜chya.
In the long run, it has been suggested that LVs that are particularly frequent, may become grammaticalized, so that they may now occur systematically with other verbal constituents, so that they become
an auxiliary verb (e.g. the English verb "be", as in "I am eating", or "had" in "they had finished"), or, after sound change, even a clitic (a shortened verb, as in "I'm"). In particular, some verb inflections (e.g. Latin future tense inflections) are thought to have arisen in this manner. Sanford Steever has shown the same phenomenon has a role in the emergence of the ditransitive paradigm in Dravidian.
See also
Auxiliary verb
Compound modifier
Converb
Modal verb
Periphrasis
Phrasal verb
Stretched verb
Serial verb
Verb phrase
References
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|
240357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interiors | Interiors | Interiors is a 1978 American drama film written and directed by Woody Allen. It stars Kristin Griffith, Mary Beth Hurt, Richard Jordan, Diane Keaton, E. G. Marshall, Geraldine Page, Maureen Stapleton, and Sam Waterston.
Allen's first fully-fledged film in the drama genre, it was met with acclaim from critics. It received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Director, Best Original Screenplay (both for Allen), Best Actress (Page), and Best Supporting Actress (Stapleton). Page also won the BAFTA Film Award for Best Supporting Actress.
Plot
The film centers on the three children of Arthur (E. G. Marshall), a corporate attorney, and Eve (Geraldine Page), an interior decorator. Renata (Diane Keaton) is a poet whose husband Frederick (Richard Jordan), a struggling writer, feels eclipsed by her success. Flyn (Kristin Griffith) is an actress who is away most of the time filming; the low quality of her films is an object of ridicule behind her back. Joey (Mary Beth Hurt), who is in a relationship with Mike (Sam Waterston), cannot settle on a career, and resents her mother for favoring Renata, while Renata resents their father's concern over Joey's lack of direction.
One morning, Arthur unexpectedly announces that he wants a separation from his wife and would like to live alone. Eve, who is clinically depressed, attempts suicide. The shock of these two events causes a rift among the sisters. Arthur returns from a trip to Greece with Pearl (Maureen Stapleton), a high-spirited and more "normal" woman, whom he intends to marry. His daughters are disturbed that Arthur would disregard Eve's suicide attempt and find another woman, to whom Joey refers as a "vulgarian."
Arthur and Pearl marry at Arthur and Eve's former summer home, with Renata, Joey and Flyn in attendance. Later in the evening, Joey lashes out at Pearl when Pearl accidentally breaks one of Eve's vases. In the middle of the night, Frederick drunkenly attempts to rape Flyn. Meanwhile, Joey finds Eve in the house, and sadly explains how much she has given up for her mother, and how disdainfully she is treated. Eve walks out onto the beach and into the surf. Joey attempts unsuccessfully to save Eve, but almost drowns in the attempt. Mike rescues her and pulls her to shore where Pearl revives her with mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
The film ends with the family silently attending Eve's funeral, each placing a single white rose, Eve's favorite flower and a symbol of hope to her, on Eve's wooden, perfectly polished coffin, after which all three sisters look out at the sea from their former family beachfront home and comment on how 'peaceful' the sea looks.
Cast
Reception
Box office
Interiors grossed $10.4 million in the United States and Canada.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 80%, based on reviews from 15 critics, with an average score of 6.8/10. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67, based on reviews from 9 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "beautiful" and complimented Gordon Willis on his "use of cool colors that suggest civilization's precarious control of natural forces", but noted:
Richard Schickel of Time wrote that the film's "desperate sobriety...robs it of energy and passion"; Allen's "style is Bergmanesque, but his material is Mankiewiczian, and the discontinuity is fatal. Doubtless this was a necessary movie for Allen, but it is both unnecessary and a minor embarrassment for his well-wishers."
Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and praised it highly, writing "Here we have a Woody Allen film, and we're talking about O'Neill and Bergman and traditions and influences? Yes, and correctly. Allen, whose comedies have been among the cheerful tonics of recent years, is astonishingly assured in his first drama."
Gene Siskel awarded three stars out of four and wrote:
Charles Champlin called the film "somber, intense and stunning," concluding "Like Cries and Whispers, Allen's Interiors is, for all the somberness of the material, in the end an affirmation of life and a transcendent piece of art. The film lovers will love it if joke-seekers do not.
Penelope Gilliatt of The New Yorker wrote: "This droll piece of work is [Allen's] most majestic so far. The theme its characters express is very Chekhovian. It is pinned to the idea that the hardest, and most admirable thing to do is to act properly through a whole life."
James Monaco, in his 1979 published book American Film Now, described Interiors as the most pretentious film by a major American filmmaker in the last 30 years.
In 2016, Interiors was listed as Allen's 11th best film in an article by The Daily Telegraph critics Robbie Collin and Tim Robey, who wrote that "the emotional effort being expended is cumulatively hard to shrug off" and praised Stapleton's performance.
Woody Allen's response
Allen's own fears about the film's reception are recounted in a biography of Allen by Eric Lax, where he quotes Ralph Rosenblum, the film's editor:
Later, while watching the film with an acquaintance, Allen reportedly said "It's always been my fear. I think I'm writing Long Day's Journey into Night and it turns into Edge of Night."
Looking back on the film in 1982, Allen said:
Accolades
Soundtrack
"Keepin' Out of Mischief Now" (1932) - Written by Fats Waller & Andy Razaf - Performed by Tommy Dorsey & His Orchestra
"Wolverine Blues" (1923) - Written by Ferdinand Morton - Performed by The World's Greatest Jazz Band
Popular culture
The plot and characters of Interiors are alluded to in the Death Cab for Cutie song "Death of an Interior Decorator" (from Transatlanticism (2003)).
References
External links
1978 films
1978 drama films
American drama films
American films
English-language films
Films about depression
Films about dysfunctional families
Films about suicide
Films based on works by Ingmar Bergman
Films directed by Woody Allen
Films produced by Charles H. Joffe
Films set in New York (state)
Films shot in New York (state)
Films shot in New York City
Films with screenplays by Woody Allen
United Artists films
Films about divorce
Films about sisters | [
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240358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSAKEY | NSAKEY | _NSAKEY was a variable name discovered in Windows NT 4 SP5 in 1999 by Andrew D. Fernandes of Cryptonym Corporation. The variable contained a 1024-bit public key; such keys are used in public-key cryptography for encryption and authentication. Because of the name, however, it was speculated that the key would allow the United States National Security Agency (NSA) to subvert any Windows user's security. Microsoft denied the speculation and said that the key's name came from the fact that NSA was the technical review authority for U.S. cryptography export controls.
