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239850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20management | Product management | Product management is an organisational function within a company dealing with new product development, business justification, planning, verification, forecasting, pricing, product launch, and marketing of a product or products at all stages of the product lifecycle. Similarly, product lifecycle management (PLM) integrates people, data, processes, and business systems. It provides product information for companies and their extended supply chain enterprise.
Overview
Product managers are responsible for managing a company's product line on a day-to-day basis. As a result, they are critical in both driving the firm's performance, and producing financial gains. They are in-charge of conceptualizing, planning, creating, advertising, and delivering products to their target market.
The role may consist of product development and product marketing, which are different (yet complementary) efforts, with the objective of maximizing sales revenues, market share, and profit margins. Product management is an active part of the initiation of a new product concept through to the readiness and commercial launch and sales of new products.
Product management drives the business case and justification to start new product development and has an active role throughout the steps, and or stages to develop, test, and launch a new product. Product management is also involved in product change and lifecycle decisions and planning. Product elimination can begin with the identification of candidates for a change in the lifecycle (in some cases due to a new product launch and therefore replacement; a lack of sales of a product and therefore a phase-out plan; or obsolescence in technology and therefore an immediate removal from sale).
This process then proceeds with a cross-functional plan to remove the product from active sale. The obsolescence plan will include a comprehensive view of the impact on the organization (inventory associated with the product, assets, and manufacturing/assembly resources associated with producing the products, active commercial agreements, service and support requirements, and marketing assets and areas to update and update).
Tasks
The product manager is often responsible for analyzing market conditions and defining features or functions of a product and for overseeing the production of the product. The role of product management spans many activities from strategic to tactical, and varies based on the organizational structure of the company. To maximize the impact and benefits to an organization, Product Management must be an independent function separate on its own.
While involved with the entire product lifecycle, the product management's main focus is on driving new product development. According to the Product Development and Management Association (PDMA), superior and differentiated new products—ones that deliver unique benefits and superior value to the customer—are the number one driver of success and product profitability.
Role of a product manager
Depending on the company size and history, product management has a variety of functions and roles. Sometimes there is a product manager, and sometimes the role of product manager is shared by other roles. Frequently there is Profit and Loss (P&L) responsibility as a key metric for evaluating product manager performance. In some companies, the product management function is the hub of many other activities around the product. In others, it is one of many things that need to happen to bring a product to market and actively monitor and manage it in-market. In very large companies, the product manager may have effective control over shipment decisions to customers, when system specifications are not being met.
Product management in companies
Product management is typically divided into three parts: strategic product management, technical product management, and Go-To-Market (product marketing), which is illustrated in the Open Product Management Workflow model. In addition to the three-part division, this model shows which tasks and steps must be performed by product management in the course of a product cycle in order to produce an innovative and profitable product.
Inbound and outbound
The terms inbound (product marketing) and outbound (product marketing) functions are sometimes used.
Inbound product management (also called inbound marketing) is the "radar" of the organization and involves absorbing information like customer research, competitive intelligence, industry analysis, trends, economic signals and competitive activity as well as documenting requirements and setting product strategy. In comparison, outbound activities are focused on distributing or pushing messages, training salespeople, go to market strategies and communicating messages through channels like advertising, PR and events. In many organizations, the inbound and outbound functions are performed by the same person.
Another way of looking at these activities is upstream and downstream product management, where "upstream" is referring to any activity that helps to define, create, or improve the product, while "downstream" refers to any activity that promotes the product. This avoids the confusion with the term "inbound marketing" which nowadays clearly refers to a way of doing downstream product management, "making the product accessible", that is, making sure it can be found by suspects and prospects (compared to "outbound marketing", where the product is "pushed" in front of the suspect or prospect).
The confusion stems mainly from the mix-up between the term "marketing" as a discipline, comprising Product Management, Marketing Communications, etc. and using the same term "marketing" as a synonym for "promotion" or "advertising", i.e. taking a product to the market (i.e. 'downstream').
See also
References
External links
Wiki dedicated to Product Management Processes
Brand management | [
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239851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive%20analysis | Constructive analysis | In mathematics, constructive analysis is mathematical analysis done according to some principles of constructive mathematics.
This contrasts with classical analysis, which (in this context) simply means analysis done according to the (more common) principles of classical mathematics.
Generally speaking, constructive analysis can reproduce theorems of classical analysis, but only in application to separable spaces; also, some theorems may need to be approached by approximations.
Furthermore, many classical theorems can be stated in ways that are logically equivalent according to classical logic, but not all of these forms will be valid in constructive analysis, which uses intuitionistic logic.
Examples
The intermediate value theorem
For a simple example, consider the intermediate value theorem (IVT).
In classical analysis, IVT implies that, given any continuous function f from a closed interval [a,b] to the real line R, if f(a) is negative while f(b) is positive, then there exists a real number c in the interval such that f(c) is exactly zero.
In constructive analysis, this does not hold, because the constructive interpretation of existential quantification ("there exists") requires one to be able to construct the real number c (in the sense that it can be approximated to any desired precision by a rational number).
But if f hovers near zero during a stretch along its domain, then this cannot necessarily be done.
However, constructive analysis provides several alternative formulations of IVT, all of which are equivalent to the usual form in classical analysis, but not in constructive analysis.
For example, under the same conditions on f as in the classical theorem, given any natural number n (no matter how large), there exists (that is, we can construct) a real number cn in the interval such that the absolute value of f(cn) is less than 1/n.
That is, we can get as close to zero as we like, even if we can't construct a c that gives us exactly zero.
Alternatively, we can keep the same conclusion as in the classical IVT—a single c such that f(c) is exactly zero—while strengthening the conditions on f.
We require that f be locally non-zero, meaning that given any point x in the interval [a,b] and any natural number m, there exists (we can construct) a real number y in the interval such that |y - x| < 1/m and |f(y)| > 0.
In this case, the desired number c can be constructed.
This is a complicated condition, but there are several other conditions that imply it and that are commonly met; for example, every analytic function is locally non-zero (assuming that it already satisfies f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0).
For another way to view this example, notice that according to classical logic, if the locally non-zero condition fails, then it must fail at some specific point x; and then f(x) will equal 0, so that IVT is valid automatically.
Thus in classical analysis, which uses classical logic, in order to prove the full IVT, it is sufficient to prove the constructive version. From this perspective, the full IVT fails in constructive analysis simply because constructive analysis does not accept classical logic. Conversely, one may argue that the true meaning of IVT, even in classical mathematics, is the constructive version involving the locally non-zero condition, with the full IVT following by "pure logic" afterwards.
Some logicians, while accepting that classical mathematics is correct, still believe that the constructive approach gives a better insight into the true meaning of theorems, in much this way.
The least-upper-bound principle and compact sets
Another difference between classical and constructive analysis is that constructive analysis does not accept the least-upper-bound principle, that any subset of the real line R has a least upper bound (or supremum), possibly infinite.
However, as with the intermediate value theorem, an alternative version survives; in constructive analysis, any located subset of the real line has a supremum.
(Here a subset S of R is located if, whenever x < y are real numbers, either there exists an element s of S such that x < s, or y is an upper bound of S.)
Again, this is classically equivalent to the full least upper bound principle, since every set is located in classical mathematics.
And again, while the definition of located set is complicated, nevertheless it is satisfied by many commonly studied sets, including all intervals and all compact sets.
Closely related to this, in constructive mathematics, fewer characterisations of compact spaces are constructively valid—or from another point of view, there are several different concepts that are classically equivalent but not constructively equivalent.
Indeed, if the interval [a,b] were sequentially compact in constructive analysis, then the classical IVT would follow from the first constructive version in the example; one could find c as a cluster point of the infinite sequence (cn)n∈N.
Uncountability of the real numbers
The diagonal construction in Cantors theorem is intuitionistically valid.
Indeed, the constructive component of the diagonal argument already appeared in Cantor's work. According to Kanamori, a historical misrepresentation has been perpetuated that associates diagonalization with non-constructivity. As a result, the real numbers are uncountable in any constructive system.
In some models, is subcountable.
A variant found in constructive analysis textbooks may go as follows:
"Let {an} be a sequence of real numbers. Let x0 and y0 be real numbers, x0 < y0. Then there exists a real number x with x0 ≤ x ≤ y0 and x ≠ an (n ∈ N) . . .
The proof is essentially Cantor's 'diagonal' proof." (Theorem 1 in Errett Bishop, Foundations of Constructive Analysis, 1967, page 25.)
Sequences of reals appear commonly in analysis. Forms of constructive analysis that reject not just the law of excluded middle but also the limited principle of omniscience and even Markov's principle may make use of the axiom of dependent choice for sequences of reals.
See also
Computable analysis
Indecomposability (constructive mathematics)
References
Further reading
Intuitionism | [
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239852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promotion | Promotion | Promotion may refer to:
Marketing
Promotion (marketing), one of the four marketing mix elements, comprising any type of marketing communication used to inform or persuade target audiences of the relative merits of a product, service, brand or issue
Advertising campaign, a promotional campaign
Film promotion
Promotional recording
Radio promotion
Status or progress
Promotion (chess), when a pawn reaches the eighth rank
Promotion (Germany), the German term for the doctoral degree
Promotion (rank), the advancement of an employee's rank or position in an organizational hierarchy system
Promotion and relegation, in sports leagues, is a process where some teams are transferred between multiple divisions based on their performance for the completed season
Arts, entertainment, and media
Promotion (film), a 2013 Bengali film directed by Snehasish Chakraborty
"The Promotion" (The Office episode)
The Promotion, a 2008 film
Other uses
ProMotion, a display feature on the iPad Pro and iPhone "Pro" models beginning with iPhone 13 Pro
Professional wrestling promotion (also federation or fed), a company or business that regularly performs shows involving professional wrestling, or a role which entails management, advertising, and logistics of running a wrestling event (see promoter)
Promotion or trump promotion; see Glossary of contract bridge terms
See also
Demotion
Promoter (entertainment) | [
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239860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macaque | Macaque | The macaques () constitute a genus (Macaca) of gregarious Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The 23 species of macaques inhabit ranges throughout Asia, North Africa, and (in one instance) Gibraltar. Macaques are principally frugivorous (preferring fruit), although their diet also includes seeds, leaves, flowers, and tree bark. Some species, such as the crab-eating macaque, subsist on a diet of invertebrates and occasionally small vertebrates. On average, southern pig-tailed macaques in Malaysia eat about 70 large rats each per year. All macaque social groups are matriarchal, arranged around dominant females.
Macaques are found in a variety of habitats throughout the Asian continent and are highly adaptable. Certain species have learned to live with humans and have become invasive in some human-settled environments, such as the island of Mauritius and Silver Springs State Park in Florida. Macaques can be a threat to wildlife conservation as well as to human well-being via carrying transmittable and fatal diseases. Currently, invasive species of macaques are handled with several control methods.
Description
Aside from humans (genus Homo), the macaques are the most widespread primate genus, ranging from Japan to the Indian subcontinent, and in the case of the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), to North Africa and Southern Europe. Twenty-three macaque species are currently recognized. Macaques are robust primates whose arms and legs are about the same in length. The fur of these animals is typically varying shades of brown or black and their muzzles are rounded in profile with nostrils on the upper surface. The tail varies among each species, which can be long, moderate, short or totally absent. Although several species lack tails, and their common names refer to them as apes, these are true monkeys, with no greater relationship to the true apes than any other Old World monkeys. Instead, this comes from an earlier definition of 'ape' that included primates generally.
In some species, skin folds join the second through fifth toes, almost reaching the first metatarsal joint. The monkey's size differs depending on sex and species. Males from all species can range from 41 to 70 cm (16 to 28 inches) in head and body length, and in weight from 5.5 to 18 kg (12.13 to 39.7 lb). Females can range from a weight of 2.4 to 13 kg (5.3 to 28.7 lb). These primates live in troops that vary in size, where males dominate, however the rank order of dominance frequently shifts. Female ranking lasts longer and depends upon their genealogical position. Macaques are able to swim and spend most of their time on the ground, along with some time in trees. They have large pouches in their cheeks where they carry extra food. They are considered highly intelligent and are often used in the medical field for experimentation. Adults also are notorious for tending to be bad tempered.
Distribution and habitat
Macaques are highly adaptable to different habitats and climates and can tolerate a wide fluctuation of temperatures and live in varying landscape settings. They easily adapt to human-built environments and can survive well in urban settings if they are able to steal food. They can also survive in completely natural settings absent of humans.
The ecological and geographic ranges of the macaque are the widest of any non-human primate. Their habitats include the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, India, arid mountains of Pakistan and Afghanistan, and temperate mountains in Japan, northern China, Morocco, and Nepal. Some species also inhabit villages and towns in cities in Asia.
Ecology and behavior
Diet
Macaques are mainly vegetarian, although some species have been observed feeding on insects. In natural habitats, they have been observed to consume certain parts of over one hundred species of plants including the buds, fruit, young leaves, bark, roots, and flowers. When macaques live amongst people, they raid agricultural crops such as wheat, rice, or sugarcane; and garden crops like tomatoes, bananas, melons, mangos, or papayas. In human settings, they also rely heavily on direct handouts from people. This includes peanuts, rice, legumes, or even prepared food.
Group structure
Macaques live in established social groups that can range from a few individuals to several hundred, as they are social animals. A typical social group possess between 20 and 50 individuals of all ages and of both sexes. The typical composition consists of 15% adult males, 35% adult females, 20% infants, and 30% juveniles, though there exists variation in structure and size of groups across populations.
Macaques have a very intricate social structure and hierarchy. If a macaque of a lower level in the social chain has eaten berries and none are left for a higher-ranking macaque, then the one higher in status can, within this social organization, remove the berries from the other monkey's mouth.
Reproduction and mortality
The reproductive potential of each species differs. Populations of the rhesus macaque can grow at rates of 10% to 15% per year if the environmental conditions are favorable. However, some forest-dwelling species are endangered with much lower reproductive rates. After one year of age, macaques move from being dependent on their mother during infancy, to the juvenile stage, where they begin to associate more with other juveniles through rough tumble and playing activities. They sexually mature between three and five years of age. Females will usually stay with the social group in which they were born; however, young adult males tend to disperse and attempt to enter other social groups. Not all males succeed in joining other groups and may become solitary, attempting to join other social groups for many years. Macaques have a typical lifespan of 20 to 30 years.
As invasive species
Certain species under the genus Macaca have become invasive in certain parts of the world, while others that survive in forest habitats remain threatened. The long-tailed macaque (M. fascicularis) is listed as a threat and invasive alien species in Mauritius, along with the rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) in Florida.
The long-tailed macaque causes severe damage to parts of its range where it has been introduced because the populations grow unchecked due to a lack of predators. On the island Mauritius, they have created serious conservation concerns for other endemic species. They consume seeds of native plants and aid in the spread of exotic weeds throughout the forests. This changes the composition of the habitats and allows them to be rapidly overrun by invasive plants.
Long-tailed macaques are also responsible for the near extinction of several bird species on Mauritius by destroying the nests of the birds as they move through their native ranges and eat the eggs of critically endangered species, such as the pink pigeon and Mauritian green parrot. They can be serious agricultural pests because they raid crops and gardens and humans often shoot the monkeys which can eliminate entire local populations.
In Florida, a group of rhesus macaques inhabit Silver Springs State Park. Humans often feed them, which may alter their movement and keep them close to the river on weekends where high human traffic is present. The monkeys can become aggressive toward humans, and also carry potentially fatal human diseases, including the herpes B virus.
Relations with humans
Several species of macaque are used extensively in animal testing, particularly in the neuroscience of visual perception and the visual system.
Nearly all (73–100%) pet and captive rhesus macaques are carriers of the herpes B virus. This virus is harmless to macaques, but infections of humans, while rare, are potentially fatal, a risk that makes macaques unsuitable as pets.
Urban performing macaques also carried simian foamy virus, suggesting they could be involved in the species-to-species jump of similar retroviruses to humans.
In 2021, Thai authorities seized a car that transported 88 macaques; allegedly the animals were on their way to Cambodia to be used as food.
Population control
Management techniques have historically been controversial, and public disapproval can hinder control efforts. Previously, efforts to remove macaque individuals were met with public resistance. One management strategy that is currently being explored is that of sterilization. Natural resource managers are being educated by scientific studies in the proposed strategy. Effectiveness of this strategy is estimated to succeed in keeping populations in check. For example, if 80% of females are sterilized every five years, or 50% every two years, it could effectively reduce the population. Other control strategies include planting specific trees to provide protection to native birds from macaque predation, live trapping, and the vaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females.
Cloning
In January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal Cell the first creation of two crab-eating macaque clones, named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, using somatic cell nuclear transfer – the same method that produced Dolly the sheep.
Species
As of 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World recognized the following species and species groups, aside from the white-cheeked macaque, which was described in 2015.
Later studies disputed some of these species groupings. For example, Li et al., based on DNA testing, do not recognize the M. fascularis group. Rather, they place the crab-eating macaque within the M. mulatta group and the stump-tailed macaque within the M. sinica group.
Prehistoric (fossil) species:
M. anderssoni Schlosser, 1924
M. jiangchuanensis Pan et al., 1992
M. libyca Stromer, 1920
M. majori Schaub & Azzaroli in Comaschi Caria, 1969 (sometimes included in M. sylvanus)
M. florentina Cocchi, 1872
Gallery
See also
Baboon
Herpes B virus
Kayabukiya Tavern
Macaque brain development timeline
References
External links
Macaque Monkey Brain Atlas
Primate Info Net Macaca Factsheets
.01
Primates of Africa
Primates of Asia
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239863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution%20%28marketing%29 | Distribution (marketing) | Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of the marketing mix. Distribution is the process of making a product or service available for the consumer or business user who needs it. This can be done directly by the producer or service provider or using indirect channels with distributors or intermediaries. The other three elements of the marketing mix are product, pricing, and promotion.
Decisions about distribution need to be taken in line with a company's overall strategic vision and mission. Developing a coherent distribution plan is a central component of strategic planning. At the strategic level, there are three broad approaches to distribution, namely mass, selective and exclusive distribution. The number and type of intermediaries selected largely depend on the strategic approach. The overall distribution channel should add value to the consumer.
Definition
Distribution is fundamentally concerned with ensuring that products reach target customers in the most direct and cost-efficient manner. In the case of services, distribution is principally concerned with access. Although distribution, as a concept, is relatively simple, in practice distribution management may involve a diverse range of activities and disciplines including detailed logistics, transportation, warehousing, storage, inventory management as well as channel management including selection of channel members and rewarding distributors.
Distribution strategies
Prior to designing a distribution system, the planner needs to determine what the distribution channel is to achieve in broad terms. The overall approach to distributing products or services depends on a number of factors including the type of product, especially perishability; the market served; the geographic scope of operations and the firm's overall mission and vision. The process of setting out a broad statement of the aims and objectives of a distribution channel is a strategic level decision.
Strategically, there are three approaches to distribution:
Mass distribution (also known as an intensive distribution): When products are destined for a mass market, the marketer will seek out intermediaries that appeal to a broad market base. For example, snack foods and drinks are sold via a wide variety of outlets including supermarkets, convenience stores, vending machines, cafeterias and others. The choice of distribution outlet is skewed towards those that can deliver mass markets in a cost efficient manner.
Selective distribution: A manufacturer may choose to restrict the number of outlets handling a product. For example, a manufacturer of premium electrical goods may choose to deal with department stores and independent outlets that can provide added value service level required to support the product. Dr. Scholl orthopedic sandals, for example, only sell their product through pharmacies because this type of intermediary supports the desired therapeutic positioning of the product. Some of the prestige brands of cosmetics and skincare, such as Estee Lauder, Jurlique and Clinique, insist that sales staff are trained to use the product range. The manufacturer will only allow trained clinicians to sell their products.
Exclusive distribution: In an exclusive distribution approach, a manufacturer chooses to deal with one intermediary or one type of intermediary. The advantage of an exclusive approach is that the manufacturer retains greater control over the distribution process. In exclusive arrangements, the distributor is expected to work closely with the manufacturer and add value to the product through service level, after sales care or client support services. Another definition of exclusive arrangement is an agreement between a supplier and a retailer granting the retailer exclusive rights within a specific geographic area to carry the supplier's product.
Summary of strategic approaches to distribution
Push vs pull strategy
In consumer markets, another key strategic level decision is whether to use a push or pull strategy. In a push strategy, the marketer uses intensive advertising and incentives aimed at distributors, especially retailers and wholesalers, with the expectation that they will stock the product or brand, and that consumers will purchase it when they see it in stores. In contrast, in a pull strategy, the marketer promotes the product directly to consumers hoping that they will pressure retailers to stock the product or brand, thereby pulling it through the distribution channel. The choice of a push or pull strategy has important implications for advertising and promotion. In a push strategy, the promotional mix would consist of trade advertising and sales calls while the advertising media would normally be weighted towards trade magazines, exhibitions, and trade shows while a pull strategy would make more extensive use of consumer advertising and sales promotions while the media mix would be weighted towards mass-market media such as newspapers, magazines, television, and radio.
Channels and intermediaries
Distribution of products takes place by means of a marketing channel, also known as a distribution channel. A marketing channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products get to the end-user, the consumer. This is mostly accomplished through merchant retailers or wholesalers or, in the international context, by importers. In certain specialist markets, agents or brokers may become involved in the marketing channel.
Typical intermediaries involved in distribution include:
Wholesaler: A merchant intermediary who sells chiefly to retailers, other merchants, or industrial, institutional, and commercial users mainly for resale or business use. The transactions are B2B (Business to Business). Wholesalers typically sell in large quantities. (Wholesalers, by definition, do not deal directly with the public).
Retailer: A merchant intermediary who sells direct to the public. There are many different types of retail outlet - from hypermarts and supermarkets to small, independent stores. The transactions in this case are B2C (Business to Customer).
Agent: An intermediary who is authorized to act for a principal in order to facilitate exchange. Unlike merchant wholesalers and retailers, agents do not take title to goods, but simply put buyers and sellers together. Agents are typically paid via commissions by the principal. For example, travel agents are paid a commission of around 15% for each booking made with an airline or hotel operator.
Jobber: A special type of wholesaler, typically one who operates on a small scale and sells only to retailers or institutions. For example, rack jobbers are small independent wholesalers who operate from a truck, supplying convenience stores with snack foods and drinks on a regular basis.
Channel design
A firm can design any number of channels they require to reach customers efficiently and effectively. Channels can be distinguished by the number of intermediaries between producer and consumer. If there are no intermediaries then this is known as a zero-level distribution system or direct marketing. A level one (sometimes called one-tier) channel has a single intermediary. A level two (alternatively a two-tier) channel has two intermediaries, and so on. This flow is typically represented as being manufacturer to retailer to consumer, but may involve other types of intermediaries. In practice, distribution systems for perishable goods tend to be shorter - direct or single intermediary, because of the need to reduce the time a product spends in transit or in storage. In other cases, distribution systems can become quite complex involving many levels and different types of intermediaries.
Channel mix
In practice, many organizations use a mix of different channels; a direct sales force may call on larger customers. This may be complemented with other agents to cover smaller customers and prospects. When a single organization uses a variety of different channels to reach its markets, this is known as a multi-channel distribution network. In addition, online retailing or e-commerce is leading to disintermediation, the removal of intermediaries from a supply chain. Retailing via smartphone or m-commerce is also a growth area.
Managing channels
The firm's marketing department needs to design the most suitable channels for the firm's products, then select appropriate channel members or intermediaries. An organization may need to train staff of intermediaries and motivate the intermediary to sell the firm's products. The firm should monitor the channel's performance over time and modify the channel to enhance performance.
Channel motivation
To motivate intermediaries the firm can use positive actions, such as offering higher margins to the intermediary, special deals, premiums and allowances for advertising or display. On the other hand, negative actions may be necessary, such as threatening to cut back on margin, or hold back delivery of product. Care must be exercised when considering negative actions as these may fall foul of regulations and can contribute to a public backlash and a public relations disaster.
Channel conflict
Channel conflict can arise when one intermediary's actions prevent another intermediary from achieving their objectives. Vertical channel conflict occurs between the levels within a channel, and horizontal channel conflict occurs between intermediaries at the same level within a channel. Channel conflict is a perennial problem. There are risks that a powerful channel member may coordinate the interests of the channel for personal gain.
Trends in distribution
Channel switching
Channel-switching (not to be confused with zapping or channel surfing on TV) is the action of consumers switching from one type of channel intermediary to a different type of intermediary for their purchases. Examples include switching from brick-and-mortar stores to online catalogues and e-commerce providers; switching from grocery stores to convenience stores or switching from top tier department stores to mass market discount outlets. A number of factors have led to an increase in channel switching behaviour; the growth of e-commerce, the globalization of markets, the advent of Category killers (such as Officeworks and Kids 'R Us) as well as changes in the legal or statutory environment. For instance, in Australia and New Zealand, following a relaxation of laws prohibiting supermarkets from selling therapeutic goods, consumers are gradually switching away from pharmacies and towards supermarkets for the purchase of minor analgesics, cough and cold preparations and complementary medicines such as vitamins and herbal remedies.
For the consumer, channel switching offers a more diverse shopping experience. However, marketers need to be alert to channel switching because of its potential to erode market share. Evidence of channel switching can suggest that disruptive forces are at play, and that consumer behaviour is undergoing fundamental changes. A consumer may be prompted to switch channels when the product or service can be found at cheaper prices, when superior models become available, when a wider range is offered, or simply because it is more convenient to shop through a different channel (e.g. online or one-stop shopping). As a hedge against market share losses due to switching behaviour, some retailers engage in multi-channel retailing.
Customer value
The emergence of a service-dominant logic perspective has focused scholarly attention on how distribution networks serve to create customer value and to consider how value is co-created by all the players within the distribution chain, including the value created by customers themselves.<ref>Flint, D. J., and Mentzer, J. T., "Striving for Integrated Value Chain Management Given a Service-dominant Logic for Marketing," In R. F. Lusch and S. L. Vargo (Eds.), The Service-dominant Logic of Marketing: Dialog, Debate, and Directions, Armonk, New York, ME Sharpe, 2006, pp 139–149; Tokman, M., and Beitelspacher, L. S., "Supply Chain Networks and Service-dominant Logic: Suggestions for Future Research," International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, Vol. 41, No. 7, pp 717-726; Yazdanparast, A., Manuj, I., and Swartz, S. M., Co-creating Logistics Value: A Service-Dominant Logic Perspective," International Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 21, no. 3, 2010, pp 375-403.</ref> This emphasis on value-creation is contributing to a change in terminology surrounding distribution processes; "distribution networks" are often termed value-chains while "distribution centers" are often termed customer fulfillment centers.'' For example, the retail giant Amazon, which utilizes both direct online distribution alongside bricks and mortar stores, now calls its distribution centers "customer fulfillment centers". Although the term, "customer fulfillment center" has been criticized on the grounds that it is a neologism, its use is becoming increasingly mainstream as it slowly makes its way into introductory marketing textbooks.
Disintermediation
Disintermediation occurs when manufacturers or service providers eliminate intermediaries from the distribution network and deal directly with purchasers. Disintermediation is found in industries where radically new types of channel intermediaries displace traditional distributors. The widespread public acceptance of online shopping has been a major trigger for disintermediation in some industries. Certain types of traditional intermediaries are dropping by the wayside.
See also
References
External links
pierce college.edu PDF, Product Distribution
entrepreneur.com Distribution Models
Difference between an agent, distributor and franchise
Business terms
Service industries
Trade | [
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239864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20Forrer | Ludwig Forrer | Ludwig Forrer (9 February 1845 – 28 September 1921) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1902–1917).
Forrer was born in Islikon. He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 11 December 1902 and handed over office on 31 December 1917. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his office time he held the following departments:
Department of Trade, Industry and Agriculture (1903)
Department of Home Affairs (1904–1905)
Political Department (1906) as President of the Confederation
Military Department (1907)
Department of Justice and Police (1908)
Department of Posts and Railways (1908–1911)
Political Department (1912) as President of the Confederation
Department of Posts and Railways (1913–1917)
He was President of the Confederation twice in 1906 and 1912.
External links
Ludwig Forrer in History of Social Security in Switzerland
1845 births
1921 deaths
People from Frauenfeld District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Zurich alumni
Foreign ministers of Switzerland | [
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239866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Hauser | Walter Hauser | Walter Hauser (1 May 1837, in Wädenswil – 22 October 1902) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1888–1902).
He was elected to the Federal Council on 13 December 1888 and died in office on 22 October 1902. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his office time he held the following departments:
Military Department (1889–1890)
Department of Finance (1891–1899)
Political Department (1900)
Department of Finance (1901–1902)
He was President of the Confederation twice in 1892 and 1900.
Walther-Hauser-Strasse in Wädenswil is named after him.
References
Further reading
External links
1837 births
1902 deaths
People from Wädenswil
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland) | [
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239869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Hertenstein | Wilhelm Hertenstein | Wilhelm Friederich Hertenstein (5 May 1825, in Kyburg – 27 November 1888) was a Swiss politician.
Hertenstein was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 21 March 1879 and died in office on 27 November 1888. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his office time he held the Military Department and was President of the Confederation in 1888.
Hertenstein died while in office as President of the Confederation and is so far the only holder of this office who did not finish his term.
External links
1825 births
1888 deaths
People from Pfäffikon District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers | [
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239870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Pittsburgh | University of Pittsburgh | The University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) is a public state-related research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The university is composed of 17 undergraduate and graduate schools and colleges at its urban Pittsburgh campus, home to the university's central administration and 28,391 undergraduate and graduate students. The 132-acre Pittsburgh campus includes various historic buildings that are part of the Schenley Farms Historic District, most notably its 42-story Gothic revival centerpiece, the Cathedral of Learning. Pitt is a member of the Association of American Universities, a selective group of major research universities in North America, and is classified as an R1 University, meaning that it engages in a very high level of research activity. Pitt was the third-largest recipient of federally sponsored health research funding among U.S. universities in 2018 and it is a major recipient of research funding from the National Institutes of Health. According to the National Science Foundation, Pitt spent $1.0 billion on research and development in 2018, ranking it 14th in the nation. It is the second-largest non-government employer in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. The university also operates four undergraduate branch campuses in Western Pennsylvania, located in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville.
The campus is situated adjacent to the flagship medical facilities of its closely affiliated University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) and its flagship hospital, UPMC Presbyterian, as well as the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, Schenley Park, and Carnegie Mellon University.
Pitt traces its roots to the Pittsburgh Academy founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge in 1787. While the city was still on the edge of the American frontier at the time, Pittsburgh's rapid growth meant that a proper university was soon needed, and Pitt's charter was altered in 1819 to confer university status on it as the Western University of Pennsylvania. After surviving two devastating fires and several relocations, the university moved to its current location in Pittsburgh's Oakland neighborhood, and by act of the state legislature was renamed the University of Pittsburgh in 1908. Pitt was a private institution until 1966, when it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education.
Pitt has produced eight Rhodes Scholars, ten Marshall Scholars, and 297 Fulbright Scholars. Past and present faculty and alumni at Pitt include six Nobel laureates, three Pulitzer Prize winners, three Academy Award winners, various members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, seven United States senators, three United States cabinet officials, and five U.S. state governors.
In athletics, Pitt competes in Division I of the NCAA as the Pittsburgh Panthers, primarily as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Pitt athletes have received a total of five Olympic medals.
History
Founding
Founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge as Pittsburgh Academy in 1787, the University of Pittsburgh is one of the few universities and colleges established in the 18th century in the United States. It is the oldest continuously chartered institution of learning in the U.S. west of the Allegheny Mountains. The school began as a preparatory school, presumably in a log cabin, possibly as early as 1770 in Western Pennsylvania, then a frontier. Brackenridge obtained a charter for the school from the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania on February 28, 1787, just ten weeks before the opening of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. A brick building was erected in 1790 on the south side of Third Street and Cherry Alley for the Pittsburgh Academy. The small two-story brick building, with a gable facing the alley, contained three rooms: one below and two above.
Western University of Pennsylvania
Within a short period, more advanced education in the area was needed, so in 1819 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania amended the school's 1787 charter to confer university status. The school was named the Western University of Pennsylvania, or WUP, and was intended to be the western sister institution to the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. By 1830, WUP had moved into a new three-story, freestone-fronted building, with Ionic columns and a cupola, near its original buildings fronting the south side of Third Street, between Smithfield Street and Cherry Alley in downtown Pittsburgh. By the 1830s, the university faced severe financial pressure to abandon its traditional liberal education in favor of the state legislature's desire for it to provide more vocational training. The decision to remain committed to liberal education nearly killed the university, but it persevered despite its abandonment by the city and state. It was also during this era that the founder of Mellon Bank, Thomas Mellon (Class of 1837), graduated and later taught at WUP.
The university's buildings, along with most of its records and files, were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1845 that wiped out 20 square blocks of Pittsburgh. Classes were temporarily held in Trinity Church until a new building was constructed on Duquesne Way (on what was the site of the former Horne's department store). Only four years later, in 1849, this building also was destroyed by fire. Due to the catastrophic nature of these fires, operations were suspended for a few years to allow the university time to regroup and rebuild. By 1854, WUP had erected a new building on the corner of Ross and Diamond (now Forbes Avenue) streets (site of the present day City-County building) and classes resumed in 1855. It is during this era, in 1867, that Samuel Pierpont Langley, astronomer, inventor, aviation pioneer and future Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was chosen as director of the Allegheny Observatory that was donated to WUP in 1865. Langley was professor of astronomy and physics and remained at WUP until 1891, when he was succeeded by another prominent astronomer, James Keeler. Growing quickly during this period, WUP outgrew its downtown facilities and the university moved its campus to Allegheny City (present-day North Side).
The university eventually found itself on a site on the North Side's Observatory Hill at the location of its Allegheny Observatory. There, it constructed two new buildings, Science Hall and Main Hall, that were occupied by 1889 and 1890 respectively. During this era, the first collegiate football team was formed at Pitt in 1889. In 1892, the Western Pennsylvania Medical College was amalgamated into the university. By 1893, the university had graduated its first African-American, William Hunter Dammond. In 1895 WUP established its School of Law, and Andrew Carnegie and George Westinghouse were elected to the board of trustees, where they joined Andrew Mellon, who had been elected in 1894. The Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy and Pittsburgh Dental School also joined the university in 1896. In 1898, the first women, sisters Margaret and Stella Stein, graduated from the university. During this period, University engineering professor Reginald Fessenden was conducting pioneering work in radio broadcasting. By 1904, playing at Exposition Park, the university had its first undefeated football team.
A new name and home
Citing a need to avoid confusion, distinguish itself from the University of Pennsylvania, and return to its roots by identifying itself with the city, the Western University of Pennsylvania, by act of the state legislature, was renamed the University of Pittsburgh in the summer of 1908. During this time, the university had also outgrown its accommodations on what is now the North Side of Pittsburgh and its departments had been scattered throughout the city for years. To consolidate all of its components on one campus, WUP bought of land in December 1907 in what is now the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh and began relocating departments there by 1909. The initial campus plan for the new location centered on the winning submission from a national architectural contest that incorporated a Greek Acropolis design by Henry Hornbostel for 30 buildings. However, due to financial and other constraints, only four of the buildings were constructed in this style, of which only Thaw Hall remains today. In the fall of 1909, the university became the first college to adopt the panther as its mascot. It was also during this period that the university, led by Chancellor Samuel McCormick, again held off pressures to abandon the school's commitment to liberal education in favor of more technical-based training. During his administration, McCormick also led the university into a new level of national recognition, expansion, and growth, as well as beginning institutional support of athletics.
In the 1920s, new university chancellor John Gabbert Bowman declared that he had a vision for a centerpiece "tall building" for the university. The Frick Acres property in Oakland was soon purchased and plans for the campus shifted focus from the hillside to a neo-Gothic Revival plan that today comprises the Cathedral of Learning, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Stephen Foster Memorial, and Clapp Hall buildings. By 1925, Bowman had settled on a design by Charles Klauder for the "tall building": an attention-getting tower whose great height, with open spaces all around, would suggest the "character that ought to be in an educated man." The building's "parallel lines going up and up...would express courage [and] fearlessness" and it would "unify Pittsburgh into a community conscious of its character." The Cathedral is "cut off" flat at the top to suggest that its lines, like education, have no ending. The building was financed by donors and by a campaign to collect dimes from local school children. Bowman was a persuasive leader and although the Great Depression intervened, the Cathedral of Learning, on which construction was begun in 1926, began hosting classes in 1931 and was formally dedicated in 1937. Today, it remains the second tallest university building in the world and contains an equally impressive interior highlighted by a 22,000 sq ft (2,000 sq m) Gothic hall Commons Room with tall arches currently surrounded by 31 Nationality Rooms. Seven more Nationality Rooms are in the making.
Development of the polio vaccine
In the early 20th century, epidemics of polio began to hit the United States and other industrialized countries. As hospitals filled with patients in iron lungs, and tens of thousands were left disabled, the fear of polio grew, leading to the closing of many public facilities. Meanwhile, Dr. Jonas Salk had set up the University of Pittsburgh's Virus Research Lab in the basement of what is now Salk Hall. By 1951, Salk and his team had begun immunization experiments in monkeys using dead polio virus. Soon, however, Salk began to test inoculations in paralyzed polio patients and by 1953 human trials among the general population were initiated. By the spring of the following year, the largest controlled field trials in medical history were underway, and by 1955 the vaccine developed by Salk and his researchers was declared effective. By 1962, Salk's vaccine had reduced the incidence of polio in the United States by 95 percent. The breakthroughs in immunology and vaccine development at Pitt by Salk and his team are considered one of the most significant scientific and medical achievements in history.
State relations to present day
In 1966, Pitt was designated by Pennsylvania as a state-related university. As such, Pitt receives public funds ($154.3 million in fiscal year 2016) covering about 7% of its operating budget, and offers reduced tuition to Pennsylvania residents. Pitt retains independent control, but is typically categorized as a public university. Upon affiliation with the state, subsidized tuition led to a massive influx of new students and rapid expansion of Pitt's size and scope. In the 1970s, Pitt's football team returned to greatness with a national championship season in 1976 led by Hall of Fame running back Tony Dorsett and continued success in the 1980s with players such as Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino. In the 1980s, significant medical research in the field of organ transplantation was conducted by Thomas Starzl, establishing Pitt as the world leader in the field of organ transplantation. In 1991, chancellor Wesley Posvar retired after 24 years in office. His administration is best known for elimination of the university's debt from its 1960s financial crisis and for increasing the school's prestige and endowment. Under Posvar, Pitt's operating budget grew sevenfold to $630 million and its endowment tripled to $257 million.
Mark Nordenberg was chancellor of the university from 1995 to 2014 and led Pitt through a period of substantial progress, including a $2-billion capital-raising campaign that is over three quarters of the way toward achieving its goal and a $1-billion 12-year facilities plan. Major initiatives and events that have occurred during his tenure include the construction of the Petersen Events Center, a major expansion of on-campus housing, the growth of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the restructuring of its relationship with the university, and a series of disruptive bomb threats that occurred in 2012.
Patrick D. Gallagher was named the 18th chancellor of the university and assumed the office on August 1, 2014.
Campus
The University of Pittsburgh's main campus comprises approximately 132 urban acres (0.53 km2) located in Pittsburgh's historic Oakland neighborhood. Much of the campus, including its centerpiece 42-story Cathedral of Learning, falls within the Oakland Civic Center/Schenley Farms National Historic District. The campus has been noted for its impressive architecture, and contains an eclectic mix of architecture that includes Greek revival, Neogothic, Italian Renaissance, and modern. It has been termed "a theme park of replica buildings, representing the architecture of the past speaking to the present." The campus has won multiple Green Star Awards from the Professional Grounds Management Society.
The University of Pittsburgh's main campus contains four contiguous sections: upper (sports complexes, residence halls); mid (Benedum, Chevron, Allen and Thaw Halls); lower (Cathedral of Learning, Union, Posvar Hall); and on the west end of campus, the medical center complex. The campus is bordered by Darragh Street/McKee Place to the west and Bellefield Avenue/Dithridge Street to the east; Forbes and Fifth avenues traverse the campus from west to east. Although generally within walking distance, the university also runs a bus and shuttle service between various campus locations and bordering neighborhoods.
The main campus is within walking distance of many recreational, cultural, and educational institutions in the Oakland neighborhood. The campus is adjacent to Schenley Plaza, the main branch of the Carnegie Public Library, the Carnegie Museums of Natural History and Art and the Carnegie Music Hall, as well as portions of Carnegie Mellon University. Carlow University is just west of campus, adjacent to the university's medical center complexes. The main quad of Carnegie Mellon University, Central Catholic High School, and historic Schenley Park, site of the Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, lie across Junction Hollow on the east end.
Historic buildings
Two Pitt buildings are individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Allegheny Observatory (in Pittsburgh's Riverview Park on the Northside) and the Cathedral of Learning. Twenty-one of Pitt's buildings (including the 5 residence halls that make up Schenley Quadrangle, see below) are contributing properties to the Schenley Farms-Oakland Civic Center Historic District that has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district.
Due to the historical nature of various sites around Pitt's buildings, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania has placed historical markers outside the Allegheny Observatory, Posvar Hall, Salk Hall, Stephen Foster Memorial, and the William Pitt Union.
In addition, a Pennsylvania Historical Marker has been placed on campus near the Cathedral of Learning to mark the significance of the University of Pittsburgh itself. Another state historical marker has been placed to highlight the significance of Pitt's involvement in the archaeological excavation at the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Avella, Pennsylvania.
In addition, the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation has designated the following Pitt buildings as Pittsburgh Historic Landmarks: Allegheny Observatory, Allen Hall, Alumni Hall, Bellefield Hall, Chancellor's Residence, Cathedral of Learning, the Cathedral of Learning interior rooms, Gardner Steel Conference Center, Heinz Memorial Chapel, Thaw Hall, Salk Hall, Schenley Quadrangle residence halls, Stephen Foster Memorial, the University Child Development Center, and the William Pitt Union.
Other Pitt buildings not designated individually as landmarks, but listed among the 16 Pitt-owned contributing properties to the Schenley Farms Historic District, include Clapp Hall, O'Hara Student Center, Ruskin Hall, Thackeray Hall, Frick Fine Arts Building, Music Building, and the University Club.
Historic structures within, adjacent to, or near Pitt's campus, but not belonging to the university, include the Carnegie Museum buildings, Frick School, Forbes Field wall remnant, Magee Estate iron fence, the Schenley Fountain, Mellon Institute, Phipps Conservatory & Botanical Gardens, the Pittsburgh Athletic Association, St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church, Schenley High School, Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall – where scenes of The Silence of the Lambs were filmed in 1990, and the Stephen Foster sculpture. Many of these buildings and their facilities are integrated into the events and activities of the university.
Other buildings
The majority of Pitt-owned facilities are clustered in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh which includes the Schenley Farms Historic District, however a few prominent facilities are scattered elsewhere throughout the city, including the adjacent Shadyside neighborhood. Pitt also maintains regional Pennsylvania campuses in Bradford, Greensburg, Johnstown, and Titusville, as well as a Computer Center in RIDC Park in Blawnox, the Plum Boro Science Center in Plum, the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (U-PARC) in Harmarville, and the Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology in Linesville. The university also has a major archeological research site, the Allen L. Cook Spring Creek Preserve, in Spring Creek, Wyoming.
Athletic facilities of the University of Pittsburgh Panthers that are located in Oakland in the upper campus and include the Charles L Cost Sports Center, Fitzgerald Field House, the Petersen Events Center, Trees Hall and Trees Field. An approximately $30 million upgrade of on-campus sports facilities, starting with the Petersen Sports Complex, includes new soccer, baseball, softball facilities, and helps clear a space for the future construction of a new track and field and band complex. Athletic facilities in Pittsburgh that are located outside of the Oakland neighborhood include Heinz Field and the UPMC Sports Performance Complex.
Major on-campus residence halls include the Litchfield Towers, Schenley Quadrangle, Nordenberg Hall, Bouquet Gardens and Ruskin Hall located on the lower campus, Lothrop Hall and Forbes Hall on the medical campus, and Pennsylvania, Panther, and Sutherland halls located on the upper campus.
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
The University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) is consistently ranked in U.S. News & World Report's "Honor Roll" of America's top hospitals and consists of the following hospitals and facilities in the Pittsburgh neighborhood of Oakland, many of which have shared uses with various University departments: UPMC Presbyterian Hospital, UPMC Montefiore Hospital, Magee-Women's Hospital of UPMC, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Thomas Detre Hall, Eye and Ear Institute, Forbes Tower (home to the School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences), Iroquois Building, Kaufman Medical Building, Medical Arts Building, 230 McKee Place, and UPMC University Center. UPMC academic hospitals and facilities elsewhere in Pittsburgh include the UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh campus in the Lawrenceville neighborhood, the UPMC Sports Performance Complex on the South Side, and the UPMC Shadyside and the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute in the Hillman Cancer Center (both located in the Shadyside neighborhood adjacent to Oakland).
Regional campuses
Regional campuses offer master's, bachelor's, and associate degrees at four locations in Western Pennsylvania. They also allow students to take preliminary courses and relocate to other regional campuses or the Oakland campus to complete their degrees. They offer several degrees and certificates:
University of Pittsburgh at Bradford – master's, bachelor's, associate's and certificates
University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg – master's, bachelor's and certificates
University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown – bachelor's and certificates
University of Pittsburgh at Titusville – associate's and certificates
Community Impact
The University of Pittsburgh has been noted for both its role in community outreach and its impact on the economy of the city and the Western Pennsylvania region. In 2009, Pitt was ranked second overall, and the top public university in the nation, as a "Best Neighbor" for positive impact on its urban community, including both commercial and residential activities such as revitalization, cultural renewal, economics, and community service and development according to the "Saviors of Our Cities" ranking. Pitt was also listed as a "best neighbor" in the previous ranking released in 2006. These rankings reflect the statistics that each year Pitt spends more than $1.7 billion in the community and supports nearly 33,800 jobs in Allegheny County. The university is the Pittsburgh region's second largest non-government employer behind its affiliated University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC). Pitt's research program alone imports more than $822 million into the region each year (more than $3.60 for each $1 of state appropriations), and supports some 23,100 local jobs. Pitt students also spend more than $213 million on goods, services, and rental payments within the local economy. Pitt ranked sixth in the number of startups spawned by technologies developed by its researchers according to Association of University Technology Managers.
Pitt and its medical school are the academic partners of the closely affiliated the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. With over 1450 employees and $1 billion annual revenue, UPMC is the largest non-government employer in Pennsylvania.
Through the Pitt Volunteer Pool, faculty and staff members donate more than 10,000 hours annually to community service projects for agencies such as the Salvation Army, Pittsburgh AIDS Task Force, and Greater Pittsburgh Community Food Bank.
Pitt is a leading producer of Peace Corps volunteers. According to the Peace Corps' 2008 ranking of colleges and universities, only 14 schools in the nation produced more Peace Corps volunteers. Pitt's graduate school also ranked 10th for most alumni Peace Corps volunteers.
Sustainability
The University of Pittsburgh has undertaken programs to improve sustainability initiatives and practices. Pitt started programs in ecology and established biological field stations in 1926. In 1990, Pitt was one of the first 22 signatories of the Talloires Declaration. In 2003, Pitt founded its Mascaro Center for Sustainable Innovation. In 2013, Pitt released its first sustainability report and in 2014 celebrated a "Year of Sustainability" by launching a Student Office of Sustainability that now has over 25 affiliated student organizations. In 2018, Pitt published its first comprehensive "Pitt Sustainability Plan", established the Office of Sustainability, and hired its first Director of Sustainability. In 2020, Pitt committed to achieving carbon neutrality by 2037 (its 250th anniversary) and its first climate action plan is expected in 2022.
Pitt received a AASHE STARS Gold rating in 2021, building on its Silver rating from 2018, has long been on The Princeton Review's "Green Colleges" list, been included on the Environmental Protection Agency's Green Powered Universities list since 2018, won multiple Sustainable Pittsburgh Challenges, and has other third-party recognitions.
In 2018, the University announced its intention to buy all of the electricity from a run-of-the-river hydro power facility to be built by Rye Development at Allegheny Lock and Dam No. 2 on the Allegheny River in 2023. In 2020, the University announced a second local renewable power purchasing agreement, for solar power to be built on the birder of Beaver and Allegheny counties near Pittsburgh International Airport.
The University has been criticized for some of its financial investments, namely those in the fossil fuel industry. In 2020, a Board report disclosed that endowment exposure to fossil fuels had decreased 42% between 2015 and 2020, with zero private investments in fossil fuels by the end of 2035.
Organization and Administration
The university was chartered by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1787 and it operated as a fully private institution until an alteration to its charter in 1966 at which point it became part of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education. This conferred "state-related" status to the university making it a legal instrument of the Commonwealth which provides an annual financial appropriation, currently 7.7% of the university's total operating budget, in exchange for the university offering tuition discounts to students who are residents of Pennsylvania. Legally, however, the university remains a private entity, operating under its nonprofit corporate charter, governed by its independent Board of Trustees, and with its assets under its own ownership and control. Therefore, it retains the freedom and individuality of a private institution, both administratively and academically, setting its own standards for admissions, awarding of degrees, faculty qualifications, teaching, and staff hiring.
The university's board of trustees maintains ultimate legal authority, governance, and responsibility for the university but specifically reserves authority over selecting the university's Chancellor; approval of major policies, particularly those related to the fiduciary responsibilities of the board; and the definition of the university's mission and goals. It is made up of 36 voting members: Chancellor, 17 Term Trustees elected by the board, 6 Alumni Trustees elected by the board on nomination from the Alumni Association Board of Directors, and 12 Commonwealth trustees. The Governor of Pennsylvania, the President Pro Tempore of the Pennsylvania Senate, and the Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives each appoints four of the 12 Commonwealth trustees. Additional non-voting trustees include 14 Special Trustees and additional Emeritus Trustees selected by the board. Non-voting ex-officio members include the Governor of Pennsylvania, the Secretary of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the Chief Executive of Allegheny County, and the Mayor of Pittsburgh. There are three or more regular meetings of the Board of Trustees per year.
The Board of Trustees selects the university's Chancellor, who doubles as the chief academic officer and the chief executive of the university as well as serving as an ex officio voting member of the Board of Trustees. The Chancellor is delegated with general administrative, academic, and management authority over the university. Under the Chancellor are the Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor, the Senior Vice Chancellor for Health Sciences, the deans of the various schools, the presidents of the regional campuses, department chairs, and the directors of University centers and institutes. The university is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.
Academics
Throughout its history, Pitt has been committed to a liberal arts education with a curriculum in the arts, sciences, and humanities. Pitt also has emphasized undergraduate research experience and opportunities such as co-ops and internships. Undergraduate degrees can be earned as Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of Philosophy. Along with providing certificate programs, graduate level master's, professional, and doctoral degrees are also awarded. Pitt has also initiated a University-wide Outside the Classroom Curriculum (OCC) that includes a structured series of extracurricular programs and experiences designed to complement students' academic studies and help develop personal attributes and professional skills. Students who complete the OCC requirements receive an OCC "transcript" and a green cord of distinction to wear at commencement. Pitt offers free workshops and certification programs such as a pedagogy certification badge and a semester-long public education mentorship program.
The freshman level entry schools include the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, the College of Business Administration, the Swanson School of Engineering, and the School of Nursing.
International Studies
The university's historic emphasis on international studies is physically present in its collection of 31 Nationality Rooms on the first and third floors of the Cathedral of Learning. Pitt is also one of the country's leading producers of both Fulbright scholars and Peace Corps volunteers, and one of fewer than 20 American universities to claim five or more area studies programs that have been competitively designated as National Resource Centers by the U.S. Department of Education.
Pitt's National Resource Centers include Asian, European, Latin American, Russian and East European, and Global studies, as well as Pitt's International Business Center. In addition, Pitt's Asian Studies Center has been awarded status as a Confucius Institute by the Chinese Ministry of Education. Further, Pitt is home to one of just ten European Union Centers of Excellence in the U.S., funded by the European Commission.
The University Center for International Studies (UCIS) coordinates international education curricula, centers on topical specializations in international studies, and the centers for area studies, including the National Resource Centers, among existing faculty and departments throughout the university. It does not confer degrees, but awards certificates of attainment to degree candidates in the university's schools and also operates certificate programs in African Studies (undergraduate) and in Global Studies (undergraduate & graduate). UCIS also operates the Study Abroad Office, Nationality Rooms and Intercultural Exchange Programs.
Pitt's study abroad program, under the auspices of UCIS, helps to facilitate student study in over a hundred different countries, and oversees a variety of programs including the Panther Programs, which are course taught abroad that have been developed and are accompanied by faculty of the university; two-way exchange agreements with foreign institutions; and Pitt-recognized, third-party exchange programs. The university also offers several study abroad scholarships, including those through the Nationality Rooms program. In addition, following the decision to end a 24-year sponsorship of the Semester at Sea program due to academic, administrative and safety concerns, Pitt has created a Multi-region Academic Program (PittMAP) that involves international travel, accompanied by university faculty, to three different continents for the comparative study of one of six rotating global study themes. Further, Pitt's Swanson School of Engineering has also established a joint engineering institute and program with Sichuan University in Chengdu, and Pitt's School of Medicine has established an exchange program for biomedical research students with Tsinghua University in Beijing, China.
Rankings
The Center for Measuring University Performance has ranked Pitt 9th in the top tier of U.S. research universities nationwide according to its 2015 annual report.
In its 2021 rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked Pitt tied for 19th among public universities in the United States and tied for 58th among all national universities. Princeton Review placed Pitt among its "Best Value Public Colleges", while Kiplinger rated Pitt the best value in Pennsylvania and thirty-sixth best nationally for out-of-state students among public universities in their 2016 rankings. The 2017 Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education college rankings of American universities ranked Pitt 75th overall, and the No. 1 public college in the Northeast.
In worldwide evaluations of universities, Newsweek ranked Pitt 37th in its "The Top 100 Global Universities." Pitt ranked 43rd worldwide in the 2017 Center for World University Rankings. Pitt is also ranked 90th worldwide (and 42nd in the U.S.) in the 2018 Academic Ranking of World Universities. Pitt ranked 100th globally in the 2017/18 QS World University Rankings. Pitt ranks 25th of all universities in the world for the impact and performance of its 2016 scientific public publications according to the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities produced by the Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan (HEEACT). Pitt ranks as the 42nd best higher education research institution worldwide according to SCImago Institutions Rankings' 2016 World Report.
In his 1985 book, Public Ivies: A Guide to America's Best Public Undergraduate Colleges and Universities, Richard Moll included the University of Pittsburgh as one of the Public Ivy "worthy runners-up."
In addition to its academic rankings, Pitt has also been recognized for its positive campus atmosphere, with The Princeton Review rating Pitt as having the 8th happiest student body and the 11th best quality of life in the nation in 2010.
Pitt's law school was ranked tied for 76th in the U.S. in 2020 by U.S. News & World Report.
The University of Pittsburgh School of Social Work's MSW program was ranked tied for 17th in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report in 2020.
Scholars
Pitt students and faculty have regularly won national and international scholarships and fellowship awards, including eight Rhodes Scholarships and ten Marshall Scholarships. In 2007, Pitt was one of only nine universities, and the only public university, to claim both Rhodes and Marshall Scholars. Since 1995, Pitt undergraduates have also won a total of five Truman Scholarships, seven Udall Scholarships, a Churchill Scholarship, a Gates Cambridge Scholarship, 43 Goldwater Scholarships, 23 Boren Scholarships, and three Mellon Humanities Fellowships.
Pitt is also a leading producer of Fulbright scholars, placing in the top 20 among all universities for total number of student Fulbright scholars.
Pitt alumni have won awards such as the Nobel Peace Prize, the Nobel Prize in medicine, the Pulitzer Prize for fiction, the Shaw Prize in medicine, the Albany Prize in medicine, the Fritz Medal in engineering, the Templeton Prize, and the Grainger Challenge Prize for sustainability.
Research
Pitt is a member of the Association of American Universities and had $1.0 billion in research and development expenditures in 2011, ranking 14th among all universities in the United States. Pitt ranked in the top 25 of all universities in the world for the impact and performance of its scientific public publications, including in the top ten for clinical medicine, according to the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities produced by the Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan. Pitt is also ranked 29th in the world based on Essential Science Indicators according to the Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation of Wuhan University. Pitt places much emphasis on undergraduate research and has integrated such research experience as a key component of its undergraduate experience.
Pitt is a major center of biomedical research; in FY 2013, it ranked sixth in the nation in competitive peer-reviewed NIH funding allocations, and the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center ranked 10th among hospitals nationwide by USNews in 2013.
Pitt neighbors the campus of Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), and in some cases, buildings of the two universities are intermingled. This helps to facilitate a myriad of academic and research collaborations between the two schools, including such projects as the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, the Pittsburgh Life Sciences Greenhouse, the Immune Modeling Center, the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, as well as the National Science Foundation-supported Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center. Further, the universities also offer multiple dual and joint degree programs such as the Medical Scientist Training Program, the Molecular Biophysics and Structural Biology Graduate Program, and the Law and Business Administration program. Some professors hold joint professorships between the two schools, and students at each university may take classes at the other (with appropriate approvals). Pitt students and faculty also have access to the CMU library system, as well as the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, through the Oakland Library Consortium. The two universities also co-host academic conferences, such as the 2012 Second Language Research Forum.
Student Life
Housing
Undergraduate student housing comprises both traditional residence halls and apartment style housing. On the lower campus, the three cylindrical towers of the Litchfield Towers complex houses the most students on campus and contains the primary dining facility for the university. The Schenley Quadrangle, originally serving as one of city's most desirably luxury apartment complexes, comprises five separate residence halls: Amos, Brackenridge, Bruce, Holland, and McCormick. Bruce Hall houses many Honors College and Living and Learning Community (LLC) students, Holland Hall formerly served as an all female residence, and Amos Hall serves as the primary home of the university's sororities with each floor being occupied by a different Greek organization. Ruskin Hall is located near Clapp Hall and the biological complex. Completed in 2013, Nordenberg Hall is the newest residence hall houses freshmen. Forbes Hall, located on Forbes Avenue, houses mainly freshmen involved in LLCs (Living Learning Communities). Lothrop Hall, originally built as a nursing student residence, houses students on the medical center complex. Bouquet Gardens offers garden style apartments mostly to upperclassmen. The Forbes Craig Apartments serve as the primary residence for Honors College students.
The upper campus houses Sutherland Hall, home of several Living Learning Communities, as well as Panther Hall and Irvis Hall, which mainly house upperclassmen. Various fraternity housing is also found on the upper campus, as well as the Darragh Street Apartments which house medical students within a short walk to medical school's Scaife Hall.
Many students, especially upperclassmen, also choose to live off campus in the nearby South Oakland neighborhood in both university and non-university owned apartments.
Traditions
Several traditions have become part of student life at Pitt over the years. One of the oldest traditions is "Lantern Night", an annual ceremony that serves as a formal induction for freshman women to university life. The tradition of sliding or stepping on the former home plate of Forbes Field embedded in the floor of Posvar Hall is performed by students in search of some good luck. Another good luck tradition involves rubbing the nose of the Millennium Panther outside the William Pitt Union prior to exams. Originated by students seeking good luck on exams, this tradition has further grown into one that is used by the wider university community when seeking general good fortune, particularly prior to football games or other athletic contests, and was featured in a national television advertisement for the 2012 Hyundai Tucson automobile. A romantic tradition involves the legend stating that if lovers kiss on the steps of Heinz Memorial Chapel, they are then destined to be married there. Perhaps the most prestigious tradition involves the Omicron Delta Kappa Walk, a stone walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Chapel that contains the engraved names of Pitt's Omicron Delta Kappa Senior of the Year award winners.
Annual traditional events include "Fall Fest", and in the spring, "Bigelow Bash". These festivals are held by the Pitt Program Council between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning and involve a range of activities, novelties, and bands. Related to graduation, there is Honors Convocation, where awards and recognition are bestowed upon students, faculty, alumni, and staff throughout the schools and departments of the university. Also, the "Panther Sendoff" is a free annual reception typically held in Alumni Hall to congratulate each year's graduating class and wish them well. A free event open to the public, the Nationality Rooms Open House occurs on a Sunday in early December each year in the Cathedral of Learning and involves the presentation of the rooms decorated in traditional holiday styles, day-long performances of dance and song by various ethnic groups, and food and crafts from many of the nationality room's committees.
Traditions related to athletics include the "Victory Lights", where golden flood lights illuminate the top of the Cathedral of Learning after every football victory and select other athletic achievements. The Annual Bonfire and Pep Rally which is hosted by the Pitt Program Council and is held prior to a select football game. Held on the lawn of the Cathedral of Learning, it often involves the band, cheerleaders, football team, visiting dignitaries, and giveaways. Homecoming, which revolves around another home football game each year, includes a traditional fireworks and a laser-light display between the William Pitt Union and the Cathedral of Learning. This is followed by Casino Night in the union, the football game, and a homecoming cruise on a Gateway Clipper Party Liner. At football games, the "Football Tunnel" occurs where student organizations, carrying standards, form a tunnel for the football players to run through as they enter the football field from the locker room; The Varsity Walk, a walkway between the Cathedral of Learning and Heinz Memorial Chapel, is carved each year the names of former Pitt athletes (each year since 1950) who have promoted the university through their athletic (Panther Award) or academic (Blue-Gold Award) achievements.
"Greek Week" is a yearlong initiative for the Greek organizations on campus to raise money for different charitable organizations through different events. The two biggest events each year are the Pitt Dance Marathon and Greek Sing. Yearlong fundraising activities are also held to support such charitable organizations such as the Ronald McDonald House, Make a Wish Foundation, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, and the Pittsburgh Food Bank. "E-Week" is a spring celebration organized by the Engineer Student Council for a week-long series of activities and competitions to demonstrate engineering skills and foster a spirit of camaraderie. Activities include games such as Monopoly, Ingenuity, Jeopardy, Assassins, and include a talent show, relay race, mini-Olympics, and blood drive. The festivities reach climax with a parade on Friday, a soapbox derby on Saturday, and the "e-ball finale" on Saturday evening. Each year, a unique theme is chosen. Each engineering department competes against the others, while some smaller departments join forces.
Pitt Arts
Pitt Arts is a program founded by the university in 1997 to encourage students to explore and connect to the art and cultural opportunities of the City of Pittsburgh via three programs. Art Encounters provides trips to arts events for undergrads that include free tickets, transportation, a catered reception, and encounters with international artists and thinkers. Free Visits grants undergrad and grad students free admission using their Pitt IDs to the Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Senator John Heinz History Center, Phipps Conservatory, Mattress Factory, and the Andy Warhol Museum.
Student Theater
Various student theater groups convene at Pitt. University of Pittsburgh Stages is the production company of the Department of Theatre Arts which puts public student performances of classic masterpieces, contemporary productions, and student-directed labs. It also runs the Shakespeare-in-the-Schools which tours classic theater for K-12 students throughout the Pittsburgh area. Friday Nite Improvs, Pittsburgh's longest-running theatre show, was started in 1989 by graduate theatre students. It takes place weekly inside the Cathedral of Learning's studio theatre. The Redeye Theatre Project is a festival of one-act plays cast, written, and rehearsed in 24 hours. Pitt Musical Theater Club provides undergraduates the opportunity to perform in student-directed variety shows and musicals. The club was founded in 2009.
Student Music
The University of Pittsburgh has three University recognized choirs, in founding order they are listed below:
The Pitt Men's Glee Club, founded in 1890, is the oldest extracurricular club on campus. The club includes both undergraduate and graduate students from throughout the university. Traditionally, the Glee Club has sung for a variety of campus-wide and community functions, including graduations, receptions, alumni gatherings, sporting events, and chancellor's events. The Glee Club has also participated in national Collegiate Men's Choir festivals and international tours and music festivals in both the United States and Europe.
The University of Pittsburgh Women's Choral Ensemble, founded in 1927, is open to all women of the university including undergraduates, graduate students, and staff. The ensemble leads the traditional lamplighter processional each fall and performs repertory ranging from traditional sacred and secular classics to international folk songs, popular music, and show tunes.
Heinz Chapel Choir is an accomplished and internationally known a cappella choir consisting entirely of Pitt students that has been performing for over 70 years.
Pitt A Cappella Groups:
Pitt Pendulums, founded in 1996, is a co-ed a cappella group, the oldest a cappella group on campus. Other a cappella groups on campus include C Flat Run, a co-ed group; Pittch Please, an all-male group; Pitches and Tones, a co-ed group; The Songburghs, a co-ed group; and Sounds Like Treble, an all-female group. All groups on campus regularly perform in various on and off-campus functions and are regular competitors in the ICCA's, the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella. Most recently, The Songburghs won first place at the ICCA Central Quarterfinal on February 2, 2019. They also went on to place 3rd at the next round, the ICCA Central Semifinal at the University at Buffalo on March 30, 2019. Carpathian Ensemble, founded within the Department of Music in 1786, performs Gypsy, Klezmer, Armenian, Moldavian, Ukrainian, and Macedonian music. The University Gamelan, established in 1995, is the largest Sundanese gamelan program in the U.S. and has sponsored an artist-in-residency program each year since 1998.
The University of Pittsburgh Orchestra performs several concerts and consists of music students, students from the university at large, faculty, staff, and members of the metropolitan community. The orchestra performs not only works of the standard art music literature, but also new works of student composers. Pitt Jazz Ensemble, founded in 1969 by saxophonist Dr. Davis, has performed internationally. Pitt African Music and Dance Ensemble, founded in 1983 by a Ghanaian ethnomusicologist Dr. Willie O. Anku, specializes in music and dances from Africa. Under the direction of J. S. Kofi Gbolonyo, it presents a range of African artistic expressions including music, dance, drama and visual arts. Pitt Band, founded in 1911, is the varsity marching band of the University of Pittsburgh and performs at various athletic and other University events.
Student Media
WPTS-FM is a non-commercial radio station owned by the University of Pittsburgh, and offers a mix of student-run programming. The station operates at 92.1 MHz with an ERP of 16 watts, and is licensed to Pittsburgh.
JURIST is the world's only law-school-based, comprehensive, legal news and research service staffed by a mostly volunteer team of part-time law student reporters, editors and Web developers. It is led by law professor Bernard Hibbitts at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law.
The Pitt News is an independent, student-written, and student-managed newspaper for the university's Oakland (main) campus. Founded in 1908, it is now published Monday through Friday during the school year and Wednesdays during the summer. It circulates 14,000 copies for each issue published.
The Pittiful News is an independent, student-founded, student-written, student-managed, and student-produced satirical and humor newspaper. It comes out on during the school year in print and throughout the entire calendar year online.
UPTV (University of Pittsburgh Television) is a student-managed, student-produced, closed-circuit television station. Students living in campus residence halls or university operated-housing can view programming on Channel 21.
Three Rivers Review and Collision are undergraduate, bi-annual, literary journals publishing both poetry and prose.
The Pittsburgh Undergraduate Review is a multidisciplinary journal showcasing undergraduate research.,
Pitt Political Review is a student-created, student-written publication of the University Honors College. PPR, as it is called, provides a venue for serious discussion of politics and policy issues in a nonpartisan way.
Blackline is a student-created, student-written publication of the Black Action Society. Blackline features both news articles and creative pieces such as poetry to call attention to problems, programs, and activities that affect Black students at Pitt.
The Original Magazine is a nonprofit, semiannual arts and culture publication based at, and partially funded by, the University of Pittsburgh, that aims to both bring and publicize accessible art and creative writing to Pittsburgh.
The Pitt Maverick is an independent paper founded by conservative students.
Pitt Tonight is an American college late-night talk show on the University of Pittsburgh campus. The show premiered on December 14, 2015, and is produced entirely by students. It is the first large-scale late night production on the school's campus – consisting of more than 70 staff members – with its creator Jesse Irwin serving as the first host. The program is taped once per month in front of a live studio audience. The show has been nominated for two Mid-Atlantic Emmy Awards, and won one College Broadcasters Inc. award for Best General Entertainment Program.
Student organizations
There are over 350 student clubs and organizations at the University of Pittsburgh. Some of the organizations are:
Black Action Society is the recognized student organization for promoting the cultural, educational, political, and social needs of black students at the university. It comprises nine committees including the publication of the student-run publication BlackLine as well as community outreach, political action, and programing. BAS has hosted lectures by such figures as Cornel West, Spike Lee, and Carol Moseley Braun.
Blue and Gold Society, founded in 1991, is a group of undergraduate student leaders chosen as liaisons between the student community and the Pitt Alumni Association.
Catholic Newman Club, founded in 1915, is the third oldest existing student organization on campus. The club works in conjunction with the Pittsburgh Oratory of Saint Philip Neri – which offers daily mass and confession times as well as perpetual Eucharistic adoration – and the Fellowship of Catholic University Students to provide events that offer students a deeper look into the Catholic faith. Students often engage in service opportunities with various charitable organizations.
Graduate and Professional Student Government (GPSG) is the student government that represents the interests of all graduate and professional students and serves as the umbrella organization for all of the graduate/professional school student governments. GPSG's mission is to ensure that the concerns of these students are heard and also provides services and programs such travel grants, legal and financial consulting, and social functions.
Hillel: Jewish Student Union (JSU) is a pluralistic Jewish community that serves all Pitt undergraduates. Programs take place on campus and at the Hillel Jewish University Center at 4607 Forbes Avenue. Events include holiday, interfaith, Jewish education, social action, arts and cultural programming as well as no-fee weekly Shabbat services and dinner every Friday night.
Oakland Zoo, the student athletic cheering section, is an officially recognized student club. At over 2,000 members, it is the largest such group at the university. The group helps participate with the Athletic Department and Pitt Student Government Board in setting student ticket policy as well as organizing special student events.
The Pitt Pathfinders, student recruiters employed by the Office of Admissions of Financial Aid. They recruit prospective students by giving campus tours, attending on-and-off campus recruitment programs, and by contacting admitted students through phone and the Internet. While Pathfinder is a paid position, it is also a student organization.
Pitt Program Council is the all-campus programming organization at the university. Comprising eight student committees, a variety of programs and festivities are planned and sponsored including Fall Fest, Bigelow Bash, Homecoming Laser and Fireworks Show, as well as trips to New York City, Cedar Point, Spring break in Panama City Beach, FL. Other activities include art gallery exhibits, films, horseback riding, sports tournaments, lectures, fitness and dance classes, and Black and White Ball.
Student Government Board (SGB) is the governing body that provides undergraduate students with representation to the university administration, presenting their needs, interests, and concerns. An important aspect of the SGB is allocation of a portion of the student activities fee, which provides money to over 500 student organizations at the University of Pittsburgh. SGB has three standing committees, 6 conditional committees, and one internal committee that address various aspects of campus life, including diversity, first-year involvement, wellness, and governmental relations.
Quo Vadis is a student organization that conducts guided tours and interpretations of the Cathedral of Learning's 31 Nationality Rooms.
Rainbow Alliance is a student advocacy group for gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, queer, and allied students. Among other activities, the group holds an annual drag show to raise money for Pittsburgh AIDS Task Force.
University of Pittsburgh Mock Trial is a yearlong extracurricular activity open to Pitt undergraduates that provides an opportunity to practice litigation through a series of team-based mock trial competitions. Pitt Mock Trial has qualified for American Mock Trial Association post-season tournaments each of the last six years, finishing in the fifth overall place at the 2008 National Championship Tournament.
William Pitt Debating Union is a co-curricular program and hub for a wide range of debating activities, including intercollegiate policy debate, public debate, and debate outreach. The program was 1981 National Debate Tournament champions, has qualified for the National Debate Tournament 40 times, and is one of the oldest organizations of its kind in the nation, growing from the university's Division of Public Speaking in 1912.
Greek Life
Athletics
The University of Pittsburgh's athletic teams, referred to as the "Pittsburgh Panthers" or "Pitt Panthers," include 19 university-sponsored varsity teams at the highest level of competitive collegiate athletics in the United States: the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I (NCAA Division 1 Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS)).
Varsity men's sports sponsored by the university are baseball, basketball, cross country, football, soccer, swimming and diving, indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, and wrestling; while sponsored women's varsity sports include basketball, cross country, gymnastics, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, and volleyball. All varsity sports teams compete as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2013–14 season, with the exception of the gymnastics team competing in the East Atlantic Gymnastics League (EAGL). The university also maintains membership in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC).
Scholastically, during 2012 calendar year, out of approximately 450 Pitt varsity student athletes, 350 had term grade point averages exceeding 3.0, including 16 that had a perfect average of 4.0, and 174 were named Big East Conference Academic All-Stars or placed on the all-academic Big East football team.
There are also approximately 28 additional athletic teams that compete at the non-varsity club sports level.
Pitt's highest-profile athletic programs, football and men's basketball, are consistently competitive. Pitt has been regularly ranked as having one of the best combinations of football and basketball programs by multiple sports media outlets, including CBS Sports, ESPN, and Sports Illustrated.
In the fall of 1909, the University of Pittsburgh was the first college or university to adopt the panther (Puma concolor) as its mascot. Popular as photo sites, there are ten representations of Panthers in and about Pitt's campus, and ten more painted fiberglass panthers placed around the campus by the Pitt Student Government. These fiberglass panther structures are given to a campus group for a year and painted by the group to reflect their interests. The oldest representations are four panthers that guard each corner of the Panther Hollow bridge. Other Oakland locations include both inside and in front of the William Pitt Union, outside the Petersen Events Center, "Pitt the Panther" on the carousel in Schenley Plaza, the Panther head fountain on the front of the Cathedral of Learning, and the Pitt Panther statue outside Heinz Field on Pittsburgh's North Side.
Football
Traditionally the most popular sport at the University of Pittsburgh, football has been played at the highest levels at the university since 1890. During the more than 100 years of competitive football at Pitt, the university has helped pioneer the sport by, among other things, instituting the use of numbers on jerseys and desegregating the Sugar Bowl. Some of college football's all-time greatest coaches and players have plied their trade at Pitt, including Pop Warner, Jock Sutherland, Marshall Goldberg, Joe Schmidt, Mike Ditka, Tony Dorsett, Hugh Green, Mark May, Dan Marino, Bill Fralic, Curtis Martin, Darrelle Revis, Russ Grimm, LeSean McCoy and Larry Fitzgerald. Among the top schools in terms of all-time wins, Pitt teams have claimed nine National Championships and boast 88 players that have been chosen as first-team All-Americans. Since 2015, the head coach of the football team has been Pat Narduzzi.
Basketball
Pitt first sponsored varsity men's basketball in 1905 and became an early national power after winning two Helms Foundation National Championships in 1927–28 and 1929–30. Those teams, coached by the innovative and legendary Naismith Hall of Fame inductee "Doc" Carlson, were led by National Player of the Year and Hall of Famer Charlie Hyatt. Following a Final Four appearance in 1941, Pitt appeared in a handful of NCAA tournaments throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, including an Elite Eight appearance in 1974 led by All-American Billy Knight. Pitt joined the Big East Conference in 1982, and by the end of the decade had secured a pair of Big East regular season championships led by All-Americans Charles Smith and Jerome Lane. In the 2000s (decade), led by coach Jamie Dixon, an era of consistent national and conference competitiveness has been achieved, including reaching the number one ranking in various national polls. Since 2002, Pitt has appeared in eleven NCAA tournaments advancing to five Sweet Sixteens and an Elite Eight. During this time, prior to joining the Atlantic Coast Conference in 2013, Pitt and has won three Big East regular season championships, two Big East Tournament Championships, and has advanced to six Big East Tournament Championship games.
The Pittsburgh Panthers women's varsity basketball program started during the 1914–1915 school year and lasted until 1927 before going on hiatus until 1970. Pitt's women's team has posted several NCAA, NWIT, and EAIAW tournament appearances. Led head coach Agnus Berenato, Pitt has played in post-season tournaments each of the last five seasons, including three NCAA Tournaments appearances where it advanced to the Sweet Sixteen in 2008 and 2009. The head coach of the men's basketball team is Jeff Capel.
Olympic Sports
Pitt has a long history of success in other intercollegiate athletic events. In Track and Field, Pitt has produced several Olympic and NCAA champions such as 800 m Olympic gold medalist John Woodruff, two-time 110 m hurdle Olympic gold medalist Roger Kingdom, and seven-time NCAA champion and 2005 World Champion triple jumper Trecia-Kaye Smith. The wrestling program has a rich history and is among the leaders in producing individual national champions with 16. Pitt's women's volleyball team, one of the winningest program in the nation, won 11 conference championships while a member of the Big East, and appeared in 11 NCAA tournaments since the program began in 1974. Pitt's swimming and diving teams have produced several Olympians and won 19 men's and nine women's Big East Championships while a member of that conference. Pitt women's gymnastics is a regular qualifier for the NCAA Northeast Regional Championship. Baseball, Pitt's oldest varsity sport, has produced several major league players and has reached the national 25 repeatedly, including in 2013. Other varsity sports have also competed at national and conference championships and include cross country, soccer, softball, and tennis.
Support Groups
The University of Pittsburgh Varsity Marching Band was founded in 1911 and performs at athletic and other events. The Pitt Cheerleading squad has won multiple cheerleading national championships, including three straight from 1992 to 1994. The Pitt dance team also has been competitive in national competitions.
People
Faculty
University faculty have been pioneers in such fields as virology (Jonas Salk), astronomy (John Brashear), aviation (Samuel Pierpont Langley), and psychology (Benjamin Spock). The university has been home to faculty members deemed the "fathers" of various fields, such as the "father of radio broadcasting" (Reginald Fessenden), the "father of project management" (David I. Cleland), the "father of CPR" (Peter Safar), and the "father of organ transplantation" (Thomas Starzl).
The university is also notable for its faculty in philosophy. The university is the namesake of the Pittsburgh School, which was founded by Wilfrid Sellars, a significant figure in analytic philosophy. Current notable faculty in the philosophy department include John McDowell, Robert Brandom, and Nicholas Rescher.
There have been 31 university heads for the University of Pittsburgh. Beginning in the institution's academy days, the head of the school was referred to as Principal, a title that was retained until 1872 when it was changed to Chancellor by an alteration to the university's charter. This title of Chancellor has lasted except for a brief change during Wesley Posvar's administration when it was transiently switched to President.
Alumni
As of 2019, the University of Pittsburgh has over 330,000 living alumni who are supported by the Pitt Alumni Association, founded in 1866, and over 50 regionally-based Pitt Clubs located throughout the world.
Three Pitt alumni have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Paul Lauterbur '62 for his work in magnetic resonance imaging, Philip Hench '20 for discovery of the hormone cortisone, and Wangari Maathai '66 for founding the Green Belt Movement. Other alumni have also been pioneers in their respective fields, including John Wistar Simpson '41, a pioneer in nuclear energy, and Vladimir Zworykin '26, who has been regarded as the "father of television". National Medal of Science winners include Bert W. O'Malley '59 & '63, a pioneer in steroid hormones, and Herbert Boyer '63, Genentech founder and biotech pioneer; while Leonard Baker '52 and Michael Chabon '84 have won the Pulitzer Prize.
Pitt alumni who have excelled in professional sports include Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Dan Marino '83, Mike Ditka '61, and Tony Dorsett '77. Basketball Hall of Fame inductees include pioneering coach Clifford Carlson '18 & '20 while others, such as John Woodruff '39 and Roger Kingdom '02, have won Olympic gold.
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
Pittsburgh Athletics website
Gothic Revival architecture in Pennsylvania
Educational institutions established in 1787
1787 establishments in Pennsylvania | [
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239871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordia | Cordia | Cordia is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. It contains about 300 species of shrubs and trees, that are found worldwide, mostly in warmer regions. Many of the species are commonly called manjack, while bocote may refer to several Central American species in Spanish. The generic name honours German botanist and pharmacist Valerius Cordus (1515–1544). Like most other Boraginaceae, the majority have trichomes (hairs) on the leaves.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of Cordia is complex and controversial. Gottschling et al. (2005) say this is partly due to "extraordinarily high intraspecific variability" in some groups of species, making identification difficult, and partly due to new taxa having been "airily described on the basis of poorly preserved herbarium specimens".
Selected species
Cordia africana Lam. – White manjack
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken – Spanish elm, Ecuador laurel, salmwood, bocote (Neotropics)
Cordia boissieri A.DC. – Anacahuita, Texas olive (southern Texas, Northern Mexico)
Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult. – Black sage, wild sage
Cordia dentata Poir. – White manjack
Cordia dichotoma G.Forst – Fragrant manjack, bird lime tree (Tropical Asia and Australasia)
Cordia leucophlyctis – (endemic to the Galápagos Islands)
Cordia lutea – Yellow cordia (western South America, including the Galápagos Islands)
Cordia monoica
Cordia myxa L. – Assyrian plum (South Asia)Cordia domestica is treated as a separate species by some sources, and as C. myxa var. domestica by others. Cordia obliqua (the clammy cherry) has been placed in the "Cordia myxa complex", or treated as a synonym for Cordia dichotoma.
Cordia platythyrsa Baker
Cordia rupicola Urban – Puerto Rico manjack (Puerto Rico)
Cordia sebestena L. – Geiger tree, large-leaf Geigertree (southern Florida, Greater Antilles, Central America)
Cordia sinensis Lam. (=C. gharaf) – Grey-leafed saucerberry
Cordia subcordata Lam. – Kou, tou, marer (Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, northern Australia, Pacific Islands)
Cordia sulcata DC. – Mucilage manjack,
laylay, white manjack, wild clammy cherry
Formerly placed here
Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masam. (as C. retusa Vahl)
Ecology
Cordia species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera species, such as Endoclita malabaricus, Bucculatrix caribbea, and Bucculatrix cordiaella. The wild olive tortoise beetle (Physonota alutacea) feeds on C. boissieri, C. dentata, C. inermis, and C. macrostachya.
Uses
Ornamental
Many members of this genus have fragrant, showy flowers and are popular in gardens, although they are not especially hardy.
As food
A number of the tropical species have edible fruits, known by a wide variety of names including clammy cherries, glue berries, sebesten, or snotty gobbles. In India, the fruits of local species are used as a vegetable, raw, cooked, or pickled, and are known by many names, including lasora in Hindi. One such species is fragrant manjack (C. dichotoma), which is called gunda or tenti dela in Hindi and lasura in Nepali. The fruit of the Fragrant Manjack is called phoà-pò·-chí (破布子), 樹子仔, or 樹子(Pe̍h-ōe-jī: chhiū-chí) in Taiwan where they are eaten pickled.
Glue
The white, gooey inner pulp of the fruits is traditionally used to make glue.
Wood
The wood of several Cordia species is commercially harvested. Ecuador laurel (C. alliodora), ziricote (C. dodecandra), Spanish elm (C. gerascanthus), and C. goeldiana are used to make furniture and doors in Central and South America.
Ziricote and bocote are sometimes used as tonewoods for making the backs and sides of high-end acoustic guitars such as the Richard Thompson signature model from Lowden. Similarly, drums are made from C. abyssinica, C. millenii, and C. platythyrsa due to the resonance of the wood.
Smoking
Cordia leaves can be dried and used to smoke marijuana with.
Gallery
References
Fruit vegetables
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Boraginaceae genera | [
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239873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluvoxamine | Fluvoxamine | Fluvoxamine, sold under brand names such as Luvox or Fevarin, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), but is also used to treat anxiety disorders such as panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Fluvoxamine's side-effect profile is very similar to other SSRIs: constipation, gastrointestinal problems, headache, anxiety, irritation, sexual problems, dry mouth, sleep problems and a risk of suicide at the start of treatment by lifting the psychomotor inhibition, but these effects appear to be significantly weaker than with other SSRIs (except gastrointestinal side-effects). The tolerance profile is superior in some respects to other SSRIs, particularly with respect to cardiovascular complications, despite its age.
A clinical trial published in The Lancet in October 2021 suggested that fluvoxamine can reduce the severity of COVID-19 symptoms.
It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Medical uses
In many countries (e.g., Australia, the UK, and Russia) it is commonly used for major depressive disorder. Fluvoxamine is also approved in the United States for OCD, and social anxiety disorder. In Japan it is also approved to treat OCD, social anxiety disorder and MDD. Fluvoxamine is indicated for children and adolescents with OCD. The drug works long-term, and retains its therapeutic efficacy for at least one year. It has also been found to possess some analgesic properties in line with other SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants.
There is tentative evidence that fluvoxamine is effective for social phobia in adults. Fluvoxamine is also effective for GAD, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder and separation anxiety disorder in children and adolescents. There is tentative evidence that fluvoxamine may help some people with negative symptoms of chronic schizophrenia.
In October 2021, a large clinical trial in Brazil reported that treating high-risk outpatients with an early diagnosis of COVID-19 with 100 mg fluvoxamine twice daily for 10 days reduced by up to about 65% the risk of hospitalization (retention in a COVID-19 emergency setting or transfer to a tertiary hospital). The effect was reduced to about 32% with low adherence, possibly due to intolerance. There was also a reduction in the number of deaths by up to about 90% with high adherence. The drug was studied because of its anti-inflammatory effects and its activity against the sigma-1 receptor, but the mechanism of action against COVID-19 remains uncertain. In the US as of January of 2022, the National Institutes of Health panel had said the evidence was inconclusive and the Food and Drug Administration were considering a request for emergency use. In Canada, Ontario's COVID-19 Advisory had approved it for usage if other preferred treatments were unavailable.
Adverse effects
Gastrointestinal side effects are more common in those receiving fluvoxamine than with other SSRIs. Otherwise, fluvoxamine's side-effect profile is very similar to other SSRIs.
Common (1–10% incidence) adverse effects
Nausea
Vomiting
Weight loss
Yawning
Loss of appetite
Agitation
Nervousness
Anxiety
Insomnia
Somnolence (drowsiness)
Tremor
Restlessness
Headache
Dizziness
Palpitations
Tachycardia (high heart rate)
Abdominal pain
Dyspepsia (indigestion)
Diarrhea
Constipation
Hyperhidrosis (excess sweating)
Asthenia (weakness)
Malaise
Sexual dysfunction (including delayed ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, etc.)
Xerostomia (dry mouth)
Uncommon (0.1–1% incidence) adverse effects
Arthralgia
Hallucination
Confusional state
Extrapyramidal side effects (e.g. dystonia, parkinsonism, tremor, etc.)
Orthostatic hypotension
Cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions (e.g. oedema [buildup of fluid in the tissues], rash, pruritus)
Rare (0.01–0.1% incidence) adverse effects
Mania
Seizures
Abnormal hepatic (liver) function
Photosensitivity (being abnormally sensitive to light)
Galactorrhoea (expulsion of breast milk unrelated to pregnancy or breastfeeding)
Unknown frequency adverse effects
Hyperprolactinaemia (elevated plasma prolactin levels leading to galactorrhoea, amenorrhoea [cessation of menstrual cycles], etc.)
Bone fractures
Glaucoma
Mydriasis
Urinary incontinence
Urinary retention
Bed-wetting
Serotonin syndrome – a potentially fatal condition characterised by abrupt onset muscle rigidity, hyperthermia (elevated body temperature), rhabdomyolysis, mental status changes (e.g. coma, hallucinations, agitation), etc.
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome – practically identical presentation to serotonin syndrome except with a more prolonged onset
Akathisia – a sense of inner restlessness that presents itself with the inability to stay still
Paraesthesia
Dysgeusia
Haemorrhage
Withdrawal symptoms
Weight changes
Suicidal ideation and behaviour
Violence towards others
Hyponatraemia
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion
Ecchymoses
Interactions
Fluvoxamine inhibits the following cytochrome P450 enzymes:
CYP1A2 (strongly) which metabolizes agomelatine, amitriptyline, caffeine, clomipramine, clozapine, duloxetine, haloperidol, imipramine, phenacetin, tacrine, tamoxifen, theophylline, olanzapine, etc.
CYP3A4 (moderately) which metabolizes alprazolam, aripiprazole, clozapine, haloperidol, quetiapine, pimozide, ziprasidone, etc.
CYP2D6 (weakly) which metabolizes aripiprazole, chlorpromazine, clozapine, codeine, fluoxetine, haloperidol, olanzapine, oxycodone, paroxetine, perphenazine, pethidine, risperidone, sertraline, thioridazine, zuclopenthixol, etc.
CYP2C9 (moderately) which metabolizes nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, phenytoin, sulfonylureas, etc.
CYP2C19 (strongly) which metabolizes clonazepam, diazepam, phenytoin, etc.
CYP2B6 (weakly) which metabolizes bupropion, cyclophosphamide, sertraline, tamoxifen, valproate, etc.
By so doing, fluvoxamine can increase serum concentration of the substrates of these enzymes.
The plasma levels of oxidatively metabolized benzodiazepines (e.g., triazolam, midazolam, alprazolam and diazepam) are likely to be increased when co-administered with fluvoxamine. However the clearance of benzodiazepines metabolized by glucuronidation (e.g., lorazepam, oxazepam, temazepam) is unlikely to be affected by fluvoxamine. It appears that benzodiazepines metabolized by nitro-reduction (clonazepam, nitrazepam) are unlikely to be affected by fluvoxamine. Using fluvoxamine and alprazolam together can increase alprazolam plasma concentrations. If alprazolam is coadministered with fluvoxamine, the initial alprazolam dose should be reduced to the lowest effective dose.
Fluvoxamine and ramelteon coadministration is not indicated.
Fluvoxamine has been observed to increase serum concentrations of mirtazapine, which is mainly metabolized by CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4, by three- to four-fold in humans. Caution and adjustment of dosage as necessary are warranted when combining fluvoxamine and mirtazapine.
Fluvoxamine seriously affects the pharmacokinetics of tizanidine and increases the intensity and duration of its effects. Because of the potentially hazardous consequences, the concomitant use of tizanidine with fluvoxamine, or other potent inhibitors of CYP1A2, should be avoided.
Fluvoxamine's interaction with St John's wort can lead to increased serotonin levels and potentially lead to serotonin syndrome.
Pharmacology
Fluvoxamine is a potent selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor with around 100-fold affinity for the serotonin transporter over the norepinephrine transporter. It has negligible affinity for the dopamine transporter or any other site, with the sole exception of the σ1 receptor. It behaves as a potent agonist at this receptor and has the highest affinity (36 nM) of any SSRI for doing so. This may contribute to its antidepressant and anxiolytic effects and may also afford it some efficacy in treating the cognitive symptoms of depression. Unlike some other SSRI, fluvoxamine's metabolites are pharmacologically neutral.
History
Fluvoxamine was developed by Kali-Duphar, part of Solvay Pharmaceuticals, Belgium, now Abbott Laboratories, and introduced as Floxyfral in Switzerland in 1983. It was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1994, and introduced as Luvox in the US. In India, it is available, among several other brands, as Uvox by Abbott. It was one of the first SSRI antidepressants to be launched, and is prescribed in many countries to patients with major depression. It was the first SSRI, a non-TCA drug, approved by the U.S. FDA specifically for the treatment of OCD. At the end of 1995, more than ten million patients worldwide had been treated with fluvoxamine. Fluvoxamine was the first SSRI to be registered for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder in children by the FDA in 1997. In Japan, fluvoxamine was the first SSRI to be approved for the treatment of depression in 1999 and was later in 2005 the first drug to be approved for the treatment of social anxiety disorder. Fluvoxamine was the first SSRI approved for clinical use in the United Kingdom.
Society and culture
Manufacturers include BayPharma, Synthon, and Teva, among others. Luvox was notably used by Eric Harris, one of the Columbine shooters.
See also
Caproxamine
Clovoxamine, a chemically similar drug with a chlorine atom substituted for the CF3 substituent
Demexiptiline, a tricyclic antidepressant with the same ketoxime termination chain as fluvoxamine
References
External links
AbbVie brands
Antidepressants
Ethers
Ketoximes
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Sigma agonists
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239874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sales%20promotion | Sales promotion | Sales promotion is one of the elements of the promotional mix. The primary elements in the promotional mix are advertising, personal selling, direct marketing and publicity/public relations. Sales promotion uses both media and non-media marketing communications for a pre-determined, limited time to increase consumer demand, stimulate market demand or improve product availability. Examples include contests, coupons, freebies, loss leaders, point of purchase displays, premiums, prizes, product samples, and rebates.
Sales promotions can be directed at either the customer, sales staff, or distribution channel members (such as retailers). Sales promotions targeted at the consumer are called consumer sales promotions. Sales promotions targeted at retailers and wholesale are called trade sales promotions.
Sales promotion includes several communications activities that attempt to provide added value or incentives to consumers, wholesalers, retailers, or other organizational customers to stimulate immediate sales. These efforts can attempt to stimulate product interest, trial, or purchase. Examples of devices used in sales promotion include coupons, samples, premiums, point-of-purchase (POP) displays, contests, rebates, and sweepstakes.
Sales promotion is implemented to attract new customers, to hold present customers, to counteract competition, and to take advantage of opportunities that are revealed by market research. It is made up of activities, both outside and inside activities, to enhance company sales. Outside sales promotion activities include advertising, publicity, public relations activities, and special sales events. Inside sales promotion activities include window displays, product and promotional material display and promotional programs such as premium awards and contests.
Sale promotions often come in the form of discounts. Discounts impact the way consumers think and behave when shopping. The type of savings and its location can affect the way consumers view a product and affect their purchase decision. The two most common discounts are price discounts (“on sale items”) and bonus packs (“bulk items”). Price discounts are the reduction of an original sale by a certain percentage while bonus packs are deals in which the consumer receives more for the original price. Many companies present different forms of discounts in advertisements, hoping to convince consumers to buy their products.
Sales promotion: definition
Sales promotion represents a variety of techniques used to stimulate the purchase of a product or brand. Sales promotion has a tactical, rather than strategic role in marketing communications and brand strategy, it is also a form of advertisement used within a short period of time. Researchers Farhangmehr and Brito, reviewed the definitions of sales promotions in marketing texts and journals and identified a set of common characteristics of sales promotion, including:
Short-term effects and duration;
Operates and influences only the last phase of the purchase process;
Exhibits a secondary role in relation to other forms of marketing communication;
Performs an accessory role regarding the products core benefits
Is not a single technique, rather it is a set of techniques used for a specific purpose
Both manufacturers and retailers make extensive use of sales promotions. Retailer-sponsored sales promotions are directed at consumers. Manufacturers use two types of sales promotion, namely:
1. Consumer sales promotions: Sales promotions targeted at consumers or end-users and designed to stimulate the actual purchase
2. Trade promotions: Sales promotions targeted at trade, especially retailers, designed to increase sales to retailers, to carry the product or brand or to support the retailer in consumer-oriented promotions
Sales promotion is useful when:-1. The product is newly introduced.
2. There are huge stock lying unsold.
3. Penetration or entry is desired in marketing under competitors stronghold.
4. The product are likely to be perished if not sold or used.
5. The effect of sales promotion must be fortified by marketing backup to create brand loyalty resulting in growing demand.
Consumer sales promotion types
Consumer sales promotions are short-term techniques designed to achieve short-term objectives, such as to stimulate a purchase, encourage store traffic or simply to build excitement for a product or brand. Traditional sales promotions techniques include:
Price deal: A temporary reduction in the price, such as 50% off.
Loyal Reward Program: Consumers collect points, miles, or credits for purchases and redeem them for rewards.
Cents-off deal: Offers a brand at a lower price. The price reduction may be a percentage marked on the package.
Price-pack/Bonus packs deal: The packaging offers a consumer a certain percentage more of the product for the same price (for example, 25 percent extra). This is another type of deal “in which customers are offered more of the product for the same price”. For example, a sales company may offer their consumers a bonus pack in which they can receive two products for the price of one. In these scenarios, this bonus pack is framed as a gain because buyers believe that they are obtaining a free product. The purchase of a bonus pack, however, is not always beneficial for the consumer. Sometimes consumers will end up spending money on an item they would not normally buy had it not been in a bonus pack. As a result, items bought in a bonus pack are often wasted and is viewed as a “loss” for the consumer.
Coupons: Coupons have become a standard mechanism for sales promotions.
Loss leader: The price of a popular product is temporarily reduced below cost in order to stimulate other profitable sales
Free-standing insert (FSI): A coupon booklet is inserted into the local newspaper for delivery.
Checkout dispensers: On checkout, the customer is given a coupon based on products purchased.
Mobile couponing: Coupons are available on a mobile phone. Consumers show the offer on a mobile phone to a salesperson for redemption.
Online interactive promotion game: Consumers play an interactive game associated with the promoted product.
Rebates: Consumers are offered a money-back if the receipt and barcode are mailed to the producer.
Contests/sweepstakes/games: The consumer is automatically entered into the event by purchasing the product.
Point-of-sale displays:
Aisle interrupter: A sign that juts into the aisle from the shelf.
Dangler: A sign that sways when a consumer walks by it.
Dump bin: A bin full of products dumped inside.
Bidding portals: Getting prospects
Glorifier: A small stage that elevates a product above other products.
Wobbler: A sign that jiggles.
Lipstick Board: A board on which messages are written in crayon.
Necker: A coupon placed on the 'neck' of a bottle.
YES unit: "Your extra salesperson" is a pull-out fact sheet.
Electroluminescent: Solar-powered, animated light in motion.
Kids eat free specials: Offers a discount on the total dining bill by offering 1 free kids meal with each regular meal purchased.
Sampling: Consumers get one sample for free, after their trial and then could decide whether to buy or not.
New technologies have provided a range of new opportunities for sales promotions. Loyalty cards, personal shopping assistants, electronic shelf labels, and electronic advertising displays allow for more personalized communications and more targeted information at the point of purchase. For example, shoppers may receive alerts for special offers when they approach a product in a specific aisle.
Online deals vs. In-store deals
There are different types of discounts available online versus in the stores. On-shelf couponing: Coupons are present at the shelf where the product is available. On-line couponing: Coupons are available online. Consumers print them out and take them to the store. Although discounts can be found online and in stores, there is a different thought process when shopping in each location. For example, “online shoppers are more price-sensitive because of the readily available low search cost and direct price comparisons”. Consumers can easily go to other websites and find better deals as opposed to physically going to various stores. In addition, buyers tend to refrain from purchasing bonus packs online because of the skepticism (of fraud and scams) that may come with the deal. Since “…bonus packs are more difficult than price discounts to process online, they are more difficult and effortful for the consumer to understand”. For example, a buy-one-get-one-free deal on a website requires more work than the same bonus pack offered in a store. Online, consumers have to deal with payment processing, shipping and handling fees, and days waiting for the products’ arrival, while in a store, the products are available without those additional steps and delays.
Trade sales promotion techniques
Trade allowances: Short-term incentive offered to induce a retailer to stock up on a product.
Dealer loader: An incentive given to induce a retailer to purchase and display a product.
Trade contest: A contest to reward retailers that sell the most product.
Point-of-purchase displays: Used to create the urge of "impulse" buying and selling your product on the spot.
Training programs: Dealer employees are trained in selling the product.
Push money: Also known as "spiffs." An extra commission paid to retail employees to push products.
Trade discounts (also called functional discounts): These are payments to distribution channel members for performing some function.
Consumer thought process
Meaningful savings: gain or loss
Many discounts are designed to give consumers the perception of saving money when buying products, but not all discounted prices are viewed as favorable to buyers. Therefore, before making a purchase, consumers may weigh their options as either a gain or a loss to avoid the risk of losing money on a purchase. A “gain” view on a purchase results in chance taking For example, if there is a buy-one-get-one-half-off discount that seems profitable, a shopper will buy the product. On the other hand, a “loss” viewpoint results in consumer aversion to taking any chances. For instance, consumers will pass on a buy-three-get-one-half-off discount if they believe they are not benefitting from the deal. Specifically, consumers will consider their options because “…the sensation of loss is 2.5 times greater than the sensation of gain for the same value”.
Impulse buying
Impulse buying results from consumers’ failure to weigh their options before buying a product. Impulse buying is “any purchase that a shopper makes that has not been planned… [and is] sudden and immediate”. For example, if a consumer has no intention of buying a product before entering a store, but purchases an item without any forethought, that was impulse buying. Product manufactures want to promote and encourage this instant purchase impulse in consumers. Buyers can be very quick to make purchases without thinking about the consequences when a product is perceived to be a good deal. Therefore, sales companies “increasingly implement promotional campaigns that will be effective in triggering consumer impulse buying behavior” to increase sales and profits
Comparing prices
Many consumers read left-to-right, and therefore, compare prices in the same manner. For example, if the price of a product is $93 and the sales price is $79, people will initially compare the left digits first (9 and 7) and notice the two digit difference. However, because of this habitual behavior, “consumers may perceive the ($14) difference between $93 and $79 as greater than the ($14) difference between $89 and $75”. As a result, consumers often mistakenly believe they are receiving a better deal with the first set of prices based on the left digits solely.
Right digit effect
The right digit effect focuses on the right digits of prices when the left digits are the same. In other words, prices like $45 and $42 force consumers to pay more attention to the right digits (the 2 and 5) to determine the discount received. This effect also “implies that consumers will perceive larger discounts for prices with small right digit endings, than for large right digit endings. For example, in a $32-to-$31 price reduction, consumers will believe to have received a greater deal than a $39-to-$38 price reduction. As a result, companies may use discounts with smaller right digits to mislead consumers into thinking they are receiving a better deal and increasing profit. However, consumers also are deceived by the infamous 9-ending prices. “The right digit effect [also] relates to consumers’ tendency to identify 9-ending prices as sale (rather than regular) prices or to associate them with a discount.
Framing effect
The Framing effect is “the phenomenon that occurs when there is a change in an individual’s preference between two or more alternatives caused by the way the problem is presented”. In other words, the format in which something is presented will affect a person's viewpoint. This theory consists of three subcategories: risky choice framing, attribute framing and goal framing. Risky choice framing references back to the gain-or-loss thought processes of consumers. Consumers will take chances if the circumstance is profitable for them and avoid chance-taking if it is not. Attribute framing deals with one key phrase or feature of a price discount that is emphasized to inspire consumer shopping. For example, the terms “free” and “better” are used commonly to lure in shoppers to buy a product. Goal framing places pressure on buyers to act hastily or face the consequences of missing out on a definite price reduction. A “limited time only” (LTO) deal, for example, attempts to motivate buyers to make a purchase quickly, or buy on impulse, before the time runs out.
Outside forces
Although there are aspects that can determine a consumer's shopping behavior, there are many outside factors that can influence the shoppers’ decision in making a purchase. For example, even though a product's price is discounted, the quality of that product may dissuade the consumer from buying the item. If the product has poor customer reviews or has a short “life span,” shoppers will view that purchase as a loss and avoid taking a chance on it. A product can also be viewed negatively because of consumers’ past experiences and expectations. For example, if the size of a product is misleading, buyers will not want to buy it. An item advertised as “huge,” but is only one inch tall, will ward off consumers. Also, “the effects of personal characteristics, such as consumers’ gender, subjective norms, and impulsivity” can also affect a consumer's purchase intentions. For example, a female will, generally, purchase a cosmetic product more often than a male. In addition, “some…shoppers may be unable to buy [a product]…because of financial constraints”.
Regulation
Sales promotions have traditionally been heavily regulated in many advanced industrial nations, with the notable exception of the United States. For example, the United Kingdom formerly operated under a resale price maintenance regime in which manufacturers could legally dictate the minimum resale price for virtually all goods; this practice was abolished in 1964.
Most European countries also have controls on the scheduling and permissible types of sales promotions, as they are regarded in those countries as bordering upon unfair business practices. Germany is notorious for having the most strict regulations. Famous examples include the car wash that was barred from giving free car washes to regular customers and a baker who could not give a free cloth bag to customers who bought more than 10 rolls.