Overview
Microsoft requires all cryptography suites that interoperate with Microsoft Windows to have a digital signature. Since only Microsoft-approved cryptography suites can be shipped with Windows, it is possible to keep export copies of this operating system in compliance with the Export Administration Regulations (EAR), which are enforced by the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS).
It was already known that Microsoft used two keys, a primary and a spare, either of which can create valid signatures. Upon releasing the Service Pack 5 for Windows NT 4, Microsoft had neglected to remove the debugging symbols in ADVAPI32.DLL, a library used for advanced Windows features such as Registry and Security. Andrew Fernandes, chief scientist with Cryptonym, found the primary key stored in the variable _KEY and the second key was labeled _NSAKEY. Fernandes published his discovery, touching off a flurry of speculation and conspiracy theories, including the possibility that the second key was owned by the United States National Security Agency (the NSA) and allowed the intelligence agency to subvert any Windows user's security.
During a presentation at the Computers, Freedom and Privacy 2000 (CFP2000) conference, Duncan Campbell, senior research fellow at the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC), mentioned the _NSAKEY controversy as an example of an outstanding issue related to security and surveillance.
In addition, Dr. Nicko van Someren found a third key in Windows 2000, which he doubted had a legitimate purpose, and declared that "It looks more fishy".
Microsoft's reaction
Microsoft denied the backdoor speculations on _NSAKEY and said "This speculation is ironic since Microsoft has consistently opposed the various key escrow proposals suggested by the government." According to Microsoft, the key's symbol was "_NSAKEY" because the NSA was the technical review authority for U.S. cryptography export controls, and the key ensured compliance with U.S. export laws.
Richard Purcell, Microsoft's Director of Corporate Privacy, approached Campbell after his presentation and expressed a wish to clear up the confusion and doubts about _NSAKEY. Immediately after the conference, Scott Culp, of the Microsoft Security Response Center, contacted Campbell and offered to answer his questions. Their correspondence began cordially but soon became strained; Campbell apparently felt Culp was being evasive and Culp apparently felt that Campbell was hostilely repeating questions that he had already answered. On 28 April 2000, Culp stated that "we have definitely reached the end of this discussion ... [which] is rapidly spiraling into the realm of conspiracy theory".
Microsoft claimed the third key was only in beta builds of Windows 2000 and that its purpose was for signing Cryptographic Service Providers.
The Mozilla page on common questions on cryptography mentions:
It is in fact possible under certain circumstances to obtain an export license for software invoking cryptographic functions through an API. For example, Microsoft's implementation of the Microsoft Cryptographic API (CryptoAPI) specification was approved for export from the US, even though it implements an API by which third parties, including third parties outside the US, can add separate modules ("Cryptographic Service Providers" or CSPs) implementing cryptographic functionality. This export approval was presumably made possible because a) the CryptoAPI implementation requires third party CSPs to be digitally signed by Microsoft and rejects attempts to call CSPs not so signed; b) through this signing process Microsoft can ensure compliance with the relevant US export control regulations (e.g., they presumably would not sign a CSP developed outside the US that implements strong cryptography); and c) Microsoft's CryptoAPI implementation is available only in executable form, and thus is presumed to be reasonably resistant to user tampering to disable the CSP digital signature check.
Microsoft stated that the second key is present as a backup to guard against the possibility of losing the primary secret key. Fernandes doubts this explanation, pointing out that the generally accepted way to guard against loss of a secret key is secret splitting, which would divide the key into several different parts, which would then be distributed throughout senior management. He stated that this would be far more robust than using two keys; if the second key is also lost, Microsoft would need to patch or upgrade every copy of Windows in the world, as well as every cryptographic module it had ever signed.
On the other hand, if Microsoft failed to think about the consequences of key loss and created a first key without using secret splitting (and did so in secure hardware which doesn't allow protection to be weakened after key generation), and the NSA pointed out this problem as part of the review process, it might explain why Microsoft weakened their scheme with a second key and why the new one was called _NSAKEY. (The second key might be backed up using secret splitting, so losing both keys should not be a problem.) Another possibility is that Microsoft included a second key to be able to sign cryptographic modules outside the United States, while still complying with the BIS's EAR. If cryptographic modules were to be signed in multiple locations, using multiple keys is a reasonable approach. However, no cryptographic module has ever been found to be signed by _NSAKEY, and Microsoft denies that any other certification authority exists.
It was possible to remove the second _NSAKEY.
There is good news among the bad, however. It turns out that there is a flaw in the way the "crypto_verify" function is implemented. Because of the way the crypto verification occurs, users can easily eliminate or replace the NSA key from the operating system without modifying any of Microsoft's original
components. Since the NSA key is easily replaced, it means that non-US companies are free to install "strong" crypto services into Windows, without Microsoft's or the NSA's approval. Thus the NSA has effectively removed export control of "strong" crypto from Windows. A demonstration program that replaces the NSA key can be found on Cryptonym's website.
PGP keys
In September 1999, an anonymous researcher reverse-engineered both the primary key and the _NSAKEY into PGP-compatible format and published them to key servers.
Primary key (_KEY)
Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID
pub 1024/346B5095 1999/09/06 Microsoft's CAPI key <[email protected]>
-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 2.6.3i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=ms8C
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Secondary key (_NSAKEY and _KEY2)
Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID
pub 1024/51682D1F 1999/09/06 NSA's Microsoft CAPI key <[email protected]>
-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: 2.6.3i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=PhHT
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
See also
Lotus Notes – openly used an NSA key in order to comply with cryptography export regulations
Clipper chip
References
Microsoft criticisms and controversies
History of cryptography
Conspiracy theories
National Security Agency
Microsoft Windows security technology
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240361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%20Field | Sally Field | Sally Margaret Field (born November 6, 1946) is an American actress, director and activist. She is the recipient of various accolades, including two Academy Awards, three Primetime Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award, a Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress, and nominations for a Tony Award and for two British Academy Film Awards.
Field began her career on television, starring in the comedies Gidget (1965–1966), The Flying Nun (1967–1970), and The Girl with Something Extra (1973–1974). In 1967, she was also in the western The Way West. In 1976, she garnered critical acclaim for her performance in the television film Sybil, for which she received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie. Her film debut was as an extra in Moon Pilot (1962); her film career escalated during the 1970s with starring roles in films including Stay Hungry (1976), Smokey and the Bandit (1977), Heroes (1977), The End (1978), and Hooper (1978). Her career further expanded during the 1980s, winning the Academy Award for Best Actress twice for Norma Rae (1979) and Places in the Heart (1984), and she appeared in Smokey and the Bandit II (1980), Absence of Malice (1981), Kiss Me Goodbye (1982), Murphy's Romance (1985), Steel Magnolias (1989), Soapdish (1991), Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), and Forrest Gump (1994).
In the 2000s, Field returned to television with a recurring role on the NBC medical drama ER, for which she won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in 2001 and the following year made her stage debut with Edward Albee's The Goat, or Who Is Sylvia?. For her portrayal of Nora Walker in the ABC television family drama series Brothers & Sisters (2006-2011), Field won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. She starred as Mary Todd Lincoln in Lincoln (2012), for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, and she portrayed Aunt May in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) and its 2014 sequel, with the first being her highest-grossing release. In 2015, she portrayed the title character in Hello, My Name Is Doris, for which she was nominated for the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy. In 2017, she returned to the stage after an absence of 15 years with the revival of Tennessee Williams's The Glass Menagerie, for which was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. In 2014, she was presented with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and in 2019, she received the Kennedy Center Honor.
Early life
Sally Field was born in Pasadena, California, to Margaret Field (née Morlan; an actress) and Richard Dryden Field. Her father served in the Army during World War II. Her brother is physicist and academic Richard D. Field. Following her parents' divorce in 1950, her mother married actor and stuntman Jock Mahoney. Field alleged in her 2018 memoir that she was sexually abused by Mahoney during her childhood.
As a teen, Field attended Portola Middle School and Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, where she was a cheerleader. Her classmates included financier Michael Milken, actress Cindy Williams, and talent agent Michael Ovitz.
Career
1965–1976
Field got her start on television as the boy-crazy surfer girl in the sitcom Gidget (1965–1966). The show was not an initial success and was cancelled after a single season; however, summer reruns garnered respectable ratings, making the show a belated success. Wanting to find a new starring vehicle for Field, ABC next produced The Flying Nun with Field cast as Sister Bertrille for three seasons, from 1967 to 1970. In an interview included on the Season One DVD release, Field said that she thoroughly enjoyed Gidget but hated The Flying Nun because she was not treated with respect by the show's directors. Field was then typecast, finding respectable roles difficult to obtain. In 1971, Field starred in the ABC television film Maybe I'll Come Home in the Spring, playing a discouraged teen runaway who returns home with a bearded, drug-abusing hippie (played by David Carradine). She made several guest television appearances through the mid-1970s, including a role on the Western Alias Smith and Jones, a popular series starring Gidget co-star Pete Duel. She also appeared in the episode "Whisper" on the thriller Night Gallery.
In 1973, Field was cast in a starring role opposite John Davidson in the short-lived series The Girl with Something Extra that aired from 1973 to 1974. Following the series' cancellation, Field studied at the Actors Studio with acting teacher Lee Strasberg. Strasberg became a mentor to Field, helping her move past her television image of the girl next door. During this period, Field divorced her first husband in 1975.
Soon after studying with Strasberg, Field landed the title role in the 1976 television film Sybil, based on the book by Flora Rheta Schreiber. Her dramatic portrayal of a young woman afflicted with dissociative identity disorder earned her an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Special Program – Drama or Comedy in 1977 and enabled her to break through the typecasting of her sitcom work.
1977–1989
In 1977, Field co-starred with Burt Reynolds, Jackie Gleason, and Jerry Reed in the year's second-highest-grossing film, Smokey and the Bandit. In 1979, she played the titular union organizer in Norma Rae, a film that established her as a dramatic actress. Vincent Canby, reviewing the film for The New York Times, wrote: "Norma Rae is a seriously concerned contemporary drama, illuminated by some very good performances and one, Miss Field's, that is spectacular." For her role in Norma Rae, Field won the Best Female Performance Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Field appeared with Reynolds in three more films: The End, Hooper, and Smokey and the Bandit II. In 1981, she continued to change her image, playing a foul-mouthed prostitute opposite Tommy Lee Jones in the South-set film Back Roads. She was nominated for a Golden Globe for the 1981 drama Absence of Malice and the 1982 comedy Kiss Me Goodbye.
Then came a second Oscar for her starring role in the 1984 drama Places in the Heart. Field's acceptance speech has since been both admired as earnest and parodied as excessive. She said, "Oh Benton, what you did for me. You changed my life, truly! This means so much more to me this time. I don't know why, I think the first time I hardly felt it because it was all so new. I owe a lot to the cast, to my players. To Lindsay and John and Danny, and Ed and Amy, and my little friends, Gennie and Yankton. I owe a lot to my family for holding me together and loving me and having patience with this obsession of me. But I want to 'thank you' to you. I haven't had an orthodox career. And I've wanted more than anything to have your respect. The first time I didn't feel it, but this time I feel it. And I can't deny the fact that you like me...right now...you like me! (applause) Thank you!" Field was making a humorous reference to dialog from her role in Norma Rae, but many people missed the connection. Field later parodied herself when she delivered the line (often misquoted as "You like me, you really like me!") in a Charles Schwab commercial.
In 1985, she co-starred with James Garner in the romantic comedy Murphy's Romance. In A&E's biography of Garner, she cited her on-screen kiss with Garner as the best cinematic kiss she ever had. The following year, Field appeared on the cover of the March 1986 issue of Playboy magazine, in which she was the interview subject. She did not appear as a pictorial subject in the magazine, although she did wear the classic leotard and bunny-ears outfit on the cover. That year, she received the Women in Film Crystal Award. For her role as matriarch M'Lynn in the film version of Steel Magnolias (1989), she was nominated for a 1990 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.
1990–present
Field had supporting roles in a number of other movies, including Mrs. Doubtfire (1993), in which she played the wife of Robin Williams's character and the love interest of Pierce Brosnan's character. She then played Tom Hanks's mother in Forrest Gump (1994), even though she was only 10 years older than Hanks, with whom she had co-starred six years earlier in Punchline.
Field's other 1990s films included Not Without My Daughter, a controversial thriller based on the real-life experience of Betty Mahmoody's escape from Iran with her daughter Mahtob; and Soapdish, a comedy in which she played a pampered soap-opera star and was joined by an all-star cast, including Kevin Kline, Whoopi Goldberg, Elisabeth Shue, and Robert Downey, Jr. In 1996, Field reprised her role as Sassy in Homeward Bound 2: Lost in San Francisco and later that year, she received the Berlinale Camera award at the 46th Berlin International Film Festival for her role as a grieving vigilante mother in director John Schlesinger's film Eye for an Eye. In 1997, Field guest starred on the King of the Hill episode "Hilloween", in which she voiced religious woman Junie Harper, who contends with Hank Hill (Mike Judge) to ban Halloween. She co-starred with Natalie Portman in Where the Heart Is (2000), and appeared opposite Reese Witherspoon in Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde.
Field had a recurring role on ER in the 2000–2001 season as Dr. Abby Lockhart's mother, Maggie, who suffers from bipolar disorder, a role for which she won an Emmy Award in 2001. After her critically acclaimed stint on the show, she returned to the role in 2003 and 2006. She also starred in the very short-lived 2002 series The Court.