See also
Alcohol advertising
Behavioral clustering
Demand chain
Integrated marketing communications
Institute of Sales Promotion
Marketing
Marketing communications
Pricing
Promotion (marketing)
Promotional mix
Promotional merchandise
Native advertising
Sales Promotion (magazine)
Tobacco advertising
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239876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthimus%20I%20of%20Constantinople | Anthimus I of Constantinople | Anthimus I (? – after 536) was a Miaphysite patriarch of Constantinople from 535–536. He was the bishop or archbishop of Trebizond before accession to the Constantinople see. He was deposed by Pope Agapetus I for adhering to Monophysitism (the belief that Jesus had only a divine nature but not a human one) before March 13, 536, and later hidden by Theodora in her quarters for 12 years, until her death.
References
6th-century patriarchs of Constantinople
Bishops of Trebizond
Justinian I | [
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239880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuptake | Reuptake | Reuptake is the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a neurotransmitter transporter located along the plasma membrane of an axon terminal (i.e., the pre-synaptic neuron at a synapse) or glial cell after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse.
Reuptake is necessary for normal synaptic physiology because it allows for the recycling of neurotransmitters and regulates the level of neurotransmitter present in the synapse, thereby controlling how long a signal resulting from neurotransmitter release lasts. Because neurotransmitters are too large and hydrophilic to diffuse through the membrane, specific transport proteins are necessary for the reabsorption of neurotransmitters. Much research, both biochemical and structural, has been performed to obtain clues about the mechanism of reuptake.
Protein structure
The first primary sequence of a reuptake protein was published in 1990. The technique for protein sequence determination relied upon the purification, sequencing, and cloning of the transporter protein in question, or expression cloning strategies in which transport function was used as an assay for cDNA species coding for that transporter. After separation, it was realized that there were many similarities between the two DNA sequences. Further exploration in the field of reuptake proteins found that many of the transporters associated with important neurotransmitters within the body were also very similar in sequence to the GABA and norepinephrine transporters. The members of this new family include transporters for dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glycine, proline and GABA. They were called Na+/Cl− dependent neurotransmitter transporters. Sodium and chloride ion dependence will be discussed later in the mechanism of action. Using the commonalities among sequences and hydropathy plot analyses, it was predicted that there are 12 hydrophobic membrane spanning regions in the ‘Classical’ transporter family. In addition to this, the N- and C-termini exist in the intracellular space. These proteins also all have an extended extracellular loop between the third and fourth transmembrane sequences. Site-directed chemical labeling experiments verified the predicted topological organization of the serotonin transporter.
In addition to neurotransmitter transporters, many other proteins in both animals and prokaryotes were found with similar sequences, indicating a larger family of Neurotransmitter:Sodium Symporters (NSS). One of these proteins, LeuT, from Aquifex aeolicus, was crystallized by Yamashita et al. with very high resolution, revealing a molecule of leucine and two Na+ ions bound near the center of the protein. They found that the transmembrane (TM) helices 1 and 6 contained unwound segments in the middle of the membrane. Along with these two helices, TM helices 3 and 8 and the areas surrounding the unwound sections of 1 and 6 formed the substrate and sodium ion binding sites. The crystal structure revealed pseudo-symmetry in LeuT, in which the structure of TM helices 1-5 is reflected in the structure of helices 6-10.
There is an extracellular cavity in the protein, into which protrudes a helical hairpin formed by extracellular loop EL4. In TM1, an aspartate distinguishes monoamine NSS transporters from amino acid transporters which contain a glycine at the same position. External and internal “gates” were assigned to pairs of negatively and positively charged residues in the extracellular cavity and near the cytoplasmic ends of TM helices 1 and 8.
Mechanism of action
The classic transporter proteins use transmembrane ion gradients and electrical potential to transport neurotransmitter across the membrane of the presynaptic neuron. Typical neurotransmitter sodium symport (NSS) transporters, which are Na+ and Cl− ion dependent, take advantage of both Na+ and Cl− gradients, inwardly directed across the membrane. The ions flow down their concentration gradients, in many cases leading to transmembrane charge movement that is enhanced by the membrane potential. These forces pull the neurotransmitter substrate into the cell, even against its own concentration gradient. At a molecular level, Na+ ions stabilize amino acid binding at the substrate site and also hold the transporter in an outward-open conformation that allows substrate binding. The role of the Cl− ion in the symport mechanism has been proposed to be for stabilizing the charge of the symported Na+.
After ion and substrate binding have taken place, some conformational change must occur. From the conformational differences between the structure of TMs 1-5 and that of TMs 6-10, and from the identification of a substrate permeation pathway between the binding site of SERT and the cytoplasm, a mechanism for conformational change was proposed in which a four-helix bundle composed of TMs 1, 2, 6 and 7 changes its orientation within the rest of the protein. A structure of LeuT in the inward-open conformation subsequently demonstrated that the major component of the conformational change represents movement of the bundle relative to the rest of the protein.
Mechanism of reuptake inhibition
The main objective of a reuptake inhibitor is to substantially decrease the rate by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the concentration of neurotransmitter in the synapse. This increases neurotransmitter binding to pre- and postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors. Depending on the neuronal system in question, a reuptake inhibitor can have drastic effects on cognition and behavior. Non-competitive inhibition of the bacterial homologue LeuT by tricyclic antidepressants resulted from binding of these inhibitors in the extracellular permeation pathway. However, the competitive nature of serotonin transport inhibition by antidepressants suggests that in neurotransmitter transporters, they bind in a site overlapping the substrate site.
Human systems
Horschitz et al. examined reuptake inhibitor selectivity among the rat serotonin reuptake protein (SERT) expressed in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-SERT). They presented SERT with varying doses of either citalopram (an SSRI) or desipramine (an inhibitor of norepinephrine reuptake protein, NET). By examining the dose-response curves (using a normal medium as control), they were able to quantify that citalopram acted on SERT as an SSRI, and that desipramine had no effect on SERT. In a separate experiment, Horschitz et al. exposed HEK-SERT with citalopram on a long-term basis. They noticed that long-term exposure led to a down-regulation of binding sites. These results suggest some mechanism for long-term changes in the pre-synaptic neuron after drug therapy. Horschitz et al. found that after removing citalopram from the system, normal levels of SERT binding site expression returned.
Depression has been suggested to be a result of a decrease of serotonin found in the synapse, although this hypothesis has been challenged since as early as the 1980s. It was initially supported by the successful reduction of depressive symptoms after administration of tricyclic antidepressants (such as desipramine) and SSRIs. Tricyclic antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine by acting upon both the SERT and NET. SSRIs selectively inhibit the reuptake of serotonin by acting upon SERT. The net result is an increased amount of serotonin in the synapse, thus increasing the probability that serotonin will interact with a serotonin receptor of the postsynaptic neuron. There are additional mechanisms by which serotonin autoreceptor desensitization must occur, but the net result is the same. This increases serotonin signaling, which according to the hypothesis is believed to elevate mood and thus relieve depressive symptoms. This proposal for the antidepressant mechanism of serotonin reuptake inhibitors does not account for the time course of the therapeutic effect, which takes weeks to months, while transporter inhibition is essentially immediate.
The net effect of amphetamine (AMPH) use is an increase of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse. It has been shown that AMPH acts upon trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) to induce efflux and reuptake inhibition in the serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine transporters. This effect requires the transporter and TAAR1 to be co-localized (occur together) within the same neuron.
Neuroprotective role
Astrocytes seem to utilize reuptake mechanisms for a neuroprotective role. Astrocytes use excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2, aka GLT-1) to remove glutamate from the synapse. EAAT2 knockout mice were more prone to lethal and spontaneous seizures and acute brain injuries among the cortex. These effects could be linked to increased concentrations of glutamate in the brains of EAAT2 knockout mice, analyzed post-mortem.
References
Neurotransmitters
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239887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricing | Pricing | Pricing is the process whereby a business sets the price at which it will sell its products and services, and may be part of the business's marketing plan. In setting prices, the business will take into account the price at which it could acquire the goods, the manufacturing cost, the marketplace, competition, market condition, brand, and quality of product.
Pricing is a fundamental aspect of product management and is one of the four Ps of the marketing mix, the other three aspects being product, promotion, and place. Price is the only revenue generating element amongst the four Ps, the rest being cost centers. However, the other Ps of marketing will contribute to decreasing price elasticity and so enable price increases to drive greater revenue and profits.
Pricing can be a manual or automatic process of applying prices to purchase and sales orders, based on factors such as: a fixed amount, quantity break, promotion or sales campaign, specific vendor quote, price prevailing on entry, shipment or invoice date, combination of multiple orders or lines, and many others. An automated pricing system requires more setup and maintenance but may prevent pricing errors. The needs of the consumer can be converted into demand only if the consumer has the willingness and capacity to buy the product. Thus, pricing is the most important concept in the field of marketing, it is used as a tactical decision in response to changing competitive, market and organizational situations.
Objectives of pricing
The objectives of pricing should consider:
the financial goals of the company (i.e. profitability)
the fit with marketplace realities (will customers buy at that price?)
the extent to which the price supports a product's market positioning and be consistent with the other variables in the marketing mix
the consistency of prices across categories and products (consistency indicates reliability and supports customer confidence and customer satisfaction)
To meet or prevent competition
Price is influenced by the type of distribution channel used, the type of promotions used, and the quality of the product. Where manufacturing is expensive, distribution is exclusive, and the product is supported by extensive advertising and promotional campaigns, then prices are likely to be higher. Price can act as a substitute for product quality, effective promotions, or an energetic selling effort by distributors in certain markets.
From the marketer's point of view, an efficient price is a price that is very close to the maximum that customers are prepared to pay. In economic terms, it is a price that shifts most of the consumer economic surplus to the producer. A good pricing strategy would be the one that could balance between the price floor (the price below which the organization ends up in losses) and the price ceiling (the price by which the organization experiences a no-demand situation).
Pricing strategies
Marketers develop an overall pricing strategy that is consistent with the organization's mission and values. This pricing strategy typically becomes part of the company's overall long-term strategic plan. The strategy is designed to provide broad guidance for price-setters and ensures that the pricing strategy is consistent with other elements of the marketing plan. While the actual price of goods or services may vary in response to different conditions, the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy) remains a constant for the planning outlook period which is typically 3–5 years, but in some industries may be a longer period of 7–10 years. The pricing strategy established the overall, long-term goals of the pricing function, without specifying an actual price-point.
Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy mentioned in the marketing literature:
Operations-oriented pricing: where the objective is to optimize productive capacity, to achieve operational efficiencies or to match supply and demand through varying prices. In some cases, prices might be set to de-market.
Revenue-oriented pricing: (also known as profit-oriented pricing or cost-based pricing) - where the marketer seeks to maximize the profits (i.e., the surplus income over costs) or simply to cover costs and break even. For example, dynamic pricing (also known as yield management) is a form of revenue oriented pricing.
Customer-oriented pricing: where the objective is to maximize the number of customers; encourage cross-selling opportunities or to recognize different levels in the customer's ability to pay.
Value-based pricing: (also known as image-based pricing) occurs where the company uses prices to signal market value or associates price with the desired value position in the mind of the buyer. The aim of value-based pricing is to reinforce the overall positioning strategy e.g. premium pricing posture to pursue or maintain a luxury image.
Relationship-oriented pricing: where the marketer sets prices in order to build or maintain relationships with existing or potential customers.
Socially-oriented pricing: Where the objective is to encourage or discourage specific social attitudes and behaviours. e.g. high tariffs on tobacco to discourage smoking.
Optional pricing: Where the objective is to allow consumer to have an option on their purchase. e.g. buying a car optional to have CD player
Pricing tactics
When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e., the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific short-term goals. The tactical approach to pricing may vary from time to time, depending on a range of internal considerations (e.g. such as the need to clear surplus inventory) or external factors (e.g. a response to competitive pricing tactics). Accordingly, a number of different pricing tactics may be employed in the course of a single planning period or across a single year. Typically line managers are given the latitude necessary to vary individual prices providing that they operate within the broad strategic approach. For example, some premium brands never offer discounts because the use of low prices may tarnish the brand image. Instead of discounting, premium brands are more likely to offer customer value through price-bundling or giveaways.
When setting individual prices, decision-makers require a solid understanding of pricing economics, notably break-even analysis, as well as an appreciation of the psychological aspects of consumer decision-making including reservation prices, ceiling prices and floor prices. The marketing literature identifies literally hundreds of pricing tactics. It is difficult to do justice to the variety of tactics in widespread use. Rao and Kartono carried out a cross-cultural study to identify the pricing strategies and tactics that are most widely used. The following listing is largely based on their work.
ARC/RRC pricing
A traditional tactic used in outsourcing that uses a fixed fee for a fixed volume of services, with variations on fees for volumes above or below target thresholds. Charges for additional resources (“ARCs”) above the threshold are priced at rates to reflect the marginal cost of the additional production plus a reasonable profit. Credits (“RRCs”) granted for reduction in resources consumed or provided offer the enterprise customer some comfort, but the savings on credits tend not to be equivalent to the increased costs when paying for incremental resources in excess of the threshold.
Complementary pricing
Complementary pricing is an umbrella category of "captive-market" pricing tactics. It refers to a method in which one of two or more complementary products (a deskjet printer, for example) is priced to maximize sales volume, while the complementary product (printer ink cartridges) are priced at a much higher level in order to cover any shortfall sustained by the first product.
Contingency pricing
Contingency pricing is the process where a fee is only charged contingent on certain results. Contingency pricing is widely used in professional services such as legal services and consultancy services. In the United Kingdom, a contingency fee is known as a conditional fee.
Differential pricing
Differential pricing, also known as flexible pricing, multiple pricing or price discrimination , occurs where different prices are charged to different customers or market-segments, and may be dependent on the service provider's assessment of the customer's willingness or ability to pay. There are various forms of price difference including: the type of customer, the geographic area served, the quantity ordered, delivery time, payment terms, etc.
Discrete pricing
Discrete Pricing occurs when prices are set at a level that the price comes within the competence of the decision making unit (DMU). This method of pricing is often used in B2B contexts where the purchasing officer may be authorized to make purchases up to a predetermined level, beyond which decisions must go to a committee for authorization. With the advent of data analytics differential price is becoming popular with most companies using customer specific data to give prices to specific customer.
Discount pricing
Discount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price. Discounts in a variety of forms - e.g. quantity rebates, loyalty rebates, seasonal discounts, periodic or random discounts etc. Enormous retailers can request value limits from providers and make a rebate evaluating system powerful as they purchase in mass. It is normally difficult to rival these retailers dependent on a rebate estimating technique. This type of pricing strategy is a predominant showcasing procedure to draw in shoppers by providing an additional worth or motivator, which urges customers to buy the advanced items right away.
Diversionary pricing
Diversionary Pricing is a variation of loss leading used extensively in services; a low price is charged on a basic service with the intention of recouping on the extras; can also refer to low prices on some parts of the service to develop an image of low price.
Everyday low prices
Everyday low prices refers to the practice of maintaining a regular low price - in which consumers are not forced to wait for discounting or specials. This method is used by supermarkets.
Exit fees
Exit fees are fees charged to customers who depart from the service process prior to natural completion or the end of a contract. The objective of an exit fee is to deter premature exit. Exit fees are often found in financial services, telecommunications services and aged care facilities. Regulatory authorities, around the globe, have often expressed their discontent with the practice of exit fees as it has the potential to be anti-competitive and restricts consumers' abilities to switch freely, but the practice has not been proscribed.<ref>D'Aloisio, T., [Chairman of the Australian Securities and Investments Commission], "Rules on exit fees are clear", Speech given in November, 2010 and also published in the Herald-Sun',' 19 November 2010, <Online: ></ref>
Experience curve pricing
Experience curve pricing occurs when a manufacturer prices a product or service at a low rate in order to obtain volume and with the expectation that the cost of production will decrease with the acquisition of manufacturing experience. This approach which is often used in the pricing of high technology products and services, is based on the insight that manufacturers learn to trim production costs over time in a phenomenon known as experience effects.
Geographic pricing
Geographic pricing occurs when different prices are charged in different geographic markets for an identical product. For example, publishers often make text-books available at lower prices in Asian countries because average wages tend to be lower with implications for the customer's ability to pay. In other cases, geographic variations in prices may reflect the different costs of distribution and servicing certain markets.
Guaranteed pricing
Guaranteed pricing is a variant of contingency pricing. It refers to the practice of including an undertaking or promise that certain results or outcomes will be achieved. For instance, some business consultants undertake to improve productivity or profitability by 10%. In the event that the result is not achieved, the client does not pay for the service.
High-low pricing
High-low pricing refers to the practice of offering goods at a high price for a period of time, followed by offering the same goods at a low price for a predetermined time. This practice is widely used by chain stores selling homewares. The main disadvantage of the high-low tactic is that consumers tend to become aware of the price cycles and time their purchases to coincide with a low-price cycle.Kaufmann, P., "Deception in retailer high-low pricing: A 'rule of reason' approach," Journal of Retailing, Volume 70, Issue 2, 1994, pp 115–1383.
Honeymoon pricing
Honeymoon Pricing refers to the practice of using a low introductory price with subsequent price increases once relationship is established. The objective of honeymoon pricing is to "lock" customers into a long-term association with the vendor. This approach is widely used in situations where customer switching costs are relatively high such as in home loans and financial investments. It is also common in categories where a subscription model is used, especially if this is coupled with automatic regular payments, such as in newspaper and magazine subscriptions, cable TV, broadband and cell phone subscriptions and in utilities and insurance.
Loss leader
A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. Loss leading is widely used in supermarkets and budget-priced retail outlets where the store as a means of generating store traffic. The low price is widely promoted and the store is prepared to take a small loss on an individual item, with an expectation that it will recoup that loss when customers purchase other higher priced-higher margin items. In service industries, loss leading may refer to the practice of charging a reduced price on the first order as an inducement and with anticipation of charging higher prices on subsequent orders. Loss leading is often found in retail, where the loss leader is used to drive store traffic and generate sales of complementary items.
Offset pricing
Offset pricing (also known as diversionary pricing) is the service industry's equivalent of loss leading. A service may price one component of the offer at a very low price with an expectation that it can recoup any losses by cross-selling additional services. For example, a carpet steam cleaning service may charge a very low basic price for the first three rooms, but charges higher prices for additional rooms, furniture and curtain cleaning. The operator may also try to cross-sell the client on additional services such as spot-cleaning products, or stain-resistant treatments for fabrics and carpets.
Parity pricing
Parity pricing refers to the process of pricing a product at or near a rival's price in order to remain competitive. Markets can be sectioned empowering the firm to segregate between the fare and homegrown market it is indicated that the defectively serious firm can differentially cost. Besides, as the quantity of homegrown firms is expanded, and if these organizations can portion the market, the differential among homegrown and unfamiliar costs is diminished. The import equality cost might be charged in the homegrown market.
Price bundling
Price bundling (also known as product bundling) occurs where two or more products or services are priced as a package with a single price. There are several types of bundles: pure bundles where the goods can only be purchased as package or mixed bundles where the goods can be purchased individually or as a package. The prices of the bundle is typically less than when the two items are purchased separately.
Peak and off-peak pricing
Peak and off-peak pricing is a form of price discrimination where the price variation is due to some type of seasonal factor. The objective of peak and off peak pricing is to use prices to even out peaks and troughs in demand. Peak and off-peak pricing is widely used in tourism, travel and also in utilities such as electricity providers. Peak pricing has caught the public's imagination since the ride-sharing service provider, Uber, commenced using surge pricing and has sought to patent the technologies that support this approach.
Price discrimination
Price discrimination is also known as variable pricing or differential pricing.
Price liningPrice lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all product offered by a business. Price lining is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains constant but quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of garments or accessories priced at predetermined price points e.g. separate racks of men's ties, where each rack is priced at $10, $20 and $40.
Penetration pricing
Penetration pricing is an approach that can be considered at the time of market entry. In this approach, the price of a product is initially set low in an effort to penetrate the market quickly. Low prices and low margins also act as a deterrent, preventing potential rivals from entering the market since they would have to undercut the low margins to gain a foothold.
Prestige pricing
Prestige pricing is also known as premium pricing and occasionally luxury pricing or high price maintenance refers to the deliberate pursuit of a high price posture to create an image of quality.
Price signaling
Price signaling is where the price is used as an indicator of some other attribute. For example, some travel resorts promote that when two adults make a booking, the kids stay for free. This type of pricing is designed to signal that the resort is a family friendly operation.
Price skimming
Price skimming, also known as skim-the-cream pricing is a tactic that might be considered at market entry. The objective is to charge relatively high prices in order to recoup the cost of product development early in the life-cycle and before competitors enter the market.
Promotional pricing
Promotional pricing is a temporary measure that involves setting prices at levels lower than normally charged for a good or service. Promotional pricing is sometimes a reaction to unforeseen circumstances, as when a downturn in demand leaves a company with excess stocks; or when competitive activity is making inroads into market share or profits.
Two-part pricing
Two-part pricing is a variant of captive-market pricing used in service industries. Two-part pricing breaks the actual price into two parts; a fixed service fee plus a variable consumption rate. Two-part pricing tactics are widely used by utility companies such as electricity, gas and water and services where there is a quasi- membership type relationship, credit cards where an annual fee is charged and theme parks where an entrance fee is charged for admission while the customer pays for rides and extras. One part of the price represents a membership fee or joining fee, while the second part represents the usage component.
Psychological pricing
Psychological pricing is a range of tactics designed to have a positive psychological impact. Price tags using the terminal digit "9", ($9.99, $19.99 or $199.99) can be used to signal price points and bring an item in at just under the consumer's reservation price. Psychological pricing is widely used in a variety of retail settings.
Premium pricingPremium pricing (also called prestige pricing) is the strategy of consistently pricing at, or near, the high end of the possible price range to help attract status-conscious consumers. The high pricing of a premium product is used to enhance and reinforce a product's luxury image. Examples of companies that partake in premium pricing in the marketplace include Rolex and Bentley. As well as brand, product attributes such as eco-labelling and provenance (e.g. 'certified organic' and 'product of Australia') may add value for consumers and attract premium pricing. A component of such premiums may reflect the increased cost of production. People will buy a premium priced product because:
They believe the high price is an indication of good quality
They believe it to be a sign of self-worth - "They are worth it;" it authenticates the buyer's success and status; it is a signal to others that the owner is a member of an exclusive group
They require flawless performance in this application - The cost of product malfunction is too high to buy anything but the best - for example, a heart pacemaker.
The old association of luxury only being for the kings and queens of the world is almost non-existent in today's world. People have generally become wealthier, therefore the mass marketing phenomenon of luxury has simply become a part of everyday life, and no longer reserved for the elite. Since consumers have a larger source of disposable income, they now have the power to purchase products that meet their aspirational needs. This phenomenon enables premium pricing opportunities for marketers in luxury markets. Luxurification in society can be seen when middle class members of society, are willing to pay premium prices for a service or product of the highest quality when compared with similar goods. Examples of this can be seen with items such as clothing and electronics. Charging a premium price for a product also makes it more inaccessible and helps it gain an exclusive appeal. Luxury brands such as Louis Vuitton and Gucci are more than just clothing and become more of a status symbol. (Yeoman, 2011).
Prestige goods are usually sold by companies that have a monopoly on the market and hold competitive advantage. Due to a firm having great market power they are able to charge at a premium for goods, and are able to spend a larger sum on promotion and advertising. According to Han, Nunes and Dreze (2015) figure on “signal preference and taxonomy based on wealth and need for status” two social groups known as “Parvenus” and “Poseurs” are individuals generally more self-conscious, and base purchases on a need to reach a higher status or gain a social prestige value. Further market research shows the role of possessions in consumer's lives and how people make assumptions about others solely based on their possessions. People associate high priced items with success. (Han et al., 2010). Marketers understand this concept, and price items at a premium to create the illusion of exclusivity and high quality. Consumers are likely to purchase a product at a higher price than a similar product as they crave the status, and feeling of superiority as being part of a minority that can in fact afford the said product. (Han et al., 2010).
A price premium can also be charged to consumers when purchasing eco-labelled products. Market based incentives are given in order to encourage people to practice their business in an eco-friendly way in regard to the environment. Associations such as the MSC's fishery certification program and seafood ecolabel reward those who practice sustainable fishing. Pressure from environmental groups have caused the implementation of Associations such as these, rather than consumers demanding it. The value consumer's gain from purchasing environmentally conscious products may create a premium price over non eco-labelled products. This means that producers have some sort of incentive for supplying goods worthy of eco-labelling standard. Usually more costs are incurred when practicing sustainable business, and charging at a premium is a way businesses can recover extra costs.
Methods of setting prices
Demand-based pricingDemand-based pricing, also known as dynamic pricing, is a pricing method that uses consumer demand - based on perceived value - as the central element. These include price skimming, price discrimination and yield management, price points, psychological pricing, bundle pricing, penetration pricing, price lining, value-based pricing, geo and premium pricing.
Pricing factors are manufacturing cost, market place, competition, market condition, quality of product.
Price modeling using econometric techniques can help measure price elasticity, and computer based modeling tools will often facilitate simulations of different prices and the outcome on sales and profit. More sophisticated tools help determine price at the SKU level across a portfolio of products. Retailers will optimize the price of their private label SKUs with those of National Brands.
Uber's pricing policy is an example of demand-based dynamic pricing. It uses an automated algorithm to increase prices to "surge price" levels, responding rapidly to changes of supply and demand in the market. By responding in real-time, an equilibrium between demand and supply of drivers can be approached. Customers receive notice when making an Uber reservation that prices have increased. The company applied for a U.S. patent on surge pricing in 2013, though airlines are known to have been using similar techniques in seat pricing for years.
The practice has often caused passengers to become upset and invited criticism when it happens as a result of holidays, inclement weather, natural disasters or other factors. During New Year's Eve 2011, Uber prices were as high as seven times normal rates, causing outrage. During the 2014 Sydney hostage crisis, Uber implemented surge pricing, resulting in fares of up to four times normal charges; while it defended the surge pricing at first, it later apologized and refunded the surcharges. Uber CEO Travis Kalanick has responded to criticism by saying: "...because this is so new, it's going to take some time for folks to accept it. There's 70 years of conditioning around the fixed price of taxis."In Praise of Efficient Price Gouging (August 19, 2014), MIT Technology Review
Multidimensional pricingMultidimensional pricing is the pricing of a product or service using multiple numbers. In this practice, price no longer consists of a single monetary amount (e.g., sticker price of a car), but rather consists of various dimensions (e.g., monthly payments, number of payments, and a downpayment). Research has shown that this practice can significantly influence consumers' ability to understand and process price information.
Micromarketing
Micromarketing is the practice of tailoring products, brands (microbrands), and promotions to meet the needs and wants of microsegments within a market. It is a type of market customization that deals with pricing of customer/product combinations at the store or individual level.
Theoretical considerations in pricing
Price/quality relationship
The price/quality relationship comprises consumers' perceptions of value. High prices are often taken as a sign of quality, especially when the product or service lacks search qualities that can be inspected prior to purchase. Understanding consumers’ perceptions of the price/quality relationship is most important in the case of complex products that are hard to test, and experiential products that cannot be tested until used (such as most services). The greater the uncertainty surrounding a product, the more consumers depend on the price/quality signal and the greater premium they may be prepared to pay.
Consumers can have different perceptions on premium pricing, and this factor makes it important for the marketer to understand consumer behaviour. According to Vigneron and Johnson's figure on "Prestige-Seeking Consumer Behaviours", Consumers can be categorized into four groups. These groups being; Hedonist & Perfectionist, snob, bandwagon and veblenian. These categories rank from level of self-consciousness, to importance of price as an indicator of prestige. The Veblen Effect explains how this group of consumers makes purchase decisions based on conspicuous value, as they tend to purchase publicly consumed luxury products. This shows they are likely to make the purchase to show power, status and wealth. Consumers that fall under the "Snob Effect" can be described as individuals that search for perceived unique value, and will purchase exclusive products in order to be the first or very few who has it. They will also avoid purchasing products consumed by a general mass of people, as it is perceived that items in limited supply hold a higher value than items that do not. (Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). The bandwagon effect explains that consumers that fit into this category make purchasing decisions to fit into a social group, and gain a perceived social value out of purchasing popular products within said social group at premium prices. Research shows that people will often conform to what the majority of the group they are a member of thinks when it comes to the attitude of a product. Paying a premium price for a product can act as a way of gaining acceptance, due to the pressure placed on them by their peers. The Hedonic effect can be described as a certain group of people whose purchasing decisions are not affected by the status and exclusivity gained by purchasing a product at a premium, nor susceptible to the fear of being left out and peer pressure. Consumers who fit into this category base their purchasing decisions on a perceived emotional value, and gain intangible benefits such as sensory pleasure, aesthetic beauty and excitement. Consumers of this type have a higher interest on their own wellbeing. (Vigneron & Johnson, 1999). The last category on Vigneron and Johnson's figure of “Prestige-Seeking Consumer Behaviours” is the perfectionism effect. Prestige brands are expected to show high quality, and it's this reassurance of the highest quality that can actually enhance the value of the product. According to this effect, those that fit into this group value the prestige's brands to have a superior quality and higher performance than other similar brands. Research has indicated that consumer's perceive quality of a product to be relational to its price. Consumers often believe a high price of a product indicates a higher level of quality.
Even though it is suggested that high prices seem to make certain products more desirable, consumers that fall in this category have their own perception of quality and make decisions based upon their own judgement.Carrasco-Villanueva, M. A., El Efecto “Pricebo”: Cómo los precios pueden influenciar la percepción sobre la calidad del cannabis y sus implicaciones en las políticas de precios" , Pensamiento Crítico, vol. 22, n. 2, pp 175-210 They may also use the premium price as an indicator of the product's level of quality.
Price sensitivity and consumer psychology
In their book, The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing, Thomas Nagle and Reed Holden outline nine laws or factors that influence how a consumer perceives a given price and how price-sensitive s/he is likely to be with respect to different purchase decisions:
Mind of Marketing, "How your pricing and marketing strategy should be influenced by your customer's reference point"
Reference price effect: Buyer's price sensitivity for a given product increases the higher the product's price relative to perceived alternatives. Perceived alternatives can vary by buyer segment, by occasion, and other factors.
Difficult comparison effect Buyers are less sensitive to the price of a known / more reputable product when they have difficulty comparing it to potential alternatives.
Switching costs effect: The higher the product-specific investment a buyer must make to switch suppliers, the less price sensitive that buyer is when choosing between alternatives.
High switching costs: Organizations that produce that have scarcely any substitutes and require huge exertion to ace their utilization appreciate huge exchanging costs. Some firms has additionally fused membership deals, which add greater consistency to its plan of action and further secure their clients. Similarly as with numerous innovation organizations, vulnerability remains in regards to its new item improvement cycle and reception of new items.
Low switching costs: Organizations that offer items or administrations that are exceptionally simple to imitate at equivalent costs by contenders regularly have low exchanging costs. For example, clothing company have restricted exchanging costs among customers, who can discover garments bargains effectively and can rapidly think about costs by strolling starting with one store then onto the next. The ascent of Internet retailers and quick transportation has made it significantly simpler for customers to search for attire at their homes over numerous online stages.
Price-quality effect: Buyers are less sensitive to price the more that higher prices signal higher quality. Products for which this effect is particularly relevant include: image products, exclusive products, and products with minimal cues for quality.
Expenditure effect: Buyers are more price sensitive when the expense accounts for a large percentage of buyers’ available income or budget.
End-benefit effect: The effect refers to the relationship a given purchase has to a larger overall benefit, and is divided into two parts:
Derived demand: The more sensitive buyers are to the price of the end benefit, the more sensitive they will be to the prices of those products that contribute to that benefit.
Price proportion cost: The price proportion cost refers to the percent of the total cost of the end benefit accounted for by a given component that helps to produce the end benefit (e.g., think CPU and PCs). The smaller the given components share of the total cost of the end benefit, the less sensitive buyers will be to the component's price.
Shared-cost effect: The smaller the portion of the purchase price buyers must pay for themselves, the less price sensitive they will be.
Fairness effect: Buyers are more sensitive to the price of a product when the price is outside the range they perceive as “fair” or “reasonable” given the purchase context.
Framing effect: Buyers are more price sensitive when they perceive the price as a loss rather than a forgone gain, and they have greater price sensitivity when the price is paid separately rather than as part of a bundle.
Approaches
Pricing is the most effective profit lever.
Pricing can be approached at three levels: the industry, market, and transaction level.
Pricing at the industry level focuses on the overall economics of the industry, including supplier price changes and customer demand changes.
Pricing at the market level focuses on the competitive position of the price in comparison to the value differential of the product to that of comparative competing products.
Pricing at the transaction level focuses on managing the implementation of discounts away from the reference, or list price, which occur both on and off the invoice or receipt.
A "price waterfall" analysis helps businesses and sales personnel to understand the differences which arise between the reference or list price, the invoiced sale price and the actual price paid by a customer taking account of contract, sales and payment discounts.
Pricing mistakes
Many companies make common pricing mistakes. Jerry Bernstein's article Use Suppliers' Pricing Mistakes outlines several sales errors, which include:
Weak controls on discounting (price override)
Inadequate systems for tracking competitors' selling prices and market share (Competitive intelligence)
Cost-plus pricing
Price increases poorly executed
Worldwide price inconsistencies
Paying sales representatives on sales volume vs. addition of revenue measures
Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a product.
See also
References
Further reading
William Poundstone, Priceless: The Myth of Fair Value (and How to Take Advantage of It), Hill and Wang, 2010.
External links
Engineering New Product Success: the New Product Pricing Process at Emerson Electric. A case study by Jerry Bernstein and David Macias. Published in Industrial Marketing Management.
How To Price and Sell Your Software Product, Redpoint Ventures''
Competition (economics) | [
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239890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleft%20lip%20and%20cleft%20palate | Cleft lip and cleft palate | A cleft lip contains an opening in the upper lip that may extend into the nose. The opening may be on one side, both sides, or in the middle. A cleft palate occurs when the palate (the roof of the mouth) contains an opening into the nose. The term orofacial cleft refers to either condition or to both occurring together. These disorders can result in feeding problems, speech problems, hearing problems, and frequent ear infections. Less than half the time the condition is associated with other disorders.
Cleft lip and palate are the result of tissues of the face not joining properly during development. As such, they are a type of birth defect. The cause is unknown in most cases. Risk factors include smoking during pregnancy, diabetes, obesity, an older mother, and certain medications (such as some used to treat seizures). Cleft lip and cleft palate can often be diagnosed during pregnancy with an ultrasound exam.
A cleft lip or palate can be successfully treated with surgery. This is often done in the first few months of life for cleft lip and before eighteen months for cleft palate. Speech therapy and dental care may also be needed. With appropriate treatment, outcomes are good.
Cleft lip and palate occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1000 births in the developed world. Cleft lip is about twice as common in males as females, while cleft palate without cleft lip is more common in females. In 2017, it resulted in about 3,800 deaths globally, down from 14,600 deaths in 1990. The condition was formerly known as a "hare-lip" because of its resemblance to a hare or rabbit, but that term is now generally considered to be offensive.
Signs and symptoms
Cleft lip
If the cleft does not affect the palate structure of the mouth, it is referred to as cleft lip. Cleft lip is formed in the top of the lip as either a small gap or an indentation in the lip (partial or incomplete cleft), or it continues into the nose (complete cleft). Lip cleft can occur as a one-sided (unilateral) or two-sided (bilateral) condition. It is due to the failure of fusion of the maxillary prominence and medial nasal processes (formation of the primary palate).
A mild form of a cleft lip is a microform cleft. A microform cleft can appear as small as a little dent in the red part of the lip or look like a scar from the lip up to the nostril. In some cases muscle tissue in the lip underneath the scar is affected and might require reconstructive surgery. It is advised to have newborn infants with a microform cleft checked with a craniofacial team as soon as possible to determine the severity of the cleft.
Cleft palate
Cleft palate is a condition in which the two plates of the skull that form the hard palate (roof of the mouth) are not completely joined. The soft palate is in these cases cleft as well. In most cases, cleft lip is also present.
Palate cleft can occur as complete (soft and hard palate, possibly including a gap in the jaw) or incomplete (a 'hole' in the roof of the mouth, usually as a cleft soft palate). When cleft palate occurs, the uvula is usually split. It occurs due to the failure of fusion of the lateral palatine processes, the nasal septum, or the median palatine processes (formation of the secondary palate).
The hole in the roof of the mouth caused by a cleft connects the mouth directly to the inside of the nose.
Note: the next images show the roof of the mouth. The top shows the nose, the lips are colored pink. For clarity the images depict a toothless infant.
A result of an open connection between the mouth and inside the nose is called velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI). Because of the gap, air leaks into the nasal cavity resulting in a hypernasal voice resonance and nasal emissions while talking. Secondary effects of VPI include speech articulation errors (e.g., distortions, substitutions, and omissions) and compensatory misarticulations and mispronunciations (e.g., glottal stops and posterior nasal fricatives). Possible treatment options include speech therapy, prosthetics, augmentation of the posterior pharyngeal wall, lengthening of the palate, and surgical procedures.
Submucous cleft palate can also occur, which is a cleft of the soft palate with a split uvula, a furrow along the midline of the soft palate, and a notch in the back margin of the hard palate. The diagnosis of submucous cleft palate often occurs late in children as a result of the nature of the cleft. While the muscles of the soft palate are not joined, the mucosal membranes covering the roof of the mouth appear relatively normal and intact.
Teeth
Tooth development can be delayed with increasing severity of CLP. Some of the dental problems affect the primary teeth, but most of the problems arise after the permanent teeth erupts. Problems may include fused teeth, missing teeth, and extra teeth erupting behind normal teeth. Missing teeth or extra teeth are both normal occurrences. Typically, the lateral incisors are missing. The enamel (outermost layer of the tooth) is commonly found to be hypomineralized and hypoplastic, making the teeth more likely to decay. As CLP can make oral hygiene more difficult, there is an increased rate of cavities. In addition, abnormal positioning of individual teeth may affect occlusion, which can create an open bite or cross bite. This in turn can then affect the patient's speech.
Complications
Cleft may cause problems with feeding, ear disease, speech, socialization, and cognition.
Due to lack of suction, an infant with a cleft may have trouble feeding. An infant with a cleft palate will have greater success feeding in a more upright position. Gravity will help prevent milk from coming through the baby's nose if he/she has cleft palate. Gravity feeding can be accomplished by using specialized equipment, such as the Haberman Feeder. Another equipment commonly used for gravity feeding is a customized bottle with a combination of nipples and bottle inserts. A large hole, crosscut, or slit in the nipple, a protruding nipple and rhythmically squeezing the bottle insert can result in controllable flow to the infant without the stigma caused by specialized equipment.
Individuals with cleft also face many middle ear infections which may eventually lead to hearing loss. The Eustachian tubes and external ear canals may be angled or tortuous, leading to food or other contamination of a part of the body that is normally self-cleaning. Hearing is related to learning to speak. Babies with palatal clefts may have compromised hearing and therefore, if the baby cannot hear, it cannot try to mimic the sounds of speech. Thus, even before expressive language acquisition, the baby with the cleft palate is at risk for receptive language acquisition. Because the lips and palate are both used in pronunciation, individuals with cleft usually need the aid of a speech therapist.
Tentative evidence has found that those with clefts perform less well at language.
Psychosocial issues
There is research dedicated to the psychosocial development of individuals with cleft palate. A cleft palate/lip may impact an individual's self-esteem, social skills and behavior. Self-concept may be adversely affected by the presence of a cleft lip or cleft palate, particularly among girls. Negative outcomes can also be associated with the long durations of hospitalization. Psychological issues could extend not just to the individual with CLP but also to their families, particularly their mothers, that experience varying levels of depression and anxiety.
Research has shown that during the early preschool years (ages 3–5), children with cleft lip or cleft palate tend to have a self-concept that is similar to their peers without a cleft. However, as they grow older and their social interactions increase, children with clefts tend to report more dissatisfaction with peer relationships and higher levels of social anxiety. Experts conclude that this is probably due to the associated stigma of visible deformities and possible speech impediments. Children who are judged as attractive tend to be perceived as more intelligent, exhibit more positive social behaviors, and are treated more positively than children with cleft lip or cleft palate. Children with clefts tend to report feelings of anger, sadness, fear, and alienation from their peers, but these children were similar to their peers in regard to "how well they liked themselves."
The relationship between parental attitudes and a child's self-concept is crucial during the preschool years. It has been reported that elevated stress levels in mothers correlated with reduced social skills in their children. Strong parent support networks may help to prevent the development of negative self-concept in children with cleft palate. In the later preschool and early elementary years, the development of social skills is no longer only impacted by parental attitudes but is beginning to be shaped by their peers. A cleft lip or cleft palate may affect the behavior of preschoolers. Experts suggest that parents discuss with their children ways to handle negative social situations related to their cleft lip or cleft palate. A child who is entering school should learn the proper (and age-appropriate) terms related to the cleft. The ability to confidently explain the condition to others may limit feelings of awkwardness and embarrassment and reduce negative social experiences.
As children reach adolescence, the period of time between age 13 and 19, the dynamics of the parent-child relationship change as peer groups are now the focus of attention. An adolescent with cleft lip or cleft palate will deal with the typical challenges faced by most of their peers including issues related to self-esteem, dating and social acceptance. Adolescents, however, view appearance as the most important characteristic, above intelligence and humor. This being the case, adolescents are susceptible to additional problems because they cannot hide their facial differences from their peers. Adolescent boys typically deal with issues relating to withdrawal, attention, thought, and internalizing problems, and may possibly develop anxiousness-depression and aggressive behaviors. Adolescent girls are more likely to develop problems relating to self-concept and appearance. Individuals with cleft lip or cleft palate often deal with threats to their quality of life for multiple reasons including unsuccessful social relationships, deviance in social appearance, and multiple surgeries.
Cause
Most clefts are polygenic and multifactorial in origin with many genetic and environmental factors contributing. Genetic factors cause clefts in 20% to 50% of the cases and the remaining clefts are attributable to either environmental factors (such as teratogens) or gene-environment interactions. The polygenic/multifactorial inheritance model predicts that most individuals will be born without clefts; however with a number of genetic or environmental factors, it can result in cleft formation.
The development of the face is coordinated by complex morphogenetic events and rapid proliferative expansion, and is thus highly susceptible to environmental and genetic factors, rationalising the high incidence of facial malformations. During the first six to eight weeks of pregnancy, the shape of the embryo's head is formed. Five primitive tissue lobes grow:
If these tissues fail to meet, a gap appears where the tissues should have joined (fused). This may happen in any single joining site, or simultaneously in several or all of them. The resulting birth defect reflects the locations and severity of individual fusion failures (e.g., from a small lip or palate fissure up to a completely malformed face).
The upper lip is formed earlier than the palate, from the first three lobes named a to c above. Formation of the palate is the last step in joining the five embryonic facial lobes, and involves the back portions of the lobes b and c. These back portions are called palatal shelves, which grow towards each other until they fuse in the middle. This process is very vulnerable to multiple toxic substances, environmental pollutants, and nutritional imbalance. The biologic mechanisms of mutual recognition of the two cabinets, and the way they are glued together, are quite complex and obscure despite intensive scientific research.
Orofacial clefts may be associated with a syndrome (syndromic) or may not be associated with a syndrome (nonsyndromic). Syndromic clefts are part of syndromes that are caused by a variety of factors such as environment and genetics or an unknown cause. Nonsyndromic clefts, which are not as common as syndromic clefts, also have a genetic cause.
Genetics
Genetic factors contributing to cleft lip and cleft palate formation have been identified for some syndromic cases. Many clefts run in families, even though in some cases there does not seem to be an identifiable syndrome present. A number of genes are involved including cleft lip and palate transmembrane protein 1 and GAD1, One study found an association between mutations in the HYAL2 gene and cleft lip and cleft palate formation.
Syndromes
The Van der Woude syndrome is caused by a specific variation in the gene IRF6 that increases the occurrence of these deformities threefold. Mutations in interferon regulatory factor 6 (IRF6) that cause cleft lip palate are also implicated in neural tube defects such as spina bifida.
Another syndrome, Siderius X-linked intellectual disability, is caused by mutations in the PHF8 gene (); in addition to cleft lip or palate, symptoms include facial dysmorphism and mild mental retardation.
In some cases, cleft palate is caused by syndromes that also cause other problems:
Stickler syndrome can cause cleft lip and palate, joint pain, and myopia.
Loeys–Dietz syndrome can cause cleft palate or bifid uvula, hypertelorism, and aortic aneurysm.
Hardikar syndrome can cause cleft lip and palate, Hydronephrosis, Intestinal obstruction and other symptoms.
Cleft lip/palate may be present in many different chromosome disorders including Patau syndrome (trisomy 13).
Malpuech facial clefting syndrome
Hearing loss with craniofacial syndromes
Popliteal pterygium syndrome
Cornelia de Lange syndrome
Treacher Collins syndrome
Pierre Robin syndrome
Specific genes
Many genes associated with syndromic cases of cleft lip/palate (see above) have been identified to contribute to the incidence of isolated cases of cleft lip/palate. This includes in particular sequence variants in the genes IRF6, PVRL1 and MSX1. The understanding of the genetic complexities involved in the morphogenesis of the midface, including molecular and cellular processes, has been greatly aided by research on animal models, including of the genes BMP4, SHH, SHOX2, FGF10 and MSX1.
Environmental factors
Environmental influences may also cause, or interact with genetics to produce, orofacial clefts. An example of the link between environmental factors and genetics comes from a research on mutations in the gene PHF8. The research found that PHF8 encodes for a histone lysine demethylase, and is involved in epigenetic regulation. The catalytic activity of PHF8 depends on molecular oxygen, a factor considered important from reports on increased incidence of cleft lip/palate in mice that have been exposed to hypoxia early during pregnancy.
Cleft lip and other congenital abnormalities have also been linked to maternal hypoxia caused by maternal smoking, with the estimated attributable fraction of orofacial clefts due to smoking in early pregnancy being 6.1%. Orofacial clefts occur very early in pregnancy and so smoking cessation right after recognition of pregnancy is unlikely to reduce the exposure during the critical time period.
Maternal alcohol use has also been linked to cleft lip and palate due to the effects on the cranial neural crest cells. The degree of the effect, however, is unknown and requires further research. Some forms of maternal hypertension treatment have been linked to cleft lip and palate. Other environmental factors that have been studied include seasonal causes (such as pesticide exposure); maternal diet and vitamin intake; retinoids (members of the vitamin A family); anticonvulsant drugs; nitrate compounds; organic solvents; parental exposure to lead; alcohol; cigarette use; and a number of other psychoactive drugs (e.g. cocaine, crack cocaine, heroin).
Current research continues to investigate the extent to which folic acid can reduce the incidence of clefting. Folic acid alone or in combination with vitamins and minerals prevents neural tube defects but does not have a clear effect on cleft lip palate incidence. The mechanism behind beneficial folate supplementation is due to folate playing a pivotal role in DNA synthesis and methylation and contributes to both development and gene expression.
Diagnosis
Traditionally, the diagnosis is made at the time of birth by physical examination. Recent advances in prenatal diagnosis have allowed obstetricians to diagnose facial clefts in utero with ultrasonography.
Clefts can also affect other parts of the face, such as the eyes, ears, nose, cheeks, and forehead. In 1976, Paul Tessier described fifteen lines of cleft. Most of these craniofacial clefts are even rarer and are frequently described as Tessier clefts using the numerical locator devised by Tessier.
Classification
Cleft lip and cleft palate is an "umbrella term" for a collection of orofacial clefts. It includes clefting of the upper lip, the maxillary alveolus (dental arch), and the hard or soft palate, in various combinations. Proposed anatomic combinations include:
cleft lip
cleft lip and alveolus
cleft lip, alveolus, and palate
cleft lip and palate (with an intact alveolus)
cleft palate
Prenatal diagnosis
Cleft lip with or without palate is classified as the most common congenital birth defect. It has been noted that the prevalence of orofacial clefts varies by race. The highest number of cases have been recorded among Asians and Native Americans, followed by Europeans, Hispanics and African-Americans. The critical period for cleft development ranges from the 4th to the 12th week of intrauterine life. Clefts of the primary palate develop between the 4th and 7th weeks of intrauterine life, while clefts of the secondary palate develop between the 8th and 12th embryonic weeks.
Accurate evaluation of craniofacial malformations is usually possible with the ultrasound scan performed during pregnancy. This is however not a routine procedure according to the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine. The accuracy of ultrasonography for prenatal diagnosis of cleft lip +/- palate is dependent on the experience of the sonologist, maternal body type, foetal position, the amount of amniotic fluid and the type of cleft.
Prenatal diagnosis enables appropriate and timely education and discussion with parents by the cleft team. This helps improve the quality of treatment received by the child and improves quality of life.
An accurate prenatal diagnosis of the CLP anomaly is critical for establishing long-term treatment planning, prediction of treatment outcome, and discussion and education of the parent. Although there is no intrauterine treatment for CLP, both mother and child benefit from early diagnosis and education. A multidisciplinary team approach is now accepted as the standard of care in dealing with CLP patients.
The time period immediately after the diagnosis and the 1st year after the birth is most challenging for parents. A systematically planned treatment plan and support system will help assist parents. The ultimate aim is to help educate parents and create awareness so as to improve care provided for the child.
Treatment
Cleft lip and palate is very treatable; however, the kind of treatment depends on the type and severity of the cleft.
Most children with a form of clefting are monitored by a cleft palate team or craniofacial team through young adulthood. Care can be lifelong and are looked after by craniofacial cleft teams often consist of: cleft surgeons, orthodontists, speech and language therapists, restorative dentists, Psychologists, ENT surgeons and audio-logical physicians. Treatment procedures can vary between craniofacial teams. For example, some teams wait on jaw correction until the child is aged 10 to 12 (argument: growth is less influential as deciduous teeth are replaced by permanent teeth, thus saving the child from repeated corrective surgeries), while other teams correct the jaw earlier (argument: less speech therapy is needed than at a later age when speech therapy becomes harder). Within teams, treatment can differ between individual cases depending on the type and severity of the cleft.
Cleft lip
Within the first 2–3 months after birth, surgery is performed to close the cleft lip. While surgery to repair a cleft lip can be performed soon after birth, often the preferred age is at approximately 10 weeks of age, following the "rule of 10s" coined by surgeons Wilhelmmesen and Musgrave in 1969 (the child is at least 10 weeks of age; weighs at least 10 pounds, and has at least 10g hemoglobin). If the cleft is bilateral and extensive, two surgeries may be required to close the cleft, one side first, and the second side a few weeks later. The most common procedure to repair a cleft lip is the Millard procedure pioneered by Ralph Millard. Millard performed the first procedure at a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) unit in Korea.
Often an incomplete cleft lip requires the same surgery as complete cleft. This is done for two reasons. Firstly the group of muscles required to purse the lips run through the upper lip. To restore the complete group a full incision must be made. Secondly, to create a less obvious scar the surgeon tries to line up the scar with the natural lines in the upper lip (such as the edges of the philtrum) and tuck away stitches as far up the nose as possible. Incomplete cleft gives the surgeon more tissue to work with, creating a more supple and natural-looking upper lip.
Pre-surgical devices
In some cases of a severe bi-lateral complete cleft, the premaxillary segment will be protruded far outside the mouth.
Nasoalveolar molding prior to surgery can improve long-term nasal symmetry where there is complete unilateral cleft lip–cleft palate, compared to correction by surgery alone, according to a retrospective cohort study. In this study, significant improvements in nasal symmetry were observed in multiple areas including measurements of the projected length of the nasal ala (lateral surface of the external nose), position of the superoinferior alar groove, position of the mediolateral nasal dome,
and nasal bridge deviation. "The nasal ala projection length demonstrated an average ratio of 93.0 percent in the surgery-alone group and 96.5 percent in the nasoalveolar molding group," this study concluded. A systematic review found in conclusion that nasoalveolar molding had a positive effect on the primary surgery of cleft lip/or palate treatment and aesthetics.
Cleft palate
Often a cleft palate is temporarily covered by a palatal obturator (a prosthetic device made to fit the roof of the mouth covering the gap). This device re-positions displaced alveolar segments and helps reduce the cleft lip separation. The obturator will improve speech as there's now proper airflow and improve feeding and breathing as the gap in the hard and soft palate is closed over so cannot affect it.
Cleft palate can also be corrected by surgery, usually performed between 6 and 12 months. Approximately 20–25% only require one palatal surgery to achieve a competent velopharyngeal valve capable of producing normal, non-hypernasal speech. However, combinations of surgical methods and repeated surgeries are often necessary as the child grows. One of the new innovations of cleft lip and cleft palate repair is the Latham appliance. The Latham is surgically inserted by use of pins during the child's 4th or 5th month. After it is in place, the doctor, or parents, turn a screw daily to bring the cleft together to assist with future lip or palate repair.
If the cleft extends into the maxillary alveolar ridge, the gap is usually corrected by filling the gap with bone tissue. The bone tissue can be acquired from the individual's own chin, rib or hip.
At age 1–7 years the child is regularly reviewed by the cleft team.
Age 7–12 years, for the children born with alveolar clefts, they may need to have a secondary alveolar bone graft. This is where autogenous cancellous bone from a donor site (often the pelvic bone) is transplanted into the alveolar cleft region. This transplant of bone will close the osseous cleft of the alveolus, close any oro-nasal fistulae and will become integrated with the maxillary bone. It provides bone for teeth to erupt into and to allow implants to be placed as a possible future treatment option. The procedure should be carried out before the upper canine has erupted. Ideally the root of the canine should be one to two-thirds formed and that there is a space available to place the bone graft. Radio-graphs are taken to determine the quantity of missing bone in the cleft area.
Other surgeries
Orthognathic surgery – surgical cutting of bone to realign the upper jaw (osteotomy). The bone is cut then re-positioned and held together by wires or rigid fixation plates to ensure there's no anterior-posterior discrepancy, also to reduce scarring as it reduces growth. Single piece or multi-piece osteotomy exist. Single piece osteotomy is carried out where there is sufficient alveolar continuity achieved from a successful bone graft. Multi piece osteotomy is performed when there is a notable residual alveolar defect with a dental gap and oronasal fistula (communication between the oral and nasal cavities). The goal of both single and multi piece osteotomy is to displace the maxilla forward to obtain adequate occlusion as well to provide better support for upper lip and the nose and to close any fistulae.
Distraction osteogenesis – bone lengthening by gradual distraction. This involves cutting bone and moving ends apart incrementally to allow new bone to form in the gap. This consists of several phases. After attachment of the distracting device and the bone cuts, there is a latency phase of 3–7 days when a callus forms. In the activation phase distraction of the callus induces bony ingrowth which can last up to 15 days depending on the required distraction. Once the required bone length is reached, the distraction device is left to remain in situ as it acts as a rigid skeletal fixation device until the new bone has matured (known as the consolidation period).
Speech
Velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) can occur as a result of an unrepaired or repaired cleft lip and palate. VPI is the inability of the soft palate to close tightly against the back of the throat during speech, resulting in incomplete velopharyngeal closure. In turn, this results in speech abnormalities. Velopharyngeal closure is necessary during speech because it forms a seal between the nose and mouth, allowing the production of normal speech sounds. VPI can cause hypernasality (excessive nasal resonance), hyponasality (reduced nasal resonance), or a mixed nasal resonance, which is when hypernasality and hyponasality occur simultaneously. In addition, CLP may cause abnormal positioning of individual teeth, which can in turn affect the patient's ability to make certain sounds when speaking such as the "f" or "v" sound and can also result in a lisp. The changes in speech may also be a manifestation on CLP's effects on the patient's occlusion.
Hearing
Children with cleft palate have a very high risk of developing a middle ear infection, specifically otitis media. This is due to the immature development of the different bones and muscles in the ear. Otitis media is caused by the obstruction of the Eustachian tube, negative middle ear pressure and fluid build-up in the normally air-filled space of the middle ear. This is associated with hearing impairment or loss. The insertion of a ventilation tube into the eardrum is a surgical treatment option commonly used to improve hearing in children with otitis media. In addition, breast milk has been proven to decrease the incidence of otitis media in infants with clefts.
Feeding
There are different options on how to feed a baby with cleft lip or cleft palate which include: breast-feeding, bottle feeding, spoon feeding and syringe feeding. Although breast-feeding is challenging, it improves weight-gain compared to spoon-feeding. Nasal regurgitation is common due to the open space between the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. Bottle feeding can help (with squeezable bottles being easier to use than rigid bottles). In addition, maxillary plates can be added to aid in feeding. Whatever feeding method is established, it is important to keep the baby's weight gain and hydration monitored. Infants with cleft lip or palate may require supplemental feeds for adequate growth and nutrition. Breast feeding position as suggested by specialists can also improve success rate.
Breast-feeding
Babies with cleft lip are more likely to breastfeed successfully than those with cleft palate and cleft lip and palate. Larger clefts of the soft or hard palate may not be able to generate suction as the oral cavity cannot be separated from the nasal cavity when feeding which leads to fatigue, prolonged feeding time, impaired growth and nutrition. Changes in swallowing mechanics may result in coughing, choking, gagging and nasal regurgitation. Even after cleft repair, the problem may still persist as significant motor learning of swallowing and sucking was absent for many months before repair. These difficulties in feeding may result in secondary problems such as poor weight gain, excessive energy expenditure during feeding, lengthy feeding times, discomfort during feeding, and stressful feeding interactions between the infant and the mother. A potential source of discomfort for the baby during or after feeding is bloating or frequent "spit up" which is due to the excessive air intake through the nose and mouth in the open cleft. Babies with cleft lip and or palate should be evaluated individually taking into account the size and location of the cleft and the mother's previous experience with breastfeeding.
Another option is feeding breast milk via bottle or syringe. Since babies with clip lip and cleft palate generate less section when breastfeeding, their nutrition, hydration and weight gain may be affected. This may result in the need for supplemental feeds. Modifying the position of holding the baby may increase the effectiveness and efficiency of breastfeeding.
Alternative Feeding Methods
Preoperative feeding – using a squeezable bottle instead of a rigid bottle can allow a higher volume of food intake and less effort to extract food. Using a syringe is practical, easy to perform and allows greater administered volume of food. It also means there will be weight gain and less time spent feeding.
Post-operative feeding (isolated lip repair, or lip repair associated or not with palatoplasty) - post palatoplasty, some studies believe that inappropriate negative pressure on the suture line may affect results. Babies can be fed by a nasogastric tube instead. Studies suggest babies required less analgesics and shorter hospital stay with nasogastric feeding post-surgery. With bottle-feeding, there was higher feeding rejection and pain and required more frequent and prolonged feeding times.
Treatment schedule
Each person's treatment schedule is individualized. The table below shows a common sample treatment schedule. The colored squares indicate the average timeframe in which the indicated procedure occurs. In some cases, this is usually one procedure, for example lip repair. In other cases, it is an ongoing therapy, for example speech therapy. In most cases of cleft lip and palate that involve the alveolar bone, patients will need a treatment plan including the prevention of cavities, orthodontics, alveolar bone grafting, and possibly jaw surgery.
Cleft team
People with CLP present with a multiplicity of problems. Therefore, effective management of CLP involves a wide range of specialists. The current model for delivery of this care is the multidisciplinary cleft team. This is a group of individuals from different specialist backgrounds who work closely together to provide patients with comprehensive care from birth through adolescence. This system of delivery of care enables the individuals within the team to function in an interdisciplinary way, so that all aspects of care for CLP patients can be provided in the best way possible.
Outcomes assessment
Measuring the outcomes of CLP treatment has been laden with difficulty due to the complexity and longitudinal nature of cleft care, which spans birth through young adulthood. Prior attempts to study the effectiveness of specific interventions or overall treatment protocols have been hindered by a lack of data standards for outcomes assessment in cleft care.
The International Consortium for Health Outcome Measurement (ICHOM) has proposed the Standard Set of Outcome Measures for Cleft Lip and Palate. The ICHOM Standard Set includes measures for many of the important outcome domains in cleft care (hearing, breathing, eating/drinking, speech, oral health, appearance and psychosocial well-being). It includes clinician-reported, patient-reported, and family-reported outcome measures.
Epidemiology
Cleft lip and palate occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1000 births in the developed world.
Rates for cleft lip with or without cleft palate and cleft palate alone varies within different ethnic groups.
According to CDC, the prevalence of cleft palate in the United States is 6.35/10000 births and the prevalence of cleft lip with or without cleft palate is 10.63/10000 births. The highest prevalence rates for cleft lip, either with or without cleft palate are reported for Native Americans and Asians. Africans have the lowest prevalence rates.
Native Americans: 3.74/1000
Japanese: 0.82/1000 to 3.36/1000
Chinese: 1.45/1000 to 4.04/1000
Caucasians: 1.43/1000 to 1.86/1000
Latin Americans: 1.04/1000
Africans: 0.18/1000 to 1.67/1000
Cleft lip and cleft palate caused about 3,800 deaths globally in 2017, down from 14,600 deaths in 1990.
Prevalence of "cleft uvula" has varied from 0.02% to 18.8% with the highest numbers found among Chippewa and Navajo and the lowest generally in Africans.
Society and culture
Abortion controversy
In some countries, cleft lip or palate deformities are considered reasons (either generally tolerated or officially sanctioned) to perform an abortion beyond the legal fetal age limit, even though the fetus is not in jeopardy of life or limb. Some human rights activists contend that this practice of what they refer to as "cosmetic murder" amounts to eugenics.
Works of fiction
The eponymous hero of J.M. Coetzee's 1983 novel Life & Times of Michael K has a cleft lip that is never corrected. In the 1920 novel Growth of the Soil, by Norwegian writer Knut Hamsun, Inger (wife of the main character) has an uncorrected cleft lip which puts heavy limitations on her life, even causing her to kill her own child, who is also born with a cleft lip. The protagonist of the 1924 novel Precious Bane, by English writer Mary Webb, is a young woman living in 19th-century rural Shropshire who eventually comes to feel that her deformity is the source of her spiritual strength. The book was later adapted for television by both the BBC and ORTF in France. Similarly, the main character in Graham Greene's 1936 crime noir novel A Gun for Sale, Raven, has a cleft lip which he is sensitive about, and is described as "an ugly man dedicated to ugly deeds". In the 1976 Patricia A. McKillip novel The Night Gift, one of the high-school aged protagonists is shy because she has a cleft lip, but learns to have more confidence in herself.
In the first edition of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, one of the people Gilderoy Lockhart stole credit from was a witch with a harelip who banished the Bandon Banshee. In later editions, this was changed to a witch with a hairy chin.
In chapter 26 of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck Finn meets the three Wilks sisters, Mary Jane, Susan, and Joanna. Joanna is described as, "the one who gives herself to good works and has a hare-lip." As a form of offensive synecdoche, Huck Finn refers to Joanna as "the hare-lip" rather than by her name.
In Inheritance, the final title of Christopher Paolini's Inheritance Cycle, the main character Eragon heals a newborn girl with this condition in a display of complicated healing magic. It is stated that those within Eragon's society born with this condition are often not allowed to live as they face a very hard life.
Cleft lip and cleft palate are often portrayed negatively in popular culture. Examples include Oddjob, the secondary villain of the James Bond novel Goldfinger by Ian Fleming (the film adaptation does not mention this but leaves it implied) and serial killer Francis Dolarhyde in the novel Red Dragon and its screen adaptations, Manhunter, Red Dragon, and Hannibal. The portrayal of enemy characters with cleft lips and cleft palates, dubbed mutants, in the 2019 video game Rage 2 left Chris Plante of Polygon wondering if the condition would ever be portrayed positively.
Notable cases
Other animals
Cleft lips and palates are occasionally seen in cattle and dogs, and rarely in goats, sheep, cats, horses, pandas and ferrets. Most commonly, the defect involves the lip, rhinarium, and premaxilla. Clefts of the hard and soft palate are sometimes seen with a cleft lip. The cause is usually hereditary. Brachycephalic dogs such as Boxers and Boston Terriers are most commonly affected. An inherited disorder with incomplete penetrance has also been suggested in Shih tzus, Swiss Sheepdogs, Bulldogs, and Pointers. In horses, it is a rare condition usually involving the caudal soft palate. In Charolais cattle, clefts are seen in combination with arthrogryposis, which is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. It is also inherited as an autosomal recessive trait in Texel sheep. Other contributing factors may include maternal nutritional deficiencies, exposure in utero to viral infections, trauma, drugs, or chemicals, or ingestion of toxins by the mother, such as certain lupines by cattle during the second or third month of gestation. The use of corticosteroids during pregnancy in dogs and the ingestion of Veratrum californicum by pregnant sheep have also been associated with cleft formation.
Difficulty with nursing is the most common problem associated with clefts, but aspiration pneumonia, regurgitation, and malnutrition are often seen with cleft palate and is a common cause of death. Providing nutrition through a feeding tube is often necessary, but corrective surgery in dogs can be done by the age of twelve weeks. For cleft palate, there is a high rate of surgical failure resulting in repeated surgeries. Surgical techniques for cleft palate in dogs include prosthesis, mucosal flaps, and microvascular free flaps. Affected animals should not be bred due to the hereditary nature of this condition.
See also
Smile Pinki
Palatal obturator
Vomer flap surgery
Cleft lip and palate organisations
Face and neck development of the embryo
References
Notes
Further reading
FIGURE 1 | Development of the lip and palate and FIGURE 2 | Types of cleft in
External links
Congenital oral disorders
Facial features
Dog health
Lip disorders
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239897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia%20Tech | Virginia Tech | Virginia Tech (formally the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and informally VT, VA Tech or VPI) is a public land-grant research university with its main campus in Blacksburg, Virginia. It also has educational facilities in six regions statewide, a research center in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, and a study-abroad site in Riva San Vitale, Switzerland. Through its Corps of Cadets ROTC program, Virginia Tech is a senior military college.
Virginia Tech offers 280 undergraduate and graduate degree programs to some 34,400 students. It manages a research portfolio of $522 million, placing it among the top 50 universities in the U.S. for total research expenditures, top 25 in computer and information sciences and top 10 in engineering, with the latter two the highest rankings in the state. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". As of 2015, Virginia Tech was the state's second-largest public university by enrollment.
VT has produced two Rhodes Scholars, four Marshall Scholars, 38 Goldwater Scholars, and 280 Fulbright Scholars. Among its alumni are eight Medal of Honor recipients, 97 flag officers, two US state governors, two astronauts, and one billionaire. Three Nobel laureates and one MacArthur Fellow have received a degree or served as faculty members at the university. As of 2015, VT had more than 240,000 living alumni worldwide.
The university's athletic teams are known as the Virginia Tech Hokies and compete in Division I of the NCAA as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference.
History
In 1872, with federal funds provided by the Morrill Act of 1862, the Reconstruction-era Virginia General Assembly purchased the facilities of Preston and Olin Institute, a small Methodist school for boys in Southwest Virginia's rural Montgomery County. That same year, of the adjoining Solitude Farm including the house and several farm buildings on the estate were acquired for $21,250 from Robert Taylor Preston, a son of Governor of Virginia, James Patton Preston. The commonwealth incorporated a new institution on the site, a state-supported land-grant military institute named Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College.
Virginia Tech's first student, Addison "Add" Caldwell registered on October 1, 1872, after hiking over 25 miles from his home in Craig County, Virginia. A statue, located in the Upper Quad of campus commemorates Add's journey to enroll. First-year cadets and their training cadre re-enact Addison Caldwell's journey every year in the Caldwell March. They complete the first half of the 26-mile march in the fall and the second half in the spring.
The first five presidents of Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College served in the Confederate States Army or the Confederate government during the Civil War as did many of its early professors including the first Commandant, James H. Lane, a VMI graduate and former Confederate General who taught civil engineering and commerce at the college and is the namesake of Lane Hall, one of the oldest buildings on campus, built in 1888. Its third president, Thomas Nelson Conrad, was a notorious Confederate spy who ran a covert intelligence gathering operation from a home in the heart of Washington, D.C. His wartime exploits included among other things, hatching a plot to assassinate the Commanding General of the United States Army, Winfield Scott, that was vetoed by the Confederate government who feared that the elderly, infirm, and obese Scott would be replaced by someone more fit for command; sneaking into the War Office during lunch hour to lift copies of documents describing General McClellan's battle plans for the Peninsula Campaign, a large-scale offensive by the Union Army to capture the Confederate capitol at Richmond from the desk of a friend who was a double agent; conspiring to kidnap U.S. President Abraham Lincoln from the White House; and jumping from a speeding train to escape after being captured by Union forces. Its sixth president, Paul Brandon Barringer, was a son of Confederate General Rufus Barringer and a nephew of Confederate Generals Stonewall Jackson and Daniel Harvey Hill.
In a nod to this southern heritage the Confederate Battle Flag was traditionally waved by cheerleaders at Virginia Tech football games and the Highty-Tighties played Dixie as a fight song when the Hokies scored a touchdown. A large Confederate flag also hung inside Cassell Coliseum where Virginia Tech basketball games are played. Since 1963, "Skipper", a replica of a Civil War cannon has been fired at football games by members of the Corps of Cadets when the team scores. The Confederate Flag was also prominently featured on all Virginia Tech class rings. The display of the Confederate flag at athletic events ended in the late 1960s after Marguerite Harper, a black woman attending Virginia Tech on a Rockefeller Scholarship for culturally disadvantaged students, was elected to the student senate during her sophomore year and made a successful resolution to end the practice. Following the resolution there was a large demonstration in opposition to the removal of the Confederate flag. The campus was covered in Confederate flags and Dixie was blasting from dormitory windows. Harper and her white roommate received hate mail and threatening phone calls but the resolution stood and the display of the rebel flag ended in 1969. The Confederate flag on Virginia Tech class rings became optional in 1972 and could be left off of the ring at the student's request. The Confederate flag has since been removed from class ring designs entirely.
Under the leadership of seventh president Joseph Dupuy Eggleston, who held the position from 1913 to 1919, the university established a Reserve Officer Training Corps to support national efforts during World War I. In 1917, an incident occurred at the campus home of physics professor Charles E. Vawter, Jr., who shot a man named Stockton Heth Jr. The victim, who was transported by train to a Roanoke hospital where he later died, was a scion of one of the one of the wealthiest families in Montgomery County who lived at Whitethorne, an antebellum mansion on a 1,500 acre estate three miles from Blacksburg. Due to the Heth family's wealth and political connections, Vawter's position as head of the VPI physics department, and the scandalous extramarital affair that led to the shooting, the resulting murder trial was one of the most sensational in Virginia history. Eggleston attempted to suppress news of the sordid affair in the media with considerable success, most likely due to world events that stole the headlines in the spring of 1917, rather than his efforts to protect VPI's reputation.
College reorganizations
During Thomas Nelson Conrad's tenure as president, the college switched from semesters to the quarter system, which remained in place until the late 1980s. Under the 1891–1907 presidency of John McLaren McBryde, the school organized its academic programs into a traditional four-year college and a graduate department was founded. The evolution of the school's programs led to a name change in 1896 to Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic Institute. The "Agricultural and Mechanical College" portion of the name was popularly omitted almost immediately; in 1944, the name was officially changed to Virginia Polytechnic Institute (VPI).
VPI admitted its first female students in 1921 as civilian day students; they did not live on campus. In 1923, VPI changed a policy of compulsory participation in the Corps of Cadets from four years to two years. In 1931, VPI began teaching classes at the Norfolk Division of the College of William and Mary (now Old Dominion University). This program eventually developed into a two-year engineering program that allowed students to transfer to VPI for their final two years of degree work. The first women's dormitory at VPI, Hillcrest Hall, was built in 1940. In 1943, VPI merged with Radford State Teachers College in nearby Radford, which became VPI's women's division; the merger was dissolved in 1964. Today, Radford University is a co-educational research university that enrolls nearly 10,000 students and offers more than 150 undergraduate and graduate programs.
Post-World War II
In 1953 under the leadership of President Walter Stephenson Newman, VPI became the first historically white, four-year public institution among the 11 states in the former Confederacy to admit a black undergraduate. Three more black students were admitted in 1954. At the time Virginia still enforced Jim Crow laws and largely practiced racial segregation in public and private education, churches, neighborhoods, restaurants, and movie theaters and these first black students at VPI were not allowed to live in residence halls or eat in the dining halls on campus. Instead, they boarded with African American families in Blacksburg. In 1958 Charlie L. Yates made history as the first African American to graduate from VPI. Yates earned a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering, with honors, and was hailed as the first African American "to be graduated from any major Southern engineering institute," according to news reports at the time.
VPI President T. Marshall Hahn, whose tenure ran from 1962 to 1974, was responsible for many of the programs and policies that transformed VPI from a small, historically white, predominately male, military institute with a primary focus on undergraduate teaching into a major co-educational research university. The student body that had been approximately 5,682 in 1962 increased by roughly 1,000 students each year, new dormitories and academic buildings were constructed, faculty members were added – in 1966, for instance, more than 100 new professors joined the faculty – and research budgets were increased. During Hahn's tenure, not only did the university graduate its first Rhodes Scholar, W.W. Lewis, Class of 1963, the requirement for male students to participate in the Corps of Cadets for two years was dropped in 1964. Beginning in the fall 1973, women could participate in the Corps, making Virginia Tech among the nation's first senior military colleges to integrate women.
In 1970, the state legislature allowed VPI university status and gave it the present legal name, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In the early 1990s, university administration authorized the official use of Virginia Tech as equivalent to the full legal name; it has been used as the first-reference name for the school's athletic teams since the 1970s. However, diplomas and transcripts still spell out the formal name. Similarly, the abbreviation "VT" is far more common today than either VPI or VPI&SU.
Vietnam War era
During the Vietnam War students on college campuses across the nation protested the draft and U.S. involvement in the conflict. Despite its long history as a military school, Virginia Tech was no exception. Most protests at Virginia Tech were small sit-ins and teach-ins, but In mid-April 1970 a group of anti-war protesters including students and faculty members disrupted a Corps of Cadets drill on campus. The Virginia Tech administration under Dr. Hahn took swift action. The students involved were suspended and the faculty members involved were fired from the university and the administration went to court and obtained an injunction to prevent them from repeating the act. This succeeded in calming tensions on campus, but only for a few weeks.
Tensions on campus reached the boiling point several days following the Kent State Shootings when on May 12, 1970, a large mob including students and a number of non-student anti-war protesters enraged by the Kent State incident and angered by the administration's disciplinary actions in response to a number of recent infractions by protesters including; vandalism of university property, a series of potentially dangerous fires set on campus, breaking and entering into a university building, and a sit-in in Cowgill Hill, seized Williams Hall and barricaded themselves inside. The administration responded quickly calling in law enforcement and early the following morning Virginia State Troopers forced their way into Williams Hall and began rounding up the protesters. Once inside the building the police discovered bomb making materials and determined that the students had apparently intended to build a firebomb. The first few protesters were dragged out of the building; the rest left peacefully and were arrested and taken to the Montgomery County jail. The students involved in the seizure, were suspended from Virginia Tech and given twenty-four hours to remove their belongings from campus after being released from jail.
Several more anti-war protests occurred at Virginia Tech during the early 1970s but none turned violent.
Late 20th century
The university continued to expand through the last quarter of the 20th century. In 1975 William E. Lavery, who had joined the Virginia Tech faculty in 1966, took over as president when Dr. Hahn left the university to join Georgia-Pacific.
Desperate for additional farmland for the support of teaching, research, and extension programs in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Tech acquired Kentland Farm on December 31, 1986. Virginia Tech secretly traded about 250 acres of research orchards adjacent to a commercial area that would soon become Christiansburg's main shopping district to a group of developers for the historic but long fallow 1,785-acre Kentland property. The developers on the other end of the swap, one of whom was a former Tech athletics official, quickly sold 40 acres of the former university farmland for $2.7 million. News of the land swap, and especially the fact that it was done behind closed doors, sparked outrage.
Also in 1986, Virginia Tech became embroiled in an athletic scandal sparked by allegations of illegal recruiting, the bitter departure of two athletic directors in less than a year and millions of dollars of debt run up by the university's sports program due to mismanagement of financial resources, million dollar coaching contracts, and lavish expense accounts for athletics officials that led to a rebuke from Governor of Virginia, Gerald Baliles in 1987. Baliles, the featured speaker at the Virginia Tech's 115th annual commencement exercises, scolded the Virginia Tech Board of Visitors for the scandal and warned other state-supported institutions in Virginia not to put athletics ahead of academics.
Lavery developed a reorganization plan for the troubled Athletic Department, and Frank Beamer was hired to replace Bill Dooley as head football coach, but with negative publicity continuing to swirl within and around the university, he announced his resignation on October 16, 1987, effective December 31, 1987, to prevent polarization of the campus. He was succeeded as president by James Douglas McComas who served until 1994.
Due to the unpopularity of US involvement in the Vietnam War enrollment in the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets spiraled downward through the 1970s and 80s. In 1991 through the efforts of Henry Dekker (Class of 1944) The Corps of Cadets Alumni Inc. was created to save the corps, whose numbers had declined to only a few hundred students. In 1992 the alumni organization initiated Corps Review, a newsletter that was expanded to a magazine in 2004 and targeted corps alumni. In the mid-1990s, the corps alumni organization set a goal of "1000 in 2000" and initiated a major campaign to push the number of cadets to 1,000 by the turn of the century. The goal was not reached, but membership in the corps did increase substantially by the end of the decade.
21st century
The early decades of this century have seen expansion across the university's institutions in both physical and population sizes. In 2001 Virginia Tech acquired the 326-acre Heth Farm adjacent to campus, increasing the College Farm to over 3,000 acres. The Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute was created with a strategic partnership with the Carilion Clinic and the governor of Virginia. These years also brought about the rapid development of the university's professional schools of graduate education and business programs. Virginia Tech brought in over $500 million in research expenditures in 2014.
The establishment of scholarships for cadets and a resurgence of national patriotism after the events of September 11, 2001 helped the corps recruit new cadets, increasing the ranks to 1,127 by 2018—the largest corps the university has seen since the mid 1960s. The Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets is poised to increase enrollment to 1,400 in coming years.
2007 mass shooting
On April 16, 2007, Virginia Tech student Seung-Hui Cho fatally shot 32 faculty members and students and wounded 17 others in two locations on campus before killing himself. The massacre is the deadliest mass shooting on an American college campus, surpassing Charles Whitman's rampage at the University of Texas in 1966. Although it was at the time the deadliest mass shooting committed by a lone gunman in U.S. history, it has since been surpassed by two shootings at an Orlando nightclub and an outdoor music festival in Las Vegas. It is the second-deadliest school massacre in U.S. history, surpassed only by the Bath School bombing in 1927 that killed 44.
The Virginia Tech massacre led to an intense nationwide debate over gun rights, gun safety and efficacy of gun-free zones. It prompted many states to introduce legislation to prohibit public colleges and universities from banning concealed weapons on campus for permit holders. In 2013, at least 19 states introduced legislation to allow concealed carry on campus in some form, and in the 2014 legislative session, at least 14 states introduced similar legislation. In 2016, Tennessee passed a bill permitting faculty members to carry handguns on campus after notifying local law enforcement. In 2015, Texas became the eighth state to allow concealed weapons on college campuses. In December 2016, Governor John Kasich signed a bill into law that lifted Ohio's statewide ban on firearms on college campuses, leaving the decision to the institutions. In 2017, Georgia became the tenth state to prohibit colleges and universities from banning concealed weapons on campus. Virginia law allows individual institutions to make the decision whether to allow concealed weapons on campus, but Virginia Tech continues to ban concealed carry permit holders from carrying guns on campus.
Innovation Campus and further growth
After Amazon unveiled its second headquarters in Crystal City, VA, Virginia Tech announced plans to build a $1 billion graduate research center adjacent to the facility. The Virginia Tech Innovation Campus will be housed at a million-square-foot campus in Alexandria. It is expected to educate hundreds of graduate students. The Innovation Campus will focus on computer science and software engineering, with specializations in areas including artificial intelligence, cybersecurity and data analytics.
Due to rapid growth of incoming freshmen classes, the university announced in 2019 that it would offer 1,559 incoming, in-state freshmen financial incentives to skip the 2019–20 school year in Blacksburg. Expecting a larger-than-planned class size, the university budgeted $3.3 million for the endeavor. Virginia Tech also waived the requirement that freshmen live on campus for the 2019–20 school year, leased an off-campus Holiday Inn, and converted its on-campus hotel to house students.
List of presidents
Organization and administration
Virginia Tech is a public university and one of Virginia's two land-grant institutions. Its academic programs are administered by nine colleges, the Graduate School, and the Honors College.
Academics
Virginia Tech offers 116 bachelor's degree programs through its seven undergraduate academic colleges, 160 master's and doctoral degree programs through the Graduate School, and a professional degree from the Virginia–Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine. In addition, the Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute, is a public/private partnership jointly managed by Virginia Tech and the Carilion Clinic founded on January 3, 2007.
Admissions
Virginia Tech received a record number of nearly 22,500 applications for the fall 2015 freshman class, an increase of 7.6% from the previous year's 20,897 applications. The typical student offered admission had a high-school grade point average of 4.00, with the middle 50 percent ranging from 3.84 and 4.27. The average cumulative SAT score was 1250 (out of 1600), with a middle range ranging from 1160 to 1340. Of the 5,518 students who accepted the offers of admission, 18 percent accepted under the Early Decision Plan. The Office of Undergraduate Admissions is located within the Visitor and Undergraduate Admissions Center.
Virginia Tech offers a highly selective Honors College, which provides undergraduate students 11 different ways to earn Honors credits towards one of the five Honors degree options. Once admitted, Honors students are required to maintain a 3.5 GPA in order to remain in the program. Roughly one-fourth of the approximately 1,600 University Honors students live in one of the two University Honors residential halls, the Honors Residential College located in East Ambler-Johnston and the Hillcrest Honors Community.
For the 2013–14 academic year, the Graduate School at Virginia Tech enrolled 6,723 graduate students (4,465 full-time; 2,258 part-time) in its masters and doctoral programs.
The Pamplin College of Business received 381 applications for its incoming Evening MBA program, and offered admission to 142. The class's average GMAT was 610, and mean undergraduate GPA was 3.4.
The Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine in Roanoke, Va., received 4,403 applications for its eighth incoming class, the class of 2021, and offered admission to 42. The class's MCAT scores range was 503–520 (median 512, mean 512), and mean undergraduate GPA was 3.57.
Rankings
In U.S. News & World Reports list of "2021 Best Colleges", Virginia Tech tied for 74th overall among national universities, tied for 29th among public ones, tied at 35th for "Most Innovative", ranked 147th in "Best Value Schools", and tied for 291st in "Top Performers on Social Mobility".
The Pamplin College of Business's part-time MBA program was tied for 19th overall by U.S. News & World Report in 2020. The Master of Information Technology program, jointly sponsored by the Pamplin College of Business and the College of Engineering, is ranked No. 4 in U.S. News & World Reports Best Online Graduate Computer Information Technology Programs. This interdisciplinary program is offered entirely online.
Programs in the College of Architecture and Urban Studies (CAUS) include architecture + design, landscape architecture, urban planning, and public administration. In its 2016 "America's Best Architecture & Design Schools" report, DesignIntelligence ranked the undergraduate architecture program 3rd nationally among both public and private universities. The graduate architecture program ranked 9th in the nation. For 2013, DesignIntelligence ranked the university's undergraduate and graduate landscape architecture programs No. 2 in the nation. In addition, DesignIntelligence ranked the university's undergraduate interior design program 6th and undergraduate industrial design program 3rd. The Planetizen 2012 Guide to Graduate Urban Planning Programs ranked Virginia Tech's MURP program as 19th. Virginia Tech's MURP program was also rated among the best programs in Technology, Land Use Planning, Environmental Planning, and Growth Management.
The College of Natural Resources and Environment's wood science and forest products program accredited by the Society of Wood Science and Technology.
Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Virginia Tech 20th in its 2019 ranking of 174 best value public colleges in the United States. In 2018, CEOWORLD magazine ranked the undergraduate architecture program 4th nationally. The graduate architecture program ranked 14th.
Student affairs rankings
Virginia Tech received the following rankings from The Princeton Review in its 2017 Best 380 Colleges Rankings:
Research
Virginia Tech's research and development expenditures (R&D) were $542 million in fiscal year 2019, which ranked 48th among education institutions in the nation and 2nd in the state of Virginia according to the National Science Foundation. As a result, Virginia Tech marked its 15th consecutive year of research growth, with the university's research portfolio more than doubling from $192.7 million in fiscal year 2000. The only Virginia institution in the top 50 of the NSF's rankings for research expenditures, Virginia Tech is No. 23 among public universities. The university's research expenditures rank it in the top 5 percent of more than 900 research universities and colleges. Each year, the university receives thousands of awards to conduct research from an ever-expanding base of sponsors. Researchers pursue new discoveries in agriculture, biotechnology, information and communication technology, human health, transportation, energy management (including leadership in fuel-cell technology and power electronics), security, sustainability, and a wide range of other engineering, scientific, social science, and creative fields. This research led to 36 patents and 17 license and option agreements in fiscal year 2013.
Research institutes
Fralin Life Science Institute
Institute for Creativity, Arts and Technology (ICAT)
Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS)
Institute for Society, Culture, and Environment (ISCE)
Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech (disbanded and absorbed into Fralin Life Science Institute)
Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at VTC
Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI)
Hume Center for National Security and Technology
Fralin Life Science Institute
The Fralin Life Science Institute is an expansion of the Fralin Biotechnology Center, which was established in 1991. Research at the institute is focused on the areas of vector-borne disease; infectious disease and microbial sciences; plant sciences; obesity; cancer biology; and ecology and organismal biology.
Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech
The Biocomplexity Institute of Virginia Tech, formerly known as the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, is a bioinformatics, computational biology, and systems biology research facility that opened in 2000 on Virginia Tech's main campus in Blacksburg, Virginia. The institute houses more than 200 employees and multiple supercomputing clusters, and has more than $109 million in active research awards.
Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI)
The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI) was founded as the Center for Transportation Research in 1988, and employs more than 350 personnel. VTTI has more than $125 million in active research awards, and has a mission to save lives, save time, save money, and protect the environment. It is the second largest university-level transportation institute in the United States, and the largest group of driving safety researchers in the world. Facilities include the , two-lane, fully instrumented Virginia Smart Road; connected-vehicle test beds in Southwest and Northern Virginia; more than 83,000 square feet of office and laboratory space; the VTTI/Center for Injury Biomechanics Crash Sled Lab; and the National Tire Research Center in Southern Virginia. These laboratories include an asphalt lab, fully equipped garages, instrumentation bays, and a machine shop for working on VTTI's vehicle fleet.
VTTI develops and tests advanced transportation safety devices, techniques, and innovative applications. VTTI's research impacts public policy in transportation, notably through research into distracted driving and commercial hour-of-service.
VTTI conducts applied research to address transportation challenges from various perspectives: vehicle, driver, infrastructure, materials, and environment. Most notable among VTTI endeavors are its naturalistic driving studies. These studies particularly utilize VTTI's data acquisition systems, which gather continuous video and driving performance data in real-world driving conditions. These systems have been installed in nearly 4,000 passenger vehicles, commercial trucks and motor coaches, and motorcycles.
Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS)
Since 2005, the Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science (ICTAS) has made efforts to build capacity at the intersection of engineering, science, biology, and the humanities. Thrust areas include nuclear engineering, nanoscale science and engineering, nano-bio interface, sustainable energy, safe and sustainable water, national security, cognition and communication systems, renewable materials, and emerging technologies. The first director was Roop L. Mahajan (2005–2016) and the current director is Dr. Stefan Duma (2016–present).
Institute for Society, Culture, and Environment (ISCE)
The Institute for Society, Culture, and Environment (ISCE) was created in 2007 to support interdisciplinary research and scholarship.
Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at VTC
The Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at VTC is in Roanoke, Virginia and is an integral component of the new medical research and education initiative embodied by the Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Fralin Biomedical Research Institute.
Virginia Tech Research Center – Arlington (VTRC-A)
The Virginia Tech Research Center – Arlington (VTRC-A) opened at 900 N. Glebe Road in June 2011. The building is located in the Ballston area of Arlington.
A number of established Virginia Tech research centers and institutes are located in this facility
Other areas of research
Other research conducted throughout the university's colleges and interdisciplinary groups includes high-performance computing; advanced materials; wireless telecommunication; housing; human and animal health; cognition, development, and behavior; the environment; and energy, including power electronics, biofuels, fuel cells, and solar-powered building structures.
The School of Biomedical Engineering & Sciences partners with the College of Engineering, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, and the College of Veterinary Medicine. Virginia Tech's research includes biomechanics, cellular transport, computational modeling, biomaterials, bioheat and mass transfer, biofluid mechanics, instrumentation, ergonomics, and tissue engineering.
Virginia Tech Intellectual Properties Inc. (VTIP) was established in 1985 as a nonprofit corporation to support the mission of the university by protecting and licensing intellectual properties that result from research performed by Virginia Tech faculty, staff members, and students. During fiscal year 2012, 17 U.S. patents and six foreign patents were issued to VTIP, and 32 license and option agreements were signed. In addition, VTIP reported $2,269,991 in license revenue.
The Virginia Tech Applied Research Corporation (VT-ARC), is a private nonprofit corporation affiliated with Virginia Tech that was established in fall 2010. With offices in Northern Virginia and Blacksburg, VT-ARC fosters applied research and development, and management of large contract research projects. VT-ARC applies the university's scholarly research achievements, expertise, and collaborations across multiple disciplines to solve complex national challenges in intelligence, cyber security and information technology, national security, energy, and health care.
The Virginia Cooperative Extension programs are delivered through a network of faculty, 107 county and city offices, 11 agricultural research and Extension centers, and six 4-H educational centers. The system incorporates the expertise of faculty at the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences and through research and Extension efforts, the college helped elevate the state's agricultural exports to record numbers. In 2013, exports in the Commonwealth of Virginia reached $2.85 billion.
The Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center (VTCRC) is home to over 170 research, technology and support companies. The park is located in a mountain setting, with easy access to the metropolitan areas of northern Virginia and the nation's capital. An expansion on the northwest side of the park provides enough land to construct 15 buildings in addition to the 33 single- and multi-tenant buildings currently on-site. The VTCRC employs over 2,900 employees.
The Virginia Tech Institute for Policy and Governance is a nonprofit and public sector research and outreach institute for the university.
The Center for Modeling Immunity to Enteric Pathogens is a National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)-funded program to model immune responses to gut pathogens.
The Virginia Tech Metropolitan Institute (The CMI) conducts elemental and applied research on the dynamics of metropolitan complexities, such as demographics, environment, technology, design, transportation, and governance. MI is housed within the College of Architecture and Urban Studies (CAUS) and partners closely with the faculty of the School of Public and International Affairs (SPIA) while also reaching beyond the boundaries of department, college, or university, to bring together the richest collaboration of thinkers to each research question.
The Virginia Tech Language and Culture Institute (LCI) provides language-related programs and services for academic and professional development. The institute was started in the 1960s, when members of the Blacksburg chapter of the American Association of University Women decided to volunteer their time teaching English. The women held free classes in church basements or their own homes to help the spouses of international students and faculty members learn English. In 2014 LCI opened a new state-of-the-art learning center in Fairfax, Virginia that provides language-related programs and services for academic and professional development both on the main campus in Blacksburg and within the National Capital Region.
Campus
The Virginia Tech campus is in Blacksburg, Virginia. Most buildings are built of limestone in a neo-Gothic style. Notable green spaces include the Hahn Horticulture Garden, Virginia Tech Duck Pond, and the old-growth forest, Stadium Woods.
The central campus is roughly bordered by Prices Fork Road to the northwest, Plantation Drive to the west, Main Street to the east, and US 460 Bypass to the south, though it has several thousand acres beyond the central campus.
In the center of the Blacksburg campus lies the Drillfield, a large oval field running northeast to southwest, encircled by a one-way street that is known as Drillfield Drive. The Drillfield's name, coined in 1926 after the completion of Virginia Tech's first real stadium, Miles Stadium, stems from its use by the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets to conduct military drills. A waterway, Stroubles Creek, runs beneath the Drillfield on the south side. A three-sided conduit for the creek that retains the natural bed of the creek was installed in 1934, and, in 1971, the first two asphalt walks were added. The urban legend that the Drillfield is sinking at the rate of an inch per year has no basis in fact. In the summer of 2014, three dirt paths were paved as part of the university's master plan to improve the landscaping and pathways, add seating areas, and enhance path entrances around the Drillfield.
On the northwestern side of the Drillfield stand most of the university's academic and administrative buildings, including Burruss and McBryde Halls. On the southeastern side of the Drillfield stand most of the residential buildings, including students' residence halls, dining halls, and War Memorial Gym. Newman Library is on the eastern side of campus and connects to Torgersen Bridge, which spans the main road into campus, Alumni Mall. North of the Drillfield and northwest of Alumni Mall lies the Upper Quad, known to many students as military campus. The Upper Quad is home to the Corps of Cadets' barracks.
On the main campus in Blacksburg, most of the buildings incorporate Hokie Stone as a building material. In the 1990s, a Virginia Tech Board of Visitors committee expressed an intent that henceforth Hokie Stone should be used in all buildings constructed on the central campus. In 2010, the board of visitors passed a resolution making that sentiment official university policy.
Hokie Stone is generally gray, shaded by hues of brown and pink. It is mined from various quarries in Southwest Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama, one of which has been operated by the university since the 1950s. Most buildings on campus incorporate Hokie Stone into their design, but there are a few notable exceptions. For example, several older buildings on the Upper Quad, including Lane Hall, are constructed of red brick, as are Hillcrest Hall and Donaldson Brown. Also, a number of academic buildings were not constructed using Hokie Stone, as they were built before the institution of the rule mandating its use in all new university buildings.
Extended campuses
The university has established five branch campuses:
Virginia Tech Hampton Roads Centers, Newport News and Virginia Beach
Northern Virginia Center, Falls Church (National Capital Region)
Virginia Tech Richmond Center, Richmond
Virginia Tech Roanoke Center, Roanoke
Virginia Tech Southwest Center, Abingdon
Northern Virginia Center (National Capital Region)
Virginia Tech's presence in the Washington Metropolitan Area links regional graduate education and outreach programs that are consistent with the university's strategic research areas of excellence: energy materials and environment, social and individual transformation, health, food, and nutrition, and innovative technologies and complex systems.
Supporting the university's missions is the Virginia Tech National Capital Region. The university has established collaborations and partnerships with local and federal agencies, nonprofit research organizations, businesses, and other institutions of higher education. Current locations include Alexandria, Arlington, Fairfax, Falls Church, Leesburg, Manassas, and Middleburg.
Biomedical Technology Development and Management is an executive program in the National Capital Region. The Master of Science in Biomedical Technology Development and Management (BTDM) is a graduate level degree created by Virginia Tech in response to future directions in medical product discovery and development and the emerging needs of industry and regulatory agencies. Curriculum for the degree program integrates science with technology, management, ethics, and public policy, and draws on the strengths of Virginia Tech in science, industrial and systems engineering, business and management, and medical research programs.
In 2014, the university opened a Language and Culture Institute location in Fairfax. The institute offers intensive English language programs for college-age students, professionals, and diplomats.
International campuses
Caribbean Center for Education and Research (CCER)
Located on the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic, the Caribbean Center for Education and Research (CCER) in Punta Cana provides a base for Virginia Tech faculty to conduct research as well as instruct students on biodiversity, environmental and social sustainability, global issues in natural resources, and hotel and tourism management. The center is the product of a partnership between Virginia Tech and the PUNTACANA Ecological Foundation (PCEF) and the PUNTACANA Resort and Club. PCEF maintains a natural forest reserve, of protected coral reef, freshwater lagoons and coastal mangroves.
Center for European Studies and Architecture (CESA)
Renamed the Steger Center for International Scholarship in 2014, the Center for European Studies and Architecture (CESA) is the university's European campus center and base for operations and support of its programs in the region. The center's location in Riva San Vitale, Ticino, the Italian-speaking canton of Switzerland, is also close to major northern Italian cities such as Milan.
Agricultural Research and Extension Centers
Virginia Tech has several agricultural research and extension centers located throughout the Commonwealth dedicated to improving agricultural practices and the quality of life of Virginia citizens. The Virginia Tech Agricultural Research and Extension Centers are: Alson H. Smith, Jr., Eastern Shore, Eastern Virginia, Hampton Roads, Middleburg, Reynolds Homestead, Shenandoah Valley, Southern Piedmont, Southwest Virginia, Tidewater, and Virginia Seafood.
Power plant
Distinguished by a towering 180-foot-high radial brick smokestack, the university's coal fired Central Steam Power Plant generates an annual steam output greater than 943 billion BTUs and provides campus buildings with a portion of their heat, hot water, and electricity needs. Nearly 90 percent of campus buildings are connected to the plant through an extensive network of tunnels—the main access point is on the Drillfield—and more than of steam lines and piping provide heat to more than 6.8 million square feet of campus buildings. Only personnel with confined-space training are permitted to enter the tunnel system, comprising of inaccessible tunnel and of piping; of direct-bury piping in the ground; and of accessible tunnel and of piping.
Student life
There are more than 700 student organizations on campus. Some of these organizations include Bolt at Virginia Tech which builds electric racing motorcycles; PRISM a student-run ad agency; BASIS at Virginia Tech the largest student-run fixed income portfolio group in the nation managing $5 million; the Chocolate Milk Club; and a Young Life Chapter. Over 9,300 Virginia Tech students reside on campus.
The VT campus is home to twenty-eight residence halls housing both undergraduate and graduate students, and several more are either in the planning stages or under construction. The university has on-campus housing for graduate and professional students who are single; the housing may not accommodate families and spouses.
Typically, all freshmen are required to live on-campus. However, for the 2019 application year, first year students had the opportunity to live off-campus. This was the result of an unexpectedly large admission rate. In order to live on-campus, students must fill out the Virginia Tech Housing and Dining Contract, which requires students to purchase a major meal plan.
Campus residence halls
Corps of Cadets
Until 1923, every able-bodied male was required to participate for four years in the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets. The requirement was changed to two years until 1964, when participation became voluntary. Members of the ROTC program are required to participate in the Corps of Cadets. Virginia Tech remains one of three public universities in the United States with both an active corps of cadets and regular civilian students on its campus (Texas A&M University and the University of North Georgia are the other two).
More than 1,000 cadets reside on the campus of Virginia Tech. The Corps of Cadets Community is located in the Upper Quad, which features some of the oldest buildings on campus. Cadet dorms are also known as "cadet barracks". Two new dormitories were constructed on the Upper Quad to house all of the cadets. Pearson Hall replaced Rasche Hall in November 2015, and in August 2017, Brodie Hall was replaced by the New Cadet Dorm (a.k.a. "New Brodie"). Former cadet dorms, Thomas Hall and Monteith Hall were demolished in 2017. Their sites are planned to be used as green space for the foreseeable future.
Greek life
Virginia Tech hosts a number of fraternities and sororities across four governing councils. There are 23 IFC fraternities and 13 National Panhellenic Conference sororities recognized at Virginia Tech. The fraternity and sorority community currently encompasses more than 5,500 students which represents just about 20 percent of the undergraduate population. The Oak Lane Community houses those sororities and fraternities which have houses chartered on campus. A number of fraternities have chartered off-campus housing. There are also numerous other academic and service related sororities and fraternities at the school.
There are also a number of fraternities at Virginia Tech that are not officially recognized by the university. These organizations have continued to operate off campus in Blacksburg despite being suspended for violations of university policies. These fraternities include: Alpha Epsilon Pi, Center Club (formerly Sigma Chi), Delta Kappa Epsilon, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Gold Club (formerly Pi Kappa Phi), Omicron Alpha Kappa (formerly Kappa Delta Rho), Theta Delta Chi, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon. While several of these chapters are still chartered by their national organization they are not currently recognized by Virginia Tech.
Athletics
Virginia Tech teams are known as the Hokies. The HokieBird is a turkey-like creature whose form has evolved from the original school mascot of the Fighting Gobbler. While the modern HokieBird still resembles a Fighting Gobbler, the word "Hokie" has all but replaced Fighting Gobbler in terms of colloquial use. The term originated from the Old Hokie spirit yell, in which there was no particular meaning indicated for the word.
They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level (Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) sub-level for football), primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 2004–05 season. The Hokies previously competed in the Big East Conference from 2000–01 to 2003–04 (football program from 1991–92 to 1999–2000); the Atlantic 10 Conference (A-10) from 1995–96 to 1999–2000; and the Metro Conference from 1978–79 to 1994–95.
Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and wrestling. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.
The stylized "VT" (the abbreviation for "Virginia Tech") is used primarily by the athletic department as a symbol for Virginia Tech athletic teams. The "athletic VT" symbol is trademarked by the university and appears frequently on licensed merchandise.
During the early years of VPI, a rivalry developed between it and Virginia Military Institute. This long-standing rivalry lasted nine decades, from 1894 to 1984, and developed into the original Military Classic of the South an annual football game between VMI and VPI usually held on Thanksgiving Day at Victory Stadium in Roanoke, Virginia. That series ended after the 1984 season; VMI had elected to play at the Division I-AA level, now Division I FCS, after the NCAA's 1978 divisional split for football, and the schools' wide disparity in size after Virginia Tech's rapid expansion in the 1960s and 70s had led to a similar imbalance in results. Another long-standing and important rivalry is between Virginia Tech and the University of Virginia. The Virginia-Virginia Tech rivalry strengthened in concurrence with both UVA's and Tech's growth during the 1960s and 1970s and this is now the Hokies' primary program-wide athletic rivalry. The two schools compete in football for the Governor's "Commonwealth Cup" each season.
Virginia Tech's fight song, "Tech Triumph", was written in 1919 and remains in use today. The song is played at sporting events by both the Virginia Tech student band, The Marching Virginians, and the regimental Corps of Cadets' band, the Highty Tighties. The "Old Hokie" spirit yell, written in 1896 and used to this day, is familiar to many Virginia Tech fans. This chant is also where the word "Hoki" (since modified to "Hokie") originally appeared.
Notable Virginia Tech athletes include Nickeil Alexander-Walker, Frank Beamer, Allan Bristow, Kam Chancellor, Bimbo Coles, Dell Curry, Ace Custis, Renee Dennis, Bill Dooley, Jim Druckenmiller, Terrell Edmunds, Tremaine Edmunds, Bud Foster, Kendall Fuller, Kyle Fuller, Chuck Hartman, Sally Miles, Charles Moir, Johnny Oates, Bruce Smith, Tyrod Taylor, DeAngelo Hall, Isaiah Ford, Angela Tincher, and Michael Vick.
The most prominent athletic facilities are Lane Stadium, Cassell Coliseum, English Field, Thompson Field, Tech Softball Park, Rector Field House, the Beamer-Lawson Indoor Practice Facility, and the Christiansburg Aquatic Center.
Alumni
Since opening in 1872 as Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, Virginia Tech has produced a number of distinguished alumni whose contributions have bolstered the university's reputation.
The Virginia Tech Alumni Association includes more than 240,000 living alumni throughout the U.S. and around the world. Virginia Tech alumni can be found in all 50 states and many countries all over the world.
See also
Fighting Gobblers
Hahn Horticulture Garden
List of forestry universities and colleges
Virginia Tech commencement speakers
References
Notes
External links
Virginia Tech Athletics website
Engineering universities and colleges in Virginia
Land-grant universities and colleges
Virginia Tech
Technological universities in the United States
United States senior military colleges
Education in Montgomery County, Virginia
Education in Virginia Beach, Virginia
Science and technology in Virginia
Educational institutions established in 1872
1872 establishments in Virginia
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Blacksburg, Virginia
Tourist attractions in Montgomery County, Virginia | [
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782289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulia | Tulia | Tulia may refer to
Tulia, Texas, a city in the United States
Tulia Independent School District in Tulia, Texas
Tulia High School in Tulia, Texas
Tulia (given name)
Tulia (band), Polish band | [
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239898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Toubon | Jacques Toubon | Jacques Toubon (born 29 June 1941) is a right-wing French politician who held several major national and Parisian offices. He has been serving as Defender of Rights (Ombudsman) between 2014 and 2020.
Political career
Governmental functions
Minister of Culture : 1993–1995.
Keeper of the Seals, Minister of Justice : 1995–1997.
Electoral mandates
European Parliament
Member of European Parliament : 2004–2009. Elected in 2004.
National Assembly of France
Member of the National Assembly for Paris : 1981–1993 (Became minister in 1993). Elected in 1981, reelected in 1986, 1988, 1993.
Municipal Council
Deputy-mayor of Paris : 1983–2001. Reelected in 1989, 1995.
Councillor of Paris : 1983–2008. Reelected in 1989, 1995, 2001.
Mayor of the 13th arrondissement of Paris : 1983–2001. Reelected in 1989, 1995.
Councillor of the 13th arrondissement of Paris : 1983–2001. Reelected in 1989, 1995.
Controversial actions
Jacques Toubon is known for the controversial so-called Toubon Law, enforcing the use of the French language in official French government publications, and advertisements published in France. Since the law can largely be described as being hostile to English, Jacques Toubon is sometimes referred to, jokingly, as "Mr Allgood" ("All Good" being a translation of "Tout bon").
Jacques Toubon is also remembered for the "helicopter affair". In 1996, an initial criminal enquiry had been opened by Laurent Davenas, then head prosecutor of Évry for alleged misuse of government funds, in which Xavière Tiberi, wife of then mayor of Paris Jean Tiberi (from Toubon's party) was involved. (See corruption scandals in the Paris region). However, this was not a full criminal investigation and no investigative magistrate had been named. Davenas then went on vacation in the Himalaya. His deputy then announced his decision to open a full investigation. The Rally for the Republic leaders were frightened by the possible implications of such an investigation, and Jacques Toubon, then minister of justice, famously hired a helicopter to fetch the mountaineering prosecutor and convince him to rein in his deputy (Davenas refused).
Jacques Toubon has been the topic of much lampooning. In addition to "Mr Allgood", Les Guignols de l'info have referred to him as "M. Bouffon" ("Mr Buffoon").
Personal life
He was married to art expert Lise Toubon.
References
External links
Former official page as Minister of Justice
1941 births
Living people
People from Nice
Politicians from Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
MEPs for Île-de-France 2004–2009
French Ministers of Justice
French Ministers of Culture
Ombudsmen in France
École nationale d'administration alumni
Rally for the Republic politicians
Union for a Popular Movement MEPs
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Officers of the National Order of Merit (France)
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Mayors of an arrondissement of Paris | [
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239900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C4%BC%C4%81ni | Viļāni | Viļāni () (, ) is a town in Rēzekne Municipality in the Latgale region of Latvia. The railway line Riga-Moscow, and the motor highway Riga-Moscow, and the road Preiļi-Balvi cross Viļāni. The Malta river flows through the town. The population in 2020 was 2,813.
History
The town was mentioned for the first time in 1495 with the name Wielona. In 1507, the largest estate of Latgale region became the property of de Overlak. In 1752, M. Riks, who was the ruler of Inflanty, bought the Viļāni estate. He was the first landlord who very positively influenced the development of the region. The monastery and the St. Michael church in the baroque style were built under his leadership. The monks of the Bernardine Order were housed in the monastery. Because of the revolt of the Poles in 1830, the monastery had a library with 463 church books in Latin and Polish.
The location on the trade road Riga-Rēzekne favoured the development of Viļāni. In 1839, the Viļāni estate became the property of Vincent Janovskis. At the beginning of the 1850s, Janovskis built a three-storied flax mill. There were only three such flax mills in Russian Empire at that time. In Viļāni there was the largest leather production factory in Russia. It supplied the tsarist army with belts, bags, footwear, saddles and leather accessories. In the estate, there were also several small factories, for example two limekilns, a brick factory, mills, breweries. In 1852, Viļāni was called a hamlet. There were 12 houses, the two-storied White tavern (once a horses' post station), and several shops and bakeries. In 1862, Viļāni received the official right of a hamlet.
In 1924, monks and priests B. Skrinda and B. Valpirts of the Marijani Congregation arrived to Viļāni. They revived the abbey, restored the monastery, adding the second floor to the building. In 1925, there were 4 schools in Viļāni. When Viļāni got the town right on February 25, 1928, it had a territory of 1.63 square kilometres and 65 trade enterprises. In the initial stage of Operation Barbarossa, on 2 July 1941, Viļāni was captured by troops of the German Army Group North. On 25 July 1941, the town was placed under the administration of the newly created Reichskommissariat Ostland. About a half of inhabitants of Viļāni was killed in World War II by the Nazis. The town was also destroyed. Viļāni was recaptured on 28 July 1944 by troops of the Soviet 2nd Baltic Front.
Population
By the data of Centrālās statistikas pārvalde in the beginning of 2019 there was 2850 citizens in the city.
Structures
The Viļāni Catholic church, the monastery building, both built in the 18th century, and the manor house of the Viļāni estate with the park are the most remarkable architectural monuments of the town. The complex of the monastery buildings with the inner yard, an excellent example of the monasteries of Bernardian Order, belongs to the most unusual architectural monuments of Latvia.
The Viļāni railway station is also an architecture monument that is worth seeing. The interior of this building in neo-eclectic traditions is well preserved.
The Lakstīgalu sala ('island of nightingales') with an open-air stage, located not far from the Viļāni estate, is a favourite recreation place of the inhabitants of Viļāni.
The Viļāni museum tells about the history of Viļāni from the ancient times to nowadays. Approximately 100 animals, which are living in the forests of Latgale region, are exhibited in the Viļāni forest museum.
The memorial plaque for the victims of totalitarian regime was unveiled in 1995, the memorial plaque of the liberators of Viļāni on January 11, 1920, and the memorial cross of the national fighters against the Soviet regime in 1999.
Economy
There are 58 enterprises, including 8 branch offices, now in Viļāni. The woodworking enterprise, the charcoal producing enterprise and the printing house “Katoļu dzeive” are the largest of those. The local television was established in 1992. The Viļāni hydroelectric power station, built in 1950 and renewed in 1994, is the first renewed private hydroelectric power station in Latvia.
See also
List of cities in Latvia
References
Towns in Latvia
1928 establishments in Latvia
Populated places established in 1928
Rēzekne Municipality
Rezhitsky Uyezd
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239901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20Quartet | Duke Quartet | The Duke Quartet is a contemporary string quartet based in Europe. Its members are Louisa Fuller (violin), Rick Koster (violin), John Metcalfe (viola), and Sophie Harris (cello).
This quartet specialises in contemporary music, and its repertoire is similar to that of the Kronos Quartet. The Duke Quartet has a strong relationship with some modern composers such as Kevin Volans and Joby Talbot.
They are also widely known in the popular music field, and appeared on Morrissey's Viva Hate album, and have also worked with The Pretenders, Blur, Catatonia, Simple Minds, The Cranberries, Pete Doherty and The Corrs.
They played with The Bootleg Beatles during 1993 and 1994
Events
Radio 3 broadcast on 12 July, 10.45pm: Music by Volans, Arvo Pärt, George Crumb, Steve Reich and Joby Talbot.
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] |
239908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HRT | HRT | HRT may refer to:
Health and medicine
Habit reversal training
Heart rate turbulence
Hormone replacement therapy, a treatment used to reduce symptoms associated with menopause
Transgender hormone therapy, also known as hormone replacement therapy
Humane Research Trust, a British medical research charity
Heidelberg Retinal Tomography, a diagnostic procedure that produces three-dimensional images of the optic nerve
Motor racing
HRT Formula 1 Team, now defunct
Walkinshaw Andretti United, an Australian motor racing team that previously traded as the Holden Racing Team
Transport
Hampton Roads Transit, in the Norfolk-Virginia Beach, United States metro area
Hartwell Railroad, in Georgia, United States
Heavy rail transit
Helsinki Regional Transport Authority (Swedish: )
Hertfordshire, county in England, Chapman code
Hertfordshire Rail Tours, a defunct British railway company
Hiroshima Rapid Transit, in Japan
Honolulu Rail Transit, an under-construction light rail project in Hawaii
Hurlburt Field, a United States Air Force field in Florida, United States
RAF Linton-on-Ouse, a Royal Air Force station in England (IATA code: HRT)
Other uses
Hrvatska radiotelevizija, Croatia's national broadcaster
Hard real-time, in computing
Hértevin language, spoken in Turkey
High rising terminal, a feature of speech
Hostage Rescue Team, the FBI's elite tactical unit
Hudson River Trading, an American trading firm
Hydraulic retention time, in hydrology | [
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239909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia%20Vega | Amelia Vega | Amelia Vega Polanco (born 7 November 1984) is a Dominican model, actress, author, singer and beauty queen. At the age of 18, she won the Miss Universe 2003 pageant, becoming the first ever Miss Universe from the Dominican Republic, as well as the youngest winner since 1994.
Miss Universe
After winning the Miss Dominican Republic title, Vega represented the Dominican Republic in the Miss Universe 2003 pageant held in Panama City on 3 June 2003. She became the first delegate from this country to win the title. At the time she was the youngest woman since 1994 to win Miss Universe and , as of 2022, is the tallest winner, standing at 6'2".
Music
After recording her first demo at 15 years old and starting her artistic career on musicals in her hometown at the same age, Amelia's first single "Pasa Un Segundito" was released by iTunes on 26 April 2010. It became a top Latin song in just two days. A couple months later she surprises with her environmental song Smog. She announced on her Twitter account that her complete album "Agua Dulce" will be released on 30 August 2011, first on iTunes. She began promoting her music in Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Panama, Dominican Republic "where she opened the concert for Marc Anthony And Chayanne in front of a crowd of 50,000 people".
Personal life
On 24 December 2011, Vega married Dominican NBA player Al Horford, after two years of dating. They have four children together.
Vega is niece-in-law of the Grammy Award–winning singer Juan Luis Guerra. Additionally, Amelia attended and graduated from Barbizon Modeling and Acting School in Santo Domingo. Her father was son of the lawyer, professor, and vice-rector of the University of Santo Domingo Miguel Ángel Vega Acevedo, who was brother of writer and college professor Vanessa Vega de Bonnelly. Amelia Vega's grandfather was son of Miguel Ángel Vega Hernández, and grandson of José Nicolás Vega Pichardo, a Spaniard from Santiago de Cuba who arrived to the Dominican Republic in the 1860s with his parents, José Rafael Vega Bravo and Margarita Crescencia Pichardo Contreras, and his brother José Rafael Vega Pichardo, whose ancestry can be traced back to the English King, William the Conqueror, and the Castilian King Alfonso X.
Filmography
Homie Spumoni (2006) .... Amelia Vega as (Chanice)
The Lost City (2005) .... Minerva Eros
References
External links
Official website
Miss Universe 2003-related Website
1984 births
Dominican Republic beauty pageant winners
21st-century Dominican Republic women singers
Dominican Republic people of Spanish descent
Dominican Republic people of Galician descent
Living people
Miss Dominican Republic
Miss Universe 2003 contestants
Miss Universe winners
People from Santiago de los Caballeros | [
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239914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence%20College | Providence College | Providence College is a private, Catholic university in Providence, Rhode Island. Founded in 1917, the college offers 49 majors and 34 minors. It requires all its students to complete 16 credits in the Development of Western Civilization, a major part of the college's core curriculum. In the spring of 2021, it enrolled 4,128 undergraduate students and 688 graduate students for a total enrollment of 4,816 students.
In athletics, Providence College competes in the NCAA's Division I and is a founding member of the original Big East Conference and Hockey East. It was part of the original six other basketball-centric Catholic colleges which broke off from the original Big East (today's American Athletic Conference) to form the current Big East at the start of the 2013–14 academic year.
History
Founding
In 1917, Providence College was founded as an all-male school through the efforts of the Diocese of Providence and the Dominican Province of St. Joseph. The central figure in the college's incorporation was Matthew Harkins, Bishop of Providence, who sought an institution that would establish a center of advanced learning for the Catholic youth of Rhode Island.
Opening its doors at the corner of Eaton Street and River Avenue with only one building, Harkins Hall, the college under inaugural president Dennis Albert Casey, O.P. (1917–1921) began with 71 students and nine Dominican faculty members. Under second president William D. Noon, O.P. (1921–1927), the college added its first lay faculty member and opened its first dormitory, Guzman Hall (now known as Martin Hall). Under President Lorenzo C. McCarthy, O.P. (1927–1936), Providence College athletics soon received their moniker as the "Friars." With black and white as team colors, the school had early success in basketball, football, and baseball. In 1933, the school received regional accreditation by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges. The college conferred its first Master of Arts, Doctor of Philosophy, and Master of Science degrees by 1935, which was also the year that the school's newspaper (The Cowl) was first published.
By 1939, Aquinas Hall dormitory had been built to accommodate more students enrolling in general studies, but with the impact of World War II upon enrollment, President John J. Dillon, O.P. (1936–1944) lobbied Rhode Island's congressional delegation to pressure the War Department to assign Providence College an Army Specialized Training Program unit. Unit #1188 arrived on campus in the Summer of 1943, allowing the college to continue operation. A class of approximately 380 soldiers-in-training studied engineering at Providence College for a year before going overseas.
Post-World War II expansion
Robert J. Slavin, O.P. served as president from 1947 to 1961. During his tenure in 1955, Providence acquired the House of Good Shepard property that pushed the original boundaries of campus to Huxley Avenue. Slavin also oversaw the establishment of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) on campus in 1951, and the Liberal Arts Honors Program in 1957.
The athletics program of the college gained acceptance into the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1948. Prior to the opening of Alumni Hall in 1955, the men's basketball team played in local Providence high schools. The college also hired Joe Mullaney as the men's basketball coach.
President Vincent C. Dore, O.P. (1961–1965) opened the doors of the college's graduate school as well as a new dormitory building, now called Meagher Hall. President William P. Haas, O.P. (1965–1971) opened Phillips Memorial Library in 1969.
Co-educational shift
In 1967, the college added its first lay faculty members in its Departments of Theology and Philosophy, as well as its first full-time female faculty member. Two years later, the student dress code was abolished. In 1970, the college decided to admit women starting with the 1971–1972 school year. The same year, the first female administrator was hired. By 1975, the first year women graduated after completing a four-year course of study, women had attained highly visible positions in school organizations. Anne Martha Frank was the first women to edit The Cowl, the school weekly newspaper. Patricia Slonina became the first woman editor of the literary magazine, The Alembic. Ana Margarita Cabrera was the first woman to edit the school yearbook, The Veritas.
Subsequent president Thomas R. Peterson, O.P. (1971–1985) instituted the Development of Western Civilization program, while in 1974, the college acquired the property of the former Charles V. Chapin Hospital on the other side of Huxley Avenue. The campus was then split in half by Huxley Avenue, providing an "Upper" campus (due to the uphill nature of the landscape on Smith Hill) and "Lower" campus (the new, flatter area of the college). In 1974, the School of Continuing Education awarded the college's first Associate's degree.
With men's basketball tickets becoming a hot commodity at the 2,600-seat Alumni Hall gymnasium, and with the opening of the Providence Civic Center in 1972, the Friars moved downtown in time for their Final Four appearance behind Providence natives Ernie DiGregorio and Marvin Barnes. Two years later, the men's hockey team played their first season in the new home on campus, as Schneider Arena opened in 1974 with Ron Wilson leading the way.
In the early morning hours of December 13, 1977, a dormitory fire killed ten female residents of Aquinas Hall. Meanwhile, the demographics of the student body continued to change, as women outnumbered men in incoming classes and non-Rhode Island students soon outnumbered in-state students. In 1984, Peterson also opened St. Thomas Aquinas Priory at the entrance of campus to accommodate the growing number of Dominican brethren living on campus.
Expansion
John F. Cunningham, O.P. (1985–1994) succeeded Peterson as president in 1985 and saw the Friars men's hockey team win the inaugural Hockey East Championship the same year over rival Boston College and reach the championship game of the NCAA Tournament to lose 2–1 to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Men's basketball again took center stage on the Providence campus, as coach Rick Pitino and senior Billy Donovan took the Friars to their second Final Four appearance in the 1987 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. Cunningham used the exposure and fundraising opportunities to build two apartment-style residence halls on campus, Davis and Bedford Halls, providing an alternative to dormitory and off-campus housing for upperclassmen.
Philip A. Smith, O.P. (1994–2005) succeeded Cunningham in 1994 and oversaw the new influence of women's athletics at Providence, as several alumni and then-current students won the gold medal for women's ice hockey as part of the U.S. national team in the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan.
By 2001, a new on-campus chapel was built, St. Dominic Chapel, followed three years later by the construction of two other major buildings on "Lower" campus: Suites Hall, a suite-style residence hall to provide added upperclassmen housing, and the Smith Center for the Arts. President Brian J. Shanley, O.P. (2005–2020) oversaw the construction of the Concannon Fitness Center in 2007 as part of an overall renovation to Alumni Hall, as well as renovation and expansion of the Slavin Center in 2009. In 2012, a groundbreaking was held for the Ruane Center for the Humanities.
Shanley also removed the college's SAT requirement for admissions in addition to transferring a significant portion of the school's scholarship funds to need-based aid, in order to give more diverse students the opportunity to afford the college. In 2008, Shanley oversaw the founding of the Providence College School of Business, creating separate Schools of Arts and Sciences and Professional Studies.
In 2018, Providence College constructed a new building dedicated to the study of natural science, called the Science Complex. Furthermore, in 2018, Providence College opened the $30 million Ruane Friar Development Center (RFDC). The RFDC is a multi-purpose building that features improvements for student-athletes, including a new innovation lab, an expanded sports medicine center, and a student-athlete fueling station.
Campus
The college is located on a gated campus in the city's Elmhurst neighborhood atop Smith Hill, the highest point in the city of Providence. The campus is located in a residential urban neighborhood about two miles west of downtown Providence. The Smith Hill neighborhood, which borders the east end of campus, is a predominantly low-income area with crime rates higher than the city average.
There are three main gates to campus, at Cunningham Square (the intersection of River Avenue and Eaton Street) and on Huxley Avenue to the upper campus, and at the southeast corner of the lower campus, along Eaton Street. The campus consists of nineteen academic and administrative buildings, nine dormitories, five apartment complexes, three residences, four athletic buildings, a power plant, a physical plant, and a security office gate house. There is also a Dominican cemetery, two quads, four athletic fields, a 25-meter swimming pool, a six-court tennis court complex, an artificial turf field, and several parking areas (including a structure below the turf field).
Renovations completed in 2009 to the Slavin Center, the campus student union, added solar panels and a bioretention system.
After purchasing Huxley Avenue in 2013, the college began a campus transformation project with plans to develop campus facilities to meet the growing needs of the students. The renovations as of October 2015 include the groundbreaking of the Arthur and Patricia Ryan Center for Business Studies, handicap accessibility to Aquinas Hall, and the addition to outdoor classrooms.
Organization and administration
Since 1934, Providence College has been governed by a 12-member corporation and a board of trustees consisting of 25 to 35 members.
The corporation consists of four ex officio members: the president of the college, the Prior Provincial of the Dominican Province of St. Joseph, the Bishop of the Diocese of Providence, and the chairman of the board of trustees. In addition, there are eight other members, each of whom serve three-year terms; four are Dominican friars and four are lay persons. The corporation has the "ultimate authority to exercise control over ownership of property, to promulgate and amend the by-laws, to accept or reject the recommendation for election to the Presidency of the College by the Board of Trustees, and to elect members of the Corporation and of the Board of Trustees."
All other affairs of the college not reserved to the corporation are handled by the board of trustees, which meets three times a year. These duties include "establishing major institutional goals, engaging in long-range planning and policy-making, overseeing the annual operating budget of the College and overseeing the review process and recommending a Dominican Friar for election to the Presidency of the College." All members of the corporation and the executive vice president of the college serve on the board of trustees as ex officio, in addition to candidates elected by the corporation who serve a maximum of three, three-year terms.
Academics
Overview
As of 2019, Providence College reports an acceptance rate of 47.5 percent. The average class size is 21 students, with nearly half of all classes including fewer than 20 students. There is a student-to-faculty ratio of 12-to-1.
All classes are taught by full-time professors. The college offers 49 majors and 34 minors. The majority of students declare majors in the liberal arts or business. Regardless of major, all students are required to complete a core curriculum which includes credits in the Development of Western Civilization, mathematics, philosophy, theology, natural science, English, fine arts, and social science. Beginning with the Class of 2016, the core curriculum was modified to reduce the required credits in natural science and social science, while adding credits in a "core focus" area, as well as proficiencies in intensive writing, oral communication, diversity, and civic engagement.
Constructed in 1969, the Phillips Memorial Library consists of 3.5 million volumes and is a member of the HELIN library consortium of Rhode Island.
Academic divisions
Providence College comprises four schools: the School of Arts & Sciences, the School of Business, the School of Professional Studies, and the School of Continuing Education.
The School of Arts & Sciences was created in 2008 as part of the college's addition of a stand-alone School of Business. The School offers undergraduate degrees in social sciences, natural sciences, mathematics, the humanities, and fine arts. It also offers graduate programs with Masters of Arts in history, biblical studies, mathematics, and theology, as well as a Master of Theological Studies degree.
The School of Business was created in 2008 and immediately began the accreditation process for the AACSB. The college's successful accreditation was received in 2012. The school offers four undergraduate degrees, in management, finance, accountancy, and marketing, in addition to a Master of Business Administration (MBA) graduate program. The school also offers a certificate program in business studies.
Created as a separate school in 2008, the School of Professional Studies includes undergraduate and graduate degree programs in education and special education, social work, and health policy. It also offers a certificate program in special education administration.
The School of Continuing Education offers courses to complete an associate's degree or bachelor's degree with programs including social sciences, theology, organizational studies, humanities, and liberal studies. In addition, it offers numerous certificate programs, including a Teacher Certification Program (TCP).
Academic programs
Liberal Arts Honors Program
The Liberal Arts Honors Program was created in 1957 and accepts approximately the top 125 students in each freshman class, offering three levels of academic scholarships for participation in the program. Honors students take separate Development of Western Civilization courses with smaller classes, in addition to one or two honors-level classes in other programs and a capstone honors "colloquium" course.
Development of Western Civilization
The Development of Western Civilization (commonly referred to by students as "Civ" or "DWC") is a two-year-long program of courses required of all students attending the school, taken in students' first four semesters at the school. Meeting in the Ruane Center for the Humanities, a lecture hall specifically built in 2013 for the program, the class meets three days a week, with one day being typically reserved for seminar work and/or exams. The class is taught by a team of professors, usually three, who specialize in literature, theology, philosophy, or history. Students move through Western history, studying original texts in each of the four course disciplines. The new Development of Western Civilization Program, implemented in late 2012, features three semesters of standard lectures which move chronologically from ancient history to the modern period. The fourth and final semester of the program is organized into various colloquia, specialized courses taught by two professors that are more concentrated to students' interests and majors.
There is a tradition which has grown over time from the course called "Civ Scream." The event takes place the night before DWC final exams in December and May, and is usually centered on the "Quad" area between Aquinas, Meagher, and McDermott Halls. It is intended to be a harmless gathering to let off steam from the long hours of studying for the intense course's final exam, and is completely unsanctioned. As such, the "Civ Scream" can become loud and rowdy with wild behavior, partying, and streaking.
Student life
The Providence College student population is made up of about 3,852 undergraduates and 735 postgraduate students. As of 2012, 58 percent of the student body is female, while 42 percent is male. The student population is drawn mostly from the southern New England states of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, as well as New York, New Jersey, and other Mid-Atlantic states. About one-third of incoming students attended Catholic high schools.
Diversity
A 2007 survey published by The Princeton Review rated Providence College as having the most homogeneous student population in the country, as well as ranking the college eighth nationally in the survey's "little race/class interaction" category. As of 2012, 88 percent of the student body is white or unreported, while four percent of students come from outside of the United States. In 2011, President Brian Shanley created an Office of Institutional Diversity, while hiring a Chief diversity officer, to "help balance the College's socioeconomic representation." In 2017, the school topped The Princeton Review's list of most segregated colleges.
While 95 percent of the student population are residents, 17 percent live in nearby off-campus housing. Parietal rules applying to all undergraduate freshmen limit visitation hours of opposite-sex students in dormitories.
As of 2011, Providence College is ranked first in the country by The Princeton Review in the "Lots of Hard Liquor" category.
Clubs and activities
Students run the college's radio station, WDOM, as well the on-campus television station, PCTV. The station was ranked the 11th-best college radio station in the country by the Princeton Review in 2011. The student-run campus newspaper since 1935 has been The Cowl.
The college does not officially sanction Greek life; there are no fraternities or sororities on or off campus.
The college's oldest club/student organization is Providence College Debate Society. It was founded in 1921 and has had several periods of inactivity and subsequent revival.
Athletics
The school's 19 varsity men's and women's sports teams are called the Friars, after the Dominican Catholic order that runs the school. They are the only collegiate team to use that team name. All teams participate in the NCAA Division I and in the Big East Conference, except for the men's and women's ice hockey programs, which compete in Hockey East. In 2015, the men's hockey team won its first NCAA Division I National Championship.
The school's current athletic director is Robert Driscoll. The team colors are black and white, the same as the Dominicans, with silver as an accent color. The school's current logos and identity marks were released in 2002, and feature the profile of a friar wearing the black cappa (hood) of the Dominicans, above the word mark. All teams use the primary logo except the hockey teams, which have used the "skating Friar" logo since 1973. In addition to the Friar mascot, the school's animal mascot was a Dalmatian named "Friar Boy." The school's closest rivalries are Boston University and Boston College in hockey and the University of Connecticut and the University of Rhode Island in the school's other sports, especially in soccer, tennis, swimming and diving, and basketball. Providence College once had a well-respected intercollegiate football team: two former students played professional football for the New York Football Giants (Charles Avedisian and Hank Soar). The Providence Friars football program was discontinued in 1941.
Men's basketball
The Friars men's basketball team is an original member of the Big East Conference, which was created in 1979 by a group led by former Providence coach Dave Gavitt and headquartered in Providence. The Friars play their home games at the 13,000-seat Dunkin' Donuts Center in downtown Providence, a facility that underwent an $80 million renovation completed in 2008. Despite having the smallest enrollment of any Big East Conference school, the Friars have routinely averaged over 10,000 fans per game during the 30-plus year history of the facility, all while earning postseason berths and placing many players in the National Basketball Association. In addition to producing NBA players, former Friars players and coaches have also gone on to become basketball icons in the coaching world, such as Rick Pitino, Billy Donovan, Lenny Wilkens, Pete Gillen, Rick Barnes, Johnny Egan, and John Thompson. They are currently coached by Ed Cooley.
Providence College won the 1961 and 1963 NIT championship and participated in the 1973 and 1987 Final Four, and the 1965 and 1997 squads advanced to the NCAA Elite Eight. Overall, the team has earned 19 NCAA basketball tournament berths and 18 NIT berths, as well as having numerous players named All-Americans.
Marks and seals
The college's graphic identity represents the shape of a window in Harkins Hall with a flame inside, representing Veritas, or Truth, the official college motto. The college motto was borrowed from the Dominican Order, and has been used since the college's inception.
The official seal of Providence College is an ornate triangle, representing the Trinity, with the flame of learning and a scroll with the College Motto, Veritas, superimposed on it. The seal is surrounded by a ring with the words Sigillum Collegii Providentiensis ("Seal of Providence College") inside it.
Notable alumni
A number of prominent local and national politicians and judges are Providence College alumni. Former United States Senator from Connecticut Chris Dodd graduated in 1966 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature, while his father, Thomas J. Dodd, also a long-serving U.S. Senator from Connecticut, graduated in 1930 with a degree in philosophy. Former United States Representative from Rhode Island Patrick J. Kennedy, the son of former United States Senator Ted Kennedy, earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1991.
In addition, 1963 graduate and star basketball player Raymond Flynn (Class of 1963) earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in education–social studies before serving as a three-term Mayor of Boston and the United States Ambassador to the Holy See. Six-term Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley graduated in 1964 from Providence College. Former United States Attorney General, United States Senator from Rhode Island, and Governor of Rhode Island J. Howard McGrath was a 1926 graduate of the college.
In athletics, two Basketball Hall of Fame players or coaches have graduated from Providence College: Lenny Wilkens and John Thompson. Olympic champion, ice hockey goalie Sara DeCosta, played for Providence. In addition, two-time NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament champion, former University of Florida men's basketball and current Chicago Bulls head coach Billy Donovan (Class of 1987), graduated from Providence College. Former Big East Conference commissioner John Marinatto (Class of 1979) is a Providence College graduate, while former Toronto Maple Leafs general manager Brian Burke (Class of 1977), former New Jersey Devils CEO/President and former Toronto Maple Leafs general manager and current New York Islander general manager Lou Lamoriello (Class of 1963), and Boston Celtics president Rich Gotham (Class of 1986) are also alumni.
Actor John O'Hurley (Class of 1976), film directors Peter Farrelly (Class of 1979) and James O'Brien (Class of 1992), film producer and actor David Gere (Class of 1979), actress and comedian Janeane Garofalo (Class of 1986) are graduates of Providence College, as are ESPN NBA and college basketball commentator Doris Burke (Class of 1987), and sports journalist Sean McAdam (Class of 1981).
See also
Catholic school
Catholic university
List of Rhode Island schools
References
External links
Providence College Athletics website
Dominican universities and colleges in the United States
Educational institutions established in 1917
Big East Conference schools
Universities and colleges in Providence, Rhode Island
Tourist attractions in Providence, Rhode Island
Catholic universities and colleges in Rhode Island
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Roman Catholic Diocese of Providence
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239915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut%20oil | Coconut oil | Coconut oil (or coconut butter) is an edible oil derived from the wick, meat, and milk of the coconut palm fruit. Coconut oil is a white solid fat, melting at warmer room temperatures of around 25 °C (78 °F), in warmer climates during the summer months it is a clear thin liquid oil. Unrefined varieties have a distinct coconut aroma. It is used as a food oil, and in industrial applications for cosmetics and detergent production. Due to its high levels of saturated fat, numerous health authorities recommend limiting its consumption as a food.
Production
Coconut oil can be extracted through wet or dry processing.
Wet process
The all-wet process uses coconut milk extracted from raw coconut rather than dried copra. The proteins in the coconut milk create an emulsion of oil and water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, or some combination thereof. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10–15% lower yield, even taking into account the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.
Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.
Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and expellers. They then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to and adding salt or citric acid.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut milk, meat, or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.
A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately yield around of copra from which around of coconut oil can be extracted.
Dry process
Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra. The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract protein from the mash.
Refined oil
Refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) oil is usually made from copra and dried coconut kernel, which is pressed in a heated hydraulic press to extract the oil. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut. This crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.
Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases, and proteases on diluted coconut paste.
Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.
Hydrogenation
RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 24 °C (76 °F), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates, so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 36–40 °C (97–104 °F).
In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In the partial hydrogenation process, some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.
Fractionation
Fractionated coconut oil provides fractions of the whole oil so that its different fatty acids can be separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. The fractionation of coconut oil can also be used to isolate caprylic acid and capric acid, which are medium-chain triglycerides, as these are used for medical applications, special diets and cosmetics, sometimes also being used as a carrier oil for fragrances.
Standards
The World Health Organization's Codex Alimentarius guidelines on food, food production, and food safety, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, includes standards for commercial partners who produce coconut oil for human consumption.
The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 18 members produce about 90 per cent of the coconut sold commercially, has published its standards for virgin coconut oil (VCO), defining virgin coconut oil as obtained from fresh, mature coconut kernels through means that do not "lead to alteration of the oil."
In 2018, world production of coconut oil was 3.3 million tonnes, led by the Philippines and Indonesia accounting together for 67% of the world total.
Composition and comparison
Coconut oil contains only trace amounts of free fatty acids (about 0.03% by mass). Most of the fatty acids are present in the form of esters. In the following content, the expressions "fatty acids" and "acid" below refer to esters rather than carboxylic acids.
The approximate concentration of fatty acids in coconut oil (midpoint of range in source):
The following table provides information about the composition of coconut oil and how it compares with other vegetable oils.
Health concerns
Many health organizations advise against the consumption of coconut oil owing to its high levels of saturated fat, including the United States Food and Drug Administration, World Health Organization, the United States Department of Health and Human Services, American Dietetic Association, American Heart Association, British National Health Service, British Nutrition Foundation, and Dietitians of Canada.
Marketing of coconut oil has created the inaccurate belief that it is a "healthy food". Instead, studies have found that coconut oil consumption has health effects similar to those of other unhealthy fats, including butter, beef fat, and palm oil. Coconut oil contains a high amount of lauric acid, a saturated fat that raises total blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amounts of both high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good") cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL, "bad") cholesterol. Although lauric acid consumption may create a more favorable total blood cholesterol profile, this does not exclude the possibility that persistent consumption of coconut oil may actually increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases through other mechanisms, particularly via the marked increase in total blood cholesterol induced by lauric acid. Because the majority of saturated fat in coconut oil is lauric acid, coconut oil may be preferred over partially hydrogenated vegetable oil when solid fats are used in the diet.
Clinical research
A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials on whether chronic consumption of coconut oil might affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases found that low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholestrol (but also high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ("good cholesterol")) concentrations were elevated compared with nontropical vegetable oils. The review stated that "coconut oil should not be viewed as healthy oil for cardiovascular disease risk reduction, and limiting coconut oil consumption because of its high saturated fat content is warranted." A 2017 review of clinical research by experts associated with the American Heart Association recommended against consumption of coconut oil due to its propensity for increasing blood levels of LDL as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.
Uses
Nutrition and fat composition
Coconut oil is 99% fat, composed mainly of saturated fats (82% of total; table). In a 100 gram reference amount, coconut oil supplies 890 Calories. Half of the saturated fat content of coconut oil is lauric acid (41.8 grams per 100 grams of total composition), while other significant saturated fats are myristic acid (16.7 grams), palmitic acid (8.6 grams), and caprylic acid (6.8 grams). Monounsaturated fats are 6% of total composition, and polyunsaturated fats are 2% (table). Coconut oil contains phytosterols, whereas there are no micronutrients in significant content (table).
In food
Coconut oil has a long history in Asia, particularly in tropical regions where the plant is abundant, where it has been used for cooking. It is the oil of choice in Sri Lankan cuisine, where it is used for sautéing and frying, in both savoury and sweet dishes. It also plays a prominent role in the cuisines of Thailand and Kerala.
As an oil relatively recently introduced to Western countries, coconut oil is commonly used in baked goods, pastries, and sautés, having a nut-like quality with some sweetness. It is sometimes used by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn. Coconut oil adds considerable saturated fat and calories to the snackfood while enhancing flavor, possibly a factor increasing further consumption of high-calorie snackfoods, energy balance, and weight gain.
Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods. Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers and snack foods. In frying, the smoke point of coconut oil is .
Industry
Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to use as a diesel engine fuel. In this manner, it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil typically is transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is possible only in temperate climates, as the gel point is approximately . The oil must meet the Weihenstephan standard to use pure vegetable oil as a fuel. Moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging would occur in an unmodified engine.
The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries use coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators. Biodiesel fuel derived from coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines. Further research into the potential of coconut oil as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific, although to date it appears that it is not useful as a fuel source due to the cost of labour and supply constraints.
Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant and as a transformer oil. Coconut oil (and derivatives, such as coconut fatty acid) are used as raw materials in the manufacture of surfactants such as cocamidopropyl betaine, cocamide MEA, and cocamide DEA.
Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides. Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as cochin oil.
Soap
Coconut oil is an important base ingredient for the manufacture of soap. Soap made with coconut oil tends to be hard, though it retains more water than soap made with other oils and thus increases manufacturer yields. It is more soluble in hard water and salt water than other soaps allowing it to lather more easily.
See also
KERAFED
Palm oil
Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease
References
Further reading
Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). World Oilseeds: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Springer. .
External links
Vegetable oils
Cooking oils | [
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239916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthe%20Wilke | Birthe Wilke | Birthe Wilke (born 19 March 1936) is a popular Danish singer. She grew up in a musical family in Copenhagen's Vesterbro area.
Career
When Wilke was in her teens, she won a talent competition at the National Scala Theatre in Copenhagen, sang as soloist with Bruno Henriksen's Orchestra at Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, made her first recording, and was named "Denmark's Doris Day" and recorded "Que sera sera" in 1956.
After qualifying in the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix to represent Denmark at the Eurovision Song Contest, she participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 1957, where she sang "Skibet Skal Sejle I Nat" ("The Ship Is Leaving Tonight") with Gustav Winckler. They ranked 3rd of out 10 at the end of the voting, and stunned television audiences with a 13-second long kiss at the end of their performance.
She also participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 1959 where she sang solo "Uh-Jeg Ville Ønske Jeg Var Dig" ("Oh - I wish I were you"). She was ranked 5th place at the end of voting.
In the late 1950s she toured Poland, West Germany and United States.
In 1961 she played a nightclub singer in the Danish film Reptilicus. She sang "Tivoli Nights".
In the same year, she won the award for best singer at the first international song festival in the Gdansk shipyard hall, the forerunner of the Sopot festival and Intervision Song Contest.
In 1966 she retired from public life, but made a short-lived return in 1973.
In addition to her recording successes, she participated in radio, television, advertising and commercial film.
References
Laursen, Carsten Michael (1999). ''Top-Pop: Navne i dansk pop 1950–2000"' ("Top-Pop: Names in Danish Pop 1950–2000"). L&R Fakta. .
1936 births
Living people
Danish women singers
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Denmark
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1957
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1959
Danish pop singers | [
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239917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco%20Nero | Franco Nero | Francesco Clemente Giuseppe Sparanero (born 23 November 1941), known professionally as Franco Nero, is an Italian actor, producer, and director. His breakthrough role was as the title character in the Spaghetti Western film Django (1966), which made him a pop culture icon and launched an international career that includes over 200 leading and supporting roles in a wide variety of films and television programmes.
His best-known films include The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966), Camelot (1967), The Day of the Owl (1968), The Mercenary (1968), Battle of Neretva (1969), Tristana (1970), Compañeros (1970), The Fifth Cord (1971), High Crime (1973), Street Law (1974), Keoma (1976), Force 10 from Navarone (1978), Enter the Ninja (1981), Die Hard 2 (1990), Letters to Juliet (2010), Cars 2 (2011) , and John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017). Nero is noted for having worked in many of the popular Italian "genre trends" during the 1960s and 1970s, including poliziotteschi, gialli, and Spaghetti Westerns.
Nero has had a long relationship with Vanessa Redgrave, which began during the filming of Camelot. They were married in 2006, and are the parents of the actor Carlo Gabriel Nero.
Early life
Francesco Clemente Giuseppe Sparanero was born in San Prospero Parmense (Parma, Emilia-Romagna), the son of a commissioned officer in the Carabinieri. His parents were originally from San Severo (Foggia, Apulia). He grew up in Bedonia and in Milan. He studied briefly at the Economy and Trade faculty of the local university, before leaving to study at the Piccolo Teatro di Milano.
Acting career
Nero's first film role was a small part in Pelle viva (1962), and he had his first lead role in Sergio Corbucci's Django (1966) a Spaghetti Western and one of his best-known films. In 1966 from Django he went on to appear in eight more films released that year including Texas, Adios (1966) and Massacre Time.
In 1967, he appeared in Camelot as Lancelot, where he met his longtime romantic partner, and later on in life his wife, Vanessa Redgrave. Following this he appeared in the mafia film Il giorno della civetta opposite Claudia Cardinale released in 1968.
A lack of proficiency in English tended to limit these roles, although he also appeared in other English-language films including The Virgin and the Gypsy (1970), Force 10 from Navarone (1978), Enter the Ninja (1981) and Die Hard 2 (1990).
Although often typecast in films like Los amigos (1973) or Keoma (1976) he has attempted an impressive range of characters, such as Abel in John Huston's epic The Bible: In The Beginning (1966), the humiliated engineer out for revenge in Street Law, the gay lieutenant in Querelle (1982) and Serbian mediaeval hero in The Falcon (1983). He has appeared in over 150 films, and has written, produced and starred in one: Jonathan degli orsi (1993).
More recently, he starred in Hungarian director 's Honfoglalás (Conquest) in 1996, in Li chiamarono... briganti! (1999) by Pasquale Squitieri and subsequently in Koltay's Sacra Corona (Holy Crown) in 2001.
In 2009 he played an eccentric author called "Mario Puzzo" in Mord ist mein Geschäft, Liebling ("Murder is my trade, darling", Italian title "Tesoro, sono un killer"). German critics found his performance was the best part of the film: "Having Franco Nero playing in this film is really a great joy – it is only regrettable that after his appearances there is still so much film left."
In 2010, Nero appeared in the film Letters to Juliet with Redgrave. In 2011 he appeared as a guest star on the season 13 premiere episode of Law and Order: SVU. His character, although Italian, was based on Dominique Strauss-Kahn. In the same year, he received a star on the Italian Walk of Fame in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
In 2012, Nero made a cameo appearance in the film Django Unchained in one scene alongside Jamie Foxx, who stars as Django Freeman in the film. Nero, playing the original Django, questions Foxx's Django about how his name is spelled, and asks him to spell it, referencing a scene from Nero's role as Django in the original Django film. Upon learning that their names are spelled the same way, Nero's Django says "I know" to Foxx's Django.
In 2016 and 2017 he interpreted Gabriele Tinti's poetry, giving voice to the masterpieces in the National Roman Museum.
Nero is expected to appear in the dark comedy feature film The Immortalist in 2020, along with Sherilyn Fenn, Paul Rodriguez, Aries Spears and Jeff DuJardin, directed by Vlad Kozlov.
Personal life
His romantic involvement with English actress Vanessa Redgrave began in 1966 when they met on the set of Camelot. In 1969, they had a son, Carlo Gabriel Redgrave Sparanero (known professionally as Carlo Gabriel Nero), a screenwriter and director. After separating for many years, during which they both had relationships with other people, they reunited and married on 31 December 2006. Carlo Nero directed Redgrave in the cinematic adaptation of Wallace Shawn's play The Fever.
Nero dated actresses Catherine Deneuve, Goldie Hawn, and Ursula Andress in the 1970s.
In December 1987, a paternity suit was filed against him by Mauricia Mena, who claimed that he was the father of her son Franquito.
In 1994, Nero walked his future stepdaughter Natasha Richardson (1963–2009) down the aisle when she married actor Liam Neeson. Her father, Tony Richardson, had died in 1991.
Filmography
Discography
1985 – Will Change The World/Cambierà (Lovers, LVNP 802, 7" – with his son Carlo)
References
External links
1941 births
Living people
David di Donatello winners
Italian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Italian male film actors
Male Spaghetti Western actors
Male Western (genre) film actors
People from the Province of Modena
People of Apulian descent
Redgrave family | [
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239918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap%20water | Tap water | Tap water (also known as faucet water, running water, or municipal water) is water supplied through a tap, a water dispenser valve. Tap water is commonly used for drinking, cooking, washing, and toilet flushing. Indoor tap water is distributed through "indoor plumbing", which has existed since antiquity but was available to very few people until the second half of the 19th century when it began to spread in popularity in what are now developed countries. Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries.
In many countries, tap water is often associated with drinking water. Governmental agencies commonly regulate tap water quality. Household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used to treat tap water's microbial contamination to improve its potability. The application of technologies (such as water treatment plants) involved in providing clean water to homes, businesses, and public buildings is a major subfield of sanitary engineering. Calling a water supply "tap water" distinguishes it from the other main types of fresh water which may be available; these include water from rainwater-collecting cisterns, water from village pumps or town pumps, water from wells, or water carried from streams, rivers, or lakes (whose potability may vary).
Background
Providing tap water to large urban or suburban populations requires a complex and carefully designed system of collection, storage, treatment and distribution, and is commonly the responsibility of a government agency.
Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with major increases in life expectancy and improved public health. Water disinfection can greatly reduce the risks of waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera. There is a great need around the world to disinfect drinking water. Chlorination is currently the most widely used water disinfection method, although chlorine compounds can react with substances in water and produce disinfection by-products (DBP) that pose problems to human health. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of various metal ions, often rendering the water "soft" or "hard".
Tap water remains susceptible to biological or chemical contamination. Water contamination remains a serious health issue around the world, and diseases resulted from consuming contaminated water cause the death of 1.6 million children each year. In the event of contamination deemed dangerous to public health, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of biological contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of chemical contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved.
In many areas, low concentration of fluoride (< 1.0 ppm F) is intentionally added to tap water to improve dental health, although in some communities "fluoridation" remains a controversial issue. (See water fluoridation controversy). However, long-term consumption of water with high fluoride concentration (> 1.5 ppm F) can have serious undesirable consequences such as dental fluorosis, enamel mottle and skeletal fluorosis, bone deformities in children. Fluorosis severity depends on how much fluoride is present in the water, as well as people's diet and physical activity. Defluoridation methods include membrane-based methods, precipitation, absorption, and electrocoagulation.
Regulation and compliance
United States
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the allowable levels of some contaminants in public water systems. There may also be numerous contaminants in tap water that are not regulated by EPA and yet potentially harmful to human health. Community water systems—those systems that serve the same people throughout the year—must provide an annual "Consumer Confidence Report" to customers. The report identifies contaminants, if any, in the water system and explains the potential health impacts. After the Flint lead crisis (2014), researchers have paid special attention in studying quality trends in drinking water all across the USA. Unsafe level of lead were found in tap water in different cities, such as Sebring, Ohio in August 2015, and Washington, DC, in 2001. Several studies show that a Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) health violation occurs in around 7-8% of community water system (CWS) in an average year. Around 16 million cases of acute gastroenteritis occur each year in the US, due to the existence of contaminants in drinking water.
Before a water supply system is constructed or modified, the designer and contractor are required to consult the local plumbing code and obtain a building permit prior to construction. Replacing an existing water heater may require a permit and inspection of the work. The US national standard for potable water piping guidelines is NSF/ANSI 61 certified materials. NSF/ANSI also sets standards for certifying polytanks, though the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the materials.
Japan
To improve water quality, Japan’s Ministry of Health revised its water quality standards, which were implemented in April 2004. Numerous professionals developed the drinking water standards. They also determined ways to manage the high quality water system. In 2008, improved regulations were conducted to improve the water quality and reduce the risk of water contamination.
Fixtures and appliances
Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categories; fixture or appliance. As the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage components that will require removal by the waste/sewage side of the system. The minimum is an air gap. See cross connection control & backflow prevention for an overview of backflow prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and physical principles.
Fixtures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.
Fittings and valves
Potable water supply systems are composed of pipes, fittings and valves.
Materials
The installation of water pipes can be done using the following plastic and metal materials:
Plastic
polybutylene (PB)
high density cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X)
block copolymer of polypropylene (PP-B)
the polypropylene copolymer (PP-H)
random copolymer of polypropylene (random) (PP-R)
Layer: cross-linked polyethylene, aluminum, high-density polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-HD)
Layer: polyethylene crosslinked, aluminum, cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X / Al / PE-X)
Layer copolymer of a random polypropylene, aluminum, polypropylene random copolymer (PP-R / Al / PP-R)
polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated (PVC-C)
polyvinyl chloride - not softened(only cold water) (PVC-U)
Metals
carbon steel, ordinary galvanized
corrosion resistant steel
Deoxidized High Phosphorus copper(Cu-DHP)
lead (no longer used for new installations due to its toxicity)
Other materials, if the pipes made from them have been let into circulation and the widespread use in the construction of the water supply systems.
Lead pipes
For many centuries, water pipes were made of lead, because of its ease of processing and durability. The use of lead pipes was a cause of health problems due to ignorance of the dangers of lead on the human body, which causes miscarriages and high death rates of newborns. Lead pipes, which were installed mostly in the late 1800s in the US, are still common today, much of which are located in the Northeast and the Midwest. Their impact is relatively small due to the fouling of pipes and stone cessation of the evolution of lead in the water; however, lead pipes are still detrimental. Most of the lead pipes that exist today are being removed and replaced with the more common material, copper or some type of plastic.
Remnants of pipes in some languages are the names of the experts involved in the execution, reparation, maintenance, and installation of water supply systems, which have been formed from the Latin word 'lead', English word 'plumber', French word, 'plombier'.
Potable water supply
Potable water is water that is drinkable and does not pose a risk to health. This supply may come from several possible sources.
Municipal water supply
Water wells
Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, etc.
Domestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending wastewater away from the residences.
Modern plumbing delivers clean, safe, and potable water to each service point in water distribution system, including taps. It is important that the clean water not be contaminated by the wastewater (disposal) side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been one of the largest killers of humans.
Most of the mandates for enforcing drinking water quality standards are not for the distribution system, but for the treatment plant. Even though the water distribution system is supposed to deliver the treated water to the consumers' taps without water quality degradation, complicated physical, chemical, and biological factors within the system can cause contamination of tap water.
There is a huge gap regarding the potable water supply between the developed and developing world. In general, Africa, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, has the poorest water supply system in the world because of the insufficient access to the system and the low quality of the water in the region.
Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy and is often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.
Hot water supply
Domestic hot water is provided by means of water heater appliances, or through district heating. The hot water from these units is then piped to the various fixtures and appliances that require hot water, such as lavatories, sinks, bathtubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.
Water flow reduction
Water flow through a tap can be reduced by inexpensive small plastic flow reducers. These restrict flow between 15 and 50%, aiding water conservation and reducing the burden on both water supply and treatment facilities.
Wastewater
Wastewater from various appliances, fixtures, and taps is transferred to the waste and sewage removal system via the sewage drain system to treatment plants. This system consists of larger diameter piping, water traps, and ventilation to prevent toxic gases from entering the living space.
Comparison to bottled water
United States
Contaminant levels found in tap water vary between households and plumbing systems. While the majority of US households have access to high-quality tap water, demand for bottled water increases. In 2002, the Gallup Public Opinion Poll revealed that the possible health risk associated with tap water consumption is one of the main reasons that cause American consumers to prefer bottled water over tap water.
The trust level towards tap water depends on various criteria, including the existing governmental regulations towards the water quality and their appliance. In 1993, the cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, led to a massive hospitalization of more than 400,000 residents and was considered the largest in US history. Severe violations of tap water standards influence the decrease in public trust.
The difference in water quality between bottled and tap water is debatable. In 1999, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) released controversial findings from a 4-year study on bottled water. The study claimed that one-third of the tested waters were contaminated with synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic. At least one sample exceeded state guidelines for contamination levels in bottled water.
In the United States, some municipalities make an effort to use tap water over bottled water on governmental properties and events. Voters in Washington State repealed a bottled water tax via citizen initiative.
See also
References
ASTM B75-02 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube
ASTM B42-02e1 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Pipe, Standard Sizes
ASTM B88-03 Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Water Tube
AWWA Research Foundation, Residential End Uses of Water, , 1999
External links
The Water Information Center - An online resource for public water system basics and water management issues from the National Academy of Sciences.
US Environmental Protection Agency Drinking water page
US. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water - Public Water Systems - One-stop resource for information on public water systems supplying tap water including information on drinking water, fluoridation, water testing, water-related diseases and contaminants, etc., plus links to EPA, WHO, and other resources.
the International Code Council
the American Society for Testing and Materials
the National Ground Water Association
The Copper Development Association
2008 Municipal Water Pricing Report(Canada)
Notes on Pipe—Copper Pipe weights and max PSI
Water
Drinking water
Water pollution
Water supply infrastructure | [
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239919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunt%20%28baseball%29 | Bunt (baseball) | A bunt is a batting technique in baseball or fastpitch softball. Official Baseball Rules define a bunt as follows: "A BUNT is a batted ball not swung at, but intentionally met with the bat and tapped slowly within the infield." To bunt, the batter loosely holds the bat in front of home plate and intentionally taps the ball into play. A properly executed bunt will create weak contact with the ball and/or strategically direct it, forcing the infielders to make a difficult defensive play to record an out.
Technique
The strategy in bunting is to ground the ball into fair territory, as far from the fielders as possible but within the infield. This requires not only physical dexterity and concentration, but also an awareness of the fielders' positions in relation to the baserunner or baserunners, their likely reactions to the bunt, and knowledge of the pitcher's most likely pitches.
The bunt is typically executed by the batter turning his body toward the pitcher and sliding one hand up the barrel of the bat to help steady it. This is called squaring up. Depending on the situation, the batter might square up either before the pitcher winds up, or as the pitched ball approaches the plate. Sometimes, a batter may square up, then quickly retract the bat and take a full swing as the pitch is delivered.
Types
Sacrifice bunt
In a sacrifice bunt, the batter will put the ball into play with the intention of advancing a baserunner, in exchange for the batter being thrown out. The sacrifice bunt is most often used to advance a runner from first to second base, though the runner may also be advanced from second to third base, or from third to home. The sacrifice bunt is most often used in close, low-scoring games, and it is usually performed by weaker hitters, especially by pitchers in games played in National League parks. A sacrifice bunt is not counted as an at-bat. In general, when sacrifice bunting, a batter will square to bunt well before the pitcher releases the ball.
The squeeze play occurs when the batter sacrifices with the purpose of scoring a runner from third base. In the suicide squeeze, in which the runner on third base starts running for home plate as soon as the pitcher starts to pitch the ball, it is integral that the batter bunt the ball successfully, or the runner will likely be tagged out easily. Due to the high-risk nature of this play, it is not often executed, but can often be an exciting moment within the game. Alternatively, in the lower-risk safety squeeze, the runner on third waits for the ball to be bunted before breaking for home. If a runner scores in a squeeze play, the batter may be credited with an RBI.
Bunting for a base hit
A batter may also bunt for a base hit. This is not a sacrifice play, because the batter is trying to reach base safely, without any intention of advancing a runner. A batter may try to bunt for a base hit while there are runners on base. In this case, if the runner advances and the batter is thrown out, and if the official scorer judges that the intention of the batter was to bunt for a base hit, then the batter will not receive credit for a sacrifice bunt. A batter bunting for a base hit will often hold back his bunt while the pitcher begins delivering the ball, in order to surprise the fielders. If successful, the bunt is scored as a hit single. Rarely does a bunt result in a double, and never has one resulted in a triple or home run in MLB.
Often when attempting to bunt for a base hit, the batter will begin running as he is bunting the ball. This is called a drag bunt. Left-handed batters perform this more often than right-handed hitters, because their stance in the batter's box is closer to first base, and they do not need to run across home plate, where the ball will be pitched, as they bunt.
The action of squaring to bunt is compromised during a drag bunt, as the feet are not set. Players sometimes get one hand up the barrel, and other times bunt with both hands at the base of the bat. There have been instances of one-handed drag bunts as well; Rafael Furcal has been known to try such a bunt.
Swinging bunt
A swinging bunt occurs when a poorly hit ball rolls a short distance into play, much like a bunt. A swinging bunt is often the result of a checked swing, and only has the appearance of a bunt. It is not a true bunt, and if the scorer judges that the batter intended to hit the ball, it cannot be counted as a sacrifice. There is also a "slug" bunt that is intended to surprise the opposing defense, as the desired effect is a hard-hit ball into the infield defense that is expecting a standard bunt.
Fielding a bunt
Fielding a bunt can be more difficult than fielding a normally batted ball. Bunted balls are typically slow, so fielders must charge the ball to get to it quickly, in order to throw out a runner in time. Well-placed bunts can sometimes be impossible to field, and result in base hits. The tactic in bunting for a base hit is to hit the ball fast enough to get it past the pitcher, but slow enough to not allow time for the other infielders to make a play. Bunting a ball into no-man's land – the triangle between the locations of the pitcher, first baseman, and second baseman, or between the pitcher, catcher and third baseman – can succeed because of uncertainty among the fielders as to which should field the ball and which should receive the throw to first base. It is not unusual for all three fielders to try to field the ball, and for nobody to cover the bag, or for no one to try to field the ball, assuming someone else will handle it. Teams use a rotation play to defend against the bunt: the first baseman will charge the bunt and the second baseman "rotates" out of his usual position to cover first base and receive the throw. The shortstop covers the base towards which the runner is headed.
Special rules
A foul bunt that is not caught in flight is always counted as a strike, even if it is a third strike and thus results in a strikeout of the batter. This is distinct from all other foul balls which, if not caught in flight, are only counted as a strike if not a third strike. This special exception applies only to true bunts, not on any bunt-like contacts that might occur during a full swing or check-swing. If a batter bunts the ball and his bat hits the ball again after initial contact, it is a dead ball even if by accident.
Additionally, the infield fly rule is not applied to bunts popped-up in the air. Instead, the intentional drop rule (Rule 6.05l) that also applies to line drives can be invoked.
History
It is not known when the bunt was introduced; the earliest known reference to a bunt-like hit appears in the account of a game played in 1864 between the junior squads ("muffins") of the Brooklyn Excelsior and Enterprise clubs: "The feature of the play was the batting of Prof. Bassler of the Enterprise team...Being an original of the first water, he adopted an original theory in reference to batting, which we are obliged to confess is not of the most striking character. His idea is not a bad one though, it being to hit the ball slightly so as to have it drop near the home base, therefore necessitating the employment of considerable skill on the part of the pitcher to get at the ball, pick it up and throw it accurately to first base." But the batting technique now known as the bunt was almost certainly perfected by Dickey Pearce, one of baseball's early stars. For much of his career, Pearce used his 'tricky hit' to tremendous effect as the rules permitted it to roll foul and still be counted as a hit. The bunt was not common until the 1880s, and was not an accepted part of baseball strategy until the 20th century. The bunt has enjoyed periodic waves of popularity throughout baseball history, coinciding with the periodic shifts of dominance between pitching and hitting over the decades.
During periods of pitching dominance, for example, during the dead-ball era or the 1960s, bunting was an important offensive weapon. Conversely, during periods of hitting dominance, for example, the 1990s and 2000s, the value of the bunt has often been questioned. Teams following the "Moneyball" school of baseball thought (such as the Oakland Athletics, the Boston Red Sox, and the 2004–2005 Los Angeles Dodgers) have shown a tendency to shun the sacrifice bunt almost entirely. However, a canvass of the 2002–2005 World Series champions (the 2002 Los Angeles Angels being the "small ball" trendsetter for the 2000s) reveals that each team used bunting frequently in order to overcome power hitting teams. Nevertheless, the role of the bunt in baseball strategy is one of the perennial topics of discussion for baseball fans.
References
External links
Baseball rules
Baseball strategy
Baseball terminology | [
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239923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prinia | Prinia | Prinia is a genus of small insectivorous birds belonging to the passerine bird family Cisticolidae. They were at one time classed in the Old World warbler family, Sylviidae.
The prinias are sometimes referred to as wren-warblers. They are a little-known group of the tropical and subtropical Old World, the roughly thirty species being divided fairly equally between Africa and Asia.
These are birds mainly of open habitats such as long grass or scrub, in which they are not easily seen. They are mainly resident, migration being limited to local cold weather movements. Non-breeding birds may form small flocks.
Prinias have short wings but long tapering tails. They are fairly drab birds, brown or grey above (sometimes with dark streaks) and whitish below. Some species have different breeding and non-breeding plumages. The bill is a typical insectivore's, thin and slightly curved.
Taxonomy
The genus was erected by the American naturalist Thomas Horsfield in 1821. The type species is the bar-winged prinia (Prinia familiaris). The name of the genus is derived from the Javanese prinya, the local name for the bar-winged prinia.
A molecular phylogenetic study of the Cisticolidae published in 2013 found that the rufous-vented grass babbler did not lie within the clade containing the other prinias. Based on this analysis the rufous-vented prinia and the closely related swamp grass babbler were moved to the reinstated genus Laticilla in the family Pellorneidae.
Species
The genus contains 29 species:
Himalayan prinia, Prinia crinigera – formerly striated prinia
Striped prinia, Prinia striata – split from P. crinigera
Brown prinia, Prinia polychroa
Burmese prinia, Prinia cooki – split from P. polychroa
Annam prinia, Prinia rocki – split from P. polychroa
Black-throated prinia, Prinia atrogularis
Hill prinia, Prinia superciliaris
Grey-crowned prinia, Prinia cinereocapilla
Rufous-fronted prinia, Prinia buchanani
Rufescent prinia, Prinia rufescens
Grey-breasted prinia, Prinia hodgsonii
Graceful prinia, Prinia gracilis
Delicate prinia, Prinia lepida
Jungle prinia, Prinia sylvatica
Bar-winged prinia, Prinia familiaris
Yellow-bellied prinia, Prinia flaviventris
Ashy prinia, Prinia socialis
Tawny-flanked prinia, Prinia subflava
Plain prinia, Prinia inornata
Pale prinia, Prinia somalica
River prinia, Prinia fluviatilis
Black-chested prinia, Prinia flavicans
Karoo prinia, Prinia maculosa
Drakensberg prinia, Prinia hypoxantha
São Tomé prinia, Prinia molleri
Banded prinia, Prinia bairdii
Black-faced prinia, Prinia melanops – usually considered as a subspecies of P. bairdii
Red-winged prinia, Prinia erythroptera
Red-fronted prinia, Prinia rufifrons
Species formerly in Prinia but now moved to Laticilla in family Pellorneidae:
Rufous-vented grass babbler, Laticilla burnesii
Swamp grass babbler, Laticilla cinerascens
References
Nguembock B.; Fjeldsa J.; Tillier A.; Pasquet E. (2007): A phylogeny for the Cisticolidae (Aves: Passeriformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data, and a re-interpretation of a unique nest-building specialization. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 42: 272–286.
Ryan, Peter (2006). Family Cisticolidae (Cisticolas and allies). pp. 378–492 in del Hoyo J., Elliott A. & Christie D.A. (2006) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 11. Old World Flycatchers to Old World Warblers Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
Urban, E.K.; Fry, C.H. & Keith, S. (1997) The Birds of Africa'', vol. 5. Academic Press, London.
Bird genera
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239924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo%2066 | Volvo 66 | The Volvo 66 sprang directly from the DAF 66, which was originally styled by Giovanni Michelotti. The compact car was introduced in August 1975, almost exactly a year after Volvo bought DAF, and before production of the Volvo 300 Series began.
The Volvo 66 was known for its continuously variable transmission, the Variomatic. The Volvo version of the car was slightly restyled and given larger bumpers compared with those of the original DAF model. Although this was in keeping with Volvo's emphasis on safety, it also increased its cost of production.
The Volvo 66 was available as a two-door saloon and three-door estate, whilst the two-door DAF 66 Coupé was dropped, and therefore was never sold as a Volvo.
The other major features in which the Volvo 66 differs from the DAF 66 are also mostly safety related. It has different seats featuring headrests, a safety steering wheel, steel side-impact bars in the doors, a declutching servo which enabled the driver to change gear with the choke engaged (In the older DAF models this was not possible, because the increased idle caused the centrifugal clutch to engage). The Volvo 66 also has a 'park' mode in the CVT, which locks the driveline. From 1977 the estate version featured a window wiper on the bootlid.
Number produced
Volvo produced roughly 106,000 units of both the saloon and estate 66, and no more than 14,000 were sold in the United Kingdom. The majority were sold in continental Europe rather than in Sweden, where the car was never accepted by Volvo buyers.
Engines
B110 Renault C-series OHV 1108 cc inline-four,
B130 Renault C-series OHV 1289 cc inline-four,
Gallery
References
66
Cars of the Netherlands
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1975
1980s cars
VDL Nedcar vehicles
Station wagons | [
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239926 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20treatment | Water treatment | Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation use.
Water is the most crucial compound for life on Earth, and having drinkable water is a key worldwide concern for the twenty-first century. All living things require clean, uncontaminated water as a basic requirement. Water covers more than 71 percent of the earth’s surface, but only around 1% of it is drinkable according to international standards due to various contaminations . Waste water discharge from industries, agricultural pollution, municipal wastewater, environmental and global changes are the main sources of water contamination. Even trace levels of heavy metals, dyes, and microbes are hazardous to human health, aquatic systems, and the environment. According to a Food and Agriculture Organization assessment from 2007, absolute water scarcity will affect 1.8 billion people living in countries, and water stress might affect two-thirds of the global population.
To address water scarcity issues, it is required to recover water from current wastewater or develop alternate water sources for human consumption.
Domestic and industrial wastewater are the two types of wastewater. Domestic wastewater contains sewage, bacteria, viruses, hazardous and non-toxic organisms, sanitary outputs, rubbish, detergents, and other solid and liquid discharges from non-manufacturing processes.
Drinking water treatment
Water contamination is primarily caused by the discharge of untreated wastewater from enterprises. The effluent from various enterprises, which contains varying levels of contaminants, is dumped into rivers or other water resources. The wastewater may have a high proportion of organic and inorganic contaminants at the initial discharge. Industries generate wastewater as a result of fabrication processes, processes dealing with paper and pulp, textiles, chemicals, and from various streams such as cooling towers, boilers, and production lines.
Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of contaminants and/or inactivation of any potentially harmful microbes from raw water to produce water that is pure enough for human consumption without any short term or long term risk of any adverse health effect. In general terms, the greatest microbial risks are associated with ingestion of water that is contaminated with human or animal (including bird) faeces. Faeces can be a source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths. The removal or destruction of microbial pathogens is essential, and commonly involves the use of reactive chemical agents such as suspended solids, to remove bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals including iron and manganese. Research including Professor Linda Lawton's group at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen is working to improve detection of cyanobacteria. These substances continue to cause great harm to several less developed countries who do not have access to effective water purification systems.
Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common practice to keep residual disinfectants in the treated water to kill bacteriological contamination during distribution and to keep the pipes clean.
Water supplied to domestic properties such as for tap water or other uses, may be further treated before use, often using an in-line treatment process. Such treatments can include water softening or ion exchange. Many proprietary systems also claim to remove residual disinfectants and heavy metal ions.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals in wastewater have become a serious environmental issue in recent years, owing to the high damage they pose to ecosystems and human health even at extremely low concentrations. Heavy metal pollution is a substantial environmental burden due to its flexibility, accumulation, non-biodegradability, and persistence. Its effluent is discharged into the environment by industries such as paper, Insecticides, tanneries, metal plating, mining operations, and so on. This effluent is non-biodegradable and poisonous or damaging to human physiology and other biological systems.
Organic and inorganic pollutants are two types of pollutants found in wastewater, each with a different spectrum of dangerous values.
In the treatment of organic pollutants, biological, physical, and chemical methods are commonly used. However, these approaches are ineffective against inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals. Heavy metal decomposition is a serious concern due to properties such as solubility, oxidation-reduction characteristics, and complex formation. Heavy metal is defined as an element with an atomic weight of between 63.5 and 200.6 and a specific gravity larger than 5.0.
Heavy metals in open waters cause aquatic life to perish, oxygen deficiency, and algae blooms. When heavy metals are discharged into rivers, they are transformed into hydrated ions, which are far more hazardous than metal atoms. The enzymatical processes is disrupted by these hydrated ions, and absorption is accelerated. As a result, heavy metals must be removed in order to reduce public risk.
Water Treatment Technologies
Processes
Elimination of hazardous chemicals from the water, many treatment procedures have been applied. The selection of wastewater treatment systems is contingent on a number of factors: (1)The degree to which a method is necessary to raise the waste water quality to a permissible level; (2) The control method's flexibility; (3) The process's cost; and (4) The process's environmental compatibility.
The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical processes such as settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and coagulation, and biological processes such as slow sand filtration.
A combination selected from the following processes (depending on the season and contaminants and chemicals present in the raw water) is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide.
Chemical
Chemical approaches are used in addition to physical and biological measures to reduce the discharge of pollutants and waste water into water bodies. Different chemical procedures for the conversion into final products or the removal of pollutants are used for the safe disposal of contaminants.
Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting biological growth.
Aeration along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron when present with relatively small amounts of manganese.
Disinfection for killing bacteria, viruses and other pathogens, using chlorine, ozone and ultra-violet light.
Physical
Physical techniques of water/waste water treatment rely on physical phenomena to complete the removal process, rather than biological or chemical changes.
Most common physical techniques are:
Sedimentation is one of the most important main wastewater treatment procedures. Gravity settling is a method of separating particles from a fluid. The particle in suspension remains stable in quiescent conditions due to the decrease in water velocity throughout the water treatment process, following which the particles settle by gravitational force. For solids separation that is the removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc.
Filtration is the technique of removing pollutants based on their particle size is known as filtration. Pollutant removal from waste water permits water to be reused for a variety of purposes. The types of filters used in the procedure differ depending on the contaminants present in the water. Particle filtration and Membrane filtration are the two main forms of waste water filtration.
Dissolved air flotation (Degasification) is the process of removing dissolved gases from a solution . The law of Henry's law states that the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is proportionate to the partial pressure of the gas. Degasification is a low-cost method of removing carbon dioxide gas from waste water that raises the pH of the water by removing the gas.
Physico-chemical
Also referred to as "Conventional" Treatment
Coagulation for flocculation. The addition of coagulants destabilizes colloidal suspensions by neutralizing their charges, resulting in the aggregation of smaller particles during the coagulation process.
Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes – to improve coagulation and for more robust floc formation.
Polyelectrolytes or also known in the field as polymers, usually consist of either a positive or negative charge. The nature of the polyelectrolyte used is purely based on the source water characteristics of the treatment plant.
These will usually be used in conjunction with a primary coagulant such as ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, or alum.
Chemical Precipitation
Chemical precipitation is a common process of eliminating heavy metals from inorganic wastewater. The dissolved metal ions are transformed to the insoluble solid phase by a chemical interaction with a precipitant agent such as lime after the pH is adjusted to basic conditions (pH 11).
Flotation
Flotation uses bubble attachment to separate solids or dispersed liquids from a liquid phase.
Membrane Filtration
Membrane filtration has gotten a lot of attention for inorganic effluent treatment since it can remove not only suspended solids and organic components, but also inorganic pollutants such heavy metals. For heavy metal removal, several forms of membrane filtration, such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis, can be used depending on the particle size that can be maintained.
Ion Exchange
Ion exchange is a reversible ion exchange process in which an insoluble substance (resin) takes ions from an electrolytic solution and releases additional ions of the same charge in a chemically comparable amount without changing the resin's structure.
Electrochemical Treatment Techniques
Electrodialysis (ED)
Membrane electrolysis (ME)
Electrochemical precipitation (EP)
Adsorption
Adsorption is a mass transfer process in which a substance is transported from the liquid phase to the surface of a solid/liquid (adsorbent) and becomes physically and chemically bonded (adsorbate). Adsorption can be classified into two forms based on the type of attraction between the adsorbate and the adsorbent: physical and chemical adsorption, commonly known as physisorption and chemisorptions.
Activated Carbon
Activated carbons (ACs) are effective adsorbents for a wide variety of contaminants. The adsorptive removal of color, aroma, taste, and other harmful organics and inorganics from drinking water and wastewater is one of their industrial applications.
Both a high surface area and a large pore size can improve the efficiency of activated carbon. Activated carbon was utilized by a number of studies to remove heavy metals and other types of contaminants from wastewater. The cost of activated carbon is rising due to a shortage of commercial activated carbon (AC). Because of its high surface area, porosity, and flexibility, activated carbon has a lot of potential in wastewater treatment.
Biological Treatment
This is the method by which dissolved and suspended organic chemical components are eliminated through biodegradation, in which an optimal amount of microorganism is given to re-enact the same natural self-purification process. Through two distinct biological process, such as biological oxidation and biosynthesis, microorganisms can degrade organic materials in wastewater. Microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment produce end products such as minerals, carbon dioxide, and ammonia during the biological oxidation process. The minerals (products) remained in the wastewater and were discharged with the effluent. Microorganisms use organic materials in wastewater to generate new microbial cells with dense biomass that is eliminated by sedimentation throughout the biosynthesis process.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a biological treatment method in which microorganisms breakdown or transform hazardous contaminants in wastewater to a less toxic or non-toxic state. The following technologies can be used to bioremediate wastewater, which can be done by autotrophs or heterotrophs; Phytoremediation, Rhizofiltration, Bioaugmentation, and Biostimulation. Autotrophhs are organisms that can fix carbon and use inorganic chemicals (carbon dioxide) in wastewater to make organic compounds such as fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. Heterotrophs will use the organic substances produced for their growth and development. Heterotrophs are organisms that are unable to fix carbon and rely on organic molecules from wastewater as a source of energy.
Slow sand filtration using a biofilm to metabolize organic matter, adsorb soluble components and entrap particulates.
Technologies
Technologies for potable water and other uses are well-developed, and generalized designs are available from which treatment processes can be selected for pilot testing on the specific source water. In addition, a number of private companies provide patented technological solutions for the treatment of specific contaminants. Automation of water treatment is common in the developed world. Source water quality through the seasons, scale, and environmental impact can dictate capital costs and operating costs. End use of the treated water dictates the necessary quality monitoring technologies, and locally available skills typically dictate the level of automation adopted.
Desalination
Saline water can be treated to yield fresh water. Two main processes are used, reverse osmosis or distillation. Both methods require more energy than water treatment of local surface waters, and are usually only used in coastal areas or where water such as groundwater has high salinity.
Portable water purification
Living away from drinking water supplies often requires some form of portable water treatment process. These can vary in complexity from the simple addition of a disinfectant tablet in a hiker's water bottle through to complex multi-stage processes carried by boat or plane to disaster areas.
Standards
Many developed countries specify standards to be applied in their own country. In Europe, this includes the European Drinking Water Directive and in the United States the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act. For countries without a legislative or administrative framework for such standards, the World Health Organization publishes guidelines on the standards that should be achieved. China adopted its own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) enacted by Ministry of Environmental Protection in 2002.
Where drinking water quality standards do exist, most are expressed as guidelines or targets rather than requirements, and very few water standards have any legal basis or, are subject to enforcement. Two exceptions are the European Drinking Water Directive and the Safe Drinking Water Act in the United States, which require legal compliance with specific standards.
Industrial water treatment
Processes
Two of the main processes of industrial water treatment are boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment. A large amount of proper water treatment can lead to the reaction of solids and bacteria within pipe work and boiler housing. Steam boilers can suffer from scale or corrosion when left untreated. Scale deposits can lead to weak and dangerous machinery, while additional fuel is required to heat the same level of water because of the rise in thermal resistance. Poor quality dirty water can become a breeding ground for bacteria such as Legionella causing a risk to public health.
Corrosion in low pressure boilers can be caused by dissolved oxygen, acidity and excessive alkalinity. Water treatment therefore should remove the dissolved oxygen and maintain the boiler water with the appropriate pH and alkalinity levels.
Without effective water treatment, a cooling water system can suffer from scale formation, corrosion and fouling and may become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria. This reduces efficiency, shortens plant life and makes operations unreliable and unsafe.
Boiler water treatment
Boiler water treatment is a type of industrial water treatment focused on removal or chemical modification of substances potentially damaging to the boiler. Varying types of treatment are used at different locations to avoid scale, corrosion, or foaming. External treatment of raw water supplies intended for use within a boiler is focused on removal of impurities before they reach the boiler. Internal treatment within the boiler is focused on limiting the tendency of water to dissolve the boiler, and maintaining impurities in forms least likely to cause trouble before they can be removed from the boiler in boiler blowdown.
Cooling water treatment
Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components of machinery and industrial equipment. Water may be a more efficient heat transfer fluid where air cooling is ineffective. In most occupied climates water offers the thermal conductivity advantages of a liquid with unusually high specific heat capacity and the option that of evaporative cooling. Low cost often allows rejection as waste after a single use, but recycling coolant loops may be pressurized to eliminate evaporative loss and offer greater portability and improved cleanliness. Unpressurized recycling coolant loops using evaporative cooling require a blowdown waste stream to remove impurities concentrated by evaporation. Disadvantages of water cooling systems include accelerated corrosion and maintenance requirements to prevent heat transfer reductions from biofouling or scale formation. Chemical additives to reduce these disadvantages may introduce toxicity to wastewater. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion engines and large industrial facilities such as nuclear and steam electric power plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries and chemical plants.
Technologies
Chemical treatment
Chemical treatments utilizes the additive of chemicals to make industrial water suitable for use or discharge. These includes processes like chemical precipitation, chemical disinfection, Advanced oxidation process (AOP), ion exchange, and chemical neutralization. AOPs are attractive in the treatment of hazardous wastewater due to its high oxidation potential and degradation performance. In AOPs, oxidants like Fenton's reagent, Ozone or Hydrogen peroxide are introduced in the wastewater to degrade harmful substances in industrial water for discharge.
Physical treatment
Physical treatment involves the separation of solids form industrial wastewater either through Filtration or Dissolved air flotation. Filtration involves the use of Membrane or filters such as mechanical filters like sand filtration etc to achieve solid-liquid separation. Whereas for Dissolved air flotation,
pressurized air is pumped into the wastewater. The pressurized air then forms small bubbles which adhere to the suspended matter causing them to float to the surface of the water where they can be removed by a skimming device or an overflow.
Biological treatment
Slow sand filters use a biological process to purify raw water to produce potable water. They work by using a complex biological film that grows naturally on the surface of sand. This gelatinous biofilm called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke is located in the upper few millimetres of the sand layer. The surface biofilm purifies the water as it flows through the layer, the underlying sand provides a support medium for the biological treatment layer. The Schmutzdecke consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As the biofilm ages, more algae may develop and larger aquatic organisms including bryozoa, snails and Annelid worms may be present. As water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
Slow sand filters are typically 1–2 metres deep, and have a hydraulic loading rate of 0.2–0.4 cubic metres per square metre per hour. Filters lose their performance as the biofilm thickens and reduces the rate of flow. The filter is refurbished by removing the biofilm and a thin upper layer of sand. Water is decanted back into the filter and re-circulated to enable a new biofilm to develop. Alternatively wet harrowing involves stirring the sand and flushing the biolayer through for disposal.
Physio-chemical treatment
(Also referred to as 'conventional treatment'.) Chemical flocculants are used to generate a floc in the water that traps suspended solids. Chemical polyelectrolytes are used to increase coagulation of suspended solids to improve removal.
This consist of a primary coagulant such as ferric sulfate and a coagulant aid cationic polymer being flash-mixed before it enters a Flocculation Basin.
Once the source water being treated has been flash-mixed with a primary coagulant and a polymer, they are then put into some type of flocculation basin, where slow turning or mixing of the water, mixes the chemicals together and they can then form what is called "floc" or "flocc", which then settles out to the bottom of the floc basin.
After the water has mixed and the floc has formed, it is then passed to the next stage which would be the settling basin. Here the process would have either tube settlers or plate settlers. The water would flow up through these tubes or plates, allowing the clear water to flow over into an effluent launder, which would then carry the "settled" water to the filters for further treatment.
The tubes/plates in the settling stage, allow a greater surface area for the "floc" to settle on. These plates are typically at a 30–45° angle, allowing the floc particles to collect in the tubes or the plates and eventually ending up in the bottom of the settling basin.
There is typically some sort of sludge collection system that then will collect all of the settled floc a.k.a. sludge, and pump it or transfer the waste to a decant tank or basin, where it is later disposed of.
Once the settled water had traveled to the filters, and has made its way through the filters, it is then stored in a clearwell, where all the filtered water gets collected for additional chemical addition: pH adjuster, chlorine or UV light.
After the appropriate contact time or kill time, the water leaves the clearwell and heads out to storage tanks or into the distribution, all the way to the customers faucet for use
Developing countries
Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) or self-supply designs. Such designs may employ solar water disinfection methods, using solar irradiation to inactivate harmful waterborne microorganisms directly, mainly by the UV-A component of the solar spectrum, or indirectly through the presence of an oxide photocatalyst, typically supported TiO2 in its anatase or rutile phases. Despite progress in SODIS technology, military surplus water treatment units like the ERDLator are still frequently used in developing countries. Newer military style Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Units (ROWPU) are portable, self-contained water treatment plants are becoming more available for public use.
For waterborne disease reduction to last, water treatment programs that research and development groups start in developing countries must be sustainable by the citizens of those countries. This can ensure the efficiency of such programs after the departure of the research team, as monitoring is difficult because of the remoteness of many locations.
Energy Consumption: Water treatment plants can be significant consumers of energy. In California, more than 4% of the state's electricity consumption goes towards transporting moderate quality water over long distances, treating that water to a high standard. In areas with high quality water sources which flow by gravity to the point of consumption, costs will be much lower.
Much of the energy requirements are in pumping. Processes that avoid the need for pumping tend to have overall low energy demands. Those water treatment technologies that have very low energy requirements including trickling filters, slow sand filters, gravity aqueducts.
A 2021 study found that a large-scale water chlorination program in urban areas of Mexico massively reduced childhood diarrheal disease mortality rates.
Regulation
United States
The Safe Drinking Water Act requires the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standards for drinking water quality in public water systems (entities that provide water for human consumption to at least 25 people for at least 60 days a year). Enforcement of the standards is mostly carried out by state health agencies. States may set standards that are more stringent than the federal standards.
EPA has set standards for over 90 contaminants organized into six groups: microorganisms, disinfectants, disinfection byproducts, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals and radionuclides.
EPA also identifies and lists unregulated contaminants which may require regulation. The Contaminant Candidate List is published every five years, and EPA is required to decide whether to regulate at least five or more listed contaminants.
Local drinking water utilities may apply for low interest loans, to make facility improvements, through the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom regulation of water supplies is a devolved matter to the Welsh and Scottish Parliaments and the Northern Ireland Assembly.
In England and Wales there are two water industry regulatory authorities.
Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) is the economic regulator of the water sector; it protects the interests of consumers by promoting effective competition and ensuring that water companies carry out their statutory functions. Ofwat has a management board comprising a Chairman, Chief Executive and Executive and Non-Executive members. There is a staff of about 240.
The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) provides independent assurance that the privatised water industry delivers safe, clean drinking water to consumers. The DWI was established in 1990 and comprises a Chief Inspector of Drinking Water and a team of about 40 people. The current standards of water quality are defined in Statutory Instrument 2016 No. 614 the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016.
The functions and duties of the bodies are formally defined in the Water Industry Act 1991 (1991 c. 56) as amended by the Water Act 2003 (2003 c. 37) and the Water Act 2014 (2014 c. 21).
In Scotland water quality is the responsibility of independent Drinking Water Quality Regulator (DWQR).
In Northern Ireland the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) regulates drinking water quality of public and private supplies. The current standards of water quality are defined in the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2017.
See also
Agricultural wastewater treatment
Control of water pollution
Clean Water Act
Peak water (water supply & demand)
Pulsed-power water treatment
Reclaimed water
Sewage treatment
Wastewater treatment
Water purification
Water quality
Water softening
Water supply
Heavy metals
Adsorption
Activated carbon
References
Further reading
External links
International Water Association Professional / research organization
NSF International – Independent non-profit standards organization
WHO.int, WHO Guidelines
Safe and Sustainable Water for Haiti web site hosted by Grand Valley State University
Treatment
Environmental issues with water | [
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239929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo%20Amazon | Volvo Amazon | The Volvo Amazon was a mid-sized car manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars from 1956 to 1970 and introduced in the United States as the 122S at the 1959 New York International Auto Show.
The Amazon shared the wheelbase, tall posture and high H-point seating of its predecessor, the PV444/544, and was offered in two-door sedan, four-door sedan, and five-door wagon body styles — all noted for their ponton styling. In 1959 Volvo became the world's first manufacturer to provide front seat belts as standard equipment — by providing them on all Amazon models, including the export models — and later becoming the first car featuring three-point seat belts as standard equipment.
When introduced, the car was named the Amason (with an 's'), deriving from the fierce female warriors of Greek mythology, the Amazons. German motorcycle manufacturer Kreidler had already registered the name, and the two companies agreed that Volvo could only use the name domestically (i.e., within Sweden), modifying the spelling to Amazon. Subsequently, Volvo began its tri-digit nomenclature and the line became known as the 120 Series.
The Amazon was originally manufactured at Volvo's Lundby plant in Gothenburg and subsequently at the company's Torslandaverken plant, which began operating in 1964. By the end of production, 234,653 four-door models, 359,917 two-door models and 73,220 station wagons had been produced, of which 60% were exported; for a total of 667,791 vehicles.
Styling and design
The Amazon sedan's ponton genre, three-box styling was inspired by US cars of the early 1950s, strongly resembling the Chrysler New Yorker sedan and the Chrysler 300C hardtop Coupe. According to designer Jan Wilsgaard, the Amazon's styling was inspired by a Kaiser he saw at the Gothenburg harbour.
The Amazon featured strong articulation front to rear, pronounced "shoulders", and slight but visible tailfins. These features became inspiration for Peter Horbury when reconceiving Volvo's design direction with the V70 after decades of rectilinear, slab-sided, boxy designs.
The Amazon's bodywork was constructed of phosphate-treated steel (to improve paint adhesion) and with heavy use of undercoating and anti-corrosive oil treatment.
Station wagon
The station wagon (estate) version was introduced at the 1962 Stockholm Auto Show, and Volvo manufactured 73,000 examples between 1962 and 1969. The Amazon estate featured a two-piece tailgate, with the lower section folding down to provide a load surface and the upper section that hinged overhead. The vehicle's rear license plate, attached to the lower tailgate, could fold "up" such that when the tailgate was lowered and the vehicle in use, the license plate was still visible. This idea was used by the original 1959 Mini. In recent years a similar arrangement was used on the tailgate of the Subaru Baja.
The Amazon platform was used as the basis for the P1800 and 1800ES.
History
Under prototype designation 1200, following the PV444's internal designation as the 1100, the Amazon was released in the press in February 1956, with production initially set to begin in July of the same year, and deliveries commenced in August 1956 — under the now modified internal designation 120 series. Further iterations included the 121, the base model with a single carburetor engine, the 122S introduced in 1958 as a performance model equipped with a dual carburetor engine. The Amazon's handbrake location, outboard of the driver's seat, was intended to accommodate subsequent bench seat models with column shift transmissions- these were produced in small numbers and made available to certain export markets. Buyers began to receive the first cars in February 1957, and initial models were two-tone red and black with light gray roof, light grey with a black roof, followed by a dark blue with gray roof in 1958.
In 1966 the Volvo PV ended production, replaced by the Amazon , a less expensive version of the Amazon, without exterior chrome trim, a passenger-side sunshield or cigarette lighter, and with a three-speed rather than four-speed transmission — available in black with red interior and later white or black with red interior. The newer Volvo 140 was becoming the company's mainstream model, and the last of the four-door 120 saloons were produced in 1967. In 1967 came the 123GT, which was a Model 130 with high-compression four-cylinder B18B engine (from the Volvo P1800), M41 gearbox, fully reclining seats, front fog and driving lights (on some markets), alternator, fender mounted mirrors, special steering wheel, dash with a shelf and tachometer, and other cosmetic upgrades. In 1969 the displacement of the old B18 engine was increased and the engine was called the B20. Of note: Volvo Cars arriving in Canada at the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia would have the (not-yet-legal) radial tires removed and replaced with bias-ply tires of-the-day before being accepted by DOT for delivery. Also, the European 'Flash-to-Pass' feature of the turn signal toggle would be disconnected for the British market as it did not have Department of Transport approval. Somehow, whereas most North American vehicles would only have lap safety belts until 1968, both driver and passenger got the 'three-point' shoulder belts, a Volvo safety feature. Fortunately, these remained in place for the new owners and doubtless saving many from death and injury from accidents.
The last Amazon was manufactured on 3 July 1970.
Features
Original specifications for the Amazon included the new Volvo B16 engine, a 3-speed manual gearbox (H6) and rear-wheel drive. In 1958 the sport model, Amazon Sport, was released and later the same year the Amazon became the first series produced car with a three-point safety belt in the front seats as standard. In 1962, Volvo introduced a two-door version, a five-door wagon, and the new B18 engine, deleting two-tone paint and upholstery. In 1965 the Amazon color-coordinated embossed vinyl upholstery and door panels became available. The new gearbox selections were the three-speed M30 (briefly offered with an automatic electric clutch), the four-speed M40 and the M41 with four-speed and overdrive. The M31 gearbox was also introduced in 1961 but was only available that year (a three-speed fully synchronized gearbox with overdrive on both second and third direct gears). Gearbox options on the 121 were the M30, M31 and M40 while gearbox options on the 122S were the M40 and M41 gearboxes. In 1964 the Borg-Warner BW35 three-speed automatic transmission also became available on the four-door and two-door. From 1967 to 1968 the BW35 was also available on the five-door wagon.
References
External links
Volvo Amazon Buyers Guide, with advice on finding a good example
Volvo Amazon Picture Gallery, including extensive production data
Norsk Volvo Amazon Klubb
Svenska Volvo Amazonklubben
Amazonet - Homepage about Volvo Amazon
Amazon
Sedans
Station wagons
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1956
1960s cars
1970s cars | [
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239930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple%20University | Temple University | Temple University (Temple or TU) is a public state-related research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1884 by the Baptist minister Russell Conwell. On May 12, 1888, it was renamed the Temple College of Philadelphia. By 1907, the institution revised its institutional status and was incorporated as a research university.
As of 2019, about 40,000 undergraduate, graduate and professional students were enrolled at the university. Temple is among the world's largest providers of professional education (law, medicine, podiatry, pharmacy, dentistry, engineering and architecture), preparing the largest body of professional practitioners in Pennsylvania.
History
Temple University was founded in 1884 by Russell Conwell, a Yale-educated Boston lawyer, orator, and ordained Baptist minister, who had served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Conwell came to Pennsylvania in 1882 to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. These students, later dubbed "night owls," were taught in the basement of Conwell's Baptist Temple (hence the origin of the university's name and mascot).
The Grace Baptist Church quickly grew popular within the North Philadelphia area. A temporary board of trustees was created to handle the rapidly growing formalities associated with the church's programs. When the board conducted its first meeting they named Russell H. Conwell president of "The Temple College." Within the following months, Grace Baptist Church appointed a new board of trustees, printed official admissions files, and issued stock to raise funds for new teaching facilities. Regardless of whether they had the resources to support the school, Conwell's desire was “to give education to those who were unable to get it through the usual channels”.
Conwell used the income from his “Acres of Diamonds” speech to fund Temple as a place where working-class Philadelphians might receive higher education.
Philadelphia granted a charter in 1888 to establish “The Temple College of Philadelphia”, but the city refused to grant authority to award academic degrees. By 1888, the enrollment of the college was nearly 600. It was in 1907 that Temple College revised its institutional status and incorporated as a university. Legal recognition as a university enhanced Temple in noticeable ways including its reputation, professional and graduate programs, overall enrollment, and financial support.
Over time, Temple expanded: Samaritan Hospital was founded, a Medical School was added, and Temple merged with the Philadelphia Dental College. After the merger, Temple officially reincorporated as Temple University on December 12, 1907.
In 1954, Temple University agreed to terms to purchase 11 1/2 acres of the adjacent Monument Cemetery and repurpose it for athletic fields and a parking lot. Families of the deceased claimed about 8,000 of the 28,000 bodies on the site and the rest were moved to an unmarked mass grave at Lawnview Memorial Park. Many of the remaining headstones from the cemetery, including a monument to George Washington and Marquis de Lafayette, were used as riprap for the Betsy Ross Bridge, some of which can be still be seen at low tide.
Since 1965, Temple has been a Pennsylvania state-related university, meaning the university receives state funds, subject to state appropriations, but is independently operated.
Campus
Temple University has six campuses and sites across Pennsylvania, plus international campuses in Rome and Japan.
Pennsylvania campuses
Main campus
The main campus is in North Philadelphia, about north of Center City. It occupies .
The campus has landmarks which have accrued over its history. O'Connor Plaza surrounds the Founder's Garden between Polett Walk and Liacouras Walk. The bronze statue of an owl, the university's mascot, is at the centre of main campus.
The Founder's Garden near Liacouras Walk is the burial place of Russell Conwell, founder and 38-year president of Temple. A bust of Conwell marks his grave. The Bell Tower is a landmark of the campus. It's tall and located in the center of the Main Campus between Paley Hall and Beury Hall. The surrounding plaza and grassy area is commonly referred to as "the Beach" or "Beury Beach".
Another green area on Main Campus is the Johnny Ring Garden. It is located near Mitten Hall and features a statue of Johnny Ring, Conwell's personal orderly during the Civil War.
Other campuses
Health Sciences Campus in North Philadelphia covers about 20 acres and extends to either side of North Broad Street from Allegheny Avenue to just above Tioga Street. The campus is home to Temple University Hospital, a teaching hospital; the Lewis Katz School of Medicine; the School of Pharmacy; the Maurice H. Kornberg School of Dentistry; and the College of Public Health.
Podiatric Medicine Campus is located at 8th and Race Streets. The Foot and Ankle Institute, the School of Podiatric Medicine, as well as the Shoe Museum, are at this location.
Center City Campus is across the street from Philadelphia City Hall. The Campus offers undergraduate and graduate courses and full degree programs in the evening, as well as non-credit workshops and seminars.
Ambler Campus, originally a junior college, has 325 faculty and 4,600 students, with bachelor's and master's degree programs on a site with a 187-acre (757,000 m2) arboretum, from Temple's main campus in Ambler, Pennsylvania.
Temple University Harrisburg (TUH), located in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, has a variety of graduate degree programs, certificate and professional development programs. The campus has an evening and weekend course schedule designed for working adults. The campus is located within the Strawberry Square complex.
International campuses
Temple University, Japan Campus
Temple University, Japan Campus (TUJ) is a branch campus in Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan. Temple University Japan was the oldest and largest campus of any foreign university in Japan, before its move from Minato-ku.
In addition to its core undergraduate program, TUJ has graduate programs in law, business, and education; an English-language preparation program; continuing education courses; and corporate education classes. Temple University Japan became the first recognized foreign university campus in Japan. TUJ's credits and degrees are recognized as being equivalent to those of Japanese universities and it can sponsor visas for international students. Students are also given Japanese student identification cards.
Temple University Rome
The Temple Rome campus is in the Villa Caproni, just north of Piazza del Popolo. The Villa Caproni has living accommodations, shops and restaurants. Its facilities include a 15,000-volume library, a computing center, academic classrooms, art and architecture studios, an art gallery and student lounges.
Campus police
The Temple University Police department is the largest university police force in the United States, with 130 campus police officers, including supervisors and detectives. All are Pennsylvania-certified law enforcement officers; each receives state-mandated police recruit training at an accredited state police academy.
The campus has more than 600 security cameras and more than a thousand 1000-watt metal halide lamps mounted on campus roofs to mimic daylight. Temple has two mass notification systems for emergencies, TUalert and TUsiren.
Sustainability
The Office of Sustainability was established on July 1, 2008, as a central resource focusing on four key areas: operations, academics, research, and outreach and engagement.
The Ambler campus’ "Ambler College", which is home to the Community and Regional Planning, Landscape Architecture, and Horticulture Departments, changed its name in 2009 to the School of Environmental Design. The campus is also home to the Center for Sustainable Communities, a Sustainability-based research center.
Since 2008, the university has enacted policies that include purchasing from green vendors and conserving water and energy across campus; offered 46 undergraduate courses, 22 graduate courses and 12 General Education courses focusing on the environment and sustainability; set in place programs to administer grants and offer incentives for any research related to the environment or sustainability; and offered programs to help create a green culture, both at Temple and beyond.
Campus development
In 2009, Temple announced Temple 20/20, a framework to guide development at its main campus. Among its goals, it will make Broad Street the center point of the university and include a new library for students and the community; a large new green space; a new science building and a high rise residence hall.
The university in 2014 adopted a new campus plan, Visualize Temple, with signature projects including a new library and quad in the heart of campus. A companion project, Verdant Temple, was announced in 2015 as a university strategy for updating and beautifying the school's open spaces, walkways and landscaping.
Projects
The Architecture building opened January 2012. The design incorporates a glass curtain wall exterior “skin” that allows daylight in to interior studios and classrooms while also providing views of the surrounding urban environment. The open plan of the structure enables collaboration within the design studios.
Mitchell and Hilarie Morgan Hall, a 27-story tower and ten-story mid-rise, opened September 2013. Mixed-use residence life facility contains student residences with 1,275 beds, laundry facilities, shared lobby areas, all-glass, two-story lounges with views of Center City; dining facilities; meeting rooms and event spaces; a major open landscape area; restaurant; coffee shop.
Pearson-McGonigle addition and renovations were completed during 2012. There are new and renovated training and support spaces for recreation services and NCAA Olympic Sports; Division One practice and training facilities for men's and women's basketball; five full basketball courts for students; rock climbing; juice bar; and new academic and advising space.
Science and Education Research Center was complete in spring of 2014. The project will attain LEED Silver certification, and possibly LEED Gold certification due to the innovative design of the facility and the site.
In 2016, the university opened its Temple Sports Complex, adding fields for intramural and club sports. The following year, work was completed on Temple's Aramark Student Training and Recreation Complex, a multipurpose academic, athletics and recreation facility.
On Jan. 18, 2018, Temple President Richard M. Englert announced that the university would take steps to advance its proposal of building a multipurpose facility, including retail space and a football stadium, on campus—including filing a project submission for review by the Philadelphia City Planning Commission.
On July 22, 2019, Temple University closed portions of Polett Walk between Anderson and Gladfelter Halls to construct a new lobby for Anderson Hall and a green space on the terrace between the two buildings. The construction is slated to be finished by the Fall 2020 semester.
Libraries
The Paley Library opened in 1966 and was designed, as common at the time, as a book warehouse rather than a modern academic library. After being supplanted by the Charles Library, the building was renamed to Samuel Paley Hall and subsequently housed the College of Public Health, as well as the campus bookstore, relocated from the Student Center.
On August 25, 2019, the university opened Charles Library, a four-story tall study facility. The building was designed by international architectural design office, Snøhetta. , the library holdings amounted to 4 million physical items, including 1.5 million books, and 1.5 million electronic books. The library includes both an automated search and retrieval system and browsable stacks for physical volumes. The library is open to the general public and not restricted to use by university students and personnel.
Academics
Temple University is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity", and has more than 500 degree programs at 15 schools and colleges and five professional schools.
Schools and colleges
Boyer College of Music and Dance
The Boyer College of Music and Dance is part of the Center for the Performing and Cinematic Arts at Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in close proximity to the city's historic cultural institutions, including the Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts, The Philadelphia Orchestra, Opera Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Ballet, Philadanco and the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The Boyer College of Music and Dance is housed in Presser Hall.
College of Engineering
The College of Engineering at Temple University includes five departments: Bioengineering, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Center for Engineering, Management & Technology. The college offers eight undergraduate programs (B.S.) and seven graduate programs (M.S., Ph.D.).
College of Liberal Arts
The College of Liberal Arts at Temple University includes 28 academic departments, offering 35 undergraduate majors and 36 minors. The College of Liberal Arts is housed in Mazur (formerly Anderson) and Gladfelter Halls. The Criminal Justice department is one of the leading criminal justice programs in the United States. The college offers 15 master's degrees and 13 doctoral programs.
College of Public Health
Temple University's College of Public Health includes the departments of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Health Services Administration and Policy, Kinesiology, Nursing, Occupational Therapy, Social and Behavioral Sciences and the School of Social Work. It is one of the largest colleges of public health in the United States. The College of Public Health offers bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees as well as certificate programs.
College of Science and Technology
Temple University's College of Science and Technology houses the departments of Biology, Chemistry, Computer & Information Sciences, Earth & Environmental Science, Mathematics, and Physics. It is one of the largest schools or colleges of its kind in the Philadelphia region with more than 230 faculty and 4,000 undergraduate students.
The College of Science and Technology offers bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in all six departments as well as science with teaching bachelor's degrees through the TUteach program. CST's advanced Science Education and Research Center (SERC), which opened in 2014, is 247,000 square feet research center, home to 7 research center and institutes. SERC has 52 research labs and 16 teaching rooms, and cost $137 million.
The College of Science and Technology's Mathematics and Computer Science departments are housed in Wachman Hall.
Fox School of Business
The Fox School offers 15 undergraduate majors, 19 minors, 10 professional master's programs, and two PhD programs, and the school has a variety of international partnerships.
It ranked in the top 30 in the nation in the 2017 Times Higher Ed World University Rankings and top 80 in the world for undergraduate studies. The Fox School of Business is housed in Alter Hall.
On March 9, 2020, the Department of Veterans Affairs suspended G.I. Bill reimbursement eligibility for Temple University and several other schools due to what the V.A. said were "erroneous, deceptive, or misleading enrollment and advertising practices", giving the schools 60 days to take "corrective action". The Philadelphia Inquirer states that the action is a result of misreporting by the Fox School of Business. The VA withdrew its threat of sanctions in July 2020.
Klein College of Media and Communication
Klein College of Media and Communication (formerly, the School of Media and Communication) is one of the largest and most comprehensive schools of media and communication in the country. The school has about 3,000 undergraduate and graduate students, more than 20,000+ alumni, and more than 60 full-time faculty members.
The School of Media and Communication was renamed the Klein College of Media and Communication on in 2017, in tribute to broadcasting pioneer Lew Klein, who died in June 2019.
Lewis Katz School of Medicine
In July 2014, Lewis Katz School of Medicine scientists were the first to remove HIV from human cells.
In October 2015, the school of medicine was officially named the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University in honor of Temple alumnus, former trustee, visionary leader and ardent supporter Lewis Katz.
School of Pharmacy
The Temple University School of Pharmacy (TUSP), on the Health Science Campus of Temple University in Philadelphia, is one of six schools of pharmacy in Pennsylvania conferring the doctor of pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree. It also confers the Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy) and M.S. (master of science) degrees in pharmaceutical sciences.
Tyler School of Art and Architecture
The Tyler School of Art and Architecture was founded in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, in the 1930s, when Stella Elkins Tyler donated her estate to Temple University. Tyler moved to a state-of-the-art facility at Temple's Main Campus in Philadelphia in 2009. In 2019, more than 20 years after Temple's Architecture programs became part of Tyler, the school expanded its name, becoming the Tyler School of Art and Architecture.
Tyler was ranked number 15 in fine art schools in the United States by U.S. News & World Report in 2016.
School of Theater, Film and Media Arts
The School of Theater, Film and Media Arts (TFMA) is part of the Center for the Performing and Cinematic Arts at Temple University, which also includes the Boyer College of Music and Dance. Along with the Center, TFMA was created in 2012.
TFMA offers BA and BFA programs in 13 concentrations in disciplines from musical theater to cinematography, screenwriting to theater design. Graduate programs include MFA programs in Film and Media Arts, Musical Theater Collaboration, Acting, Design, Directing and Playwriting, as well as MA programs in Media Arts and Musical Theater Studies, and a PhD in Documentary Arts and Visual Research.
Beasley School of Law
The Beasley School of Law was founded in 1895. With a reported enrollment of more than 860 students in Fall 2017, the school trains students with programs focused on trial advocacy, transnational law, and taxation, among others. The school offers full- and part-time programs, offering evening classes for working students. As of 2018, U.S. News & World Report ranked the school the 47th best law school in the United States.
College of Education and Human Development
The College of Education and Human Development has more than 2,140 students (undergraduate, graduate programs, and non-matriculated students). Founded in 1919, the college is organized into three departments: Teaching & Learning, Policy, Organizational & Leadership Studies, and Psychological Studies in Education. The college has a longstanding relationship with the School District of Philadelphia, helping to teach and prepare future educators for the city. The College of Education is housed in Ritter Hall.
School of Social Work
Temple's School of Social Work, part of the College of Public Health, offers full-time, part-time and online programs. It had an enrollment of more than 600 students in Fall 2017.