Field's directorial career began with the television film The Christmas Tree (1996). In 1998, she directed the episode "The Original Wives' Club" of the critically acclaimed TV miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, also playing a minor role as Trudy, the wife of astronaut Gordon Cooper. In 2000, she directed the feature film Beautiful.
Field was a late addition to the ABC drama Brothers & Sisters, which debuted in September 2006. In the show's pilot, the role of matriarch Nora Walker was played by Betty Buckley. However, the show's producers decided to take the character in another direction, and offered the part to Field, who won the 2007 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance. The drama also starred Calista Flockhart and Rachel Griffiths as Nora's adult daughters. In November 2009, Field appeared on an episode of The Doctors to talk about osteoporosis and her Rally With Sally Foundation.
She portrayed Aunt May in the Marvel Comics films The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) as well as the 2014 sequel. Field's widely praised portrayal of Mary Todd Lincoln in Steven Spielberg's film Lincoln brought her Best Supporting Actress Award nominations at the Oscars, Golden Globes, BAFTA, and Screen Actors Guild.
On May 5, 2014, Field received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to motion pictures. Her star is located in front of the Hollywood Wax Museum. In January 2015, it was announced that she would co-host TCM. The same year, Field portrayed the titular character in Hello, My Name Is Doris, for which she was nominated for the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress in a Comedy.
In 2017, Field reprised her role as Amanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie on Broadway at the Belasco Theatre. Performances began on February 7, 2017, in previews, and officially opened on March 9. The production closed on May 21, 2017. Field had previously played the role in the Kennedy Center production in 2004. She was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her performance. Her memoir, In Pieces, was published by Grand Central Publishing in September 2018.
Field returned to episodic television in 2018, starring in the Netflix miniseries Maniac. Subsequently, in 2020, Field starred in the AMC series Dispatches from Elsewhere.
In 2022, it was announced that Field would be a co-star in an upcoming comedy movie entitled 80 for Brady, which would star retired NFL quarterback Tom Brady along with fellow actresses Jane Fonda, Lily Tomlin and Rita Moreno.
Personal life
Field was married to Steven Craig from 1968 to 1975, though they separated in 1973. The couple had two sons: Peter Craig, a novelist and screenwriter; and Eli Craig, an actor and director.
From 1976 to 1980, Field had a relationship with Burt Reynolds, during which time they co-starred in four films: Smokey and the Bandit, Smokey and the Bandit II, The End, and Hooper. Following their 1980 breakup, Field and Reynolds continued to date on and off before splitting permanently in 1982.
Field married her second husband, Alan Greisman, in 1984. Together, they had one son, Sam, in 1987. Field and Greisman divorced in 1994.
On October 29, 1988, at Aspen/Pitkin County Airport in Colorado, Field and three members of her family were in a private plane owned by media mogul Merv Griffin when it lost power and rejected takeoff, slamming into parked aircraft. They all survived with minor injuries.
Philanthropy and activism
In 2005, Field was diagnosed with osteoporosis. Her diagnosis led her to create the "Rally with Sally for Bone Health" campaign with support from Roche and GlaxoSmithKline that controversially co-promoted Boniva, a bisphosphonate treatment for osteoporosis. Field's campaign encouraged the early diagnosis of such conditions through technology such as bone-density scans.
In 2005, Field received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented in recognition of her lifetime of contributions to the arts as well as her dedication as a social activist.
During her acceptance speech at the 2007 Emmy Awards, when she won for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, Field said: "If the mothers ruled the world, there would be no goddamn wars in the first place." Fox Broadcasting Company, which aired the show, cut the sound and picture after the word "god" and did not return camera/sound to the stage until after Field finished talking. An e-mail statement from the company the day after the incident explained that the censorship of Field's speech (among two other censorship incidents during the award ceremony) occurred because "some language during the live broadcast may have been considered inappropriate by some viewers. As a result, Fox's broadcast standards executives determined it appropriate to drop sound and picture during those portions of the show."
Field is an advocate for women's rights. She has served on the board of directors of Vital Voices Global Partnership, an international women's NGO, and has co-hosted the Global Leadership Awards six times. A Democrat, Field supported Hillary Clinton's bid for the Democratic Party nomination in the 2008 presidential election.
Field is also an advocate for gay rights, and won the Human Rights Campaign's Ally for Equality Award in 2012. Her youngest son, Sam, is gay.
Field was arrested on December 13, 2019, while attending Jane Fonda's weekly Friday climate change protests in Washington, D.C.
Bibliography
Discography
Singles
"Felicidad" (Billboard No. 94, Cashbox No. 91) / "Find Yourself a Rainbow" – Colgems 1008 – August 1967
"Follow the Star" (Both sides, promo only) – Colgems 107 – December 1967
"Golden Days" / "You're a Grand Old Flag" – Colgems 1014 – January 1968
"Gonna Build a Mountain" / "Months of the Year" (also features Flying Nun co-stars Madeleine Sherwood and Marge Redmond) – Colgems 1030 – September 1968
Album
Star of The Flying Nun—Colgems COM-106 (Mono) / COS-106 (Stereo) – Billboard No. 172, December 1967
Awards and nominations
References
External links
Sally Field at Emmys.com
Actress Sally Field On Hollywood, Family and Aging, an NPR Interview, June 3, 2009 (streaming audio)
1946 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Activists from California
Actresses from Pasadena, California
American child actresses
American women singers
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women film directors
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actress winners
California Democrats
Colgems Records artists
Method actors
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Film directors from California
Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Survivors of aviation accidents or incidents
Birmingham High School alumni | [
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|
240363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starting%20Over%20%281979%20film%29 | Starting Over (1979 film) | Starting Over is a 1979 American comedy film based on Dan Wakefield's 1973 novel, produced by James L. Brooks, and directed by Alan J. Pakula. Starring Burt Reynolds, Jill Clayburgh, and Candice Bergen, it follows a recently divorced man who is torn between his new girlfriend and his ex-wife.
It was nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Clayburgh) and Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Bergen). Marvin Hamlisch and Carole Bayer Sager wrote three original songs for the film, "Easy for You," "Better Than Ever", and "Starting Over", which are sung by Bergen live in the film as she is creating them but sung by Stephanie Mills for their radio versions.
Plot
Phil Potter (Burt Reynolds) splits with his wife, Jessica (Candice Bergen). She wants to be a singer/songwriter and has been having an affair.
Phil moves from New York to Boston, where his brother Mickey (Charles Durning) and his sister-in-law Marva (Frances Sternhagen) live. Against his wishes, they set up him with a blind date, Marilyn Holmberg (Jill Clayburgh), a nursery-school teacher working on her master's degree.