School of Podiatric Medicine
Temple's School of Podiatric Medicine is a school of podiatry. The school's Foot and Ankle Institute is the largest podiatric medical treatment facility anywhere, logging more than 40,000 patient visits annually. Students also train through programs through Temple University Health System.
Kornberg School of Dentistry
With nearly 700 students, the Kornberg School of Dentistry has been educating dental students since 1863—making it the second oldest dental school in continuous existence in the United States. The school's clinic offers services including routine dental care and prevention to children's dentistry, orthodontics, emergency care, and implants.
School of Sport, Tourism, and Hospitality Management
The School of Sport, Tourism and Hospitality Management houses the Sport Industry Research Center and the U.S.–Asia Center for Tourism & Hospitality Research. More than 1,100 students were enrolled in its undergraduate and graduate programs as of Fall 2017.
Foreign study
Temple offers study-abroad opportunities at its campuses in Rome and Tokyo, and semester and summer programs in London, Rome, Japan, Dublin, Germany, France, China, South Africa, Spain, Ecuador, and Australia. Temple University has a global internship program, offering internships in Spain, Costa Rica, Australia, India, Chile, China, Singapore, and various U.S. cities
Technology
In January 2006, the university opened the TECH Center, a technology facility.
Rankings
In U.S. News & World Report's 2021 rankings, Temple is tied for 46th among U.S. public universities, tied for 103rd among all national universities and ranked tied for 312th globally. Temple undergraduate college is among the top colleges profiled in The Princeton Review's The Best 382 colleges (2018). Temple's Arts and Humanities faculty, Social Science and Management faculty, Life Science and Medicine faculty are ranked 182nd, 339th, 350th respectively in the world in 2014 by QS World University Rankings. Temple's Social Science faculty is also ranked 51-75 in the world in 2016 by ARWU.
In 2017, Temple received $268.4 million in research funding, ranking it 85th out of 901 institutions in the NSF's Higher Education Research and Development Survey.
Student life
As of 2018, about 11,000 students live on or around Temple's main campus. University officials have tried various things, including building facilities, to encourage students, faculty, and staff to live and work nearby.
Recreational facilities on and around main campus include the Howard Gittis Student Center, which has a movie theater, food court, underground multi-purpose room, game room, computer lounge, and meeting and office space for student groups and organizations. Exercise facilities include the Independence Blue Cross Student Recreation Center (commonly referred to as IBC), which provides 59,000 square feet (5,500 m2) of fitness facilities; the Student Pavilion, a 4-court field house for volleyball, basketball, badminton, floor hockey, indoor soccer, tennis, golf, and more; and Pearson/McGonigle, TU Fitness, and the Geasey Field Complex. The Recreation Center is part of the Liacouras Center, which also includes the home court of the Temple basketball team and various entertainment venues.
In 2017, the Aramark Student Training and Recreation Complex (commonly referred to as STAR) was built, which includes a new climbing wall and the weight room. There is also academic classrooms for the College of Public Health, administrative offices, a Jamba Juice and a 75-yard turf field.
Traditions
Cherry and White
Cherry and White are the official school colors of Temple University. Temple was the first school in the nation to officially use cherry as one of its colors. The only other current school that uses the cherry and white combination is the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. The only other large university that uses cherry is the University of New Mexico. Cherry is a common motif at Temple, from the Cherry Crusade fan club to the Cherry and White Directory. In 2008, Temple standardized the cherry color to be Pantone Matching System (PMS) 201.
The Temple "T"
The university's symbol, the Temple "T", was designed by students in a graphic arts and design class in the Tyler School of Art and Architecture in 1983. The “T” represents strength and positive character, with the open ends showing the free exchange of ideas that is the hallmark of a Temple education. The Temple T is referenced in the school's cheer, T For Temple U.
T For Temple U
"T For Temple U" is a cheer performed at many sporting events, pep rallies, and school celebrations. The song was written in the 1980s by a member of the Temple University Diamond Marching Band. "T For Temple U" is accompanied by arm motions that create the shapes of the letters T and U. Temple's official fight song is "Fight, Temple, Fight!"
The Owl
The owl has been the symbol and mascot for Temple University since its founding in the 1880s, making it the first school in the United States to adopt the owl as its symbol. The nocturnal hunter symbolized Temple's early mission as a night school for ambitious young people of limited means. Russell Conwell encouraged these students, saying, "The owl of the night makes the eagle of the day." In 1977, Temple introduced "Victor T. Owl," a costumed mascot, which was then renamed Hooter in 1984, and has remained Temple's mascot at sports games and events since. Stella, Temple's live owl mascot, was hatched in 2009 in Washington State and raised by a master falconer. She arrived in Pennsylvania in 2011 and lives in the Elmwood Park Zoo in Norristown, Pennsylvania. Stella is one of two live owl mascots in Division 1 athletics, the other being Florida Atlantic University's Hera.
Fraternities and sororities
Temple has hosted fraternities and sororities for more than 100 years. As of 2018, 28 organizations are part of the Temple University Greek Association, while the Greek population has more than doubled in recent years to more than 1,600 undergraduates.
Student organizations
Temple University has more than 300 student organizations for a variety of interests academic, professional, political and advocacy, service, religious, cultural and international, arts, entertainment, recreation and leisure, and media and publishing.
Temple University Graduate Students' Association
The Temple University Graduate Students' Association (TUGSA), which is affiliated with the American Federation of Teachers and the AFL-CIO, is the only recognized graduate student employee union in Pennsylvania. Formed in 1997, TUGSA is a union that advocates for graduate students that are employed by the university as teaching or research assistants.
Main Campus Program Board
The Main Campus Program Board is a student-run organization that plans the premiere events for the Temple student body. They specialize in large-scale events for the student community on Main Campus, organize trips to locations throughout the region, plan student Homecoming events including the annual Homecoming concert, and host speakers, comedians, and novel events.
Media
The Temple News is the editorially independent weekly newspaper of Temple University. It prints 5,000 copies to be distributed primarily on Temple's Main Campus every Tuesday. A staff of 25 plus more than 150 writers design, report and edit the 20-page paper. In 2008, the paper's Web site, temple-news.com, received the National Online Pacemaker Award from the Associated Collegiate Press. In 2015, the paper also won the print counterpart, the National Pacemaker Award. In 2009, the paper's staff won eight Keystone Press Awards. Templar, Temple University's annual undergraduate yearbook, was created in 1924. During 2017, the yearbook received a national second-place award from the American Scholastic Press Association. WHIP, an acronym that stands for We Have Infinite Potential, is Temple University's student radio station. It started broadcasting using Carrier Current in the Student Center before moving its studios to the TECH center. WHIP also gets increased visibility in a top-five media market as one of iHeartRadio's top college radio stations. Temple also has TUTV, a digital cable station that broadcasts to Philadelphia. TUTV features programs from Klein College School of Media and Communication, other colleges and schools at Temple, community and professional broadcasting partners.
Athletics
Temple University's sports teams are the Owls: a name born from Temple's early days when it was a night school. The sports teams all participate in the NCAA's Division I and the American Athletic Conference (The American). The Owls moved after spending the previous 31 years in the Atlantic 10 Conference (A-10). The field hockey and lacrosse teams are affiliate members of the Big East Conference. The Owls are also part of the Philadelphia Big 5, the Philadelphia-area basketball rivalry. Temple University was among the first institutions in the United States to sponsor extracurricular athletic activities for its students when both the football and basketball programs were inaugurated in 1894 under the direction of Coach Charles M. Williams.
Football
Temple's football program dates back to 1894 and currently plays Division I FBS football in the American Athletic Conference.
On December 17, 2012, Matt Rhule [pronounced rule] was named Temple's 26th head football coach. He had most recently served as the assistant offensive line coach with the New York Giants. Rhule was an assistant coach for the Owls for six seasons, ending in 2010-11 when the program went 9–4 and played in the fourth bowl game in school history, the Gildan New Mexico Bowl, where the Owls defeated Wyoming, 37–15 – Temple's first postseason victory since the 1979 Garden State Bowl. In 2015, they posted a school-record-tying 10 wins and 4 losses.
Temple won the 2016 American Athletic Conference Football Championship Game to secure its first conference championship since 1967. On December 13, 2016, Geoff Collins was named Temple's 27th head football coach. Before taking the position, Collins had served as defensive coordinator for the University of Florida Gators that ranked among the nation's best during his two seasons on staff. Collins took the Temple Owls to the Bad Boy Mowers Gasporilla Bowl in 2017 in which the Owls defeated the Florida International Golden Panthers 28 to 3.
The team is currently coached by Stan Drayton.
Men's basketball
The Temple Men's basketball program was ranked fifth in all-time NCAA wins with 1,903 starting the 2017–2018 season. Only Kentucky, Kansas, North Carolina, and Duke have a higher total.
Temple is recognized as having won the first-ever National Collegiate basketball championship in 1938, under Coach James Usilton. That Owls team, which finished with a 23–2 record, won the inaugural National Invitation Tournament by routing Colorado, 60–36, in the championship final. Because the NCAA Tournament was not held until the following year, Temple's NIT championship earned the Owls the first national college basketball title. During the 1950s, the Temple basketball team made two NCAA Final Four appearances (1956 and 1958) under Head Coach Harry Litwack. Litwack would be inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame after concluding a 21-year coaching career that included 373 wins.
Head Coach John Chaney, who is also a Hall of Fame coach, won a total of 724 career games and took Temple to the NCAA tournament 17 times. His 1987–88 Owls team entered the NCAA tournament ranked No. 1 in the country, and he has reached the Elite Eight on five occasions. He was consensus national coach of the year in 1988.
On April 10, 2006, University of Pennsylvania head coach and La Salle University alumnus Fran Dunphy was named the new Temple's men's head basketball coach after Chaney's retirement in conclusion of the 2006 season. Dunphy had coached the Quakers for 17 straight seasons prior to the move. Dunphy and the Owls won three straight Atlantic-10 tournaments in 2008, 2009 and 2010, with the third marking a conference-leading ninth A-10 title. In the 2011–12 season, the Owls won the A-10 regular season title.
Heading into the 2015–16 season, the program owned a 116-year win-loss record of 1,849–1,024. The Owls' history also includes 48 postseason tournament appearances (31 NCAAs, 18 NITs), two Final Four appearances (1956 and 1958) under Litwack, five regional finals in the last 22 years under John Chaney (1988, 1991, 1993, 1999 and 2001), NIT championships in 1938 and 1969, and two Naismith Basketball Association Hall of Fame Coaches in Litwack and Chaney.
Alumni and faculty
There are more than 320,000 Temple alumni currently living in 50 states and 143 countries. Temple has many famous alumni, such as Bill Cosby, Bob Saget, Daryl Hall, John Oates, Irvin Kershner and Diplo. Temple University employs over 3,100 educators and has a student to faculty ratio of 14:1.
See also
List of colleges and universities in Philadelphia
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, a partner in Malaysia
References
External links
Temple Athletics website
Architecture schools in Pennsylvania
Commonwealth System of Higher Education
Educational institutions established in 1884
Foreign universities and colleges in Japan
Universities and colleges in Philadelphia
Templetown, Philadelphia | [
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239931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo%20Duett | Volvo Duett | The Duett is an automobile from Volvo that was in production from 1953 to 1969.
The name Duett was intended to signify a car that could be used as a delivery vehicle during the week and as a comfortable sedan away from work.
The Duett was produced in three body styles: an estate car (or station wagon), a panel van, and, in small numbers, a bare chassis with no body from the windshield rearward.
Ladder frame design
The design is based on the Volvo PV sedan and shares its engine and front suspension with that model. However, unlike the PV, which had a unibody design and a coil spring rear suspension, the Duett used a ladder frame with leaf springs supporting the rear.
While the Duett has been criticised as a regressive design by those who point out that the ladder-frame car was based on Volvo's first unibodied car; the use of a separate ladder chassis provided Volvo with an easy solution in their desire to produce a suitable commercial vehicle. The availability of the bare chassis also allowed Swedish coach builders such as Grip, Valbo and Nordbergs to build Duett-based pickup trucks, convertibles and specialised commercial vehicles. The versatility of the ladder-frame design also made the Duett a popular choice as a base for customised vehicles such as hot rods and EPA tractors.
The Duett was the only automobile marketed by Volvo in the United States that used a separate frame. All other models were of unibody construction.
Model designations
PV445
The PV445s bodywork was based on the PV444 saloon car and shared its two-piece flat paned windshield.
P210
The P210 replaced the P445 in the fall of 1960. It is most easily distinguishable from the PV445 by its use of a single-piece curved windshield, which it shares with the PV544.
Demise and replacement
The final P210 rolled off the line in 1969, four years after the end of production of the PV544 on which it was based. The Duett was replaced by the Volvo 145 Express.
Gallery
References
Duett
Station wagons
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1953
1960s cars | [
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239932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flush%20toilet | Flush toilet | A flush toilet (also known as a flushing toilet, water closet (WC) – see also toilet names) is a toilet that disposes of human waste (principally urine and feces) by using the force of water to flush it through a drainpipe to another location for treatment, either nearby or at a communal facility, thus maintaining a separation between humans and their waste. Flush toilets can be designed for sitting (in which case they are also called "Western" toilets) or for squatting, in the case of squat toilets. Most modern sewage treatment systems are also designed to process specially designed toilet paper. The opposite of a flush toilet is a dry toilet, which uses no water for flushing.
Flush toilets are a type of plumbing fixture and usually incorporate an "S", "U", "J", or "P" shaped bend called a trap that causes water to collect in the toilet bowl to hold the waste and act as a seal against noxious sewer gases. Most flush toilets are connected to a sewerage system that conveys waste to a sewage treatment plant; where this is not available, a septic tank or composting system may be used. When a toilet is flushed, the wastewater flows into a septic tank, or is conveyed to a treatment plant.
Associated devices are urinals, which dispose of male urine, and bidets, which use water to cleanse the anus, perineum, and genitals after using the toilet.
Operation
A typical flush toilet is a fixed, vitreous ceramic bowl (also known as a pan) which is connected to a drain. After use, the bowl is emptied and cleaned by the rapid flow of water into the bowl. This flush may flow from a dedicated tank (cistern), a high-pressure water pipe controlled by a flush valve, or by manually pouring water into the bowl. Tanks and valves are normally operated by the user, by pressing a button, pushing down on a handle, pulling a lever or pulling a chain. The water is directed around the bowl by a molded flushing rim around the top of the bowl or by one or more jets, so that the entire internal surface of the bowl is rinsed with water.
Mechanical flush from a cistern
A typical toilet has a tank fixed above the bowl which contains a fixed volume of water, and two devices. The first device allows part of the contents of the tank (usually in the 3–6 liters; ¾ to 1½ gallon range) to be discharged rapidly into the toilet bowl, causing the contents of the bowl to be swept or sucked out of the toilet and into the drain, when the user operates the flush. The second device automatically allows water to enter the tank until the water level is appropriate for a flush.
The water may be discharged through a "toilet flapper valve" (not to be confused with a type of check valve), or through a siphon. A float usually commands the refilling device.
Mechanical flush from a high pressure water supply
Toilets without cisterns are often flushed through a simple flush valve or "Flushometer" connected directly to the water supply. These are designed to rapidly discharge a limited volume of water when the lever or button is pressed then released.
Manual flush (pour flush)
A toilet need not be connected to a water supply, but may be pour-flushed. This type of flush toilet has no cistern or permanent water supply, but is flushed by pouring in a few litres of water from a container. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres (½ to ¾ gallon). This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank.
Vacuum toilet
A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that is connected to a vacuum sewer system, and removes waste by suction. They may use very little water (less than a quarter of a liter per flush) or none, (as in waterless urinals). Some flush with coloured disinfectant solution rather than with water. They may be used to separate blackwater and greywater, and process them separately (for instance, the fairly dry blackwater can be used for biogas production, or in a composting toilet).
Passenger train toilets, aircraft lavatories, bus toilets, and ships with plumbing often use vacuum toilets. The lower water usage saves weight, and avoids water slopping out of the toilet bowl in motion. Aboard vehicles, a portable collection chamber is used; if it is filled by positive pressure from an intermediate vacuum chamber, it need not be kept under vacuum.
Flushing systems
The flushing system provides a large flow of water into the bowl. They normally take the form of either fixed tanks of water or flush valves.
Flush tanks
Flush tanks or cisterns usually incorporate a mechanism to release water from the tank and an automatic valve to allow the cistern to be refilled automatically.
This system is suitable for locations plumbed with or water pipes which cannot supply water quickly enough to flush the toilet; the tank is needed to supply a large volume of water in a short time. The tank typically collects between of water over a period of time. In modern installations the storage tank is usually mounted directly above and behind the bowl.
Older installations, known as "high suite combinations", used a high-level cistern (tank), fitted above head height, activated by a pull chain connected to a flush lever on the cistern. When more modern close-coupled cistern and bowl combinations were first introduced, these were first referred to as "low suite combinations". Modern versions have a neater-looking low-level cistern with a lever that the user can reach directly, or a close-coupled cistern that is even lower down and fixed directly to the bowl. In recent decades the close coupled tank/bowl combination has become the most popular residential system, as it has been found by ceramic engineers that improved waterway design is a more effective way to enhance the bowl's flushing action than high tank mounting.
Tank fill valve
Tank fill valves are found in all tank-style toilets. The valves are of two main designs: the side-float design and the concentric-float design. The side-float design has existed for over a hundred years. The concentric design has only existed since 1957, but is gradually becoming more popular than the side-float design.
The side-float design uses a float on the end of a lever to control the fill valve. The float is usually shaped like a ball, so the mechanism is often called a ball-valve or a ballcock (cock in this context is an alternative term for valve; see, for example, stopcock). The float was originally made from copper sheet, but it is now usually plastic. The float is located to one side of the main valve tower or inlet at the end of a rod or arm. As the float rises, so does the float-arm. The arm connects to the fill valve that blocks the water flow into the toilet tank, and shuts off the water when the float reaches a set height. This maintains a constant level in the tank.
The newer concentric-float fill valve consists of a tower which is encircled by a plastic float assembly. Operation is otherwise the same as a side-float fill valve, even though the float position is somewhat different. By virtue of its more compact layout, interference between the float and other obstacles (tank insulation, flush valve, and so on) is greatly reduced, thus increasing reliability. The concentric-float fill valve is also designed to signal to users automatically when there is a leak in the tank, by making much more noise when a leak is present than the older style side-float fill valve, which tends to be nearly silent when a slow leak is present.
Newer fill valves have a delayed action that will not start filling the tank/cistern until the flapper/drop valve has closed which saves some water.
Flapper-flush valve or drop valve
In tanks using a flapper-flush valve, the outlet at the bottom of the tank is covered by a buoyant (plastic or rubber) cover, or flapper, which is held in place against a fitting (the flush valve seat) by water pressure. The user pushes a lever to flush the toilet, which lifts the flush valve from the valve seat. The valve then floats clear of the seat, allowing the tank to empty quickly into the bowl. As the water level drops, the floating flush valve descends back to the bottom of the tank and covers the outlet pipe again. This system is common in homes in North America and in continental Europe. From 2001, due to a change in regulations, this flush system has also become available in the UK, where prior to that the siphon-type flush was mandated.
Dual flush versions of this design with push buttons are widely available. They have one level of water for liquid waste and a higher level for solid waste.
In North America, newer toilets have a flapper-flush valve. Older toilets have a flapper-flush valve. The larger flapper-flush valve is used on toilets that use less water, such as per flush. Some have a bell inlet for a faster more effective flush.
A problem with the valve type flush mechanism is that it invariably starts to leak after a couple of years use due to wear and tear of the valve, particles, etc. trapped in the valve. Quite often this leakage is barely noticeable but adds up to a considerable water wastage. In the UK it has been found that between 5 and 8% of toilets (mostly dual flush drop valves) are leaking, each one between 215 and 400 litres (50 to 90 gallons) on average per day. Whilst they save more water than they leak, regular maintenance or use of a non-leaking flush mechanism will maximise water savings.
Siphon-flush mechanism
This system, invented by Albert Giblin and common in the UK, uses a storage tank similar to that used in the flapper-flush-valve system above. This flush valve system is sometimes referred to as a valveless system, since no valve as such is required.
The siphon is formed of a vertical pipe that links the flush pipe to a domed chamber inside the cistern. A perforated disc, covered by a flexible plate or flap, is fitted inside this chamber and is joined by a rod to the flush lever.
Pressing the lever raises the disc, forces water over the top of the siphon into the vertical pipe, and starts the siphonic flow. Water flows through the perforated disc past the flap until the cistern is empty, at which point air enters the siphon and the flush stops.
The advantage of a siphon over the flush valve is that it has no sealing washers that can wear out and cause leaks, whereas other valve types - flapper, drop valve do leak, invariably after a couple of years of use and they have reduced water savings due to the valves not being maintained in practice. The siphon membrane will require occasional replacement.
Until 1 January 2001, the use of siphon-type cisterns was mandatory in the UK but after that date the regulations additionally allowed pressure flushing cisterns and pressure flushing valves (though the latter remained forbidden in houses). Siphons can sometimes be more difficult to operate than a "flapper"-based flush valve because moving the lever requires more torque than a flapper system. This additional torque is required because a certain amount of water must be lifted up into the siphon passageway in order to initiate the siphon action in the tank. Splitting or jamming of the flexible flap covering the perforated disc can cause the cistern to go out of order.
Dual-flush versions of the siphon cistern provide a shorter flush option by allowing air into the siphon to stop the siphon action before the tank is empty.
The siphon system can also be combined with an air box to allow multiple siphons to be installed in a single trough cistern.
High-pressure or pressure-assisted tanks
Pressure-assisted toilets are sometimes found in both private (single, multiple, and lodging) installations as well as light commercial installations (such as offices). Products from several companies use to per flush.
The mechanism consists of a plastic tank hidden inside the typical ceramic cistern or an exposed metal tank/cistern.
When the tank fills with water, the air trapped inside compresses. When the air pressure inside the plastic tank reaches a certain level, the tank stops filling with water. A high-pressure valve located in the center of the vessel holds the air and water inside until the user flushes the toilet.
During flushing, the user activates the valve via a button or lever, which releases the pressurized water into the bowl at a flow rate much higher than a conventional gravity-flow toilet. One advantage to this is lower water consumption than a gravity-flow toilet, or more effectiveness with a similar amount of water. As a result, the toilet does not clog as easily as those using non-pressurized mechanisms.
However, there are some financial and safety disadvantages. These toilets are generally more expensive to purchase, and the plastic tanks need to be replaced about every 10 years. They also have a noisier flush than other models. In addition, pressure-assisted tanks have been known to explode, causing serious injuries and property damage, resulting in a massive recall beginning in 2012 of over 1.4 million toilets equipped with the tank. The Griffon exposed metal tank/cistern has never exploded and does not need regular replacement. It has a lever operated variable flush 0 to 8 litres (0 to 2 gallons).
Some newer toilets use similar pressure-assist technology, along with a bowl and trapway designed to enhance the siphon effect; they use only per flush, or / for dual flush models. This design is also much quieter than other pressure-assist or flushometer toilets.
Tipping bucket type valve
A number of tipping bucket type cisterns have been developed. In the cistern is placed a tipping bucket with its axis aligned or perpendicular with the cistern. They have a lever which is rotated emptying the bucket which allows a variable flush. Usually the quantity of water is marked on the cistern and depending on the performance of the bowl a dual flush can be achieved e.g. 3/6, 3/4.5, 3/3, 1/2 litres, etc. A normal or delayed action refill valve is used.
Tankless style with high-pressure (flushometer) valve
In 1906, William Sloan first made available his "flushometer" style toilet flush valve, incorporating his patented design. The design proved to be very popular and efficient, and remains so to this day. Flushometer toilet flush valves are still often installed in commercial restrooms, and are frequently used for both toilets and urinals. Since they have no tank, they have no fill delay and can be used again immediately. They can be easily identified by their distinctive chrome pipe-work, and by the absence of a toilet tank or cistern, wherever they are employed.
Some flushometer models require the user to either depress a lever or press a button, which in turn opens a flush valve allowing mains-pressure water to flow directly into the toilet bowl or urinal. Other flushometer models are electronically triggered, using an infrared sensor to initiate the flushing process. Typically, on electronically triggered models, an override button is provided in case the user wishes to manually trigger flushing earlier. Some electronically triggered models also incorporate a true mechanical manual override which can be used in the event of the failure of the electronic system. In retrofit installations, a self-contained battery-powered or hard-wired unit can be added to an existing manual flushometer to flush automatically when a user departs.
Once a flushometer valve has been flushed, and after a preset interval, the flushometer mechanism closes the valve and stops the flow. The flushometer system requires no storage tank, but uses a high rate of water flow for a very short time. Thus a inch (22 mm) pipe at minimum, or preferably a 1-inch (29 mm) pipe, must be used. Water main pressures must be above . The higher water pressure employed by a flushometer valve scours the bowl more efficiently than a gravity-driven system, and fewer blockages typically occur as a result of this higher water pressure. Flushometer systems require approximately the same amount of water as a gravity system to operate (1.6 gpf).
Bowl design
The "bowl" or "pan" of a toilet is the receptacle that receives bodily waste. A toilet bowl is most often made of a ceramic, but can sometimes be made of stainless steel or composite plastics. Toilet bowls are mounted in any one of three basic manners: above-floor mounted (pedestal), wall mounted (cantilever), or in-floor mounted (squat toilet).
Within the bowl, there are three main waterway design systems: the siphoning trapped system (found primarily in North American residential installations, and in North American light commercial installations), the non-siphoning trapped system (found in most other installations), and the valve-closet system (found in trains, passenger aircraft, buses, and other such installations around the world). Older style toilets called "washout" toilets are now only found in a few locations.
Siphonic bowls
Single trap siphonic toilet
The siphonic toilet, also called "siphon jet" and "siphon wash", is perhaps the most popular design in North America for residential and light commercial toilet installations. All siphonic toilets incorporate an "S" shaped waterway.
Standing water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas coming out of the sewer through the drain, and also as a receptacle for waste. Sewer gas is vented through a separate vent pipe attached to the sewer line. The water in the toilet bowl is connected to the drain by a drain pipe shaped like an extended "S" which curves up behind the bowl and down to the drain. The portion of the channel behind the bowl is arranged as a siphon tube, whose length is greater than the depth of the water in the bowl. The top of the curving tube limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The waterways in these toilets are designed with slightly smaller diameters than a non-siphonic toilet, so that the waterway will naturally fill up with water each time it is flushed, creating the siphon action.
At the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed. Some designs use a large hole in the front of the rim to allow faster filling of the bowl. There may also be a siphon jet hole about one inch (2.5 cm) diameter in the bottom of the toilet bowl trap.
If the toilet is flushed from a tank, a large holding cistern is mounted above the toilet, containing approximately 1.2 to 1.6 U.S. gallons (4.5 to 6.1 L) of water in modern designs. This tank is built with a large drain 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 cm) diameter hole at its bottom covered by a flapper valve that allows the water to rapidly leave the holding tank when the flush is activated. Alternatively, water may be supplied directly via a flush valve or "flushometer".
The rapid influx of water into the bowl causes the standing water in the bowl to rise and fill the S-shaped siphon tube mounted in the back of the toilet. This starts the toilet's siphonic action. The siphon action quickly "pulls" nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain in about 4–7 seconds —it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the continuous column of water through the siphon is broken when air enters the siphon tube. The toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet.
A "true siphonic toilet" can be easily identified by the noise it makes. If it can be heard to suck air down the drain at the end of a flush, then it is a true siphonic toilet. If not, then it is either a double trap siphonic or a non-siphonic toilet.
If water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the waterway and pours slowly down the drain—thus the toilet does not flush properly.
After flushing, the flapper valve in the water tank closes or the flush valve shuts; water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank and bowl. Then the toilet is again ready for use.
Note with this flush design: With age the forward (“flush”) jet connection to the upper inlet in the toilet may slowly clog and (over many years) eventually lead to poor, or no flushing action – despite the fact that the main bowl's exit pipe and the toilet's air vent are both open... A test for this is if a “normal flush” evacuation of the bowl occurs when a large amount of water is poured into the bowl at a fast rate. If test is positive, yet the normal full tank flush, in comparison, has diminished flow; or after time no flush, One should check if the flush jet is clogged – leading to the need to snake the jet tube to restart normal flush function... over the alternative to replace the toilet entirely.
Double trap siphonic toilet
The double trap siphonic toilet is a less common type that is exceptionally quiet when flushed. A device known as an aspirator uses the flow of water in a flush to pull air from the cavity between the two traps, reducing the air pressure inside and creating a siphon which pulls water and waste from the toilet bowl. Towards the end of the flush cycle the aspirator ceases being immersed in water, thus allowing air to enter the cavity between the traps and breaking the siphon, without the noise while the final flush water fills the pan.
Non-siphonic bowls
Washdown toilet
Washdown toilets are the most common form of pedestal and cantilever toilets outside the Americas. The bowl has a large opening at the top which tapers down to a water trap at the base. It is flushed from the top by water discharged through a flushing rim or jets. The force of the water flowing into the bowl washes the waste through the trap and into the drains.
Washdown bowls developed from earlier "hopper" closets, which were simple conical bowls connected to a drain. However, waste is typically excreted towards the back of the toilet, rather than the exact center, and the backs of the hoppers were prone to becoming soiled. The modern washdown bowl has a steeply sloping back and a more gently sloping or curving front, so the water trap is off-center, towards the rear of the toilet. With this "eccentric cone" design, most waste drops into the pool of water at the base of the bowl, rather than onto the surface of the toilet. Early washdown closets had a large water area at the base to minimize soiling, which required a large volume of water to clear them effectively. Modern bowls have a smaller area, which reduces the volume of water needed to flush them; however, that water area is always small compared to the water area of a typical North American siphonic bowl, and this makes the washdown bowl prone to soiling.
Washout toilet
Washout, or Flachspüler ("shallow flush"), toilets have a flat platform with a shallow pool of water. They are flushed by a jet of water from the back that drives waste into the trap below. From there, the water flow removes it into the sewage system. An advantage of the design is that users will not get splashed from below. Taking of stool samples is also simplified. Washout toilets have a shallow pool of water into which waste is deposited, with a trapped drain just behind this pool. Waste is cleared out from this pool of water by being swept over into the trap (usually either a P-trap or an S-trap) and then beyond into a sewer by water from the flush. Washout pans were among the first types of ceramic toilets invented and since the early 1970s are now only found in a decreasing number of localities in Europe. A washout toilet is a kind of flush toilet which was once predominantly used in Germany, Austria and France. It was patented in Britain by George Jennings in 1852 and remained the standard toilet type in Britain throughout the 19th century.
Examples of this type of toilet can be found in Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, and some regions of Poland, although it is becoming less common.
One disadvantage of this design is that it may require the more intense use of a toilet brush to remove bits of feces that may have left marks on the shelf. Additionally, this design presents the disadvantage of creating a strong lingering odor since the feces are not submerged in water immediately after excretion. Similar designs are found in some early toilets in the US, one particular brand being labeled the "Grand Niagara", as the flushing of the shelf created a waterfall effect into the drain chamber.
Squat toilet
In many parts of Asia, people traditionally use the toilet in a squatting position. This applies to defecation and urination by males and females. Therefore, homes and public washrooms have squat toilets, with the toilet bowl installed in the floor. This has the advantages of not needing an additional toilet seat and also being more convenient for cultures where people use water to wash their genitals instead of toilet paper. However, Western-style toilets that are mounted at sitting height and have a plastic seat have become popular as well. Many public washrooms have both squatting and sitting toilets.
In western countries, instructions have been put up in some public toilets used by people accustomed to squat toilets, on the correct use of a sitting-style toilet. This is to avoid breaking the toilet or seat if someone attempts to squat on the edges.
The "Anglo-Indian" design used in India allows the same toilet to be used in the sitting or the squatting position.
Valve closet
The valve closet has a valve or flap at the exit of the bowl, often with a watertight seal to retain a pool of water in the pan. When the toilet is flushed, the valve is opened and the water in the pan flows rapidly out of the bowl into the drains, carrying the waste with it.
The earliest type of toilet, the valve closet is now rarely used for water-flush toilet systems. More complicated in design than other toilets, this design has lower reliability and is more difficult to maintain or repair. The most common use for valve closets is now in portable closets for caravans, camping, trains, and aircraft, where the flushing fluid is recycled. This design is also used in train carriages for use in areas where the waste is allowed to be simply dumped between the tracks (the flushing of such toilets is generally prohibited when the train is in a station).
Simple valve closets are used on most older style Russian trains, made in Eastern Germany ( factory, design dated probably to the 1950s), employing a pan-like shutter valve at the base of the pan and discharging waste directly onto the trackbed below. Usage of this type of toilet is permitted only while the train is moving, and outside of major cities. These designs are being phased out, together with the old trains, and are being replaced with modern vacuum systems.
The British singer Ian Wallace composed and performed the humorous song "Never Do It at the Station", which mentioned the old-fashioned trackbed dumping toilets which were still in use during the mid-20th century in Britain. The song first advised frugal travelers to save money by avoiding pay toilets in train stations, but also reminded polite passengers not to use the onboard "loo" while the train was stopped at a station.
Low-flow and high-efficiency flush toilets
Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.
Urine diversion flush toilets, which were developed in Sweden, save water by using less water, or even no water, for the urine flush compared to about six litres for the feces flush.
US standards for new toilets
Pre-1994 residential and pre-1997 commercial flush toilets in the United States typically used of water per flush (gpf or lpf). The United States Congress passed the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which mandated that from 1994 common flush toilets use only . In response to the Act, manufacturers produced low-flow toilets, which many consumers did not like because they often required more than one flush to remove solids. People unhappy with the reduced performance of the low-flow toilets resorted to driving across the border to Canada or Mexico, or buying salvaged toilets from older buildings. Manufacturers responded to consumers' complaints by improving the toilets. The improved products are generally identified as high efficiency toilets or HETs. HETs possess an effective flush volume of or less. They may be single-flush or dual-flush. A dual-flush toilet permits selection between different amounts of water for solid or liquid waste. Some HETs are pressure-assisted (or power-assisted or pump-assisted or vacuum-assisted).
The performance of a flush-toilet may be rated by a Maximum Performance (MaP) score. The low end of MaP scores is 250 (250 grams of simulated fecal matter). The high end of MaP scores is 1000. A toilet with a MaP score of 1000 should provide trouble-free service. It should remove all waste with a single flush; it should not plug; it should not harbor any odor; it should be easy to keep clean. The United States Environmental Protection Agency uses a MaP score of 350 as the minimum performance threshold for HETs. 1.6 gpf toilets are also sometimes referred as Ultra Low Flow (ULF).
Methods used to make up for the inadequacies of low flow toilets include using thinner toilet paper, plungers, and adding extra cups of water to the bowl manually.
Maintenance and hygiene
Clogging
If clogging occurs, it is usually the result of an attempt to flush unsuitable items, or as faeces size often increases with age or too much toilet paper. Clogging can occur spontaneously due to limescale fouling of the drain pipe, or by overloading the stool capacity of the toilet. Stool capacity varies among toilet designs and is based on the size of the drainage pipe, the capacity of the water tank, the velocity of a flush, and the method by which the water attempts to vacate the bowl of its contents. The size and consistency of the stool is a hard-to-predict contributory factor.
In some countries, clogging has become more frequent due to regulations that require the use of small-tanked low-flush toilets in attempt to conserve water. Designs which increase the velocity of flushed water or improve the travel path can improve low-flow reliability.
Partial clogging is particularly insidious, as it is usually not discovered immediately, but only later by an unsuspecting user trying to flush an incompletely emptied toilet. Overflowing of the water mixed with excrement may then occur, depending on the bowl volume, tank capacity and severity of clogging. For this reason, rooms with flush toilets may be designed as wet rooms, with a second drain on the floor, and a shower head capable of reaching the whole floor area. Common means to remedy clogging include use of a toilet plunger, drain cleaner, or a plumber's snake.
Aerosols
A "toilet plume" is the dispersal of microscopic particles as a result of flushing a toilet. Normal use of a toilet by healthy people is considered unlikely to be a major health risk. There is indirect evidence that specific pathogens such as norovirus or SARS coronavirus could potentially be spread through toilet aerosols, but as of 2015 no direct experimental studies had clearly demonstrated or refuted actual disease transmission from toilet aerosols. It has been hypothesized that dispersal of pathogens may be reduced by closing the toilet lid before flushing, and by using toilets with lower flush energy.
History
Pre-modern flush toilet systems
Forms of water flushed latrines have been found to exist since the Neolithic. The oldest neolithic village in Britain, dating from circa 31st century BC, Skara Brae, Orkney, used a form of hydraulic technology for sanitation. The village's design used a stream, and connecting drainage system to wash waste away.
The Mesopotamians introduced the world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna, utilised to remove wastewater from sites, and capture rainwater, in wells. The city of Uruk hosts the earliest known examples of brick constructed Latrines, both squat and pedestal, from 3200 BCE. Clay pipes were later used in the Hittite city of Hattusa. They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and allowed for cleaning.
The 2nd millennium BC Minoan civilization developed flushable pedestal toilets, with examples excavated at Knossos and Akrotiri.
Communal latrines were in use throughout the Roman Empire, feeding into either primary or secondary sewers, from the 1st through 5th centuries AD. A very well-preserved example are the latrines at Housesteads on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Such toilets did not flush in the modern sense, but had a continuous stream of running water to wash away waste. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, these communal toilet systems fell into disuse in Western Europe, though continued in the Eastern Byzantine Roman Empire, with records of toilet pipes being renewed, and sewers repaired.
In the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–14th centuries), cities had flush toilets connected to water supply and waste disposal sewer systems. The city of Fustat in Egypt, for example, had multi-storey tenement buildings (with up to six floors) with flush toilets, which were connected to a water supply system, and flues on each floor carrying waste to underground channels.
Development of the modern flush toilet
In 1596 Sir John Harington (1561–1612) published A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, Called the Metamorphosis of Ajax, describing a forerunner to the modern flush toilet installed at his house at Kelston in Somerset. The design had a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl. He installed one for his godmother Queen Elizabeth I at Richmond Palace.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing was the S-trap, invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. His design had a sliding valve in the bowl outlet above the trap. Two years later, Samuel Prosser applied for a British patent for a "plunger closet".
Prolific inventor Joseph Bramah began his professional career installing water closets (toilets) that were based on Alexander Cumming's patented design of 1775. He found that the current model being installed in London houses had a tendency to freeze in cold weather. In collaboration with a Mr Allen, he improved the design by replacing the usual slide valve with a hinged flap that sealed the bottom of the bowl.
He also developed a float valve system for the flush tank. Obtaining the patent for it in 1778, he began making toilets at a workshop in Denmark Street, St Giles. The design was arguably the first practical non-manual flush toilet, and production continued well into the 19th century, used mainly on boats. Thomas Bowdich, an English traveller, visited Kumasi, capital of the Ashanti Empire in 1817 and mentioned that majority of the houses in the city especially those near the king's palace included indoor toilets that were flushed with gallons of boiling water.
Industrial production
It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with the dramatic growth in the sewage system, especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons.
George Jennings established a business manufacturing water closets, salt-glaze drainage, sanitary pipes and sanitaryware at Parkstone Pottery in the 1840s, where he popularized the flush toilet to the middle class. At The Great Exhibition at Hyde Park held from 1 May to 15 October 1851, George Jennings installed his Monkey Closets in the Retiring Rooms of The Crystal Palace. These were the first public pay toilets (free ones did not appear until later), and they caused great excitement. During the exhibition, 827,280 visitors paid one penny to use them; for the penny they got a clean seat, a towel, a comb, and a shoe shine. "To spend a penny" became a euphemism, for going to the toilet.
When the exhibition finished and moved to Sydenham, the toilets were to be closed down. However, Jennings persuaded the organisers to keep them open, and the toilet went on to earn over £1000 a year. He opened the first underground convenience at the Royal Exchange in 1854. He received a patent in 1852 for an improved construction of water-closet, in which the pan and trap were constructed in the same piece, and so formed that there was always a small quantity of water retained in the pan itself, in addition to that in the trap which forms the water-joint. He also improved the construction of valves, drain traps, forcing pumps and pump-barrels. By the end of the 1850s building codes suggested that most new middle-class homes in British cities were equipped with a water closet.
Another pioneering manufacturer was Thomas William Twyford, who invented the single piece, ceramic flush toilet. The 1870s proved to be a defining period for the sanitary industry and the water closet; the debate between the simple water closet trap basin made entirely of earthenware and the very elaborate, complicated and expensive mechanical water closet would fall under public scrutiny and expert opinion. In 1875 the "wash-out" trap water closet was first sold, and was found as the public's preference for basin type water closets. By 1879 Twyford had devised his own type of the "wash out" trap water closet; he titled it the "National", and it became the most popular wash-out water closet.
By the 1880s the free-standing water closet was on sale and quickly gained popularity; the free-standing water closet was able to be cleaned more easily and was therefore a more hygienic water closet. Twyford's "Unitas" model was free-standing and made completely of earthenware. Throughout the 1880s he submitted further patents for improvements to the flushing rim and the outlet. Finally, in 1888 he applied for a patent protection for his "after flush" chamber; the device allowed the basin to be refilled by a lower quantity of clean water in reserve after the water closet was flushed. The modern pedestal "flush-down" toilet was demonstrated by Frederick Humpherson of the Beaufort Works, Chelsea, England in 1885.
The leading companies of the period issued catalogues, established showrooms in department stores and marketed their products around the world. Twyford had showrooms for water closets in Berlin, Germany; Sydney, Australia; and Cape Town, South Africa. The Public Health Act 1875 set down stringent guidelines relating to sewers, drains, water supply and toilets and lent tacit government endorsement to the prominent water closet manufacturers of the day.
Contrary to popular legend, Sir Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. He was, however, in the forefront of the industry in the late 19th century, and held nine patents, three of them for water closet improvements such as the floating ballcock. His flush toilets were designed by inventor Albert Giblin, who received a British patent for the "Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer", a siphon discharge system. Crapper popularized the siphon system for emptying the tank, replacing the earlier floating valve system which was prone to leaks.
Spread and further developments
Although flush toilets first appeared in Britain, they soon spread to the Continent. The first such examples may have been the three "waterclosets" installed in the new town house of banker Nicolay August Andresen on 6 Kirkegaten in Christiania, insured in January 1859. The toilets were probably imported from Britain, as they were referred to by the English term "waterclosets" in the insurance ledger. Another early watercloset on the European continent, dating from 1860, was imported from Britain to be installed in the rooms of Queen Victoria in Ehrenburg Palace (Coburg, Germany); she was the only one who was allowed to use it.
In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels, soon after its invention in England in the 1880s. Flush toilets were introduced in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. The Flushometer is still in use today in public restrooms worldwide. The vortex-flushing toilet bowl, which creates a self-cleansing effect, was invented by Thomas MacAvity Stewart of Saint John, New Brunswick in 1907. Philip Haas of Dayton, Ohio, made some significant developments, including the flush rim toilet with multiple jets of water from a ring and the water closet flushing and recycling mechanism similar to those in use today.
The company Caroma in Australia developed the Duoset cistern with two buttons and two flush volumes as a water-saving measure in 1980. Modern versions of the Duoset are now available worldwide, and save the average household 67% of their normal water usage.
Manufacture
A toilet's body is typically made from vitreous china, which starts out as an aqueous suspension of various minerals called a slip. It takes about of slip to make a toilet.
This slip is poured into the space between plaster of Paris molds. The toilet bowl, rim, tank and tank lid require separate molds. The molds are assembled and set up for filling and the slip-filled molds sit for about an hour after filling. This allows the plaster molds to absorb moisture from the slip, which makes it semi-solid next to the mold surfaces but lets it remain liquid further from the surface of the molds. Then, the workers remove plugs to allow any excess liquid slip to drain from the cavities of the mold (this excess slip is recycled for later use). The drained-out slip leaves hollow voids inside the fixture, using less material to keep it both lighter and easier to fire in a kiln. This molding process allows the formation of intricate internal waste lines in the fixture; the drain's hollow cavities are poured out as slip.
At this point, the toilet parts without their molds look like and are about as strong as soft clay. After about one hour the top core mold (interior of toilet) is removed. The rim mold bottom (which includes a place to mount the holding tank) is removed, and it then has appropriate slanted holes for the rinsing jets cut, and the mounting holes for tank and seat are punched into the rim piece. Valve holes for rapid water entry into the toilet are cut into the rim pieces. The exposed top of the bowl piece is then covered with a thick slip and the still-uncured rim is attached on top of the bowl so that the bowl and hollow rim are now a single piece. The bowl plus rim is then inverted, and the toilet bowl is set upside down on the top rim mold to hold the pieces together as they dry. Later, all the rest of the mold pieces are removed. As the clay body dries further it hardens more and continues to shrink. After a few hours, the casting is self-supporting, and is called greenware.
After the molds are removed, workers use hand tools and sponges to smooth the edges and surface of the greenware, and to remove the mold joints or roughness: this process is called "fettling". For large scale production pieces, these steps may be automated. The parts are then left outside or put in a warm room to dry, before going through a dryer at about , for about 20–36 hours.
After the surfaces are smoothed, the bowls and tanks are sprayed with glaze of various kinds to get different colors. This glaze is designed to shrink and contract at the same rate as the greenware while undergoing firing. After being sprayed with glaze, the toilet bowls, tanks, and lids are placed in stacks on a conveyor belt or "car" that slowly goes through a large kiln to be fired. The belt slowly moves the glaze-covered greenware into a tunnel kiln, which has different temperature zones inside it starting at about at the front, increasing towards the middle to over degrees, and exiting at about . During the firing in the kiln, the greenware and glaze are vitrified as one solid finished unit. Transiting the kiln takes glaze-covered greenware around 23–40 hours.
After the pieces are removed from the kiln and fully cooled, they are inspected for cracks or other defects. Then, the flushing mechanism may be installed on a one-piece toilet. On a two-piece toilet with a separate tank, the flushing mechanism may only be placed into the tank, with final assembly at installation.
A two-piece attaching seat and toilet bowl lid are typically mounted over the bowl to allow covering the toilet when it is not in use and to provide seating comfort. The seat may be installed at the factory, or the parts may be sold separately and assembled by a plumbing distributor or the installer.
Water usage
The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets is usually a significant portion of personal daily water usage: for example, five 10-liter flushes per day use .
Modern low-flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush, per flush.
Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. Dual flush may be accomplished by pushing the flush handle up or down, or a two-segment flush pushbutton may be used whereby pressing the smaller section releases less water.
Flushing with non-potable water sources
Raw water flushing, including seawater flushing, is a method of water conservation, where raw water, such as seawater, is used for flush toilets. Such systems are used in places such as the majority of cities and towns in Hong Kong (see water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong), Gibraltar, and Avalon, California, United States. Heads (on ships) are typically flushed with seawater.
Flush toilets may, if plumbed for it, use greywater (water previously used for washing dishes, laundry and bathing) for flushing rather than drinkable potable water.
Etymology
Water closet
The word "toilet" initially meant "wash-room", without reference to sanitary facilities. Early indoor toilets were known as garderobes because they were used to store clothes, as the smell of ammonia was found to deter fleas and moths. However an Outhouse was usual until the nineteenth century, and only a few wealthy houses and luxury hotels had indoor toilets connected to drains and sewers. Lidded "chamber pots", kept in specially designed bedside cabinets and used in bedrooms by ladies and invalids, and portable bathtubs, could be emptied and washed in an outhouse.
From the sixteenth century in England, a private room (a closet) with a flushing toilet was referred to as a Water Closet ("WC"), in contrast with an Earth Closet ("EC"), an abbreviation still used in 1960s Oxfordshire cottage sales.
The descriptive terms "wash-down closet" or "water closet" only reached the United States in the 1880s. By 1890 there was increased public awareness of disease and of carelessly disposed human waste being infectious.
In common North American usage, a "bathroom" now invariably contains a toilet, but not usually a bath, to the confusion of foreigners. In the UK, Australia and NZ, "Bathroom" or bath-room refers to a room with a fixed bathtub and not necessarily a toilet. The terms "bathroom", and "toilet" or “loo” (amongst other euphemisms) indicate distinct functions, although bathrooms may often include toilets.
The term "water closet", now rarely used outside America, refers to a room that has both a toilet and other plumbing fixtures such as a sink or a bathtub. American Plumbers and codes use the term "water closet" or "WC" to differentiate toilets from urinals.
Many European languages refer to a toilet as a "water" or "WC". The Royal Spanish Academy Dictionary accepts "váter" as a name for a toilet or bathroom, which is derived from the British term "water closet". France uses the expressions aller aux waters ("to go to the waters") derived from "water closet", and "w.-c." . Likewise the Romanian word "veceu" , derives from a shortened version of the abbreviation. In German, the expression "Klo" (first syllable of "Klosett") is used alongside "WC". In Italian WC or , and "water" , are very common terms to refer to the flushing toilet.
Society and culture
Swirl direction myth
It is a commonly held misconception that when flushed, the water in a toilet bowl swirls one way if the toilet is north of the equator and the other way if south of the equator, due to the Coriolis effect – usually, counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. In reality, the direction that the water takes is much more determined by the direction that the bowl's rim jets are pointed, and it can be made to flush in either direction in either hemisphere by simply redirecting the rim jets during manufacture. On the scale of bathtubs and toilets, the Coriolis effect is too weak to be observed except under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
Courtesy flush
Since the 1990s, the slang term "courtesy flush" refers to a mid-defecation flush of the toilet as a courtesy to other bathroom users or other prisoners in a cell. A courtesy flush can serve to reduce odor and cover noise.
See also
Toilets in Japan
Thomas Maddock, started the American indoor toilet industry
References
External links
Bathrooms
British inventions
Inventions of the Indus Valley Civilisation
16th-century inventions | [
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239938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WC | WC | WC or wc may refer to:
Water closet or flush toilet
Arts and entertainment
W.C. (film), an Irish feature film
WC (band), a Polish punk rock band
WC (rapper), a rapper from Los Angeles, California
Westside Connection, former hip-hop supergroup from Los Angeles, California
Businesses and brands
Dodge WC series, a range of light military trucks produced by Dodge during World War II
Allis-Chalmers Model WC, a row crop tractor
Avianca Honduras (IATA code since 1985), an airline based in La Ceiba, Honduras
Wien Air Alaska (IATA code until 1984), a defunct airline
Weather Central, a provider of broadcast and interactive web weather solutions
Wilson Combat, an American firearms manufacturer
Wisconsin Central (disambiguation), various railroads
Wheatland County, Alberta a municipality in south-central Alberta, Canada
Economics and finance
Workers' compensation, a form of insurance for work-related illness and injury
Working capital, a financial metric
Working class
World-Check, financial institution risk mitigation database
Science and technology
Computing
wc (Unix), a Unix utility used for counting words and lines in a file
Web Components, a set of features that allow for the creation of reusable widgets or components in web documents and web applications
Write combining, a computing performance method of combining multiple memory writes before sending them
Other uses in science and technology
Wall cloud, compounded area of a thunderstorm at the updraft-downdraft interchange where tornadoes may form
Water cooler, a device that cools and dispenses water
WC, the chemical formula for tungsten carbide, a metallic compound with a high boiling point
WC or wc, a short form for inches water column, a unit of measure of pressure often used in HVAC contexts
Weil–Châtelet group, in mathematics
Sport
Wild card (sports), a tournament or playoff berth awarded to an individual or team that has not qualified through normal play
World Cup, a type of global sporting competition
Other uses
WC postcode area, a group of postcode districts in central London, England
Wellington College (disambiguation), one of several academic institutions
Wikimedia Commons, an online collaborative project of the Wikimedia Foundation
Worldwide caliphate, the concept of a single Islamic world government
Writing Commons, a peer-reviewed open education textbook for college-level writers | [
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239942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6blingen%20%28district%29 | Böblingen (district) | Böblingen is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Calw, Enz, Ludwigsburg, (district) Stuttgart, and the districts Esslingen, Reutlingen and Tübingen.
History
The district was created in 1937 as the successor of the Oberamt Böblingen, which dates back to the Duchy of Württemberg, from the late 15th to the early 19th centuries. In 1973 the majority of the district Leonberg, as well as a few municipalities of the district Calw, were added to the district. A few municipalities were reassigned to the district Ludwigsburg.
Geography
A part of the district is located in the Black Forest, other landscapes covered are the Oberes Gäu and the Schönbuch. The highest elevation is the 626 m high Kühlenberg in the municipality Jettingen; the lowest point with 315 m is in the valley of the Glems at the northern boundary of the district.
Coat of arms
The deer antler in the top of the coat of arms is the symbol of Württemberg. Below is a banner (gonfanon) which is the symbol of the Counts of Tübingen.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
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239946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ola%20Larsmo | Ola Larsmo | Ola Larsmo was born in 1957 in Sundbyberg and has lived in Västervik for ten years. He studied at Uppsala University, mainly in North Germanic languages, literature, theology and history.
Larsmo was editor of BLM from 1984 to 1990, and now works as writer and freelance critic, mainly for Dagens Nyheter. He was a member of the board at Författarförbundet ("Authors association") until May 2003. , he has been living in Uppsala.
In 2008 he was awarded the Bjørnson Prize.
Books
Vindmakaren ("The wind maker"; In Fyra kortromaner, 1983)
Fågelvägen ("As the bird flies"; novel, 1985)
Engelska parken ("The English park"; novel, 1988)
Odysséer (essays, 1990),
Stumheten ("The dumbness"; short stories, 1981),
Himmel och jord må brinna ("Heaven and earth will burn"; historic novel, 1993, paperback 1995),
Maroonberget ("The Maroon Mountain"; novel, 1996),
net.wars (debate book about IT and democracy, with Lars Ilshammar, 1997, paperback 1999).
Joyce bor inte här längre, ("Joyce doesn't live here any more"), a book about Irish literature written with Stephen Farran-Lee (1999).
Norra Vasa 133 (novel, 1999)
Andra sidan ( "The other side", literary essays, 2001).
En glänta i skogen ("A glen in the forest", novel, 2004)
404 (debate on the Internet and democracy, with Lars Ilshammar, 2005)
Djävulssonaten ("The devil's sonata", essays on Swedish antisemitism during World War II, 2007)
Jag vill inte tjäna ("I don't want to serve", novel, 2009)
Förrädare ("Deceit", novel, 2012)
101 historiska hjältar ("101 human rights' heroes", with Brian Palmer, 2013)
Swede Hollow (novel about Swedish emigrants who settled in Swede Hollow, Saint Paul, 2016)
Översten ("The Colonel", historical novel about Oscar Broady, 2020)
References
External links
olalarsmo.com (in Swedish)
1957 births
Living people
Swedish male writers
Uppsala University alumni | [
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239947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico%20Sforza | Ludovico Sforza | Ludovico Maria Sforza (; 27 July 1452 – 27 May 1508), also known as Ludovico il Moro (; "the Moor"). "Arbiter of Italy", according to the expression used by Guicciardini, was an Italian Renaissance nobleman who ruled as Duke of Milan from 1494 to 1499. His ascendancy followed the death of his nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza. A member of the Sforza family, he was the fourth son of Francesco I Sforza. A patron of the arts during the Milanese Renaissance, he commissioned the fresco of The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci. He also played a central role in the Italian Wars.
Early life
Ludovico Sforza was born on 27 July 1452 at Vigevano, in what is now Lombardy. His position as the fourth son of Francesco I Sforza and Bianca Maria Visconti meant that he was not expected to become ruler of Milan, but his mother still encouraged a broad education. Under the tutelage of the humanist Francesco Filelfo, Ludovico studied painting, sculpture and letters along with methods of government and warfare.
Education
Despite being a fourth-born son and therefore without great hopes of rising to the ducal dignity, his mother Bianca wanted him to be educated in the name of the Renaissance spirit and to receive a vast culture, especially in the field of classical letters. Under the tutelage of many preceptors, including the humanist Francesco Filelfo and the poet Giorgio Valagussa, Ludovico received lessons in Greek, Latin, theology, painting, sculpture, as well as being instructed in matters of government and administration of the state. To the humanities alternated physical exercise in the form of the scrima,hunting, wrestling, horseback riding, jumping, dancing and the game of rope ball.Cicco Simonetta describes him as the most versed and rapid in learning among the children of Francesco Sforza who, as well as his mother Bianca, showed him a particular attention, witnessed by the extensive correspondence. At the age of seven, in Mantua,together with his mother and brothers, he welcomed Pope Pius II on a visit to the city, making the first public outing on an official occasion. At the age of eleven he dedicated an oration in Latin to his father.
Regent of Milan
When their father Francesco died in 1466, the family titles devolved upon Galeazzo Maria, the elder brother. Ludovico was conferred the courtesy title of Count of Mortara.
After ten days Ludovico was already in Cremona to keep the lands of the duchy united and encourage the inhabitants of the city to pay tributes of loyalty to the new duke. In September of that same year he fell ill with "Terzana fever", from which he was promptly treated by the court physician Guido Perati, assisted by Giacomo da Gallarate and Filippo da Novara.
He continued to deal with diplomatic missives, remaining in Cremona until the following year, when he went to Genoa to welcome his sister Ippolita,wife of Alfonso of Aragon,receiving that same year the title of Count of Mortara. On 6 June 1468 he was again in Genoa to welcome Bona of Savoy,who arrived there on 26 June. It was he who wrote to the Duke about the beauty of his wife and escorted her together with his brother Tristan to Milan where, on July 7, the wedding with Duke Galeazzo Maria took place. He was again ambassador then to the King of France and then to Bologna. In January 1471 he went to Venice,on behalf of the duke, with a rich procession and gave a speech very well received by the doge and which helped to improve diplomatic reactions between the Duchy of Milan and the Republic of Venice. In March 1471 he accompanied Galeazzo Maria on his sumptuous journey to Florence,he passed in August of the same year to Rome for the coronation of Pope Sixtus IV and then in September to the court of Turin.
In 1476 he was sent to France together with his brother Sforza Maria,in a sort of disguised exile, where, on Christmas Day, he was received by the sovereign at the castle of Tours.
Rise to power
After the assassination of the duke his brother in Milan, on December 26, 1476, on the throne of the duchy he was succeeded by his son Gian Galeazzo Maria,then only seven years old. Upon hearing the news, Ludovico and Sforza hastily returned from France. Duchess Bona assigned him as a Milanese residence the Cà di Can,formerly belonged to Bernabò Visconti,and an annual check for 12,500 ducats.Together with two other brothers, Ascanio and Ottaviano,as well as the condottieri Roberto Sanseverino, Donato del Conte and Ibletto Fieschi, Sforza and Ludovico tried to oppose the regency of Bona,since the duchy was in fact in the hands of the ducal councilor Cicco Simonetta. The attempt failed. Ludovico was exiled to Pisa,Sforza Maria to Bari,Ascanio to Perugia. Octavian instead tried to wade theAdda in full and drowned there. Roberto Sanseverino fled to France, Donato del Conte was imprisoned in the "ovens" of Monza and Ibletto Fieschi in the Castello Sforzesco.
In February 1479 the Moro and Sforza Maria,induced by Ferrante of Aragon, enteredwith an army in the Republic of Genoa,where they joined Roberto Sanseverino and Ibletto Fieschi. The Duchess Bona of Savoy and Cicco Simonetta convinced Federico Gonzaga and Ercole d'Este to gather an army and come to their rescue against the payment of a large sum of money. A second army led by Roberto Malatesta and Costanzo Sforza,supporting the Florentines, would have faced the troops of the pontiff and the Neapolitan ones.
On 1 March the Moor and his brother were declared rebels and enemies of the Duchy and were revoked the income they received by virtue of their mother's dowry. After carrying out looting in Pisa, the two returned to La Spezia. However, already in mid-May peace negotiations were established between the two sides.
On July 29 Sforza Maria died near Varese Ligure,according to many poisoned on commission of Cicco Simonetta,according to others of natural death (pneumonia or "soverchia pinguedine") and Ferrante appointed the Moro Duke of Bari. Following Roberto Sanseverino, on 20 August Ludovico resumed the march to Milan at the head of an army of 8,000 men, crossing the Passo di Centocroci and going up the Sturla Valley. On 23 August he took the citadel of Tortona after having corrupted the castellan Rafagnino Donati. He then went up to Sale, Castelnuovo Scrivia, Bassignana and Valenza.
After these successes, Simonetta sent Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, to stop the rebels with weapons. However, many nobles close to the duchess pushed for reconciliation. Bona finally allowed himself to be persuaded by his lover, Antonio Tassino,probably in league with the Moro, to forgive his brother-in-law, and so on September 7, Ludovico entered the castle of Milan The Simonetta, knowing his cunning, firmly opposed reconciliation and prophesied to the Duchess Bona of Savoy:"I will lose my head and you in the process of time will lose the state".
The Milanese Ghibelline nobility, which had pietro Pusterlaas a reference, took advantage of Ludovico's presence in Milan to try to convince him to get rid of Simonetta, reminding him of all the sufferings that he and his brothers had had to suffer because of Cicco: exile, war, the death of Octavian and Donato del Conte and finally the poisoning of Sforza Maria, to which Ludovico had been very attached. However, he did not consider Cicco a danger and judged it unnecessary to condemn to death a man now quite old and moreover sick with gout. Therefore, Pietro Pusterla planned an armed revolt against the ducal secretary, imprisoning Orfeo Aricca and seeking the support of the Marquis of Mantua and Monferrato as well as Giovanni Bentivoglio and Alberto Visconti.
The Moor, fearing a popular uprising, was forced to imprison Cicco and his brother Giovanni, who were transferred on a cart to the prisons of the castle of Pavia under the supervision of the prefect Giovanni Attendolo. Orfeo Aricca was imprisoned in the castle of Trezzo,while the other family members were released.
Death of Cicco Simonetta and exile of Duchess Bona
Having obtained power, the Moor recalled his brother Ascanio and Roberto Sanseverinoto Milan; then he sent speakers to forge or re-establish alliances with Lorenzo de' Medici,King Ferrante and Pope Sixtus IV,and averted an alliance against him between the Swiss and the Republic of Venice.
Meanwhile, the Ghibellinenobility, who had helped him in his rise to power, had become unpopular with the Moro and had found in Ascanio Sforza the defender of his interests. The Moor, persuaded by Sanseverino, ordered the arrest of his brother and his exile in Ferrara. Pietro Pusterla,Giovanni Borromeo, Antonio Marliani and many other illustrious exponents of the Ghibelline faction were also exiled. In April the alliance stipulated a few months earlier was broken, since Sixtus IV allied himself with the Venetians by attacking Costanzo Sforza in Pesaro. The Moor sent Roberto Sanseverino to the aid of the Florentines, while King Ferrante sent troops to support Costanzo. Alfonso, Duke of Calabria,managed to conquer Siena,but was then recalled to his homeland due to the brutal conquest of Otranto by theOttoman Empire. The Turkish threat ended hostilities in Tuscany and Sanseverino returned to Milan.
On October 30 Cicco Simonetta was beheaded at the ravelin of the castle of Pavia overlooking the Visconteo Park. His death of Simonetta took away the main opponent of Antonio Tassino, whobecame increasingly arrogant. The Corio tells that, when the Moro or other Milanese nobles went to visit him, he used to make them wait a long time outside the door until he had finished combing his hair. The Tassino managed to convince the Duchess Bona, now subservient to the man, to replace Filippo Eustachi,prefect of the castle of Porta Giovia,with his father Gabriello, resorting to the intermediation of Giovanni Botta. The prefect did not let himself be corrupted and kept the oath made to the late Duke Galeazzo Maria to keep the castle until he reached the age of 24 by his son Gian Galeazzo Maria.
Ludovico then devised the expedient of secretly leading his nephews Gian Galeazzo and Ermes in the rocca of the castle, under the pretext of protecting them from the ambition of the Tassino, and there he convened the council. Bona was forced to sign the sentence to exile for Antonio and his family but, due to the forced separation from her lover, she gave signs of hysteria: she pretended to leave the duchy and threatened suicide if she was prevented, so that Ludovico and Roberto Sanseverino were persuaded to let her leave for France. On 3 November 1480 Bona ceded the regency to his brother-in-law, who was appointed tutor of the young duke Gian Galeazzo, however, at the insistence of his son, he stopped to reside in Abbiategrasso.In 1481, perhaps by mandate of Bona, there was an attempt at poisoning against Ludovico and Roberto Sanseverino perpetrated by Cristoforo Moschioni, in turn instigated by the secretary of the Duchess Luigi Becchetti and the doctor Ambrogio Grifi. Moschioni was found innocent. The same year there was a second conspiracy planned by the Duchess against Ludovico, but once again it failed. The intercession of the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Savoy prevented Bona from the scandal of the trial.
To the regency of the duchy (1480-1494)
Engagement to Beatrice d'Este
In September 1480 Ludovico had started negotiations with Ercole d'Este to obtain the hand of his eldest daughter Isabella. This was not possible because a few days earlier her father had already promised her in marriage to Francesco Gonzaga,Marquis of Mantua. The second daughter Beatrice, five years old, was then proposed to the Moro and he replied that he would be happy with one as well as the other daughter. The engagement indeed promised to be more convenient, as Beatrice lived at that time at the Aragonese court of Naples, raised as a daughter by King Ferrante her grandfather, who was very fond of her,and this meant for Ludovico an alliance also with the king of Naples as well as with the Duke of Ferrara. Consulted on the question of the wedding, Ferrante accepted the engagement and on April 30 of that same year the spousals between the two were held. Subsequently, Ludovico no longer wanted the bride to be raised in Naples and so in 1485 Beatrice returned to Ferrara to her father's court.
War of Ferrara
In May 1482 the Republic of Venice took advantage of the War of the Reds,in which the Duchy of Milanwas engaged, to open a new front against the Duchy of Ferrara,supported by the pontiffs and the Genoese, and entrusted the command of the army to Roberto Sanseverino.
Ludovico entered the war in favor of his future father-in-law, Ercole d'Este, and first sent Federico da Montefeltro,then, at the death of this, his half-brother Sforza Secondo. On 6 January 1483 Sixtus IV abandoned the alliance with the Venetians and moved to Ferrara. The Venetians through Costanzo Sforza,who had passed to their pay, devised a plan to make Ludovico abandon the league: on July 15 Roberto crossed theAdda and fortified the bridge; despite the success, there were no revolts; The Moor met in Cremona with Alfonso of Aragon and other representatives of the league and decided to immediately counterattack the Venetians. On July 22, Alfonso gathered the army of the league in Monza, and the next day Roberto, realizing that the operation had now failed, retired to Bergamo.
In the summer of 1483 Gian Francesco and Galeazzo Sanseverino,Roberto's sons, defected from the Venetian camp to pass respectively to the service of Alfonso of Aragon and Moro. The result was a friendship, the one between Ludovico and Galeazzo, destined to last a lifetime.
Bust of Ludovico il Moro. Rectory of the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, located on the entrance portal to the basilica, next to the effigy of his wife.
On August 10, the Moor and his brother Ascanio marched to the head of their army in Bergamo, forcing the surrender of many castles and threatening Bergamoitself, and then capturing Romano after three days of siege.Despite repeated successes, none of the armies of the league exploited Venetian weakness to inflict a decisive blow; in fact, the Moor, after capturing Romano, returned to Milan. On 24 April 1484 a council of war of the main exponents of the anti-Venetian league, meeting in the castle of Porta Giovia, decided to continue the war against the Republic of Venice. However, disagreements soon arose between Ludovico and Alfonso of Aragon, who had understood the danger of the Moro and feared he wanted to subjugate his nephew Gian Galeazzo who, being betrothed to Isabella of Aragon, was his son-in-law. The Venetians, knowing that Ludovico had incurred excessive expenses in favor of his father-in-law, offered him peace in exchange for a certain amount of money, provided that the Polesine remained in their hands. Ludovico accepted, despite the peace, signed on August 7 in Bagnolo,went against Ercole d'Este, who went on a rampage.
Marriage and private life
In the meantime, his fiancée Beatrice had reached an age suitable for the wedding and his father had been pressing since 1488 for a date to be set. Ludovico, however, as the omnipresent Este ambassador informs, had taken with him a girl "very beautiful [...] who goes after him everywhere, and wants all her well and makes every demostration of it", that is Cecilia Gallerani. For this reason he postponed the marriage three times, baffling the future in-laws, who believed that he no longer intended to marry their daughter. Hercules had been exhorting the Moor for years to replace his nephew in the effective possession of the Duchy of Milan, for this purpose Beatrice should have procreated a legitimate heir to him as soon as possible. In 1490, however, after thirteen months of total default, Gian Galeazzo had consummated the marriage with his wife Isabella of Aragon,who within a few days found herself pregnant. This event caused on the one hand the irritation of Hercules, on the other he had to convince the Moor of the need to take a wife.The wedding was set for the following January and on December 29, 1490, during a winter that turned out to be very rigid enough to force the use of sleds, the wedding procession left Ferrara to lead the betrothed to Milan. She was accompanied by her mother, brothers Alfonso and Isabella,uncle Sigismund and cousin Hercules. Both Alfonso and Ercole would have equally married two princesses of the Sforza house on the same occasion: the first Anna Maria,daughter of the late Galeazzo Maria and therefore granddaughter of Ludovico, the second Angela,daughter of Carlo Sforza and Bianca Simonetta (daughter of Cicco Simonetta).
Galeazzo Sanseverino came to meet the bride with three bucintori and eighteen ships to Brescello, where the Po was navigable. On 15 January the fleet landed at the river port of Pavia and on the 17th, with little pomp, Ludovico married Beatrice in the Ducal Chapel of the castle of Pavia. He had wanted the wedding to be celebrated in Pavia and not in Milan precisely so as not to give the impression of wanting to bully Gian Galeazzo,legitimate Duke of Milan, who had married Isabella of Aragon in the Duomo a few months earlier.
The marriage was declared immediately consummated and already the next morning Ludovico left for Milan to finish the preparations for the wedding party, in truth it remained secretly blank for over a month, as the spouses had had the opportunity to know each other only the day before and Ludovico, who at the time was thirty-eight years old, had respect for the youth and innocence of his bride, then fifteen, and did not want to force her to consume in a hurry. He therefore waited patiently for Beatrice to give herself to him spontaneously, which required a lot of commitment on his partand which aroused new concerns in his father-in-law Ercole, who pressed through Ambassador Trotti for the marriage to be consummated immediately.
The Ferrarese procession left Pavia three days after the wedding and on January 22 Beatrice and her family were welcomed by the Duke and Duchess of Milan a few miles south of the city and accompanied for a breakfast at the refectory of the Basilica of Sant'Eustorgio. In the late morning they entered the city from Porta Ticinese,where they were welcomed by Ludovico, the most distinguished nobles, the clergy and the ambassadors of the states. On 28 January, as part of the festivities, a memorable carousel took place with Galeazzo Sanseverino as the winner.
The relationship between the two spouses soon became idyllic: "S.r Ludovico hardly ever takes his eyes off the Duchess of Bari" wrote Tebaldo Tebaldi in August 1492; and already a short time after the wedding Galeazzo Sanseverino declared: "there is such a great love between them that I don't think two people can love each other more". Ludovico was seen dedicating continuous kisses and caresses to his wife, he stood beside her "over the bed" for most of the day when she was sick and in a letter he wrote of her: "she is dearer to me than the light of the sun". It is not certain that his wife reciprocated him with the same transport, but some clues lead us to believe so.
The 15-year-old princess quickly charmed the Milanese court with her joy in life, her laughter, and even her extravagance. She helped to make Sforza Castle a center of sumptuous festivals and balls and she loved entertaining philosophers, poets, diplomats and soldiers. Beatrice had good taste, and it is said that under her prompting her husband's patronage of artists became more selective and the likes of Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante were employed at the court. She would become the mother of Maximilian Sforza and Francesco II Sforza, future Dukes of Milan.
Ascension as Duke of Milan and the Italian Wars
Gian Galeazzo and his wife Isabella, after the sumptuous marriage left Milan to create their own court in Pavia. The young Gian Galeazzo did not seem to wish to rule in place of his uncle Ludovico, but his wife Isabella came into conflict with his cousin Beatrice, as the latter turned out to be more ambitious than her husband and, after giving birth on January 25, 1493, the first son, Ercole Massimiliano, wished that these, and not Isabella's son, was appointed Count of Pavia (title reserved for the heir to the Duchy of Milan). Isabella then requested the intervention of her grandfather Ferrante, king of Naples, so that her husband, now of age, was entrusted with the effective control of the duchy. Ferrante, however, had no intention of starting a war, on the contrary he declared that he loved both granddaughters in the same way and invited them to prudence, so that the situation remained stable until the king was alive. When Ferrante died, his successor Alfonso did not hesitate, in defense of his daughter Isabella, to occupy the city of Bari as the first act of hostility towards the Moro.
To respond to this maneuver, Ludovico then allied himself with the Emperor Maximilian and with the King of France Charles VIII, to whom he left the green light to go down to Italy to conquer the kingdom of Naples, which Charles considered his legitimate possession as it was stolen by the Aragonese from the Angevins. Maximilian promised Ludovico il Moro to publicly recognize his succession to the duchy and to defend his rights, thus legitimizing the usurpation that many claimed to the Sforza, and to seal this promise he married Bianca Maria Sforza, sister of the young Gian Galeazzo, who brought him the amazing sum of 400,000 ducats as a dowry. plus another 100,000 for the investiture, as well as many gifts carefully prepared by Moro himself to please the emperor and thank him for the precious stance taken in his favor. On 11 September 1494 Charles VIII arrived in Asti, received with great honors by Ludovico and Beatrice.
The ducal investiture
On October 22, 1494, Duke Gian Galeazzo died in mysterious circumstances: formally for not having followed the treatment prescribed by his personal doctors for an illness that had been dragging on for some time and for the immoderate life he led, but in the opinion of many prominent contemporaries, such as Machiavelli or Guicciardini,the person responsible for this death was his uncle Ludovico, for poisoning; Malaguzzi Valeri strongly disagrees with this opinion, pointing out how Ludovico was really interested in the approval of his nephew, how he often sent him gifts such as dogs, horses and falcons, and how he was kept constantly informed of the care given to him; he also recalls that Gian Galeazzo had begun to manifest the first stomach disorders already at the age of 13 and that in fact he continuously disobeyed the prescriptions of doctors, continuing to pour wine out of measure and to fatigue in continuous hunting trips and in a disordered sexual life.
The Moro immediately succeeded him by the will of the Milanese nobles, to the detriment of the legitimate heirs, thus touching the apex of political power. Given his new position, Ludovico tried to make himself popular with acts of benevolence, allowing the free cutting of the woods in his hunting reserves and abolishing the duty on the biade for animals.
Charles VIII, now that the throne of Milan was in the hands of il Moro, aware of his desire to expand the power of Milan, decided to give a strong signal to the Sforza, without compromising diplomatic relations between the two states: the king of France easily reached Naples and conquered it in a short time. Ludovico, at this point, began to seriously worry about the excessive interference of the French in the affairs of his state and therefore decided once again to overthrow the alliances, moving on to side with the Holy League.
However, neither Ludovico nor his wife really wanted to favor the French in the conquest of the kingdom of Naples, but rather to frighten King Alfonso II and keep him engaged on another front so as to prevent him from turning to the conquest of Milan. In fact, once Alfonso II abdicated in favor of his son Ferrandino, unanimously loved by all for his virtues, Ludovico pretended to set up two ships for the King of France in Genoa and instead sent them to the rescue of Ferrandino, engaged in a very complicated war situation.
The siege of Novara
Just a couple of weeks after the investiture, on June 11, Louis of Orleans, cousin of the king and bitter enemy of the Moor, thought of taking advantage of the descent into Italy to carry out his project of conquest of the Duchy of Milan, which he considered his right being a descendant of Valentina Visconti, and occupied with his troops the city of Novara, going as far as Vigevano.
Ludovico hastened to close himself with his wife and children in the Rocca del Castello in Milan but, not feeling equally safe, he combined with the Spanish ambassador to leave the duchy to take refuge in Spain. As Bernardino Corio writes, this was not followed only by the iron opposition of his wife Beatrice and some members of the council, who convinced him to desist. The situation, however, remained critical: due to the very high expenses incurred for the investiture and dowry of Bianca Maria, the state was on the verge of financial collapse, there was no money to maintain the army and there was fear of a popular uprising. The Comines writes that, if the Duke of Orleans had advanced only a hundred steps, the Milanese army would have passed the Ticino, and he would have managed to enter Milan, since some noble citizens had offered to introduce it.
Some historians speculated that it was a stroke, as he had a paralyzed hand, never left the bedroom and was rarely seen. "The Duke of Milan has lost his feelings," Malipiero writes, "he abandons himself". To worsen the situation contributed the ambiguity of the father-in-law Ercole d'Este,who was said together with the Florentines to secretly subvert the Orleans, and of the moro leaders themselves. The disaster was averted by his wife Beatrice who, appointed for the occasion governor of Milan, ensured the loyalty of the nobles, then went in person to the military camp of Vigevano to supervise the order and animate the captains to move against the Duke of Orleans. The latter, locked inside Novara, was thus forced to endure a long and exhausting siege.
On July 6, 1495, the famous battle of Fornovo took place, the League forces took heavier casualties and were unable to stop Charles' march to Asti. It was on the occasion of this that Ludovico had urgently obtained cannons from a pile of 70 tons of bronze originally prepared for an equestrian statue designed by Leonardo da Vinci.
Ludovico on the other hand had counted on the fact that the lords of the various states of Italy, and especially Florence, would not let Charles pass, which instead did not happen, as Piero il Fatuo,who until then had been the strongest ally of the king of Naples, frightened ended up throwing himself at the feet of the king of France, granting him not only free passage to Tuscany but even Pisa and Livorno, plus the sum of 120,000 gold florins. The city of Pisa had also rebelled and, since the Florentines had refused to join the anti-French league that would face Charles VIII at Fornovo, both the Republic of Venice and Ludovico il Moro sent troops in support of Pisa against Florence, both with the aim of seizing control of the city.
At the beginning of August also Ludovico, finally healed, returned to deal with the war, and together with his wife went to reside at the Novara camp. On the occasion of their visit, for the pleasure of the Duchess who greatly appreciated the facts of arms, a memorable magazine of the full army was held. On the 28th a violent brawl broke out for unclear reasons, following which Francesco Gonzaga invited the Moro to lock up his wife "in the coffers".
In the meantime, the capitulation of the enemy was awaited, since the Novara garrison was decimated by famine and epidemics; Louis d'Orleans himself was ill with malarial fevers, but in order not to give up every day he urged his men to resist with the false promise that the king would soon come to their rescue. This did not happen and he finally had to declare himself defeated, accepting the safe conduct to reach the camp of King Charles. Of the few surviving soldiers, many died soon after from eating too much fruit after prolonged fasting.
Death of Beatrice
Meanwhile, in 1496 Beatrice was expecting a third child and it was in this period that the Moor met Lucrezia Crivelli, lady-in-waiting to his wife, who became his mistress. Beatrice until that moment had not shown herself too jealous of the frequent betrayals of her husband, considering them fleeting distractions and of little importance, but when she realized that Ludovico had this time seriously fallen in love with Crivelli, she tried to oppose the relationship with all her strength. However, there was no way to distract her husband and throughout 1496 Ludovico continued to attend more or less secretly the Crivelli, in a regime of substantial bigamy, so much so that he ended up impregnating both his wife and lover within a couple of months. Beatrice, who was also sincerely in love with her husband, reacted by refusing him her own and the relationship between the couple reached a breaking point. Finally, deeply humiliated, disappointed, embittered, especially saddened by the premature and tragic death of the very young Bianca Giovanna, her dearest friend, Beatrice died in childbirth in the night between 2 and 3 January 1497.
The pain of the Moor
Ludovico, who had betrayed her so brazenly, went mad with grief, never recovered from the death of his wife, who had until then been his strength and support in the government of the state. For two weeks he was locked in the dark in his apartments, after which he shaved his head and allowed his beard to grow, wearing from then on only black clothes with a cloak torn up by a beggar. His only concern became the embellishment of the family mausoleum and the neglected state fell into disrepair.
With these few words on that same night he announced the departure of his wife to the Marquis of Mantua Francesco Gonzaga, husband of his sister-in-law Isabella:[46]He told the Ferrarese ambassador that "he never thought he could ever tolerate such a bitter plague", and that he had had him summoned to report to Duke Ercole that if what had ever offended her, as he knew he had done, he asks forgiveness from your ex. your and her, finding himself discontented to the soul ", since" in every prayer he had always prayed to our Lord God that she left after him, as the one in whom he had assumed all his rest, and since God did not like it, he prayed to him and would always pray to him continually, that if possible grant him the grace that he may see her and speak to her one last time, as the one he loved more than himself ".
Even the Sanudo writes that "Whose death the duke could not bear for the great love that brought her, and said that he no longer wanted to take care of either his children, or the state, or worldly things, and just wanted to live [...] and since then this duke began to feel great troubles, while before he had always lived happily".
For a whole year he vowed to eat standing, on a tray supported by a servant, and imposed fasting at court every Tuesday, the day of his wife's death. In the castle he had a room all decorated in black prepared, which was then known as Saletta Negra, where he retired to mourn his wife in solitude, and wherever he went he wanted his quarters to be paraded in black. Every day he went at least twice to visit his tomb, never missing, so that the ambassadors who wanted to talk to him found him more often in Santa Maria delle Grazie than in the castle.
Such exasperated manifestations of mourning struck all contemporaries, although they were later interpreted by some historians as a farce conducted artfully,due to the fact that although it seems that at first Ludovico had interrupted the relationship with Lucrezia Crivelli, however in 1500 the woman found herself pregnant again. If this were the case, however, it is not clear to whom this farce could be addressed, nor what sense it would have had to continue it for so long. Even in the most critical moments, that is, on the day of his escape from Milan, his last thought - as Corio reports - was to visit his wife's tomb before leaving.
Downfall and aftermath
Charles VIII died childless in 1498, so that the Duke of Orleans succeeded him as Louis XII of France. He then decided to take revenge for the humiliation suffered by undertaking a second expedition against the Duchy of Milan. Lacking this time the valuable help of his wife, Ludovico proved unable to face the enemy.Louis XII entrusted the leadership of the army for the conquest of Milan to the famous leader Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, a personal enemy of the Moro, against whom he meditated on vengeance purposes.
Since the Pisans preferred the protection of Venice (the city had already been subject to the Lord of Milan under the Visconti), Ludovico withdrew his troops from Pisa, having lost all hope of being able to take charge of the Tuscan city. He then reversed the alliance with Venice,militarily helping Florence for the reconquest of Pisa, hoping that the Florentine Republic would help him at least with diplomacy against the arrival of King Louis XII.
The move turned out to be wrong, indeed it deprived him of a precious ally, Venice, which had helped him concretely since the battle of Fornovo,certainly not making him the help of Florence, of which the Duchy of Milan had always been a proud opponent since the fifteenth century,before Sforza and Medici started a personal friendship. All this was evident at the second descent into Italy of the King of France: Louis XII allied himself with Venice, which at this point was eager to take revenge for Ludovico's about-face in Pisa, and Gian Giacomo Trivulzio passed with the exercise in Italy.
Ludovico preferred to flee and together with his sons and his brother Ascanio took refuge in Innsbruck with Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg,leaving Milan on September 1, 1499. Of the Sanseverino brothers, Galeazzo, and had followed him, was instead with a blatant about-face passed to the service of the King of France. Immediately after the departure of the duke, also thanks to the revolt of the Milanese people oppressed by taxes, the Trivulzio entered triumphant in Milan. Of this tragic event, which inaugurated a period of wars and foreign invasions on the peninsula, Machiavelli directly blamed Ludovico il Moro and the policy he carried out, a historical judgment with which many historians agreed over the centuries, but which today many tend to review.
Having learned that the population had now in hatred of foreign oppression, due to the abuses of the French, Ludovico hired in Germany a mercenary army of Swiss and at the beginning of 1500, assisted by his brother Ascanio and the Sanseverino, he tried to regain possession of Milan. However, the situation backfired during thesiege of Novara,when the Swiss refused to participate in the battle.
On 10 April, the Swiss garrison was leaving Novara, passing a cordon formed by the Swiss on the French side. French officers were posted to oversee their exit. As the disguised Sforza passed the cordon, one mercenary Hans (or Rudi) Turmann of Uri made signs giving away Sforza's identity and he was apprehended by the French along with the Sanseverino brothers. A few days later, Ascanio, who had attempted to escape to Germany, was also captured.
Marin Sanudo comments in this regard: "Trivulzio, seeing these prisoners, and above all Signor Lodovico, thinks, oh reader, what joy!!"
Immediately, having led the duke to his presence, Gian Giacomo addressed to him - according to Andrea Prato - these contemptuous words:
With the arrival of the French, Milan lost its independence and remained under foreign domination for 360 years. Among the spoils of war taken by the French there was also the great Visconti-Sforza Library which was located (together with a part of the ducal archive) in the castle of Pavia and consisted of over 900 manuscripts, including some that belonged to Francesco Petrarca. Of the codices of the library of the Dukes of Milan,400 are still preserved today at the Bibliothèque nationale de France,while others ended up in Italian, European or American libraries.
Louis XII refused to see him and, despite the pleas of the Emperor Maximilian, would not release him. However, he did allow him to roam the grounds of the castle of Lys-Saint-Georges in Berry where he was held, to fish in the moat and to receive friends. When he fell ill, Louis sent him his own physician as well as one of Ludovico's dwarf entertainers to amuse him. In 1504 he was moved to the castle of Loches where he was given even more freedom. In 1508, Ludovico attempted to escape; he was thereafter deprived of amenities including his books and spent the rest of his life in the castle's dungeon, where he died on 27 May 1508. The French rewarded Turmann for his treason with 200 gold crowns (corresponding to five years' salary of a mercenary); he escaped to France, but after three years (or, according to some sources, after one year) he returned home to Uri. Turmann was immediately arrested for treason, and on the following day he was executed by decapitation.
The Swiss later restored the Duchy of Milan to Ludovico's son, Maximilian Sforza. His other son, Francesco II, also held the duchy for a short period. Francesco II died in 1535, sparking the Italian War of 1536–1538, as a result of which Milan passed to the Spanish Empire.
The memory of Ludovico was clouded for centuries by Machiavelli's accusation that he 'invited' Charles VIII to invade Italy, paving the way for subsequent foreign domination. The charge was perpetuated by later historians who espoused the ideal of national independence. More recent historians, however, placing the figure of Ludovico in its Renaissance setting, have reevaluated his merits as a ruler and given a more equitable assessment of his achievement.
Appearance and personality
Ludovico "the tyrant"
Excellent duke in times of peace, very bad in times of war, Ludovico was never brought neither for weapons nor for the exercises of the body, he was indeed a man with a mild, conciliatory character, he detested all forms of violence and cruelty, and in fact the more he could keep away from the battlefields, he held himself, and the more he could refrain from inflicting harsh punishments on the guilty, he abstained.He therefore does not deserve the fame of "tyrant" that is sometimes attributed to him, which if anything belonged to his brother Galeazzo Maria Sforza,duke before him, who used to torment his subjects and even his friends with unspeakable torture and cruelty (of which Bernardino Corio has handed down a summary list), and subtract for his own pleasure the women of others, to such an extent that this was the cause of his killing at the hands of noble conspirators in 1476.Perhaps just taking the fraternal example as a warning, Ludovico always refrained from any excess. It can be said that he was even unable to bring hatred, if in the last years of his life, now imprisoned in the prison of Loches by King Louis XII who had deprived him of the state, the title, the wealth and even his own children, Ludovico found nothing better to do than write a memorial "of the things of Italy" for Louis XII himself, in which he explained to the sovereign what was the best way to govern Lombardy.
Physical appearance
Physically he was quite tall for the times, between and in height but he was not as well disposed physically, in fact he greatly appreciated good food and above all he was greedy for certain mullets in oil that his father-in-law Ercole sometimes sent him. Aliprando Caprioli says: "he was not well disposed of body, but beautiful of face; and of generous presence".
Over the years, without the necessary physical training, he gained more and more weight, then losing weight only after the death of his wife (due to the continuous fasting) and the capture, and then returned to being "fatter than ever", as described by ambassador Domenico Trevisan, after having become accustomed to imprisonment.
He was therefore not used to wearing the tight-attillated farsetti typical of young men and condottieri, but rather clothes that reached him just above the knee. However, he had broad shoulders and highlighted them with solid gold chains, as can be seen in the so-called Sforza Altarpiece. However, he had broad shoulders that he highlighted with solid gold chains, as can be seen in the so-called Sforza Altarpiece. From an early age he had eyes, hair and dark complexion, which therefore derived his nickname. Even the Ferrarese chronicler Girolamo Ferrarini, who met him twenty-five years old in 1477, describes him as "of noble and beautiful appearance, although he is brown in the face".
Ludovico "the seducer"
After the death of his wife he began to suffer from various diseases, such as gout andasthma, but in the best years, however, he was endowed with great charm and charisma, in fact he used to boast of never having had to force any woman to indulge in himself, and indeed of having loved them all. The fame of seducer came to such an extent that there was even talk of his relationship (probably invented) with his niece Isabella of Aragon,whose relationship would have been the reason why Gian Galeazzo had his wife indignant and refused to consummate the marriage. The Este ambassador then attributed to the "too much coitus" with Cecilia Gallerani the cause of a certain malaise that struck Ludovico in 1489. Moreover, Ludovico himself, after the death of Beatrice, came to boast of having also had an affair with Isabella d'Este,her sister, during the period in which his wife was still alive, thus insinuating that it was out of jealousy that the Marquis of Mantua Francesco Gonzaga, husband of Isabella, continued to play the double game between him and the Lordship of Venice. Isabella undoubtedly always had a soft spot for Ludovico, and in fact envied her sister from the beginning for the lucky marriage that had touched her, for the riches and for the children, but it is not proven that she had actually been his lover, and in any case her father-in-law Ercole d'Este immediately hastened to deny the rumor.
Personality
Certainly Ludovico was prodigal with his friends, very liberal, condescending, thoughtful and human, however he turned out to be a very little energetic man, if not spurred on, and with the hereafter (perhaps as a result of the aforementioned stroke) he became increasingly contradictory and unstable. In this regard, Camillo Porzio'sjudgment is exemplary:Paolo Giovio, who instead has very harsh words for Beatrice,describes him as follows:
Sometimes he knew how to be boastful, as when in 1496 he boasted that Pope Alexander was his chaplain, Emperor Maximilian his leader, Venice his chamberlain, and the King of France his courier who had to come and go to Italy at will.
The chronicler Andrea Prato, who harshly reproaches him for having preferred Galeazzo Sanseverino to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, paints a merciless picture, saying that he was indeed of rare and prudent intellect, but fearful, to such an extent that he seemed to abhor not only battles, but even to hear about atrocious and cruel things, which is why he was not loved by soldiers, who want a spirited gentleman to stand by their side and expose himself to danger with them.
In his wife, a woman of strong character and thus able to make up for her husband's failings, he found his most faithful and valid collaborator, so much so that her death marked her downfall. Beatrice trusted blindly, granted her great freedom and entrusted her with important tasks, making her always a participant in the councils and negotiations of war. As a husband he was therefore, at least at the beginning, almost impeccable, and if it had not been for the continuous betrayals nothing could have been reproached in this regard. Some historians, wandering, claimed that he beat his wife,but the confusion arises from a letter of 1492, in which it is written that the Duke of Milan had "beaten" his wife: Duke of Milan was then called Gian Galeazzo, who in accordance with his character was in fact used to mistreat his wife Isabella, nor therefore Ludovico ever allowed himself to make such a gesture towards that woman who "loved more than himself".
Even as a father he was attentive, loving and present, great was the love he nu nuded above all towards his own daughter, Bianca Giovanna,and unbearable the pain he showed for his untimely unexpected death. He was also particularly attached to Galeazzo Sanseverino, who was also the son of Roberto,and for this reason he married his favorite daughter, covered him with honors and allowed him to keep in the castle almost a court of his own. Galeazzo for his part served him faithfully and, although he was not as skilled in war as his brother , it was he who held the role of captain general of the Sforza army. Precisely this abuse yielded to Ludovico the hatred that later proved fatal of Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, who had seen himself suddenly deprived of the title. This strange friendship stimulated the evil tongues, to such an extent that Francesco Guicciardini collected those voices accusing the Moor of sodomy.
The practice of sodomy, according to the ancient Greek custom,was moreover widespread almost everywhere at that time, and many other powerful and lords were not exempt from it.
Love for the land
The great passion of Ludovico, more than women, more than food and more than the government, was indeed agriculture: Ludovico liked to remember that his grandfather, Muzio Attendolo,before becoming a leader was born a farmer, and he himself was an expert grower of vines and mulberries, the famous moròn, with whom they fed the silkworms that made the Milanese industry famous. He gave life to his own farm near Vigevano,the so-called Sforzesca, with adjacent the Pecorara where various species of cattle, sheep and other animals were bred, which Ludovico loved very much and where he often visited with his wife Beatrice, like him a lover of nature. It was no coincidence that he employed Leonardo da Vinci almost more as an engineer than as an artist, using his knowledge to build a series of aqueducts useful for irrigating those lands that are naturally arid. In the end he decided, by official act of January 28, 1494, to donate the Sforzesca, along with many other lands, to his beloved Beatrice, and this seems even more significant if we consider that from that company alone Ludovico received annually very rich incomes.
He invested also in horse and cattle breeding, and the metal industry. Some 20,000 workers were employed in the silk industry. He sponsored extensive work in civil and military engineering, such as canals and fortifications, continued work on the Cathedral of Milan and had the streets of Milan enlarged and adorned with gardens. The university of Pavia flourished under him. There were some protests at the heavy taxation necessary to support these ventures, and a few riots resulted.
Astrology
Perhaps precisely because of his own insecurities, he was obsessed with astrology,so much so that the courtiers of Ferrara noticed that in Milan nothing was done without Ambrose of Rosate, astrologer and personal doctor of Ludovico, had first consulted the stars.
Culture
He was a cultured man, he knew Latin and French and whenever he could he stopped to listen to the daily reading and commentary of the Divine Comedy that the humanist Antonio Grifo kept at the behest of Duchess Beatrice, who was very passionate about it. After her death and her capture, Ludovico asked as his last wish to be able to keep with him a book of Dante's work which he read continuously during his captivity, whose triplets he delighted in writing, translated into French, on the walls of his cell, along with some of his other nostalgic thoughts imbued with wisdom.
Origin of the nickname "Moro"
Ludovico earned the nickname "Moro" as a child. This is what the crowd cheered him on when he marched in procession in the cities of the Duchy. There are different interpretations regarding the reason for this choice:
Alessandro Visconti in his History of Milan,believes that he received this nickname for having introduced in the Lombard countryside the cultivation of mulberry, aplant that is locally called moròn,dialect term from the Latin morus. It seems that he loved the mulberry as the last plant to put the leaves and first to bear fruit and that he adopted it among the many ducal enterprises. However, it is known that mulberry was already cultivated at the time of Gian Galeazzo Visconti and that his brother Galeazzo Maria Sforza,with a ducal decree of 15 September 1470, had significantly promoted its diffusion.
The nickname may have been due to his bronze complexion, black eyes and raven hair, as seen in many of his portraits.
According to some historians, his father Francesco Sforza called him Ludovico Mauro. The name appears twice in a document of 1461.
Benedetto Varchi,in his Florentine History,believes that the nickname derives from his private enterprise, depicting a Moor brushing the robe of a noblewoman, with the motto Per Italia nettar d'ogni ugltura. Ludovico used to have Moor's heads painted in some insignia with a bandage tied to his forehead and kept among his servants and staffieri several "Moors", a custom already widespread at the court of Galeazzo Maria and in other Italian courts of the Renaissance.
The solution to this mystery is technically provided by the contemporary chronicler Gian Andrea Prato, who combines the second and third points:
Ludovico in art
Ludovico and his court of artists are frequent subjects in the art of the nineteenth century, on the wave of romanticism; events such as the deep sorrow for the death of his wife Beatrice, the alleged poisoning of Duke Gian Galeazzo, the presence of artists of the caliber of Leonardo da Vinci, inspired painters such as Giambattista Gigola (1816-1820),Giuseppe Diotti (1823),Francesco Gonin (1845), Francesco Podesti (1846),Cherubino Cornienti (1840 and 1858),Eleanor Fortescue-Brickdale (1920).
Representations in popular culture
Literature
Ludovico is the protagonist of some literary works:
Tragedies
The death of Ludovico Sforza known as the Moor, by Pietro Ferrari (1791).
Lodovico Sforza known as il Moro, by Giovanni Battista Niccolini (1833).
Lodovico il Moro, by Giuseppe Campagna (1842).
Novels
Lodovico il Moro, by Giovanni Campiglio (1837).
La città ardente - novel by Lodovico il Moro, by Dino Bonardi (1933).
Poisons, women and intrigues at the court of Ludovico il Moro, by Ezio Maria Seveso (1967)
I cento giorni del duca, by Laura Malinverni (2018)
Il Moro - Gli Sforza nella Milano di Leonardo, by Carlo Maria Lomartire (2019).
Comics
Ludovico il Moro - Signore di Milano, comic strip of 2010.
He also appears as a character in:
Cicco Simonetta: drama, with historical preface, by Carlo Belgiojoso (1858).
Leonardo - the Resurrection of the Gods, by Dmitry Mereskovsky (1901).
The Duchess of Milan, by Michael Ennis (1992).
L'invito di Ludovico il Moro, by Federico G. Martini (1998).
The Swans of Leonardo, by Karen Essex (2006).
The days of love and war, by Carla Maria Russo (2016).
La misura dell'uomo, by Marco Malvaldi (2018).
Leonardo da Vinci - The Renaissance of the Dead, by G. Albertini, G. Gualdoni and G. Staffa (2019).
Cinema
In the 1971 RAI miniseries The Life of Leonardo da Vinci, Ludovico is played by Giampiero Albertini.
In the 1974 film Young Lucrezia, he is played by Piero Lulli.
In the 1981 miniseries The Borgias, he is portrayed by Robert Ashby.
In the 2004 film Le grandi dame di casa d'Este by Diego Ronsisvalle, he is played by Paolo Catani.
In the 2011 Canal+ series Borgia, he appears as a cameo, played by Florian Fitz.
In the 2011 Showtime series The Borgias, Ludovico Sforza is portrayed by English actor Ivan Kaye.
In the 2016 documentary film Leonardo da Vinci - Il genio a Milano, he is played by Vincenzo Amato.
In the 2016-2019 Anglo-Italian television series I Medici, he is played by Daniele Pecci.
In the 2019 film Io, Leonardo, he is played by Massimo de Lorenzo.
In the 2019 film Essere Leonardo da Vinci, he is played by Paolo Terenzi, although it constitutes a simple appearance.
In the 2021 series Leonardo Ludovico Sforza is portrayed by English actor James D'Arcy.
Culinary
To Ludovico is dedicated the Dolceriso del Moro,a typical dessert of Vigevano,whose invention is traditionally attributed to the Duchess Beatrice herself, who would have conceived it in the spring of 1491 to please her illustrious consort. It is a kind of ricotta rice pudding, closed in a shortcrust pastry wrapper and enriched with candied fruit, pine nuts, almonds and rose water. This last ingredient served – as it seems – to induce harmony, harmony and fidelity in the couple.
Legends
Ludovico is linked to one of the legends that arose around the invention of Panettone, which would have been baked for the first time in his kitchens.
Around the origin of the nickname Moro there is an ancient popular legend according to which Ludovico was as a child initially called "the Bull" because of his strength and impetuousness, while "il Moro" was the nickname of one of his plebeian playmate, Cesarino della Griona, who was incredibly similar to him if not for the fact of always being dirty. One day, which was Christmas 1462, the two decided as a joke to exchange roles: while Cesarino, washed and well dressed, pretended to be Ludovico in the hall of the court, the real Ludovico went down the chimney hood tied to a rope, but got stuck. Cesarino himself rushed to his friend's cries for help, freeing him by tugging him by the feet. At that point the Duke Francesco Sforza, seeing his son all black for the soot, judged it necessary to exchange the nicknames of the two children, and so it was that Ludovico became "the Moor", and Cesarino, for the strength demonstrated, "the Bull". It is also said that this legend is the basis of the famous story The Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain.
Among the various ghosts that would inhabit the castle of Vigevano, including that of his wife Beatrice, it is also said of a white horse that was seen running down the staircase leading to the Doge's Square and here travel three laps of it before disappearing. The horse would have been the favorite of Ludovico, who would have wanted to avoid the dangers of war during the fateful defeat of Novara in 1500. In search of its master and finding the doors of the fortress barred, the animal would have beaten its hooves on the pavement of the square with such violence as to open a chasm into which it would finally fall.
Lineage
Legitimate children
By his wife Beatrice d'Este, daughter of Ercole I d'Este, he had the following children:
Ercole Massimiliano, (1493 - 1530), count of Pavia, duke of Milan 1513 - 1515;
Sforza Francesco, (1495 - 1535), Prince of Rossano and Count of Borrello 1497 - 1498, Count of Pavia and Duke of Milan 1521 - 1524 married in 1533 to Christina of Denmark (1522 - 1590), daughter of King Christian II of Denmark.
The third son, also a male, was born dead and, not having been baptized, could not be placed with his mother in the tomb. Ludovico, heartbroken, therefore had him buried above the door of the cloister of Santa Maria delle Grazie with this Latin epitaph: "O unhappy childbirth! I lost my life before I was born, and more unhappy, by dying I took the life of my mother and the father deprived his wife. In so much adverse fate, this alone can be of comfort to me, that divine parents bore me, Ludovico and Beatrice dukes of Milan. 1497, January 2".
Natural children
Il Moro also had a series of natural children, all legitimized, which over the years greatly enlarged the ducal family and allowed Sforza himself to cement some alliances:
From his mistress Bernardina de Corradis he had:
Bianca Giovanna (1482 - Milan, November 23, 1496), married Galeazzo Sanseverino, lord of Bobbio.
By his lover Cecilia Gallerani he had one son:
Cesare, (Milan, 1491 - 1514), abbot of the basilica of San Nazaro in Brolo in Milan from 1498, canon from 1503.
By his lover Lucrezia Crivelli he had two children:
Giovanni Paolo I Sforza or Giampaolo I Sforza, (Milan, 14 March 1497 – Naples, 13 December 1535), from whom the Sforza branch of Caravaggio descends, married Violante Bentivoglio of the Counts of Campagna and lords of Bologna;
A second child was born, probably, in 1500, since Lucrezia was once again pregnant when she found refuge with the Marquise Isabella d'Este.
From his lover Romana he had:
Leone (1476 - Milan 1496), between the end of 1495 and the beginning of 1496 married the young noblewoman Margherita Grassi, already widow of his uncle Giulio Sforza, to whom he had given a son. He died shortly after the wedding without having had offspring. He is often confused with his uncle of the same name, the latter abbot of San Vittore in Vigevano since 1495.
From dark lovers he had:
Galeazzo, eldest son, born before 1476 and died a child,,probably already before 1483, because in his first will, dating back to that year, Ludovico does not mention other children than Bianca and Leone.
Sforza (1484/1485-1487).
Perhaps he also had another illegitimate son unknown to us if, as reported by Bernardino Corio, in 1496 three of his bastard sons died, namely Leo, Bianca, and a third who cannot be identified with any of the aforementioned.
Ancestors
Notes
References
Bibliography
F. Catalano, Ludovico il Moro, Dall'Oglio editore, Milano, 1985, ISBN 88-7718-599-6
Mariana Frigeni, Ludovico il Moro: un gentiluomo in nero, Editoriale nuova, Milano, 1980.