He begins a new life. Phil takes a part-time teaching job and attends a divorced-men workshop in a church basement, meeting lonely men like Paul and Larry whose situations are similar to his. Marilyn feels it's too soon following his breakup for Phil to begin a new relationship. He goes on a date with her friend Marie, a single mom who literally throws herself at him.
At a family Thanksgiving dinner, a phone call from Jessica comes at an inopportune time. Marilyn overhears him telling Jessie that he is dining with his family and "their friend." Marilyn's feelings are hurt and wants to end the relationship. He confronts Marilyn at a School Carnival, where she is staffing a "Dunk the Teacher" dunk tank, and after dunking her several times, Phil asks her to "define" their relationship. Finally, Marilyn agrees when Phil invites her to move in with him. Soon after they move in together, Jessica unexpectedly turns up at his apartment. She looks fabulous and has become a great success as a songwriter, although she is a decidedly off-key singer.
Phil moves back to New York to be with Jessica again. But the more he is with her, the more he misses Marilyn. He returns to Boston only to find she is now dating a basketball player. Phil does everything he can, even disrupting a Boston Celtics practice, in an attempt to win her back.
Cast
Reception
Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4 and wrote that it "feels sort of embarrassed at times, maybe because characters are placed in silly sitcom situations and then forced to say lines that are supposed to be revealing and real." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and said it was worth seeing because "Two-thirds of it (Reynolds and Clayburgh) work very well," though he disliked Candice Bergen, saying "she is awful in this picture" and that the script "somehow feels obliged to be cute or funny. We don't want jokes from 'Starting Over.' All we want is to see Reynolds and Clayburgh go out together and work on their problems." Variety called the film "a delight. Much more than the flip side of An Unmarried Woman, to which it will inevitably be compared, the James L. Brook (sic) production takes on the subject of marital dissolution from a comic point of view, and succeeds admirably." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times declared, "It is, all in all, a classy entertainment which, right now and in years to come, will remind us quite accurately how things were between middle-class men and women, circa 1980." Jack Kroll of Newsweek stated that the film "starts out well and continues well for about two-thirds of the way before succumbing to the creeping virus of the cutesies. But until then, Pakula finds a nice groove of effectively understated comedy." Frank Rich said in Time, "Though this film has funny lines and a potentially explosive story, it rarely generates any emotion beyond bland good cheer. Right up to the moment that Starting Over is over, we are still waiting for the fireworks to start." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote, "As the newly divorced hero of 'Starting Over,' a delightful romantic comedy destined for enormous well-deserved popularity, Burt Reynolds reaches a breathtaking new plateau of screen acting dexterity."
References
External links
1979 films
1970s romantic comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
English-language films
Films scored by Marvin Hamlisch
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Alan J. Pakula
Films set in Boston
Films set in New York City
Films with screenplays by James L. Brooks
Paramount Pictures films
Films about divorce
1979 comedy films | [
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|
240365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter%20Two%20%28play%29 | Chapter Two (play) | Chapter Two is a semi-autobiographical play by Neil Simon. The play premiered on Broadway in 1977, where it ran for 857 performances.
History
According to Sheridan Morley, "This was in some ways the turning-point for Simon, the moment when he started to use his own life as something more than an excuse for a gag-fest. It was written as a tribute to Marsha Mason, his second wife, and her tolerance with his long-lasting grief over the death of his first wife...There is something very painful here, in among the gags, about a man trying to come to terms with death rather than a new life."
Overview
The play focuses on a recently widowed writer, George Schneider, who is introduced by his press agent brother to soap opera actress Jennie Malone. Jennie's marriage to a football player has dissolved after six years. Both are uncertain of their readiness to start dating and developing a new romance when her breakup is so recent and he still has recurring memories of his deceased wife, Barbara.
Neil Simon's first wife, Joan Baim, died in 1973.
Productions
Stage
The play had its world premiere at the Los Angeles Ahmanson Theatre on October 7, 1977, closing November 26. Produced by Emanuel Azenberg and directed by Herbert Ross, the cast included: Judd Hirsch as George, Anita Gillette as Jennie, Cliff Gorman as Leo, and Ann Wedgeworth as Faye. The production won the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Awards (1977–78): Distinguished Production; and Neil Simon, Distinguished Playwriting.
The play opened on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre on December 4, 1977, and transferred to the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in January 1979, where it closed on December 8, 1979 after 857 performances and seven previews. The Los Angeles cast reprised their roles on Broadway. Cast replacements included David Groh, Dick Latessa, Laurence Luckinbill, Robin Strasser, and Susan Browning.
The play received four 1978 Tony Award nominations: Tony Award for Best Play; Anita Gillette for Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play and Cliff Gorman for Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. Ann Wedgeworth won the 1978 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play.
The play premiered in the West End at the Gielgud Theatre in February 1996, with Tom Conti and Sharon Gless. Gless later recorded a two-disc audiobook of the play with David Dukes for LA TheatreWorks.
Television
A portion of the Chapter Two 1977 play and Chapter Two (1979 movie) were used in the plot of the sitcom Seinfelds third season's episode: "The Letter, Season 3, Episode 20".
Film
Simon adapted the play for the 1979 film version Chapter Two. It was directed by Robert Moore with James Caan and Simon's then-wife Marsha Mason, the inspiration for character Jennie.<ref>Passafiume, Andrea. [http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/276864%7C0/Chapter-Two.html Chapter Two"] Turner Classic Movies, accessed April 11, 2012</ref> Caan said he made the film to earn some money while preparing for Hide in Plain Sight'' (1980 film).
References
External links
1977 plays
Broadway plays
Plays by Neil Simon
American plays adapted into films
Plays set in New York City | [
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|
240368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglia | Anglia | Anglia may refer to:
Places
The medieval Latin name for England, similarly found in several other languages
Places settled by the Angles:
in North Germany
Anglia (peninsula), original home of the Angles in north Germany
in England in the early Middle Ages:
most often, East Anglia and, in particular, the Kingdom of East Anglia,
Mid Anglia,
West Anglia and,
sometimes and especially in medieval contexts, areas to the north also settled by Angles, including the kingdoms of Mercia, Lindsey, Deira and Northumbria
Companies
Anglia Television or ITV Anglia, the ITV regional franchise in the east of England
Anglia Regional Co-operative Society Ltd
Anglia Building Society, now part of the Nationwide Building Society
Anglia Railways, a railway company
Other
Anglia Ruskin University
University of East Anglia
Anglia (journal), subtitled Zeitschrift für Englische Philologie, a German journal of English studies
Anglia, a British propaganda magazine published in Russian language between 1962 and 1992
Ford Anglia, various models of car built by the Ford Motor Company
Anglia knight, a sterling silver trophy depicting a knight on horseback used as the ident for ITV Anglia
See also
West Anglia (disambiguation)
Mid Anglia (disambiguation) | [
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240369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Rose%20%28film%29 | The Rose (film) | The Rose is a 1979 American drama film directed by Mark Rydell, and starring Bette Midler, Alan Bates, Frederic Forrest, Harry Dean Stanton, Barry Primus, and David Keith. Loosely based on the life of Janis Joplin, the film follows a self-destructive rock star in the late 1960s, who struggles to cope with the pressures of her career and the demands of her ruthless business manager.