Maurizio Gattoni, Sisto IV, Innocenzo VIII e la geopolitica dello Stato Pontificio (1471-1492), Roma, Edizioni Studium 2010, ISBN 978-88-382-4124-6
Maike Vogt-Luerssen, Die Sforza III: Isabella von Aragon und ihr Hofmaler Leonardo da Vinci, Norderstedt 2010
Danio Asinari, Lo sguardo riscoperto di Cecilia Gallerani, Nel borgo della Dama con l'ermellino, 2020, ISBN 978-88-31949-36-1
Further reading
Godfrey, F. M. "The Eagle and the Viper: Lodovico Il Moro of Milan: A Renaissance Tyrant." History Today (Oct 1953) 3#10 pp 705–715.
Lodovico Sforza, in: Thomas Gale, Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2005–2006.
External links
Portrait and family tree
Leonardo's Itinerary: Early maturity in Milan (1482–1499), by Valentina Cupiraggi, trans. Catherine Frost.
1452 births
1508 deaths
People from Vigevano
Ludovico
Ludovico Sforza
15th-century Italian nobility
16th-century Italian nobility
Burials at Milan Cathedral
Italian art patrons | [
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239948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Jakob%20Scherer | Johann Jakob Scherer | Johann Jakob Scherer (November 10, 1825 – December 23, 1878) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on July 12, 1872 and died in office on December 23, 1878. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1872–1873)
Department of Railway and Trade (1873–1874)
Political Department (1875)
Military Department (1876–1878)
He was President of the Confederation in 1875.
References
External links
1825 births
1878 deaths
People from Horgen District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland) | [
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239949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob%20Dubs | Jakob Dubs | Jakob Dubs (26 July 1822 – 13 January 1879) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1861–1872).
Along with Gustave Moynier and Guillaume-Henri Dufour, he founded the Swiss Red Cross in July 1866, and served as its first President until 1872.
He was elected to the Federal Council on 30 July 1861 and handed over office on 28 May 1872. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
Life and work
During his time in political office, he was responsible for the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1861–1863)
Political Department (1864)
Department of Home Affairs (1865)
Department of Justice and Police (1866)
Department of Posts (1867)
Political Department (1868)
Department of Posts (1869)
Political Department (1870)
Department of Home Affairs (1871–1872)
He was President of the Confederation three times in 1864, 1868 and 1870.
External links
1822 births
1879 deaths
People from Affoltern District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
19th-century Swiss judges
19th-century Swiss politicians | [
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239951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20necessariis%20unitas%2C%20in%20dubiis%20libertas%2C%20in%20omnibus%20caritas | In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas | In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas (commonly translated as "unity in necessary things; freedom in doubtful things; love in all things" or more literally as "in necessary things unity; in uncertain things liberty; in all things charity") is a Latin phrase.
Origins and history
It is often misattributed to St. Augustine of Hippo, but seems to have been first used in 1617 by Archbishop of Split (Spalato) Marco Antonio de Dominis in his anti-Papal De Repubblica Ecclesiastica, where it appears in context as follows (emphasis added):
Before the 21st century, academic consensus was that the source of the quotation was probably Lutheran theologian Peter Meiderlin (known as Rupertus Meldenius), who, in his Paraenesis votiva pro pace ecclesiae ad theologos Augustanae of 1626 had said, "Verbo dicam: Si nos servaremus in necessariis Unitatem, in non-necessariis Libertatem, in utrisque Charitatem, optimo certe loco essent res nostrae", meaning "In a word, let me say: if we might keep in necessary things Unity, in non-necessary things Freedom, and in both Charity, our affairs would certainly be in the best condition." Henk Nellen's 1999 article that showed the phrase had previously been used by De Dominis overturned over a century of academic consensus.
According to Joseph Lecler, the substitution of dubiis for non necessariis (omnibus occurs here, rather than, as in Meiderlin, utrisque) was made in largely Catholic circles, and had the effect of extending "the rule of Meldenius... to much more than just the necessaria [(for salvation)] and the non necessaria [(for salvation)]", much more than just the "fundamental articles": "the tripartite maxim... [thus] lost its original Protestant nuance, in order to extend liberty to the entire domain of questions debated, doubtful, and undefined [(non définies par l'Église)]". But Lecler was reproducing the old consensus: that the maxim originated in proto-Pietistic rather than Catholic circles, i.e. the circle about Johann Arndt.
Theological usage
The maxim is widely quoted in defence of theological and religious freedom, even though it raises the essential question of which things are necessary and which are doubtful or unnecessary. Despite those conflicts, the maxim mandates charity among all.
It is also the motto of the Moravian Church, Evangelical Presbyterian Church (United States), Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen, ÖCV and CV, and Unitas-Verband der Wissenschaftlichen Katholischen Studentenvereine, UV and UVÖ, the associations of Catholic student fraternities of Austria and Germany.
The phrase in its current form is found in Pope John XXIII's encyclical Ad Petri Cathedram of 29 June 1959, where he uses it favorably.
In the United Methodist Church Book of Discipline, the phrase appears in the doctrinal history section as "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; and in all things, charity." A few lines later, the mandate is emphasized as "the crucial matter in religion is steadfast love for God and neighbor, empowered by the redeeming and sanctifying work of the Holy Spirit."
See also
Adiaphora
List of Latin phrases
Theologoumenon
References
External links
— for the articles by Nellen and Lecler
— a detailed history of the origin and interpretation of the phrase.
.
History of Christian theology
Latin religious words and phrases | [
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239953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odium%20theologicum | Odium theologicum | The Latin phrase odium theologicum (literally 'theological hatred') is the name originally given to the often intense anger and hatred generated by disputes over theology. It has also been adopted to describe non-theological disputes of a rancorous nature.
John Stuart Mill, discussing the fallibility of the moral consensus in his essay "On Liberty" (1859) refers scornfully to the odium theologicum, saying that, in a sincere bigot, it is one of the most unequivocal cases of moral feeling. In this essay, he takes issue with those who rely on moral feeling rather than reasoned argument to justify their beliefs.
Academic disputes
The early linguist Leonard Bloomfield believed it necessary to develop linguistics as a cumulative, non-personal discipline; as a "genuine" science. In a talk in 1946, speaking of the development of the American Linguistics Society, he stated the fostering of such a discipline had saved it "from the blight of the odium theologicum and the postulation of schools . . . denouncing all persons who disagree or who choose to talk about something else," and he added "The struggle with recalcitrant facts, unyielding in their complexity, trains everyone who works actively in science to be humble, and accustoms him to impersonal acknowledgement of error."
Philosopher and historian of science Thomas Samuel Kuhn argued that scientists are strongly committed to their beliefs, theories and methods (the collection of which he termed "paradigms"), and that science progresses mainly by paradigm shifts. He claimed that scientists with conflicting paradigms will hold to them as dearly as theologians hold to their theological paradigms. Philosopher of math and science Imre Lakatos, a student of Karl Popper, described the nature of science in a similar manner.
According to Lakatos, science progresses by continual modification or else supersession of what he termed "research programs" (roughly equivalent to Kuhn's "paradigms"). Lakatos claimed that a research program is informed by metaphysical beliefs as well as observation of facts, and may infinitely resist falsification if a scientist wishes to continue holding it in spite of problems or the discovery of new evidence. If this view is correct, science does not remedy odium theologicum, it provides another field in which it may manifest.
In the controversy over the validity of fluxions the philosopher George Berkeley addressed his Newtonian opponent:
Whatever view of science and the sociology of scientific knowledge is correct, it is a fact that in the history of science there have been many instances of new theories (e.g., germ theory of disease, finitude of the speed of light, radioactivity) being ridiculed and shunned by the greater scientific community when first proposed or discovered, only later to be adopted as more probably accurate.
See also
Religious intolerance
Anathema
Abomination (Bible)
Worldview
Notes
External links
Sam Walter Foss (1858 - 1911), Odium theologicum: a poem on the subject
Pierre Encreveé, "The old and the new: some remarks on phonology and its history"
Imre Lakatos, "Science and Pseudoscience"
Latin religious words and phrases
Philosophy of religion
Conflict (process)
Academic culture | [
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239957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra%20Ecclesiam%20nulla%20salus | Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus | The Latin phrase (meaning "outside the Church [there is] no salvation" or "no salvation outside the Church") is a phrase referring to a Christian doctrine about who is to receive salvation.
The expression comes from the writings of Saint Cyprian of Carthage, a Christian bishop of the 3rd century. The phrase is an axiom often used as shorthand for the doctrine that the Church is necessary for salvation. It is a dogma in the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, in reference to their own communions. It is also held by many historic Protestant churches. However, Protestants, Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox each have a unique ecclesiological understanding of what constitutes 'the Church'. For some, the church is defined as "all those who will be saved", with no emphasis on the visible church. For others, the theological basis for this doctrine is founded on the beliefs that Jesus Christ personally established the one Church, and that the Church serves as the means by which the graces won by Christ are communicated to believers.
Kallistos Ware, a Greek Eastern Orthodox bishop, has expressed this doctrine as follows:
The 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church explained this as "all salvation comes from Christ the Head through the Church which is His Body." The Catholic Church also teaches that the doctrine does not mean that everyone who is not visibly within the Church is necessarily damned in case of inculpable ignorance.
Some of the most clear Catholic expressions of this dogma are: the profession of faith of Pope Innocent III (1208), the profession of faith of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), the papal bull of Pope Boniface VIII (1302), and the profession of faith of the Council of Florence (1442). The axiom "No salvation outside the Church" has been frequently repeated over the centuries in different terms by the ordinary magisterium, with the positive formulation of the dogma being laid out most recently in of the Second Vatican Council, as well as in the declaration of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, , which was published under the direction of cardinal Ratzinger and appoved by John Paul II, which restated the Catholic belief that the Catholic Church is "the one true Church".
Scriptural foundation
The doctrine is based largely on Mark 16:15-16:
History
First use of the sentence
The original phrase, ("there is no salvation out of the Church"), comes from Letter LXXII of Cyprian of Carthage (died 258). The letter was written in reference to a particular controversy as to whether it was necessary to baptize applicants who had been previously baptized by heretics. In , Cyprian tells Jubaianus of his conviction that baptism conferred by heretics is not valid. Firmilian (died ) agreed with Cyprian, reasoning that those who are outside the Church and do not have the Holy Spirit cannot admit others to the Church or give what they do not possess. According to cardinal Ratzinger, Cyprian was not expressing a theory on the eternal fate of all baptized and non-baptized persons.
Early Church Fathers
The concept was also referred to by Origen in his Homilies on Joshua, but neither he nor Cyprian were addressing non-Christians, but those already baptized and in danger of leaving the faith, as that would involve apostasy. Earlier, Justin Martyr had indicated that the righteous Jews who lived before Christ would be saved. He later expressed a similar opinion concerning Gentiles. Those who act pleasing to God, while not "being" Christian are yet in some sense "in" Christ the Logos....Each one, ... shall be saved by his own righteousness, ... those who regulated their lives by the law of Moses would in like manner be saved. ...Since those who did that which is universally, naturally, and eternally good are pleasing to God, they shall be saved through this Christ in the resurrection equally with those righteous men who were before them, namely Noah, and Enoch, and Jacob, and whoever else there be, along with those who have known this Christ.
Irenaeus (died 202 AD) wrote: "One should not seek among others the truth that can be easily gotten from the Church. For in her, as in a rich treasury, the apostles have placed all that pertains to truth, so that everyone can drink this beverage of life. She is the door of life" (Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies, III.4). However, he also said: "For it was not merely for those who believed on Him in the time of Tiberius Caesar that Christ came, nor did the Father exercise His providence for the men only who are now alive, but for all men altogether, who from the beginning, according to their capacity, in their generation have both feared and loved God, and practised justice and piety towards their neighbours, and have earnestly desired to see Christ, and to hear His voice." Irenaeus recognized that all who feared and loved God, practiced justice and piety toward their neighbors, and desired to see Christ, insofar as they were able to do so, would be saved. Since many were not able to have an explicit desire to see Christ, but only an implicit one, Iranaeus held the view that this would be satisfactory for salvation.
Gregory of Nazianzus took a rather broad view in his understanding of membership in the body of Christ. In the funeral oration for his father's death in 374, Gregory stated: "He was ours even before he was of our fold. His manner of life made him one of us. Just as there are many of our own who are not with us, whose lives alienate them from the common body, so too there are many of those outside who belong really to us, men whose devout conduct anticipates their faith. They lack only the name of that which in fact they possess. My father was one of these, an alien shoot but inclined to us in his manner of life." In other words, by their charity of life, they are united to Christians in Christ, even before they explicitly believe in Christ. Fulgentius of Ruspe took a much stricter view: "Most firmly hold and never doubt that not only pagans, but also all Jews, all heretics, and all schismatics who finish this life outside of the Catholic Church, will go into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels."
Jerome wrote: "This is the ark of Noah, and he who is not found in it shall perish when the flood prevails." Bede continues this theme: "And according to this sense the ark is manifestly the Church, Noah the Lord who builds the Church." Thomas Aquinas Peter Canisius and Robert Bellarmine () also used the image of the life-saving ark as a representation of the Church.
Augustine of Hippo made numerous remarks in response to adversaries, often on opposite sides of this issue, once saying: "Whoever is without the Church will not be reckoned among the sons, and whoever does not want to have the Church as mother will not have God as father." He could also pick up on the sayings of the Fathers, and be completely inclusive in his assessment: "All together we are members of Christ and are his body ... throughout the world ... from Abel the just until the end of time ... whoever among the just made his passage throughout this life, whether now ... or in the generations to come, all the just are this one body of Christ, and individually his members."
Catholic teachings
Pope Pelagius II (died 590): "Consider the fact that whoever has not been in the peace and unity of the Church cannot have the Lord...Although given over to flames and fires, they burn, or, thrown to wild beasts, they lay down their lives, there will not be (for them) that crown of faith but the punishment of faithlessness. …Such a one can be slain, he cannot be crowned. …[If] slain outside the Church, he cannot attain the rewards of the Church."
Pope Gregory I (died 604) in ("An Extensive Consideration of Moral Questions") said: "Now the holy Church universal proclaims that God cannot be truly worshiped saving within herself, asserting that all they that are without her shall never be saved." Pope Gregory XVI later quoted his predecessor in his 1832 encyclical ("on mixed religious marriages").
Pope Leo XII, ( #14, May 5, 1824): "It is impossible for the most true God, who is Truth itself, the best, the wisest Provider, and the Rewarder of good men, to approve all sects who profess false teachings which are often inconsistent with one another and contradictory, and to confer eternal rewards on their members… by divine faith we hold one Lord, one faith, one baptism, and that no other name under heaven is given to men except the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth in which we must be saved. This is why we profess that there is no salvation outside the Church."
Bishop John Carroll (died 1815), the first bishop in the United States, recognized a distinction between being in communion with the Church and being a member thereof:To be in the communion of the Catholic Church and to be a member of the Church are two different things. They are in the communion of profession of her faith and participation of her sacraments, through the ministry and government of her lawful pastors. The members of the Catholic Church are all those who with a sincere heart seek the true religion and are in unfeigned disposition to embrace the truth wherever they find it. It never was our doctrine that salvation can be obtained only by the former. Carroll traces this analysis back to Augustine of Hippo.
Francis Cardinal Bourne, Archbishop of Westminster from 1903–1935, summarized the Church teaching as follows:If God the Creator speaks, the creature is bound to listen and to believe what He utters. Hence the axiom "outside the Church there is no salvation". But, as it is equally true that without the deliberate act of the will there can be neither fault nor sin, so evidently this axiom applies only to those who are outside the Church knowingly, deliberately, and wilfully. …And this is the doctrine of the Catholic Church on this often misunderstood and misrepresented aphorism. There are the covenanted and the uncovenanted dealings of God with His creatures, and no creature is outside His fatherly care. There are millions – even at this day the vast majority of mankind – who are still unreached or unaffected by the message of Christianity in any shape or form. There are large numbers who are persuaded that the old covenant still prevails and are perfectly sincere and conscientious in their observance of the Jewish Law. And there are millions who accept some fashion of Christian teaching who have never adverted to the idea of Unity as I have described it, and have no thought that they are obliged in conscience to accept the teaching and to submit to the authority of the Catholic Church. All such, whether separated wholly from acceptance of Christ and His teaching, or accepting that teaching only to the extent in which they have perceived it, will be judged on their own merits.
Pope Pius XII (1939–1958), allocution to the Gregorian University (17 October 1953): "By divine mandate the interpreter and guardian of the Scriptures, and the depository of Sacred Tradition living within her, the Church alone is the entrance to salvation: She alone, by herself, and under the protection and guidance of the Holy Spirit, is the source of truth."
Councils
Fourth Lateran Council (1215): "There is but one universal Church of the faithful, outside which no one at all is saved."
Council of Florence, Cantate Domino (1441): "The most Holy Roman Church firmly believes, professes and preaches that none of those existing outside the Catholic Church, not only pagans, but also Jews and heretics and schismatics, can have a share in life eternal; but that they will go into the 'eternal fire which was prepared for the devil and his angels' (Matthew 25:41), unless before death they are joined with Her; and that so important is the unity of this ecclesiastical body that only those remaining within this unity can profit by the sacraments of the Church unto salvation, and they alone can receive an eternal recompense for their fasts, their almsgivings, their other works of Christian piety and the duties of a Christian soldier. No one, let his almsgiving be as great as it may, no one, even if he pour out his blood for the Name of Christ, can be saved, unless he remain within the bosom and the unity of the Catholic Church." The same council also ruled that those who die in original sin, but without mortal sin, will also find punishment in hell, but unequally: "But the souls of those who depart this life in actual mortal sin, or in original sin alone, go down straightaway to hell to be punished, but with unequal pains."
Encyclicals
Pope Boniface VIII's bull of 1302 was promulgated during an ongoing dispute between Boniface VIII and Philip IV of France. In it, Boniface declared, "We are compelled in virtue of our faith to believe and maintain that there is only one holy Catholic Church, and that one is apostolic. This we firmly believe and profess without qualification. Outside this Church there is no salvation and no remission of sins." The bull notably extends what had been ecclesiastical dictum into relations with temporal powers. According to Robert W. Dyson, there are some who hold that Giles of Rome might have been the actual writer of the bull. It is notable for the claim, "We declare, say, define, and pronounce that it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every human creature to be subject to the Roman Pontiff."
Pope Leo XII in his 1824 encyclical in discussing religious indifferentism, said: "A certain sect, which you surely know, has unjustly arrogated to itself the name of philosophy, and has aroused from the ashes the disorderly ranks of practically every error. Under the gentle appearance of piety and liberality this sect professes what they call tolerance or indifferentism. It preaches that not only in civil affairs, which is not Our concern here, but also in religion, God has given every individual a wide freedom to embrace and adopt without danger to his salvation whatever sect or opinion appeals to him on the basis of his private judgment."
Pope Pius IX wrote a number of times against religious indifferentism. In the 1863 encyclical he said, "And here, beloved Sons and Venerable Brothers, We should mention again and censure a very grave error in which some Catholics are unhappily engaged, who believe that men living in error, and separated from the true faith and from Catholic unity, can attain eternal life. Indeed, this is certainly quite contrary to Catholic teaching. It is known to Us and to you that they who labor in invincible ignorance of our most holy religion and who, zealously keeping the natural law and its precepts engraved in the hearts of all by God, and being ready to obey God, live an honest and upright life, can, by the operating power of divine light and grace, attain eternal life, since God who clearly beholds, searches, and knows the minds, souls, thoughts, and habits of all men, because of His great goodness and mercy, will by no means suffer anyone to be punished with eternal torment who has not the guilt of deliberate sin. But, the Catholic dogma that no one can be saved outside the Catholic Church is well-known; and also that those who are obstinate toward the authority and definitions of the same Church, and who persistently separate themselves from the unity of the Church, and from the Roman Pontiff, the successor of Peter, to whom 'the guardianship of the vine has been entrusted by the Savior' (Council of Chalcedon, Letter to Pope Leo I) cannot obtain eternal salvation..."
Pope Pius XI saw the ecumenical movement of the early 20th century "as nothing else than a Federation, composed of various communities of Christians, even though they adhere to different doctrines, which may even be incompatible one with another." In his 1928 encyclical , he quotes from Lactantius: "The Catholic Church alone is keeping the true worship. This is the font of truth, this is the house of faith, this is the temple of God; if any man enter not here, or if any man go forth from it, he is a stranger to the hope of life and salvation. …Furthermore, in this one Church of Christ, no man can be or remain who does not accept, recognize and obey the authority and supremacy of Peter and his legitimate successors."
Second Vatican Council
In calling the Second Vatican Council, Pope John XXIII noted a distinction between the truths of faith and how those truths are conveyed. In the 1973 declaration , the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith recognized that the articulation of revealed truth would necessarily be influenced by historical factors.
The Second Vatican Council declared that the Christian communities that are not in full communion, but only in "partial communion" with the Catholic Church, "though we believe them to be deficient in some respects, have been by no means deprived of significance and importance in the mystery of salvation. For the Spirit of Christ has not refrained from using them as means of salvation which derive their efficacy from the very fullness of grace and truth entrusted to the Church." It explained that "some and even very many of the significant elements and endowments which together go to build up and give life to the Church itself, can exist outside the visible boundaries of the Catholic Church: the written word of God; the life of grace; faith, hope and charity, with the other interior gifts of the Holy Spirit, and visible elements too. All of these, which come from Christ and lead back to Christ, belong by right to the one Church of Christ."
These elements, it said, "as gifts belonging to the Church of Christ, are forces impelling toward Catholic unity." The Council identified Christ's Church on earth with the Catholic Church, saying: "This Church constituted and organized in the world as a society, subsists in the Catholic Church." The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated in a later doctrinal note that the term "subsistit in" and "is" are interchangeable, so that the "one true Church" is and subsists in the Catholic Church, according to Catholic teaching. The Second Vatican Council also declared that "it is through Christ's Catholic Church alone, which is the universal help towards salvation, that the fullness of the means of salvation can be obtained. It was to the apostolic college alone, of which Peter is the head, that we believe that our Lord entrusted all the blessings of the New Covenant, in order to establish on earth the one body of Christ into which all those must be fully incorporated who belong in any way to the people of God."
In its decree on missionary activity, the Council, quoting , 14, said: "Christ Himself 'by stressing in express language the necessity of faith and baptism (cf. Mark 16:16; John 3:5), at the same time confirmed the necessity of the Church, into which men enter by baptism, as by a door....' Therefore though God in ways known to Himself can lead those inculpably ignorant of the Gospel to find that faith without which it is impossible to please Him, yet a necessity lies upon the Church, and at the same time a sacred duty, to preach the Gospel."
The Council also warned that full incorporation in the Church does not ensure salvation: "They are fully incorporated in the society of the Church who, possessing the Spirit of Christ accept her entire system and all the means of salvation given to her, and are united with her as part of her visible bodily structure and through her with Christ, who rules her through the Supreme Pontiff and the bishops. The bonds which bind men to the Church in a visible way are profession of faith, the sacraments, and ecclesiastical government and communion. He is not saved, however, who, though part of the body of the Church, does not persevere in charity. He remains indeed in the bosom of the Church, but, as it were, only in a 'bodily' manner and not 'in his heart'. All the Church's children should remember that their exalted status is to be attributed not to their own merits but to the special grace of Christ. If they fail moreover to respond to that grace in thought, word and deed, not only shall they not be saved but they will be the more severely judged."<ref name=AG14>Lumen gentium, 14</ref>
Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution , 14: "They could not be saved who, knowing that the Catholic Church was founded as necessary by God through Christ, would refuse either to enter it, or to remain in it."
Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution , 16: "Nor is God far distant from those who in shadows and images seek the unknown God, for it is He who gives to all men life and breath and all things, and as Saviour wills that all men be saved. Those also can attain to salvation who through no fault of their own do not know the Gospel of Christ or His Church, yet sincerely seek God and moved by grace strive by their deeds to do His will as it is known to them through the dictates of conscience. Nor does Divine Providence deny the helps necessary for salvation to those who, without blame on their part, have not yet arrived at an explicit knowledge of God and with His grace strive to live a good life."
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the phrase, "Outside the Church there is no salvation", means, if put in positive terms, that "all salvation comes from Christ the Head through the Church which is his Body", and it "is not aimed at those who, through no fault of their own, do not know Christ and his Church".
At the same time, it adds: "Although in ways known to himself God can lead those who, through no fault of their own, are ignorant of the Gospel to that faith without which it is impossible to please him, the Church still has the obligation and also the sacred right to evangelize all men."
The Church has also declared that "she is joined in many ways to the baptized who are honored by the name of Christian, but do not profess the Catholic faith in its entirety or have not preserved unity or communion under the successor of Peter", and that "those who have not yet received the Gospel are related to the People of God in various ways."
The 2000 declaration of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith states that "it must be firmly believed that the Church, a pilgrim now on earth, is necessary for salvation: the one Christ is the mediator and the way of salvation; he is present to us in his body which is the Church. He himself explicitly asserted the necessity of faith and baptism (cf. Mk 16:16; Jn 3:5), and thereby affirmed at the same time the necessity of the Church which men enter through baptism as through a door." It then adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is ... communicated by the Holy Spirit; it has a relationship with the Church, which, according to the plan of the Father, has her origin in the mission of the Son and the Holy Spirit."
Inculpable ignorance
In its statements regarding this doctrine, the Church expressly teaches that "it is necessary to hold for certain that they who labor in ignorance of the true religion, if this ignorance is invincible, will not be held guilty of this in the eyes of God"; that "outside of the Church, nobody can hope for life or salvation unless he is excused through ignorance beyond his control"; and that "they who labor in invincible ignorance of our most holy religion and who, zealously keeping the natural law and its precepts engraved in the hearts of all by God, and being ready to obey God, live an honest and upright life, can, by the operating power of divine light and grace, attain eternal life.""Inculpable or invincible ignorance has never been and will never be a means of salvation. To be saved, it is necessary to be justified, or to be in the state of sanctifying grace. To obtain sanctifying grace, it is necessary to have the proper dispositions for justification; that is, true divine faith in at least the necessary truths of salvation, confident hope in the divine Savior, sincere sorrow for sin, together with the firm purpose of doing all that God has commanded, etc. Now, these supernatural acts of faith, hope, charity, contrition, etc., which prepare the soul for receiving sanctifying grace, can never be supplied by invincible ignorance;... But if we say that inculpable ignorance cannot save a man, we thereby do not say that invincible ignorance damns a man. Far from it. To say, invincible ignorance is no means of salvation, is one thing; and to say, invincible ignorance is the cause of damnation, is another. To maintain the latter would be wrong, for inculpable ignorance of the fundamental principles of faith excuses a heathen from the sin of infidelity, and a Protestant from the sin of heresy; because such invincible ignorance, being only a simple involuntary privation, is no sin." (Michael Müller, Invincible or Inculpable Ignorance Neither Saves nor Damns a Person, Questions and Answers on Salvation by Rev. Michael Muller, C.SS.R)
Strict interpretation
Some sedevacantists take a strictly literal point of view which is Feeneyism, holding that only baptized Catholics are saved. Among such groups are the Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary of Richmond, New Hampshire and Most Holy Family Monastery. As they reject of concept of baptism by desire and baptism of blood, only a properly performed rite with the use of water and the requisite words is sufficient.
Lutheran interpretation
Martin Luther, the foremost leader of the Protestant Reformation, spoke of the necessity of belonging to the church (in the sense of what he saw as the true church) in order to be saved:
Therefore he who would find Christ must first find the Church. How should we know where Christ and his faith were, if we did not know where his believers are? And he who would know anything of Christ must not trust himself nor build a bridge to heaven by his own reason; but he must go to the Church, attend and ask her. Now the Church is not wood and stone, but the company of believing people; one must hold to them, and see how they believe, live and teach; they surely have Christ in their midst. For outside of the Christian church there is no truth, no Christ, no salvation.
Modern Lutheran churches "do agree with the traditional statement that 'outside the catholic church there is no salvation', but this statement refers not to the Roman organization but to the Holy Christian Catholic and Apostolic Church, which consists of all who believe in Christ as their Savior."
Reformed interpretation
The Genevan reformer John Calvin, in his Reformation-era work Institutes of the Christian Religion, wrote: "beyond the pale of the Church no forgiveness of sins, no salvation, can be hoped for". Calvin wrote also that "those to whom He is a Father, the Church must also be a mother," echoing the words of the originator of the Latin phrase himself, Cyprian: "He can no longer have God for his Father who has not the Church for his mother."
Reformed scholastics accepted the phrase so long as the church is recognized by the marks of the church, which they defined as proper administration of the Word and sacrament, rather than apostolic succession.
The idea is further affirmed in the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 that "the visible Church ... is the Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ, the house and family of God, out of which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation."
Methodist interpretation
The Methodist tradition, inclusive of the holiness movement, holds that the office of the keys is exercised when the Church baptizes an individual and pronounces them saved. The office of the keys is furthermore exercised in the Church "binding and loosing", being able to excommunicate individuals from the sacraments as "ordinarily, no one is saved outside the visible church". The purpose of this is to allow individuals to repent and come into full communion with the Church so that they might receive "final salvation".
Books written on the dogma
1587: The Firm Foundation of the Catholic Religion by Jean de Caumont, S.J. (Published in 1587)
1609: A Consultation what Faith and Religion is Best to be Imbraced by Leonardus Lessius
1625: by Rev. William Smith, S.J.
1822: An Inquiry, Whether Salvation Can Be Had Without True Faith, and out of the Communion of the Church of Christ by Bishop George Hay
1888: The Catholic Dogma:'' by Rev. Michael Müller
See also
Error has no rights
Exclusivism
Religious exclusivism
Notes
References
Further reading
Sullivan SJ, Francis A., Salvation Outside the Church?: Tracing the History of the Catholic Response, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2002.
External links
Without the Church There Is No Salvation Catholic Education Resource Center
Church Fathers on Salvation Outside the Church
Can Non-Christians Be Saved? by Kenneth J. Howell. - Catholic Answers
Declaration of the Holy See under Pope Pius XII on the meaning of the teaching, 8 August 1949
Pope John Paul II, General Audience, 31 May 1995
Salvation in Catholicism
Catholic Church and ecumenism
Latin religious words and phrases
Christian terminology | [
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239958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Schmid | Samuel Schmid | Samuel Schmid (born 8 January 1947) is a Swiss politician who served as a Member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2000 to 2008. He was the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports (notably acting as a defense minister for Switzerland).
Schmid was born in Rüti bei Büren, Canton of Bern. He was elected to the Federal Council on 6 December 2000. He was a member of the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), and is now a member of the Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his time in office he has held the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports. In 2004, he was the vice-President of the Confederation and President in 2005.
Schmid was a member of the SVP's centrist/agrarian wing. He was put under pressure by the party's nationalist wing, led by National Councillor Christoph Blocher, for taking a moderate stance on certain issues. After the SVP became the largest party in the Federal Assembly in the 2003 federal elections, the SVP threatened to remove Schmid from the Council if it didn't get an additional seat (which eventually went to Blocher in that year).
After Blocher was defeated for reelection to the Federal Council in favour of another SVP moderate, Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, the SVP caucus voted to exclude Schmid and Widmer-Schlumpf from the party group. Some called for them to be thrown out of the party altogether. However, Swiss parties are legally federations of cantonal parties. For Schmid to have been expelled, the SVP's Bern section would have had to terminate his membership, and it refused to do so. In 2008, Schmid joined the newly formed Conservative Democratic Party, along with almost all of the SVP's Bern section.
On 12 November 2008, Schmid resigned from the Federal Council effective 1 January 2009. The resignation followed a months-long period of intense political pressure by the Swiss People's Party owing to scandals and accidents in the Swiss military, as well as bouts of ill health. Samuel Schmid was succeeded by Ueli Maurer of the Swiss People's Party.
References
Footnotes
External links
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
1947 births
Living people
Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Swiss People's Party politicians
People from Seeland District
Swiss Protestants
21st-century Swiss politicians
Doping in Russia
University of Bern alumni | [
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239962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%20Cathedra | Ex Cathedra | Ex Cathedra ( ) is a leading British choir and early music ensemble based in Birmingham in the West Midlands, England. It performs choral music spanning the 15th to 21st centuries, and regularly commissions new works.
Ex Cathedra was founded in Birmingham in 1969 by Jeffrey Skidmore OBE, who is its artistic director and conductor. It comprises a chamber choir of about 40 singers, a specialist vocal Consort made up of ten professional singers who feature regularly as soloists, and a Baroque ensemble/orchestra. It is known for its passion for seeking out the best, the unfamiliar and the unexpected in the choral repertoire and for giving dynamic performances underpinned by detailed research.
Each year, the choir presents a season of diverse programmes in a variety of venues in and around Birmingham, across the Midlands and in London. It has been a resident ensemble at Birmingham Town Hall Symphony Hall since 2007. Since 2014 has made regular appearances at Hereford Cathedral, St Peter's Collegiate Church in Wolverhampton, Southwell Minster and St James the Greater in Leicester.
Ex Cathedra have been invited to perform in concert series and festivals across the UK and as far afield as Israel and New York, including the BBC Proms where it performed Stockhausen in 2013, the Barbican Centre, Brighton Early Music Festival, Cheltenham Music Festival, Edinburgh International Festival, Kilkenny Festival, Lichfield Festival, London Festival of Baroque Music, Spitalfields Festival, St David's Festival, Three Choirs Festival and York Early Music Festival. The group has also appeared at festivals in Belgium, Finland, France, (Germany), Israel, Italy and Spain.
Ex Cathedra have collaborated with Fretwork (music group), the City Musick, His Majestys Sagbutts & Cornetts, Concerto Palatino, Birmingham Opera Company, Sinfonia New York, Birmingham Royal Ballet, the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Quebecois dance company Cas Public, the Shakespeare Institute, and the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust.
The first period instrument orchestra to be established in an English regional city, Ex Cathedra's Baroque Orchestra was founded as part of the choir's 1983–1984 season and made its début with a performance of Bach's Mass in B Minor. Comprising the UK's leading period instrumentalists, the orchestra's principals regularly give master classes and coach students at the Birmingham Conservatoire as part of its early music programme.
Music education
Ex Cathedra has its own youth and children's choirs, the Academy of Vocal Music, for children aged 4–20. In 2017 it launched a Scholarships scheme for young professionals and, in partnership with Birmingham Conservatoire, a Student Scholarships scheme.
In addition, since 1990 the choir have been involved in education programmes in schools and local communities. It established Ring of Sound, an intergenerational choir for the Perry Common Regeneration Project and runs Singing Communities Ladywood, a community choir in the Ladywood inner city district of Birmingham.
Ex Cathedra's 'Singing Medicine' project has worked with children every week across all wards since 2004 at Birmingham Children's Hospital, at paediatric wards at Birmingham Heartland's Hospital since 2011, and at Birmingham Women's Hospital since 2016.
For over 25 years, Ex Cathedra has worked extensively in schools, particularly focusing on primary schools. This activity expanded during the 2007–2008 academic year, when Ex Cathedra inducted its 'Singing Playgrounds' project in schools in Birmingham, Coventry, Derby and London as part of the government's Sing Up initiative. By 2017, 'Singing Playgrounds' had reached over 600 schools across the UK and as far afield as Belgium, China, New Zealand, Singapore and Thailand.
Recordings
Ex Cathedra have made a number of critically acclaimed recordings for ASV Records, NMC, Orchid, Signum Records, Somm Records, Hyperion Records, and on its own label. It is well known for its recordings of French and Latin American Baroque music.
In 2015 the CD 'Britten to America' was shortlisted for a Grammy Award, whilst 'A French Baroque Diva' won a Gramophone Award 2015 (Recital category): "It is no longer enough for recitals merely to bunch together a dozen or so favourite lollipops. The most stimulating essays in the genre are revealing a clear fashion for a proper conceptual theme that requires some scholarly research and creative programming, placing musical entertainment and philological exploration on an equal par. The shortlisted finalists for this year's Recital Award typify this trend, and best of the distinguished crop is Jeffrey Skidmore and Carolyn Sampson's exposition of the career of Marie Fel (1713–94)... Skidmore's expert direction, Ex Cathedra's stylish orchestra (and expert choir) and Sampson's sincere singing ensure that this is both musically thrilling and a fascinating contextual journey."
Hyperion lawsuit
In 2001, Ex Cathedra recorded four works by Michel-Richard de Lalande for Hyperion Records. The sessions used editions prepared by scholar Lionel Sawkins. Sawkins went on to sue Hyperion for royalties arising from his claimed copyright in the editions. The recording was issued but subsequently withdrawn from the market after Sawkins won the lawsuit and subsequent appeal.
Upon Hyperion's appeal, the Court of Appeal held on 19 May 2005 that Sawkins owned the copyright in his modern performing editions of the de Lalande music, even though de Lalande's music itself was out of copyright. The decision was not welcomed by all. Peter Phillips, the director of the Tallis Scholars and a music editor himself, said: "All the music I perform has to be edited, or we couldn't read it. But copyright should be there ... to reward creativity, not scholarship or diligence. How much an editor did or did not write should never be asked and judged upon during a million-pound lawsuit involving a small and innovative recording company."
See also
Arts in Birmingham – classical music
Jeffrey Skidmore
List of early music ensembles
Notes
References
.
Programme for Ex Cathedra's performance Parisian Vespers: Summer Vespers by Candlelight at The Oratory, Birmingham, on 18 June 2008.
Sawkins v. Hyperion Records Limited [2004] EWHC 1530, High Court (Chancery Division). Retrieved 17 December 2008.
Further reading
.
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.
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External links
Official website
Ex Cathedra on Goldberg, the early-music portal
Ex Cathedra on the website of Hyperion Records
British early music ensembles
Early music choirs
Early music consorts
Early music orchestras
English orchestras
Musical groups established in 1969
Musical groups from Birmingham, West Midlands
English choirs
English vocal groups
Baroque music groups | [
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239964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%20Sharp%20%28programming%20language%29 | F Sharp (programming language) | F# (pronounced F sharp) is a functional-first, general purpose, strongly typed, multi-paradigm programming language that encompasses functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming methods. F# is most often used as a cross-platform Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) language on .NET, but it can also generate JavaScript and graphics processing unit (GPU) code.
F# is developed by the F# Software Foundation, Microsoft and open contributors. An open source, cross-platform compiler for F# is available from the F# Software Foundation. F# is a fully supported language in Visual Studio and JetBrains Rider. Plug-ins supporting F# exist for many widely used editors, most notably the Ionide extension for Visual Studio Code, and integrations for other editors such as Vim, and Emacs.
F# is a member of the ML language family and originated as a .NET Framework implementation of a core of the programming language OCaml. It has also been influenced by C#,
Python, Haskell, Scala, and Erlang.
History
Versions
In the course of its development, the language has gone through several versions:
Language evolution
F# uses an open development and engineering process.
The language evolution process is managed by Don Syme from Microsoft Research as the benevolent dictator for life (BDFL) for the language design, together with the F# Software Foundation.
Earlier versions of the F# language were designed by Microsoft and Microsoft Research using a closed development process.
F# originates from Microsoft Research, Cambridge, UK. The language was originally designed and implemented by Don Syme, according to whom in the fsharp team, they say the F is for "Fun".
Andrew Kennedy contributed to the design of units of measure. The Visual F# Tools for Visual Studio are developed by Microsoft. The F# Software Foundation developed the F# open-source compiler and tools, incorporating the open-source compiler implementation provided by the Microsoft Visual F# Tools team.
Language overview
Functional programming
While supporting object-oriented features available in C#, F# is a strongly typed functional-first language with a large number of capabilities that are normally found only in functional programming languages. Together, these features allow F# programs to be written in a completely functional style and also allow functional and object-oriented styles to be mixed.
Examples of functional features are:
Everything is an expression
Type inference (using Hindley–Milner type inference)
Anonymous functions with capturing semantics (i.e., closures)
Immutable variables and objects
Lazy evaluation support
Higher-order functions
Nested functions
Currying
Pattern matching
Algebraic data types
Tuples
Monad pattern support (called computation expressions )
F# is an expression-based language using eager evaluation and also in some instances lazy evaluation. Every statement in F#,
including if expressions, try expressions and loops, is a composable expression with a static type. Functions and expressions that do not return any value have a return type of unit. F# uses the let keyword for binding values to a name. For example:
let x = 3 + 4
binds the value 7 to the name x.
New types are defined using the type keyword. For functional programming, F# provides tuple, record, discriminated union, list, option, and result types. A tuple represents a set of n values, where n ≥ 0. The value n is called the arity of the tuple. A 3-tuple would be represented as (A, B, C), where A, B, and C are values of possibly different types. A tuple can be used to store values only when the number of values is known at design-time and stays constant during execution.
A record is a type where the data members are named. Here is an example of record definition:
type R =
{ Name : string
Age : int }
Records can be created as . The with keyword is used to create a copy of a record, as in , which creates a new record by copying r and changing the value of the Name field (assuming the record created in the last example was named r).
A discriminated union type is a type-safe version of C unions. For example,
type A =
| UnionCaseX of string
| UnionCaseY of int
Values of the union type can correspond to either union case. The types of the values carried by each union case is included in the definition of each case.
The list type is an immutable linked list represented either using a notation (:: is the cons operator) or a shorthand as . An empty list is written []. The option type is a discriminated union type with choices Some(x) or None. F# types may be generic, implemented as generic .NET types.
F# supports lambda functions and closures. All functions in F# are first class values and are immutable. Functions can be curried. Being first-class values, functions can be passed as arguments to other functions. Like other functional programming languages, F# allows function composition (computer science) using the >> and << operators.
F# provides that define a sequence seq { ... }, list [ ... ] or array [| ... |] through code that generates values. For example,
seq { for b in 0 .. 25 do
if b < 15 then
yield b*b }
forms a sequence of squares of numbers from 0 to 14 by filtering out numbers from the range of numbers from 0 to 25. Sequences are generators – values are generated on-demand (i.e., are lazily evaluated) – while lists and arrays are evaluated eagerly.
F# uses pattern matching to bind values to names. Pattern matching is also used when accessing discriminated unions – the union is value matched against pattern rules and a rule is selected when a match succeeds. F# also supports Active Patterns as a form of extensible pattern matching. It is used, for example, when multiple ways of matching on a type exist.
F# supports a general syntax for defining compositional computations called . Sequence expressions, asynchronous computations and queries are particular kinds of computation expressions. Computation expressions are an implementation of the monad pattern.
Imperative programming
F# support for imperative programming includes
for loops
while loops
arrays, created with the [| ... |] syntax
hash table, created with the dict [ ... ] syntax or System.Collections.Generic.Dictionary<_,_> type.
Values and record fields can also be labelled as mutable. For example:
// Define 'x' with initial value '1'
let mutable x = 1
// Change the value of 'x' to '3'
x <- 3
Also, F# supports access to all CLI types and objects such as those defined in the System.Collections.Generic namespace defining imperative data structures.
Object-oriented programming
Like other Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) languages, F# can use CLI types through object-oriented programming. F# support for object-oriented programming in expressions includes:
Dot-notation, e.g.,
Object expressions, e.g.,
Object construction, e.g.,
Type tests, e.g.,
Type coercions, e.g.,
Named arguments, e.g.,
Named setters, e.g.,
Optional arguments, e.g.,
Support for object-oriented programming in patterns includes
Type tests, e.g.,
Active patterns, which can be defined over object types
F# object type definitions can be class, struct, interface, enum, or delegate type definitions, corresponding to the definition forms found in C#. For example, here is a class with a constructor taking a name and age, and declaring two properties.
/// A simple object type definition
type Person(name : string, age : int) =
member x.Name = name
member x.Age = age
Asynchronous programming
F# supports asynchronous programming through asynchronous workflows. An asynchronous workflow is defined as a sequence of commands inside an async{ ... }, as in
let asynctask =
async { let req = WebRequest.Create(url)
let! response = req.GetResponseAsync()
use stream = response.GetResponseStream()
use streamreader = new System.IO.StreamReader(stream)
return streamreader.ReadToEnd() }
The let! indicates that the expression on the right (getting the response) should be done asynchronously but the flow should only continue when the result is available. In other words, from the point of view of the code block, it's as if getting the response is a blocking call, whereas from the point of view of the system, the thread won't be blocked and may be used to process other flows while the result needed for this one doesn't become available.
The async block may be invoked using the Async.RunSynchronously function. Multiple async blocks can be executed in parallel using the Async.Parallel function that takes a list of async objects (in the example, asynctask is an async object) and creates another async object to run the tasks in the lists in parallel. The resultant object is invoked using Async.RunSynchronously.
Inversion of control in F# follows this pattern.
Parallel programming
Parallel programming is supported partly through the Async.Parallel, Async.Start and other operations that run asynchronous blocks in parallel.
Parallel programming is also supported through the Array.Parallel functional programming operators in the F# standard library, direct use of the System.Threading.Tasks task programming model, the direct use of .NET thread pool and .NET threads and through dynamic translation of F# code to alternative parallel execution engines such as GPU code.
Units of measure
The F# type system supports units of measure checking for numbers. The units of measure feature integrates with F# type inference to require minimal type annotations in user code.
Metaprogramming
F# allows some forms of syntax customizing via metaprogramming to support embedding custom domain-specific languages within the F# language, particularly through computation expressions.
F# includes a feature for run-time meta-programming called quotations. A quotation expression evaluates to an abstract syntax tree representation of the F# expressions. Similarly, definitions labelled with the [<ReflectedDefinition>] attribute can also be accessed in their quotation form. F# quotations are used for various purposes including to compile F# code into JavaScript and GPU code. (Quotations represent their F# code expressions as data for use by other parts of the program while requiring it to be syntactically correct F# code).
Information-rich programming
F# 3.0 introduced a form of compile-time meta-programming through statically extensible type generation called F# type providers. F# type providers allow the F# compiler and tools to be extended with components that provide type information to the compiler on-demand at compile time. F# type providers have been used to give strongly typed access to connected information sources in a scalable way, including to the Freebase knowledge graph.
In F# 3.0 the F# quotation and computation expression features are combined to implement LINQ queries. For example:
// Use the OData type provider to create types that can be used to access the Northwind database.
open Microsoft.FSharp.Data.TypeProviders
type Northwind = ODataService<"http://services.odata.org/Northwind/Northwind.svc">
let db = Northwind.GetDataContext()
// A query expression.
let query1 = query { for customer in db.Customers do
select customer }
The combination of type providers, queries and strongly typed functional programming is known as information rich programming.
Agent programming
F# supports a variation of the Actor programming model through the in-memory implementation of lightweight asynchronous agents. For example, the following code defines an agent and posts 2 messages:
let counter =
MailboxProcessor.Start(fun inbox ->
let rec loop n =
async { do printfn "n = %d, waiting..." n
let! msg = inbox.Receive()
return! loop(n+msg) }
loop 0)
Development tools
Visual Studio, with the Visual F# tools from Microsoft installed, can be used to create, run and debug F# projects. The Visual F# tools include a Visual Studio-hosted read–eval–print loop (REPL) interactive console that can execute F# code as it is written. Visual Studio for Mac also fully supports F# projects.
Visual Studio Code contains full support for F# via the Ionide extension.
F# can be developed with any text editor. Specific support exists in editors such as Emacs.
JetBrains Rider is optimized for the development of F# Code starting with release 2019.1.
LINQPad has supported F# since version 2.x.
Application areas
F# is a general-purpose programming language.
Web programming
The SAFE Stack is an end-to-end F# stack to develop web applications. It uses ASP.NET Core on the server side and Fable on the client side.
An alternative end-to-end F# option is the WebSharper framework.
Cross-platform app development
F# can be used together with the Visual Studio Tools for Xamarin to develop apps for iOS and Android. The Fabulous library provides a more comfortable functional interface.
Analytical programming
Among others, F# is used for quantitative finance programming, energy trading and portfolio optimization, machine learning, business intelligence and social gaming on Facebook.
In the 2010s, F# has been positioned as an optimized alternative to C#. F#'s scripting ability and inter-language compatibility with all Microsoft products have made it popular among developers.
Scripting
F# can be used as a scripting language, mainly for desktop read–eval–print loop (REPL) scripting.
Open-source community
The F# open-source community includes the F# Software Foundation and the F# Open Source Group at GitHub. Popular open-source F# projects include:
Fable, an F# to Javascript transpiler based on Babel.
Paket, an alternative package manager for .NET that can still use NuGet repositories, but has centralised version-management.
FAKE, an F# friendly build-system.
Giraffe, a functionally oriented middleware for ASP.NET Core.
Suave, a lightweight web-server and web-development library.
Compatibility
F# features a legacy "ML compatibility mode" that can directly compile programs written in a large subset of OCaml roughly, with no functors, objects, polymorphic variants, or other additions.
Examples
A few small samples follow:
// This is a comment for a sample hello world program.
printfn "Hello World!"
A Person class with a constructor taking a name and age and two immutable properties.
/// This is a documentation comment for a type definition.
type Person(name : string, age : int) =
member x.Name = name
member x.Age = age
/// class instantiation
let mrSmith = Person("Smith", 42)
A simple example that is often used to demonstrate the syntax of functional languages is the factorial function for non-negative 32-bit integers, here shown in F#:
/// Using pattern matching expression
let rec factorial n =
match n with
| 0 -> 1
| _ -> n * factorial (n - 1)
/// For a single-argument functions there is syntactic sugar (pattern matching function):
let rec factorial = function
| 0 -> 1
| n -> n * factorial (n - 1)
/// Using fold and range operator
let factorial n = [1..n] |> Seq.fold (*) 1
Iteration examples:
/// Iteration using a 'for' loop
let printList lst =
for x in lst do
printfn "%d" x
/// Iteration using a higher-order function
let printList2 lst =
List.iter (printfn "%d") lst
/// Iteration using a recursive function and pattern matching
let rec printList3 lst =
match lst with
| [] -> ()
| h :: t ->
printfn "%d" h
printList3 t
Fibonacci examples:
/// Fibonacci Number formula
let fib n =
let rec g n f0 f1 =
match n with
| 0 -> f0
| 1 -> f1
| _ -> g (n - 1) f1 (f0 + f1)
g n 0 1
/// Another approach - a lazy infinite sequence of Fibonacci numbers
let fibSeq = Seq.unfold (fun (a,b) -> Some(a+b, (b, a+b))) (0,1)
// Print even fibs
[1 .. 10]
|> List.map fib
|> List.filter (fun n -> (n % 2) = 0)
|> printList
// Same thing, using a list expression
[ for i in 1..10 do
let r = fib i
if r % 2 = 0 then yield r ]
|> printList
A sample Windows Forms program:
// Open the Windows Forms library
open System.Windows.Forms
// Create a window and set a few properties
let form = new Form(Visible=true, TopMost=true, Text="Welcome to F#")
// Create a label to show some text in the form
let label =
let x = 3 + (4 * 5)
new Label(Text = $"{x}")
// Add the label to the form
form.Controls.Add(label)
// Finally, run the form
[<System.STAThread>]
Application.Run(form)
Asynchronous parallel programming sample (parallel CPU and I/O tasks):
/// A simple prime number detector
let isPrime (n:int) =
let bound = int (sqrt (float n))
seq {2 .. bound} |> Seq.forall (fun x -> n % x <> 0)
// We are using async workflows
let primeAsync n =
async { return (n, isPrime n) }
/// Return primes between m and n using multiple threads
let primes m n =
seq {m .. n}
|> Seq.map primeAsync
|> Async.Parallel
|> Async.RunSynchronously
|> Array.filter snd
|> Array.map fst
// Run a test
primes 1000000 1002000
|> Array.iter (printfn "%d")
See also
OCaml
C#
.NET Framework
Notes
References
External links
The F# Software Foundation
The F# Open Source Group at GitHub
The Visual F# Developer Center
Tsunami, an embeddable desktop F# IDE
Cloud Tsunami, an embeddable Silverlight F# IDE
Try F#, for learning F# in a web browser
F# Snippets Site
The Visual F# team blog
The original Microsoft Research website for F#
Planet F#
The F# Survival Guide, Dec 2009 (Web-based book)
The F# Language Specification
An introduction to F# programming
A tutorial showing the process of reaching a functional design; includes test and parallel coding
.NET programming languages
Cross-platform free software
Functional languages
Microsoft free software
Microsoft programming languages
Microsoft Research
ML programming language family
OCaml programming language family
Pattern matching programming languages
Programming languages created in 2005
Programming languages supporting units of measure
Software using the Apache license
Software using the MIT license
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239965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian%20Sforza | Maximilian Sforza | Maximilian Sforza (Italian: Massimiliano Sforza, 25 January 1493 – 4 June 1530) was a Duke of Milan from the Sforza family, the son of Ludovico Sforza. He was installed as a ruler of Milan in 1512 after the capture of Milan by the Holy League, supported by a Swiss militia led by Jakob Meyer zum Hasen. He ruled 1512–1515, between the occupations of Louis XII of France (1500–1512), and Francis I of France in 1515. After the French victory at the Battle of Marignano, Maximilian was imprisoned by the returning French troops.
When Maximilian was three his father tried to arrange a marriage between him and Mary Tudor, the younger daughter of King Henry VII of England. However, Henry VII rejected the proposal citing Mary's young age as the issue.
Ancestors
See also
Italian Wars
References
Sources
1493 births
1530 deaths
Maximilian Sforza
Maximilian Sforza
Military leaders of the Italian Wars
16th-century Italian nobility | [
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] |
239967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Minger | Rudolf Minger | Rudolf Minger (13 November 1881 – 23 August 1955) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1929–1940). He also was a farmer all his life.
He was elected to the Federal Council on 12 December 1929 and handed over office on 31 December 1940. He was the first councillor from the Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents (BGB/PAI), now the Swiss People's Party.
During his time in office, he held the Military Department and was President of the Confederation in 1935.
External links
Minger Ruedi Home page for his 125 anniversary
1881 births
1955 deaths
People from Bern-Mittelland District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland) | [
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239969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Faithful%20%28disambiguation%29 | Old Faithful (disambiguation) | Old Faithful is a geyser within Yellowstone National Park.
Old Faithful may also refer to:
Old Faithful (film), a 1935 film
"Old Faithful" (rugby league song)
"Old Faithful" (Hope & Faith episode)
"Old Faithful", a 1934 short story by Raymond Z. Gallun
"Old Faithful", a 1955 story from The Railway Series book Four Little Engines
Old Faithful, Graeme Obree's bicycle
See also
Old Faithful Historic District, a historic district in Yellowstone National Park
Old Faithful Inn, a hotel in Yellowstone National Park
Old Faithful of California, a geyser near Calistoga, California | [
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239970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASTE | WASTE | WASTE is a peer-to-peer and friend-to-friend protocol and software application developed by Justin Frankel at Nullsoft in 2003 that features instant messaging, chat rooms, and file browsing/sharing capabilities. The name WASTE is a reference to Thomas Pynchon's novel The Crying of Lot 49. In the novel, W.A.S.T.E. is (among other things) an underground postal service.
In 2003, less than 24 hours after its release, WASTE was removed from distribution by AOL, Nullsoft's parent company. The original page was replaced with a statement claiming that the posting of the software was unauthorized and that no lawful rights to it were held by anyone who had downloaded it, in spite of the original claim that the software was released under the terms of the GNU General Public License.
Several developers have modified and upgraded the WASTE client and protocol. The SourceForge edition is considered by many to be the official development branch, but there are several forks.
Description
WASTE is a decentralized chat, instant messaging and file sharing program and protocol. It behaves similarly to a virtual private network by connecting to a group of trusted computers, as determined by the users. This kind of network is commonly referred to as a darknet. It uses strong encryption to ensure that third parties cannot decipher the messages being transferred. The same encryption is used to transmit and receive instant messages, chat, and files, maintain the connection, and browse and search.
WASTE networks
WASTE networks are decentralized (see social networks), meaning there is no central hub or server that everyone connects to. Peers must connect to each other individually. Normally, this is accomplished by having individuals sharing their RSA public keys, ensuring that their computers are accessible via the appropriate ports (one or more parties must have an IP address and port that can be reached by the other), and entering the IP address and port of someone on the network to connect to.
Once connected to the network, public keys are automatically exchanged amongst members (provided enough of the members are set to forward and accept public keys), and nodes will then attempt to connect to each other, strengthening the network (decreasing the odds that any one node going down will collapse or shut out any part of the network), as well as increasing the number of possible routes from any given point to any other point, decreasing latency and bandwidth required for communication and file transfer.
Since WASTE connects small, private groups rather than large, public ones, the network search feature is one of the fastest of all the decentralized P2P applications. Its instant messaging and file sharing capabilities are much closer to those of AOL Instant Messenger than more typical file sharing programs. Members of the network can create private and public chat rooms, instant message each other, browse each other's files, and trade files, including the pushing or active sending of files by hosts, as well as the more common downloading by users. Simple drag-and-drop to chat boxes will send files to their intended destinations.
The suggested size for a WASTE network (referred to as a mesh by users) is 10-50 nodes, though it has been suggested that the size of the network is less critical than the ratio of nodes willing to route traffic to those that are not. With original Nullsoft-client groups now exceeding ten years of age, it's not uncommon for stable meshes to host multiple terabytes of secure content.
By default, WASTE listens to incoming connections on port 1337. This was probably chosen because of 1337's leet connotations.
Since there is no central hub, WASTE networks typically employ a password or passphrase, also called a network name to prevent collision. That is, a member from one network connecting to a member of another network, thus bridging the two networks. By assigning a unique identifier (passphrase) to your network, the risk of collisions can be reduced, particularly with the original clients.
Nullnets
Nullnets are networks without a passphrase. It is impossible to know how many nullnets exist, but there is one primary nullnet. The best way to access the nullnet is to post your credentials to the WASTE Key Exchange. The nullnet can easily merge with other nullnets because there is no passphrase, which makes it a great place for public discussion and file sharing.
Strengths
Secured through the trade of RSA public keys, allowing for safe and secure communication and data transfer with trusted hosts.
The distributed nature means that the network isn't dependent on anyone setting up a server to act as a hub. Contrast this with other P2P and chat protocols that require you to connect to a server. This means there is no single point of vulnerability for the network.
Similarly, there is no single group leader; everyone on the network is equal in what they can or cannot do, including inviting other members into the group, nor can any member kick another from the group, exclude them from public chats, etc.
WASTE can obfuscate its protocol, making it difficult to detect that WASTE is being used.
WASTE has a Saturate feature which adds random traffic, making traffic analysis more difficult.
The nodes (each a trusted connection) automatically determine the lowest latency route for traffic and, in doing so, load balance. This also improves privacy, because packets often take different routes.
Shortcomings
Trading public keys, enabling port forwarding on your firewall (if necessary), and connecting to each other can be a difficult and/or tedious process, especially for those who aren't very technically proficient.
Due to the network's distributed nature, it is impossible to kick someone from the network once they've gained access. Since every member of the network will have that member's public key, all that member needs to do to regain access is to connect to another member. Coordinating the change of the network name is exceedingly difficult, so the best course of action is to create another network and migrate everyone over to the new network. This could, of course, also be seen as a strength.
Since there is no central server, once someone disconnects from the network, they must know at least one network IP address to reconnect. It is possible that the network will drift from all the IP addresses used before so that none are known, and it becomes necessary to contact a network member and ask for address information to be able to reconnect. Indeed, it is possible that a network could unknowingly split into two this way. It takes at least some coordination to keep a WASTE network intact; this can be as simple as one or more volunteers with a static IP address or a fixed dynamic DNS (DDNS) address (available free of charge from a number of providers) keeping their node up to allow people to reconnect to the network.
While encryption is performed using the Blowfish algorithm, which is thought to be strong, the PCBC mode used has several known security flaws.
Nicknames are not registered, which allows eavesdropping and spoofing. WASTE version 1.6 reduces the chances of eavesdropping by using public keys for communication, but as network members may choose any nickname a user must know and recognize the hash of the person they wish to communicate with to be sure of their identity.
To connect from behind a firewall, one party must have the proper port forwarded to their computer; as WASTE networks do not depend on a central server there is no way around this. However, as long as one node accepts incoming connections it can act as a server, connecting nodes that cannot themselves accept incoming connections. Indeed, the long-term stability of a WASTE network depends on these hubs.
Versions
As of version 1.7, WASTE comes in an experimental and a stable release. The experimental branch implements a new 16k packet size, which improves overhead and transfer speeds, but is not compatible with previous versions which support a 4k packet size.
WASTE 1.7.4 for Windows was released on 24 December 2008, and was current . This is a new branch on SourceForge created because of inactivity on the main WASTE development branch. This is the most fully featured version to date.
A cross-platform (including Linux, OS X, and Microsoft Windows) beta version of WASTE called Waste 1.5 beta 4 a.k.a. wxWaste, using the WxWidgets toolkit is available.
VIA Technologies released a fork of WASTE under the name PadlockSL, but removed the product's website after a few weeks. The user interface was written in Qt and the client was available for Linux and Windows.
BlackBelt WASTE is a released fork of WASTE. Its build is labelled 1.8 to mark its significant improvements across its various areas of functionality. It supports Tor and i2p networks as well as clearnet. Its routing has been updated to provide even more obfuscated meta-data internally. It has uPnP support to automatically handle port forwarding. It also has automatic Anti-Spoofing Technology to encourage unique users. Under development since 2010, it currently (Jul 2021) has regular releases and improvements.
See also
Peer-to-peer (P2P)
Anonymous P2P
File sharing
Friend-to-friend (F2F)
References
External links
WASTE again - a fork
Original WASTE SourceForge site - now defunct
BlackBelt WASTE - Fork of WASTE with support for i2p and Tor as well as clearnet
The Invisible Inner Circle
Anonymous Communication With Waste
'Secure File Transfer With WASTE - Introductory video' by Russell Sayers at showmedo
The Zer0Share Project - Jack Spratts' Darknet
2003 software
File sharing networks
Anonymous file sharing networks
Windows instant messaging clients
MacOS instant messaging clients
Instant messaging clients for Linux
Free instant messaging clients
Free file sharing software
Free software programmed in C++
Cross-platform free software
Discontinued software | [
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] |
239971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Scheurer | Karl Scheurer | Karl Scheurer (27 September 1872, in Sumiswald – 14 November 1929) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 11 December 1919 and died in office on 14 November 1929. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he held the Military Department (department of defence) and was President of the Confederation in 1923.
External links
1872 births
1929 deaths
People from Emmental District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers
University of Bern alumni
20th-century Swiss politicians | [
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239972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height | Height | Height is measure of vertical distance, either vertical extent (how "tall" something or someone is) or vertical position (how "high" a point is).
For example, "The height of that building is 50 m" or "The height of an airplane in-flight is about 10,000 m".
For example, "Christopher Columbus is 5 foot 2 inches in vertical height."
When the term is used to describe vertical position (of, e.g., an airplane) from sea level, height is more often called altitude.
Furthermore, if the point is attached to the Earth (e.g., a mountain peak), then altitude (height above sea level) is called elevation.
In a two-dimensional Cartesian space, height is measured along the vertical axis (y) between a specific point and another that does not have the same y-value. If both points happen to have the same y-value, then their relative height is zero. In three-dimensional space, height is measured along the vertical z axis, describing a distance from (or "above") the x-y plane.
Etymology
The English-language word high is derived from Old English hēah, ultimately from Proto-Germanic *xauxa-z, from a PIE base *keuk-. The derived noun height, also the obsolete forms heighth and highth, is from Old English híehþo, later héahþu, as it were from Proto-Germanic *xaux-iþa.
In mathematics
In elementary models of space, height may indicate the third dimension, the other two being length and width. Height is normal to the plane formed by the length and width.
Height is also used as a name for some more abstract definitions. These include:
The altitude of a triangle, which is the length from a vertex of a triangle to the line formed by the opposite side;
A measurement in a circular segment of the distance from the midpoint of the arc of the circular segment to the midpoint of the line joining the endpoints of the arc (see diagram in circular segment);
In a rooted tree, the height of a vertex is the length of the longest downward path to a leaf from that vertex;
In algebraic number theory, a "height function" is a measurement related to the minimal polynomial of an algebraic number; among other uses in commutative algebra and representation theory;
In ring theory, the height of a prime ideal is the supremum of the lengths of all chains of prime ideals contained in it.
In geosciences
Although height is normally relative to a plane of reference, most measurements of height in the physical world are based upon a zero surface, known as sea level. Both altitude and elevation, two synonyms for height, are usually defined as the position of a point above the mean sea level. One can extend the sea-level surface under the continents: naively, one can imagine a lot of narrow canals through the continents. In practice, the sea level under a continent has to be computed from gravity measurements, and slightly different computational methods exist; see Geodesy, heights.
In addition to vertical position, the vertical extent of geographic landmarks can be defined in terms of topographic prominence. For example, the highest mountain (by elevation in reference to sea level) belongs to Mount Everest, located on the border of Nepal and Tibet, China; however the tallest mountain, by measurement of apex to base, is Mauna Kea in Hawaii, United States.
In geodesy
Geodesists formalize mean sea level (MSL) by means of the geoid, the equipotential surface that best fits MSL. Then various types of height (normal, dynamic, orthometric, etc.) can be defined, based on the assumption of density of topographic masses necessary in the continuation of MSL under the continents.
A purely geometric quantity is the ellipsoidal height, reckoned from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum.
In aviation
In aviation terminology, the terms height, altitude, and elevation are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea level, while its height is measured from ground level. Elevation is also measured from sea level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus height can equal altitude, but the term altitude has several meanings in aviation.
In human culture
Human height is one of the areas of study within anthropometry. While environmental factors have some effect on variations in human height, these influences are insufficient to account for all differences between populations, suggesting that genetic factors are important for explaining variations between human populations.
The United Nations uses height (among other statistics) to monitor changes in the nutrition of developing nations. In human populations, average height can distill down complex data about the group's birth, upbringing, social class, diet, and health care system.
In their research, Baten, Stegl and van der Eng came to the conclusion that a change in the average height is a sign for a change in the economic development. With broad data of Indonesia, the researchers state that several incidents in the history of the country has led not only to a change in the economy but also to a change in the population’s average height.
See also
Acrophobia (fear of heights)
Centimetre–gram–second system of units
Chinese units of measurement
Elevation
Height gauge
Imperial units
International System of Units
United States customary units
Vertical metre
References
External links | [
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239976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirrup | Stirrup | A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a stirrup leather. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal (usually a horse or other equine, such as a mule). They greatly increase the rider's ability to stay in the saddle and control the mount, increasing the animal's usefulness to humans in areas such as communication, transportation, and warfare.
In antiquity, the earliest foot supports (appearing in India by the 2nd century BC) consisted of riders placing their feet under a girth or using a simple toe loop. Later, a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid, and paired stirrups appeared after the invention of the saddle tree. In China, the stirrup appeared within the first few centuries AD and may have spread westward through the nomadic peoples of Central Eurasia. Some scholars believe that the Sarmatians were the first to devise true stirrups during the first century BC. The use of paired stirrups is credited to the Chinese Jin Dynasty and came to Europe during the Middle Ages. Some argue that the stirrup was one of the basic tools used to create and spread modern civilization, possibly as important as the wheel or printing press.
Etymology
The English word "stirrup" stems from Old English stirap, stigrap, Middle English stirop, styrope, i.e. a mounting or climbing-rope. Compare Old English stīgan "to ascend" and rap "rope, cord".
History
The stirrup, which gives greater stability to a rider, has been described as one of the most significant inventions in the history of warfare, prior to gunpowder. As a tool allowing expanded use of horses in warfare, the stirrup is often called the third revolutionary step in equipment, after the chariot and the saddle. The basic tactics of mounted warfare were significantly altered by the stirrup. A rider supported by stirrups was less likely to fall off while fighting, and could deliver a blow with a weapon that more fully employed the weight and momentum of horse and rider. Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling, especially against infantry adversaries. Contrary to common modern belief, however, it has been asserted that stirrups actually did not enable the horseman to use a lance more effectively (cataphracts had used lances since antiquity), though the cantled saddle did.
Precursors
The invention of the stirrup occurred relatively late in history, considering that horses were domesticated in approximately 4500 BC, and the earliest known saddle-like equipment were fringed cloths or pads with breast pads and cruppers used by Assyrian cavalry around 700 BC.
The earliest manifestation of the stirrup was a toe loop that held the big toe and was used in India late in the second century BC, though may have appeared as early as 500 BC. This ancient foot support consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather. Such a configuration was suitable for the warm climate of south and central India where people used to ride horses barefoot. Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BC figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with toes slipped under girths. In this regard archaeologist John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".
A pair of first century BC, double bent iron bars, approximately 17cm in length, with curvature at each end, excavated from a grave near Junapani, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been postulated as either full foot stirrups or bridle bits.
Some credit the nomadic Central Asian group known as the Sarmatians as developing the first stirrups.
The invention of the solid saddle tree allowed development of the true stirrup as it is known today. Without a solid tree, the rider's weight in the stirrups creates abnormal pressure points that make the horse's back sore. Modern thermography studies on "treeless" and flexible-tree saddle designs have found that there is considerable friction across the center line of a horse's back. A coin of Quintus Labienus, who was in service of Parthia, minted circa 39 BC depicts on its reverse a saddled horse with hanging objects. Smith suggests they are pendant cloths, while Thayer suggests that, considering the fact that the Parthians were famous for their mounted archery, the objects are stirrups, but adds that it is difficult to imagine why the Romans would never have adopted the technology.
In Asia, early solid-treed saddles were made of felt that covered a wooden frame. These designs date to approximately 200 BC One of the earliest solid-treed saddles in the west was first used by the Romans as early as the 1st century BC, but this design did not have stirrups either.
China and Korea
It is speculated that stirrups may have been used in China as early as the Han dynasty (206 BC– 220 AD). Stirrups were used in China at the very latest by the early 4th century AD. A funerary figurine depicting a stirrup dated 302 AD was unearthed from a Western Jin dynasty tomb near Changsha. The stirrup depicted is a mounting stirrup, only placed on one side of the horse, and too short for riding. The earliest reliable representation of a full-length, double-sided riding stirrup was also unearthed from a Jin tomb, this time near Nanjing, dating to the Eastern Jin period, 322 AD. The earliest extant double stirrups were discovered in the tomb of a Northern Yan noble, Feng Sufu, who died in 415 AD. Stirrups have also been found in Goguryeo tombs dating to the 4th and 5th centuries AD, but these do not contain any specific date. The stirrup appeared to be in widespread use across China by 477 AD.
The appearance of the stirrup in China coincided with the rise of heavily armoured cavalry in the region. Dated to 357 AD, the tomb of Dong Shou shows fully armoured riders as well as horses. References to "iron cavalry" and "iron horse" began to appear at the same time and instances of captured horse armour in numbers as high as 5,000 and 10,000 are recorded. In addition to the stirrups, Feng Sufu's tomb also contained iron plates for lamellar armour. Armoured heavy cavalry would dominate Chinese warfare from the 4th century AD to the early Tang dynasty when the military transitioned to light cavalry. A. von Le Coo's theory on the invention of the stirrup is that it was a contraption created by either mounted people who wanted to make riding less tiring, or those unused to riding to gain the necessary skills to match their adversaries.
Japan
Stirrups (abumi) were used in Japan as early as the 5th century. They were flat bottomed rings of metal-covered wood, similar to European stirrups. The earliest known examples were excavated from tombs. Cup-shaped stirrups (tsubo abumi) that enclosed the front half of the rider's foot eventually replaced the earlier design.
During the Nara period, the base of the stirrup which supported the rider's sole was elongated past the toe cup. This half-tongued style of stirrup (hanshita abumi) remained in use until the late Heian period when a new stirrup was developed. The fukuro abumi or musashi abumi had a base that extended the full length of the rider's foot and the right and left sides of the toe cup were removed. The open sides were designed to prevent the rider from catching a foot in the stirrup and being dragged.
The military version of this open-sided stirrup (shitanaga abumi) was in use by the middle Heian period. It was thinner, had a deeper toe pocket and an even longer and flatter foot shelf. This stirrup stayed in use until European style-stirrup rings were reintroduced in the late 19th century. It is not known why the Japanese developed this unique style of stirrup. These had a distinctive swanlike shape, curved up and backward at the front so as to bring the loop for the leather strap over the instep and achieve a correct balance. Most of the surviving specimens from this period are made entirely of iron, inlaid with designs of silver or other materials, and covered with lacquer. In some examples there is an iron rod from the loop to the footplate near the heel to prevent the foot from slipping out. The footplates are occasionally perforated to let out water when crossing rivers, and these types are called suiba abumi. There are stirrups with holes in the front forming sockets for a lance or banner.
Europe
By the late 6th or early 7th century AD, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Avars, stirrups began spreading across Asia to Europe from China. In terms of archaeological finds, the iron pear-shaped form of stirrups, the ancestor of medieval European types, has been found in Europe in 7th century Avar graves in Hungary. A total of 111 specimens of early Avar-age, apple shaped, cast-iron stirrups with elongated suspension loop and flat, slightly inward bent tread had been excavated from 55 burial sites in Hungary and surrounding regions by 2005. The first European literary reference to the stirrup may be in the Strategikon, traditionally ascribed to the Roman Emperor Maurice, and therefore written sometime between 575 and 628, but this is widely disputed, and others place the work in the eighth or ninth century. Maurice's manual notes the appropriate equipping of Imperial cavalry: "the saddles should have large and thick clothes; the bridles should be of good quality; attached to the saddles should be two iron steps [skala], a lasso with a thong...." Dennis notes that the lack of specific Greek word for stirrup evidences their novelty to the Byzantines, who are supposed to have adopted these from their bitter enemy the Avars, and subsequently passed them on to their future enemies, the Arabs. An early 7th-century date is secured for most Hungarian finds of stirrups with elongated suspension loops, though some of these must even be dated to before 600. Literary and archaeological evidence taken together may indicate that the stirrup was in common military use in South-Central Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean by the latter half of the 6th century, with the Roman Empire having them in use by the year 600.
By the 8th century stirrups began to be adopted more widely by Europeans. The earliest stirrups of western Europe, those of Budenheim and Regensburg, were either brought from the Avar Khaganate as booty or gifts, or were local imitations of stirrups in use at that time among Avar warriors. However, the Avar-style stirrups were not as widely adopted in western Europe. Stirrups do not appear in the Merovingian and Italo-Lombard milieu in large numbers, nor as frequently as within the Carpathian Basin. Most other stirrups found in Germany that date to the 7th century do not resemble the iron Avar style commonly found in burial assemblages from Hungary and neighboring regions. Instead, hanging mounts occasionally found in burial assemblages in southern Germany suggest the use of wooden stirrups. The scarcity of early-medieval stirrup finds in western Europe was noted by Bernard Bachrach: "Out of 704 eighth century male burials excavated in Germany until 1967, only 13 had stirrups."
The earliest stirrups in the Baltic region are replicas of those in existence in Germany during the 7th century. In northern Europe and Britain the metamorphosis of earlier wood, rope and leather forms of stirrups to metal forms can be seen in the archeological record, “suggesting that one or more of the early forms have parallel development with those in Hungary, rather than being derived solely from the latter region.” "In Scandinavia two major types of stirrups are discerned, and from these, by the development and fusion of different elements, some almost certainly of central European origin, most other types were evolved." The first main type, Scandinavian type I, appears to owe little to Hungarian forms. The earliest variety of this type can be dated to the 8th century in Vendel grave III in Sweden. The second principal type in North Europe has, as its most characteristic feature, a pronounced rectangular suspension loop set in the same plane as the bow, as found amongst the Hungarian examples, and is predominantly centered in Denmark and England during the later 10th and 11th centuries. A variant of this type, called the North European stirrup, has been dated to the second half of the 10th century in Sweden, found at the boat-burial cemetery at Valsgärde.
In Denmark from the 920s to the 980s, during the reign of the Jelling kings, many leading Danes were buried with military honors and equipped with stirrups, bits and spurs, in what are called cavalry-graves, found mostly in north Jutland. Into England, it is argued, stirrups were not introduced by the Scandinavian settlers of the 9th century but are more likely related to later Viking raids led by Cnut the Great and others during the reign of king Aethelred (978-1013).
In what today is France, Charles Martel distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner, which some attribute to his recognizing the military potentialities of the stirrup. Later, Charlemagne ordered his poorer vassals to pool their resources and provide a mounted and armed knight, though the system proved unworkable, and instead the system of distributing land to vassals based on a knight's service was developed.
West Africa
Accounts of the Empire of Mali mention the use of stirrups and saddles in the cavalry. Stirrups resulted in the creation and innovation of new tactics, such as mass charges with thrusting spear and swords.
Great Stirrup Controversy
The introduction of the stirrup not only made the mounted warrior supreme in medieval warfare, but may have initiated complex and far-reaching social and cultural changes in Europe. Some scholars credit the birth of feudalism and its subsequent spread into Northern Italy, Spain, Germany and into the Slavic territories to this use of the stirrup. It is argued that the rising feudal class structure of the European Middle Ages derived ultimately from the use of stirrups: "Few inventions have been so simple as the stirrup, but few have had so catalytic an influence on history. The requirements of the new mode of warfare which it made possible found expression in a new form of western European society dominated by an aristocracy of warriors endowed with land so that they might fight in a new and highly specialized way."
Other scholars dispute this assertion, suggesting that stirrups may provide little advantage in shock warfare, but are useful primarily in allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting, and simply reduce the risk of falling off. Therefore, it is argued, they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in medieval armies, nor the reason for the emergence of feudalism.
Weaknesses in design
For the comfort of the horse, all stirrups require that the saddle itself be properly designed. The solid tree of the saddle distributes the weight of the rider over a greater surface area of the horse's back, reducing pressure on any one area. If a saddle is made without a solid tree, without careful engineering, the rider's weight in the stirrups and leathers can create pressure points on the horse's back and lead to soreness. This is especially noticeable with inexpensive bareback pads that add stirrups by means of a strap across the horse's back with a stirrup at each end.
Modern stirrups
English-style stirrups
Stirrups used on English saddles are usually made of metal. Though called "irons," they are no longer made of iron, as a rule, but instead stainless steel is the metal of choice, due to its strength, though when weight is an issue, such as for a jockey, they may also be made of aluminum. Inexpensive stirrups may be made of nickel, which can easily bend or break. Stirrups may also be made of synthetic materials and various metallic alloys. There are many variations on the standard stirrup design, most claiming either to be safer in the event of a fall or to make it easier for a rider to maintain a proper foot and leg position.
Some variations include:
Standard iron: The most common stirrup iron, consisting of a tread, with two branches, and an eye at the top for the leather to run through. The main styles seen today include:
Fillis: A design with a heavy tread, and branches that rise to the eye in a rounded triangular shape.
Prussian: A rounder and lighter design.
Safety stirrups. There are a number of designs intended to release the foot more easily in the event of a fall. One style has an outside branch that is curved, rather than straight. Other designs feature a breakaway outer branch which will detach with sufficient pressure, freeing the foot.
Side-saddle stirrups: usually have a slightly larger eye to accommodate the thicker stirrup leather on a sidesaddle.
Other designs: have joints or hinges in the branches of the stirrups to allow for them to flex. However, one model was recalled in 2007 due to a tendency for the hinges to break. A variation on the hinged stirrup is the Icelandic Stirrup, which has the eye fixed at a 90 degree rotation to allow for less stress on the tendons, and easier retrieval should a stirrup be lost. There are a number of other patented designs with various features that are usually intended to either increase comfort or to assist proper foot position.
Footnotes
References
Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. .
Chamberlin, J. Edward (2007). Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations. Moscow: Olma Media Group. .
Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology (Volume 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). Massachusetts: Brill Academic Publishers. .
Lazaris, Stavros, "Considérations sur l’apparition de l’étrier : contribution à l’histoire du cheval dans l’Antiquité tardive", in: Les équidés dans le monde méditerranéen antique. Actes du colloque international organisé par l’École française d’Athènes, le Centre Camille Julian et l’UMR 5140 du CNRS (Athènes, 26-28 Novembre 2003), A. Gardeisen (ed.), Lattes, 2005, p. 275-288
Woods, Michael & Woods, Mary B. (2000). Ancient Transportation: From Camels to Canals. Minnesota: 21st century Books. .
Additional sources
Bennett, Deb. Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship. Amigo Publications Inc; 1st edition 1998.
John Sloan, "The Stirrup Controversy"
Medieval Technology Pages: Paul J. Gans, The Great Stirrup Controversy"
Gies, Frances and Joseph. Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel. New York: Harper Perennial, 1994.
External links
"The invention and influences of stirrup"
"Saddle, Lance and Stirrup"
"Treeless Saddles"
"The History of Western Leather Spurs and Spur Straps, Cuffs, Chaps, Chinks and Saddles."
"History of the Saddle."
Stirrups
Ancient Roman technology
Chinese inventions
Indian inventions
Jin dynasty (266–420)
Saddles
Warfare of the Middle Ages | [
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239981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie | La Géométrie | La Géométrie was published in 1637 as an appendix to Discours de la méthode (Discourse on the Method), written by René Descartes. In the Discourse, he presents his method for obtaining clarity on any subject. La Géométrie and two other appendices, also by Descartes, La Dioptrique (Optics) and Les Météores (Meteorology), were published with the Discourse to give examples of the kinds of successes he had achieved following his method (as well as, perhaps, considering the contemporary European social climate of intellectual competitiveness, to show off a bit to a wider audience).
The work was the first to propose the idea of uniting algebra and geometry into a single subject and invented an algebraic geometry called analytic geometry, which involves reducing geometry to a form of arithmetic and algebra and translating geometric shapes into algebraic equations. For its time this was ground-breaking. It also contributed to the mathematical ideas of Leibniz and Newton and was thus important in the development of calculus.
The text
This appendix is divided into three "books".
Book I is titled Problems Which Can Be Constructed by Means of Circles and Straight Lines Only. In this book he introduces algebraic notation that is still in use today. The letters at the end of the alphabet, viz., , , , etc. are to denote unknown variables, while those at the start of the alphabet, , , , etc. denote constants. He introduces modern exponential notation for powers (except for squares, where he kept the older tradition of writing repeated letters, such as, ). He also breaks with the Greek tradition of associating powers with geometric referents, with an area, with a volume and so on, and treats them all as possible lengths of line segments. These notational devices permit him to describe an association of numbers to lengths of line segments that could be constructed with straightedge and compass. The bulk of the remainder of this book is occupied by Descartes's solution to "the locus problems of Pappus." According to Pappus, given three or four lines in a plane, the problem is to find the locus of a point that moves so that the product of the distances from two of the fixed lines (along specified directions) is proportional to the square of the distance to the third line (in the three line case) or proportional to the product of the distances to the other two lines (in the four line case). In solving these problems and their generalizations, Descartes takes two line segments as unknown and designates them and . Known line segments are designated , , , etc. The germinal idea of a Cartesian coordinate system can be traced back to this work.
In the second book, called On the Nature of Curved Lines, Descartes described two kinds of curves, called by him geometrical and mechanical. Geometrical curves are those which are now described by algebraic equations in two variables, however, Descartes described them kinematically and an essential feature was that all of their points could be obtained by construction from lower order curves. This represented an expansion beyond what was permitted by straightedge and compass constructions. Other curves like the quadratrix and spiral, where only some of whose points could be constructed, were termed mechanical and were not considered suitable for mathematical study. Descartes also devised an algebraic method for finding the normal at any point of a curve whose equation is known. The construction of the tangents to the curve then easily follows and Descartes applied this algebraic procedure for finding tangents to several curves.
The third book, On the Construction of Solid and Supersolid Problems, is more properly algebraic than geometric and concerns the nature of equations and how they may be solved. He recommends that all terms of an equation be placed on one side and set equal to 0 to facilitate solution. He points out the factor theorem for polynomials and gives an intuitive proof that a polynomial of degree has roots. He systematically discussed negative and imaginary roots of equations and explicitly used what is now known as Descartes' rule of signs.
Aftermath
Descartes wrote La Géométrie in French rather than the language used for most scholarly publication at the time, Latin. His exposition style was far from clear, the material was not arranged in a systematic manner and he generally only gave indications of proofs, leaving many of the details to the reader. His attitude toward writing is indicated by statements such as "I did not undertake to say everything," or "It already wearies me to write so much about it," that occur frequently. Descartes justifies his omissions and obscurities with the remark that much was deliberately omitted "in order to give others the pleasure of discovering [it] for themselves."
Descartes is often credited with inventing the coordinate plane because he had the relevant concepts in his book, however, nowhere in La Géométrie does the modern rectangular coordinate system appear. This and other improvements were added by mathematicians who took it upon themselves to clarify and explain Descartes' work.
This enhancement of Descartes' work was primarily carried out by Frans van Schooten, a professor of mathematics at Leiden and his students. Van Schooten published a Latin version of La Géométrie in 1649 and this was followed by three other editions in 1659−1661, 1683 and 1693. The 1659−1661 edition was a two volume work more than twice the length of the original filled with explanations and examples provided by van Schooten and this students. One of these students, Johannes Hudde provided a convenient method for determining double roots of a polynomial, known as Hudde's rule, that had been a difficult procedure in Descartes's method of tangents. These editions established analytic geometry in the seventeenth century.
See also
Claude Rabuel
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Project Gutenberg copy of La Géométrie
Bad OCR: Cornell University Library copy of La Géométrie
Archive.org: The Geometry of Rene Descartes
Facsimile (fr) : La Géométrie
1637 books
Mathematics books
Mathematics literature
1637 in science
Works by René Descartes
History of geometry | [
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239982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fornovo | Battle of Fornovo | The Battle of Fornovo took place 30 km (19 miles) southwest of the city of Parma on 6 July 1495. It was fought as King Charles VIII of France left Naples upon hearing the news of the grand coalition assembled against him. Despite the numerical advantage of their opponents, the French won the engagement and Charles was able to march his army out of Italy. It was nonetheless devoid of any strategic result as all of their conquests in the Italian Peninsula were abandoned. Fornovo was the first major pitched battle of the Italian Wars.
Antecedents
In the year 1495, Charles VIII was the youthful King of France, the most powerful state in medieval Europe. A dreamer who saw himself as the saviour of Christian Europe, he believed he could roll-back the ever-spreading tide of Ottoman Turkish conquest. As a base for his crusade, he was determined to seize Southern Italy. His claim on the Kingdom of Naples through his paternal grandmother, Marie of Anjou (1404–1463) presented such an opportunity.
To have his hands free in Italy, Charles made various pacts with his neighbours, so they would not interfere. Henry VII of England was given cash, Ferdinand II of Aragon was given Roussillon and Emperor Maximillian was given Artois and Franche-Comté. This handing out of territory could be regarded as a total lack of foresight on Charles' behalf but he was willing to take such steps to establish his Neapolitan base for his crusade.
Campaign
Charles VIII was on good terms with the two powers in northern Italy, Milan and Venice, and both had encouraged his claim over the Kingdom of Naples. Thus he assumed he would have their support when he moved against Alfonso II of Naples, especially as the rival claimant was Ferdinand II of Aragon, King of Spain. At the end of August 1494, in a lightning campaign, he used France's powerful modern army, reinforced by a large contingent of Swiss mercenaries, to sweep through Italy, his mobile field artillery train smashing into dust the tall towers of Italy's medieval castles. He was granted free passage through Milan, but was vigorously opposed by Florence, Pope Alexander VI, and Naples.
On 22 February 1495 Charles VIII and his chief commander, Louis II de La Trémoille, entered Naples almost without opposition. The speed and violence of the campaign left the Italians stunned. Realization struck them, especially the Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, that unless Charles was stopped Italy would soon just be another province of France. The Italian states rallied and on March 31 in Venice, the Holy League was proclaimed. The signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the monarchs of Castile and Aragon, the King of England and the Holy Roman Emperor.
Retreat
The League engaged a veteran condottiero, Francesco II of Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. Upon hearing the news of the coalition assembled against him, Charles VIII left behind a garrisoning force in Naples and marched north with the remainder of his army, his artillery train and the considerable booty seized in the campaign thus far in order to join a smaller army under Louis II, Duke of Orléans in Piedmont in north-western Italy.
On 27 June the Venetians and their allies established camp near Fornovo di Taro (), some 30 km southwest of Parma, to wait for the French. They would not have to wait long, but the Venetian Senate was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize their loot, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle as this was just one French army and others could potentially be called upon.
On July 4, Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Charles' strongest ally in Italy, wrote to him and informed him that the Senate had not yet decided on an action. But Charles was anxious, seeing the enemy numbers growing, while he himself had no hope of reinforcements for the time being. When an effort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France, but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The 40 soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were attacked and quickly routed by the Stradioti, mostly Albanian mercenaries from the Balkans.
Two days later, on July 6, Charles decided to offer battle because the French were short of provisions. South of Milan, the path of his army of some 10,000 French and Swiss was blocked by 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans under Gonzaga. Melchiorre Trevisan promised the League soldiers the spoils of battle if they were victorious, igniting their combat ardor. Francesco Gonzaga divided his forces into nine lines. His battle plan was to distract the first and middle groups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. Once the French groups were disorganized, the rest of the Italian troops would attack. The League's overall goal was the complete destruction of the French army.
Battle
The League army took position on the right side of the Taro river and the French decided to keep to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first section consisted of about 2,500 men and was led by Marshal Gie and Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. The second and largest section, led by Englebert of Cleves and Antoine de Bessey, consisted of 3000 infantry, 300 dismounted archers and 200 crossbowman. The final section, about 1,750 men, was led by Jean de Foix. There was in addition a large infantry force of spearmen. The French artillery was arranged in front of the first line, as well as on the side of the Taro, protecting the second line. The League's right wing was commanded by Count Caiazzo with 400 Milanes men-at-arms and 2000 infantry, with 180 Bolognese men-at-arms in reserve. The central division consisted of 492 men-at-arms and 600 mounted crossbowmen under the command of Francesco Gonzaga, while keeping a large contingent of cavalry in reserve. The left wing, commanded by Fortebraccio di Montone, had 352 Venetian men-at-arms supported by cavalry. Also in the center were 4,000 Venetian foot and 1,00 Mantuan infantry, with a contingent of 600 Stradioti on the French left flank.
The French opened with an artillery bombardment, intending to kill as many of their opponents as possible. Then they charged with their heavy cavalry, destroying and scattering the disordered Italian ranks in just minutes. The fight was perhaps more memorable for the ineffectiveness of artillery on either side, other than the psychological effect achieved by the French guns. Of the French and Italian casualties, one eyewitness estimated that fewer than 10 men were killed by cannon fire.
After the battle, Charles then marched on into Lombardy and returned to France.
Result
Both parties strove to present themselves as the victors in the battle. The battle was reported in Venice as a victory, and was recorded and celebrated as such, which included the capture of Mathieu de Bourbon. Regardless of the self-proclamations of victory by League commanders, Domenico Malipiero recognized that the League failed to stop the French from reaching Asti. Francesco Gonzaga claimed of victory and the ordered the portrait of the Madonna della Vittoria, while the Italian historian Francesco Guicciardini's judgement was to award the palm of victory to the French. Privately, Gonzaga confessed to his wife that the battle was a near run thing and that if the French had turned on them, the League's forces would have been destroyed. A week later, Bernardino Fortebraccio spoke to the Venetian senate, stating the League's army could have defeated the French if their troops would have stayed in the battle and left the baggage train alone.
The French had won their battle, fighting off superior numbers and proceeding on their march to Asti. The League took much higher casualties and could not prevent the French army from crossing Italian lands on its way back to France.
Consequences
On the same day as the battle was fought, Ferdinand II appeared before Naples with a Spanish fleet; he re-entered and occupied Naples the following day. He was welcomed with rejoicing by the citizens, as the French had made themselves hated through their behaviour. Pope Alexander VI denounced the French as having committed worse crimes in Italy than had the Goths. Already under threat of excommunication, Charles VIII was ordered to lay down his arms and promote the peace of Christendom by the pope. Alexander also wrote to the Venetians to congratulate them on winning "immortal fame" by their liberation of Italy.
Charles left Italy abandoning all his conquests. He attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous one, and he never succeeded in recouping anything substantive. He died two-and-a-half years after his retreat, of an accident, striking his head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later.
Charles bequeathed a meagre legacy: he left France in debt and in disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that it would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian humanists, energizing French art and letters in the latter Renaissance.
Charles proved to be the last of the elder branch of the House of Valois, and upon his death at Amboise the throne passed to a cousin, the Duc d'Orléans, who reigned as King Louis XII of France, who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.
However, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic. Europe knew now, from Charles' expedition, of an enormously rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities, and defended only by mercenary armies that refused to fight with the slightest disadvantage. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, with the result that the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. Only Venice, Genoa, the Papal States, Savoy, and Tuscany would survive as independent nations after the end of the Italian Wars, losing however their original power and stability.
See also
Madonna della Vittoria
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1495 in Europe
15th century in the Republic of Venice
Fornovo
Fornovo 1495
Fornovo 1495
Fornovo 1495
Fornovo 1495
Fornovo
Fornovo | [
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239985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ems%20Dispatch | Ems Dispatch | The Ems Dispatch (, ), sometimes called the Ems Telegram, was published on 13 July 1870 and incited the Second French Empire to start the Franco-Prussian War and to declare war on the Kingdom of Prussia on 19 July 1870. The actual dispatch was an internal message from Prussian King Wilhelm I's vacationing site to Otto von Bismarck in Berlin, reporting demands made by the French ambassador. Bismarck, the chancellor (head of government) of the North German Confederation, released a statement to the press that stirred up emotions in France and Germany.
The name referred to Bad Ems, a resort spa east of Koblenz on the Lahn river, then in Hesse-Nassau, a new possession of Prussia.
Background
The Austro-Prussian War, from 16 June to 23 August 1866, which involved south and north German states on both sides as well as the emerging Italy, increased Prussia's power. Austria was defeated in the key Battle of Königgrätz (or Sadowa) on 3 July 1866. The preliminary Peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July, was followed by the Peace of Prague, 23 August. Bismarck thus managed to expel Austria from the German Confederation, to set up and dominate the North German Confederation (north of the Main) and to secure Prussian territorial gains. Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein, Nassau and Hesse-Cassel, and Frankfurt were incorporated into Prussia, whose territory expanded thus by nearly a quarter and its population by more than 4 million to roughly 24 million, which was still less than France's 38 million. France did not take part in the war, which was brief but altered the European balance of power, and did not gain territories or prestige. French demands for a revanche pour Sadova ("revenge for Sadowa") took root.
In early 1870, the German Prince Leopold, of the Roman Catholic cadet branch Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, had been offered the vacant Spanish throne. French Emperor Napoleon III and his government voiced concern over a possible Spanish alliance with the Protestant House of Hohenzollern, which ruled the Kingdom of Prussia, protested against the offer and hinted at war. Following the protests by France, Leopold had withdrawn his acceptance on 11 July 1870, which was already considered a diplomatic defeat for Prussia. The French were still not satisfied and demanded further commitments, especially a guarantee by the Prussian king that no member of any branch of his Hohenzollern family would ever be a candidate for the Spanish throne.
Incident
On 13 July 1870, King Wilhelm I of Prussia, on his morning stroll in the Kurpark in Ems, was stopped by Count Vincent Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia since 1864. Benedetti had been instructed by his superior, Foreign Minister Agenor, duc de Gramont, to present the French demand that the king should guarantee that he would never again permit the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince to the Spanish throne. The meeting was informal and took place on the promenade of the Kursaal with the King's entourage at a discreet distance. Politely and in a friendly manner, "with the courtesy that never failed him", the King refused to bind himself to any course of action into the indefinite future. After their exchange, "the two departed coolly."
Heinrich Abeken, Privy Legation Councillor of the North German Confederation's Foreign Office, wrote an account of the event for Otto von Bismarck in Berlin. Wilhelm described Benedetti as "annoyingly persistent". The King asked Bismarck to release an account of the events.
Bismarck had full liberty to inform the press in a suitable way; it was not his task to publish Abeken's original report. Bismarck decided to use some of Abeken's wording for his own press release. He removed Wilhelm's conciliatory phrases and emphasised the real issue. The French had made certain demands under threat of war, and Wilhelm had refused them. That was a clear statement of the facts.
Certainly, Bismarck's text, released on the evening of the same day (13 July) to the media and foreign embassies, gave the impression both that Benedetti was rather more demanding and that the King was exceedingly abrupt. It was designed to give the French the impression that the King had insulted Benedetti; likewise, the Germans interpreted the modified dispatch as Benedetti insulting the King.
Bismarck had viewed the worsening relations with France with open satisfaction. If war had to come, then sooner better than later. His press release, he assured his friends, "would have the effect of a red rag on the Gallic [French] bull." The document was then to be presented as the cause of the war.
Text
Sent by Heinrich Abeken at Ems under King Wilhelm's Instruction to Bismarck.
Abeken's message
His Majesty the King has written to me:
Count Benedetti intercepted me on the promenade and ended by demanding of me, in a very importunate manner, that I should authorize him to telegraph at once that I bound myself in perpetuity never again to give my consent if the Hohenzollerns renewed their candidature.I rejected this demand somewhat sternly [ ], as it is neither right nor possible to undertake engagements of this kind [for ever and ever]. Naturally, I told him that I had not yet received any news and, since he had been better informed via Paris and Madrid than I was, he must surely see that my government was not concerned in the matter.
The King, on the advice of Count Eulenburg and myself, decided in view of the above-mentioned demands, not to receive Count Benedetti any more, but to have him informed by an adjutant, that His Majesty had now received [from Leopold] confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already had from Paris and had nothing further to say to the ambassador.
His Majesty suggests to Your Excellency, that Benedetti's new demand and its rejection might well be communicated both to our ambassadors and to the Press.
Bismarck's communiqué
After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a further demand on His Majesty the King that he should authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook for all time never again to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up their candidature.
His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed by the Adjutant of the day that His Majesty had no further communication to make to the Ambassador.
French translation
The French translation by the agency Havas did not translate the German word "Adjutant", which refers to a high-ranking aide de camp, but in French, it describes only a non-commissioned officer (adjudant), which implied that the King had deliberately insulted the ambassador by not choosing an officer to carry the message to him. That was the version printed by most newspapers the following day, which happened to be July 14 (Bastille Day), setting the tone, letting the French believe that the king had insulted their ambassador before the latter could tell his story.
Aftermath
France's mistaken attitude of its own position carried matters far beyond what was necessary, and France mobilized. Further improper translations and misinterpretations of the dispatch in the press made excited crowds in Paris demand war, just as Bismarck had anticipated. The Ems Dispatch had also rallied German national feeling. It was no longer Prussia alone; South German particularism was now cast aside.
Benedetti, the messenger for the Duc de Gramont's demands for pointless guarantees (the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family had withdrawn Prince Leopold's candidature on 11 July 1870 with Wilhelm's "entire and unreserved approval"), became an unseen bit-player; his own dispatches to Paris no longer mattered. In the legislative chamber, by an overwhelming majority, the votes for war credits were passed. France declared war on 19 July 1870, starting the Franco-Prussian War. Following the French defeat in 1871, the Duc de Gramont attempted to throw the blame for the failures of French diplomacy on Benedetti, who published his version of the events in his defence in Ma mission en Prusse (Paris, 1871).
See also
Schnaebele incident
German Unification
Notes
References
Crankshaw, Edward. Bismarck. The Viking Press. 1981.
Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War. New York: Dorset Press. 1990 (originally published in 1961).
Koch, H. W. A History of Prussia. New York: Dorset Press. 1987 (originally published in 1978).
Taylor, A. J. P. Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman. New York: Vintage Books. 1967.
Further reading
Both Ems Dispatch versions in their German original
1870 in France
Otto von Bismarck
Franco-Prussian War
Telegrams
Hoaxes in France
Diplomatic incidents
19th-century hoaxes
July 1870 events
1870 documents | [
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239987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestogen | Progestogen | Progestogens, also sometimes written progestagens or gestagens, are a class of natural or synthetic steroid hormones that bind to and activate the progesterone receptor (PR). Progesterone is the major and most important progestogen in the body. The progestogens are named for their function in maintaining pregnancy (i.e., progestational), although they are also present at other phases of the estrous and menstrual cycles.
The progestogens are one of three types of sex hormones, the others being estrogens like estradiol and androgens/anabolic steroids like testosterone. In addition, they are one of the five major classes of steroid hormones, the others being the androgens, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids, as well as the neurosteroids. All endogenous progestogens are characterized by their basic 21-carbon skeleton, called a pregnane skeleton (C21). In similar manner, the estrogens possess an estrane skeleton (C18), and androgens, an androstane skeleton (C19).
The terms progesterone, progestogen, and progestin are mistakenly used interchangeably both in the scientific literature and in clinical settings. Progestins are synthetic progestogens and are used in medicine. Major examples of progestins include the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivative medroxyprogesterone acetate and the 19-nortestosterone derivative norethisterone. The progestins are structural analogues of progesterone and have progestogenic activity similarly, but differ from progesterone in their pharmacological properties in various ways.
In addition to their roles as natural hormones, progestogens are used as medications, for instance in menopausal hormone therapy and transgender hormone therapy for transgender women; for information on progestogens as medications, see the progesterone (medication) and progestogen (medication) articles.
Types and examples
The most important progestogen in the body is progesterone (P4). Other endogenous progestogens, with varying degrees of progestogenic activity, include 16α-hydroxyprogesterone (16α-OHP), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17α-OHP) (very weak), 20α-dihydroprogesterone (20α-DHP), 20β-dihydroprogesterone (20β-DHP), 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP), 5β-dihydroprogesterone (5β-DHP) (very weak), 3β-dihydroprogesterone (3β-DHP), 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), and 5α-dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (5α-DHDOC). They are all metabolites of progesterone, lying downstream of progesterone in terms of biosynthesis.
Biological function
The major tissues affected by progestogens include the uterus, vagina, cervix, breasts, testes, and brain. The main biological role of progestogens in the body is in the female reproductive system, and the male reproductive system, with involvement in regulation of the menstrual cycle, maintenance of pregnancy, and preparation of the mammary glands for lactation and breastfeeding following parturition in women; in men progesterone affects spermiogenesis, sperm capacitation, and testosterone synthesis. Progestogens also have effects in other parts of the body. Unlike estrogens, progestogens have little or no role in feminization.
Biochemistry
Biosynthesis
Progesterone is produced from cholesterol with pregnenolone as a metabolic intermediate. In the first step in the steroidogenic pathway, cholesterol is converted into pregnenolone, which serves as the precursor to the progestogens progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone. These progestogens, along with another steroid, 17α-hydroxypregnenolone, are the precursors of all other endogenous steroids, including the androgens, estrogens, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and neurosteroids. Thus, many tissues producing steroids, including the adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries, produce progestogens.
In some tissues, the enzymes required for the final product are not all located in a single cell. For example, in ovarian follicles, cholesterol is converted to androstenedione, an androgen, in the theca cells, which is then further converted into estrogen in the granulosa cells. Fetal adrenal glands also produce pregnenolone in some species, which is converted into progesterone and estrogens by the placenta (see below). In the human, the fetal adrenals produce dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) via the pregnenolone pathway.
Ovarian production
Progesterone is the major progestogen produced by the corpus luteum of the ovary in all mammalian species. Luteal cells possess the necessary enzymes to convert cholesterol to pregnenolone, which is subsequently converted into progesterone. Progesterone is highest in the diestrus phase of the estrous cycle.
Placental production
The role of the placenta in progestogen production varies by species. In the sheep, horse, and human, the placenta takes over the majority of progestogen production, whereas in other species the corpus luteum remains the primary source of progestogens. In the sheep and human, progesterone is the major placental progestogen.
The equine placenta produces a variety of progestogens, primarily 5α-dihydroprogesterone and 5α,20α-tetrahydroprogesterone, beginning on day 60. A complete luteo-placental shift occurs by day 120–150.
Chemistry
The endogenous progestogens are naturally occurring pregnane steroids with ketone and/or hydroxyl groups at the C3 and C20 positions.