Originally titled Pearl (after Janis Joplin's nickname, which was also the title of her last album), the film's screenplay was revised and fictionalized after her family declined to allow the producers the rights to her story.
The Rose was nominated for four Academy Awards including Best Actress in a Leading Role (Bette Midler, in her screen debut), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Frederic Forrest), Best Film Editing and Best Sound. Midler performed the soundtrack album for the film, and its title track became one of her biggest hit singles.
Plot
In late 1969, Mary Rose Foster is a famous rock and roll diva known as "The Rose." In spite of her success, her personal life is lonely and exhausting. She is exploited and overworked by her gruff, greedy manager and promoter Rudge Campbell. Though forthright and brassy, Rose is an insecure alcoholic and former drug user who seems to crave approval in her life. As such, she is determined to return to her Florida hometown, now as a superstar, and perform for the people from her past.
Following a performance in Texas, Rose meets with country music star Billy Ray, whom she idolizes and whose songs she often covers in live shows. Billy Ray cruelly demands that she never perform his music again, and he rudely dismisses her. After discovering that Rudge arranged the meeting because he wants to sign Billy Ray to his label, Rose defiantly flees with a limousine driver named Huston Dyer. The two take a cross-country trip to New York City, where Rose is scheduled to complete recording sessions. They begin a whirlwind romance.
Rudge assumes that Huston is just another hanger-on, but Rose feels she has finally met her true love. Huston eventually admits to her that he is actually an AWOL sergeant from the Army, and she tells him of her past in Florida. The couple's relationship grows turbulent amidst Rose's reckless lifestyle and constant touring. In Memphis, Rose is met by Sarah, a former lover of hers. When Huston walks in on the two women kissing, he and Rose get into a violent fight, after which Huston flees.
Determined to reunite with Huston, Rose searches for him in a red light district of Memphis with PFC Mal, a military member whom she met in Texas. She subsequently appoints Mal as her security escort, and the two travel to Rose's hometown Jacksonville, Florida, where Rudge has booked her a hometown reunion show. Upon arriving, Rose shows Mal her childhood home, her high school, and other local landmarks from her childhood. Arriving at the stadium for afternoon rehearsals for her concert, Rose repeats her intention to take a one-year break from performing, leading Rudge to tell her she will be in breach of contract. Rudge proceeds to fire her, though unbeknownst to Rose, this is only a ploy to ensure that she performs the show. A distraught Rose is met by Huston, who has traveled to Jacksonville to reunite with her.
Believing her concert is cancelled, Rose decides to run away and start a new life with Huston. That night, she takes Huston on a tour of local bars and clubs she used to frequent prior to becoming famous, recklessly drinking and indulging in barbiturates and heroin. At one bar, Huston becomes jealous when a male patron harasses Rose as she performs, and he begins a fight. After, Rudge reaches Rose on her car phone and convinces her to return for the concert. She acquiesces, and her decision to appease Rudge causes Huston to give up on the relationship and leave town. Later that night, after performing the opening song of her long-awaited homecoming concert, Rose collapses onstage and dies of an overdose.
Cast
Production
Conception
The film was originally offered to Ken Russell, who chose instead to direct Valentino. Russell has described this decision as the biggest mistake of his career. At one point, Michael Cimino was also slated to direct, but he chose to direct Heaven's Gate instead. Cimino did, however, make uncredited contributions to the script.
Casting
Suzy Williams was originally offered the title role, but turned it down for personal reasons, instead suggesting it to Bette Midler.
Filming
The Rose was completed in time for a scheduled release in April 1979; however, 20th Century-Fox elected to postpone release til autumn 1979:(Mark Rydell quote:)"[at] Easter time...the public seems to like frothy films."
Reception
The Rose has a 74% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 19 reviews.
The film opened in New York City on Wednesday, November 7, 1979 and grossed $793,063 in its opening weekend from 44 screens, the second highest-grossing opening weekend on under 50 screens behind Star Wars (1977). The film went on to gross $29.2 million in the United States and Canada.
Awards and nominations
Others
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"The Rose" – #83
Home video
The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu-ray and DVD on May 19, 2015.
See also
The Rose (song)
References
Sources
External links
The Rose: High Tragedy on Tour an essay by Paula Mejia at the Criterion Collection
1979 films
English-language films
1970s musical drama films
1979 LGBT-related films
American films
American LGBT-related films
American musical drama films
American rock music films
Cultural depictions of Janis Joplin
Films about drugs
Films directed by Mark Rydell
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films set in 1969
Films shot in California
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in New York City
Films with screenplays by Bo Goldman
LGBT-related musical drama films
20th Century Fox films
1979 drama films
Films set in Memphis, Tennessee
Films set in Florida | [
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|
240370 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection%20%281980%20film%29 | Resurrection (1980 film) | Resurrection is a 1980 American drama film directed by Daniel Petrie, written by Lewis John Carlino, and starring Ellen Burstyn, Sam Shepard, Richard Farnsworth, Roberts Blossom, Lois Smith and Eva Le Gallienne. It was produced by Renée Missel and Howard Rosenman.<ref>[https://catalog.afi.com/Film/56493-RESURRECTION The AFI Catalog of Feature Films: Resurrection, 1980] Retrieved November 20, 2016</ref>
The film received two nominations at the 53rd Academy Awards; Best Actress (Ellen Burstyn) and Best Supporting Actress (Eva Le Gallienne). Burstyn was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Drama at the 38th Golden Globe Awards, while Gallienne won the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress. It was further selected by the National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 1980.
Plot
Edna Mae (Burstyn) survives a car accident that kills her husband and nearly kills her but her brief out of body experience gives her the power to heal people. She becomes an unwitting celebrity, the hope of those in desperate need of healing, and a lightning rod for religious beliefs and skeptics.
Cast
Ellen Burstyn as Edna Mae (Harper) McCauley
Jeffrey DeMunn as Joseph "Joe" McCauley, Edna's husband
Roberts Blossom as John Harper, Edna's father
Eva Le Gallienne as Pearl, Edna's grandmother
Lois Smith as Kathy, Edna's cousin
Sam Shepard as Cal Carpenter, Edna's lover
Richard Hamilton as Reverend Earl Carpenter, Cal's father
Richard Farnsworth as Esco Brown, owner of "Last Chance Gas"
Sylvia Walden as Louise, a woman Edna heals in Los Angeles
Madeleine Thornton-Sherwood as Ruth, a townswoman Edna heals
Reaction
Reception
Film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film a highly enthusiastic review on their weekly TV show Sneak Previews, with both critics praising Burstyn's performance and the handling of the subject matter. In his annual movie guide, Leonard Maltin rated the film 3-stars-out-of-4, and noted the story as "beautifully realized", while prasing Burstyn's "moving performance" as the "centerpiece of a wonderful and underrated film".
Awards and nominations
Home mediaResurrection was released on DVD in 2010 as part of the Universal Vault Series of DVD-on-Demand titles. A Blu-ray version followed in 2019.
In other media
Book
A novelization was written by George Gipe and released in 1980.
Television
The film was remade for television in 1999. Also titled Resurrection'', it was directed by Stephen Gyllenhaal and stars Dana Delany.
References
External links
1980 film:
1999 TV film:
1980 films
American drama films
English-language films
Films about religion
Films directed by Daniel Petrie
Universal Pictures films
1980 drama films
Films scored by Maurice Jarre
Films with screenplays by Lewis John Carlino
American films
Films about telekinesis
Films about paraplegics or quadriplegics | [
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240371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20Benjamin%20%281980%20film%29 | Private Benjamin (1980 film) | Private Benjamin is a 1980 American comedy film starring Goldie Hawn. The film was one of the biggest box office hits of 1980, and also spawned a short-lived television series. Private Benjamin ranked 82 on the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Laughs list, and 59 on Bravo's list of "100 Funniest Movies".
Plot
Judy Benjamin, a 28-year-old Jewish woman from a sheltered wealthy upbringing whose lifelong dream is to "marry a professional man," joins the U.S. Army after Yale Goodman, her new husband, dies on their wedding night during sex. Adrift, Judy tells her story on a radio call-in show and meets an Army recruiter, SFC James Ballard, who leads her to believe military life will provide the "family" she seeks. He also pitches the service as a glamorous getaway, comparing it to a spa vacation, but Judy has a rude awakening upon arriving at basic training. She wants to quit almost immediately, but is astonished to find out, contrary to the assertions of her recruiting sergeant, that she cannot leave.
Army regulations and the continual disapproval of both Captain Doreen Lewis and SFC L. C. Ross, the drill sergeant, frustrate Judy—but when her parents arrive at Fort Biloxi to take her home, she decides to stay and finish basic training, which she does with distinction after a war games exercise in which her squad exposes an affair between a member of her training platoon and a rival company officer (with whom Lewis was also having an affair), and takes the leaders of both sides hostage. Upon completion of basic training, Judy and her friends spend the weekend on leave in New Orleans, where she meets Henri Tremont, a French doctor there for a medical conference. After a brief romance, Henri returns to Paris and Judy begins training with an elite paratrooper unit, the Thornbirds.
Judy quickly discovers she was chosen for paratrooper training because the unit's commander finds her attractive; after the other trainees have jumped from the plane, he attempts to sexually assault her. When Judy refuses to comply, he attempts to have her transferred far from Biloxi as soon as possible. Rather than accept what she sees as an undesirable post in Greenland or Guam, Judy negotiates an assignment to Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in Belgium, and meets up with Henri again on a visit to Paris. He proposes marriage and she accepts, but when Captain Lewis discovers that Tremont is a communist, Judy is forced to choose between the Army and love.
After she chooses Henri and gets engaged, he reveals his childish, controlling nature. He tries to "remake" Judy, and also insists she sign a prenuptial agreement (in French) to protect his centuries-old family home. Finally, when Henri sleeps with the house maid and also makes it obvious that he has not got over his ex-girlfriend Clare, Judy has a change of heart. On her wedding day, in the middle of the ceremony, she realizes she is on the verge of a huge mistake. Judy abandons Henri at the altar and heads off into the unknown, empowered by her newfound freedom and excited about what may lie ahead.
Cast
Reception
The film holds a score of 82% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's consensus reads, "Private Benjamin proves a potent showcase for its Oscar-nominated star, with Goldie Hawn making the most of a story that rests almost completely on her daffily irresistible charm."
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 and praised it as "an appealing, infectious comedy" in a review that concluded, "Goldie Hawn, who is a true comic actress, makes an original, appealing character out of Judy Benjamin, and so the movie feels alive, not just an exercise in gags and situations." Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Hawn "totally charming" and praised Zieff's "great skill at keeping the gags aloft and in finding new ways by which to free the laughs trapped inside old routines about latrine duty, war games, forced marches and calisthenics." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4, calling it "old-fashioned, commercial Hollywood filmmaking at its best — an upbeat, delightful comedy with a gentle message." Variety wrote that the film "is actually a double feature — one is a frequently funny tale of an innocent who is conned into joining the U.S. Army and her adventures therein; the other deals with the same innocent's personality problems as a Jewish princess with only an intermittent chuckle to help out." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times panned the film, calling it "a movie you don't salute, you court martial. It may or may not violate the Articles of War but it raises holy hob with the laws of film making, the first of which is that you start with a good script." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it "a peculiarly unappealing throwback to the traditional service comedies like 'Buck Privates,' 'Caught in the Draft,' 'See Here, Private Hargrove,' et al.," with an "aimless screenplay" that leaves Hawn's character "less likable than the one at the beginning." Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote, "Goldie Hawn demonstrates what an accomplished comedienne she is—she carries 'Private Benjamin' on her back." David Ansen of Newsweek called the film "an uneven but highly enjoyable mixture of sociological satire, basic-training slapstick and feminist fable."
Box office
Private Benjamin grossed $4,739,769 from 763 theaters in its opening weekend, finishing at the top of the US box office. It added 36 more screens the following weekend and increased its gross to $4,935,571, finishing number one again, with a 10-day gross of $11.5 million.
Awards and nominations
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #82
2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
Pvt. Judy Benjamin: "I did join the Army, but I joined a different Army. I joined the one with the condos and the private rooms." – Nominated
Television series
In 1981, Private Benjamin was made into an Emmy and Golden Globe–winning television series of the same name that ran from 1981 to 1983. Set during the events of the film, it starred Lorna Patterson, Eileen Brennan, Hal Williams, Lisa Raggio, Wendie Jo Sperber and Joel Brooks. For the series, Brennan and Williams reprised their film roles, again portraying Captain Doreen Lewis and Sergeant L. C. Ross respectively.
Remake
In March 2010, Anna Faris was cast to portray Judy Benjamin in a Private Benjamin remake from New Line Cinema, but in May 2014, it was confirmed that Rebel Wilson would portray Benjamin in the remake. Amy Talkington was in discussion to write the script, which would update both the story and screenplay on which Harvey Miller, Nancy Meyers, and Charles Shyer had initially collaborated. Mark Gordon was set to produce.