Medical use
Progestogens, including both progesterone and progestins, are used medically in hormonal birth control, hormone therapy, to treat gynecological disorders, to suppress sex hormone levels for various purposes, and for other indications.
References
Further reading
(the Women's Health, Osteoporosis, Progestin, Estrogen study)
External links
The Nomenclature of Steroids
The Million Women Study
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis
Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis
Hormones of the pregnant female
Prolactin releasers
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239990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progestogen%20%28medication%29 | Progestogen (medication) | A progestogen, also referred to as a progestagen, gestagen, or gestogen, is a type of medication which produces effects similar to those of the natural female sex hormone progesterone in the body. A progestin is a synthetic progestogen. Progestogens are used most commonly in hormonal birth control and menopausal hormone therapy. They can also be used in the treatment of gynecological conditions, to support fertility and pregnancy, to lower sex hormone levels for various purposes, and for other indications. Progestogens are used alone or in combination with estrogens. They are available in a wide variety of formulations and for use by many different routes of administration. Examples of progestogens include natural or bioidentical progesterone as well as progestins such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone.
Side effects of progestogens include menstrual irregularities, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, mood changes, acne, increased hair growth, and changes in liver protein production among others. Other side effects of progestogens may include an increased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and blood clots. At high doses, progestogens can cause low sex hormone levels and associated side effects like sexual dysfunction and an increased risk of bone fractures.
Progestogens are agonists of the progesterone receptors (PRs) and produce progestogenic or progestational effects. They have important effects in the female reproductive system (uterus, cervix, and vagina), the breasts, and the brain. In addition, many progestogens also have other hormonal activities, such as androgenic, antiandrogenic, estrogenic, glucocorticoid, or antimineralocorticoid activity. They also have antigonadotropic effects and at high doses can strongly suppress sex hormone production. Progestogens mediate their contraceptive effects both by inhibiting ovulation and by thickening cervical mucus, thereby preventing fertilization. They have functional antiestrogenic effects in certain tissues like the endometrium, and this underlies their use in menopausal hormone therapy.
Progesterone was first introduced for medical use in 1934 and the first progestin, ethisterone, was introduced for medical use in 1939. More potent progestins, such as norethisterone, were developed and started to be used in birth control in the 1950s. Around 60 progestins have been marketed for clinical use in humans or use in veterinary medicine. These progestins can be grouped into different classes and generations. Progestogens are available widely throughout the world and are used in all forms of hormonal birth control and in most menopausal hormone therapy regimens.
Medical uses
Available forms
Progestogens are available in many different forms for use by many different routes of administration. These include oral tablets and capsules, oil and aqueous solutions and suspensions for intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, and various others (e.g., transdermal patches, vaginal rings, intrauterine devices, subcutaneous implants).
Dozens of different progestogens have been marketed for clinical and/or veterinary use.
Birth control
Progestogens are used in a variety of different forms of hormonal birth control for females, including combined estrogen and progestogen forms like combined oral contraceptive pills, combined contraceptive patches, combined contraceptive vaginal rings, and combined injectable contraceptives; and progestogen-only forms like progestogen-only contraceptive pills ("mini-pills"), progestogen-only emergency contraceptive pills ("day-after pills"), progestogen-only contraceptive implants, progestogen-only intrauterine devices, progestogen-only contraceptive vaginal rings, and progestogen-only injectable contraceptives.
Progestogens mediate their contraceptive effects by multiple mechanisms, including prevention of ovulation via their antigonadotropic effects; thickening of cervical mucus, making the cervix largely impenetrable to sperm; preventing capacitation of sperm due to changes in cervical fluid, thereby making sperm unable to penetrate the ovum; and atrophic changes in the endometrium, making the endometrium unsuitable for implantation. They may also decrease tubal motility and ciliary action.
Hormone therapy
Menopause and hypogonadism
Progestogens are used in combination with estrogens in menopausal hormone therapy in women. They are also used in combination with estrogens in hormone therapy for hypogonadism and delayed puberty in girls and women. They are used mainly to prevent endometrial hyperplasia and increased risk of endometrial cancer from unopposed estrogen therapy.
Transgender hormone therapy
Progestogens are used as a component of hormone therapy for transgender women and transgender men. They are used in transgender women in combination with estrogens to help suppress and block testosterone. Progestogens might also have other beneficial effects in transgender women, but these are controversial and unsupported at present. Examples of progestogens used in hormone therapy for transgender women include cyproterone acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and progesterone. Progestogens, such as medroxyprogesterone and lynestrenol, are used in transgender men to help suppress menses. Progestogens have also been used to delay puberty in transgender boys and girls.
Other uses
Certain progestogens, including megestrol acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, cyproterone acetate, and chlormadinone acetate, have been used at high doses to reduce hot flashes in men undergoing androgen deprivation therapy, for instance to treat prostate cancer.
Gynecological disorders
Menstrual disorders
Progestogens are used to treat menstrual disorders such as secondary amenorrhea and dysfunctional uterine bleeding. In a normal menstrual cycle, declining levels of progesterone trigger menstruation. Progestogens such as norethisterone acetate and medroxyprogesterone acetate may be used to artificially induce progesterone-associated breakthrough bleeding.
The progestogen challenge test or progestogen withdrawal test is used to diagnose amenorrhea. Due to the availability of assays to measure estrogen levels, it is now rarely used.
Uterine disorders
Progestogens are used in the prevention and treatment of uterine disorders such as endometrial hyperplasia, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and uterine hypoplasia.
Breast disorders
Progestogens are used to treat benign breast disorders. They are associated not only with a reduction in breast pain, but also a decrease in breast cell proliferation, a decrease in breast gland size, and a disappearance of breast nodularity. Progestogens that have been used for such purposes include topical progesterone, dydrogesterone, promegestone, lynestrenol, medroxyprogesterone acetate, dienogest, and medrogestone.
Progestogens are used in the treatment of breast hypoplasia and lactation insufficiency. This is because they induce lobuloalveolar development of the breasts, which is required for lactation and breastfeeding.
Enlarged prostate
Progestogens have been used at high doses to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). They act by suppressing gonadal testosterone production and hence circulating testosterone levels. Androgens like testosterone stimulate the growth of the prostate gland.
Hormone-sensitive cancers
Endometrial cancer
Progestogens were first found to be effective at high doses in the treatment of endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer in 1959. Subsequently, high-dose gestonorone caproate, hydroxyprogesterone caproate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and megestrol acetate were approved for the treatment of endometrial cancer.
Breast cancer
Progestogens, such as megestrol acetate and medroxyprogesterone acetate, are effective at high doses in the treatment of advanced postmenopausal breast cancer. They have been extensively evaluated as a second-line therapy for this indication. However, they produce various side effects, such as dyspnea, weight gain, vaginal bleeding, nausea, fluid retention, hypertension, thrombophlebitis, and thromboembolic complications. In addition, megestrol acetate has been found to be significantly inferior to aromatase inhibitors in the treatment of breast cancer, and in relation to this, progestogens have been moved down in the sequential therapy of the disease. Megestrol acetate is the only Food and Drug Administration-approved progestogen for breast cancer. The mechanism of action of progestogens in the treatment of breast cancer is unknown, but may be related to their functional antiestrogenic and/or antigonadotropic effects.
Prostate cancer
Certain progestogens, particularly those with antiandrogenic properties, have been used at high doses in the treatment of prostate cancer. These include cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate, and megestrol acetate. Other progestogens such as medroxyprogesterone acetate, hydroxyprogesterone caproate, and gestonorone caproate have also been studied, but have inadequate effectiveness. They act by suppressing gonadal testosterone production and hence circulating testosterone levels. Androgens like testosterone stimulate the growth of prostate tumors.
Fertility and pregnancy
Progestogens are used in fertility medicine for women. For example, progesterone (or sometimes dydrogesterone or hydroxyprogesterone caproate) is used for luteal support in in-vitro fertilization protocols.
Certain progestogens are used to support pregnancy, including progesterone, hydroxyprogesterone caproate, dydrogesterone, and allylestrenol. They are used questionably for treatment of recurrent pregnancy loss and for prevention of preterm birth in pregnant women with a history of at least one spontaneous preterm birth.
Puberty suppression
Progestogens have been used to treat precocious puberty in both boys and girls. They have also been used to delay puberty in transgender youth.
Sexual deviance
Certain progestogens, such as cyproterone acetate and medroxyprogesterone acetate, are used as a form of chemical castration to treat sexual deviance in men, particularly sex offenders. They are specifically used to treat paraphilias and hypersexuality. They work by suppressing gonadal testosterone production and hence circulating testosterone levels. This results in decreased libido and interference with erectile function and ability to attain orgasm.
Skin and hair conditions
Progestogens are used to treat androgen-dependent skin and hair conditions in women. These include oily skin, acne, seborrhea, hirsutism, scalp hair loss, and hidradenitis suppurativa. They act by suppressing testosterone levels and, in the case of antiandrogenic progestogens, by directly blocking the actions of androgens.
Androgen excess
Progestogens are used to treat hyperandrogenism, such as due to polycystic ovary syndrome and congenital adrenal hyperplasia, in women. Examples include cyproterone acetate and chlormadinone acetate.
Appetite stimulation
Certain progestins can be used at very high doses to increase appetite in conditions like cachexia, anorexia, and wasting syndromes. In general, they are used in combination with certain other steroid medications such as dexamethasone. Their effects take several weeks to become apparent, but are relatively long-lived when compared to those of corticosteroids. Furthermore, they are recognized as being the only medications to increase lean body mass. Megestrol acetate is the lead drug of this class for the management of cachexia, and medroxyprogesterone acetate is also used. The mechanism of action of the appetite-related effects of these two medications is unknown and may not be related to their progestogenic activity. Very high doses of other progestogens, like cyproterone acetate, have minimal or no influence on appetite and weight.
Contraindications
Contraindications of progestogens may include breast cancer and a history of venous thromboembolism among others.
Side effects
Progestogens have relatively few side effects at typical dosages. Side effects of progestogens may include tiredness, dysphoria, depression, mood changes, menstrual irregularities, hypomenorrhea, edema, vaginal dryness, vaginal atrophy, headaches, nausea, breast tenderness, decreased libido. Progestins with androgenic activity, namely 19-nortestosterone derivatives, can also cause acne, hirsutism, seborrhea, voice deepening, changes in liver protein production (e.g., decreased HDL cholesterol, sex hormone-binding globulin), increased appetite, and weight gain, among others. Other side effects of progestogens may include an increased risk of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and blood clots, among others. Some of the side effects of progestogens are due not to their progestogenic activity but rather due to off-target activities (e.g., androgenic activity, glucocorticoid activity, antimineralocorticoid activity). At high doses, due to their antigonadotropic effects, progestogens can cause low sex hormone levels and associated side effects like diminished secondary sexual characteristics, sexual dysfunction (e.g., reduced sex drive and erectile dysfunction), reversible infertility, reduced bone mineral density, and an increased risk of bone fractures, both in men and in premenopausal women.
Mood changes
Birth control
The available evidence on the risk of mood changes and depression with progestogens in hormonal birth control is limited. As of 2019, there is no consistent evidence for adverse effects on mood of hormonal birth control, including progestogen-only birth control and combined birth control, in the general population. Most women taking combined birth control experience no influence or a beneficial effect on mood. Adverse effects on mood appear to be infrequent, occurring only in a small percentage of women. About 5 to 10% of women experience negative mood changes with combined birth control pills, and about 5% of women discontinue birth control pills due to such changes. A study of about 4,000 women found that progestogen-only birth control with depot medroxyprogesterone acetate had an incidence of depression of 1.5% and discontinuation due to depression of 0.5%. Beneficial effects of hormonal birth control such as decreased menstrual pain and bleeding may positively influence mood.
A 2018 systematic review of 26 studies, including 5 randomized controlled trials and 21 observational studies, found that the overall evidence showed no association between progestogen-only birth control and depression. The progestins assessed included depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, levonorgestrel-containing contraceptive implants and intrauterine devices, and progestogen-only birth control pills. Findings of large observational studies are mixed due to prominent confounding factors, but overall show no association of hormonal birth control with depression. Randomized controlled trials typically do not find clinically significant influences of hormonal birth control on mood. Reviews from before 1980 reported a high incidence of adverse mood effects with combined birth control pills. However, doses of estrogens and progestogens in birth control pills before 1980 were considerably higher than those used today, and these doses frequently caused unpleasant side effects that may have unfavorably influenced mood.
Mood with birth control pills may be better with monophasic and continuous formulations than with triphasic and cyclic formulations. Limited and inconsistent evidence supports differences in mood with hormonal birth control using different doses of ethinylestradiol or different routes of administration, such as birth control pills versus contraceptive vaginal rings and contraceptive patches. Combined birth control with less androgenic or antiandrogenic progestins like desogestrel, gestodene, and drospirenone may have a more favorable influence on mood than birth control with more androgenic progestins like levonorgestrel. However, androgen supplementation with hormonal birth control has also been reported to improve mood.
Hormonal birth control that suppresses ovulation is effective in the treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Combined birth control pills containing drospirenone are approved for the treatment of PMDD and may be particularly beneficial due to the antimineralocorticoid activity of drospirenone. Studies on the influence of hormonal birth control on mood in women with existing mood disorders or polycystic ovary syndrome are limited and mixed. Women with underlying mood disorders may be more likely to experience mood changes with hormonal birth control. A 2016 systematic review found based on limited evidence from 6 studies that hormonal birth control, including combined birth control pills, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, and levonorgestrel-containing intrauterine devices, was not associated with worse outcomes compared to non-use in women with depressive or bipolar disorders. A 2008 Cochrane review found a greater likelihood of postpartum depression in women given norethisterone enanthate as a form of progestogen-only injectable birth control, and recommended caution on the use of progestogen-only birth control in the postpartum period.
Studies suggest a negativity bias in emotion recognition and reactivity with hormonal birth control. Some data suggests blunted reward responses and potential dysregulation of the stress response with hormonal birth control in some women.
Hormone therapy
Estrogen therapy appears to have a beneficial influence on mood in depressed and euthymic perimenopausal women. Conversely, research on combined estrogen and progestogen therapy for depressive symptoms in menopausal women is scarce and inconclusive. Some researchers contend that progestogens have an adverse influence on mood and reduce the benefits of estrogens on mood, whereas other researchers maintain that progestogens have no adverse influence on mood. Progesterone differs from progestins in terms of effects in the brain and might have different effects on mood in comparison. The available evidence, although limited, suggests no adverse influence of progesterone on mood when used in menopausal hormone therapy.
Sexual function
In most women, sexual desire is unchanged or increased with combined birth control pills. This is despite an increase in sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels and a decrease in total and free testosterone levels. However, findings are conflicting, and more research is needed.
Blood clots
Venous thromboembolism (VTE) consists of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). DVT is a blood clot in a deep vein, most commonly in the legs, while PE occurs when a clot breaks free and blocks an artery in the lungs. VTE is a rare but potentially fatal cardiovascular event. Estrogens and progestogens can increase coagulation by modulating synthesis of coagulation factors. As a result, they increase the risk of VTE, especially during pregnancy when estrogen and progesterone levels are very high as well as during the postpartum period. Physiological levels of estrogen and/or progesterone may also influence risk of VTE—with late menopause (≥55 years) being associated with greater risk than early menopause (≤45 years).
Progestogen monotherapy
Progestogens when used by themselves at typical clinical dosages, for instance in progestogen-only birth control, do not affect coagulation and are not generally associated with a higher risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). An exception is medroxyprogesterone acetate as a progestogen-only injectable contraceptive, which has been associated with a 2- to 4-fold increase in risk of VTE relative to other progestogens and non-use. The reasons for this are unknown, but the observations might be a statistical artifact of preferential prescription of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate to women at risk for VTE. Alternatively, medroxyprogesterone acetate may be an exception among progestogens in terms of influence on VTE risk, possibly due to its partial glucocorticoid activity. In contrast to depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, no increase in VTE risk has been observed with moderately high doses of the related progestin chlormadinone acetate (10 mg/day for 18–20 days/cycle), though based on limited data.
Very-high-dose progestogen therapy, including with medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, and cyproterone acetate, has been associated with activation of coagulation and a dose-dependent increased risk of VTE. In studies with high-dose cyproterone acetate specifically, the increase in VTE risk has ranged from 3- to 5-fold. The incidence of VTE in studies with very-high-dose progestogen therapy has been found to range from 2 to 8%. However, the relevant patient populations, namely aged individuals with cancer, are already predisposed to VTE, and this greatly amplifies the risk.
Estrogen plus progestogen therapy
In contrast to progestogen-only birth control, the addition of progestins to oral estrogen therapy, including in combined birth control pills and menopausal hormone therapy, is associated with a higher risk of VTE than with oral estrogen therapy alone. The risk of VTE is increased by about 2-fold or less with such regimens in menopausal hormone therapy and by 2- to 4-fold with combined birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol, both relative to non-use. In contrast to oral estrogen therapy, parenteral estradiol, such as with transdermal estradiol, is not associated with a higher risk of VTE. This is likely due to its lack of first-pass effect in the liver. Research is mixed on whether addition of progestins to transdermal estradiol is associated with a greater risk of VTE, with some studies finding no increase in risk and others finding higher risk. Unlike the case of transdermal estradiol, VTE risk is not lower with ethinylestradiol-containing contraceptive vaginal rings and contraceptive patches compared to combined birth control pills with ethinylestradiol. This is thought to be due to the resistance of ethinylestradiol to hepatic metabolism.
The type of progestin in combined birth control may modulate the risk of VTE. Studies have found that combined birth control pills containing newer-generation progestins such as desogestrel, gestodene, norgestimate, drospirenone, and cyproterone acetate are associated with a 1.5- to 3-fold higher risk of VTE than birth control pills containing first-generation progestins such as levonorgestrel and norethisterone. However, although this has been apparent in retrospective cohort and nested case–control studies, no greater risk of VTE has been observed in prospective cohort and case–control studies. These kinds of observational studies have certain advantages over the aforementioned types of studies, such as better ability to control for confounding factors like new-user bias. As such, it is unclear whether the higher risk of VTE with newer-generation birth control pills is a real finding or a statistical artifact. Androgenic progestins have been found to antagonize to some degree the effect of estrogens on coagulation. First-generation progestins are more androgenic, while newer-generation progestins are weakly androgenic or antiandrogenic, and this might explain the observed differences in risk of VTE. The type of estrogen also influences VTE risk. Birth control pills containing estradiol valerate are associated with about half the VTE risk of birth control pills with ethinylestradiol.
The type of progestogen in combined menopausal hormone therapy may also modulate VTE risk. Oral estrogens plus dydrogesterone appears to have lower VTE risk relative to inclusion of other progestins. Norpregnane derivatives such as nomegestrol acetate and promegestone have been associated with a significantly greater risk of VTE than pregnane derivatives such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and dydrogesterone and nortestosterone derivatives such as norethisterone and levonorgestrel. However, these findings may just be statistical artifacts. In contrast to progestins, the addition of oral progesterone to either oral or transdermal estrogen therapy is not associated with a higher risk of VTE. However, oral progesterone achieves very low progesterone levels and has relatively weak progestogenic effects, which might be responsible for the absence of increase in VTE risk. Parenteral progesterone, such as vaginal or injectable progesterone, which can achieve luteal-phase levels of progesterone and associated progestogenic effects, has not been characterized in terms of VTE risk.
A 2012 meta-analysis estimated that the absolute risk of VTE is 2 per 10,000 women for non-use, 8 per 10,000 women for ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel-containing birth control pills, and 10 to 15 per 10,000 women for birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol and a newer-generation progestin. For comparison, the absolute risk of VTE is generally estimated as 1 to 5 per 10,000 woman-years for non-use, 5 to 20 per 10,000 woman-years for pregnancy, and 40 to 65 per 10,000 woman-years for the postpartum period. Risk of VTE with estrogen and progestogen therapy is highest at the start of treatment, particularly during the first year, and decreases over time. Older age, higher body weight, lower physical activity, and smoking are all associated with a higher risk of VTE with oral estrogen and progestogen therapy. Women with thrombophilia have a dramatically higher risk of VTE with estrogen and progestogen therapy than women without thrombophilia. Depending on the condition, risk of VTE can be increased as much as 50-fold in such women relative to non-use.
Estrogens induce the production of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in the liver. As such, SHBG levels indicate hepatic estrogenic exposure and may be a reliable surrogate marker for coagulation and VTE risk with estrogen therapy. Combined birth control pills containing different progestins result in SHBG levels that are increased 1.5- to 2-fold with levonorgestrel, 2.5- to 4-fold with desogestrel and gestodene, 3.5- to 4-fold with drospirenone and dienogest, and 4- to 5-fold with cyproterone acetate. SHBG levels differ depending on the progestin because androgenic progestins oppose the effect of ethinylestradiol on hepatic SHBG production as with its procoagulatory effects. Contraceptive vaginal rings and contraceptive patches likewise have been found to increase SHBG levels by 2.5-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively. Birth control pills containing high doses of ethinylestradiol (>50 μg) can increase SHBG levels by 5- to 10-fold, which is similar to the increase that occurs during pregnancy. Conversely, increases in SHBG levels are much lower with estradiol, especially when it is used parenterally. Estradiol-containing combined birth control pills, like estradiol valerate/dienogest and estradiol/nomegestrol acetate, and high-dose parenteral polyestradiol phosphate therapy have both been found to increase SHBG levels by about 1.5-fold.
Hormone therapy with high-dose ethinylestradiol and cyproterone acetate in transgender women has been associated with a 20- to 45-fold higher risk of VTE relative to non-use. The absolute incidence was about 6%. Conversely, the risk of VTE in transgender women is much lower with oral or transdermal estradiol plus high-dose cyproterone acetate. Ethinylestradiol is thought to have been primarily responsible for the VTE risk, but cyproterone acetate may have contributed as well. Ethinylestradiol is no longer used in transgender hormone therapy, and doses of cyproterone acetate have been reduced.
Cardiovascular health
Progestogens may influence the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. In the women's Health Initiative (WHI), the risk of coronary heart disease was greater with the combination of estrogen plus a progestin (specifically medroxyprogesterone acetate) than with estrogen alone. However, progestogens have varying activities and may differ in terms of cardiovascular risk. A 2015 Cochrane review provided strong evidence that the treatment of post-menopausal women with hormone therapy for cardiovascular disease had little if any effect and increased the risk of stroke and venous thromboembolic events. It is thought that androgenic progestins like medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone may antagonize the beneficial effects of estrogens on biomarkers of cardiovascular health (e.g., favorable lipid profile changes). However, these findings are mixed and controversial. Differences of progestogens on cardiovascular health and risk have been reviewed and summarized:
"Unfortunately, there are few long-term clinical studies comparing different progestogens used in [hormone therapy] with respect to cardiovascular outcomes. However, some aspects of potential cardiovascular risk have been examined, namely effects on lipids, vascular function/blood pressure, inflammation, thrombosis, and carbohydrate metabolism. [...] Although progestins have differing effects on aspects of cardiovascular risk, in general, those more similar to progesterone have been associated with a lower impact than the more androgenic progestins on the beneficial effects of concomitant estrogen therapy. However, the limited number of long-term clinical studies makes it difficult to extrapolate the short-term effects on various markers of cardiovascular risk to long-term cardiovascular morbidity."
Route of administration might also influence the cardiovascular health effects of progestogens, but more research is needed similarly.
Breast cancer
Estrogen alone, progestogen alone, and combined estrogen and progestogen therapy are all associated with increased risks of breast cancer when used in menopausal hormone therapy for peri- and postmenopausal women relative to non-use. These risks are higher for combined estrogen and progestogen therapy than with estrogen alone or progestogen alone. In addition to breast cancer risk, estrogen alone and estrogen plus progestogen therapy are associated with higher breast cancer mortality. With 20 years of use, breast cancer incidence is about 1.5-fold higher with estrogen alone and about 2.5-fold higher with estrogen plus progestogen therapy relative to non-use. The increase in breast cancer risk with estrogen and progestogen therapy was shown to be causal with conjugated estrogens plus medroxyprogesterone acetate in the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trials.
Breast cancer risk with combined estrogen and progestogen therapy may differ depending on the progestogen used. Progestins including chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, medrogestone, medroxyprogesterone acetate, nomegestrol acetate, norethisterone acetate, promegestone, and tibolone have all been associated with similarly increased risk of breast cancer. Some research has found that oral progesterone and dydrogesterone with short-term use (<5 years) may be associated with lower risk of breast cancer relative to other progestins. In the long-term however (>5 years), oral progesterone and dydrogesterone have been associated with significantly increased breast cancer risk similarly to other progestogens. The lower risk of breast cancer with oral progesterone than with other progestogens may be related to the very low progesterone levels and relatively weak progestogenic effects it produces.
The risk of breast cancer with estrogen and progestogen therapy in peri- and postmenopausal women is dependent on the duration of treatment, with more than 5 years of use being associated with significantly greater risk than less than five years of use. In addition, continuous estrogen and progestogen therapy is associated with a higher risk of breast cancer than cyclic use.
A nationwide observational study found that transfeminine hormone therapy with estrogen plus high-dose cyproterone acetate was associated with a 46-fold increased risk of breast cancer in transgender women relative to the expected incidence for cisgender men. However, the risk of breast cancer was still lower than that in cisgender women. The extent to which the increase in breast cancer risk was related to estrogen versus cyproterone acetate is unknown.
Overdose
Progestogens are relatively safe in acute overdose.
Interactions
Inhibitors and inducers of cytochrome P450 enzymes and other enzymes such as 5α-reductase may interact with progestogens.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Progestogens act by binding to and activating the progesterone receptors (PRs), including the PR-A, PR-B, and PR-C. Major tissues affected by progestogens include the uterus, cervix, vagina, breasts, and brain. By activating PRs in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, progestogens suppress the secretion of gonadotropins and thereby function as antigonadotropins at sufficiently high doses. Progesterone interacts with membrane progesterone receptors, but interaction of progestins with these receptors is less clear. In addition to their progestogenic activity, many progestogens have off-target activities such as androgenic, antiandrogenic, estrogenic, glucocorticoid, and antimineralocorticoid activity.
Progestogens mediate their contraceptive effects in women both by inhibiting ovulation (via their antigonadotropic effects) and by thickening cervical mucus, thereby preventing the possibility of fertilization of the ovum by sperm. Progestogens have functional antiestrogenic effects in various tissues like the endometrium via activation of the PR, and this underlies their use in menopausal hormone therapy (to prevent unopposed estrogen-induced endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer). The PRs are induced in the breasts by estrogens, and for this reason, it is assumed that progestogens cannot mediate breast changes in the absence of estrogens. The off-target activities of progestogens can contribute both to their beneficial effects and to their adverse effects.
Antigonadotropic effects
Progestogens, similarly to the androgens and estrogens through their own respective receptors, inhibit the secretion of the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) via activation of the PR in the pituitary gland. This effect is a form of negative feedback on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis) and takes advantage of the mechanism that the body uses to prevent sex hormone levels from becoming too high. Accordingly, progestogens, both endogenous and exogenous (i.e., progestins), have antigonadotropic effects, and progestogens in sufficiently high amounts can markedly suppress the body's normal production of progestogens, androgens, and estrogens as well as inhibit fertility (ovulation in women and spermatogenesis in men).
Progestogens have been found to maximally suppress circulating testosterone levels in men by up to 70 to 80% at sufficiently high doses. This is notably less than that achieved by GnRH analogues, which can effectively abolish gonadal production of testosterone and suppress circulating testosterone levels by as much as 95%. It is also less than that achieved by high-dose estrogen therapy, which can suppress testosterone levels into the castrate range similarly to GnRH analogues.
The retroprogesterone derivatives dydrogesterone and trengestone are atypical progestogens and unlike all other clinically used progestogens do not have antigonadotropic effects nor inhibit ovulation even at very high doses. In fact, trengestone may have progonadotropic effects, and is actually able to induce ovulation, with about a 50% success rate on average. These progestins also show other atypical properties relative to other progestogens, such as a lack of a hyperthermic effect.
Androgenic activity
Some progestins have androgenic activity and can produce androgenic side effects such as increased sebum production (oilier skin), acne, and hirsutism (excessive facial/body hair growth), as well as changes in liver protein production. Only certain progestins are androgenic however, these being the testosterone derivatives and, to a lesser extent, the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives medroxyprogesterone acetate and megestrol acetate. No other progestins have such activity (though some, conversely, possess antiandrogenic activity). Moreover, the androgenic activity of progestins within the testosterone derivatives also varies, and while some may have high or moderate androgenic activity, others have only low or no such activity.
The androgenic activity of androgenic progestins is mediated by two mechanisms: 1) direct binding to and activation of the androgen receptor; and 2) displacement of testosterone from sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), thereby increasing free (and thus bioactive) testosterone levels. The androgenic activity of many androgenic progestins is offset by combination with ethinylestradiol, which robustly increases SHBG levels, and most oral contraceptives in fact markedly reduce free testosterone levels and can treat or improve acne and hirsutism. An exception is progestin-only contraceptives, which do not also contain an estrogen.
The relative androgenic activity of testosterone-derivative progestins and other progestins that have androgenic activity can be roughly ranked as follows:
Very high: danazol, ethisterone, gestrinone, normethandrone, norvinisterone
High: levonorgestrel, norgestrel, norgestrienone, tibolone
Moderate: norethisterone and its prodrugs (norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, etynodiol diacetate, lynestrenol, quingestanol acetate)
Low: desogestrel, etonogestrel, gestodene, norgestimate
Very low or negligible: allylestrenol, dimethisterone, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, norelgestromin, noretynodrel, norgesterone
Antiandrogenic: dienogest, oxendolone
It should be noted however that the clinical androgenic and anabolic activity of the androgenic progestins listed above is still far lower than that of conventional androgens and anabolic steroids like testosterone and nandrolone esters. As such, they are only generally associated with such effects in women and often only at high doses. In men, due to their concomitant progestogenic activity and by extension antigonadotropic effects, these progestins can have potent functional antiandrogenic effects via suppression of testosterone production and levels.
Antiandrogenic activity
Some progestogens have antiandrogenic activity in addition to their progestogenic activity. These progestogens, with varying degrees of potency as antiandrogens, include chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, dienogest, drospirenone, medrogestone, megestrol acetate, nomegestrol acetate, osaterone acetate (veterinary), and oxendolone. The relative antiandrogenic activity in animals of some of these progestogens has been ranked as follows: cyproterone acetate (100%) > nomegestrol acetate (90%) > dienogest (30–40%) ≥ chlormadinone acetate (30%) = drospirenone (30%). Antiandrogenic activity in certain progestogens may help to improve symptoms of acne, seborrhea, hirsutism, and other androgen-dependent conditions in women.
Estrogenic activity
A few progestins have weak estrogenic activity. These include the 19-nortestosterone derivatives norethisterone, noretynodrel, and tibolone, as well as the norethisterone prodrugs norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, lynestrenol, and etynodiol diacetate. The estrogenic activity of norethisterone and its prodrugs are due to metabolism into ethinylestradiol. High doses of norethisterone and noretynodrel have been associated with estrogenic side effects such as breast enlargement in women and gynecomastia in men, but also with alleviation of menopausal symptoms in postmenopausal women. In contrast, non-estrogenic progestins were not found to be associated with such effects.
Glucocorticoid activity
Some progestogens, mainly certain 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives, have weak glucocorticoid activity. This can result, at sufficiently high doses, in side effects such as symptoms of Cushing's syndrome, steroid diabetes, adrenal suppression and insufficiency, and neuropsychiatric symptoms like depression, anxiety, irritability, and cognitive impairment. Progestogens with the potential for clinically relevant glucocorticoid effects include the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivatives chlormadinone acetate, cyproterone acetate, medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, promegestone, and segesterone acetate and the testosterone derivatives desogestrel, etonogestrel, and gestodene. Conversely, hydroxyprogesterone caproate possesses no such activity, while progesterone itself has very weak glucocorticoid activity.
Antimineralocorticoid activity
Certain progestogens, including progesterone, drospirenone, and gestodene, as well as to a lesser extent dydrogesterone and trimegestone, have varying degrees of antimineralocorticoid activity. Other progestins might also have significant antimineralocorticoid activity. Progesterone itself has potent antimineralocorticoid activity. No clinically used progestogens are known to have mineralocorticoid activity.
Progestins with potent antimineralocorticoid activity like drospirenone may have properties more similar to those of natural progesterone, such as counteraction of cyclical estrogen-induced sodium and fluid retention, edema, and associated weight gain; lowered blood pressure; and possibly improved cardiovascular health.
Neurosteroid activity
Progesterone has neurosteroid activity via metabolism into allopregnanolone and pregnanolone, potent positive allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor. As a result, it has associated effects such as sedation, somnolence, and cognitive impairment. No progestin is known to have similar such neurosteroid activity or effects. However, promegestone has been found to act as a non-competitive antagonist of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor similarly to progesterone.
Other activities
Certain progestins have been found to stimulate the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro, an action that is independent of the classical PRs and is instead mediated via the progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1). Norethisterone, desogestrel, levonorgestrel, and drospirenone strongly stimulate proliferation and medroxyprogesterone acetate, dienogest, and dydrogesterone weakly stimulate proliferation, whereas progesterone, nomegestrol acetate, and chlormadinone acetate act neutrally in the assay and do not stimulate proliferation. It is unclear whether these findings may explain the different risks of breast cancer observed with progesterone, dydrogesterone, and other progestins such as medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone in clinical studies.
Pharmacokinetics
Oral progesterone has very low bioavailability and potency. Micronization and dissolution in oil-filled capsules, a formulation known as oral micronized progesterone (OMP), increases the bioavailability of progesterone by several-fold. However, the bioavailability of oral micronized progesterone nonetheless remains very low at less than 2.4%. Progesterone also has a very short elimination half-life in the circulation of no more than 1.5 hours. Due to the poor oral activity of oral micronized progesterone, it has relatively weak progestogenic effects. Administration of progesterone in oil solution by intramuscular injection has a duration of about 2 or 3 days, necessitating frequent injections. Transdermal administration of progesterone in the form of creams or gels achieves only very low levels of progesterone and weak progestogenic effects.
Due to the poor oral activity of progesterone and its short duration with intramuscular injection, progestins were developed in its place both for oral use and for parenteral administration. Orally active progestins have high oral bioavailability in comparison to oral micronized progesterone. Their bioavailability is generally in the range of 60 to 100%. Their elimination half-lives are also much longer than that of progesterone, in the range of 8 to 80 hours. Due mainly to their pharmacokinetic improvements, progestins have oral potency that is up to several orders of magnitude greater than that of oral micronized progesterone. For example, the oral potency of medroxyprogesterone acetate is at least 30-fold that of oral micronized progesterone, while the oral potency of gestodene is at least 10,000-fold that of oral micronized progesterone. Parenterally administered progestins, such as hydroxyprogesterone caproate in oil solution, norethisterone enanthate in oil solution, and medroxyprogesterone acetate in microcrystalline aqueous suspension, have durations in the range of weeks to months.
Chemistry
All currently available progestogens are steroidal in terms of chemical structure. Progestogens include the naturally occurring progesterone and the synthetic progestogens (otherwise known as progestins). Progestins can be broadly grouped into two structural classes—chemical derivatives of progesterone and chemical derivatives of testosterone. Progesterone derivatives can be classified into subgroups including pregnanes, retropregnanes, norpregnanes, and spirolactones. Examples of progestins of each of these subgroups include medroxyprogesterone acetate, dydrogesterone, nomegestrol acetate, and drospirenone, respectively. Testosterone derivatives can be classified into subgroups including androstanes, estranes (19-norandrostanes), and gonanes (18-methylestranes). Examples of progestins of each of these subgroups include ethisterone, norethisterone, and levonorgestrel, respectively. Many progestins have ester and/or ether substitutions (see progestogen ester) which result in greater lipophilicity and in some cases cause the progestins in question to act as prodrugs in the body.
History
Medication templates
The recognition of progesterone's ability to suppress ovulation during pregnancy spawned a search for a similar hormone that could bypass the problems associated with administering progesterone (e.g. low bioavailability when administered orally and local irritation and pain when continually administered parenterally) and, at the same time, serve the purpose of controlling ovulation. The many synthetic hormones that resulted are known as progestins.
The first orally active progestin, ethisterone (pregneninolone, 17α-ethynyltestosterone), the C17α ethynyl analogue of testosterone, was synthesized in 1938 from dehydroandrosterone by ethynylation, either before or after oxidation of the C3 hydroxyl group, followed by rearrangement of the C5(6) double bond to the C4(5) position. The synthesis was designed by chemists Hans Herloff Inhoffen, Willy Logemann, Walter Hohlweg and Arthur Serini at Schering AG in Berlin and was marketed in Germany in 1939 as Proluton C and by Schering in the U.S. in 1945 as Pranone.
A more potent orally active progestin, norethisterone (norethindrone, 19-nor-17α-ethynyltestosterone), the C19 nor analogue of ethisterone, synthesized in 1951 by Carl Djerassi, Luis Miramontes, and George Rosenkranz at Syntex in Mexico City, was marketed by Parke-Davis in the U.S. in 1957 as Norlutin, and was used as the progestin in some of the first oral contraceptives (Ortho-Novum, Norinyl, etc.) in the early 1960s.
Noretynodrel, an isomer of norethisterone, was synthesized in 1952 by Frank B. Colton at Searle in Skokie, Illinois and used as the progestin in Enovid, marketed in the U.S. in 1957 and approved as the first oral contraceptive in 1960.
Society and culture
Generations
Progestins used in birth control are sometimes grouped, somewhat arbitrarily and inconsistently, into generations. One categorization of these generations is as follows:
First generation: Approved for marketing before 1973. Examples: noretynodrel, norethisterone (norethindrone), lynestrenol, levonorgestrel.
Second generation: Approved for marketing between 1973 and 1989. Examples: desogestrel, nomegestrol acetate, norgestimate.
Third generation: Approved for marketing between 1990 and 2000. Examples: dienogest, etonogestrel.
Fourth generation: Approved for marketing after 2000. Examples: drospirenone, norelgestromin, segesterone acetate.
Alternatively, estranes such as noretynodrel and norethisterone are classified as first-generation while gonanes such as norgestrel and levonorgestrel are classified as second-generation, with less androgenic gonanes such as desogestrel, norgestimate, and gestodene classified as third-generation and newer progestins like drospirenone classified as fourth-generation. Yet another classification system considers there to be only first- and second-generation progestins.
Availability
Progestogens are available widely throughout the world in many different forms. They are present in all birth control pills.
Etymology
Progestogens, also termed progestagens, progestogens, or gestagens, are compounds which act as agonists of the progesterone receptors. Progestogens include progesterone—which is the main natural and endogenous progestogen—and progestins, which are synthetic progestogens. Progestins include the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone derivative medroxyprogesterone acetate and the 19-nortestosterone derivative norethisterone, among many other synthetic progestogens. As progesterone is a single compound and has no plural form, the term "progesterones" does not exist and is grammatically incorrect. The terms describing progestogens are often confused. However, progestogens have differing activities and effects and it is inappropriate to interchange them.
Research
A variety of progestins have been studied for use as potential male hormonal contraceptives in combination with androgens in men. These include the pregnanes medroxyprogesterone acetate, megestrol acetate, and cyproterone acetate, the norpregnane segesterone acetate, and the estranes norethisterone acetate, norethisterone enanthate, levonorgestrel, levonorgestrel butanoate, desogestrel, and etonogestrel. The androgens that have been used in combination with these progestins include testosterone, testosterone esters, androstanolone (dihydrotestosterone), and nandrolone esters. Dual androgens and progestogens such as trestolone and dimethandrolone undecanoate have also been developed and studied as male contraceptives.
See also
Phytoprogestogen
Antiprogestogen
Selective progesterone receptor modulator
References
Further reading
Contraception for males
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
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239993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid%20application%20development | Rapid application development | Rapid application development (RAD), also called rapid application building (RAB), is both a general term for adaptive software development approaches, and the name for James Martin's method of rapid development. In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on an adaptive process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even instead of design specifications.
RAD is especially well suited for (although not limited to) developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools. Other approaches to rapid development include the adaptive, agile, spiral, and unified models.
History
Rapid application development was a response to plan-driven waterfall processes, developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM). One of the problems with these methods is that they were based on a traditional engineering model used to design and build things like bridges and buildings. Software is an inherently different kind of artifact. Software can radically change the entire process used to solve a problem. As a result, knowledge gained from the development process itself can feed back to the requirements and design of the solution. Plan-driven approaches attempt to rigidly define the requirements, the solution, and the plan to implement it, and have a process that discourages changes. RAD approaches, on the other hand, recognize that software development is a knowledge intensive process and provide flexible processes that help take advantage of knowledge gained during the project to improve or adapt the solution.
The first such RAD alternative was developed by Barry Boehm and was known as the spiral model. Boehm and other subsequent RAD approaches emphasized developing prototypes as well as or instead of rigorous design specifications. Prototypes had several advantages over traditional specifications:
Risk reduction. A prototype could test some of the most difficult potential parts of the system early on in the life-cycle. This can provide valuable information as to the feasibility of a design and can prevent the team from pursuing solutions that turn out to be too complex or time-consuming to implement. This benefit of finding problems earlier in the life-cycle rather than later was a key benefit of the RAD approach. The earlier a problem can be found the cheaper it is to address.
Users are better at using and reacting than at creating specifications. In the waterfall model it was common for a user to sign off on a set of requirements but then when presented with an implemented system to suddenly realize that a given design lacked some critical features or was too complex. In general most users give much more useful feedback when they can experience a prototype of the running system rather than abstractly define what that system should be.
Prototypes can be usable and can evolve into the completed product. One approach used in some RAD methods was to build the system as a series of prototypes that evolve from minimal functionality to moderately useful to the final completed system. The advantage of this besides the two advantages above was that the users could get useful business functionality much earlier in the process.
Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and others, James Martin developed the rapid application development approach during the 1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by publishing a book in 1991, Rapid Application Development. This has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as a general alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems.
These ideas were further developed and improved upon by RAD pioneers like James Kerr and Richard Hunter, who together wrote the seminal book on the subject, Inside RAD, which followed the journey of a RAD project manager as he drove and refined the RAD Methodology in real-time on an actual RAD project. These practitioners, and those like them, helped RAD gain popularity as an alternative to traditional systems project life cycle approaches.
The RAD approach also matured during the period of peak interest in business re-engineering. The idea of business process re-engineering was to radically rethink core business processes such as sales and customer support with the new capabilities of Information Technology in mind. RAD was often an essential part of larger business re engineering programs. The rapid prototyping approach of RAD was a key tool to help users and analysts "think out of the box" about innovative ways that technology might radically reinvent a core business process.
Much of James Martin's comfort with RAD stemmed from Dupont's Information Engineering division and its leader Scott Schultz and their respective relationships with John Underwood who headed up a bespoke RAD development company that pioneered many successful RAD projects in Australia and Hong Kong.
Successful projects that included ANZ Bank, Lend Lease, BHP, Coca-Cola Amatil, Alcan, Hong Kong Jockey Club and numerous others.
Success that led to both Scott Shultz and James Martin both spending time in Australia with John Underwood to understand the methods and details of why Australia was disproportionately successful in implementing significant mission critical RAD projects.
The James Martin RAD method
The James Martin approach to RAD divides the process into four distinct phases:
Requirements planning phase – combines elements of the system planning and systems analysis phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC). Users, managers, and IT staff members discuss and agree on business needs, project scope, constraints, and system requirements. It ends when the team agrees on the key issues and obtains management authorization to continue.
User design phase – during this phase, users interact with systems analysts and develop models and prototypes that represent all system processes, inputs, and outputs. The RAD groups or subgroups typically use a combination of joint application design (JAD) techniques and CASE tools to translate user needs into working models. User design is a continuous interactive process that allows users to understand, modify, and eventually approve a working model of the system that meets their needs.
Construction phase – focuses on program and application development task similar to the SDLC. In RAD, however, users continue to participate and can still suggest changes or improvements as actual screens or reports are developed. Its tasks are programming and application development, coding, unit-integration and system testing.
Cutover phase – resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training. Compared with traditional methods, the entire process is compressed. As a result, the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much sooner.
Advantages
In modern Information Technology environments, many systems are now built using some degree of Rapid Application Development (not necessarily the James Martin approach). In addition to Martin's method, agile methods and the Rational Unified Process are often used for RAD development.
The purported advantages of RAD include:
Better quality. By having users interact with evolving prototypes the business functionality from a RAD project can often be much higher than that achieved via a waterfall model. The software can be more usable and has a better chance to focus on business problems that are critical to end users rather than technical problems of interest to developers. However, this excludes other categories of what are usually known as Non-functional requirements (AKA constraints or quality attributes) including security and portability.
Risk control. Although much of the literature on RAD focuses on speed and user involvement a critical feature of RAD done correctly is risk mitigation. It's worth remembering that Boehm initially characterized the spiral model as a risk based approach. A RAD approach can focus in early on the key risk factors and adjust to them based on empirical evidence collected in the early part of the process. E.g., the complexity of prototyping some of the most complex parts of the system.
More projects completed on time and within budget. By focusing on the development of incremental units the chances for catastrophic failures that have dogged large waterfall projects is reduced. In the Waterfall model it was common to come to a realization after six months or more of analysis and development that required a radical rethinking of the entire system. With RAD this kind of information can be discovered and acted upon earlier in the process.
Disadvantages
The purported disadvantages of RAD include:
The risk of a new approach. For most IT shops RAD was a new approach that required experienced professionals to rethink the way they worked. Humans are virtually always averse to change and any project undertaken with new tools or methods will be more likely to fail the first time simply due to the requirement for the team to learn.
Lack of emphasis on Non-functional requirements, which are often not visible to the end user in normal operation.
Requires time of scarce resources. One thing virtually all approaches to RAD have in common is that there is much more interaction throughout the entire life-cycle between users and developers. In the waterfall model, users would define requirements and then mostly go away as developers created the system. In RAD users are involved from the beginning and through virtually the entire project. This requires that the business is willing to invest the time of application domain experts. The paradox is that the better the expert, the more they are familiar with their domain, the more they are required to actually run the business and it may be difficult to convince their supervisors to invest their time. Without such commitments RAD projects will not succeed.
Less control. One of the advantages of RAD is that it provides a flexible adaptable process. The ideal is to be able to adapt quickly to both problems and opportunities. There is an inevitable trade-off between flexibility and control, more of one means less of the other. If a project (e.g. life-critical software) values control more than agility RAD is not appropriate.
Poor design. The focus on prototypes can be taken too far in some cases resulting in a "hack and test" methodology where developers are constantly making minor changes to individual components and ignoring system architecture issues that could result in a better overall design. This can especially be an issue for methodologies such as Martin's that focus so heavily on the user interface of the system.
Lack of scalability. RAD typically focuses on small to medium-sized project teams. The other issues cited above (less design and control) present special challenges when using a RAD approach for very large scale systems.
See also
Flow-based programming
Low-code development platforms
Lean software development
Platform as a service
References
Further reading
Steve McConnell (1996). Rapid Development: Taming Wild Software Schedules, Microsoft Press Books,
Ellen Gottesdiener (1995). "RAD Realities: Beyond the Hype to How RAD Really Works" Application Development Trends
Ken Schwaber (1996). Agile Project Management with Scrum, Microsoft Press Books,
Steve McConnell (2003). Professional Software Development: Shorter Schedules, Higher Quality Products, More Successful Projects, Enhanced Careers, Addison-Wesley,
Dean Leffingwell (2007). Scaling Software Agility: Best Practices for Large Enterprises, Addison-Wesley Professional,
Scott Stiner (2016). Forbes List: "Rapid Application Development (RAD): A Smart, Quick And Valueable Process For Software Developers"
Software project management
Software development process
Programming tools | [
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239997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace%20Chisholm%20Young | Grace Chisholm Young | Grace Chisholm Young (née Chisholm, 15 March 1868 – 29 March 1944) was an English mathematician. She was educated at Girton College, Cambridge, England and continued her studies at Göttingen University in Germany, where in 1895 she received a doctorate.
This was four years after the decease of Sofya Kovalevskaya, who was the first woman to have received
a doctorate at a northern European University, also Göttingen, in 1874, after being tutored privately by
her supervisor Karl Weierstrass in the period 1870-1874. Her early writings were published under the name of her husband, William Henry Young, and they collaborated on mathematical work throughout their lives. For her work on calculus (1914–16), she was awarded the Gamble Prize for Mathematics by Girton College, University of Cambridge.
Early life
She was the youngest of three surviving children. Her father was a senior civil servant, with the title Warden of the Standards in charge of the Weights and Measures Department. The two girls were taught at home by their mother, father and a governess which was the custom during that time. Her family encouraged her to become involved in social work, helping the poor in London. She had aspirations of studying medicine, but her family would not allow this. However, Chisholm wanted to continue her studies. She passed the senior examination for entrance into Cambridge University at the age of 17.
Education
Chisholm entered Girton College in 1889 aged 22, four years after she passed the senior entrance examination having been awarded the Sir Francis Goldsmid Scholarship by the college. At this time the college was only associated with the University of Cambridge with men and women graded on separate but related lists. Although she wanted to study medicine, her mother would not permit this, so, supported by her father, she decided to study mathematics. At the end of her first year, when the Mays list came out, she was top of the Second class immediately below Isabel Maddison. In 1893, Grace passed her final examinations with the equivalent of a first-class degree, ranked between 23 and 24 relative to 112 men.
She also took (unofficially, on a challenge, with Isabel Maddison) the exam for the Final Honours School in mathematics at the University of Oxford in 1892 in which she out-performed all the Oxford students. As a result, she became the first person to obtain a First class degree at both Oxford and Cambridge Universities in any subject (although they were not awarded formally).
Chisholm remained at Cambridge for an additional year to complete Part II of the Mathematical Tripos, in the hope of being able to follow an academic career.
She wanted to continue her studies and since women were not yet admitted to graduate schools in England she went to the University of Göttingen in Germany to study with Felix Klein. This was one of the major mathematical centres in the world. She had fortunately already learnt the German language. The decision to admit her had to be approved by the Berlin Ministry of Culture and was part of an experiment in admitting women to university studies. In 1895, at the age of 27, Chisholm was awarded a doctorate in mathematics. Again government approval had to be obtained to allow her to take the examination, which consisted of probing questions by several professors on sections such as geometry, differential equations, physics, astronomy, and the area of her dissertation, all in German. Along with her test she was required to take courses showing broader knowledge as well as prepare a thesis which was entitled Algebraisch-gruppentheoretische Untersuchungen zur sphärischen Trigonometrie (Algebraic Groups of Spherical Trigonometry).
Research
After returning to England in 1896 to marry, she resumed research she had initiated at Gӧttingen into an equation to determine the orbit of a comet. Her husband continued his work coaching in mathematics. However, in 1897 they both returned to Gӧttingen, encouraged by Felix Klein. Both attended advanced lectures and while she continued her mathematical research her husband started to work creatively for the first time. They visited Turin in Italy to study modern geometry and under Klein's guidance they began to work in the new area of set theory. From about 1901, the Youngs began to publish papers together. These concerned the theory of functions of a real variable and were heavily influenced by new ideas with which she had come into contact with in Gӧttingen. In 1908 they moved to Geneva in Switzerland where she continued to be based while her husband held a series of academic posts in India and the UK.
Although most of their work was published jointly it is believed that Grace did a large amount of the actual writing, and she also produced some independent work which, according to expert opinion, was deeper and more important than her husband's. In total, they published about 214 papers together, along with four books. She began to publish in her own name in 1914, and was awarded the Gamble Prize for Mathematics by Girton College for an essay On infinite derivates in 1915. This work was stimulated by developments in microscopy that allowed real molecular motion to be viewed. Her work between 1914–16 on relationships between derivatives of an arbitrary function contributed to the Denjoy-Young-Saks theorem.
They also wrote an elementary geometry book (The First Book of Geometry, 1905) which was translated into 4 languages. In 1906 the Youngs published The Theory of Sets of Points, the first textbook on set theory.
Personal life
Chisholm married William Henry Young in 1896, the year after she received her PhD from Göttingen. He had been her tutor for one term at Cambridge and they had become friends after he was one of the people that she sent a copy of her doctoral thesis. He suggested collaboration in a publication about astronomy but they did not pursue this. They had six children within nine years.
In addition to her career as a pioneering woman in what was then a discipline with significant barriers to entry, she completed all the requirements for a medical degree except the internship. She also learned six languages and taught each of her children a musical instrument. In addition, she published two books for children (Bimbo: A Little Real Story for Jill and Molly (1905) and Bimbo and the Frogs: Another Real Story (1907)). The former was aimed to explain where babies came from to children while the latter was about cells. The Young's elementary geometry book (The First Book of Geometry, 1905) was inspired by the education of their son. In 1929 she started a historical novel The Crown of England set in the sixteenth century. She worked on this for five years but it was never published.
With the approach of World War II, she left Switzerland in 1940 to take two of her grandchildren to England. She planned to return immediately, but because of the fall of France, she could not. This left William alone, and he died two years later in 1942. Two years after that, Grace Chisholm Young died of a heart attack.
Of their six children, three continued on to study mathematics (including Laurence Chisholm Young and Cecilia Rosalind Tanner), one daughter (Janet) became a physician, and one son (Patrick) became a chemist and pursued a career in finance and business. Their eldest son (Frank) was killed in World War I, when his plane was shot down in 1917, and his death had a profound effect on his parents, reducing their mathematical creativity. One of Grace's fourteen grandchildren, Sylvia Wiegand (daughter of Laurence), is a mathematician at the University of Nebraska and is a past president of the Association for Women in Mathematics.
Legacy
In 1996 Sylvia Wiegand and her husband Roger established a fellowship for graduate student research at the University of Nebraska in honor of Grace Chisholm Young and William Henry Young, called the Grace Chisholm Young and William Henry Young Award. Sylvia is one of Grace's fourteen grandchildren.
See also
Denjoy–Young–Saks theorem
References
External links
"Grace Chisholm Young", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Agnes Scott College
University of Liverpool: Papers of Professor William Henry Young and Grace Chisholm Young
Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge
19th-century English mathematicians
20th-century English mathematicians
British women mathematicians
1868 births
1944 deaths
20th-century women mathematicians | [
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240000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Halidon%20Hill | Battle of Halidon Hill | The Battle of Halidon Hill took place on 19 July 1333 when a Scottish army under Sir Archibald Douglas attacked an English army commanded by King Edward III of England () and was heavily defeated. The year before, Edward Balliol had seized the Scottish Crown from five-year-old David II (), surreptitiously supported by Edward III. This marked the start of the Second War of Scottish Independence. Balliol was shortly expelled from Scotland by a popular uprising, which Edward III used as a casus belli, invading Scotland in 1333. The immediate target was the strategically important border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, which the English besieged in March.
A large Scottish army advanced to relieve the town. They attempted and failed to draw the English away from Berwick. By mid-July, knowing Berwick was on the verge of surrender and aware they were much stronger than the English, the Scots attacked. They unsuccessfully manoeuvred for position and then launched an assault on the English, who had taken up a favourable defensive position. English longbowmen caused heavy Scottish casualties during their approach and when the Scots came into contact with the English infantry the fight was short. The Scottish formations collapsed and the Scots fled in disorder. The English men-at-arms mounted and pursued the Scots for eight miles causing further heavy casualties. The Scottish commander and many of the Scots' senior nobility were killed during the battle.
Berwick surrendered on terms the next day. Balliol was reinstalled as king of Scotland after ceding much of his territory to Edward III and agreeing to do homage for the balance. Balliol's opponents would not admit defeat and he was deposed again in 1334, restored in 1335 and deposed once again in 1336. In 1337 the Hundred Years' War broke out between France and England which allowed David II to consolidate his position in Scotland. In 1346 the Scots were decisively beaten at the Battle of Neville's Cross with heavy loss and David was captured. It was eleven years before terms were agreed for David's release. This included an Anglo-Scottish truce, which lasted for four decades and marked the end of the Second War of Scottish Independence.
Background
The First War of Scottish Independence between England and Scotland began in March 1296, when Edward I of England () stormed and sacked the Scottish border town of Berwick as a prelude to his invasion of Scotland. After the 30 years of warfare that followed, the newly crowned 14-year-old King Edward III () was nearly captured in the English disaster at Stanhope Park. This brought his regents, Isabella of France and Roger Mortimer, to the negotiating table. They agreed to the Treaty of Northampton with Robert Bruce () in 1328 but this treaty was widely resented in England and commonly known as , "the shameful peace". Some Scottish nobles refused to swear fealty to Bruce and were disinherited; they left Scotland to join forces with Edward Balliol, son of King John I of Scotland (), whom Edward I had deposed in 1296.
Robert Bruce died in 1329; his heir was 5-year-old David II (). In 1331, under the leadership of Edward Balliol and Henry Beaumont, Earl of Buchan, the disinherited Scottish nobles gathered in Yorkshire and plotted an invasion of Scotland. Edward III was aware of the scheme and officially forbade it. The reality was different, as Edward was happy to cause trouble for his northern neighbour. He insisted Balliol not invade Scotland overland from England but ignored his forces sailing for Scotland from Yorkshire ports on 31 July 1332. The Scots were aware of the situation and were waiting for Balliol. David II's regent was an experienced old soldier, Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray. He had prepared for Balliol and Beaumont, but died ten days before they sailed.
Five days after landing in Fife, Balliol's predominately English force of some 2,000 men met the Scottish army of 15,000–40,000 men and the latter were crushed at the Battle of Dupplin Moor, south of the Scottish capital, Perth. Thousands of Scots died, including much of the nobility of the realm. Balliol was crowned king of Scotland at Sconethe traditional place of coronation for Scottish monarchson 24 September 1332. Almost immediately, Balliol granted Edward Scottish estates to a value of £2,000 (£ in terms), which included "the town, castle and county of Berwick". Balliol's support within Scotland was limited and he was subject to constant military challenge; for example on 7 October David's supporters recaptured Perth and destroyed its walls. On 16 December, less than three months after his coronation, Balliol was ambushed by supporters of David II at the Battle of Annan. He fled to England half-dressed and riding bareback. He appealed to Edward for assistance.
Edward dropped all pretence of neutrality, recognised Balliol as king of Scotland and made ready for war. The English parliament met at York and debated the situation for five days without conclusion. Edward promised to discuss the matter with both Pope John XXII and King Philip VI of France (). Possibly to prevent the Scots from taking the initiative, England began openly preparing for war, while announcing it was Scotland which was preparing to invade England.
Prelude
Edward's chosen target was Berwick: a Scottish town on the Anglo-Scottish border, astride the main invasion and trade route in either direction. According to a contemporary chronicle, Berwick was "so populous and of such trade that it might justly be called another Alexandria, whose riches were the sea and the waters its walls". It was the most successful trading town in Scotland, and the duty on wool which passed through it was the Scottish Crown's largest single source of income. In the Middle Ages, it was the gateway from Scotland to the English eastern march. Edward hoped the possibility of losing it would draw the Scots into a set-piece battle, which he anticipated winning. During centuries of war between the two nations battles had been rare, as the Scots preferred guerrilla tactics and border raiding into England. Berwick was one of the few targets which might bring the Scots to battle as, in the words of the historian Clifford Rogers, "abandoning it was almost unthinkable".
Weapons and supplies were gathered as the Scots made arrangements for the defence of Berwick. The town walls stretched for and were up to thick and high. They were protected by towers, each up to tall. Berwick Castle was to the west of the town, separated by a broad moat, making the town and castle independent strongholds. Berwick was well-defended, well-stocked with provisions and materiel, and expected to be able to withstand a long siege.
Berwick under siege
Balliol, in command of the disinherited Scottish lords and some English magnates, crossed the border on 10 March 1333. He marched through Roxburghshire, burning and pillaging as he went. He reached Berwick in late March and cut it off by land. Edward's navy had already isolated it by sea. Balliol and the nobles accompanying him are said to have sworn not to withdraw until Berwick had fallen.
Edward arrived at Berwick with the main English army on 9May, after leaving Queen Philippa at Bamburgh Castle, south of Berwick. Balliol had been at Berwick for six weeks and had placed the town under close siege. Trenches had been dug, four underground pipes supplying water to the town were cut and all communication with the hinterland prevented. A scorched-earth policy was applied to the surrounding area to deny supplies for the town if an opportunity to break the siege occurred. This pillaging of the countryside also added to the English army's supplies. The besieging army included troops raised in the Welsh Marches and the Midlands, as well as levies from the north which had already mustered on account of the earlier Scottish raids. By the end of the month, this force had been augmented by noble retinues, a muster at Newcastle, and the assembly of the English fleet in the River Tyne. Accompanying the army were craftsmen to build siege engines. Edward had arranged for the combined army to be supplied by sea through the small port of Tweedmouth.
Sir Archibald Douglas was Guardian of the Realm for the underage David and he assembled an army north of the border. The chronicles of the time variously claim they numbered 14,629, 30,000, 40,000, 80,000, 90,000, more than 100,000 or that they outnumbered the English five to one. Rogers believes that around 15,000 is plausible. A high proportion were mounted, but nearly all of them would dismount when fighting was expected. The Scots launched minor raids into Cumberland, which achieved little. Douglas assembled ever more troops, rather than using those he already had to attempt to draw the English away from Berwick. This inactivity contrasts with Robert Bruce's swift response to the English siege of Berwick in 1319. Edward exploited the Cumberland raids to claim that his invasion was a response to them.
By the end of June attacks by land and sea had brought Berwick to a state of ruin and the garrison close to exhaustion. It is believed that a desire for a respite from the plunging fire of the two large counterweight trebuchets used by the English was a significant factor in causing the town's governor, Sir Alexander Seton, to request a short truce from Edward. This was granted, but only on the condition that he surrender if not relieved by 11 July. Seton's son, Thomas, was to be a hostage to the agreement, along with eleven others.
Relief force
Douglas was now faced with a choice of abandoning Berwick to fall to the English or attempting to go to its relief and risking a pitched battle. The modern historian Ranald Nicholson considers "If Berwick were to be saved immediate action on the part of the Scottish guardian was unavoidable". The army Douglas had spent so much time gathering was now compelled to take to the field. Douglas entered England on 11July, the last day of Seton's truce. He advanced eastwards to Tweedmouth and destroyed it in sight of the English army. Edward did not move.
On the afternoon of 12 July Sir William Keith, with Sir Alexander Gray and Sir William Prenderguest, led a force of around 200 Scottish cavalry towards Berwick. With some difficulty, they forced their way across the ruins of a bridge over the Tweed to the north bank and made their way into the town. Douglas considered the town relieved. On 13 July he sent messages to Edward calling on him to depart, threatening that if he failed to do so, the Scots army would devastate England. Edward ignored them. The defenders argued that Keith's 200 horsemen constituted a relief according to the truce and therefore they did not have to surrender. Edward stated this was not the case: they had to be relieved directly from Scotlandliterally from the direction of Scotlandwhereas Keith, Gray and Prenderguest had approached Berwick from the direction of England. Edward ruled that the truce agreement had been breached – the town having neither surrendered nor been relieved. A gallows was constructed in sight of the town walls and, as the highest-ranking hostage, Thomas Seton was hanged while his parents watched. Edward issued instructions that each day the town failed to surrender, another two hostages should be hanged.
Keith took over command of the town from Seton and concluded a fresh truce on 15 July, promising to surrender if not relieved by sunset on 19July. The truce comprised two indentures, one between Edward and the town of Berwick and the other between Edward and Patrick Dunbar, Earl of March, the Keeper of Berwick Castle. It defined circumstances in which relief would or would not be considered to have occurred. The terms of surrender were not unconditional. The town was to be returned to English soil and law but the inhabitants were to be allowed to leave, with their goods and chattels, under a safe conduct from Edward. All members of the garrison would also be given free passage. Relief was defined as one of three events: 200 Scottish men-at-arms fighting their way into Berwick; the Scottish army forcing its way across a specific stretch of the River Tweed; or, defeat of the English army in open battle on Scottish soil. The garrison was also permitted to sortie to assist any relief attempt by the main Scottish army. On concluding the new treaty, Keith was allowed to immediately leave Berwick, travel to wherever the Guardian of Scotland happened to be, advise him of the terms of the treaty, and return safely to Berwick.
By this time Douglas had marched south to Bamburgh, where Edward's queen Philippa was still staying, and besieged it; Douglas hoped this would cause Edward to break off his siege. In 1319 Edward's father, Edward II, had broken off a siege of Berwick after a Scottish army had advanced on York, where his queen was staying, and devastated Yorkshire. Edward ignored the threat to Bamburgh as the Scots did not have the time to construct the kind of equipment that would be necessary to take the fortress by assault. They devastated the countryside but Edward ignored this too. He positioned the English army on Halidon Hill, a small rise of some , to the north-west of Berwick, which gives an excellent view of the town and the vicinity. From this vantage point, he dominated the crossing of the Tweed specified in the indentures and would have been able to attack the flank of any force of men-at-arms attempting to enter Berwick. A contemporary account estimates the size of the English army at 10,000 men, although Rogers suggests desertion and the expiry of terms of service would have reduced it to significantly fewer and that it is possible the English were outnumbered two to one. Edward detached 700 men-at-arms and an unknown number of archers and infantry to guard against a sortie by the Berwick garrison. Receiving Keith's news, Douglas felt his only option was to engage the English in battle.
Battle
Scottish advance
Crossing the Tweed to the west of the English position, the Scottish army reached the town of Duns, from Berwick, on 18July. On the following day it approached Halidon Hill from the north-west. This approach put the English between the Scottish army and the Tweed; an English defeat would probably be a disaster. The Scots halted on a nearby hill and formed up in a defensive formation. They expected the English to come to them, but instead Edward deployed his army as infantry, with his men-at-arms and spearmen in three divisions, which were known as "battles", arrayed in an arc. The many longbowmen in the army were deployed evenly on each flank. With both sides seeking the advantage of a defensive posture, a stalemate ensued.
A contemporary chronicler reported Edward as being "joyous and happy" that he had drawn the Scots into an open battle. The state of his army's morale is less certain: they were outnumbered and had no ready path of retreat. One chronicler reported they were of "brave spirit", another that they were "very cast down". Scottish morale was high: they had the larger force and all of the leading figures of the nation were present and urging them on. Douglas gave a rousing speech and ordered that no prisoners should be taken. The Scots challenged the English to send out a champion to engage in single combat. Robert Benhale of Norfolk fought a Scottish champion named Turnbull and his large dog between the armies and killed both. Still neither army moved.
One contemporary account claims the Scots were waiting for high tide on the Tweed, to minimise the possibility of English escapees after a Scottish victory. The Scots were under pressure to attack and defeat the English to prevent the fall of Berwick, while the English knew that if no battle took place Berwick would be obliged to surrender to them the next day. Modern historians agree that the prudent course of action for the Scots would have been to withdraw and wait for a better opportunity to fight. However, Jonathan Sumption points out that this would have guaranteed the loss of Berwick. Rogers states that "it may seem surprising" that the Scots attacked even under these circumstances. Kelly DeVries writes that "the Scots ... did not want to fight" but were "forced to respond". A little after noon Douglas ordered an assault.
Scottish attack
To engage the English, the Scots had to advance downhill, cross a large area of marshy ground and then climb the northern slope of Halidon Hill. The Scots advanced to the sound of horns, drums, bagpipes and war cries. They were reported as "covering the ground like locusts". The Battle of Dupplin Moor the previous year had shown how vulnerable the Scots were to English longbows and so they came through the marshy hollow and up the north slope of Halidon Hill as fast as they could while still maintaining formation, to minimise the time during which they were exposed to English arrow fire. The arrows fell on the Scots "as thick as motes in a sun beam", according to an unnamed contemporary. The Lanercost Chronicle reported "The Scots who marched in the front were so wounded in the face and blinded by the multitude of English arrows that they could not help themselves, and soon began to turn their faces away from the blows of the arrows and fall." The Scots suffered many casualties to the English archers and the lower reaches of the hill were littered with dead and wounded. A contemporary chronicle states that thousands of Scots fell during this stage of the battle. The survivors continued upwards, towards the waiting English.
The English were disheartened by the size of the Scottish army but, aware they had no avenue of escape, stood their ground. The Scots were organised in their traditional schiltronstightly packed pike formations. The leading schiltron, commanded by the Earl of Moray, attacked the English division commanded by Balliol. A following schiltron attacked Edward's division and a third, led by the Earls of Sutherland and Ross assailed the division of Henry Beaumont. The Scots had failed to reconnoitre the English position, or had been prevented from doing so, and its strength took them by surprise. They were also tired before they launched their assault, having marched in the previous 48 hours, and had taken heavy casualties during their approach. As the Scottish schiltrons engaged the English divisions the English archers continued to fire into the flanks of the Scots from close range. A chronicler noted "The English archers destroyed and injured them so ... and soon they were thrown into confusion."
The period of close-quarters fighting was brief. Shortly after charging into contact the Scots attacking Balliol's division broke and routed. Almost immediately the schiltron facing Edward also broke. The third schiltron, which was tasked with fighting its way through to Berwick and so preventing its surrender, fought on "with the ferocity of lions" according to an English chronicle. More than 500 Scots were killed in this fight, including both of the schiltron's noble commanders.
Scottish rout
With two of the three Scottish schiltrons fleeing, the English men-at-arms from Balliol's and Edward's division mounted their horses, which had been held to the rear, and pursued. From their position on the hill where the Scots had taken up their original defensive position the Scottish camp followers could see what was happening and made off on the Scottish horses, which had been left there. This forced the Scottish soldiers to either try and outrun the mounted English on foot, or band into small groups and attempt to fight off the English knights. In either case they were easily ridden down. Few prisoners were taken; most Scots who surrendered were killed, on Edward's orders, and some drowned after they fled into the sea. At some point during this pursuit the third Scottish schiltron collapsed and joined the rout. The Scots were chased for and suffered very heavy casualties. About a hundred Scots who had been taken prisoner against Edward's orders were beheaded the next morning, 20July. This was the date on which Berwick's truce expired, and the town and the castle surrendered on the terms in the indentures.
The English chronicles number the Scottish dead at between 35,000 and 60,000. Scottish chronicles give 10,000 killed. Of the nine most-senior Scots present at the battle, six were killed, including Douglas. One Scottish account says that of 203 men-at-arms made knights ("dubbed") immediately before the battle, only 5 survived. Many of the figures given are clearly greatly exaggerated, and Rogers suggests the total of Scottish dead may have been approximately 2,900. English casualties were reported in some chronicles as 14, while others give a lower figure of 7.
Aftermath
The English believed the battle had ended the war with Scotland and Edward left for the south. Balliol and his allies rapidly quelled any remaining resistance in Scotland. They proceeded north and held a parliament at the Scottish capital, Perth, in October 1333, where Balliol restored lands to the "disinherited" nobles who had helped him to the throne the previous year. In doing so he dispossessed a new generation of Scots nobility of their land, thus ensuring continued conflict. Balliol had at least nominal control of most of Scotland and at one point only four fortifications remained in the hands of David II's partisans. On 19June 1334, Balliol did homage to Edward for Scotland, after formally ceding to England the eight counties of south-east Scotland. David supporters would not admit defeat and Balliol was deposed later in 1334. Edward led a winter campaign and Balliol was restored in 1335. Balliol was deposed once again in 1336, and Edward again campaigned widely across Scotland. In 1337 the Hundred Years' War broke out with France and English efforts were concentrated on this front, allowing the young King David to consolidate his position in Scotland.
In 1346 Edward led an English army across northern France, winning the Battle of Crécy and besieging Calais. Encouraged by the French King the Scots invaded England with a large army, certain that few English troops would be left to defend the rich northern English cities. The Scots were decisively beaten at the Battle of Neville's Cross with heavy loss and their king was captured. It was eleven years before terms were agreed for David's release. His ransom was the very large sum of 100,000 marks, to be paid over ten years, on 24 June (St. John the Baptist's Day) each year, during which an Anglo-Scottish truce prohibited any Scottish citizen from bearing arms against Edward III or any of his men. This truce lasted for four decades and marked the end of the Second War of Scottish Independence.
Battlefield today
The site of the battle has been entered in the Register of Historic Battlefields by Historic England due to its special historic interest. The uncultivated scrub and marsh of 1333 was enclosed around 1800, drained and now consists of agricultural fields. There is a rough stone monument to the battle near the highest point of the hill with an incised inscription, "Halidon Hill 19th July 1333".
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
Citations
Sources
Battles of the Wars of Scottish Independence
1333 in Scotland
1330s in England
Military history of Northumberland
Battle of Halidon Hill
Battles between England and Scotland
Registered historic battlefields in England
Conflicts in 1333
History of Berwick-upon-Tweed
Edward III of England | [
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240002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Gustav%20Lejeune%20Dirichlet | Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet | Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (; 13 February 1805 – 5 May 1859) was a German mathematician who made deep contributions to number theory (including creating the field of analytic number theory), and to the theory of Fourier series and other topics in mathematical analysis; he is credited with being one of the first mathematicians to give the modern formal definition of a function.
Although his surname is Lejeune Dirichlet, he is commonly referred to as just Dirichlet, in particular for results named after him.
Biography
Early life (1805–1822)
Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet was born on 13 February 1805 in Düren, a town on the left bank of the Rhine which at the time was part of the First French Empire, reverting to Prussia after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. His father Johann Arnold Lejeune Dirichlet was the postmaster, merchant, and city councilor. His paternal grandfather had come to Düren from Richelette (or more likely Richelle), a small community north east of Liège in Belgium, from which his surname "Lejeune Dirichlet" ("", French for "the youth from Richelette") was derived.
Although his family was not wealthy and he was the youngest of seven children, his parents supported his education. They enrolled him in an elementary school and then private school in hope that he would later become a merchant. The young Dirichlet, who showed a strong interest in mathematics before age 12, persuaded his parents to allow him to continue his studies. In 1817 they sent him to the under the care of Peter Joseph Elvenich, a student his family knew. In 1820 Dirichlet moved to the Jesuit Gymnasium in Cologne, where his lessons with Georg Ohm helped widen his knowledge in mathematics. He left the gymnasium a year later with only a certificate, as his inability to speak fluent Latin prevented him from earning the Abitur.
Studies in Paris (1822–1826)
Dirichlet again persuaded his parents to provide further financial support for his studies in mathematics, against their wish for a career in law. As Germany provided little opportunity to study higher mathematics at the time, with only Gauss at the University of Göttingen who was nominally a professor of astronomy and anyway disliked teaching, Dirichlet decided to go to Paris in May 1822. There he attended classes at the Collège de France and at the University of Paris, learning mathematics from Hachette among others, while undertaking private study of Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, a book he kept close for his entire life. In 1823 he was recommended to General Maximilien Foy, who hired him as a private tutor to teach his children German, the wage finally allowing Dirichlet to become independent from his parents' financial support.
His first original research, comprising part of a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for the case , brought him immediate fame, being the first advance in the theorem since Fermat's own proof of the case and Euler's proof for . Adrien-Marie Legendre, one of the referees, soon completed the proof for this case; Dirichlet completed his own proof a short time after Legendre, and a few years later produced a full proof for the case . In June 1825 he was accepted to lecture on his partial proof for the case at the French Academy of Sciences, an exceptional feat for a 20-year-old student with no degree. His lecture at the Academy had also put Dirichlet in close contact with Fourier and Poisson, who raised his interest in theoretical physics, especially Fourier's analytic theory of heat.
Back to Prussia, Breslau (1825–1828)
As General Foy died in November 1825 and he could not find any paying position in France, Dirichlet had to return to Prussia. Fourier and Poisson introduced him to Alexander von Humboldt, who had been called to join the court of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. Humboldt, planning to make Berlin a center of science and research, immediately offered his help to Dirichlet, sending letters in his favour to the Prussian government and to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. Humboldt also secured a recommendation letter from Gauss, who upon reading his memoir on Fermat's theorem wrote with an unusual amount of praise that "Dirichlet showed excellent talent". With the support of Humboldt and Gauss, Dirichlet was offered a teaching position at the University of Breslau. However, as he had not passed a doctoral dissertation, he submitted his memoir on the Fermat theorem as a thesis to the University of Bonn. Again his lack of fluency in Latin rendered him unable to hold the required public disputation of his thesis; after much discussion, the University decided to bypass the problem by awarding him an honorary doctorate in February 1827. Also, the Minister of Education granted him a dispensation for the Latin disputation required for the Habilitation. Dirichlet earned the Habilitation and lectured in the 1827–28 year as a Privatdozent at Breslau.
While in Breslau, Dirichlet continued his number theoretic research, publishing important contributions to the biquadratic reciprocity law which at the time was a focal point of Gauss's research. Alexander von Humboldt took advantage of these new results, which had also drawn enthusiastic praise from Friedrich Bessel, to arrange for him the desired transfer to Berlin. Given Dirichlet's young age (he was 23 years old at the time), Humboldt was able to get him only a trial position at the Prussian Military Academy in Berlin while remaining nominally employed by the University of Breslau. The probation was extended for three years until the position becoming definite in 1831.
Marriage to Rebecka Mendelssohn
After Dirichlet's move to Berlin, Humboldt introduced him to the great salons held by the banker Abraham Mendelssohn Bartholdy and his family. Their house was a weekly gathering point for Berlin artists and scientists, including Abraham's children Felix and Fanny Mendelssohn, both outstanding musicians, and the painter Wilhelm Hensel (Fanny's husband). Dirichlet showed great interest in Abraham's daughter Rebecka, whom he married in 1832.
Rebecka Henriette Lejeune Dirichlet (née Rebecka Mendelssohn; 11 April 1811 – 1 December 1858) was a granddaughter of Moses Mendelssohn and the youngest sister of Felix Mendelssohn and Fanny Mendelssohn. Rebecka was born in Hamburg. In 1816 her parents arranged for her to be baptised at which point she took the names Rebecka Henriette Mendelssohn Bartholdy. She became a part of the notable salon of her parents, Abraham Mendelssohn and his wife Lea, having social contacts with the important musicians, artists and scientists in a highly creative period of German intellectual life. In 1829 she sang a small role in the premiere, given at the Mendelssohn house, of Felix's Singspiel Die Heimkehr aus der Fremde. She later wrote:
My older brother and sister stole my reputation as an artist. In any other family I would have been highly regarded as a musician and perhaps been leader of a group. Next to Felix and Fanny, I could not aspire to any recognition.
In 1832 she married Dirichlet, who was introduced to the Mendelssohn family by Alexander von Humboldt. In 1833 their first son, Walter, was born. She died in Göttingen in 1858.
Berlin (1826–1855)
As soon as he came to Berlin, Dirichlet applied to lecture at the University of Berlin, and the Education Minister approved the transfer and in 1831 assigned him to the faculty of philosophy. The faculty required him to undertake a renewed habilitation qualification, and although Dirichlet wrote a Habilitationsschrift as needed, he postponed giving the mandatory lecture in Latin for another 20 years, until 1851. As he had not completed this formal requirement, he remained attached to the faculty with less than full rights, including restricted emoluments, forcing him to keep in parallel his teaching position at the Military School. In 1832 Dirichlet became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the youngest member at only 27 years old.
Dirichlet had a good reputation with students for the clarity of his explanations and enjoyed teaching, especially as his University lectures tended to be on the more advanced topics in which he was doing research: number theory (he was the first German professor to give lectures on number theory), analysis and mathematical physics. He advised the doctoral theses of several important German mathematicians, as Gotthold Eisenstein, Leopold Kronecker, Rudolf Lipschitz and Carl Wilhelm Borchardt, while being influential in the mathematical formation of many other scientists, including Elwin Bruno Christoffel, Wilhelm Weber, Eduard Heine, Ludwig von Seidel and Julius Weingarten. At the Military Academy, Dirichlet managed to introduce differential and integral calculus in the curriculum, raising the level of scientific education there. However, he gradually started feeling that his double teaching load, at the Military academy and at the University, was limiting the time available for his research.
While in Berlin, Dirichlet kept in contact with other mathematicians. In 1829, during a trip, he met Carl Jacobi, at the time professor of mathematics at Königsberg University. Over the years they kept meeting and corresponding on research matters, in time becoming close friends. In 1839, during a visit to Paris, Dirichlet met Joseph Liouville, the two mathematicians becoming friends, keeping in contact and even visiting each other with the families a few years later. In 1839, Jacobi sent Dirichlet a paper by Ernst Kummer, at the time a schoolteacher. Realizing Kummer's potential, they helped him get elected in the Berlin Academy and, in 1842, obtained for him a full professor position at the University of Breslau. In 1840 Kummer married Ottilie Mendelssohn, a cousin of Rebecka's.
In 1843, when Jacobi fell ill, Dirichlet traveled to Königsberg to help him, then obtained for him the assistance of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV's personal physician. When the physician recommended that Jacobi spend some time in Italy, Dirichlet joined him on the trip together with his family. They were accompanied to Italy by Ludwig Schläfli, who came as a translator; as he was strongly interested in mathematics, both Dirichlet and Jacobi lectured to him during the trip, and he later became an important mathematician himself. The Dirichlet family extended their stay in Italy to 1845, their daughter Flora being born there. In 1844, Jacobi moved to Berlin as a royal pensioner, their friendship becoming even closer. In 1846, when the Heidelberg University tried to recruit Dirichlet, Jacobi provided von Humboldt the needed support to obtain a doubling of Dirichlet's pay at the University in order to keep him in Berlin; however, even then he was not paid a full professor wage and could not leave the Military Academy.
Holding liberal views, Dirichlet and his family supported the 1848 revolution; he even guarded with a rifle the palace of the Prince of Prussia. After the revolution failed, the Military Academy closed temporarily, causing him a large loss of income. When it reopened, the environment became more hostile to him, as officers he was teaching were expected to be loyal to the constituted government. Some of the press who had not sided with the revolution pointed him out, as well as Jacobi and other liberal professors, as "the red contingent of the staff".
In 1849 Dirichlet participated, together with his friend Jacobi, in the jubilee of Gauss's doctorate.
Göttingen (1855–1859)
Despite Dirichlet's expertise and the honours he received, and even though, by 1851, he had finally completed all formal requirements for a full professor, the issue of raising his pay at the University still dragged on and he was still unable to leave the Military Academy. In 1855, upon Gauss's death, the University of Göttingen decided to call Dirichlet as his successor. Given the difficulties faced in Berlin, he decided to accept the offer and immediately moved to Göttingen with his family. Kummer was called to assume his position as a professor of mathematics in Berlin.
Dirichlet enjoyed his time in Göttingen, as the lighter teaching load allowed him more time for research and he came into close contact with the new generation of researchers, especially Richard Dedekind and Bernhard Riemann. After moving to Göttingen he was able to obtain a small annual stipend for Riemann to retain him in the teaching staff there. Dedekind, Riemann, Moritz Cantor and Alfred Enneper, although they had all already earned their PhDs, attended Dirichlet's classes to study with him. Dedekind, who felt that there were gaps in his mathematics education, considered that the occasion to study with Dirichlet made him "a new human being". He later edited and published Dirichlet's lectures and other results in number theory under the title (Lectures on Number Theory).
In the summer of 1858, during a trip to Montreux, Dirichlet suffered a heart attack. On 5 May 1859, he died in Göttingen, several months after the death of his wife Rebecka. Dirichlet's brain is preserved in the department of physiology at the University of Göttingen, along with the brain of Gauss. The Academy in Berlin honored him with a formal memorial speech presented by Kummer in 1860, and later ordered the publication of his collected works edited by Kronecker and Lazarus Fuchs.
Mathematics research
Number theory
Number theory was Dirichlet's main research interest, a field in which he found several deep results and in proving them introduced some fundamental tools, many of which were later named after him. In 1837, Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, using mathematical analysis concepts to tackle an algebraic problem and thus creating the branch of analytic number theory. In proving the theorem, he introduced the Dirichlet characters and L-functions. Also, in the article he noted the difference between the absolute and conditional convergence of series and its impact in what was later called the Riemann series theorem. In 1841, he generalized his arithmetic progressions theorem from integers to the ring of Gaussian integers .
In a couple of papers in 1838 and 1839, he proved the first class number formula, for quadratic forms (later refined by his student Kronecker). The formula, which Jacobi called a result "touching the utmost of human acumen", opened the way for similar results regarding more general number fields. Based on his research of the structure of the unit group of quadratic fields, he proved the Dirichlet unit theorem, a fundamental result in algebraic number theory.
He first used the pigeonhole principle, a basic counting argument, in the proof of a theorem in diophantine approximation, later named after him Dirichlet's approximation theorem. He published important contributions to Fermat's Last Theorem, for which he proved the cases and , and to the biquadratic reciprocity law. The Dirichlet divisor problem, for which he found the first results, is still an unsolved problem in number theory despite later contributions by other mathematicians.
Analysis
Inspired by the work of his mentor in Paris, Dirichlet published in 1829 a famous memoir giving the conditions, showing for which functions the convergence of the Fourier series holds. Before Dirichlet's solution, not only Fourier, but also Poisson and Cauchy had tried unsuccessfully to find a rigorous proof of convergence. The memoir pointed out Cauchy's mistake and introduced Dirichlet's test for the convergence of series. It also introduced the Dirichlet function as an example of a function that is not integrable (the definite integral was still a developing topic at the time) and, in the proof of the theorem for the Fourier series, introduced the Dirichlet kernel and the Dirichlet integral.
Dirichlet also studied the first boundary value problem, for the Laplace equation, proving the uniqueness of the solution; this type of problem in the theory of partial differential equations was later named the Dirichlet problem after him. A function satisfying a partial differential equation subject to the Dirichlet boundary conditions must have fixed values on the boundary. In the proof he notably used the principle that the solution is the function that minimizes the so-called Dirichlet energy. Riemann later named this approach the Dirichlet principle, although he knew it had also been used by Gauss and by Lord Kelvin.
Introduction of the modern concept of function
While trying to gauge the range of functions for which convergence of the Fourier series can be shown, Dirichlet defines a function by the property that "to any x there corresponds a single finite y", but then restricts his attention to piecewise continuous functions. Based on this, he is credited with introducing the modern concept for a function, as opposed to the older vague understanding of a function as an analytic formula. Imre Lakatos cites Hermann Hankel as the early origin of this attribution, but disputes the claim saying that "there is ample evidence that he had no idea of this concept [...] for instance, when he discusses piecewise continuous functions, he says that at points of discontinuity the function has two values".
Other fields
Dirichlet also worked in mathematical physics, lecturing and publishing research in potential theory (including the Dirichlet problem and Dirichlet principle mentioned above), the theory of heat and hydrodynamics. He improved on Lagrange's work on conservative systems by showing that the condition for equilibrium is that the potential energy is minimal.
Dirichlet also lectured on probability theory and least squares, introducing some original methods and results, in particular for limit theorems and an improvement of Laplace's method of approximation related to the central limit theorem. The Dirichlet distribution and the Dirichlet process, based on the Dirichlet integral, are named after him.
Honours
Dirichlet was elected as a member of several academies:
Prussian Academy of Sciences (1832)
Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1833) – corresponding member
Göttingen Academy of Sciences (1846)
French Academy of Sciences (1854) – foreign member
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1854)
Royal Belgian Academy of Sciences (1855)
Royal Society (1855) – foreign member
In 1855 Dirichlet was awarded the civil class medal of the Pour le Mérite order at von Humboldt's recommendation. The Dirichlet crater on the Moon and the 11665 Dirichlet asteroid are named after him.
Selected publications
References
External links
.
Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet – Œuvres complètes – Gallica-Math
19th-century German mathematicians
19th-century German people
Number theorists
University of Breslau faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
University of Göttingen faculty
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Bonn alumni
Mendelssohn family
German people of Belgian descent
People from the Rhine Province
1805 births
1859 deaths | [
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240003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo%20rat | Kangaroo rat | Kangaroo rats, small mostly nocturnal rodents of genus Dipodomys, are native to arid areas of western North America. The common name derives from their bipedal form. They hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo, but developed this mode of locomotion independently, like several other clades of rodents (e.g. dipodids and hopping mice).
Description
Kangaroo rats are four-toed heteromyid rodents with big hind legs, small front legs and relatively large heads. Adults typically weigh between The tails of kangaroo rats are longer than both their bodies and their heads. Another notable feature of kangaroo rats is their fur-lined cheek pouches, which are used for storing food. The coloration of kangaroo rats varies from cinnamon buff to dark gray, depending on the species. There is also some variation in length with one of the largest species, the banner-tailed kangaroo rat being six inches in body length and a tail length of eight inches. Sexual dimorphism exists in all species, with males being larger than females.
Locomotion
Kangaroo rats move bipedally. Kangaroo rats often leap a distance of 7 feet, and reportedly up to 9 feet (2.75 m)
at speeds up to almost 10 feet/sec, or 10 km/h (6 mph). They can quickly change direction between jumps. The rapid locomotion of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk. Its use of a "move-freeze" mode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators.
Ecology
Range and habitat
Kangaroo rats live in arid and semiarid areas, particularly on sandy or soft soils which are suitable for burrowing. They can, however, vary in both geographic range and habitat. Their elevation range depends on the species; they are found from below sea level to at least 7,100 feet (the type locality of D. ordii priscus). They are sensitive to extreme temperatures and remain in their burrows during rain storms and other forms of inclement weather. Kangaroo rats are preyed on by coyotes, foxes, badgers, weasels, owls, and snakes.
For example, Merriam's kangaroo rats live in areas of low rainfall and humidity, and high summer temperature and evaporation rates. They prefer areas of stony soils, including clays, gravel and rocks, which are harder than soils preferred by some other species (like banner-tailed kangaroo rats). Because their habitats are hot and dry, they must conserve water. They do this in part by lowering their metabolic rate, which reduces loss of water through their skin and respiratory system. Evaporation through the skin is the major route of loss. Merriam's kangaroo rats obtain enough water from the metabolic oxidation of the seeds they eat to survive and do not need to drink water at all. To help conserve water they produce very concentrated urine, via a process apparently associated with expression of aquaporin 1 along a longer than usual segment of the descending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney.
In contrast, banner-tailed kangaroo rats have more specific habitat requirements for desert grasslands with scattered shrubs; this species is also more threatened because of the decline in these grasslands. These are also dry areas but they tend to have more water available to them than Merriam's kangaroo rats.
Food and foraging
Kangaroo rats are primarily seed eaters. They will, however, eat vegetation occasionally, and at some times of the year, possibly insects as well. They have been seen storing the seeds of mesquite, creosote bush, purslane, ocotillo and grama grass in their cheek pouches. Kangaroo rats will store extra seeds in seed caches. This caching behavior affects the range-land and croplands where the animals live. Kangaroo rats must harvest as much seed as possible in as little time as possible. To conserve energy and water, they minimize their time away from their cool, dry burrows. In addition, maximizing time in their burrows minimizes their exposure to predators.
When on foraging trips, kangaroo rats hoard the seeds that they find. It is important for a kangaroo rat to encounter more food items than are consumed, at least at one point in the year, as well as defend or rediscover food caches and remain within the same areas long enough to utilize food resources. Different species of kangaroo rat may have different seed caching strategies to coexist with each other, as is the case for the banner-tailed kangaroo rat and Merriam's kangaroo rat which have overlapping ranges. Merriam's kangaroo rats scatterhoard small caches of seeds in numerous small, shallow holes they dig. This is initially done close to the food source, maximizing harvest rates and reducing travel costs, but later redistributed more widely, minimizing theft by other rodents. Banner-tailed kangaroo rats larderhoard a sizable cache of seeds within the large mounds they occupy. This could decrease their time and energy expenses; they also spend less time on the surface digging holes, reducing risk of predation. Being larger and more sedentary, they are better able to defend these larders from depredations by other rodents.
Lifestyle
Kangaroo rats inhabit overlapping home ranges. These home ranges tend to be small with most activities within 200–300 ft and rarely 600 ft. Home range size can vary within species with Merriam's kangaroo rats having larger home ranges than banner-tailed kangaroo rats. Recently weaned kangaroo rats move into new areas not occupied by adults. Within its home range, a kangaroo rat has a defended territory consisting of its burrowing system.
Burrow system
Kangaroo rats live in complex burrow systems. The burrows have separate chambers used for specific purposes like sleeping, living and food storage. The spacing of the burrows depends on the number of kangaroo rats and the abundance of food. Kangaroo rats also live in colonies that range from six to several hundred dens. The burrow of a kangaroo rat is important in providing protection from the harsh desert environment. To maintain a constant temperature and relative humidity in their burrows, kangaroo rats plug the entrances with soil during the day. When the outside temperature is too hot, a kangaroo rat stays in its cool, humid burrow and leaves it only at night. To reduce loss of moisture through respiration when sleeping, a kangaroo rat buries its nose in its fur to accumulate a small pocket of moist air. The burrows of Merriam's kangaroo rats are simpler and shallower than those of banner-tailed kangaroo rats. Banner-tailed kangaroo rats also mate in their burrows, unlike Merriam's kangaroo rats.
Social interactions
Kangaroo rats are generally solitary animals with little social organization. Kangaroo rats communicate during competitive interactions and courtship. They do cluster together in some feeding situations. Groups of kangaroo rats that exist are aggregations and colonies. There appears to be a dominance hierarchy among male kangaroo rats in competition for access to females. Male kangaroo rats are generally more aggressive than females and are more dominant over them. Females are more tolerant of each other than males are and have more non-aggressive interactions. This is likely in part because the home ranges of females overlap less than the home ranges of males. Linear dominance hierarchies appear to exist among males but it is not known if this is the case for females. Winners of aggressive encounters appear to be the most active individuals.
Mating and reproduction
Kangaroo rats have a promiscuous mating system. Their reproductive output is highest in summer following high rainfalls. During droughts and food shortages, only a few females will breed. It appears that kangaroo rats can assess their local conditions and adjust their reproductive efforts accordingly. Merriam's kangaroo rats breed between February and May and produce two or three litters per year. Before mating, the male and female will perform nasal-anal circling until the female stops and allows the male to mount her. A Merriam's kangaroo rat female will allow multiple males to mount her in a short time, perhaps to ensure greater chances of producing offspring. Mating in banner-tailed kangaroo rats involves more chasing and foot drumming in the male before the female allows him to mate. Banner-tailed kangaroo rats mate on mounds and the more successful males chase away rival males. The gestation period of kangaroo rats lasts 22–27 days.
The young are born in a fur-lined nest in the burrows. They are born blind and hairless. For the first week, young Merriam kangaroo rats crawl, developing their hind legs in their second or third week. At this time, the young become independent. Banner-tailed kangaroo rats are weaned between 22 and 25 days. Offspring remain in the mound for 1-6 more months in the maternal caches.
Taxonomy
Family Heteromyidae
Subfamily Dipodomyinae
Dipodomys agilis (Agile kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys californicus (California kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys compactus (Gulf Coast kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys deserti (Desert kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys elator (Texas kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys elephantinus (Big-eared kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys gravipes (San Quintin kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys heermanni (Heermann's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys ingens (Giant kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys merriami (Merriam's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys microps (Chisel-toothed kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys nelsoni (Nelson's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys nitratoides (Fresno kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys ordii (Ord's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys panamintinus (Panamint kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys phillipsii (Phillips's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys simulans (Dulzura kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys spectabilis (Banner-tailed kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys stephensi (Stephens's kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys venustus (Narrow-faced kangaroo rat)
See also
Hopping mouse - a similar murid rodent native to Australia; an example of parallel evolution
Jerboa - a similar dipodid rodent native to northern Africa and Asia
Jumping mouse - a non-desert-dwelling dipodid rodent native to China and North America
Kangaroo mouse - a closely related heteromyid rodent of North America
Kultarr - an unrelated marsupial with a similar body plan and coloration; an example of convergence
Springhare - a similar pedetid rodent native to southern and eastern Africa
References
External links
--United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 1091, from September 1922
ARKive.org
Heteromyidae
Extant Piacenzian first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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240009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal%20Maroons | Montreal Maroons | The Montreal Maroons (officially the Montreal Professional Hockey Club) were a professional ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL). They played in the NHL from 1924 to 1938, winning the Stanley Cup in 1926 and 1935. They were the last non-Original Six team to win the Stanley Cup until the expansion Philadelphia Flyers won in 1974.
Founded as a team for the English community in Montreal, they shared their home city with the Canadiens, who eventually came under the same ownership as the Maroons but were intended to appeal to the French Canadian population. This was the first time since 1918, when the Montreal Wanderers folded, that Montreal would have a second hockey team. In order to accommodate the Maroons, a new arena was built for them in 1924, the Montreal Forum. The Maroons were a highly competitive team, winning the Stanley Cup twice and finishing first in their division twice more. Some of the best players of the era played for the Maroons; eleven players would be elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame, while five of the six head coaches of the Maroons were also honoured.
Financial difficulties resulting from the Great Depression led to the Maroons suspending play after 1938. Despite efforts to revive the team, the franchise was cancelled in 1947, leaving the Canadiens as the sole team in Montreal. Since the Maroons' demise, no NHL team that has won a Stanley Cup at any point in its history has subsequently folded or relocated.
History
Formation
The Montreal Maroons hockey team was created to appeal to the anglophone neighbourhoods of Montreal. On January 2, 1918, the Montreal Arena, shared by the Montreal Canadiens and the Montreal Wanderers, burned down. The Canadiens, who drew primarily Montreal's francophones, moved to the Jubilee Arena which, in 1919, also burned down, before settling in the Mount Royal Arena, which had natural ice and seating for 3,250. The Wanderers, team of Montreal's anglophone community, folded. By 1922, work began to build a team to appeal to the anglophones and return to the NHL. In July 1924, construction began on a new arena, on the site of a former roller-skating rink known as the Forum. By fall, at a cost of $1.5 million, the Montreal Forum was complete. The Montreal Forum was the first large arena in the NHL. The Maroons joined the NHL in 1924, along with the Boston Bruins. The Canadiens initially objected to a second team in Montreal, but relented when compensated by the expansion fee. The expansion fee for each team was $15,000. $11,000 of the Maroons' fee went to their local rivals, the Canadiens. While the Canadiens owner initially lodged a formal objection to ensure he would get adequate compensation for sharing his franchise's territory, he was actually quite enthusiastic about having a second franchise in the same city; rather, he would later state, he "saw in them an important and lucrative local rivalry."
At the time of their founding, the Maroons had no nickname. The Maroons' president James Strachan had been the owner of the Wanderers in the 1900s. He attempted to secure the Wanderers name, but negotiations failed, so the club was known by its official name, the Montreal Professional Hockey Club. The Maroons nickname was eventually picked up by the media, after the colour of their jerseys. The club never officially changed the organizational name to incorporate the Maroons name. The Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association had changed their name to the Vancouver Maroons, but that club had folded before Montreal began.
Success at the gate and on the ice
In the Maroons' first season of operation they finished second to last in the league. However, the new Forum was selling out and, with the addition of players Nels Stewart, Babe Siebert and Bill Phillips, success came quickly. In a single year, the Maroons went from having their worst record in franchise history to their best. In only their second season of operation, Montreal won their first Stanley Cup. The NHL playoffs that year were a two-game total-goals format. Montreal won the opening series over the Pittsburgh Pirates 6–4, then upset the favored Ottawa Senators 2–1. In the NHL playoff final, Montreal defeated Ottawa to advance to the Stanley Cup final, against the Victoria Cougars of the Western Hockey League. In the last Stanley Cup final involving two different leagues, Montreal defeated Victoria three games to one. Contributing to the victory was rookie, and future Hall of Fame member, Nels Stewart, who scored six of the Maroons' ten goals in the series. Stewart won the Hart Trophy for most valuable player. While not a smooth skater, Stewart compensated with size (at six foot one and 195 pounds, he was a giant compared to other players of that era), toughness (amassing 119 penalty minutes), and shooting (scoring 34 of Montreal's 91 goals during the season). Stewart's 34 goals remained an NHL record for rookies until the 1970–71 season. During this era, a team's best players often played the entire game with substitutions only made for injuries.
For the 1926–27 season, the NHL expanded to ten teams and was divided into American and Canadian divisions. The Maroons finished third in the Canadian division, behind their rivals the Canadiens, with whom they now shared the Forum. The two teams met in the playoffs for a two-game total-goals series. The Forum was packed with 11,000 fans, in a building whose capacity was listed at 10,000, to watch the Canadiens defeat the defending Stanley Cup champions. The Maroons also participated in another moment of hockey history when, on November 26, 1926, they were the competition in the New York Rangers' NHL debut game.
The Maroons got revenge on the Canadiens in the 1927–28 season, by eliminating them in the semi-finals of the playoffs. The Maroons then met the New York Rangers for the Stanley Cup, but lost the series three games to two. Because the circus occupied Madison Square Garden, all five games were played at the Forum.
The 1928–29 season was an oddly bad season for the Maroons, as they finished last in the Canadian division. However, they rebounded in the 1929–30 season, by finishing first. During these years, the Maroons were led by one of the most feared forward lines in the early NHL years, the "S Line", consisting of Hooley Smith, Babe Siebert and Nels Stewart, which was also one of the most penalized.
In the 1929–30 season, Dunc Munro was signed as player-coach of the team. It was during this season, that Clint Benedict of the Maroons became the first goaltender in NHL history to wear a mask, when he donned one to protect a broken nose. Although the Maroons finished first in the Canadian Division, they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Boston Bruins.
For the 1930–31 season, Stewart again led his team in goals and points, but the Maroons only finished third in the Canadian division, and were eliminated easily in the first round of the playoffs by the New York Rangers.
The Maroons made it into the playoffs of the 1931–32 season, by finishing five points ahead of the New York Americans. Montreal defeated Detroit in the opening round, but lost the semi-final match against the Toronto Maple Leafs.
The Maroons finished the 1932–33 season in second place in the Canadian division and even had three of the top six players in league points. However, Montreal was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Detroit.
In the playoffs of the 1933–34 season, the Chicago Black Hawks eliminated both Montreal teams, first defeating the Canadiens, then upsetting the Maroons in the semi-finals.
In 1935, Leo Dandurand, owner of the Montreal Canadiens, sold that team to Canadian Arena Company, (Ernest Savard, Louis Gelinas and Maurice Forget), which also owned the Montreal Maroons, for $165,000.
Great Depression
In Montreal, financial strains from the Great Depression hurt the attendances of both the Canadiens and Maroons. However, there were far more francophone supporters for the Canadiens than anglophone supporters for the Maroons. As a result, the Maroons finished with the worst attendance in the league, three seasons in a row. Also, by 1935, both teams were owned by Canadian Arena Company. (Ernest Savard and Maurice Forget, who owned the Canadiens, were part of the Canadian Arena Company, as were Maroons owners James Strachan and Donat Raymond). It became obvious that only one team could represent Montreal. The Maroons' dire financial straits caused them to sell off several players, including star winger Hooley Smith. Despite the Maroons' financial troubles, they continued to play competitive hockey well into the 1930s.
For the 1934–35 season, the Maroons hired Tommy Gorman as coach, who had coached the Chicago Black Hawks to the Championship the previous year. The Maroons finished the season in second place behind Ottawa. In the playoffs, the Montreal Maroons defeated Chicago with defensive hockey, defeated the New York Rangers at wide-open (offensive) hockey, and then defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs, who Gorman considered one of the best hockey teams of all time, in three straight games. The Maroons won their second Stanley Cup; Gorman remains the only coach in history to win back-to-back Cups with two different teams. The Maroons team were the last team to win the Cup without a loss in the playoffs for 17 years. Gorman called this Maroon team "the greatest team that ever stepped on the ice."