The new adaptation Talkington was exploring would reset Miller's, Meyers', and Shyer's story in present day and set it against the backdrop of current military conflicts. According to insiders, the studio wanted neither to make fun of military service people nor take political potshots, but sought instead to focus on the empowerment elements and build upon the fish-out-of-water comedy. As of the beginning of August 2018, however, no new word was available on the project.
See also
Never Wave at a WAC (1953)
She's in the Army Now (1981 TV)
Private Valentine: Blonde & Dangerous (2008)
References
External links
1980 comedy films
1980 films
1980s war comedy films
American feminist comedy films
American war comedy films
American political satire films
American films
English-language films
Films scored by Bill Conti
Films adapted into television shows
Films directed by Howard Zieff
Films with screenplays by Nancy Meyers
Films set in Mississippi
Films set in Belgium
Films about the United States Army
Jews and Judaism in fiction
Military humor in film
Warner Bros. films | [
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|
240372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria%20%281980%20film%29 | Gloria (1980 film) | Gloria is a 1980 American neo-noir crime thriller film written and directed by John Cassavetes. It tells the story of a gangster's girlfriend who goes on the run with a young boy who is being hunted by the mob for information he may or may not have. It stars Gena Rowlands, Julie Carmen, Buck Henry, and John Adames.
Plot
In South Bronx, Jeri Dawn is heading home with groceries. Inside the lobby of her apartment building, she passes a man whose dress and appearance are out of place. The woman quickly boards the elevator.
She is met in her apartment by her husband Jack Dawn, an accountant for a New York City mob family. There is a contract on Jack and his family, as he has been acting as an informant for the FBI. Suddenly, the family's neighbor, Gloria Swenson, rings their doorbell, asking to borrow some coffee. Jeri tells Gloria of the impending hit and implores Gloria to protect the children. Gloria, a former mobster's girlfriend, tells Jeri that she doesn't like kids but begrudgingly agrees. The Dawns' daughter Joan refuses to leave and locks herself in the bathroom, so Gloria takes only their young son Phil to her apartment – narrowly missing the hit squad.
After hearing loud shotgun blasts from the Dawns' apartment, a visibly shaken Gloria decides that she and Phil must go into hiding. She quickly packs a bag, grabs her cat, and leaves the building with Phil, just as a police SWAT team are entering with heavy weapons. Meanwhile, a crowd of onlookers and news reporters have gathered in front of the building, and a cameraman captures a picture of Gloria leaving the building with Phil.
Gloria and Phil take a cab into Manhattan, where they hide out in an empty apartment belonging to a friend of hers. While Phil sleeps, Gloria has the TV on and hears a news report say that there was a mob hit in the South Bronx, and that the name of the suspected abductor is Gloria Swenson.
The next morning, Gloria and Phil sneak out of the apartment just as a group of gangsters close in on them. The gangsters are old friends of Gloria's, and confront her on the sidewalk outside, exhorting her to give up Phil and the ledger. In desperation, Gloria empties her revolver at the car of five gangsters, which takes off and flips over. Gloria realizes both her fate and Phil's are now intertwined, and that they will have to leave New York to survive.
Gloria goes to the bank to empty her safe deposit box, and the two settle for the night at a flophouse. She confronts another group of gangsters at a restaurant; she asks for immunity in exchange for the ledger. "Only Mr. Tanzinni can agree to that," says one of the goons, so she takes some of their guns and flees.
The next day, Gloria tells Phil that she plans to send him away to a boarding school. Offended by her intentions, Phil claims he is an independent grown man who can manage alone. Gloria decides to abandon him, and have a drink. She is soon filled with guilt and rushes back to look for him; however, he has been captured by some wise-guys. Gloria rescues him, killing one thug in the process, and fleeing from two other thugs via a taxi and the subway, where several by-standers help her escape from the two mobsters.
The two eventually make it to a hotel room, where Gloria laments the mob's strength and ubiquitous presence, explaining to Phil that she was once the mistress of Tanzinni himself. She meets with Tanzinni, relinquishes the ledger, and then flees, killing one gangster as another shoots down upon her elevator car. Phil waits several hours, then flees to Pittsburgh via rail. At a cemetery, Phil and Gloria reunite.
Cast
Gena Rowlands as Gloria Swenson
Julie Carmen as Jeri Dawn
Buck Henry as Jack Dawn
John Adames as Phil Dawn
Lupe Garnica as Margarita Vargas
John Finnegan as Frank
Tom Noonan, J.C. Quinn, and Sonny Landham as Mob henchmen
Lawrence Tierney as Broadway bartender
Production
John Cassavetes did not originally intend to direct his screenplay; he planned merely to sell the story to Columbia Pictures. However, once his wife, Gena Rowlands, was asked to play the title character in the film, she asked Cassavetes to direct it.
Critical reception
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 93% approval rating based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "A comparatively commercial entry from director John Cassavetes, Glorias pulpy pleasures are elevated by his observant touch and Gena Rowlands' galvanizing star performance."
Reviewing for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and described it as "tough, sweet and goofy", as well as "fun and engaging but slight". He believed the overly silly nature of the script is redeemed by "Cassavetes' reliance on a tried-and-true plot construction" and the acting performances, particularly that of Rowlands, who he said "propels the action with such appealing nervous energy that we don't have the heart to stop and think how silly everything is".
The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited Gloria as one of his favorite films.
Awards and nominations
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Gloria Swenson – Nominated Hero
Remakes and influences
The film was remade in 1999 under the same title with a screenplay by Steve Antin. The remake was directed by Sidney Lumet. It starred Sharon Stone and Jean-Luke Figueroa.
Other films inspired by Gloria include Erick Zonca's 2008 film Julia, starring Tilda Swinton and Luc Besson's 1994 film Léon: The Professional. In 2013, Paul Schrader was planning his own remake of the film, starring Lindsay Lohan.
Notes
References
Cassavetes, John and Raymond Carney (2001). "Chpt 10: Gloria (1978–1980)" in Cassavetes on Cassavetes. Macmillan. .
Morris, George (1980). "Lady on the Lam," Texas Monthly. Vol. 8, No. 10. ISSN 0148-7736.
External links
1980 films
1980s crime thriller films
1980 crime drama films
American films
American crime drama films
American crime thriller films
American neo-noir films
Columbia Pictures films
1980s English-language films
Films scored by Bill Conti
Films directed by John Cassavetes
Films about organized crime in the United States
Films set in New Jersey
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New Jersey
Films shot in New York City
Golden Lion winners
Golden Raspberry Award winning films | [
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|
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