The playoffs of the 1935–36 season are famous for the longest NHL playoff game of all time. On March 24–25, the Maroons lost 1–0 to the Detroit Red Wings in 176:30 of play (16:30 of the sixth overtime period). The game was especially significant for Detroit goaltender Normie Smith, who began his career with the Maroons. He shut out the Maroons again in the second game, and allowed Detroit to complete a three-game sweep by allowing only one goal. Detroit proceeded to win the first Stanley Cup in their history.
In December 1936, Maroons captain Hooley Smith was traded to the Boston Bruins, a move which would mark the beginning of the end for the franchise. The 1936–37 season saw Nels Stewart break Howie Morenz's record for career goals with 271. Stewart would hold the all-time career record for goals until it was broken by Maurice Richard in 1952.
By the start of the 1937–38 season, rumours were rampant that the Maroon franchise would be moved to another city. In September 1937, Maroons president Donat Raymond said the team would be staying in Montreal. The team's bleak financial situation finally caught up with them as they finished 12–30–6, the club's worst season since winning only nine games in 1924–25. Lionel Conacher retired prior to the season to enter politics, winning a seat in the 1937 Ontario general election as a member of the Liberal Party. Tommy Gorman had tried to convince Conacher to stay with the Maroons and take over as coach; his retirement led Gorman to hire King Clancy. Clancy did not help improve the team's record, and on December 29 he was fired after 18 games and Gorman was re-instated as coach. Their last game for the Maroons franchise, was a 6-3 loss on March 17 against the Canadiens. They finished the season with a record of 12 wins, 30 losses and 6 ties for 30 points in 48 games, placing the team last in the Canadian Division and last overall in the league.
At the annual league meeting on June 22, the Maroons formally asked the league to suspend the franchise for a year; this was refused, and the league asked the Maroons to confirm by August 1 if they were to participate in the upcoming season or not.
The league allowed the Maroons to suspend operations for the 1938–39 season. Although it was not formally considered to be a merger unlike the much later fusion of the Minnesota North Stars and Cleveland Barons organizations, from a hockey operations perspective the transaction had the outward appearance of being a merger of the two Montreal teams since there was no dispersal draft and the Montreal owners were allowed to keep the NHL rights to the Maroons roster. However, the owners had long regarded the Maroons as Montreal's second team and had already transferred many of its best players, such as future Hall of Famer Toe Blake, to the Canadiens. As a result, only a small number of Maroons took to the ice for the 1938-39 season in a Canadiens uniform. Most of the Maroons players were either sold to the remaining NHL teams for cash or washed out of the league altogether.
The Maroons' owners tried to sell their dormant franchise to interests in St. Louis, Missouri, but doubts regarding the previous failure of the St. Louis Eagles led to the league refusing permission. At the 1945 annual league meeting, held on September 7, it was noted that the backers of the Maroons franchise were in discussion to sell to a group from Philadelphia fronted by Canadiens board member Len Peto. The league governors were prepared to approve the transfer, provided the Philadelphia group could prove they had the necessary funds for a hockey team. They also made sure to clarify that the Maroons franchise rights would expire in April 1947 unless something was done with them.
Peto was able to get the necessary funding, and persuaded the league to transfer the Maroons to Philadelphia. However, despite being larger than all but two NHL cities, Philadelphia did not have an arena that could accommodate an NHL team. The city's largest arena, the Palestra at the University of Pennsylvania, did not have an ice plant, and both Penn and Madison Square Garden (which managed the Palestra) balked at the expense of installing one. The only arena in the city with an ice plant, Philadelphia Arena, was ruled out because its sight lines and capacity (5,500) were deemed inadequate even for temporary use. The league gave Peto until the end of the 1946–47 season to find a suitable arena. In February, 1946 Peto announced plans to build a 20,000-seat arena on the site of the old Baker Bowl at a cost of $2.5 million. However, when his group was unable to get funding for the project by the league-imposed deadline, the NHL cancelled the Maroons franchise.
The last active Maroons player was Herb Cain, who remained in the NHL until 1946.
Season-by-season record
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes
Team captains
Punch Broadbent 1924–25
Dunc Munro 1925–28
Nels Stewart 1928–32
Hooley Smith 1932–36
Lionel Conacher 1936–37
Stewart Evans 1937–38
Hockey Hall of Fame
Players
Builders
Awards
Arenas
Montreal Forum — built specifically for the Maroons; the Forum would become the most famous arena in hockey largely because of the Canadiens, who shared the arena with the Maroons from 1926 to 1938.
See also
List of Montreal Maroons players
List of Montreal Maroons head coaches
List of Stanley Cup champions
Montreal Wanderers
Montreal Canadiens
List of defunct NHL teams
List of NHL seasons
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
Defunct National Hockey League teams
Mar
National Hockey League in Quebec
National Hockey League teams based in Canada
Quebec Anglophone culture in Montreal
Ice hockey clubs established in 1924
Sports clubs disestablished in 1947
1924 establishments in Quebec
1947 disestablishments in Quebec | [
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] |
240010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonicera%20morrowii | Lonicera morrowii | Lonicera morrowii, the Morrow's honeysuckle, is a deciduous honeysuckle in the family Caprifoliaceae, native to Japan, Korea, and Northeast China. It is a shrub, reaching a height of 2–2.5 m, with oblong leaves 4–6 cm long. It leafs out quite early in the spring, and in North America is commonly the first deciduous shrub with foliage in March. The flowers are white to pale yellow, and the fruit is a dark red berry 7–8 mm diameter containing numerous seeds. The berries, while eaten frequently by birds, are considered poisonous to humans. It is colloquially called "bush honeysuckle" in the United States, and is considered an invasive species.
In cultivation, Lonicera morrowii has hybridized with other shrubby species of Lonicera. Crossed with L. tatarica, it forms the invasive hybrid L. × bella. It can also hybridize with L. ruprechtiana.
As an invasive species
Morrow's honeysuckle is confirmed as a highly invasive species over the northeastern third of the United States. Morrow's honeysuckle thrives at the edges of forests, roads, or other natural or man-made barriers, but is not limited to them, and is found in both mature and disturbed forests. In some areas, Morrow's honeysuckle is the dominant plant species, especially in areas of disturbed ecological succession. It is suspected that Lonicera morrowii is allelopathic, and may capitalize on disturbed ecological succession by establishing itself and then preventing the growth of plants underneath it. With a sufficiently established thicket of honeysuckle, even other shade-tolerant, invasive species, such as fortune's spindle have difficulty growing underneath it, whether due to its suspected allelopathic activity or through soil depletion.
Effects on flora and fauna
Due to its early leafing, Morrow's honeysuckle is particularly harmful to spring ephemerals, flowers that evolved to bloom briefly in the spring before other plants leafed out.
Many cedar waxwings' wax spots in the eastern United States have taken on an unusual orange hue in the last 35 years, a phenomenon that has been attributed to Lonicera morrowii. The chemical involved in this color change is rhodoxanthin, a red dye found in the berries of Morrow's honeysuckle.
References
External links
Morrow's honeysuckle
Connecticut Wildflowers
EFG Biodiversity Image Gallery
Flora of Japan
morrowii
Flora of Northeast Asia
Garden plants of Asia | [
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240011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence%20%28physics%29 | Coherence (physics) | In physics, two wave sources are coherent if their frequency and waveform are identical. Coherence is an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant) interference. It contains several distinct concepts, which are limiting cases that never quite occur in reality but allow an understanding of the physics of waves, and has become a very important concept in quantum physics. More generally, coherence describes all properties of the correlation between physical quantities of a single wave, or between several waves or wave packets.
Interference is the addition, in the mathematical sense, of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see Young's slits experiment). Constructive or destructive interference are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable. When interfering, two waves can add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (constructive interference) or subtract from each other to create a wave of lesser amplitude than either one (destructive interference), depending on their relative phase. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase. The amount of coherence can readily be measured by the interference visibility, which looks at the size of the interference fringes relative to the input waves (as the phase offset is varied); a precise mathematical definition of the degree of coherence is given by means of correlation functions.
Spatial coherence describes the correlation (or predictable relationship) between waves at different points in space, either lateral or longitudinal. Temporal coherence describes the correlation between waves observed at different moments in time. Both are observed in the Michelson–Morley experiment and Young's interference experiment. Once the fringes are obtained in the Michelson interferometer, when one of the mirrors is moved away gradually from the beam-splitter, the time for the beam to travel increases and the fringes become dull and finally disappear, showing temporal coherence. Similarly, in a double-slit experiment, if the space between the two slits is increased, the coherence dies gradually and finally the fringes disappear, showing spatial coherence. In both cases, the fringe amplitude slowly disappears, as the path difference increases past the coherence length.
Introduction
Coherence was originally conceived in connection with Thomas Young's double-slit experiment in optics but is now used in any field that involves waves, such as acoustics, electrical engineering, neuroscience, and quantum mechanics. Coherence describes the statistical similarity of a field (electromagnetic field, quantum wave packet etc.) at two points in space or time. The property of coherence is the basis for commercial applications such as holography, the Sagnac gyroscope, radio antenna arrays, optical coherence tomography and telescope interferometers (astronomical optical interferometers and radio telescopes).
Mathematical definition
The coherence function between two signals and is defined as
where is the cross-spectral density of the signal and and are the power spectral density functions of and , respectively. The cross-spectral density and the power spectral density are defined as the Fourier transforms of the cross-correlation and the autocorrelation signals, respectively. For instance, if the signals are functions of time, the cross-correlation is a measure of the similarity of the two signals as a function of the time lag relative to each other and the autocorrelation is a measure of the similarity of each signal with itself in different instants of time. In this case the coherence is a function of frequency. Analogously, if and are functions of space, the cross-correlation measures the similarity of two signals in different points in space and the autocorrelations the similarity of the signal relative to itself for a certain separation distance. In that case, coherence is a function of wavenumber (spatial frequency).
The coherence varies in the interval . If it means that the signals are perfectly correlated or linearly related and if they are totally uncorrelated. If a linear system is being measured, being the input and the output, the coherence function will be unitary all over the spectrum. However, if non-linearities are present in the system the coherence will vary in the limit given above.
A more precise definition is given in the article on degree of coherence.
Coherence and correlation
The coherence of two waves expresses how well correlated the waves are as quantified by the cross-correlation function. Cross-correlation quantifies the ability to predict the phase of the second wave by knowing the phase of the first. As an example, consider two waves perfectly correlated for all times (by using a monochromatic lightsource). At any time, the phase difference will be constant. If, when combined, they exhibit perfect constructive interference, perfect destructive interference, or something in-between but with constant phase difference, then it follows that they are perfectly coherent. As will be discussed below, the second wave need not be a separate entity. It could be the first wave at a different time or position. In this case, the measure of correlation is the autocorrelation function (sometimes called self-coherence). Degree of correlation involves correlation functions.
Examples of wave-like states
These states are unified by the fact that their behavior is described by a wave equation or some generalization thereof.
Waves in a rope (up and down) or slinky (compression and expansion)
Surface waves in a liquid
Electromagnetic signals (fields) in transmission lines
Sound
Radio waves and Microwaves
Light waves (optics)
Electrons, atoms and any other object (such as a baseball), as described by quantum physics
In most of these systems, one can measure the wave directly. Consequently, its correlation with another wave can simply be calculated. However, in optics one cannot measure the electric field directly as it oscillates much faster than any detector's time resolution. Instead, one measures the intensity of the light. Most of the concepts involving coherence which will be introduced below were developed in the field of optics and then used in other fields. Therefore, many of the standard measurements of coherence are indirect measurements, even in fields where the wave can be measured directly.
Temporal coherence
Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave and itself delayed by τ, at any pair of times. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well a wave can interfere with itself at a different time. The delay over which the phase or amplitude wanders by a significant amount (and hence the correlation decreases by significant amount) is defined as the coherence time τc. At a delay of τ=0 the degree of coherence is perfect, whereas it drops significantly as the delay passes τ=τc. The coherence length Lc is defined as the distance the wave travels in time τc.
One should be careful not to confuse the coherence time with the time duration of the signal, nor the coherence length with the coherence area (see below).
The relationship between coherence time and bandwidth
It can be shown that the larger the range of frequencies Δf a wave contains, the faster the wave decorrelates (and hence the smaller τc is). Thus there is a tradeoff:
.
Formally, this follows from the convolution theorem in mathematics, which relates the Fourier transform of the power spectrum (the intensity of each frequency) to its autocorrelation.
Examples of temporal coherence
We consider four examples of temporal coherence:
A wave containing only a single frequency (monochromatic) is perfectly correlated with itself at all time delays, in accordance with the above relation. (See Figure 1)
Conversely, a wave whose phase drifts quickly will have a short coherence time. (See Figure 2)
Similarly, pulses (wave packets) of waves, which naturally have a broad range of frequencies, also have a short coherence time since the amplitude of the wave changes quickly. (See Figure 3)
Finally, white light, which has a very broad range of frequencies, is a wave which varies quickly in both amplitude and phase. Since it consequently has a very short coherence time (just 10 periods or so), it is often called incoherent.
The high degree of monochromaticity of lasers implies long coherence lengths (up to hundreds of meters). For example, a stabilized and monomode helium–neon laser can easily produce light with coherence lengths of 300 m. Not all lasers have a high degree of monochromaticity, however (e.g. for a mode-locked Ti-sapphire laser, Δλ ≈ 2 nm - 70 nm). LEDs are characterized by Δλ ≈ 50 nm, and tungsten filament lights exhibit Δλ ≈ 600 nm, so these sources have shorter coherence times than the most monochromatic lasers.
Holography requires light with a long coherence time. In contrast, optical coherence tomography, in its classical version, uses light with a short coherence time.
Measurement of temporal coherence
In optics, temporal coherence is measured in an interferometer such as the Michelson interferometer or Mach–Zehnder interferometer. In these devices, a wave is combined with a copy of itself that is delayed by time τ. A detector measures the time-averaged intensity of the light exiting the interferometer. The resulting visibility of the interference pattern (e.g. see Figure 4) gives the temporal coherence at delay τ. Since for most natural light sources, the coherence time is much shorter than the time resolution of any detector, the detector itself does the time averaging. Consider the example shown in Figure 3. At a fixed delay, here 2τc, an infinitely fast detector would measure an intensity that fluctuates significantly over a time t equal to τc. In this case, to find the temporal coherence at 2τc, one would manually time-average the intensity.
Spatial coherence
In some systems, such as water waves or optics, wave-like states can extend over one or two dimensions. Spatial coherence describes the ability for two points in space, x1 and x2, in the extent of a wave to interfere, when averaged over time. More precisely, the spatial coherence is the cross-correlation between two points in a wave for all times. If a wave has only 1 value of amplitude over an infinite length, it is perfectly spatially coherent. The range of separation between the two points over which there is significant interference defines the diameter of the coherence area, Ac (Coherence length, often a feature of a source, is usually an industrial term related to the coherence time of the source, not the coherence area in the medium.) Ac is the relevant type of coherence for the Young's double-slit interferometer. It is also used in optical imaging systems and particularly in various types of astronomy telescopes. Sometimes people also use "spatial coherence" to refer to the visibility when a wave-like state is combined with a spatially shifted copy of itself.
Examples
Consider a tungsten light-bulb filament. Different points in the filament emit light independently and have no fixed phase-relationship. In detail, at any point in time the profile of the emitted light is going to be distorted. The profile will change randomly over the coherence time . Since for a white-light source such as a light-bulb is small, the filament is considered a spatially incoherent source. In contrast, a radio antenna array, has large spatial coherence because antennas at opposite ends of the array emit with a fixed phase-relationship. Light waves produced by a laser often have high temporal and spatial coherence (though the degree of coherence depends strongly on the exact properties of the laser). Spatial coherence of laser beams also manifests itself as speckle patterns and diffraction fringes seen at the edges of shadow.
Holography requires temporally and spatially coherent light. Its inventor, Dennis Gabor, produced successful holograms more than ten years before lasers were invented. To produce coherent light he passed the monochromatic light from an emission line of a mercury-vapor lamp through a pinhole spatial filter.
In February 2011 it was reported that helium atoms, cooled to near absolute zero / Bose–Einstein condensate state, can be made to flow and behave as a coherent beam as occurs in a laser.
Spectral coherence of short pulses
Waves of different frequencies (in light these are different colours) can interfere to form a pulse if they have a fixed relative phase-relationship (see Fourier transform). Conversely, if waves of different frequencies are not coherent, then, when combined, they create a wave that is continuous in time (e.g. white light or white noise). The temporal duration of the pulse is limited by the spectral bandwidth of the light according to:
,
which follows from the properties of the Fourier transform and results in Küpfmüller's uncertainty principle (for quantum particles it also results in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle).
If the phase depends linearly on the frequency (i.e. ) then the pulse will have the minimum time duration for its bandwidth (a transform-limited pulse), otherwise it is chirped (see dispersion).
Measurement of spectral coherence
Measurement of the spectral coherence of light requires a nonlinear optical interferometer, such as an intensity optical correlator, frequency-resolved optical gating (FROG), or spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction (SPIDER).
Polarization and coherence
Light also has a polarization, which is the direction in which the electric or magnetic field oscillates. Unpolarized light is composed of incoherent light waves with random polarization angles. The electric field of the unpolarized light wanders in every direction and changes in phase over the coherence time of the two light waves. An absorbing polarizer rotated to any angle will always transmit half the incident intensity when averaged over time.
If the electric field wanders by a smaller amount the light will be partially polarized so that at some angle, the polarizer will transmit more than half the intensity. If a wave is combined with an orthogonally polarized copy of itself delayed by less than the coherence time, partially polarized light is created.
The polarization of a light beam is represented by a vector in the Poincaré sphere. For polarized light the end of the vector lies on the surface of the sphere, whereas the vector has zero length for unpolarized light. The vector for partially polarized light lies within the sphere.
Applications
Holography
Coherent superpositions of optical wave fields include holography. Holographic photographs have been used as art and as difficult to forge security labels.
Non-optical wave fields
Further applications concern the coherent superposition of non-optical wave fields. In quantum mechanics for example one considers a probability field, which is related to the wave function (interpretation: density of the probability amplitude). Here the applications concern, among others, the future technologies of quantum computing and the already available technology of quantum cryptography. Additionally the problems of the following subchapter are treated.
Modal analysis
Coherence is used to check the quality of the transfer functions (FRFs) being measured. Low coherence can be caused by poor signal to noise ratio, and/or inadequate frequency resolution.
Quantum coherence
According to quantum mechanics, all objects can have wave-like properties (see de Broglie waves). For instance, in Young's double-slit experiment electrons can be used in the place of light waves. Each electron's wave-function goes through both slits, and hence has two separate split-beams that contribute to the intensity pattern on a screen. According to standard wave theory these two contributions give rise to an intensity pattern of bright bands due to constructive interference, interlaced with dark bands due to destructive interference, on a downstream screen. This ability to interfere and diffract is related to coherence (classical or quantum) of the waves produced at both slits. The association of an electron with a wave is unique to quantum theory.
When the incident beam is represented by a quantum pure state, the split beams downstream of the two slits are represented as a superposition of the pure states representing each split beam. The quantum description of imperfectly coherent paths is called a mixed state. A perfectly coherent state has a density matrix (also called the "statistical operator") that is a projection onto the pure coherent state and is equivalent to a wave function, while a mixed state is described by a classical probability distribution for the pure states that make up the mixture.
Macroscopic scale quantum coherence leads to novel phenomena, the so-called macroscopic quantum phenomena. For instance, the laser, superconductivity and superfluidity are examples of highly coherent quantum systems whose effects are evident at the macroscopic scale. The macroscopic quantum coherence (off-diagonal long-range order, ODLRO) for superfluidity, and laser light, is related to first-order (1-body) coherence/ODLRO, while superconductivity is related to second-order coherence/ODLRO. (For fermions, such as electrons, only even orders of coherence/ODLRO are possible.) For bosons, a Bose–Einstein condensate is an example of a system exhibiting macroscopic quantum coherence through a multiple occupied single-particle state.
The classical electromagnetic field exhibits macroscopic quantum coherence. The most obvious example is the carrier signal for radio and TV. They satisfy Glauber's quantum description of coherence.
Recently M. B. Plenio and co-workers constructed an operational formulation of quantum coherence as a resource theory. They introduced coherence monotones analogous to the entanglement monotones. Quantum coherence has been shown to be equivalent to quantum entanglement in the sense that coherence can be faithfully described as entanglement, and conversely that each entanglement measure corresponds to a coherence measure.
See also
References
External links
Concepts in physics
Wave mechanics
Quantum mechanics
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240013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampere%20University%20of%20Technology | Tampere University of Technology | Tampere University of Technology (TUT) () was Finland's second-largest university in engineering sciences. The university was located in Hervanta, a suburb of Tampere. It was merged with the University of Tampere to create the new Tampere University on 1 January 2019.
The university's statutory duty was to pursue research and give the highest education in its field. The research, conducted by some 1,800 staff and faculty members, mostly focused on applied science and often has close ties to many different companies (such as Nokia). Located next to the university campus is a Technology Centre Hermia, including a large Nokia research facility. TUT was one of the only two Finnish universities which operate as foundation. The yearly budget of the university was some 147 million euros. Close to 50% of its budget was external funding. According to Times Higher Education, it ranked 11th in the world, and 4th in Europe, for industry collaboration.
History
From the late 19th century, Tampere had been the most important industrial center in Finland. The Technical Institute of Tampere had provided engineers for its industries since 1911, but all higher technological education in Finland took place in Helsinki University of Technology. In the 1950s, the city of Tampere started actively remedying the situation, first founding a municipal science library in 1955. This library formed the core for the libraries of the TUT and the medical faculty of the University of Tampere In 1960, city succeeded in persuading the small private university Yhteiskunnallinen korkeakoulu to move to Tampere from Helsinki. A few years later, this university changed its name to University of Tampere.
The founding of the Tampere University of Technology was one of the steps of the city and the local business life in bringing higher education to the region. The university was founded in 1965 as a branch of Helsinki University of Technology and became an independent university status in 1972. The Student Union of Tampere University of Technology (Tampereen teknillisen yliopiston ylioppilaskunta, TTYY) was also established alongside the university.
In 2003, the university changed its Finnish name from TTKK (Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu) to TTY (Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto) so that the Finnish name would be closer to the English name and to distinguish itself from polytechnics that are not universities in the meaning of the Humboldtian university ideal or in the meaning of the Finnish law.
As a part of the Finnish university reform, Tampere University of Technology chose to become one of the two Finnish universities operating as foundations in the beginning of 2010. The university hopes that compared to the previous form of state agency, the foundation form gives it more operational freedom.
A programme, called Tampere3, to merge the university with University of Tampere and Tampere University of Applied Sciences was started in the spring of 2014. The merger was approved by Parliament in December 2017 and came into effect on 1 January 2019. The new foundation-based interdisciplinary higher education institution is named Tampere University. The new university will comprise 35,000 students and 5,000 employees, thus, being the second largest university in Finland.
Faculties
Tampere University of Technology comprises five faculties:
Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering:
Institute of Biosciences and Medical Technology (BioMediTech), joint institute of TUT and UTA
Faculty of Business and Built Environment:
School of Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Industrial and Information Management
Language Centre
Centre for Professional Development Edutech
Faculty of Computing and Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical Energy Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering
Department of Pervasive Computing
Department of Signal Processing
Faculty of Engineering Sciences
Department of Automation and Hydraulic Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Systems
Department of Materials Science
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering
Department of Mathematics
Department Photonics
Department of Physics
Research
Tampere University of Technology is primarily a research university, which specializes in technology and architecture. While all departments pursue scientific research and publish in international, peer-reviewed journals, the strongest areas of the university are signal processing, nanophotonics, biotechnology, and intelligent mobile hydraulic systems. The university has one Finnish Center of Excellence, the Signal Processing Laboratory. In addition, it participates in two other Finnish Centers of Excellence. Among other things, the university has been developing the world's first: biodegradable joint implant, communicator, yellow laser and walking harvester.
In 2014, the researchers of TUT published 1586 papers in peer-reviewed international publications, meaning an average of a more than one article per researcher. The university has 133 full professors, 193 tenured lecturers, and 754 researchers, of which 22% are international employees.
Tampere University of Technology has been selected three times as one of the best universities under 50 years old by Times Higher Education and QS World University Rankings has ranked it twice among the best 50 young universities in the World.
Research assessment 2011
An international independent team made an assessment of research quality in TUT in 2011. The Assessment Scale was: Outstanding International Level (5), Very Good International Level (4), Good International Level (3), Fair International Level (2), and Poor International Level (1). When comparing the results between different faculties, the results are not comparable as the assessment was done by different group of people for different faculties. Intra-faculty comparisons however can be done based on the results. Furthermore, the numerical evaluations were accompanied with the verbal assessments, which give better understanding than the plain integer numbers. Overall, the results were mostly in the range of Very Good and Good International Level.
HR excellence in research
In recognition of development activities related to research careers and the position of researchers at the University, the European Commission awarded Tampere University of Technology the right to use the HR Excellence in Research logo in spring 2014.
The logo demonstrates that the working conditions and career opportunities of research staff at TUT comply with recommendations given by the European Commission in The European Charter for Researchers and The Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers. The Charter & Code aim to give equal rights and obligations to individual researchers throughout Europe, therefore improving mobility and working conditions as well as reinforcing research and development across Europe.
Education
Undergraduate degree programs
The university awards undergraduate degrees of tekniikan kandidaatti (Bachelor of Science in Technology (B.Sc. Tech.) or Architecture (B.Sc. Arch.), diplomi-insinööri (Master of Science in Technology (M.Sc. Tech.), and arkkitehti (M.Sc. Arch.). The recommended time for the completion of master's degree is five years (3 for B.Sc. and 2 for M.Sc.) to complete. In practice, the students use little bit less than seven years for their studies, on average. However, this average includes the compulsory military service of 6–12 months that most of the male students (76% of the student body) complete before graduation. Yearly, some 800–850 masters graduate from TUT.
Studies leading up to a M.Sc. available in the Finnish language are:
Architecture
Automation Engineering
Biotechnology
Civil Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Environmental and Energy Technology
Industrial Engineering and Management
Information and Knowledge Management
Information Technology
Materials Engineering
Fibre and Textile Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Science and Engineering
Mathematical Sciences Subject Teacher Education
International undergraduate degree programs
In August 2016 the first completely English taught B.Sc. program in the field of engineering in Finland started at TUT. The program of Science and Engineering aims to provide students a multi-disciplinary basic knowledge on different engineering and scientific subjects and offer a wide range of possibilities to continue studies in TUT's master's degree programs in English. Possible major subjects are Mathematics, Physics, and Information and Communications Technology.
Apart from the programs in the Finnish language, these M.Sc. programs are available in English:
Sustainable Architecture
Bioengineering
Automation Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Industrial Engineering and Management
Information Technology
Materials Science
Science and Engineering
Post-Graduate degree programs
All programs leading to M.Sc. also offer the possibility of continuing research until a doctoral degree. As usual in Finland, the completion of doctoral degree requires a certain number of courses taught (worth at least 60 ECTS) and a dissertation containing original scientific research, usually published in international peer-reviewed journals. Depending on the prior education of the student, the doctoral degree is either tekniikan tohtori (Doctor of Science in Technology or Architecture) or filosofian tohtori (Doctor of Philosophy). As a general rule, the graduate students with a master's degree in Technology or Architecture will be awarded the Doctor of Science degree, while graduate students with a master's degree in other majors will be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. A tekniikan lisensiaatti (Licentiate of Technology) is also available. Yearly, some 70 doctors graduate. The mean age of new doctors is 34.
Student life
Student life at Tampere is especially vivid as three universities are located at the area. The students of technology (teekkarit) are especially noticeable, as they wear a distinctive hat with a tuft (teekkarilakki) on many occasions, both formal and informal. These student caps with a tuft are shared by every university in Finland that educates students of technology but the caps are slightly visually different in every university. Students of technology are also famous for student pranks (Finnish: jäynä), similar in principle to MIT hacks.
All undergraduate students are members of the Student Union of Tampere University of Technology. Post-graduate students are given the option of joining. In addition to the student union, students join numerous associations for studies, cultural activity, and sports. Each of the 14 guilds at TUT serve the students in their respective study program and has their uniquely coloured student boilersuit. There are also numerous other clubs that focus on different hobbies, such as, eSports, alpine skiing, sailing, photographing and skydiving.
More notable leisure clubs:
Remmi-Team – Eco-marathon vehicles club
26 Finnish championships,
81 podium positions in different categories, and
12 victories in international student-classes.
Castor – Space club
Supikoira Rocket: First model rocket in Finland to climb up to altitude.
Itikka Project: First Finnish images from Space.
Tampere Academic Symphony Orchestra ()
International clubs:
AIESEC
International Association for the Exchange of Students for Technical Experience
Electrical Engineering Students' European Association
European Students of Industrial Engineering and Management
Erasmus Student Network
Student housing
Most of the undergraduate students at Tampere are living in apartments offered by the Tampere Student Housing Foundation (TOAS). TOAS offers different kinds of housing options also near the Hervanta campus. The apartments are typically small studios and shared flats. The most well-known student housing complex in Tampere region is Mikontalo.
Notable people and alumni
Jarl-Thure Eriksson - Professor Emeritus, Rector 1997–2008
Jorma Rissanen - Professor Emeritus, IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal
Mikko Kaasalainen - PhD, Applied mathematician and mathematical physicist
Hailemariam Desalegn – M.Sc. (Tech.), Prime Minister of Ethiopia
Rainer Mahlamäki - M.Sc. (Arch.), Architect
Tapio Kuula - M.Sc. (Tech.) and M.Ec., President and CEO of Fortum
Jouko Karvinen - M.Sc. (Tech.), Former CEO of Stora Enso
Matti Kähkönen - M.Sc. (Tech.), President and CEO of Metso
Ari Luotonen - M.Sc. (Tech.), Developer of CERN httpd
Kari Jormakka - PhD, Architect
Hille Korhonen - M.Sc. (Tech.), CEO of Alko
Johanna Lamminen - Lic.Sc. (Tech.), CEO of Gasum
Matti Viikinkoski - PhD, Mathematician specializing in inverse problems
Rectors
Jaakko Puhakka 2018
Mika Hannula 2016–2018
Markku Kivikoski 2008–2016
Jarl-Thure Eriksson 1997–2008
Timo Lepistö 1985–1996
Osmo Hassi 1975–1985
Pekka Ahonen 1972–1975
See also
Institute of technology
List of universities in Finland
Mikontalo
University Consortium of Pori
References
External links
Tampere University of Technology Official site, tut.fi
Technical universities and colleges in Finland
Educational institutions established in 1972
1965 establishments in Finland
Hervanta
Universities and colleges formed by merger in Finland | [
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240017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Covey | Stephen Covey | Stephen Richards Covey (October 24, 1932 – July 16, 2012) was an American educator, author, businessman, and keynote speaker. His most popular book is of Highly Effective People. His other books include First Things First, Principle-Centered Leadership, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Families, , and The Leader In Me: How Schools and Parents Around the World Are Inspiring Greatness, One Child at a Time. In 1996, Time magazine named him one of the 25 most influential people. He was a professor at the Jon M. Huntsman School of Business at Utah State University at the time of his death.
Early life and education
Covey was born to Stephen Glenn Covey and Irene Louise Richards Covey in Salt Lake City, Utah, on October 24, 1932. Louise was the daughter of Stephen L Richards, an apostle and counselor in the first presidency of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints under David O. McKay. Covey was the grandson of Stephen Mack Covey who founded the original Little America Wyoming near Granger, Wyoming. He was athletic as a youth but suffered from a slipped capital femoral epiphysis in junior high school, requiring him to change his focus to academics and a member of the debate team and graduated from high school early.
Covey earned a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration from the University of Utah, an MBA from Harvard Business School at Harvard University, and a Doctor of Religious Education (DRE) from Brigham Young University. He was a member of Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. He was awarded ten honorary doctorates.
Philosophical background
Covey was heavily influenced by Peter Drucker and Carl Rogers. Another key influence on his thinking was his study of American self-help books that he did for his doctoral dissertation. A further influence on Covey was his affiliation with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. According to Clayton Christensen, The Seven Habits was a secular distillation of Latter-day Saint values.
Books
Covey's book Spiritual Roots of Human Relations was published in 1970 by Deseret Book Company. Reading this book will identify how Covey's later works were a secular development of these earlier ideas.
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Covey's best-known book, has sold more than 30 million copies worldwide since its first publication in 1989. The audio version became the first non-fiction audio-book in U.S. publishing history to sell more than one million copies. Covey argues against what he calls "The Personality Ethic", something he sees as prevalent in many modern self-help books. He promotes what he labels "The Character Ethic": aligning one's values with so-called "universal and timeless" principles. Covey adamantly refuses to conflate principles and values; he sees principles as external natural laws, while values remain internal and subjective. Covey proclaims that values govern people's behavior, but principles ultimately determine the consequences. Covey presents his teachings in a series of habits, manifesting as a progression from dependence via independence to interdependence.
The 8th Habit
Covey's 2004 book The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness was published by Free Press, an imprint of Simon & Schuster. It is the sequel to The 7 Habits. Covey posits that effectiveness does not suffice in what he calls "The Knowledge Worker Age". He says that "[t]he challenges and complexity we face today are of a different order of magnitude." The 8th habit essentially urges: "Find your voice and inspire others to find theirs."
The Leader in Me
Covey released The Leader in Me: How Schools and Parents Around the World Are Inspiring Greatness, One Child at a Time in November 2008. It tells how "some schools, parents and business leaders are preparing the next generation to meet the great challenges and opportunities of the 21st Century. It shows how an elementary school in Raleigh, North Carolina, decided to try incorporating The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People and other basic leadership skills into the curriculum in unique and creative ways. Inspired by the success of Principal Muriel Summers and the teachers and staff of A.B. Combs Elementary School in Raleigh, other schools and parents around the world have adopted the approach and have seen remarkable results".
Other projects
Franklin Covey
In 1985 Covey established Stephen R. Covey and Associates which in 1987 became The "Covey Leadership Center" which, in 1997, merged with Franklin Quest to form FranklinCovey, a global professional-services firm and specialty retailer selling both training and productivity tools to individuals and to organizations. Their mission statement reads: "We enable greatness in people and organizations everywhere".
In 2009 Covey launched a career development webinar series to help people struggling in the economic downturn. Its purpose was to offer timely and current topics on a regular basis.
Stephen Covey Online Community
In March 2008, Covey launched the Stephen Covey's Online Community. The site was a collection of online courses, goal management and social networking. Covey used it to teach his thoughts and ideas on current topics and self leadership.
The site was withdrawn some time after his death.
Academia
Covey was a professor at the Marriott School of Management at Brigham Young University for several years, helping to establish the Master of Organizational Behavior program, which has since been merged into the MBA program (OBHR emphasis). Also while at BYU Covey served as an assistant to the university president.
During the late part of his life, Covey returned to academia as a professor at the Huntsman School of Business at Utah State University, holding the Huntsman Presidential Chair.
Education Initiatives
Covey developed his 2008 book The Leader in Me into several education-related projects. On April 20, 2010, he made his first post to an education blog entitled "Our Children and the Crisis in Education" which appears on the Huffington Post news and blog-aggregation website. FranklinCovey also established a Web site dedicated exclusively to The Leader in Me concept, and it holds periodic conferences and workshops to train elementary school administrators who want to integrate The Leader in Me process into their school's academic culture.
Personal
Family
Covey lived with his wife Sandra and their family in Provo, Utah, home to Brigham Young University, where Covey taught prior to the publication of his best-selling book. A father of nine and a grandfather of fifty-five, he received the Fatherhood Award from the National Fatherhood Initiative in 2003.
Religion
Covey was a practicing member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He served a two-year mission in England for the Church. Covey served as the first president of the Irish Mission of the church starting in July 1962. Later starting in 1973 Covey served for a time as a mission representative of the Quorum of the 12, where he oversaw training of missionaries in multiple missions in the eastern United States.
When Covey studied as an MBA student at Harvard, he would, on occasion, preach to crowds on Boston Common.
Covey authored several devotional works for Latter-day Saint readers, including:
Spiritual Roots of Human Relations (1970)
The Divine Center (1982)
6 Events: The Restoration Model for Solving Life's Problems (2004).
Injuries and death
In April 2012, Covey was riding a bike in Rock Canyon Park in Provo, Utah, when he lost control and fell. He was wearing a helmet but according to his daughter, Catherine Sagers, the helmet slipped and his head hit the pavement. Catherine said Covey "went down a hill too fast and flipped forward on the bike. It was a pretty big goose egg on the top of his head." Covey also suffered cracked ribs and a partially collapsed lung.
Covey died from complications resulting from the bike accident at the Eastern Idaho Regional Medical Center in Idaho Falls, Idaho, on July 16, 2012, at the age of 79.
Honors and awards
The Thomas More College Medallion for continuing service to humanity
The National Entrepreneur of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award for Entrepreneurial Leadership
The 1994 International Entrepreneur of the Year Award
One of Time Magazine'''s 25 most influential Americans of 1996
The Sikh's 1998 International Man of Peace Award
2003 Fatherhood Award from the National Fatherhood Initiative
2004 Golden Gavel award from Toastmasters International
Accepted the inaugural Corporate Core Values Award from the California University of Pennsylvania on behalf of the FranklinCovey Corporation at the "national Franklin Covey Conference" (December 2006).
Inducted into the Utah Valley Entrepreneurial Forum Hall of Fame on November 14, 2009
Maharishi Award from Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa
Aman2020 Award from Aman Wolde foundation in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
WorksSpiritual Roots of Human Relations (1970) ()How to Succeed with People (1971)
The Divine Center (1982) ()
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (1989, 2004) ()
Principle Centered Leadership (1989) ()
First Things First (1994), co-authored with Roger and Rebecca Merrill ()
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Families : building a beautiful family culture in a turbulent world (1997) ()
Quest: The Spiritual Path to Success (Editor) (1997) with Thomas Moore, Mark Victor Hansen, David Whyte, Bernie Siegel, Gabrielle Roth and Marianne Williamson. Simon & Schuster AudioBook
Living the 7 Habits (2000) ()
6 Events: The Restoration Model for Solving Life's Problems (2004) ()
The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness (2004) ()
The Speed of Trust: The One Thing That Changes Everything (2006), Stephen M. R. Covey, co-authored with Rebecca Merrill; foreword by Stephen R. Covey
The Leader in Me: How Schools and Parents Around the World Are Inspiring Greatness, One Child At a Time (2008) ()
The 7 Habits of Highly Effective Network Marketing Professionals (2009) ()
The 3rd Alternative: Solving Life's Most Difficult Problems (2011) ()
The Leader in Me: How Schools Around the World Are Inspiring Greatness, One Child at a Time (Second Edition) (2014) ()
References
External links
Stephen Covey's official site
FranklinCovey's official site
1932 births
2012 deaths
American business writers
American company founders
American self-help writers
Brigham Young University alumni
Brigham Young University faculty
Harvard Business School alumni
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
American Mormon missionaries in England
American Mormon missionaries in Ireland
Businesspeople from Salt Lake City
University of Utah alumni
Utah State University faculty
Writers from Salt Lake City
20th-century Mormon missionaries
American motivational writers
Leadership scholars
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Latter Day Saints from Massachusetts
American expatriates in the Republic of Ireland | [
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240018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Drucker | Peter Drucker | Peter Ferdinand Drucker (; ; November 19, 1909 – November 11, 2005) was an Austrian-American management consultant, educator, and author, whose writings contributed to the philosophical and practical foundations of the modern business corporation. He was also a leader in the development of management education, he invented the concept known as management by objectives and self-control, and he has been described as "the founder of modern management".
Drucker's books and articles, both scholarly and popular, explored how humans are organized across the business, government, and nonprofit sectors of society. He is one of the best-known and most widely influential thinkers and writers on the subject of management theory and practice. His writings have predicted many of the major developments of the late twentieth century, including privatization and decentralization; the rise of Japan to economic world power; the decisive importance of marketing; and the emergence of the information society with its necessity of lifelong learning. In 1959, Drucker coined the term "knowledge worker", and later in his life considered knowledge-worker productivity to be the next frontier of management.
Biography
Drucker grew up in what he referred to as a "liberal" Lutheran Protestant household in Austria-Hungary. His mother Caroline Bondi had studied medicine and his father Adolf Drucker was a lawyer and high-level civil servant. Drucker was born in Vienna, Austria, in a small village named Kaasgraben (now part of the 19th district of Vienna-Döbling). He grew up in a home where intellectuals, high government officials, and scientists would meet to discuss new ideas. These included Joseph Schumpeter, Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises. Hans Kelsen was his uncle.
After graduating from Döbling Gymnasium in 1927, Drucker found few opportunities for employment in post-World War I Vienna, so he moved to Hamburg, Germany, first working as an apprentice at an established cotton trading company, then as a journalist, writing for Der Österreichische Volkswirt (The Austrian Economist). Drucker then moved to Frankfurt, where he took a job at the Daily Frankfurter General-Anzeiger. While in Frankfurt, he also earned a doctorate in international law and public law from the Goethe University Frankfurt in 1931.
In 1933, Drucker left Germany for England. In London, he worked for an insurance company, then as the chief economist at a private bank. He also reconnected with Doris Schmitz, an acquaintance from the University of Frankfurt, and they married in 1934. The couple permanently relocated to the United States, where he became a university professor as well as a freelance writer and business consultant.
In 1943, Drucker became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He then had a distinguished career as a teacher, first as a professor of politics and philosophy at Bennington College from 1942 to 1949, then twenty-two years at New York University as a Professor of Management from 1950 to 1971.
Drucker went to California in 1971, where he developed one of the country's first executive MBA programs for working professionals at Claremont Graduate University (then known as Claremont Graduate School). From 1971 until his death, he was the Clarke Professor of Social Science and Management at Claremont. Claremont Graduate University's management school was named the Peter F. Drucker Graduate School of Management in his honor in 1987 (later renamed the Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management). He established the Drucker Archives at Claremont Graduate University in 1999; the Archives became the Drucker Institute in 2006. Drucker taught his last class in 2002 at age 92. He continued to act as a consultant to businesses and nonprofit organizations well into his nineties.
Drucker died November 11, 2005, in Claremont, California, of natural causes aged 95. He had four children. Drucker's wife Doris died in October 2014 at the age of 103.
Work and philosophy
Early influences
Among Drucker's early influences was the Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter, a friend of his father's, who impressed upon Drucker the importance of innovation and entrepreneurship. Drucker was also influenced, in a much different way, by John Maynard Keynes, whom he heard lecture in 1934 in Cambridge. "I suddenly realized that Keynes and all the brilliant economic students in the room were interested in the behavior of commodities", Drucker wrote, "while I was interested in the behavior of people".
Over the next 70 years, Drucker's writings would be marked by a focus on relationships among human beings, as opposed to the crunching of numbers. His books were filled with lessons on how organizations can bring out the best in people, and how workers can find a sense of community and dignity in a modern society organized around large institutions. As a business consultant, Drucker disliked the term "guru", though it was often applied to him; "I have been saying for many years," Drucker once remarked, "that we are using the word 'guru' only because 'charlatan' is too long to fit into a headline."
As a young writer, Drucker wrote two pieces – one on the conservative German philosopher Friedrich Julius Stahl and another called "The Jewish Question in Germany" – that were burned and banned by the Nazis. In 1939 he published a contemporary analysis of the rise of fascism called "The End of Economic Man". This was his first book, published in New York, in English. In the introduction he refers to "The Jewish Question in Germany" saying "An early excerpt [of this book] was published as a pamphlet by an Austrian Catholic and Anti-Nazi in ... 1936".
The "business thinker"
Drucker's career as a business thinker took off in 1942, when his initial writings on politics and society won him access to the internal workings of General Motors (GM), one of the largest companies in the world at that time. His experiences in Europe had left him fascinated with the problem of authority. He shared his fascination with Donaldson Brown, the mastermind behind the administrative controls at GM. In 1943 Brown invited him in to conduct what might be called a "political audit": a two-year social-scientific analysis of the corporation. Drucker attended every board meeting, interviewed employees, and analyzed production and decision-making processes.
The resulting book, Concept of the Corporation, popularized GM's multidivisional structure and led to numerous articles, consulting engagements, and additional books. GM, however, was hardly thrilled with the final product. Drucker had suggested that the auto giant might want to re-examine a host of long-standing policies on customer relations, dealer relations, employee relations and more. Inside the corporation, Drucker's counsel was viewed as hypercritical. GM's revered chairman, Alfred Sloan, was so upset about the book that he "simply treated it as if it did not exist," Drucker later recalled, "never mentioning it and never allowing it to be mentioned in his presence."
Drucker taught that management is "a liberal art", and he infused his management advice with interdisciplinary lessons from history, sociology, psychology, philosophy, culture and religion. He also believed strongly that all institutions, including those in the private sector, have a responsibility to the whole of society. "The fact is," Drucker wrote in his 1973 Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, "that in modern society there is no other leadership group but managers. If the managers of our major institutions, and especially of business, do not take responsibility for the common good, no one else can or will."
Drucker was interested in the growing effect of people who worked with their minds rather than their hands . He was intrigued by employees who knew more about certain subjects than their bosses or colleagues, and yet had to cooperate with others in a large organization. Rather than simply glorify the phenomenon as the epitome of human progress, Drucker analyzed it, and explained how it challenged the common thinking about how organizations should be run.
His approach worked well in the increasingly mature business world of the second half of the twentieth century. By that time large corporations had developed the basic manufacturing efficiencies and managerial hierarchies of mass production. Executives thought they knew how to run companies, and Drucker took it upon himself to poke holes in their beliefs, lest organizations become stale. But he did so in a sympathetic way. He assumed that his readers were intelligent, rational, hardworking people of good will . If their organizations struggled, he believed it was usually because of outdated ideas, a narrow conception of problems, or internal misunderstandings.
Drucker developed an extensive consulting business built around his personal relationship with top management. He became legendary among many of post-war Japan's new business leaders trying to rebuild their war-torn homeland. He advised the heads of General Motors, Sears, General Electric, W.R. Grace and IBM, among many others. Over time he offered his management advice to nonprofits like the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army. His advice was eagerly sought by the senior executives of the Adela Investment Company, a private initiative of the world's multinational corporations to promote investment in the developing countries of Latin America.
Writings
Drucker's 39 books have been translated into more than thirty-six languages. Two are novels, and one – Adventures of a Bystander (1978) – is an autobiography. He is the co-author of a book on Japanese painting, and made eight series of educational films on management topics. He also penned a regular column in the Wall Street Journal for 10 years and contributed frequently to the Harvard Business Review, The Atlantic Monthly, and The Economist.
His work is especially popular in Japan, even more so after the publication of "What If the Female Manager of a High-School Baseball Team Read Drucker's Management", a novel that features the main character using one of his books to great effect, which was also adapted into an anime and a live action film. His popularity in Japan may be compared with that of his contemporary W. Edwards Deming.
Key ideas
Decentralization and simplification. Drucker discounted the command and control model and asserted that companies work best when they are decentralized. According to Drucker, corporations tend to produce too many products, hire employees they don't need (when a better solution would be outsourcing), and expand into economic sectors that they should avoid.
The prediction of the decline and marginalization of the "blue collar" worker.
The concept of what eventually came to be known as "outsourcing". He used the example of "front room" and "back room" of each business: a company should be engaged in only the front room activities that are critical to supporting its core business. Back room activities should be handed over to other companies, for whom these tasks are the front room activities.
The importance of the nonprofit sector, which he calls the third sector (the private and government sectors being the first two). Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play crucial roles in the economies of countries around the world.
A profound skepticism of macroeconomic theory. Drucker contended that economists of all schools fail to explain significant aspects of modern economies.
A lament that the sole focus of microeconomics is price. Drucker noted that microeconomics fails to show what products actually do for us, thereby stimulating commercial interest in how to calculate what products actually do for us from their price.
Economic chain costing: the idea that a competitive company needs to know the costs of its entire economic chain, not simply the costs for which it is responsible as an individual business within that chain. "What matters ... is the economic reality, the costs of the entire [production] process, regardless of who owns what."
Respect for the worker: Drucker believed that employees are assets not liabilities. He taught that knowledgeable workers are the essential ingredients of the modern economy, and that a hybrid management model is the sole method of demonstrating an employee's value to the organization. Central to this philosophy is the view that people are an organization's most valuable resource, and that a manager's job is both to prepare people to perform and to give them freedom to do so.
A belief in what he called "the sickness of government". Drucker made nonpartisan claims that government is often unable or unwilling to provide new services that people need and/or want, though he believed that this condition is not intrinsic to the form of government. The chapter "The Sickness of Government", in his book The Age of Discontinuity, formed the basis of New Public Management, a theory of public administration that dominated the discipline in the 1980s and 1990s.
The need for "planned abandonment". Businesses and governments have a natural human tendency to cling to "yesterday's successes" rather than seeing when they are no longer useful.
A belief that taking action without thinking is the cause of every failure.
The need for community. Early in his career, Drucker predicted the "end of economic man" and advocated the creation of a "plant community", where an individual's social needs could be met. He later acknowledged that the plant community never materialized, and by the 1980s, suggested that volunteering in the nonprofit sector was the key to fostering a healthy society where people found a sense of belonging and civic pride.
The need to manage business by balancing a variety of needs and goals, rather than subordinating an institution to a single value. This concept of management by objectives and self-control forms the keynote of his 1954 landmark The Practice of Management.
A company's primary responsibility is to serve its customers. Profit is not the primary goal, but rather an essential condition for the company's continued existence and sustainability.
A belief in the notion that great companies could stand among mankind's noblest inventions.
"Do what you do best and outsource the rest" is a business tagline first "coined and developed" in the 1990s by Drucker. The slogan was used primarily to advocate outsourcing as a viable business strategy. Drucker began explaining the concept of outsourcing as early as 1989 in his Wall Street Journal (WSJ) article entitled "Sell the Mailroom."
Criticism
The Wall Street Journal researched several of his lectures in 1987 and reported that he was sometimes loose with the facts. Drucker was off the mark, for example, when he told an audience that the English language was the official language for all employees at Japan's Mitsui trading company. Drucker defended himself: "I use anecdotes to make a point, not to write history."
Also, while Drucker was known for his prescience, he was not always correct in his forecasts. He predicted, for instance, that the United States' financial center would shift from New York to Washington.
Others maintain that one of Drucker's core concepts, "management by objectives," is flawed and has never really been proven to work effectively. Critic Dale Krueger said that the system is difficult to implement and that companies often wind up overemphasizing control, as opposed to fostering creativity, to meet their goals.
Drucker's classic work, Concept of the Corporation, criticized General Motors while it was considered the most successful corporation in the world. Many of GM's executives considered Drucker persona non grata for a long time afterward. Although Alfred P. Sloan refrained from personal hostility toward Drucker, he considered Drucker's critiques of GM's management to be "dead wrong".
Awards and honors
Drucker was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President George W. Bush on July 9, 2002. He also received honors from the governments of Austria, including the Grand Silver Medal for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1974, the Grand Gold Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1991 and the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class in 1999 and Japan (Order of the Sacred Treasure, 3rd class; 24 June 1966).
Drucker was the Honorary Chairman of the Peter F. Drucker Foundation for Nonprofit Management, now the Leader to Leader Institute, from 1990 through 2002. In 1969 he was awarded New York University's highest honor, its Presidential Citation. For his article, "What Makes an Effective Executive", Harvard Business Review honored Drucker in the June 2004 with his seventh McKinsey Award – the most awarded to an individual. Drucker was inducted into the Junior Achievement US Business Hall of Fame in 1996. He received 25 honorary doctorates from American, Belgian, Czech, English, Spanish and Swiss universities. His 1954 book The Practice of Management was voted the third most influential management book of the 20th century in a poll of the Fellows of the Academy of Management. In Claremont, California, Eleventh Street between College Avenue and Dartmouth Avenue was renamed "Drucker Way" in October 2009 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Drucker's birth.
Drucker was posthumously honored when he was inducted into the Outsourcing Hall of Fame in recognition of his outstanding contributions in the field. In 2018, Drucker was named the world's most influential business thinker on the Thinkers50.com list.
Legacy
At Claremont Graduate University, the Peter F. Drucker Graduate Management Center – now the Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management – was established in 1987 and continues to be guided by Drucker's principles.
The annual Global Peter Drucker Forum was first held in 2009, the centenary of Drucker's birth.
Bibliography
1939: The End of Economic Man (New York: The John Day Company)
1942: The Future of Industrial Man (New York: The John Day Company)
1946: Concept of the Corporation (New York: The John Day Company)
1950: The New Society (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1954: The Practice of Management (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1957: America's Next Twenty Years (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1959: The Landmarks of Tomorrow (New York: Harper & Brothers)
1964: Managing for Results (New York: Harper & Row)
1967: The Effective Executive (New York: Harper & Row)
1969: The Age of Discontinuity (New York: Harper & Row)
1970: Technology, Management and Society (New York: Harper & Row)
1971: The New Markets and Other Essays (London: William Heinemann Ltd.)
1971: Men, Ideas and Politics (New York: Harper & Row)
1971: Drucker on Management (London: Management Publications Limited)
1973: Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices''' (New York: Harper & Row)
1976: The Unseen Revolution: How Pension Fund Socialism Came to America (New York: Harper & Row)
1977: People and Performance: The Best of Peter Drucker on Management (New York: Harper's College Press)
1978: Adventures of a Bystander (New York: Harper & Row)
1980: Managing in Turbulent Times (New York: Harper & Row)
1981: Toward the Next Economics and Other Essays (New York: Harper & Row)
1982: The Changing World of Executive (New York: Harper & Row)
1982: The Last of All Possible Worlds (New York: Harper & Row)
1984: The Temptation to Do Good (London: William Heinemann Ltd.)
1985: Innovation and Entrepreneurship (New York: Harper & Row)
1986: The Frontiers of Management: Where Tomorrow's Decisions are Being Shaped Today (New York: Truman Talley Books/E.D. Dutton)
1989: The New Realities: in Government and Politics, in Economics and Business, in Society and World View (New York: Harper & Row)
1990: Managing the Nonprofit Organization: Practices and Principles (New York: Harper Collins)
1992: Managing for the Future (New York: Harper Collins)
1993: The Ecological Vision (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers)
1993: Post-Capitalist Society (New York: HarperCollins)
1995: Managing in a Time of Great Change (New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton)
1997: Drucker on Asia: A Dialogue between Peter Drucker and Isao Nakauchi (Tokyo: Diamond Inc.)
1998: Peter Drucker on the Profession of Management (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing)
1999: Management Challenges for 21st Century (New York: Harper Business)
1999: Managing Oneself (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing) [published 2008 from article in Harvard Business Review]
2001: The Essential Drucker (New York: Harper Business)
2002: Managing in the Next Society (New York: Truman Talley Books/St. Martin's Press)
2002: A Functioning Society (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Transaction Publishers)
2004: The Daily Drucker (New York: Harper Business)
2008 (posthumous): The Five Most Important Questions (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass)
Other publications
Early monographs in German
1932: The Justification of International Law and the Will of the State (doctoral dissertation)
1933: Friedrich Julius Stahl, Conservative Political Theory and Historical Development (Tübingen: Mohr)
1936: The Jewish Question in Germany (Wien: Gsur)
Contributing writer
1961: Power and Democracy in America (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press Publishers)
1969: Preparing Tomorrow's Business Leaders Today (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall)
1979: Song of the Brush: Japanese Painting from Sanso Collection (Seattle: Seattle Art Museum)
1988: Handbook of Management by Objectives with Bill Reddin and Denis Ryan (Published by Tata McGraw-Hill in New Delhi).
1991: The Rise of NEC (Blackwell Business)
Miscellaneous
1977: An Introductory View of Management (New York: Harper & Row)
1977 (revised edition, 2009): Management Cases (New York: Harper & Row)
2006: The Effective Executive In Action with Joseph A. Maciariello (New York: HarperCollins)
2006: Classic Drucker (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press)
2008 (posthumous): Management: Revised with Sujog Arya (New York: HarperCollins)
References
Further reading
Tarrant, John C. Drucker: The Man Who Invented the Corporate Society, 1976.
Beatty, Jack, The World According to Peter Drucker, 1998.
Flaherty, John E. Peter Drucker: Shaping the Managerial Mind, 1999.
Edersheim, Elizabeth. The Definitive Drucker, 2007.
Cohen, William A. A Class with Drucker: The lost lessons of the World's greatest management teacher, 2008.
Weber, Winfried W. Kulothungan, Gladius (eds.) Peter F. Drucker's Next Management. New Institutions, New Theories and Practices'', 2010.
Stein, Guido. Managing People and Organisations, 2010.
Turriago-Hoyos, A., Thoene, U., & Arjoon, S. (2016). Knowledge workers and virtues in Peter Drucker's management theory. Sage Open, January–March 2016: 1–9,
External links
Drucker Archives in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library
The Window in the Claremont Colleges Digital Library
The Drucker Institute
Sell the Mailroom – 1989 article by Drucker
Peter Drucker (in German) from the archive of the Österreichische Mediathek
1909 births
2005 deaths
American business theorists
American business writers
American management consultants
Austrian business theorists
Austrian emigrants to the United States
Austrian Jews
Bennington College faculty
Decentralization
Goethe University Frankfurt alumni
Jewish American writers
New York University faculty
Jewish humanists
Writers from Vienna
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Radical centrist writers
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
Recipients of the Grand Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 3rd class
Leadership scholars
Austrian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Henry Laurence Gantt Medal recipients
Austrian expatriates in Germany
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews | [
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240020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob%20St%C3%A4mpfli | Jakob Stämpfli | Jakob Stämpfli (23 February 1820 – 15 May 1879) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1854–1863).
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 6 December 1854, and handed over office on 31 December 1863. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1855)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1856)
Department of Finance (1857–1858)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1859)
Military Department (1860–1861)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1862)
Military Department (1863)
Jakob Stämpfli was also member of the international tribunal that had to decide on the Alabama Claims in 1871.
References
External links
1820 births
1879 deaths
People from Seeland District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
19th-century Swiss politicians
19th-century Swiss judges
University of Bern alumni | [
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240022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich%20Ochsenbein | Ulrich Ochsenbein | Ulrich Ochsenbein (24 November 1811, in Unterlangenegg – 3 November 1890) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1848–1854).
Professional life
He studied law and from 1835 he had a law firm together with his brother-in-law Eduard Sury. He headed the Radicals of Bern (Berner Radikale) together with Jakob Stämpfli. The Radicals later became the Free Democratic Party.
Political career
Ulrich Ochsenbein participated in the Freischarenzüge against Catholic Lucerne in 1844 and 1845. He was a member of the Grossrat in the canton of Bern from 1845 to 1846, president of the Verfassungsrat in 1846 and a member of the Regierungsrat from 1846 to 1848. 1847 to 1848 he represented the canton of Bern at the Tagsatzung (diet) which he presided in 1847. He played an important role that the Swiss constitution was accepted by the Swiss population in the constitutional referendum held on 6 June 1848.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 16 November 1848 and handed over office on 31 December 1854 after being voted out of office. He is one of only a few federal councilors to be voted out of office. During his time as a federal councilor a fight broke out between the conservatives and a group of the radical party. Not willing to take positions, he lost the trust of both sides. During his time in office he held the Military Department (department of defence).
External links
All of the following links are in German.
http://www.zuerich98.ch/woche42_l02.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20031211042117/http://www.stub.unibe.ch/extern/hv/gkb/ii/zwei.html
1811 births
1890 deaths
People from Thun District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers | [
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240025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Deiss | Joseph Deiss | Joseph Deiss (born 18 January 1946) is a Swiss economist and politician who served as a Member of the Swiss Federal Council from 1999 to 2006. A member of the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), he first headed the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (1999–2002) before transferring to the Federal Department of Economic Affairs (2003–2006). Deiss was elected President of the United Nations General Assembly for its 65th session in 2010.
Political career
Legislative and local experience
Joseph Deiss started his political career in 1981 as a representative of his party in the Grand Council of Fribourg. In 1991 he became the president of the cantonal parliament for one year. Between 1982 and 1996 Deiss assumed the mayorship of his home village Barberêche.
In 1991 he was elected to the National Council. From 1995 to 1996 Deiss was vice president of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the National Council. In 1996 he was made president of the committee in charge of the total revision of the Swiss Federal Constitution.
In the Federal Council
Deiss was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 11 March 1999, along with his erstwhile colleague Ruth Metzler. Together with Adalbert Durrer and Remigio Ratti, he was one of three official candidates proposed by the CVP/PDC for the seat of retiring Federal Councillor Flavio Cotti. However, the election became a narrow contest between Deiss and Peter Hess, who was favoured by many conservative representatives. Deiss eventually won after the sixth ballot, by 120 to 119 votes.
In office, he has headed the following departments:
Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (1999–2002)
Federal Department of Economic Affairs (2003-2006)
After the failure of Ruth Metzler to be re-elected in 2003, Metzler challenged him for his seat, but lost by 138 votes to 96. He was subsequently elected President of the Confederation for 2004, one year earlier than would have been regular. He became the only remaining representative of the CVP in the Council.
On April 27, 2006, Deiss rather unexpectedly resigned as Federal Councillor. The CVP's seat not being contested by the other parties, he was succeeded by the president of the CVP, Doris Leuthard, who took over from Deiss on 1 August 2006.
Professional career
Joseph Deiss studied economics and social sciences for his first degree at the University of Fribourg. He continued to complete a doctorate at the same university after which he spent some time doing research at King's College at the University of Cambridge.
After this period of research Joseph Deiss took on the post of lecturing Economics at the University of Fribourg. In 1983 he was made visiting professor at a number of Swiss universities: ETH Zurich, University of Lausanne and University of Geneva.
From 1993 to 1996 Joseph Deiss acted as National Price Supervisor. He then returned to the University of Fribourg to become the Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences. At this time at university, Joseph Deiss was also the chairman of the Board of Directors at Schumacher AG in Schmitten (FR) and chairman of the Raiffeisenbank in Haut-Lac, Courtepin (FR).
In 2009 Joseph Deiss was awarded an honorary degree Doctor Honoris Causa from Business School Lausanne in recognition of his achievements to reinforce and expand the political and economic position of Switzerland.
Personal life
Deiss is married and has three sons.
Joseph Deiss is an Honorary Member of The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation
Joseph Deiss is an Honorary Member of AFIS Swiss International Civil Servants Association
Works
Manuel d'économie politique, with Danielle Meuwly, 1st edition 1994, reedited.
Initiation à l'économie politique : analyse économique de la Suisse, 1st edition 1982, reedited.
Economie politique et politique économique de la Suisse, 1st edition 1979, reedited.
The regional adjustment process and regional monetary policy, 1978.
La théorie pure des termes de l'échange international, doctorate thesis, 1971.
References
External links
Official biography
|-
1946 births
Living people
People from Fribourg
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Swiss economists
Swiss Roman Catholics
University of Fribourg alumni
King's College, Cambridge
University of Fribourg faculty
University of Geneva faculty
Presidents of the United Nations General Assembly
Mayors of places in Switzerland
Foreign ministers of Switzerland | [
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240028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adidas | Adidas | Adidas AG (; stylized as adidas since 1949) is a German multinational corporation, founded and headquartered in Herzogenaurach, Bavaria, that designs and manufactures shoes, clothing and accessories. It is the largest sportswear manufacturer in Europe, and the second largest in the world, after Nike. It is the holding company for the Adidas Group, which consists of the Reebok sportswear company, 8.33% of the German football club Bayern München, and Runtastic, an Austrian fitness technology company. Adidas' revenue for 2018 was listed at €21.915 billion.
The company was started by Adolf Dassler in his mother's house; he was joined by his elder brother Rudolf in 1924 under the name Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik ("Dassler Brothers Shoe Factory"). Dassler assisted in the development of spiked running shoes (spikes) for multiple athletic events. To enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to utilising canvas and rubber. Dassler persuaded U.S. sprinter Jesse Owens to use his handmade spikes at the 1936 Summer Olympics. In 1949, following a breakdown in the relationship between the brothers, Adolf created Adidas, and Rudolf established Puma, which became Adidas' business rival.
The three stripes are Adidas' identity mark, having been used on the company's clothing and shoe designs as a marketing aid. The branding, which Adidas bought in 1952 from Finnish sports company Karhu Sports for the equivalent of €1,600 and two bottles of whiskey, became so successful that Dassler described Adidas as "The three stripes company".
History
Early years: the "Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik"
The company was founded by Adolf "Adi" Dassler who made sports shoes in his mother's scullery or laundry room in Herzogenaurach, Germany after his return from World War I. In July 1924, his older brother Rudolf joined the business, which became "Dassler Brothers Shoe Factory" (). The electricity supply in Herzogenaurach was unreliable, so the brothers sometimes had to use pedal power from a stationary bicycle to run their equipment.
Dassler assisted in the development of spiked running shoes (spikes) for multiple athletic events. To enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to utilising canvas and rubber. In 1936, Dassler persuaded U.S. sprinter Jesse Owens to use his hand made spikes at the 1936 Summer Olympics. Following Owens' four gold medals, the name and reputation of Dassler shoes became known to the world's sportsmen and their trainers. Business was successful and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes every year before World War II.
Both Dassler brothers joined the NSDAP in May 1933 and became also members of the National Socialist Motor Corps. Furthermore, Adolf took the rank of Sportwart in the Hitler Youth from 1935 until the end of the war. During the war, the company was running the last sport shoe factory in the country and predominantly supplied the Wehrmacht with shoes. In 1943 the shoe production was forced to cease operations and the company's facilities and workforce was used to manufacture anti-tank weapons. From 1942 to 1945 at least nine forced labourers were working at both sites of the company.
The Dassler factory, used for production of anti-tank weapons during World War II, was nearly destroyed in 1945 by US forces, but was spared when Adolf Dassler's wife convinced the American soldiers that the company and its employees were only interested in manufacturing sports shoes. American occupying forces subsequently became major buyers of the Dassler brothers' shoes.
Split and rivalry with Puma
The brothers split up in 1947 after relations between them had broken down, with Rudolf forming a new firm that he called Ruda – from Rudolf Dassler, later rebranded Puma, and Adolf forming a company formally registered as Adidas AG from Adi Dassler on 18 August 1949. An urban myth has promulgated the backronym All Day I Dream About Sports.
Puma SE and Adidas entered into a fierce and bitter business rivalry after the split. Indeed, the town of Herzogenaurach was divided on the issue, leading to the nickname "the town of bent necks" — people looked down to see which shoes strangers wore. Even the town's two football clubs were divided: ASV Herzogenaurach club was supported by Adidas, while 1 FC Herzogenaurach endorsed Rudolf's footwear. When handymen were called to Rudolf's home, they would deliberately wear Adidas shoes. Rudolf would tell them to go to the basement and pick out a pair of free Pumas. The two brothers never reconciled and although they are now buried in the same cemetery, they are spaced as far apart as possible.
In 1948, the first football match after World War II, several members of the West German national football team wore Puma boots, including the scorer of West Germany's first post-war goal, Herbert Burdenski. Four years later, at the 1952 Summer Olympics, 1500 metres runner Josy Barthel of Luxembourg won Puma's first Olympic gold in Helsinki, Finland.
At the 1960 Summer Olympics, Puma paid German sprinter Armin Hary to wear Pumas in the 100 meter sprint final. Hary had worn Adidas before and asked Adolf for payment, but Adidas rejected this request. The German won gold in Pumas, but then laced up Adidas for the medals ceremony, to the shock of the two Dassler brothers. Hary hoped to cash in from both, but Adi was so enraged he banned the Olympic champion.
Corporate image
In 1952, following the 1952 Summer Olympics, Adidas acquired its signature 3-stripe logo from the Finnish athletic footwear brand Karhu Sports, for two bottles of whiskey and the equivalent of €1600.
The Trefoil logo was designed in 1971 and launched in 1972, just in time for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich. This logo lasted until 1997, when the company introduced the "three bars" logo (that had been designed by then Creative Director Peter Moore), initially used on the Equipment range of products.
Tapie affair
After a period of trouble following the death of Adolf Dassler's son Horst Dassler in 1987, the company was bought in 1990 by French industrialist Bernard Tapie, for ₣1.6 billion (now €243.9 million), which Tapie borrowed. Tapie was at the time a famous specialist of rescuing bankrupt companies, an expertise on which he built his fortune.
Tapie decided to move production offshore to Asia. He also hired Madonna for promotion. He sent, from Christchurch, New Zealand, a shoe sales representative to Germany and met Adolf Dassler's descendants (Amelia Randall Dassler and Bella Beck Dassler) and was sent back with a few items to promote the company there.
In 1992, unable to pay the loan interest, Tapie mandated the Crédit Lyonnais bank to sell Adidas, and the bank subsequently converted the outstanding debt owed into equity of the enterprise, which was unusual as per the prevalent French banking practice. The state-owned bank had tried to get Tapie out of dire financial straits as a personal favour to Tapie, it is reported, because Tapie was Minister of Urban Affairs (ministre de la Ville) in the French government at the time.
Robert Louis-Dreyfus, a friend of Bernard Tapie, became the new CEO of the company in 1994. He was also the president of Olympique de Marseille, a team Tapie had owned until 1993. Tapie filed for personal bankruptcy in 1994. He was the object of several lawsuits, notably related to match fixing at the football club. During 1997, he served 6 months of an 18-month prison sentence in La Santé prison in Paris. In February 2000, Crédit Lyonnais sold Adidas to Louis-Dreyfus for a much higher amount of money than Tapie owed, 4.485 billion (€683.514 million) francs rather than 2.85 billion (€434.479 million). They also purposely bankrupted Tapie's company that owned Adidas, because only the company had the right to sue them.
Post-Tapie era
In 1994, combined with FIFA Youth Group, SOS Children's Villages became the main beneficiary.
In 1997, Adidas AG acquired the Salomon Group who specialized in ski wear, and its official corporate name was changed to Adidas-Salomon AG. With this acquisition Adidas also acquired the Taylormade Golf company and Maxfli, which allowed them to compete with Nike Golf.
In 1998, Adidas sued the NCAA over their rules limiting the size and number of commercial logos on team uniforms and team clothing. Adidas withdrew the suit, and the two groups established guidelines as to what three-stripe designs would be considered uses of the Adidas trademark.
As CEO of Adidas, Louis-Dreyfus quadrupled revenue to €5.84 billion ($7.5 billion) from 1993 through 2000. In 2000, he announced he would resign the following year, due to illness.
In 2003, Adidas filed a lawsuit in a British court challenging Fitness World Trading's use of a two-stripe motif similar to Adidas' three stripes. The court ruled that despite the simplicity of the mark, Fitness World 's use was infringing because the public could establish a link between that use and Adidas' mark.
In September 2004, top English fashion designer Stella McCartney launched a joint-venture line with Adidas, establishing a long-term partnership with the corporation. This line is a sports performance collection for women called "Adidas by Stella McCartney", and it has been critically acclaimed.
Also, on 3 May 2005, Adidas told the public that they sold their partner company Salomon Group for €485 million to Amer Sports of Finland.
In August 2005, Adidas declared its intention to buy Reebok for $3.8 billion (US$). This takeover was completed with partnership in January 2006 and meant that the company had business sales closer to those of Nike in North America. The acquisition of Reebok also allowed Adidas to compete with Nike worldwide as the number two athletic shoemaker in the world.
Adidas has global corporate headquarters in Germany, and many other business locations around the world such as Portland OR, Hong Kong, Toronto, Taiwan, England, Japan, Australia, and Spain.
In 2005, Adidas introduced the Adidas 1, the first ever production shoe to use a microprocessor. Dubbed by the company "The World's First Intelligent Shoe", it features a microprocessor capable of performing 5 million calculations per second that automatically adjusts the shoe's level of cushioning to suit its environment. The shoe requires a small, user-replaceable battery that lasts for approximately 100 hours of running. On 25 November 2005, Adidas released a new version of the Adidas 1 with an increased range of cushioning, allowing the shoe to become softer or firmer, and a new motor with 153 percent more torque.
On 11 April 2006, Adidas announced an 11-year deal to become the official NBA clothing provider. The company has been making NBA, NBDL, and WNBA jerseys and products as well as team-coloured versions of the "Superstar" basketball shoe. This deal (worth over $400 million) took over the previous Reebok deal that had been put in place in 2001 for 10 years.
In November 2011, Adidas announced that it would acquire outdoor action sport performance brand Five Ten through a share purchase agreement. The total purchase price was US$25 million in cash at closing.
By the end of 2012, Adidas was reporting their highest revenues ever and Chief Executive Herbert Hainer expressed optimism for the year ahead.
In January 2015, Adidas launched the footwear industry's first reservation mobile app. The Adidas Confirmed app allows consumers to get access to and reserve the brand's limited edition sneakers by using geo targeting technology.
On 24 March 2015, Adidas and McDonald's unveiled the 2015 McDonald's All-American uniforms. For the third year in a row, players will be wearing short-sleeved jerseys, made with the same lightweight and breathable material as the ones used in the NBA.
In August 2015, Adidas acquired fitness technology firm Runtastic for approximately $240 million.
In May 2017 Adidas sold TaylorMade golf company (including Ashworth) to KPS Capital Partners for $425 million.
Products
Apparel
Adidas sells a range of clothing items, varying from men's and women's t-shirts, jackets, hoodies, pants and leggings.
The first Adidas item of apparel was the Franz Beckenbauer tracksuit created in 1967. Adidas AG is the largest manufacturer of sports bras in Europe, and the second largest manufacturer in the world.
Sportswear
Association football
One of the main focuses of Adidas has always been football kits, and the associated equipment. Adidas remains a major company in the global supply of team kits for international association football teams and clubs.
Adidas makes referee kits that are used in international competition and by many countries and leagues in the world. The company has been an innovator in the area of footwear for the sport, with notable examples including the 1979 release of the Copa Mundial moulded boot used for matches on firm dry pitches. It holds the accolade of the best selling boot of all time. The soft-ground equivalent was named World Cup and it too remains on the market.
Since 1970, FIFA, the world governing body of football, has commissioned specially designed footballs for use in its own World Cup tournaments. The Adidas Telstar was the first ball commissioned for the World Cup in 1970. The balls supplied for the 2006 World Cup, the "Teamgeist", were particularly noteworthy for their ability to travel further than previous types when struck, leading to longer range goals. Goalkeepers were generally believed to be less comfortable with the design of the ball, claiming it was prone to move significantly and unpredictably in flight.
Adidas introduced the Jabulani for the 2010 World Cup. The ball was designed and developed by Loughborough University in conjunction with Bayern Munich. The Adidas Brazuca for the 2014 World Cup was the first World Cup ball named by the fans.
Adidas is one of the official sponsors of the UEFA Champions League, and the Adidas Finale is the competition's official match ball. Along with the aforementioned Adidas Predator boot, Adidas manufactures the adiPure range of football boots. Adidas named an official match ball of the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament the Adidas Beau Jeu which translates to "The Beautiful Game" in English. Adidas provides clothing and equipment for all teams in Major League Soccer.
Baseball
Adidas has also provided baseball equipment and sponsors numerous players of Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball in Japan.
Adidas Baseball hardgoods are licensed to Dick's Sporting Goods.
From 1997 to 2008, Adidas sponsored New York Yankees.
Basketball
Adidas' Superstar and Pro Model shoes, affectionately known as "shelltoes" for their stylized hard rubber toe box, were fueled by, among others, coaches such as UCLA's John Wooden. Adidas drew about even with Converse in basketball by the mid 1970s before both started to fall behind then-upstart Nike in the early 1980s. Subsequently, Adidas Superstar became very popular in the 1980s hip hop streetwear scene alongside Adidas' stripe-sided polyester suits.
From 2006 to 2017, Adidas was the uniform supplier of all the 30 teams in the National Basketball Association, replacing the Reebok brand after Adidas' acquisition of Reebok. Adidas was replaced by Nike as the official uniform supplier of the league after the 2016–17 season.
Cricket
Adidas began manufacturing cricket footwear in the mid 1970s, with their initial target market being Australia. Their shoes were a radical departure from traditional leather cricket boots which had remained basically unchanged for decades, being lighter and more flexible but also offering less toe protection, so that it became not uncommon to see batsmen who had been struck by the ball on the foot hopping around in pain. Having continued to manufacture cricket footwear for many years, in 2006 the company finally entered the field of bat manufacture in 2008 and currently their bat range includes the Pellara, Incurza, Libro and M-Blaster models.
In the 1990s, Adidas signed the superstar Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar and made shoes for him. From 2008 until his retirement, Adidas had sponsored the cricket bat used by Tendulkar. It created a new bat, 'Adidas MasterBlaster Elite', personalized for him.
In 2008, Adidas made a concerted move into English cricket market by sponsoring English batting star Kevin Pietersen after the cancellation of his lifetime deal with Woodworm, when they ran into financial difficulties. The following year they signed up fellow England player Ian Bell, Pakistan opening batsman Salman Butt and Indian Player Ravindra Jadeja.
In the Indian Premier League (IPL), Adidas sponsored the team Mumbai Indians from 2008 to 2014 and Delhi Daredevils from 2008 to 2013. They were the official sponsors of Pune Warriors India in 2011 and 2012, however the team was banned from IPL due to payment issues. In 2015 Season, Adidas sponsored Royal Challengers Bangalore.
Golf
Adidas Golf manufactures golf clothing, footwear, and accessories. Men's and women's equipment includes footwear, shirts, shorts, pants, outerwear (wind suits), base layer and eyewear.
Gymnastics
From 2000 to 2012, Adidas has provided men's and women's gymnastics wear for Team USA, through USA Gymnastics. USA Gymnastics and Adidas sponsorship concluded at the end of 2012. In 2006, Adidas gymnastics leotards for women and Adidas men's competition shirts, gymnastics pants and gymnastics shorts have been available in the United States, with seasonal leotards offered for Spring, Summer, Fall and Holidays. Adidas previous collaborated with GK Elite, since Spring 2013, Adidas gymnastics products have been available worldwide through Elegant Sports. USA Olympic team members McKayla Maroney, Jordyn Wieber, Jake Dalton and Danell Leyva are all sponsored by Adidas gymnastics.
Ice hockey
Adidas has been providing uniforms for the National Hockey League since the 2017-18 season, replacing Reebok.
Lacrosse
In 2007, Adidas announced its entering to the lacrosse equipment, also sponsoring the Adidas National Lacrosse Classic in July 2008 for the top 600 high school underclassmen players in the United States. The company made their self into their own brand such as "Adidas Lacrosse", getting several scholarships, Bucknell (men and women), Bryant (men), Delaware (men and women), New Jersey Institute of Technology (men), and D3 powerhouse Lynchburg (men and women in fall of 2016 with soft good only)". Materials that adidas provided were jerseys, shorts, shoes, shafts, heads, gloves, and protective pieces.
Products manufactured for the sport are sticks, gloves, protective gear and boots.
Running
Adidas currently manufactures several running and lifestyle shoes, including the Energy-boost, and the spring-blade trainers. The brand has built a strong runners' network within big European capitals, such as Paris' "Boost Energy League". In 2016 the 3rd season launched. In Paris, the Boost Energy League gathers 11 teams representing different districts of Paris.
Adidas launched two new color ways of the NMD R1 and one new color way of the NMD XR1 in September 2016.
adidas EQT is a style of sneakers from adidas. It originated in the early 90s and relaunched in 2017. The latest adidas EQT line released in a "Turo Red" Pack on 26 January 2017, and included models such as the adidas EQT Support 93/17, EQT Support ADV, and EQT Support Ultra. adidas.com is one of the few online retailers.
In November 2016, Adidas teased a sneaker made from ocean plastic. The shoe is created from a fabric called "Biosteel". The shoe is called the "Adidas Futurecraft Biofabric." The material used is 15% lighter than conventional silk fibers, and is 100% biodegradable. The shoe only begin to dissolve when it is put in contact with a high concentration of the digestion enzyme proteinase, which occurs naturally. Once this happens, the shoes can decompose within 36 hours. The shoe was never released.
Skateboarding
Adidas Skateboarding produces shoes made specifically for skateboarding, including the redesign of previous models for skateboarding. The brand also releases signature models designed by team riders.
Tennis
Adidas has been involved with tennis equipment since the mid 1960s and has historically sponsored many top tennis players, beginning with two of the most dominant male tennis players at the start of the professional era in the late 1960s, Stan Smith and Ilie Nastase. During the 1980s and 1990s, not only were they exclusive apparel and footwear sponsors of world number one men's tennis players Ivan Lendl and Stefan Edberg and ladies' world number one Steffi Graf but each player had their own, exclusive graphic styles designed for their use during play, which were in turn marketed to the general public. Ivan Lendl even spent the vast majority of his dominant career playing with several different models of Adidas tennis racquets, primarily using the legendary Adidas GTX-Pro and then later the Adidas GTX Pro-T. The company recently introduced a new line of tennis racquets. While the Feather is made for the "regular player", and the Response for the "club player", Adidas targets the "tournament player" with the 12.2 oz Barricade tour model.
Kabaddi
Adidas entered Kabaddi which is still a non-Olympic sport but highly popular in the Indian subcontinent and Asian countries. In 2014, with the launch of Pro Kabaddi League a city based franchise league in India, kabaddi took the region with storm. In 2015, they tied up with Mumbai-based franchise U Mumba.
"The association of kabaddi with adidas is a clear exemplification of the growth of the sport over the last two years," shared U Sports CEO, Supratik Sen.
Accessories
Adidas also designs and makes slide-style sandals, mobile accessories, watches, eyewear, bags, baseball caps, and socks. As well, Adidas has a branded range of male and female deodorants, perfumes, aftershave and lotions.
Adidas announced they would be launching a new $199 Fit Smart wristband in mid-August 2014. The wristband will pair with Adidas' miCoach app, which acts as a personal trainer.
Adilette
Adilette was the first ever pair of sandals made by Adidas, originally developed in 1963. Adidas claims that a group of athletes approached Adi Dassler requesting a shoe be made for the locker room. To this day, the resulting sandals are a best-seller. Since the original navy blue and white Adilette sandals were created nearly fifty years ago, more varieties have been created in different colours (black, red, green, grey, orange, brown, yellow, pink, golden, silver). Most recently, Adidas has introduced a colour scheme that goes along with its Predator and adizero line; the scheme is dubbed warning (orange) and purple. Usually, the three stripes appear in the contrasting colour on the strap of the classic models. The most common adilette livery is in navy blue or black, mixed with white colours. Also the Woodilette and Trefoil models follow a similar design but without stripes on the strap.
The model provides a contoured orthopedic rubber sole with synthetic upper, and was designed as an après-sport slide, but the adilette were quickly adopted outside of the sporting world.
Santiossage
The Santiossage is a slide-style sandal. The sandal has the trademarked three stripes on a velcro strap toward the front of the shoe. Santiossage comes in black, navy, or red. On the side of the shoe, toward the heel on either side, the manufacturer's name appears, as well as on a round emblem in the actual heel of the foot-bed. Notably, there are tiny clear massage nubs throughout the foot-bed for the purpose of massaging after-sport footaches, although the sandals are worn casually among non-athletes. Seen through these clear nubs are Adidas' three stripes.
Adissage
Adissage is also a slide sandal. Available in black, navy, light blue, black with pink, and other assorted colors, the sandal has the trademarked three stripes on a velcro strap toward the front of the shoe. On the side of the shoe, toward the heel on either side, the manufacturers name appears, as well as on a round emblem in the actual heel of the footbed. Like the Santiossage, there are tiny black massage nubs throughout the foot-bed for the purpose of massaging foot aches after sport, although popular as a casual sandal amongst non-athletes as well.
Marketing
During the mid to late 1990s, Adidas divided the brand into three main groups with each a separate focus: Adidas Performance was designed to maintain their devotion to the athlete; Adidas Originals was designed to focus on the brand's earlier designs which remained a popular life-style icon; and Style Essentials, which dealt with the fashion market; the main group within this being Y-3 (which is a collaboration between Adidas and renowned Japanese fashion designer Yohji Yamamoto - the Y representing Yamamoto and the 3 representing the three stripes of Adidas).
Launched in 2004, "Impossible is Nothing" is one of the company's most memorable campaigns. The campaign was developed by 180/TBWA based in Amsterdam, but significant work was also done by TBWA\Chiat\Day in San Francisco. A few years later, Adidas launched a basketball specific campaign -- "Believe in 5ive"—for the 2006-2007 NBA season.
In 2011, "Adidas is all in" became the global marketing strategy slogan for Adidas. The slogan aimed to tie all brands and labels together, presenting a unified image to consumers interested in sports, fashion, street, music and pop culture. There appears to be connection with the phrase "all-in" meaning "exhausted" in some English speaking nations.
In 2015, Adidas launched "Creating the New" as its strategic business plan until 2020.
Marketing in India
India has been a very speculative market for Adidas. Despite this Dave Thomas, managing director of Adidas in India is ambitious of the country's potential. The company hopes to double its revenue from Rs. 805 crores by 2020. In 2015, the company had signed Ranveer Singh a prominent Bollywood actor as a brand ambassador to the company's products. Ranveer then was a budding actor. The company later decided to use the people's almost religious adoration for the game cricket to promote their brand. It soon launched a new cricket campaign in the country. The campaign was called FeelLoveUseHate with prominent Indian cricketer Virat Kohli. However, in 2017, Virat Kohli was removed as the brand ambassador of the company. The cricketer later signed a major deal with Puma India. The company also sells its products online through e-commerce websites such as Myntra, Snapdeal, Jabong and Amazon. Adidas also has a website dedicated to the Indian audience that markets and sells products to its consumers in India.
Game advertisement
The brand is featured in several games, including Daley Thompson's Olympic Challenge (Commodore Amiga), Adidas power soccer (Sony PlayStation) and Adidas Championship Football (Commodore 64, ZX spectrum, Amstrad CPC).
Collaborations
Adidas has done several collaborations with well known designers, including Jeremy Scott, Alexander Wang, and Raf Simons. They have also reached out to several celebrities, such as Beyoncé, Kanye West, Pharrell Williams, and Stan Smith to create some of the company's most notable and coveted pieces.
Sponsorship
Adidas has numerous major kit deals with football clubs worldwide, including their main sponsor Bayern München. Moreover, their sponsored national teams include Germany, Spain, Mexico, Argentina, Sweden, Japan and Russia.
Adidas has sponsored numerous players, including Lionel Messi, Zinedine Zidane, Kaká, David Beckham, Steven Gerrard, Gareth Bale, Thomas Müller, Xavi, Mesut Özil, James Rodríguez, Iker Casillas, Arjen Robben, Paul Pogba, Dele Alli, Luis Suárez, Ivan Rakitić, Diego Costa, Mohamed Salah, Roberto Firmino, Paulo Dybala, Mats Hummels and Manuel Neuer.
Adidas is one of the official sponsors of the UEFA Champions League, and the Adidas Finale is the competition's official match ball. Along with the Adidas Predator boot, Adidas manufactures the adiPure range of football boots. Adidas provides clothing and equipment for all teams in Major League Soccer (MLS).
In July 2014, Adidas and Manchester United agreed to a ten-year kit deal, beginning with the 2015–16 Premier League season. This kit deal has a guaranteed minimum value of £750 million (US$1.29 billion), making it the most valuable kit deal in sports history, and replaced rival Nike as the club's global equipment partner.
In November 2009, World Number 4 tennis player Andy Murray was confirmed as Adidas' highest-paid star with a five-year contract reportedly worth US$24.5 million. In Cincinnati, at the ATP Tennis Tournament in Mason, they have also sponsored the ball-boy and ball-girl uniforms. Adidas is also partners with Malibu Tennis Camp, Green Fitness GmbH and with Schöler & Micke Sportartikel Vertriebs GmbH.
Adidas has sponsored numerous basketball players past and present like Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Tracy McGrady, as well as Chauncey Billups, Derrick Rose, Brandon Knight, Eric Gordon, Josh Smith, Damian Lillard, Andrew Wiggins, Tim Duncan, Jeremy Lin, Iman Shumpert, John Wall and Nick Young. Adidas endorsed Kobe Bryant with the Adidas Equipment KB8 as his first signature shoe until July 2002. The company also endorsed Kevin Garnett until he opted out of his contract in 2010. Gilbert Arenas was an Adidas endorser until 2010. In August 2015, James Harden left Nike for Adidas by signing a 13-year contract reportedly worth US$200 million.
In rugby union, Adidas is the current kit supplier to the All Blacks, the France national team, the Italian national rugby team and the South African Stormers and Western Province rugby union teams among others. Adidas is also the New Zealand Rugby Union clothing sponsor and supplies clothing to all Super Rugby franchises, a selection of domestic teams and national referees. Adidas are also the official match ball supplier to the Heineken Cup. Adidas was the British and Irish Lions kit supplier from 1997 to 2013. They are the jersey manufacturers of the Gold Coast Titans Rugby League club in the Australasian National Rugby League. Dual rugby and league international and former boxer Sonny Bill Williams is a global ambassador for Adidas.
Adidas has provided field hockey equipment and sponsors numerous players of Germany, England, Netherlands, Australia, Spain and Belgium. The company has been the kit provider of Argentine women's and men's teams for over 15 years. The company also sponsored clubs Reading, Beeston and East Grinstead.
Adidas also sponsors pro golfers including Sergio García, Dustin Johnson, Danielle Kang, Collin Morikawa, Joaquín Niemann and Xander Schauffele. Since Adidas does not make golf equipment the sponsorship is more limited to clothing and shoes.
In ice hockey, Adidas signed an agreement with National Hockey League (NHL) to be the official outfitter of uniforms and licensed apparel, starting in the 2017–18 season. Adidas will replace its own subsidiary Reebok as official provider.
Adidas' cricket sponsorships include cricketers Lasith Malinga, Kieron Pollard, Dwayne Bravo and K. L. Rahul.
Adidas sponsorships Ivan Zaytsev volleyball player.
Earvin N'Gapeth volleyball player it advertises as a model and brand ambassador for Adidas.
Rivalries
In 2016, it had filed lawsuits against Skechers, one for making a duplicate Stan Smith design, and another for Adidas replicas such as "Springblade".
Corporate information
Current executive board
CEO: Kasper Rørsted
Chief Financial Officer: Harm Ohlmeyer
Global Brands: Eric Liedtke
Global Operations: Gil Steyeart
Global Sales: Roland Auschel
Former management
CEO (1993–2002): Robert Louis-Dreyfus.
CEO (2002–2016): Herbert Hainer
Financial information
Criticism
Adidas' business practises/ethics and commitment to worker welfare have been scrutinised and often criticised.
2011 All Blacks replica rugby jersey pricing controversy
Unhappy with the local price of the Adidas replica All Blacks jersey, New Zealand-based All Blacks fans have asked for price cuts and begun purchasing the jersey from overseas vendors after it was revealed that the local price of NZ$220 was more than twice the price offered on some websites.
Adidas has responded by enforcing cross-border agreements to stop overseas retailers from selling to New Zealand residents. It has been labelled a public relations disaster by leading New Zealand PR firms and Consumer advocate groups. The largest New Zealand sportswear retailer Rebel Sport has stated it is angry and is considering selling the All Blacks Jerseys to the general public below cost.
2012 "shackle" sneakers
On 14 June 2012, Adidas posted on their Facebook page a picture of a pair of Jeremy Scott-designed shoes containing shackles. The picture was of a planned shoe line that Adidas intended to release in July. The photo quickly caused controversy including that of Jesse Jackson who was quoted as saying "The attempt to commercialize and make popular more than 200 years of human degradation, where blacks were considered three-fifths human by our Constitution is offensive, appalling and insensitive". Jackson threatened a boycott, and NBA commissioner David Stern was at one point reportedly contacted in hopes that he would intervene. Shortly after the outcry, the company cancelled the product.
Sweatshops and labour rights violations
Adidas has been criticized for operating sweatshops, particularly in Indonesia. Between 2006 and 2007, Adidas rejected many of its suppliers that supported unions in favour of subcontractors with worse labour rights records. By subcontracting work to different suppliers, it is more difficult for Adidas to ensure company labour standards are enforced. Adidas' policy includes the freedom for workers to take part in collective bargaining and a non-retaliation policy towards workers who express concerns. In practice, however, many of Adidas' suppliers have not upheld these standards. At the Panarub factory in Java, 33 workers were fired after striking for better pay in 2005. PT Kizone is another Indonesian factory where Adidas has been criticized over treatment of workers. They produced products for Adidas as well as Nike and the Dallas Cowboys until they closed in January 2011. 2,686 workers who were laid off are owed $3 million in severance pay and benefits. Nike has contributed $1.5 million but Adidas has not acted. A campaign has been initiated by United Students Against Sweatshops calling for universities to cut contracts with Adidas. On 16 July 2012, War on Want organised activists in London to replace Adidas price tags in sports stores with 34p ones, a reference to the low hourly wage rate paid to the Indonesian workers who make Adidas goods. The campaign group Labour Behind the Label claimed that the basic pay of Indonesian Adidas workers was only £10 a week. William Anderson, head of social and environmental affairs for the Asia Pacific region, posted an entry on the company blog in which he claimed that total wages including bonuses and overtime were often double the hourly wage, and drew attention to purchasing power parity.
In April 2014, one of the biggest strikes on mainland China took place at the Yue Yuen Industrial Holdings Dongguan shoe factory, producing amongst others for Adidas.
Soviet themed items, and advertising
In 2018, Adidas promoted a line of Soviet themed items. After a social media outcry, they were taken off the market.
NCAA corruption scandal
Adidas executive James Gatto has been indicted in the 2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball corruption scandal.
Racial diversity controversy
In June 2020, the head of global human resources at Adidas voluntarily stepped down after black employees raised concerns about her failure to address racism and discrimination in the workplace. The former HR chief had also made a comment about racism being "noise," in addition to not adequately addressing workforce diversity. Upon her resignation, she made a statement saying that she supports the company's continued progress towards racial justice and offered an apology.
See also
Adidas Originals
List of Adidas sponsorships
List of swimwear brands
Puma SE, formed by Rudolf Dassler, brother of Adolf Dassler
References
Sources
"Adidas-Strategy Overview". Adidas Group. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
External links
1970s fashion
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Athletic shoe brands
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German companies established in 1924 | [
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240030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Bourgknecht | Jean Bourgknecht | Jean Bourgknecht (16 September 1902 – 23 December 1964) was a Swiss politician, mayor of Fribourg (1950–1959) and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1959–1962).
Jean Bourgknecht was born to Louis and Eugénie-Louise Bourgknecht in Fribourg. After getting his doctorate in law in 1926, he worked in his father's office and later headed it until he was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland. From 1936 to 1947 he was presiding the Law Society of Fribourg and from 1937 to 1941 the Law Society of Switzerland.
He was president of the city of Fribourg from 1950 to 1959. He worked to recover the city's finances. In 1951 he was elected to the National Council of Switzerland for the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland and represented the Canton of Fribourg there until 1955. He was then elected into the Council of States where he represented his canton from 1956 to 1959. Also in 1956 he became president of his party.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 17 December 1959 and handed over office on 30 September 1962 because of an illness. During his time in office he held the Department of Finance.
References
External links
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
1902 births
1964 deaths
People from Fribourg
Mayors of places in Switzerland
20th-century Swiss politicians
University of Bern alumni | [
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240034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave%20Ador | Gustave Ador | Gustave Ador (23 December 1845 – 31 March 1928) was a Swiss politician. In 1919, he became President of the Confederation.
Biography
Origins
Ador was born in Cologny, a municipality of Geneva. He was the grandson of Jean Pierre Ador, an immigrant from Vaud, who obtained his Genevan citizenship in 1814. Ador studied law at the academy (now the university) of Geneva, and in 1868 became a lawyer.
Early political career
In 1871, Ador started his political career as a member of the communal council of Cologny, and was twice mayor, in 1878-9 and 1883-5.
He was a member of the cantonal parliament 1874-6, and continuously from 1878 to 1915 save for a short break in 1902. In 1878-9 he represented Geneva in the Swiss Conseil des États. Then he became a member of the executive of the canton of Geneva, being put in charge of the Department of Justice and Police. He resigned after an unfavourable election in 1880, but once more became a member of the cantonal executive in 1885, and for 12 years had charge of the cantonal finances.
National Council
In 1889, he became a member of the Swiss Conseil National (Swiss National Council), and remained so until 1917, being elected President of the Swiss National Council in 1901. He was president of the cantonal executive in 1890, 1892, and 1896.
In 1894, he became lieutenant-colonel in the Swiss Army.
Ador served as the president of the International Committee of the Red Cross from 1910 to 1928. In 1914, he founded in Geneva the association for facilitating communications between prisoners of war and the central Geneva agency, and succeeded in giving this enterprise great importance and a widespread extension.
Federal Council
After the enforced resignation of Arthur Hoffmann, Ador, in order to soothe the Entente, became a federal councilor (a member of the Federal Executive) on 26 June 1917. He was entrusted with the Department of Foreign Affairs. Towards the end of 1918, he was elected by Parliament to be the Swiss President for 1919, but retired from the Federal Executive at the end of his year of office, on 31 December 1919.
During his time as councilor, along with being in the Department of Foreign Affairs (1917), he was later in the Department of Home Affairs (1918 - 1919). He was affiliated with the Liberal Party.
Notes
References
External links
Fondation Gustave Ador
1845 births
1928 deaths
People from the canton of Geneva
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Liberal Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers
University of Geneva alumni
19th-century Swiss military personnel | [
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240037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlinghurst%2C%20New%20South%20Wales | Darlinghurst, New South Wales | Darlinghurst is an inner-city, eastern suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Darlinghurst is located immediately east of the Sydney central business district (CBD) and Hyde Park, within the local government area of the City of Sydney.
Darlinghurst is a densely populated suburb with the majority of residents living in apartments or terraced houses. Once a slum and red-light district, Darlinghurst has undergone urban renewal since the 1980s to become a cosmopolitan area made up of precincts. Places such as Victoria Street (which connects Darlinghurst to Potts Point in the north), Stanley Street (Little Italy) and Crown Street (Vintage and Retro Fashion) are known as culturally rich destinations. These high street areas are connected by a network of lane-ways and street corners with shops, cafes and bars.
Demographically, Darlinghurst is home to the highest percentage of generation X and Y in Australia. The majority of businesses in Darlinghurst are independently owned and operated small businesses with over 50% of all commercial activity in the area being consumer oriented: indie retail, food, drink, dining, leisure and personal services. Darlinghurst is also home to large number of off-street creative industries.
Darlinghurst's main street is Oxford Street. This major Sydney road runs east from the south-eastern corner of Hyde Park through Darlinghurst and Paddington and terminates at Bondi Junction. Oxford Street is one of Sydney's most famous shopping and dining strips. The Darlinghurst end is well-known around the world as the centre of Sydney's gay community, is the yearly parade route of the Sydney Mardi Gras and the spiritual birthplace of the LGBT rights movement. It is home to a number of prominent gay venues and businesses, while more broadly Darlinghurst is a centre of Sydney's burgeoning small bar scene.
From the 1990s onwards Oxford Street began to garner a reputation for being Sydney's primary "nightclub strip", popular with both gay and straight clubbers, surpassing the notorious red-light district of Kings Cross in popularity. As a result of the influx of revellers, crime rates increased in the area around 2007, particularly for assaults and robberies. This reported increase should be understood in terms of a very low background crime rate in East Sydney in general. The 2014 lockout laws saw many nightclubs close and the crime rate drop once again, with a new focus on small bars, restaurants and cafes after the lockout laws ended in 2020.
There are a number of named localities in and around Darlinghurst including Taylor Square, Three Saints Square, and confusingly also East Sydney. Locals have used this name to refer to the area immediately around Stanley Street in the suburb's west, however the title is used more broadly throughout the area from Woolloomooloo up to Taylor Square where the old Darlinghurst Gaol still has the words East Sydney in brass lettering above the main entrance. This is because from 1900 to 1969 the entire area to the east of Sydney's CBD, from the harbour to Redfern, was an electorate known as the Division of East Sydney. Already in 1820 the entire ridge line running from Potts Point to Surry Hills was known as Eastern Hill.
Darlinghurst shares a postcode (2010) and an extensive soft southern border with neighbouring suburb Surry Hills which, with Paddington to the east and Woolloomooloo, Rushcutters Bay and Potts Point to the north, comprise the metropolitan region of East Sydney. Although only minutes walk away from the Sydney CBD, this region is geographically distinct from it; separated from the more well known commercial centre by several landmarks: Central railway station, Hyde Park, St Mary's Cathedral and The Domain. East Sydney hosts many well-known restaurants.
Sydney's Eastern Suburbs cover all the land from the east of Darlinghurst up to the Pacific Ocean.
History
The suburb was originally known as Eastern Hill and then Henrietta Town, after Governor Lachlan Macquarie's wife, whose second name was Henrietta. The loyalties changed with the change of governors and the suburb became Darlinghurst in honour of Elizabeth Darling, the popular wife of Governor Ralph Darling, during the early 19th century. The suffix 'hurst' is derived from the Old English word hyrst, meaning wooded area. In 1973, Darlinghurst saw a green ban as a ban on all commercial construction was placed by residents as residents demanded that all housing should be high density low-rise with adequate provision for low and middle income families to live within the inner-city area.
Landmarks
Darlinghurst has two of Sydney's museums: the Australian Museum (a natural history museum) and the Sydney Jewish Museum. The suburb also features St Vincent's Hospital, and is associated with the Sacred Heart Hospice on Darlinghurst Road, and the Garvan Institute of Medical Research.
Darlinghurst Gaol
Darlinghurst Gaol, the large sandstone penal complex in the middle of Darlinghurst was built between 1836 and 1840. The large sandstone walls still bear convict markings, and the complex features six wings surrounding a circular chapel. Australian poet Henry Lawson spent time incarcerated here during some of the turbulent years of his life. The last hanging at the gaol was in 1907 (Jahn, 1997). The site became East Sydney Technical College in 1921, but was turned into the National Art School from 1995.
Darlinghurst Fire Station
Darlinghurst Fire Station was completed in 1912, this three-storey brick and stone building occupies a prominent location at the corner of Darlinghurst Road and Victoria Street. It was designed in 1910 by Walter Liberty Vernon (Jahn, 1997). It still functions as a fire station and is listed on the Register of the National Estate.
Darlinghurst Courthouse
Darlinghurst Courthouse is an imposing heritage-listed sandstone building on Taylor Square. It was designed by architect Mortimer Lewis in 1844, and has a Greek Revival style facade. The central block is adapted from an 1823 design in Peter Nicholson's The New Practical Builder (Apperly, Irving & Reynolds, 1989).
Oxford Street
Oxford Street is the major commercial thoroughfare of Darlinghurst, running from the south-east corner of Hyde Park, through Taylor Square and beyond into Paddington, Woollahra and Bondi Junction, respectively. Oxford Street was originally called The South Head Road and work commenced on the road in 1811 (Faro, 2000). It was a toll road in its early years with the toll gates being located near present-day Glenmore Road. Oxford Street assumed its current name in 1875. Oxford Square is located at the intersection of Oxford and Burton Streets. Oxford Square is also the name of a small shopping centre located opposite, on the corner of Oxford and Riley Streets. Football Federation Australia have their head office at 1 Oxford Street.
Stanley Street
Stanley Street is one of the suburb's two secondary restaurant strips (with Victoria Street) and is often referred to as Sydney's first "Little Italy". However, the restaurants range from Japanese, Thai and Italian and the prices range from basic to moderate. There is an annual Italian Festival held here every June.
Victoria Street
Victoria Street is the other major cafe strip. Restaurants range from basic to upmarket. The majority of the cafes have outdoor seating. Several iconic restaurants are in this area, such as Tropicana and Bar Coluzzi.
Inter-War apartments
Ballina, 3-5 Darley Street
Claridge, 28-30 Flinders Street
Greencourt, 1 Darley Street (1919)
Hillcrest, 114 Burton Street
Kurrajong, 138 Darlinghurst Road
Mont Clair, 347 Liverpool Street
Portree, 2a Darley Street
Royal Court, 227 Crown Street
Tennyson House, , 1 Farrell Avenue designed by Claud Hamilton 1924
The Rutland, 381 Liverpool Street
The Savoy, 2-10 Hardy Street designed by Claud Hamilton 1919
The Horizon
The Horizon, located in Forbes Street, Darlinghurst, is a 43-storey residential high-rise building completed in 1998. It has a distinctive scalloped facade and is finished in rendered concrete. The building was designed by Sydney architect Harry Seidler and is controversial in that it was one of the first high-rise buildings constructed in the predominately low rise area, with critics saying it caused overshadowing of the surrounding area. The Horizon apartments consist of a residential tower and two lower buildings of apartments, 6 levels of car parks, swimming pool, a tennis court, gym and surrounding gardens.
Demographics
According to the , there were 11,320 residents in Darlinghurst. 57.8% of people were male and 42.2% female. This was a higher rate of male residents than the national average of 49.3%. In Darlinghurst, 45.2% of people were born in Australia. The most common other countries of birth were England 6.1%, New Zealand 3,8%, Thailand 2.2%, United States of America 2.0% and China 1.6%. 63.0% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Thai 2.1%, Spanish 2.1%, French 1.8%, Mandarin 1.6% and Italian 1.3%. The most common response for religion was No Religion at 42.7%,
Of occupied private dwellings in Darlinghurst, 77.0% were flats or apartments and 21.1% were semi-detached, row or terrace houses, townhouses etc., . Just 0.5% of dwellings were separate houses, compared to the national average of 72.9%.
Commercial area
Darlinghurst's commercial activity is centred on Oxford Street, and extends to Victoria Street, Flinders Street, Crown Street, William Street, and Darlinghurst Road. There are a large number of cafés, restaurants and take-away food stores throughout Darlinghurst, as well as a large number of pubs and nightclubs, many of which are on Oxford Street. These pubs and clubs were subject to controversial 'lock-out' laws imposed by the Liberal state government in February 2014, in which venues stopped admitting new customers after 01:30, and ceased the service of alcohol between 03:00 and 05:00. These laws were introduced as a response to violence in the Inner City of Sydney that was related to alcohol intoxication. The lockout laws were repealed in January 2020 with a focus on small bars over big nightclubs. There is also a significant retail presence, including fashion retailers.
Transport
Darlinghurst is well-served by public transport, with many bus routes from the Eastern Suburbs converging on Oxford Street prior to entering the Sydney central business district. Route 333 between Circular Quay and Bondi Beach travels through Darlinghurst along Oxford Street. Routes 352, 373, 396 and 440 also travel through the suburb on Oxford Street. Buses that travel through the centre of Darlinghurst are routes 311 and 389.
There are no train stations in Darlinghurst, however Kings Cross railway station on the Sydney Trains Eastern Suburbs & Illawarra railway line is just over the northern border of the suburb. Museum station on the City Circle, is located just to the west of Darlinghurst, on the south-west corner of Hyde Park.
Schools
Darlinghurst Public School, located on the corner of Liverpool Street and Womerah Avenue, was opened in 1884. It teaches both boys and girl students from Kindergarten to Year 6 grade. Sydney Grammar School is located on College Street, across the road from Hyde Park. This school is a boys-only private school which opened in 1857.
The Sydney Church of England Girls' Grammar School (now called SCEGGS Darlinghurst) was founded in 1895 in Victoria Street, Darlinghurst. It moved to its current site in Forbes Street, in 1901. The former Marist Brothers High School at 280–296 Liverpool Street is now an apartment complex named Alexandra. The school occupied this site from 1911 until 1968 when it moved to Marist College Canberra.
The National Art School of Australia, a specialist Art school in collaboration with Sydney TAFE, dates back to 1859.
The University of Notre Dame's School of Medicine and the School of Nursing are located in the historic parish buildings associated with the Sacred Heart Parish in Darlinghurst. The complex includes facilities for use by medical and nursing students such as simulated wards, practise wet laboratories and clinical skills laboratories in addition to simulated consulting rooms.
Churches
Darlinghurst has four functioning churches:
God in the City, an Assemblies of God congregation affiliated with Christian City Churches
St. Pauls Lutheran Church congregation (Sydney Lutheran Parish)
St John's, an Anglican congregation. St John's operates Rough Edges, a street outreach centre that functions as a cafe and drop-in centre. It provides a range of services to the local community, including the homeless.
Sacred Heart Catholic Church is on the corner of Darlinghurst Road and Oxford Street.
There is also a variety of smaller chapels and religious services attached to St Vincent's Hospital and other religious organisations in the suburb.
The building which previously housed the Church of Christ, Scientist is now a private residence. There is also the defunct St. Peter's Anglican church, Bourke Street, which is now part of SCEGGS Darlinghurst.
Politics
The area has often been a battleground between the two councils of the City of Sydney and the City of South Sydney. Most of the suburb belonged to South Sydney, however the New South Wales State Government moved the borders repeatedly in order to change the make-up of the City of Sydney. Many claim that these shifts have been attempted to shift the balance of power in the favour of the party in control of the State Government, though some residents of Darlinghurst and Potts Point (the former North Ward of the City of South Sydney) felt that the postcodes of 2010 (Darlinghurst and Surry Hills) and 2011 (Elizabeth Bay, Kings Cross, Rushcutters Bay, Woolloomooloo and Potts Point) were relatively neglected by the City of South Sydney.
However, this battle is now moot since both councils were forced by the State Government to amalgamate in February 2004. An election was held on Saturday, 27 March 2004, in order to elect a new council for the redesignated (expanded) City of Sydney.
Critics of the amalgamation have claimed that the election demonstrated strong voter backlash against the State Government for pressing the issue. The Australian Labor Party, for whom the area was usually safe, had their primary vote reduced to approximately 20%. The independent Clover Moore took the Lord Mayoral position, having campaigned against the Government's dismissal of the Council.
At a federal level, Darlinghurst falls in the electorates of the Division of Sydney and Wentworth. Its current parliamentary representatives are Tanya Plibersek (Labor) and Dave Sharma (Liberal). These electorates have some of the state's strongest support for The Greens.
Heritage listings
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Darlinghurst has a number of heritage-listed sites, including the following sites listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register:
Bourke Street: St Peter's Church
348a Bourke Street: Bourke Street Wesleyan Chapel
411a Bourke Street: St Sophia Greek Orthodox Church, formerly the Bourke Street Congregational Church and School
1 Darley Street: Stoneleigh (a former home of Phillip Adams)
2 Darley Street: Iona
120 Darlinghurst Road: St John's Anglican Church
56 Oxford Street: G. A. Zink and Sons Building
Taylor Square: Darlinghurst Courthouse
intersection of Taylor Square, Oxford, Forbes and Bourke Street: Taylor Square Substation No. 6 and Underground Conveniences
101-115 William Street: William House
Register of the National Estate (defunct register)
The following buildings are listed on the now defunct Register of the National Estate:
Culture
The Darlinghurst area is famous for the annual Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. The parade, first held in 1978 as a protest march by members of the gay and lesbian community, marks the end of a three-week festival and takes place on Oxford Street, the main street that runs through several suburbs, including Darlinghurst.
The Sydney Jewish Museum is on the corner of Darlinghurst Road and Burton Street (148 Darlinghurst Rd) and features exhibitions about the Jewish community in Sydney. There are many small private art galleries in Darlinghurst, including Black Eye Gallery (Darlinghurst Road; photography), King Street Gallery on William (William Street; painting), Conny Dietzschold Gallery (Crown Street; contemporary art), Stanley Street Gallery (Stanley Street; contemporary art), Robin Gibson (Liverpool Street; painting, sculpture), Watters Gallery (Riley Street; painting, sculpture), Gallery 9 (Darley Street; contemporary art) and Liverpool Street Gallery (Liverpool Street; contemporary art). Entry to these galleries is free, and most of the exhibitions will display the work of Australian artists. There is also a gallery in the National Art School (NAS) that hosts exhibitions in a mid-19th century sandstone building.
The Eternity Playhouse in Burton Street Darlinghurst opened in 2013, following the renovation of the former Burton Street Tabernacle, which was founded in 1887. Following its purchase by the City of Sydney in 2004, plans were gradually developed to renovate the building as a theatre. The 200-seat theatre is the home of the Darlinghurst Theatre Company, and the renovation was designed by architecture firm Tonkin Zulaikha Greer.
Notable residents
Phillip Adams, Australian humanist social commentator, broadcaster, public intellectual and farmer - lived at Stoneleigh in the mid to late 1980s
Baz Luhrmann and Catherine Martinlived in Iona (1880) from 1997-2016
George Edward Ardill (1889-1964)evangelist and social worker
Flora Sydney Eldershaw (1897- 1956)author and critic
Cecil Patrick Healy (1881-1918)swimmer and commercial traveller
Michael HutchenceINXS singer lived in Darlinghurst in the 1980s
Karl Stefanovic, host of Nine Network's Today Show
Mark Nielsen, businessman
See also
References
Further reading
Apperly, Richard; Irving, Robert; Reynolds, Peter (1989). A Pictorial Guide to Identifying Australian Architecture: Styles and Terms from 1788 to the Present. Sydney, Angus & Robertson.
Faro, Clive (2000). Street Seen: A History of Oxford St. Carlton South, Melbourne University Press.
Jahn, Graham (1997). Sydney Architecture. Sydney, The Watermark Press.
External links
Sydney City Council
[CC-By-SA]
[CC-By-SA]
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[CC-By-SA]
Suburbs of Sydney
Gay villages in Australia
Entertainment districts in Australia
LGBT culture in Sydney
Red-light districts in Australia
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240044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton%20School%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Pennsylvania | Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania | The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania ( ; also known as Wharton Business School, the Wharton School, and Wharton) is the business school of the University of Pennsylvania, a private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Generally considered to be one of the most prestigious business schools in the world, the Wharton School is the world's oldest collegiate business school, having been established in 1881 through a donation from Joseph Wharton.
The Wharton School awards the Bachelor of Science with a school-specific economics concentration, and Bachelor of Arts degrees focusing on core management, general business, and international studies at the undergraduate level. At the graduate level, the Master of Business Administration (MBA) program offers dual studies leading to a joint degree from other schools (e.g., law, engineering, government). Similarly, in addition to its tracks in accounting, finance, operations, statistics and more, the doctoral program co-sponsors several diploma programs in conjunction with other schools within the University. The college was a pioneer in so-called 'Executive Education'; custom learning experiences that lead to academic enrichment, however with no standing.
Since the establishment of journalistic rankings, Wharton's graduate program has been consistently ranked in the top tier. Its MBA program is ranked No. 2 in the World according to the Financial Times and No. 1 in the United States according to the 2021 U.S. News & World Report ranking. Meanwhile, Wharton's MBA for Executives and undergraduate programs are ranked No. 3 and No. 1 in the United States respectively by U.S. News. MBA graduates of Wharton earn an average $159,815 first year base pay not including bonuses, the highest of all the leading schools. Wharton's MBA program is tied for the highest in the United States with an average GMAT score of 732 (97th percentile) for its entering class.
Wharton school alumni include former U.S. President Donald Trump, SpaceX founder Elon Musk, and billionaire investor Warren Buffett. Current and former CEOs of Fortune 500 companies including Alphabet Inc., General Electric, Boeing, Pfizer, Comcast, Oracle, PepsiCo and Johnson & Johnson are also Wharton School alumni.
History
Joseph Wharton, a native Philadelphian, was a leader in industrial metallurgy who built his fortune through the American Nickel Company and Bethlehem Steel Corporation. As Wharton's business grew, he recognized that business knowledge in the United States was only taught through an apprenticeship system, and such a system was not viable for creating a wider economy during the Second Industrial Revolution. After two years of planning, Wharton in 1881 founded the Wharton School of Finance and Economy through a $100,000 initial pledge, making it the first business school established in the United States. As the French scholar Adrien Jean-Guy Passant recalls, the founders of Wharton School of Finance and Economy traveled to Europe to visit the best business schools. It is also probable – but not certain – that in 1873 he visited the École Supérieure de Commerce de Paris (founded in 1819). ESCP Europe, established in 1819, and a few other business schools were established in Europe prior to Wharton's founding The school was meant to train future leaders to conduct corporations and public organizations in a rapidly evolving industrial era. Wharton was quoted as saying that the school was meant to "instill a sense of the coming strife [in business life]: of the immense swings upward or downward that await the competent or the incompetent soldier in this modern strife."
From the founding of the school, he defined that its goal was "to provide for young men special means of training and of correct instruction in the knowledge and in the arts of modern Finance and Economy, both public and private, in order that, being well informed and free from delusions upon these important subjects, they may either serve the community skillfully as well as faithfully in offices of trust, or, remaining in private life, may prudently manage their own affairs and aid in maintaining sound financial morality: in short, to establish means for imparting a liberal education in all matters concerning Finance and Economy". The school was renamed the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, in 1902, and formally changed its name to simply Wharton School in 1972.
Early on, the Wharton School faculty was tightly connected to an influential group of businessmen, bankers, and lawyers that made up the larger Philadelphia School of Political Economy. The faculty incorporated social sciences into the Wharton curriculum, as the field of business was still under development. Albert S. Bolles, a lawyer, served as Wharton's first professor, and the school's Industrial Research Unit was established in 1921.
Wharton professor Simon Kuznets, who later won the Nobel Prize in Economics, created statistical data on national output, prices, investment, and capital stock and measured seasonability, cycles, and secular trends of these phenomena. His work laid out what became the standard procedure for measuring the gross national product and the gross domestic product, and he later led an international effort to establish the same statistical information for all national economies. Professor Lawrence Klein, who also won the Nobel Prize in Economics, developed the first econometric model of the U.S. economy, which combined economic theory with mathematics, providing another way to test theories and predict future economic trends.
Wharton professor George W. Taylor is credited with founding the academic field of study known as industrial relations. He served in several capacities in the federal government, most notably as a mediator and arbitrator. During his career, Taylor settled more than 2,000 strikes. In 1967, he helped draft the New York State civil service law that legalized collective bargaining in the state but that also banned strikes by public employees—legislation widely known today as the Taylor Law.
Wharton professor Wroe Alderson (1898–1965) is widely recognized as the most important marketing theorist of the twentieth century and the "father of modern marketing". Wharton professor Paul Green is considered to be the "father of conjoint analysis" for his discovery of the statistical tool for quantification of market research.
Wharton professor Solomon S. Huebner is known widely as "the father of insurance education." He originated the concept of "human life value," which became a standard method of calculating insurance value and need. He established the goal of professionalism in the field of insurance, developed the first collegiate-level program in insurance and chaired the Department of Insurance at Wharton, and contributed greatly to the progress of adult education in this area. Wharton professor Daniel M. McGill was widely regarded as the "dean of the pension industry", whose research contributed to shaping the modern retirement system both in the public and corporate sectors.
In 1946, after ENIAC was created at Penn, Wharton created the first multidisciplinary programs in technology management with the School of Engineering and Applied Science. Wharton faculty began to work closely with AT&T, Merrill Lynch, MasterCard, Prudential Insurance and the New York Stock Exchange in analyzing the strategic and commercial implications of information systems.
The Wharton School's first business professor was an attorney, Albert Bolles. At the time, there were no other business schools, and no business professors could be recruited elsewhere. Bolles, a lawyer by education and training, and business journalist by career seemed to be the best option for Joseph Wharton. Bolles started his career as a lawyer in Connecticut in the second half of the 19th century. After resigning from his law firm, he started pursuing a new career in business journalism and was promoted to the editor role of Bankers Magazine, a trade publication, in 1880. Upon joining the Wharton School, he began teaching business with classes on the law of governing finance and on the processes of commercial banking. Bolles' instruction in finance was influenced by his previous experience in Bankers Magazine: he stressed conservative business practices, drawing on business history as much as he could. In his classes, inflationist Congressmen were "self-interested debtors." Besides teaching, Bolles advocated for several national reforms, including the uniform banking law. Wharton historian Steven A. Sass wrote about him, "Bolles thus fulfilled Joseph Wharton's pedagogic expectations and…got the new school off to a respectable start by the spring of 1883". In 1884, the first five business students were awarded a Bachelor of Finance degree. One graduate, Shiro Shiba, returned to Japan where he would become a member of the Diet, the Japanese parliament, and another, Robert Adams, Jr., later was named U.S. Ambassador to Brazil.
Classes in business and finance abounded at the Wharton School, but it lacked in any other areas of business interest. Edmund J. James, with a doctorate from the University of Halle in Germany, reinvigorated the school's curriculum, starting classes on political finance and administration. Later in 1885, James argued for redesigning the course of study at Wharton with elements of German higher education. He wanted to include training in banking, railroading, merchandising, manufacturing, and other similar branches, and expand the course's length to four years from the initial three. Joseph Wharton in November 1893 pledged an additional $75,000 to the school in order to implement James' ideas in the school's curriculum. A more comprehensive study plan was then rolled out. Between 1895 and 1915, James started teaching at Wharton the new fields of finance and management as they were developing in the business world. The Wharton School improved its reputation from a bunch of academic "misfits," and some of its alumni rose in the U.S. business world. During this period, the school continued to attract additional faculty members and expand its research programs.
Wharton began awarding MBA degrees in 1921. In 1942, during World War II, in the same fashion of other schools, Wharton's full-time faculty dropped dramatically from 165 to 39 by 1944. According to school historians, members of the faculty were called upon for special posts. In 1959, Wharton adopted the curriculum that is now taught in most major business schools: the program was changed with liberal arts education doubling to almost half of the curriculum, and the social sciences department was moved to the University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences in 1975. Since then, Wharton faculty have focused exclusively on business education.
Official historical names of the institution include the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, from 1881 to 1901, and the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, from 1902 to 1971.
On February 26, 2020, Erika H. James was named dean of the Wharton School, effective July 1, 2020. She will be both the first woman and the first African-American to lead the business school.
Campus
Philadelphia campus
The Philadelphia campus of the Wharton School has four primary buildings, Jon M. Huntsman Hall, Steinberg Hall-Dietrich Hall, Vance Hall and Lauder-Fischer Hall. In addition, the Steinberg Conference Center houses the Aresty Institute of Executive Education.
Jon M. Huntsman Hall is the Wharton School's main building. The building is a 324,000 square foot structure with 48 seminar and lecture halls, 57 group study rooms, and several auditoriums and conference rooms. It was constructed through a donation from Wharton alumnus Jon M. Huntsman. It also has a 4,000 square foot forum, as well as a colloquium space on the top floor.
Steinberg Hall-Dietrich Hall is a joint 180,000 square foot structure comprising two adjacent halls. It was built in 1952 and expanded in 1983 through a donation from Wharton alumnus Saul Steinberg, and houses the offices of several academic departments at the Wharton School. It also contains lecture halls, conference rooms and common areas for faculty and students.
Vance Hall is a 107,000 square foot structure built in 1972 to house Wharton's graduate programs, administrative offices, lecture halls, and meeting areas.
Lauder-Fischer Hall houses the Joseph H. Lauder Institute for Management and International Studies, and focuses mainly on international business teaching and research initiatives. The Lauder Institute was founded in 1983 by Wharton alumni Leonard Lauder and Ronald Lauder.
In 2014, the Wharton School launched the Student Life Space in Philadelphia's central business district. It is a 20,000 square foot space with conference rooms, meeting rooms and over 20 group study rooms. It also serves as an incubator space for startup companies.
In 2018, it was announced that a new 70,000 square foot campus building for student entrepreneurship would be constructed, following a $25 million donation from the hedge fund manager and philanthropist Nicolai Tangen. The building will be located at 40th and Sansom Streets, and is set to be completed by 2020.
San Francisco campus
In 2001, Wharton launched a satellite campus in San Francisco, California. The Bay Area campus was created to capitalize on the growing start-up culture and related financing sector of Silicon Valley. It serves as a hub on the West Coast for its students and alumni. As of 2012, the campus is open to executive MBA students and to full-time MBA students, who can decide to spend the spring semester of first year, or fall or spring semesters of second year of the MBA program in San Francisco in the Semester in San Francisco Program. For the full-time MBAs, the Semester in San Francisco Program focuses on entrepreneurship, technology, and venture capital.
Undergraduate program
Admissions process
Prospective Wharton candidates apply in their senior year of high school either through the early decision (ED) process or regular decision (RD) process. Unlike many other undergraduate business programs where students transfer in after their freshman or second year (University of Virginia's McIntire, Emory's Goizueta, UC Berkeley's Haas), Wharton applicants apply specifically for Wharton during their senior year of high school. These candidates are then grouped with a pool of applicants separate from those applying to the University of Pennsylvania's College of Arts and Sciences (CAS), School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS), or School of Nursing. Each of the other three schools also forms its own separate pool of applicants.
The legacy status of applicants, defined as having a parent or another direct relative who attended the same academic institution, may be considered in the admissions process. This correlation has been observed in a number of empirical studies conducted on the nation's most elite schools, with a particular focus on Ivy League universities. Leading universities in the United States cite stronger alumni connections and continued support as the primary reasons for this practice.
Graduation and employment
Wharton undergraduate students are required to graduate with a B.S. in Economics with at least 1 of 21 current concentrations. Concentrations range from finance and accounting to lesser-known studies such as business analytics and Social Impact & Responsibility. Obtaining a concentration requires a student to take four classes outside of what is required in the core curriculum. Policy has recently changed such that Wharton students can graduate with a maximum of 2 concentrations rather than 3.
In the 2015–16 school year, 334 employers participated in the on-campus recruiting process; each student received an average of 7.6 first-round interviews and 1.8 job offers. About 48% of Wharton's typical undergraduate class of 650 students go into financial services, with the top sectors being investment banking, investment management, and private equity. The next most common industry after finance is management consulting, which hires approximately 22% of the students, while a significant number of students enter marketing, sales, and the technology industry, particularly in Silicon Valley.
For the Class of 2016, Wharton undergraduate students reported an average expected first-year compensation of $116,676, including an average starting base salary of $77,566, an average signing bonus of $10,493, and an average projected annual bonus of $28,617.
Graduate programs
MBA program
The school offers two paths, an MBA for full-time students and an MBA for executives. Students can elect to pursue double majors or individualized majors. During their first year, all students pursue a required core curriculum that covers traditional management disciplines—finance, marketing, statistics, and strategy—as well as the leadership, ethics, and communication skills needed at senior levels of management. Students pick electives in the second year.
Wharton MBA students may pursue a dual degree with the Lauder Institute, Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, or with one of the graduate schools at the University of Pennsylvania.
MBA students from the Class of 2016 earn an average first-year salary and guaranteed compensation of $145,400. The MBA program annually receives around 7000 applications for the 850 places in the class.
Wharton co-sponsored the Executive Master's in Technology Management Program (EMTM) with the University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering and Applied Science. Graduates received a Master of Science in Engineering (MSE) in the management of technology from the School of Engineering and Applied Science. The EMTM program ended in August 2014.
Wharton is also part of the Wharton-INSEAD Alliance. MBA students from each program can spend one period of study at the partner school, allowing Wharton students access to the INSEAD campuses in both Fontainebleau and Singapore.
Doctoral program
Wharton offers doctor of philosophy degrees in finance, applied economics, management, and other business fields (as opposed to some schools, which grant DBAs). It takes approximately four to six years to complete the doctoral program.
Executive Education
The Wharton School also operates the Aresty Institute of Executive Education (commonly known as "Wharton Executive Education"), a center for continuing business education for senior executives. The institute is named in honor of civic leader, business owner, philanthropist, and Wharton alumnus Julian Aresty and his brother Joseph Aresty, who together endowed the Aresty Institute for Executive Education in 1987.
Wharton Executive Education offers programs for executives in areas such as finance, marketing, strategy, and innovation. Each year, more than 10,000 professionals worldwide attend Wharton Executive Education programs in classes taught by full-time Wharton faculty.
Wharton offers more than 50 open enrollment programs for individuals on campuses in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Beijing, China. Wharton also overs three long-duration open-enrollment programs that confer alumni status upon successful completion. These programs are the Advanced Finance Program, Advanced Management Program, and the General Management Program.
In addition to a large portfolio of open-enrollment programs for individuals, Wharton Executive Education also offers customized programs for organizations. Custom program topic areas include Finance & Value Creation, Leadership Development, Marketing & Sales, and Strategy & Innovation. Industry areas of expertise include Consumer Products, Retail, Energy, Transportation, Financial Services, Health Care, Pharmaceuticals, Manufacturing & Industrials, Professional Services, Technology & Communications.
Wharton Online
Through its online division, Wharton offers massive open online courses on Coursera with specializations in business and financial modeling, business analytics, entrepreneurship, and business foundations. Wharton Online also offers a Leadership and Management Certificate and a Business Analytics Certificate. The division is accredited by the International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET); it was the first online business school to be accredited by this organization.
The COVID-19 pandemic meant a rapid shift towards online teaching, transforming some of the classroom courses into online courses. For years there has been a strong investment in online education, so the school has been able to adapt well to the new circumstances, according to the Financial Times analysis on the adaptation of business schools to COVID-19.
Rankings
General rankings
On December 5, 2003, Wharton enacted a policy of declining to actively participate in the rankings of business school programs, citing student privacy concerns and the methodologies employed.
Wharton is widely regarded as one of the world's top institutions for business education. In 2014–2015, as well as 2017–2018, U.S. News & World Report ranked Wharton's undergraduate program first in the U.S., MBA program tied for first in the U.S., and executive MBA program also first. The undergraduate program at the Wharton School has been ranked number one by U.S. News & World Report every year since inception. The Financial Times has ranked the Wharton School first in the world in every single year between 2000 and 2009, and again in 2011, conferring Wharton with the best overall performance in the rankings. The Wharton School has also been ranked number one by Bloomberg Businessweek four times in a row.
Wharton is well known for its standing in finance education. The school has been listed first on the U.S. News & World Report's "Best Finance Programs" list each consecutive year from its commencement. Similarly, Wharton has maintained its top position in the finance specialization rankings of the QS Global 200 Business Schools Report 2013/14, prompting QS to declare that "Wharton reigns supreme in finance, topping the table again". The New York Times has deemed Wharton's undergraduate population as "the closest thing that exists to a Wall Street farm team", while Poets & Quants has described Wharton as offering the "single best degree" for an education and career in finance, marked by an "intense, competitive culture" within the student body.
Wharton also receives high reputation scores from academics and recruiters each year.
The Wharton School has been ranked first for its Executive MBA Program in 2011, 2012, and 2013 by Poets & Quants, in an integrated ranking system that takes into account data provided by U.S. News & World Report, Bloomberg BusinessWeek, the Wall Street Journal, and the Financial Times.
Academic research rankings
Based on publications in 24 of the world's leading peer-reviewed journals, Wharton holds the top position in research productivity among business schools, and a report by Indiana University indicated that the Wharton School has held the top rank in research productivity each year since 1986 when compilation of this information first commenced.
Notable people
Alumni
Faculty
See also
List of Ivy League business schools
List of United States business school rankings
List of business schools in the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
Nicole Ridgway, The Running of the Bulls: Inside the Cutthroat Race from Wharton to Wall Street, Gotham, 2005.
Steven A. Sass, Pragmatic Imagination: A History of the Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983.
Emory Richard Johnson, The Wharton School: Its Fifty Years, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1931.
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240046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butch%20and%20femme | Butch and femme | Butch and femme (French language, meaning woman; ) are terms used in the lesbian subculture to ascribe or acknowledge a masculine (butch) or feminine (femme) identity with its associated traits, behaviors, styles, self-perception, and so on. The terms were founded in lesbian communities in the twentieth century. This concept has been called a "way to organize sexual relationships and gender and sexual identity". Butch-femme culture is not the sole form of a lesbian dyadic system, as there are many women in butch–butch and femme–femme relationships.
Both the expression of individual lesbians of butch and femme identities and the relationship of the lesbian community in general to the notion of butch and femme as an organizing principle for sexual relating varied over the course of the 20th century. Some lesbian feminists have argued that butch–femme is a replication of heterosexual relations, while other commentators argue that, while it resonates with heterosexual patterns of relating, butch–femme simultaneously challenges it. Research in the 1990s in the United States showed that "95% of lesbians are familiar with butch/femme codes and can rate themselves or others in terms of those codes, and yet the same percentage feels that butch/femme was 'unimportant in their lives.
Etymology and symbology
The word femme is taken from the French word for woman. The word butch, meaning "masculine", may have been coined by abbreviating the word butcher, as first noted in George Cassidy's nickname, Butch Cassidy. However, the exact origin of the word is still unknown.
Butch artist Daddy Rhon Drinkwater created a symbol of a black triangle intersecting a red circle to represent butch/femme "passion and love". The symbol was first used on their website Butch-Femme.com (the website is now defunct).
Attributes
There is debate about to whom the terms butch and femme can apply, and particularly whether transgender individuals can be identified in this way. For example, Jack Halberstam argues that transgender men cannot be considered butch, since it constitutes a conflation of maleness with butchness. He further argues that butch–femme is uniquely geared to work in lesbian relationships. Stereotypes and definitions of butch and femme vary greatly, even within tight-knit LGBT communities. Jewelle Gomez mused that butch and femme women in the earlier twentieth century may have been expressing their closeted transgender identity. Antipathy toward female butches and male femmes has been interpreted by some commentators as transphobia, although female butches and male femmes are not always transgender, and indeed some heterosexuals of both genders display these attributes.
Scholars such as Judith Butler and Anne Fausto-Sterling suggest that butch and femme are not attempts to take up "traditional" gender roles. Instead, they argue that gender is socially and historically constructed, rather than essential, "natural", or biological. The femme lesbian historian Joan Nestle argues that femme and butch may be seen as distinct genders in and of themselves.
Butch
"Butch" can be used as an adjective or a noun to describe an individual's gender performance. The term butch tends to denote a degree of masculinity displayed by a female individual beyond what would be considered typical of a tomboy. It is not uncommon for women with a butch appearance to face harassment or violence. A 1990s survey of butches showed that 50% were primarily attracted to femmes, while 25% reported being usually attracted to other butches. Feminist scholar Sally Rowena Munt described butches as "the recognizable public form of lesbianism" and an outlaw figure within lesbian culture.
BUTCH Voices, a national conference for "individuals who are masculine of center", including gender variant, was founded in 2008.
Femme
Like the term "butch", femme can be used as an adjective or a noun. Femmes are not "read" as lesbians unless they are with a butch partner, because they conform to traditional standards of femininity. Because they do not express masculine qualities, femmes were particularly vexing to sexologists and psychoanalysts who wanted to argue that all lesbians wished to be men. Traditionally, the femme in a butch-femme couple was expected to act as a stereotypical feminine woman and provide emotional support for her butch partner. In the first half of the twentieth century, when butch-femme gender roles were constrained to the underground bar scene, femmes were considered invisible without a butch partner - that is, they could pass as straight because of their gender conformity. However, Joan Nestle asserts that femmes in a butch-femme couple make both the butch and the femme exceedingly visible. By daring to be publicly attracted to butch women, femmes reflected their own sexual difference and made the butch a known subject of desire.
The separatist feminist movement of the late 1960s and 1970s forced butches and femmes underground, as radical lesbian feminists found lesbian gender roles to be a disappointing and oppressive replication of heterosexual lifestyle. However, the 1980s saw a resurgence of butch and femme gender roles. In this new configuration of butch and femme, it was acceptable, even desirable, to have femme-femme sexual and romantic pairings. Femmes gained value as their own lesbian gender, making it possible to exist separately from butches. For example, Susie Bright, the founder of On Our Backs, the first lesbian sex periodical of its kind, identifies as femme. Beyond depictions in pornography, the neo-butch and neo-femme aesthetic in day-to-day life helped add a sense of visual identity to lesbians who had abandoned these roles in the name of political correctness.
In "Negotiating Dyke Femininity", lesbian scholar Wendy Somerson, explains that women in the lesbian community who are more feminine and do not fit into the "butch" stereotype can pass as straight. She believes the link between appearance and gender performance and one's sexuality should be disrupted, because the way someone looks should not define their sexuality. In her article, Somerson also clearly talks about how within the lesbian community some are considered more masculine than others.
Femmes still combat the invisibility their presentation creates and assert their sexuality through their femininity. The dismissal of femmes as illegitimate or invisible also happens within the LGBT community itself, which creates the push for femmes to self-advocate as an empowered identity not inherently tied to butches.
Other terms
The term "kiki" came into existence in the 1940s to describe a lesbian who did not identify as either butch or femme, and was used disparagingly.
Labels have been tailored to be more descriptive of an individual's characteristics, such as "hard butch" "gym queen", "tomboy femme", and "soft stud". "Lipstick lesbians" are feminine lesbians. A butch woman may be described as a "dyke", "stone butch", "diesel dyke", "bulldyke", "bull bitch", or "bulldagger". A woman who likes to receive and not give sexually is called a "pillow queen", or a "pillow princess".
A "stud" is a dominant lesbian. The term originated with the African-American lesbian community. They tend to be influenced by urban and hip-hop cultures. In the New York City lesbian community, a butch may identify herself as AG (aggressive) or as a stud. In 2005, filmmaker Daniel Peddle chronicled the lives of AGs in his documentary The Aggressives, following six women who went to lengths like binding their breasts to pass as men. But Peddle says that today, very young lesbians of color in New York are creating a new, insular scene that is largely cut off from the rest of the gay and lesbian community: "A lot of it has to do with this kind of pressure to articulate and express your masculinity within the confines of the hip-hop paradigm." Black lesbian filmmaker Dee Rees represented the AG culture in her 2011 film Pariah.
There is also an emerging usage of the terms soft butch, "stem" (stud-femme), "futch" (feminine butch), or "chapstick lesbian" as terms for women who have characteristics of both butch and femme. Lesbians who are neither butch nor femme are called "androgynous" or "andros". The term boi is typically used by younger LGBT women. Defining the difference between a butch and a boi, one boi told a reporter: "that sense of play - that's a big difference from being a butch. To me, butch is like an adult...You're the man of the house." Comedian Elvira Kurt contributed the term "fellagirly" as a description for LGBT females who are not strictly either femme or butch, but a combination.
Those who identify as butch and femme today often use the words to define their presentation and gender identity rather than strictly the role they play in a relationship, and that not all butches are attracted exclusively to femmes and not all femmes are exclusively attracted to butches, a departure from the historic norm. Besides the terms "butch" and "femme", there are a number of other terms used to describe the dress codes, the sexual behaviours, and/or the gender identities of the sexual subcultures who use them. The meanings of these terms vary and can evolve over time.
Some members of the lesbian community eschew butch or femme classifications, believing that they are inadequate to describe an individual, or that labels are limiting in and of themselves.
History
Prior to the middle of the 20th century in Western culture, homosexual societies were mostly underground or secret, making it difficult to determine how long butch and femme roles have been practiced by women.
Early 20th century
It is known that butch–femme dress codes date back at least to the beginning of the 20th century as photographs from 1900–1920 exist of butch–femme couples in the United States; they were at the time called "transvestites". However, according to the Routledge International Encyclopaedia of Women, although upper-class women like Radclyffe Hall and her lover Una Troubridge lived together in unions that resembled butch–femme relationships, "The term butch/femme would have been categorically inconsequential, however, and incomprehensible to these women."
Mid to late 20th century
Butch and femme lesbian genders were only starting to become apparent in the 1940s, since it started to become common to allow women to enter bars without men. In the 1940s in the U.S., most butch women had to wear conventionally feminine dress in order to hold down jobs, donning their starched shirts and ties only on weekends to go to bars or parties as "Saturday night" butches. Butches had to take a subtle approach to butchness in order to exist in society. They created outfits that were outwardly accepted by society, but allowed those who were butch to still present as more masculine than the norm- Alix Genter states that "butches wore long, pleated skirts with their man-tailored shirts, sometimes with a vest or coat on top" at Bay Ridge High school.
The 1950s saw the rise of a new generation of butches who refused to live double lives and wore butch attire full-time, or as close to full-time as possible. This usually limited them to a few jobs, such as factory work and cab driving, that had no dress codes for women. Their increased visibility, combined with the anti-gay politics of the McCarthy era, led to an increase in violent attacks on gay and bisexual women, while at the same time the increasingly strong and defiant bar culture became more willing to respond with force. Although femmes also fought back, it became primarily the role of butches to defend against attacks and hold the bars as gay women's space. While in the '40s, the prevailing butch image was severe but gentle, it became increasingly tough and aggressive as violent confrontation became a fact of life. In 1992, a "groundbreaking" anthology about the butch-femme socialization that took place in working class bars of the 40s and 50s was published—The Persistent Desire: A Femme–Butch Reader, edited by femme Joan Nestle.
Although butch–femme wasn't the only organizing principle among lesbians in the mid-20th century, it was particularly prominent in the working-class lesbian bar culture of the 1940s, '50s, and '60s, where butch–femme was the norm, while butch–butch and femme–femme relationships were taboo. Those who switched roles were called ki-ki, a pejorative term, and they were often the butt of jokes. In the 1950s, in an early piece of lesbian studies, the gay rights campaigning organisation ONE, Inc. assigned Stella Rush to study "the butch/femme phenomenon" in gay bars. Rush reported that women held strong opinions, that "role distinctions needed to be sharply drawn," and that not being one or the other earned strong disapproval from both groups. It has been noted that, at least in part, kiki women were unwelcome where lesbians gathered because their apparent lack of understanding of the butch–femme dress code might indicate that they were policewomen.
In contrast to ONE, Inc. studies, more conservative homophile organizations of the 1950s, such as the Daughters of Bilitis, discouraged butch-femme roles and identities. This was especially true in relation to the butch identity, as the organization held the belief that assimilation into heterosexual society was the goal of the homophile movement. Gender expressions outside of the norm prevented assimilation.
In the 1970s, the development of lesbian feminism pushed butch-femme roles out of popularity. Lesbian separatists such as Sheila Jeffreys argued that all forms of masculinity, including masculine butch women, were negative and harmful to women. The group of radical lesbians often credited with sparking lesbian feminism, Radicalesbians, called butch culture "male-identified role-playing among lesbians". This encouraged the emergence of androgyny in lesbian feminist circles, with many women wearing clothing like T-shirts, jeans, flannels, and boots. This dress was very similar to butch dress, weakening a key identifier of butch lesbians.
While butch-femme roles had previously been the primary way of identifying lesbians and quantifying lesbian relationships in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s, lesbian feminist ideology had turned these roles into a "perversion of lesbian identity". Lesbian feminism was publicly represented though white feminism, and often excluded and alienated working class lesbians and lesbians of color. In these excluded communities, butch-femme roles persisted and grew throughout the 1970s. Despite the criticism from both middle-class lesbians and lesbian feminists, butch and femme roles reemerged in the 1980s and 1990s, but were no longer relegated to only working-class lesbians.
21st century
In the 21st century, some writers and commentators began to describe a phenomenon in the lesbian community called "The Disappearing Butch." Some felt butches were disappearing because it had become easier for masculine women who might have previously identified as butch to have sex reassignment surgery and live as men. Others claimed the Disappearing Butch was the result of lesbian 'commodification' in the media, influenced by the viewing public's desire to see lesbians as "reproductions of Hollywood straight women". One writer noted that in the increased drive for LGBT 'normalization' and political acceptance, butch lesbians and effeminate gay men seemed to be disappearing. In the 21st century, some younger people were also beginning to eschew labels like 'butch' or even 'lesbian' and identify instead as queer.'
However, others noted that butch women have gained increased visibility in the media, mentioning Ellen DeGeneres, frequently referred to as 'a soft butch', political commentator Rachel Maddow, once described as a 'butch fatale' and the character Big Boo in Orange Is the New Black, played by butch comic and actress Lea de Laria.
The 21st century also saw a re-examination of the meaning of 'femme', with the term being used in a broader and more politically charged way, particularly by women of color, and some critics challenging what is seen as its appropriation by heteronormative culture.
See also
Female
Drag king
Girly girl
Lesbian-identified
Stone femme
Tom-Dee (Thailand)
Male
Bear
Bishonen
Down-low (sexual slang)
Effeminacy
Femminiello
Sissy
Twink
Transgender
En femme
Hijra (South Asia)
Kathoey
Travesti
General
Top, bottom and versatile
References
Further reading
Books and journals
Collections
Five College Archives and Manuscript Collections, Smith College Special Collections.
Jeanne Córdova Papers and Photographs, One National Gay & Lesbian Archives.
ONE Subject Files Collection, One National Gay & Lesbian Archives.
Vintage Photographs, Isle of Lesbos, Sappho.com.
External links
Gender roles in the LGBT community
Lesbian culture
LGBT terminology
Slang terms for women
Women and sexuality | [
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240047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butch | Butch | Butch may refer to:
People
Butch (nickname), a list of people
Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch, an Old West outlaw gang
Butch Miller (wrestler) (born 1944), ring name of New Zealand professional wrestler Robert "Bob" Miller
Butch Patrick, American child actor Patrick Alan Lilley (born 1953), best known for his role as Eddie Munster in The Munsters
Animals
Butch, the second oldest (verified) dog ever, age 28
Butch, one of the Tamworth Two, two pigs that escaped from an abattoir and caused a media frenzy in England
Arts, entertainment, and media
Butch, the black haired member of The Rowdyruff Boys, a trio of the Powerpuff Girls' Male Versions in the animated series The Powerpuff Girls
Butch and Cassidy, minor antagonists from the Pokémon anime series
Butch the Bulldog, nemesis of Pluto's in Walt Disney cartoons
Butch Cat (Tom and Jerry), a black cat from the Tom and Jerry cartoons
Tommy Bond, an Our Gang character nicknamed Butch
Butch Cassidy, one of the main characters of the American Western film, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969)
Butch Coolidge, a fictional character in the film Pulp Fiction
Butch (album), by The Geraldine Fibbers
Sexuality
Butch and femme, gender identity terms for butch lesbians and feminine lesbians
Butch (lesbian slang), refers to a masculine lesbian and masculine lesbian culture
Soft butch, or stem ("stud-fem"), a lesbian who exhibits stereotypical butch traits without fitting the masculine stereotype associated with butch lesbians
Stone butch, a lesbian who displays the most traditional "masculine" characteristics without sexual reciprocity
Other uses
Butch cut, a type of haircut
See also
Butchie
Butchie's Drive-In
The Butchies | [
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240049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funny%20Car | Funny Car | Funny Car is a type of drag racing vehicle and a specific racing class in organized drag racing. Funny cars are characterized by having tilt-up fiberglass or carbon fiber automotive bodies over a custom-fabricated chassis, giving them an appearance vaguely approximating manufacturers' showroom models. They also have the engine placed in front of the driver, as opposed to dragsters, which place it behind the driver.
Funny car bodies typically reflect the models of newly available cars in the time period that the funny car was built. For example, in the 1970s, then current models such as the Chevrolet Vega or Plymouth Barracuda were often represented as funny cars, and the bodies represented the Big Three of General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler. Currently, four manufacturers are represented in National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) Funny Car — Chevrolet with the Camaro, Dodge with the Charger, Ford with the Mustang, and Toyota with the Camry. Worldwide, however, many different body styles are used. These "fake" body shells are not just cosmetic; they serve an important aerodynamic purpose.
Today, fielding a Funny Car team can cost between US$2.6 and US$3 million. A single carbon fiber body can cost US$70,000.
Nitro Funny Car racing in 2020 has become a one-team, one-manufacturer monopoly. Don Schumacher's Stellantis factory team won all eleven rounds of the 2020 Camping World Drag Racing Series, with the Dodge Charger body.
Guidelines
The NHRA has strict guidelines for Funny Cars. Most of the rules relate to the engine. In short, the engines can only be V8s displacing no more than . The most popular design is a Donovan, loosely based on the second generation Chrysler 426 Hemi.
There can only be two valves per cylinder. The heads are machined from aluminum billet and have no water jackets, as the high latent heat of the methanol in the fuel coupled with the brevity of the run precludes the need. Superchargers are restricted to a basic Roots type— rotor case width with a breadth of . Only single camshafts are allowed. There are two common bore-stroke combinations: (called a 3/4 stroker) and (called a 5/8 stroker). The 3/4 stroker is the most common combination used today and equals 496 CID (8.1 L).
Crankshafts are CNC machine carved from steel billet then nitrided in an oven to increase surface hardness. Intake valves are titanium and of diameter, while exhaust valves are diameter, made from Inconel. Every Funny Car has ballistic blankets covering the supercharger because this part of the engine is prone to explosion.
Funny Car fuel systems are key to their immense power. During a single run (starting, burnout, backing up, staging, 1/4 mile) cars can burn as much as of fuel. The fuel mixture is usually 85–90% nitromethane (nitro, "fuel") and 10–15% methanol (alcohol, "alky"). The ratio of fuel to air can be as high as 1:1. Compression ratios vary from 6:1 to 7:1. The engines in Funny Cars commonly exhibit varying piston heights and ratios that are determined by the piston's proximity to the air intake. Funny Cars have a fixed gear ratio of 3.20:1 and have a reversing gear; power is transmitted from engine to final drive through a multiple staged clutch which provides progressive incremental lockup as the run proceeds. The rate/degree of lockup is mechanically/pneumatically controlled and preset before each run according to various conditions, in particular track surface. Wheelbases are between . The car must maintain a ground clearance.
Horsepower claims vary widely—from 6,978 to 8,897—but are probably around 8,000 HP. Supercharged, nitromethane-fueled motors of this type also have a very high torque, which is estimated at . They routinely achieve a 6G acceleration from a standing start.
Safety
Many safety rules are in place to protect the driver and fans. The more visible safety devices are the twin parachutes to help stabilize and decelerate the car after crossing the finish line. Less visible precautions include roll cages and fire extinguishers.
During safety evaluations in the wake of the fatal crash of Scott Kalitta on June 21, 2008, in Englishtown, N.J., the NHRA reduced the distance of Top Fuel and Funny Car races to 1,000 feet effective July 2, 2008. Pro Stock and sportsman classes still race to 1,320 feet.
History
In drag racing in the mid-1960s, Top Fuel horsepower began to be combined with bodied cars with altered wheelbases to produce the first "funny cars" (originally a derisive term).
The first funny cars were built in the early to mid-1960s. Funny Car as a class traces its roots to Super Stock, through "the intriguingly named Optional Super Stock class", to A/Factory Experimental (A/FX), which NHRA introduced in 1962, and ultimately XS (experimental stock).
At the start, the rear tires ("slicks") were made with a bias-ply construction ("wrinklewall" slicks had not been invented yet), which meant that grip upon launching was poor. Racers who performed these altered wheelbase modifications found it shifted the center of gravity rearward, which placed more weight on the rear wheels, enhancing traction from these bias-ply slicks. Because of these many obvious modifications they did not look stock, hence the name "funny". The wheelbases were changed to assist traction for the narrow (-wide) slicks (required by NHRA rules), while keeping the mandatory factory distance between axle centers.
The first of the "funny-looking cars" were a trio of 1964 Dodge 330 Max Wedges which were named the "Dodge Chargers". They debuted in March 1964 at San Diego Raceway. Funny Cars started as stockers, and were, at first, pure exhibition cars, in the Super/Factory Experimental (S/FX) class; NHRA treated them like a passing fad, and tried to "legislate them out of existence" by placing them in first gas and then fuel dragster classes, with cars of half the weight and twice the horsepower.
Funny car success followed the popularity of gassers, the previous favorite doorslammer class. The precursor of the funny car, appearing almost a decade earlier, was John Bandimere's blown '55 Chevy. Funny cars were also preceded by the Modified Sport cars, which had fiberglass bodies, tube frames, and supercharged set-back engines even before Super Stock was conceived.
Among the Modified Sport racers to challenge early funny cars were Roger Hardcastle and Les Beattie with the Stinger, sporting a blown, fuel injected Chrysler hemi in an Astra J-5. In 1964 its 1/4 mile data was 143.85 mph and 10.02 ET. See Hot Rod Magazine from April 1964. Pages 58–60.
The first funny cars were Super Stock 1964 Dodge 330 Max Wedges, named the "Dodge Chargers", prepared, at the behest of Don Beebe, by Dragmaster's Jim Nelson and Dode Martin. Raced in the Supercharged Experimental Stock (S/XS) class, their original 426 Max Wedges were replaced by stroked Top Gas engines (virtual clones of the Top Gas Dodge Dart engines also built by Dragmaster). (Thus, they were technically "funny gassers", not fuel cars, unlike the later examples.) Despite their fuel limitations, however, they were turning in E.T.s in the high 10s, with speeds around , when Super Stock and FX cars were only running 11s at about , clearly a winning edge. They would also be the first factory cars fitted with parachutes, and the first to see the drivers wear firesuits.
The first major altered-wheelbase car was Dick Landy's class-legal SS/A 1964 Dodge Coronet, which had front and rear axles moved radically forward, a high gasser-style front end and axle, and a 426 hemi. It moved the rear wheels forward , the front , and worth of fiberglass parts (including hood, instrument panel, doors, front fenders, front deck lid, front bumpers) replaced steel. First appearing at the AHRA Winternationals at Phoenix, Arizona, 29–31 January 1964, the combination improved E.T.s from low 11s with speeds in the range to 10.60s at almost . Only twelve were built.
The three Chargers, wearing a color scheme of red body sides and white roof, hood, and trunk, with two blue longitudinal stripes, were driven by Jimmy Nix, who previously ran a Top Gas dragster; Jim Johnson, who ran a Dodge Polara stocker, and who had won the B/SA title in 1963; Jim Nelson; and Dode Martin.
(Nix tried to persuade Chrisman to get Mercury Racing Director Fran Hernandez to allow him to run his Comet's 427 on nitro, as a way to gain leverage on NHRA, so Nix could use nitro himself).
Their debut was at San Diego Raceway in March 1964, for a three-race exhibition. While in theory all were identical, Nix would change slicks or add lead shot in the trunk of his Dodge 330 to improve traction.
For their part, the Dodge factory spent only US$250,000 on the inaugural season, insufficient for a single car, let alone three, an amount arranged by promoter Don Beebe, who persuaded Wally Parks safety would not be compromised, promising the cars would be built to Super Stock standard.
Three months after the Chargers' debut, the factory-backed Sachs and Sons 1964 Mercury Comet, powered by a supercharged SOHC 427 "cammer", made its debut, at the 1964 Nationals in Indianapolis. Driven by Jack Chrisman, and entered in B/FD, the Comet created a sensation.
When Chrisman's Comet first ran in Indy, the Charger program had been waylaid by financial issues and parts shortages. Their final race appearance was at a Greer, South Carolina, dragstrip, in July 1964. Nix, disappointed, went back to TG/D. Chrisman's Comet was placed in the B/Fuel Dragster class at Indianapolis; he was defeated in eliminations, but not before recording a pass of 10.25 seconds at mph.
The success of these cars inspired other racers to give up class racing for supercharged exhibition cars, led by "Arnie Farmer" Beswick and his Pontiac GTO, Gary Dyer's hemi Dodge A/FX (financed by Norm Krause, "Mister Norm"), and
Funny cars proved enormously popular, with cars driven by Chrisman and Beswick setting track records all over the U.S. The first wave of funny car development ended around 1965, when bracket racer Jim Liberman and crew chief Lew Arrington made a deal with Pontiac to supply rare hemis (remnants of Mickey Thompson's gas dragster program). (The duo later switched to Chrysler powerplants.) Two of the Dodge trio would return in 1965 as the Guzler Chargers team, powered by supercharged, nitro-fuelled hemis, with direct drive; both crashed the same year. The popularity of funny car grew that year, with January's AHRA Winternationals seeing seven entrants: the Ramchargers, ”Dandy Dick” Landy, and Bud Faubel, in Dodges; and Butch Leal, Sox & Martin, the Golden Commandos, and Lee Smith in Plymouths. By June, the number was over a dozen, including factory Mustangs and Cyclones with 427 “cammers”.
A dedicated funny car class was tried by NHRA at one 1966 national event, and at two in 1968, before Funny Car Eliminator was created in 1969. The trend to flip-top fiberglass bodies ("floppers") began with Jim Lytle's US$2000 Allison V-1710-powered chopped '34 Tudor Big Al II. It would inspire "every flopper body ever formed". Chrysler's dominance led Hernandez and Al Turner to try and turn things in Mercury's favor; Don Nichsolson's flip-top, tube-chassis Comet, arriving in 1966, changed everything. The “flopper”-bodied Comets were highly successful, in the hands of Chrisman, Kenz and Leslie, and Eddie Schartman; at the 1966 World Final, Schartman would become NHRA's first official Funny Car title winner.
Tom McEwen, better known for his dragster racing, flirted with funny cars in 1965, as did Lou Barney, a veteran slingshot racer; Barney's hemi-powered, mid-engined Barracuda proved unsafe, before being replaced by another, which turned out to be "one of the quickest early match racers". So did Gary Gabelich, probably better known for land speed racing, in the Beach City Chevrolet-sponsored Sting Ray.
Before TF/FC became an official class, funny cars were run as B/FDs and C/FDs (B and C/Fuel Dragster), an odd classification, since they were bodied cars, not dragsters.
In 1965, Ford produced Holman and Moody-built fiberglass-bodied Mustangs for (among others) Gas Ronda, who was the most successful Ford racer. In 1966, Mercury offered a revolutionary flopper-bodied Comet, as exemplified by Don Nicholson's Eliminator I, which clocked a 7.98 at Detroit Dragway in its debut season, the quickest of the fuel injected cars. The car was built by Logghe Bros. (based in Detroit) (with bodies by Fiberglass Trends), weighing in around , making it heavier than most contemporary top fuel dragsters. (It would be the first Funny Car on the cover of Hot Rod, in April 1966.) Similar cars went to Chrisman, "Fast Eddie" Schartman, and Kenz and Leslie. These cars had the first coilover suspension in funny car, and were powered by Hilborn-injected 427 SOHCs producing on 80% nitro. (Chrisman's was the oddity, a roadster running a 6-71 GMC supercharger.) They were capable of mid-seven second e.t.s at around . Schartman (working with Roy Steffey, on the "Flip-Top Fueller") would beat Chrisman for Top Funny Car at the NHRA World Finals in 1966 at Tulsa, Oklahoma, with a pass of 8.28 at . Nicholson would fit a Pete Robinson-built Top Fuel 427 SOHC early in the 1967 season and turn 7.90s at around , earning an eighty-six percent winning record. (The success of the Top Fuel-engined Comets would eventually prompt both Ford and Chrysler to drop funny car sponsorship.) In 1967, Doug Thorley would record the first (unofficial) funny car pass in his Corvair at Lions.
Even in 1965, Ford factory support wavered, since the manufacturer did not build street versions of the radically altered cars; by 1968, pioneering Chrysler was also considering withdrawal. Of the privateers in this era, Bruce Larson's USA-1 (a '66 Chevelle with a Hilborn-injected 427 and four-speed) was the most successful. Among other early funny car competitors were Hayden Proffitt, who faced Chrisman at Lions Dragway in 1966 and won in a Hicks and Sublet-chassised Corvair. Butch Leal would body one of Logghe's first customer chassis with a fiberglass Plymouth Barracuda and run an injected 426 Hemi on 100% nitro; this car's best pass would be a 7.82 at , with a career win ratio of ninety percent. In 1967, Proffitt would take over the failed Grant Rebel SST AMC Rambler, aided by Les Shockley, "Famous" Amos Satterlee, and Dwight Guild. Gene Conway built the hemi Jeep Destroyer (sponsored by the U.S. Navy), and scored so much success, NHRA banned Jeep funny cars in 1967.
Logghe proved unable to keep up with demand for chassis, leading to the creation of a funny car chassis-building industry, which was soon joined by Dick Fletcher, Don Hardy, Ronnie Scrima, and a number of others. Late in 1969, Pat Foster and John Buttera would devise a Top Fuel dragster-style chassis to replace the "dune buggy" design common at the time. This would go under the Mustang Mach Is of Danny Ongais and Mickey Thompson. Similar chassis would be built by Logghe, Scrima, Buttera, Woody Gilmore, Don Long, and Steve Plueger, among others; this design remains the standard in TF/FC.
In 1968, Thorley would drive a rear-engined Javelin, built by Woody Gilmore, powered by an AMC 401. (This engine would later be replaced by a 392 hemi prepared by John Hoven and Glenn Okazaki.) That same year, Leal would sell his 'cuda to Don Schumacher.
NHRA created the new Funny Car (TF/FC) class at the NHRA Winternationals in 1969; Funny Car Eliminator (FCE) would be won by Clare Sanders, teammate of "Jungle Jim" Liberman. Tragedy struck the same year, with the death of Jerry Schwartz in the ex-Foster Mach I. In a virtually identical car (except the color), Ongais won a number of rounds, with passes frequently in the low sevens at over , including taking Funny Car Eliminator at the USnats. Gene Snow would record the first official pass in the Keith Black-engined, Logghe-chassised 1969 Dodge Charger, Rambunctious. One of the most famous (and popular) funny cars in NHRA history would appear in 1969: Chi-Town Hustler, a Charger prepared by Fakonas and Coil (driven by Pat Minnick).
Another Funny Car record was set in 1970 by Leroy Goldstein ("The Israeli Rocket"), then testing Firestone tires, with a 6.99 pass at Capitol Raceway, Funny Car's first under seven seconds. By November, Jake Johnson in the hemi-powered Blue Max (driving for Harry Schmidt) turned in a 6.72 at , at OCIR. The big news that year was the creation of Mattel Hot Wheels-sponsored team of Don Prudhomme and Tom McEwen.
Don Garlits' 1971 accident in Top Fuel Dragster, which led to the creation of the revolutionary Swamp Rat XIV, did not produce the same kind of change in Funny Car, though there had been a number of rear-engined examples, including Thorley's Javelin and Dave Bowman's California Stud, which was the most successful of the rear-engined funny cars.
The Funny Car Eliminator title at the 1971 Winternats would go to Roland Leong's Charger, Hawaiian.
At the 1972 Supernationals, Jim Dunn recorded a historic win in his Barracuda, the first, and only, one by a mid-engined funny car while Larry Fullerton in Trojan Horse won the 1972 NHRA world championship setting a then world record.
In 1973, Shirley Muldowney teamed up with Connie Kalitta as the Bounty Hunter and Bounty Huntress, in a pair of Ford Mustangs, hers a Buttera chassis, his a Logghe.
Between 1973 and 1975, Ed "The Ace" McCulloch would score eighteen wins at NHRA national events in the Revell-sponsored Dodge Dart, Revellution.
Shirl Greer would defeat Prudhomme in the final in 1974 to take the first NHRA Funny Car World Championship. He would suffer severe burns in the final after an engine exploded.
In 1975, Raymond Beadle and Harry Schmidt resurrected the Blue Max; built by Tony Casarez Race Cars, the Mustang II would win at Indianapolis. Beadle later bought out Schmidt and went on to seven funny car national titles, four with NHRA, three with IHRA.
Mark Oswald, driving for Candies and Hughes (with Old Milwaukee sponsorship), in 1984 did something no other driver has: he won both the NHRA and IHRA world championships. The team took four IHRA titles between 1983 and 1987, including two in a row, 1986 and 1987, as well as beating John Force in the 1986 Big Bud Shootout (losing to him the next year).
Force between 1987 and 1996 won sixty-seven of 203 NHRA national events, four of nine Big Bud Shootouts, and six World Championships. In 1996, with Austin Coil tuning, Force went to the final round in sixteen of nineteen national events, taking thirteen wins, one of the best records ever in Funny Car history. Force's domination in 1989 would only really be challenged by Bruce Larson, a long-time East Coast match racer, with Outlaw sprint car driver Maynard Yingst as his tuner, winning six events and taking the runner-up spot five times, in an Oldsmobile sponsored by Sentry. In 1992, the honor of putting Force on the trailer would go to Cruz Pedregon, driving the Larry Minor McDonald's-sponsored Olds to the championship. Pedregon was also one of the first Funny Car drivers to clock a five-second e.t.
Ed McCulloch in 1988 would claim the US$100,000 prize for winning both IHRA TF/FC events at Texas Motorplex; Eddie Hill would do the same in TFD that year. (Billy Meyer, who owned IRHA and offered the prize, would sell at season's end.)
Kenny Bernstein and tuner Dale Armstrong would turn to land speed racers the Arivett brothers to design Bernstein's car in 1989. This car would be dubbed the "Batmobile". It would profoundly change Funny Car aerodynamics.
In 1991, Jim White, driving for Leong, turned in two of the fastest Funny Car passes to date, at over , and placed second to Force in the championship.
Al and Helen Hoffman, with tuner Tom Anderson, "were the antithesis of the corporate button-down shirt racers". Sponsored by Blower Drive Service and later Sears, Roebuck, & Co., during the 1990s, Hoffman earned eleven national event wins, as well as the 1991 Winston Invitational and the U. S. Nationals non-championship money race in 1991, 1994, and 1995.
Tom McEwen would build his "gorgeous" replica '57 Funny Car, running it as an NHRA exhibition vehicle and creating Nostalgia Funny Car, even though the car would not (now) be legal in that class.
Major corporate sponsorship money came to Funny Car starting in 1997, leading to significant changes in the sport. Multi-car teams, with several tuners each, became commonplace, and single car teams "had a very slim chance of winning an NHRA World Championship". Force's domination would continue, with ten NHRA FC World Championship wins from 1993 to 2002, including six straight 1997–2002; his success was so amazing, he was accused of cheating (and was willing to strip off his firesuit to prove he was not). Between 1997 and 2006, Force went to the final in 105 of 228 events and took sixty-one tour wins, as well as qualifying for all ten Big Bud Shootouts, winning in 2000 and 2006. Between 1997 and 2006, Force went to the final in 105 of 228 events and took sixty-one tour wins. On top of that, he had ten of the quickest or fastest passes in Funny Car.
In recent years, a resurgence of interest in vintage drag cars has created many new "nostalgia" funny cars, which are newly made vintage-style funny car bodies mounted on modern funny car frames or, in certain cases, newly built frames that look close to the originals and are made NHRA legal. These "Nostalgia Funny Cars" often compete in various nostalgia drag racing events, such as the NHRA Heritage Hot Rod Racing Series, which includes the National Hot Rod Reunion and the California Hot Rod Reunion.
In 2007, NHRA limited technical innovation in Funny Car, as well as introducing a track length and restrictions on maximum engine revs.
Nitro Funny Car racing has never been more competitive than since 2006. The dominance of John Force Racing ended in 2006 and between 2007 and 2015 was equalled by DSR, with three TF/FC titles each. Funny Car is dominated by multi-car teams, with only Cruz Pedregon, Jim Dunn, and Tim Wilkerson maintaining the traditional one-car operation.
NHRA Top Fuel Funny Car champions
Currently, John Force is the driver in the Funny Car class with the most wins, having 16 championships, over 1,000 round wins and over 145 National Event wins. He is also the owner with the most funny car championships with 19, since Tony Pedregon (2003) and Robert Hight (2009&2017) have won three titles while on his team. Force's former crew chief, Austin Coil, also has logged the highest number of wins in that position.
Most NHRA Funny Car wins
References
Sources
Burk, Jeff. "50 Years of Funny Cars: Part 3" in Drag Racer, November 2016, pp. 52–64.
McClurg, Bob. "50 Years of Funny Cars: Part 2" in Drag Racer, November 2016, pp. 35–50.
Taylor, Thom. "Beauty Beyond the Twilight Zone" in Hot Rod, April 2017, pp. 30–43.
Wallace, Dave. "50 Years of Funny Cars: Part 1" in Drag Racer, November 2016, pp. 21–32.
External links
NHRA National Hot Rod Association Website
IHRA International Hot Rod Association Website
Drag Race Central
Great Lakes Nostalgia Funny Car Circuit
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240051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculine%20%28disambiguation%29 | Masculine (disambiguation) | Masculine or masculinity, normally refer to qualities positively associated with men.
Masculine may also refer to:
Masculine (grammar), a grammatical gender
Masculine cadence, a final chord occurring on a strong beat in music
Masculine rhyme, on a single stressed syllable at the end of a line of poetry
A Masculine Ending, a novel by Joan Alison Smith adapted for television in 1992
See also
Male (disambiguation)
Female (disambiguation)
Feminine (disambiguation) | [
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240052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darian%20calendar | Darian calendar | The Darian calendar is a proposed system of timekeeping designed to serve the needs of any possible future human settlers on the planet Mars. It was created by aerospace engineer, political scientist, and space jurist Thomas Gangale in 1985 and named by him after his son Darius. It was first published in June 1986. In 1998 at the founding convention of the Mars Society the calendar was presented as one of two calendar options to be considered along with eighteen other factors to consider for the colonization of Mars.
Year length and intercalation
The basic time periods from which the calendar is constructed are the Martian solar day (sometimes called a sol) and the Martian vernal equinox year. The sol is 39 minutes 35.244 seconds longer than the Terrestrial solar day, and the Martian vernal equinox year is 668.5907 sols in length (which corresponds to 686.9711 days on Earth).
The basic intercalation formula therefore allocates six 669-sol years and four 668-sol years to each Martian decade. The former are still called leap years, even though they are more common than non-leap years, and are years that are either odd (not evenly divisible by 2) or are evenly divisible by 10: this produces 6,686 sols per ten years, giving an average year of 668.6 sols.
A 1998 iteration of the Darian calendar had leap years cancelled if the year was divisible by 100, unless the year was also divisible by 500; adding these rules produces an average year of 668.592 sols, a more reasonable approximation.
However, these static intercalation schemes did not take into account the slowly increasing length of the Martian vernal equinox year. Thus, in 2006, Gangale devised a series of intercalation formulas, all of which have in common the basic decennial cycle, as shown in the following table:
This extended intercalation scheme gives an average year of 668.59453 days over the 10000 years: this results in an error of only about one sol at the end of 12,000 Martian years, or the year 24,180 of the Common Era.
Calendar layout
The year is divided into 24 months. The first 5 months in each quarter have 28 sols, while the final month has 27 sols unless it is the final month of a leap year, when it contains the leap sol as its final sol.
The calendar maintains a seven-sol week, but the week is restarted from its first sol at the start of each month. If a month has 27 sols, this causes the final sol of the week to be omitted.
This is partly for tidiness and can also be rationalised as making the average length of the Martian week close to the average length of the Terrestrial week; 28 Earth days is very close to Martian sols, whereas a month is an average length of Martian sols.
In the table, the sols of the week are Sol Solis, Sol Lunae, Sol Martis, Sol Mercurii, Sol Jovis, Sol Veneris, Sol Saturni.
The last sol of Vrishika is an intercalary sol that only occurs on leap years, as per February 29 in the Gregorian calendar.
Start of year
The Martian year is treated as beginning near the equinox marking spring in the northern hemisphere of the planet. Mars currently has an axial inclination similar to that of the Earth, so the Martian seasons are perceptible, though the greater eccentricity of Mars' orbit about the Sun compared with that of the Earth means that their significance is strongly amplified in the southern hemisphere and masked in the northern hemisphere.
Epoch
Gangale originally chose late 1975 as the epoch of the calendar in recognition of the American Viking program as the first fully successful (American) soft landing mission to Mars (the earlier 1971 Soviet Mars 3 Landing having delivered only 15 seconds of data from the planet's surface). In 2002 he adopted the Telescopic Epoch, first suggested by Peter Kokh in 1999 and adopted by Shaun Moss in 2001 for his Utopian Calendar, which is in 1609 in recognition of Johannes Kepler's use of Tycho Brahe's observations of Mars to elucidate the laws of planetary motion, and also Galileo Galilei's first observations of Mars with a telescope. Selection of the Telescopic Epoch thus unified the structures of the Darian and Utopian calendars, their remaining differences being nomenclatural. It also avoids the problem of the many telescopic observations of Mars over the past 400 years being relegated to negative dates.
Nomenclature
The Darian calendar has been widely imitated. Suggested variations abound on the internet that use different nomenclature schemata for the days of the week and the months of the year. In the original Darian calendar, the names of the 24 months were provisionally chosen by Gangale as the Latin names of constellations of the zodiac and their Sanskrit equivalents in alternation. The 7 sols of the week, similarly, were provisionally named after the Sun, the largest Martian moon Phobos (Sol Phobotis) and the 5 brightest planets as seen from Mars including Earth (Sol Terrae). These were later modified to follow the familiar convention of the Romance languages, replacing Sol Phobotis with Sol Lunae and Sol Terrae with Sol Martis. The Darian Defrost Calendar, however, uses the Rotterdam System to create new names for the Martian months out of patterns relating letter choice and name length to month order and season. The Utopian Calendar, devised by the Mars Time Group in 2001, also has additional suggestions for nomenclature modification.
Mars Julian sol
The Mars Julian sol count is analogous to the Julian Day count on Earth, in that it is a continuous numerical counting of days from an epoch. The Mars Julian sol epoch is the same as for the Darian calendar, thus Mars Julian sol 0 is 1 Sagittarius 0.
Comparison with timekeeping systems in planetary science
Since the Darian calendar is designed as a civil calendar for human communities on Mars, it has no precise analog in the scientific community, which has no need to mark Martian time in terms of weeks or months. Two unrelated epochs that have gained some traction in the scientific community are the Mars sol date and the Mars year. In 1998 Michael Allison proposed the Mars sol date epoch of 29 December 1873 (Julian Day 2405521.502). In 2000 R. T. Clancy et al. proposed the Mars year 1 set to the epoch 11 April 1955 (Julian Day 2435208.456). The Clancy Mars year is reckoned from one Martian northward equinox to the next (Ls = 0°), and specific dates within a given year are expressed in Ls. The Clancy Mars year count is approximately equal to the Darian year count minus 183. The Allison Mars sol date epoch equates to Ls = 276.6° in a year that is undefined in the Clancy Mars year count. It converts to 25 Virgo 140 on the Darian calendar and Mars Julian sol 94128.511.
Martiana calendar
In 2002 Gangale devised a variant of the Darian calendar that reconciles the months and the sols of the week in a repeating pattern and removes the need to omit days of the week. In the Martiana variant, all the months in a given quarter begin on the same sol of the week, but the sol that begins each month shifts from one quarter to the next, based on the scheme devised by the astronomer Robert G. Aitken in 1936.
The following table shows the sol of the week on which each month in the quarter begins. The first quarter corresponds to spring in the Martian northern hemisphere and autumn in the Martian southern hemisphere.
The leap sol occurs at the end of odd-numbered years as in the original Darian calendar. Since the last month of odd-numbered years contains 28 sols, the following year also begins on Sol Solis, resulting in a two-year cycle over which the relationship of the sols of the week to the months repeats. The sol that is added every tenth year is epagomenal (not counted as part of the week), thus the two-year rotation of the sols of the week is not disrupted. The Martiana scheme avoids the Darian calendar's need to shorten the week to six sols three to four times per year. The disadvantage is that the scheme results in a two-year cycle for reconciling the sols of the week and the months, whereas the Darian calendar is repeatable from month to month.
Other Darian calendars
In 1998 Gangale adapted the Darian calendar for use on the four Galilean moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. In 2003 he created a variant of the calendar for Titan.
Important dates in Martian history
*Mars dates are approximate where the exact (Earth) time of the event is not stated.
The Darian calendar in fiction
Gangale was inspired to create the calendar after reading Red Planet, a 1949 science fiction book by Robert A. Heinlein. In the book, Heinlein postulates a 24-month Martian calendar.
The Darian calendar is mentioned in several works of fiction set on Mars:
Star Trek: Department of Temporal Investigations: Watching the Clock by Christopher L. Bennett, Pocket Books/Star Trek (April 26, 2011)
The Quantum Thief by Hannu Rajaniemi, Tor Books; Reprint edition (May 10, 2011)
Thin Air by Richard K. Morgan, Del Rey Books, October 2018.
Black Helicopters by Caitlín R. Kiernan, Tor Books, 2018
See also
Astronomy on Mars
Timekeeping on Mars
Notes
References
Bennett, Christopher L. (2011-04-26). Star Trek: Department of Temporal Investigations: Watching the Clock, p. 352. Pocket Books/Star Trek.
Gangale, Thomas. (1986-06-01). "Martian Standard Time". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. Vol. 39, No. 6, p. 282–288
Gangale, Thomas. (1997-02-01). "Mare Chronium: A Brief History of Martian Time". American Astronautical Society. AAS 90–287. The Case for Mars IV: The International Exploration of Mars. Ed. Thomas R. Meyer. San Diego, California. Univelt, Incorporated.
Gangale, Thomas. (1998-08-01). "The Darian Calendar". Mars Society. MAR 98-095. Proceedings of the Founding Convention of the Mars Society. Volume III. Ed. Robert M. Zubrin, Maggie Zubrin. San Diego, California. Univelt, Incorporated. 13-Aug-1998.
Gangale, Thomas, and Dudley-Rowley, Marilyn. (2004-07-01). "The Architecture of Time: Design Implications for Extended Space Missions" Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2004-01-2533. SAE Transactions: Journal of Aerospace.
Gangale, Thomas, and Dudley-Rowley, Marilyn. (2005-12-01). "Issues and Options for a Martian Calendar". Planetary and Space Science. Vol. 53, pp. 1483–1495.
Gangale, Thomas. (2006-07-01). "The Architecture of Time, Part 2: The Darian System for Mars." Society of Automotive Engineers. SAE 2006-01-2249.
Rajaniemi, Hannu. The Quantum Thief, Ch, 12. Tor Books.
Sakers, Don. (2004-01-01). The Sf Book of Days, pp. 7, 19, 31, 53, 81, 103, 113, 123, 135, 145–149. Speed-Of-C Productions.
Smith, Arthur E. (1989-01-01). Mars: The Next Step, p. 7. Taylor & Francis.
External links
The Darian System, Retrieved 1 Dec 2015.
Apps
iPhone/iPad: AresCal Arkane Systems
Perl: Date-Darian-Mars 0.003 Andrew Main
Ruby: Darian Mars calendar converter Andrey Sitnik
Martian Calendar Laurie Harrison
Mars Weather Dashboard Widget MobiliseMe
Android: Mars Sky xeronaut.com
Mars calendar and clock in your browser Interplanetary Immigration Center
1985 works
Mars
Proposed calendars
Specific calendars
1986 introductions | [
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] |
240054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminine%20%28disambiguation%29 | Feminine (disambiguation) | Feminine, or femininity, normally refers to qualities positively associated with women.
Feminine may also refer to:
Feminine (grammar), a grammatical gender
Feminine cadence, a final chord falling in a metrically weak position
Feminine rhyme, a rhyme that matches two or more syllables at the end of lines with the final syllable unstressed
Feminine Endings, a musicological feminist work published in 1991
See also
Male (disambiguation)
Female (disambiguation)
Masculine (disambiguation)
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240058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masculinity | Masculinity | Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex, as both males and females can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.
Overview
Masculine qualities and roles are considered typical of, appropriate for, and expected of boys and men. Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, races and historical periods.Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness.
The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories).
Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.
History
The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell, it is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept.
Antiquity
Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC):
Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death."
Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."
In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go the way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man".
In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy."It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania)Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus. In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire.
Medieval and Victorian eras
Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric". Courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity characterize the portrayal of men in literary history. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household".
During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism, Byronism, even Brummelism, each has its day".
Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity. Bare-knuckle fighting without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America.
20th century to present
At the beginning of the 20th century, a traditional family consisted of the father as breadwinner and the mother as homemaker. Despite women's increasing participation in the paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men:In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports.:128
Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also secured by denying any semblance of softness, emotion, femininity, or any characteristic associated with women. Overwhelmingly, the construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women.
Development
Nature versus nurture
Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors.
Social construction of masculinity
In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical of one's gender may be a social problem. In sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy. Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility.
Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia. Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. It is argued that masculinity does not have a single source. Although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave.
Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained.
Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings. Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity.
Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships.
Gay and lesbian people
Gay men are considered by some to "deviate from the masculine norm" and are benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell:
Contrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed.
Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that a hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not". Michael Kimmel adds that the trope "You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation. According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society.
In the documentary The Butch Factor, gay men (one of them transgender) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet, allowing "butch" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Effeminacy is inaccurately associated with homosexuality, and some gay men doubted their sexual orientation; they did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture. Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays.
Feminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as "sissy") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, "campy" gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]"); however, such humor "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men". He further stated:
A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin[ing] stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.")
Gay men have been presented in the media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype. A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as "bears", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair, body hair, proportional size, baldness".
Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements. Men's-rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing the gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality.
Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture, although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as "butch".
Hegemonic masculinity
Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership. Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity, encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as the configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy, which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women". Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, in every social system there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealised form of masculinity and an apotheosised form of femininity that is considered as proper for men and women. This idealised form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalises certain performances of men, and pathologises, marginalises, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalised and subordinated), which according to the findings of a plethora of studies are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasised femininity, marginalised and subordinated masculinities). In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialisation, enacted through video games, fashion, humour, and so on.
Precarious manhood
Researchers have argued that the "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior. "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones.
In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that the precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status.
In women
Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors. In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as "tomboy" and "butch". Although female masculinity is often associated with lesbianism, expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy, female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance. Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women." Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although the influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades.
Women face a similar paradox in the business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes. According to a study in the UK, women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits. According to another study conducted in Germany, women who fit the stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers.
Health
Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women, and are more likely to be diagnosed with a terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost.
Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While the causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink.
In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and unsafe sex. Masculinity and sexual health is also a complex issue in the Global South, as well. In South Africa, HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research. Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward the female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge.
Research on beer-commercial content by Lance Strate yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity. In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which a man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction or farm workers or cowboys). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in bars. There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for the measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards, strength, and drinking ability. Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals.
Criticism
Study of the history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the household, domesticity and family life. Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men, a significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women to deepen the female experience. Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field.
According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored the use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life. A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by a "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism.John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere.
Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize the historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right. This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality". Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument. Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s. Francis wrote that this flight from commitment was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era's masculine fantasies. Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what the relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men, to existential matters, to persons and to their psychic make-up" (Tosh's human experience).
According to Tosh, the culture of masculinity has outlived its usefulness because it cannot fulfill the initial aim of this history (to discover how manhood was conditioned and experienced) and he urged "questions of behaviour and agency". His work on Victorian masculinity uses individual experience in letters and sketches to illustrate broader cultural and social customs, such as birthing or Christmas traditions.
Stefan Dudink believes that the methodological approach (trying to categorize masculinity as a phenomenon) undermined its historiographic development. Abigail Solomou-Godeau's work on post-revolutionary French art addresses a strong, constant patriarchy.
Tosh's overall assessment is that a shift is needed in conceptualizing the topic back to the history of masculinity as a speciality aiming to reach a broader audience, rather than as an analytical tool of cultural and social history. The importance he places on public history hearkens back to the initial aims of gender history, which sought to use history to enlighten and change the present. Tosh appeals to historians to live up to the "social expectation" of their work, which would also require a greater focus on subjectivity and masculinity. This view is contrary to Dudink's; the latter called for an "outflanking movement" towards the history of masculinity, in response to the errors he perceived in the study. This would do the opposite of what Tosh called for, deconstructing masculinity by not placing it at the center of historical exploration and using discourse and culture as indirect avenues towards a more-representational approach. In a study of the Low Countries, Dudink proposes moving beyond the history of masculinity by embedding analysis into the exploration of nation and nationalism (making masculinity a lens through which to view conflict and nation-building). Martin Francis' work on domesticity through a cultural lens moves beyond the history of masculinity because "men constantly travelled back and forward across the frontier of domesticity, if only in the realm of the imagination"; normative codes of behavior do not fully encompass the male experience.
Media images of boys and young men may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity. According to men's-rights activists, the media does not address men's-rights issues and men are often portrayed negatively in advertising. Peter Jackson called hegemonic masculinity "economically exploitative" and "socially oppressive": "The form of oppression varies from patriarchal controls over women's bodies and reproductive rights, through ideologies of domesticity, femininity and compulsory heterosexuality, to social definitions of the value of work, the nature of skill and the differential remuneration of 'productive' and 'reproductive' labor."
Psychological research
According to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the American Psychological Association, "Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification of women in society, there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men and women restrict food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-thin body; in extreme cases, this leads to eating disorders. Psychiatrist Thomas Holbrook cited a recent Canadian study indicating that as many as one in six people with eating disorders are men.
Research in the United Kingdom found, "Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques." Young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-fit and muscular body, which may lead to body dysmorphic disorder or muscle dysmorphia. Although the stereotypes may have remained constant, the value attached to masculine stereotypes has changed; it has been argued that masculinity is an unstable phenomenon, never ultimately achieved.
In January 2019, the American Psychological Association warns that conforming to traditional standards of masculinity can cause harm to mental health.
Gender-role stress
In 1987 Eisler and Skidmore studied masculinity, creating the idea of "masculine stress" and finding three elements of masculinity which often result in emotional stress:
The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness
Being perceived as emotional
The need for adequacy in sexual matters and financial status
Because of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, men with spinal-cord injuries must adapt their self-identity to the losses associated with such injuries; this may "lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity. Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced." Research also suggests that men feel social pressure to endorse traditional masculine male models in advertising. Brett Martin and Juergen Gnoth (2009) found that although feminine men privately preferred feminine models, they expressed a preference for traditional masculine models in public; according to the authors, this reflected social pressure on men to endorse traditional masculine norms.
In their book Raising Cain: Protecting The Emotional Life of Boys, Dan Kindlon and Michael Thompson wrote that although all boys are born loving and empathic, exposure to gender socialization (the tough male ideal and hypermasculinity) limits their ability to function as emotionally-healthy adults. According to Kindlon and Thompson, boys lack the ability to understand and express emotions productively because of the stress imposed by masculine gender roles.
In the article "Sexual Ethics, Masculinity and Mutual Vulnerability", Rob Cover works to unpack Judith Butler's study of masculinity. Cover goes over issues such as sexual assault and how it can be partially explained by hypermasculinity.
"Masculinity in crisis"
A theory of "masculinity in crisis" has emerged; Australian archeologist Peter McAllister said, "I have a strong feeling that masculinity is in crisis. Men are really searching for a role in modern society; the things we used to do aren't in much demand anymore". Others see the changing labor market as a source of stress. Deindustrialization and the replacement of smokestack industries by technology have allowed more women to enter the labor force, reducing its emphasis on physical strength.
The crisis has also been attributed to the questioning of male dominance and rights granted to men solely on the basis of sex following the feminist movement. British sociologist John MacInnes wrote that "masculinity has always been in one crisis or another", suggesting that the crises arise from the "fundamental incompatibility between the core principle of modernity that all human beings are essentially equal (regardless of their sex) and the core tenet of patriarchy that men are naturally superior to women and thus destined to rule over them".
According to John Beynon, masculinity and men are often conflated and it is unclear whether masculinity, men or both are in crisis. He writes that the "crisis" is not a recent phenomenon, illustrating several periods of masculine crisis throughout history (some predating the women's movement and post-industrial society), suggesting that due to masculinity's fluid nature "crisis is constitutive of masculinity itself". Film scholar Leon Hunt also writes: "Whenever masculinity's 'crisis' actually started, it certainly seems to have been in place by the 1970s".
East Asian cultures
In 2008, the word "herbivore men" became popular in Japan and was reported worldwide. Herbivore men refers to young Japanese men who naturally detach themselves from masculinity. Masahiro Morioka characterizes them as men 1) having gentle nature, 2) not bound by manliness, 3) not aggressive when it comes to romance, 4) viewing women as equals, and 5) hating emotional pain. Herbivore men are severely criticized by men who love masculinity.
In Chinese and Taiwanese popular culture, phrases such as "" (), "" (), and "" () are used as pejoratives referring to men exhibiting misogyny, dominance, and homophobia.
In the Global South
Westernized influence in the media
Masculinities as depicted in the media of countries categorized as the Global South can depict stereotypical gender roles in various ways. In India, such roles have been pushed through Bollywood films. Additionally, there is some indication that Westernized views of masculinity have been pushed onto a global audience through print media advertisements, as well. This has been observed in India with the expansion of availability of transnational men's magazines. While there is some evidence of Western and specifically, North American, influence in advertisements found in Chinese and Taiwanese men's magazines as well, it seems that more often than not, those countries' magazines have just adopted a globally uniform perception of masculinity. This theme also presents itself in visual depictions of men in Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Sports media outlets have not necessarily promoted a completely "Westernized" version of masculinity, and white, male sports icons may have had an impact when presented alongside those players of other races, such as Asians or black people. A 2019 study found that in Major League Baseball, for example, Korean players and their respective accomplishments tend to be pushed to the side when compared with white, male players in print media and online news outlets.
Novels may be affected by Westernized perceptions. Amjad Alsyouf argues that African novelists Tayeb Salih and Chinua Achebe, for example, bring some Western influence to the gender roles portrayed in their respective novels.
Visual portrayals in fashion
Masculinity is also an important concept in advertisement branding in the Islamic culture. In Kuwait, Muslim men must remain vigilant in making sure that their consumption decisions are representative of the socially accepted masculine norms — particularly in regard to their fashion choices. Additionally, advertising in fashion branding choices and its effectiveness has been examined in the context of Chinese male consumers' choices. Men interested in wearing luxury fashion brands were often more concerned with making sure their choices were visually representative of a more professional and refined person, as opposed to someone that simply looked tough or strong. This kind of focus on visual portrayals can also appear in media depictions. In the Japanese film Sooshokukeidanshi, one of the main characters is made to appear like more of an outsider than the other male characters because of his unique style choices being seen as less traditionally masculine than the cultural expectation is, in Japan.
Effects on youth
Adharsh Raj and Manash Pratim Goswami write that in India, young people often copy negative behaviors seen as being traditionally masculine in Bollywood films. Turkish young people can also fall prey to such negative media influence, According to Özlem Akkaya. In a 2018 study, young males often thought that the violent behavior displayed by the main character, "Behzat," in the Turkish television crime series, Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi, was relatable to what they already experienced in their own day to day lives (and therefore, saw violence as a seemingly reasonable thing to occur in the series).
Amongst secondary school students in New Zealand, a 2017 study found that when examining print media advertisements, young girls occasionally fall back into a preconceived idea of what constitutes "typical" masculine behavior.
Fatherhood
In the Global South, many societies still follow very patriarchal based norms. Through media depictions and real-life scenarios, men are seen as being the head of the family — those that provide financially, have decision making power, and really are in charge. The image of the nuclear family being the societal norm is also ever-present in many places. When men are not able to fulfill that traditionally masculine, fatherly role, they may have a difficult time proving themselves as being worthy enough to have relationships with their children. In South Africa, for example, females often take on more of a culturally masculine role in providing for the household, due to the high percentage of absent fathers in some communities. Unfortunately, fathers' decision to desert the mother and their biological child is fairly common in South Africa, particularly with regard to those fathers who are younger and come from lower income families. They are often trying to provide for their own nuclear families and cannot also fulfill the cultural obligations commonly attached to fatherhood.
Efforts toward gender equality
While gender equality has not been achieved, changes are happening in regard to these commonly believed gender roles, particularly with gender justice work in the Global South. In New Delhi, India, males are more frequently becoming involved in this work, while also trying to remain mindful of how their privileged status as men affects the public perception of what they are doing. In Pakistan and Afghanistan, the tide is also turning, and men's involvement in opposing violence against women is generally seen as being very positive, a good thing for all. However, there are some who still very much see conflict and violence against women as simply going hand in hand with the those cultures.
Some want to shift the focus from specifically viewing females as the ones deserving of stronger rights to everyone deserving the opportunity to be viewed as an equal; however, this can create the potential for men to fall back into the mindset of "male victimhood," as opposed to focusing on female oppression. Although gender equality is becoming a more acknowledged topic in South Africa, for instance, fathers would often rather still hold on to the more traditional gender roles — and pass those ideas down to their sons.
The International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) has also been developed and the results from countries in the Global South studied more in recent years. Although the survey indicated areas for further improvement, a significant recent finding comes in regard to men's childhood upbringing and their attitudes surrounding gender equality. If men were raised seeing more equal division of household labor tasks, older female relatives working in non-traditional occupations, less violence toward females, etc., those behaviors and attitudes had a tendency to carry over into their adult lives, according to the survey.
A 2012 study found some evidence that youth have perhaps, inadvertently, made contributions toward greater acceptance of gender equality. Popular culture consumed by youth and those of lesser social status in East Asia, including manga, singing competitions, bands, and more are starting to showcase more modernized males that combine some stereotypically masculine feminine aspects in their behaviors.
In South Africa, stricter governmental policies are being put into place regarding abuse and violence. Additionally, initiatives like the "One Man Can" program were formed, which aim to provide HIV prevention and an anti-violence program to men in the country. The 'We Can End Violence against Women' campaign is another anti-violence initiative in Pakistan, developed by the Oxfam GB group in South Asia. In 2019, the program garnered much voluntary male participation in its gender equality work out of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
See also
References
Further reading
Contemporary
Also available as:
Historical
, Historiography.
External links
Bibliographic
The Men's Bibliography, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective)
Boyhood Studies, features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.
Other
Men in America, series by National Public Radio
Anthropology
Social constructionism | [
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240059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity | Femininity | Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both males and females can exhibit feminine traits.
Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.
Overview and history
Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are. Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings.
Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow. After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380.
In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman". The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman and in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler, who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as feminine or masculine. Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to project "shyness, reserve and a display of frailty, fear and incompetence".
Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders.
Alongside the women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model, developing an interest in androgyny. The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities.
Second-wave feminists, influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between females and males were innate, the concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men. Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors. In her significant 1963 book The Feminine Mystique, American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that the key to women's subjugation lay in the social construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent, and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity."
Behavior and personality
Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness, supportiveness, gentleness,
warmth, passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness, modesty, humility, empathy, affection, tenderness, and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding have been cited as stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies.
The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys. Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification. Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine.
Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood).
In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction". This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial. In 2005, scientific research investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age. Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.
People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.
Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences. Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.
In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life, and the resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation.
In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.
Clothing and appearance
In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair. In other cultures, however, some expectations are different. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine. Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and blue with girls.
These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist. In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the modern feminine ideal of thinness.
In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality. Some, however, see it as a symbol of objectification and oppression.
In history
Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.
In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.
The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.
Body alteration
Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose. One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.
For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.
In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty. The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance, practice this form of body modification.
Traditional roles
Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women and femininity. In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to the subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less prone to violence.
Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse. Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality and the gender pay gap. Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated by a masculine culture and have a higher salary.
Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders. However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control. Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.
Explanations for occupational imbalance
Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.
The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.
Role congruity theory
Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.
Religion and politics
Asian religions
Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions. Archeological finds have suggested that the earliest known shamans were female, and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women.
In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation.
In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.
Judeo-Christian theology
Although the Judeo-Christian God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king—many theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, God "is neither man nor woman: he is God". Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague, have explored the idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, God is compared to a mother comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy, God is said to have given birth to Israel.
The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach, wisdom is personified and called she. According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately identified with God.
The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.
In the Jewish Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the creation of the Universe.
Communism
Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong, with good female communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment. Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions. In revolutionary China in the 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish" and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching the glint of legs sheathed in nylon." In communist Poland, changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism."
Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue, requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature.
Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed, Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us – we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']" and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's life trying to escape."
As communist countries such as Romania and the Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary, they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as signs of socialist modernity. In China, with the economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to rise.
In men
In Western culture, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak. Effeminate men are often associated with homosexuality, although femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality. Because men are pressured to be masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality.
Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called cross-dressers. A drag queen is a man who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for entertainment purposes.
Feminist views
Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.
Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.
Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists, argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.
Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours.
Julia Serano's transfeminist critique
In her 2007 book Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano offers a transfeminist critique of femininity, notable especially for its call to empower femininity:
Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women's attempts to negotiate through a world which is sometimes hostile to them.
Serano argues that because contemporary culture is sexist, it assigns negative connotations to, or trivializes, behaviours understood to be feminine such as gossiping, behaving emotionally or decorating. It also recasts and reimagines femininity through a male heterosexual lens, for example interpreting women's empathy and altruism as husband-and-child-focused rather than globally focused, and interpreting women's interest in aesthetics as intended solely to entice or attract men. She writes that femininity is frequently understood as perplexing and mysterious, and notes that words like spell-binding and enchanting are often used to describe feminine women, illustrating that men don't need to understand and appreciate women's experiences in the same way in which women must understand and appreciate theirs, and indeed that men are discouraged from doing so.
See also
Feminine psychology
Feminism
Feminization (sociology)
Effeminacy
Gender role
Gender studies
Marianismo
Masculinity
Nature versus nurture
Sociology of gender
Transfeminine
References
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240060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory%20sequence | Regulatory sequence | A regulatory sequence is a segment of a nucleic acid molecule which is capable of increasing or decreasing the expression of specific genes within an organism. Regulation of gene expression is an essential feature of all living organisms and viruses.
Description
In DNA, regulation of gene expression normally happens at the level of RNA biosynthesis (transcription). It is accomplished through the sequence-specific binding of proteins (transcription factors) that activate or inhibit transcription. Transcription factors may act as activators, repressors, or both. Repressors often act by preventing RNA polymerase from forming a productive complex with the transcriptional initiation region (promoter), while activators facilitate formation of a productive complex. Furthermore, DNA motifs have been shown to be predictive of epigenomic modifications, suggesting that transcription factors play a role in regulating the epigenome.
In RNA, regulation may occur at the level of protein biosynthesis (translation), RNA cleavage, RNA splicing, or transcriptional termination. Regulatory sequences are frequently associated with messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, where they are used to control mRNA biogenesis or translation. A variety of biological molecules may bind to the RNA to accomplish this regulation, including proteins (e.g., translational repressors and splicing factors), other RNA molecules (e.g., miRNA) and small molecules, in the case of riboswitches.
Activation and implementation
A regulatory DNA sequence does not regulate unless it is activated. Different regulatory sequences are activated and then implement their regulation by different mechanisms.
Enhancer activation and implementation
Expression of genes in mammals can be upregulated when signals are transmitted to the promoters associated with the genes. Cis-regulatory DNA sequences that are located in DNA regions distant from the promoters of genes can have very large effects on gene expression, with some genes undergoing up to 100-fold increased expression due to such a cis-regulatory sequence. These cis-regulatory sequences include enhancers, silencers, insulators and tethering elements. Among this constellation of sequences, enhancers and their associated transcription factor proteins have a leading role in the regulation of gene expression.
Enhancers are sequences of the genome that are major gene-regulatory elements. Enhancers control cell-type-specific gene expression programs, most often by looping through long distances to come in physical proximity with the promoters of their target genes. In a study of brain cortical neurons, 24,937 loops were found, bringing enhancers to promoters. Multiple enhancers, each often at tens or hundred of thousands of nucleotides distant from their target genes, loop to their target gene promoters and coordinate with each other to control expression of their common target gene.
The schematic illustration in this section shows an enhancer looping around to come into close physical proximity with the promoter of a target gene. The loop is stabilized by a dimer of a connector protein (e.g. dimer of CTCF or YY1), with one member of the dimer anchored to its binding motif on the enhancer and the other member anchored to its binding motif on the promoter (represented by the red zigzags in the illustration). Several cell function specific transcription factor proteins (in 2018 Lambert et al. indicated there were about 1,600 transcription factors in a human cell) generally bind to specific motifs on an enhancer and a small combination of these enhancer-bound transcription factors, when brought close to a promoter by a DNA loop, govern the level of transcription of the target gene. Mediator (coactivator) (a complex usually consisting of about 26 proteins in an interacting structure) communicates regulatory signals from enhancer DNA-bound transcription factors directly to the RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) enzyme bound to the promoter.
Enhancers, when active, are generally transcribed from both strands of DNA with RNA polymerases acting in two different directions, producing two eRNAs as illustrated in the Figure. An inactive enhancer may be bound by an inactive transcription factor. Phosphorylation of the transcription factor may activate it and that activated transcription factor may then activate the enhancer to which it is bound (see small red star representing phosphorylation of a transcription factor bound to an enhancer in the illustration). An activated enhancer begins transcription of its RNA before activating a promoter to initiate transcription of messenger RNA from its target gene.
CpG island methylation and demethylation
5-Methylcytosine (5-mC) is a methylated form of the DNA base cytosine (see figure). 5-mC is an epigenetic marker found predominantly on cytosines within CpG dinucleotides, which consist of a cytosine is followed by a guanine reading in the 5′ to 3′ direction along the DNA strand (CpG sites). About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome. In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated (forming 5-methyl-CpG, or 5-mCpG). Methylated cytosines within CpG sequences often occur in groups, called CpG islands. About 59% of promoter sequences have a CpG island while only about 6% of enhancer sequences have a CpG island. CpG islands constitute regulatory sequences, since if CpG islands are methylated in the promoter of a gene this can reduce or silence gene expression.
DNA methylation regulates gene expression through interaction with methyl binding domain (MBD) proteins, such as MeCP2, MBD1 and MBD2. These MBD proteins bind most strongly to highly methylated CpG islands. These MBD proteins have both a methyl-CpG-binding domain and a transcriptional repression domain. They bind to methylated DNA and guide or direct protein complexes with chromatin remodeling and/or histone modifying activity to methylated CpG islands. MBD proteins generally repress local chromatin by means such as catalyzing the introduction of repressive histone marks or creating an overall repressive chromatin environment through nucleosome remodeling and chromatin reorganization.
Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences in order to regulate the expression of a given gene. The binding sequence for a transcription factor in DNA is usually about 10 or 11 nucleotides long. There are approximately 1,400 different transcription factors encoded in the human genome and they constitute about 6% of all human protein coding genes. About 94% of transcription factor binding sites that are associated with signal-responsive genes occur in enhancers while only about 6% of such sites occur in promoters.
EGR1 is a transcription factor important for regulation of methylation of CpG islands. An EGR1 transcription factor binding site is frequently located in enhancer or promoter sequences. There are about 12,000 binding sites for EGR1 in the mammalian genome and about half of EGR1 binding sites are located in promoters and half in enhancers. The binding of EGR1 to its target DNA binding site is insensitive to cytosine methylation in the DNA.
While only small amounts of EGR1 protein are detectable in cells that are un-stimulated, EGR1 translation into protein at one hour after stimulation is markedly elevated. Expression of EGR1 in various types of cells can be stimulated by growth factors, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress and injury. In the brain, when neurons are activated, EGR1 proteins are upregulated, and they bind to (recruit) pre-existing TET1 enzymes, which are highly expressed in neurons. TET enzymes can catalyze demethylation of 5-methylcytosine. When EGR1 transcription factors bring TET1 enzymes to EGR1 binding sites in promoters, the TET enzymes can demethylate the methylated CpG islands at those promoters. Upon demethylation, these promoters can then initiate transcription of their target genes. Hundreds of genes in neurons are differentially expressed after neuron activation through EGR1 recruitment of TET1 to methylated regulatory sequences in their promoters.
Activation by double- or single-strand breaks
About 600 regulatory sequences in promoters and about 800 regulatory sequences in enhancers appear to depend on double-strand breaks initiated by topoisomerase 2β (TOP2B) for activation. The induction of particular double-strand breaks is specific with respect to the inducing signal. When neurons are activated in vitro, just 22 TOP2B-induced double-strand breaks occur in their genomes. However, when contextual fear conditioning is carried out in a mouse, this conditioning causes hundreds of gene-associated DSBs in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, which are important for learning and memory.
Such TOP2B-induced double-strand breaks are accompanied by at least four enzymes of the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) DNA repair pathway (DNA-PKcs, KU70, KU80 and DNA LIGASE IV) (see figure). These enzymes repair the double-strand breaks within about 15 minutes to 2 hours. The double-strand breaks in the promoter are thus associated with TOP2B and at least these four repair enzymes. These proteins are present simultaneously on a single promoter nucleosome (there are about 147 nucleotides in the DNA sequence wrapped around a single nucleosome) located near the transcription start site of their target gene.
The double-strand break introduced by TOP2B apparently frees the part of the promoter at an RNA polymerase–bound transcription start site to physically move to its associated enhancer. This allows the enhancer, with its bound transcription factors and mediator proteins, to directly interact with the RNA polymerase that had been paused at the transcription start site to start transcription.
Similarly, topoisomerase I (TOP1) enzymes appear to be located at many enhancers, and those enhancers become activated when TOP1 introduces a single-strand break. TOP1 causes single-strand breaks in particular enhancer DNA regulatory sequences when signaled by a specific enhancer-binding transcription factor. Topoisomerase I breaks are associated with different DNA repair factors than those surrounding TOP2B breaks. In the case of TOP1, the breaks are associated most immediately with DNA repair enzymes MRE11, RAD50 and ATR.
Examples
Genomes can be analyzed systematically to identify regulatory regions. Conserved non-coding sequences often contain regulatory regions, and so they are often the subject of these analyses.
CAAT box
CCAAT box
Operator (biology)
Pribnow box
TATA box
SECIS element, mRNA
Polyadenylation signal, mRNA
A-box
Z-box
C-box
E-box
G-box
Insulin gene
Regulatory sequences for the insulin gene are:
A5
Z
negative regulatory element (NRE)
C2
E2
A3
cAMP response element
A2
CAAT enhancer binding (CEB)
C1
E1
G1
See also
Regulator gene
Regulation of gene expression
Cis-acting element
Gene regulatory network
Operon
DNA binding site
Promoter
Trans-acting factor
ORegAnno
References
External links
ORegAnno - Open Regulatory Annotation Database
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240062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuter | Neuter | Neuter is a Latin adjective meaning "neither", and can refer to:
Neuter gender, a grammatical gender, a linguistic class of nouns triggering specific types of inflections in associated words
Neuter pronoun
Neutering, the sterilization of an animal
See also
Trap–neuter–return (TNR), an alternative to euthanasia for managing feral cat and dog populations
UCAN Spay Neuter Clinic, non-profit organization providing spay/neuter as a solution to pet overpopulation
Neuters, a musical album
Neuter whose
Neutra, a surname
Neutral (disambiguation)
Neutrino, a nearly massless, electrically neutral subatomic particle
Neutrogena, a line of cosmetic products
Neutron, an electrically neutral subatomic particle
Jimmy Neutron, a cartoon series
Nutter (disambiguation) | [
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240069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beamish | Beamish | Beamish may refer to:
People
Emma Beamish (born 1982), Irish cricketer
Francis Beamish (1802-1868), Irish Whig and Liberal politician
Sir George Beamish (1905–1967), British air marshal and Irish rugby player
Harold Beamish (1896–1986) was a flying ace of World War I
Henry Hamilton Beamish (1873–1948), British racist and Rhodesian politician
Olive Beamish (1890–1978), Irish-born suffragette
Richard J. Beamish (1869–1945), Pennsylvania lawyer, journalist, author, and public official
Robert Beamish (1916–2001), Canadian physician and cardiologist
Sally Beamish (born 1956), British composer
Tufton Beamish (Royal Navy officer) (1874–1951), rear admiral in the Royal Navy and member of Parliament for Lewes
Tufton Beamish, Baron Chelwood of Lewes (1917–1989) son of the above; British Army officer and member of Parliament for Lewes
Beamish Murdoch (1800–1876), Canadian lawyer, historian and political figure in Nova Scotia
Fictional characters
Chet Beamish, a character from the television series The Big Valley
Dr. Beamish, a character from the film Dracula's Daughter
Leonard Beamish, a character from the film Carry On Regardless
Bert Beamish, Mrs. Beamish and Major Beamish, characters in The Ickabog by J. K. Rowling
Places
Beamish, County Durham, a village in England
Beamish Museum, an open-air museum
Beamish Hall, a mid-18th-century country house near the town of Stanley, County Durham
Other uses
Beamish, a nonsense word from the 1872 poem "Jabberwocky" by Lewis Carroll
Beamish Stout, an Irish stout formerly brewed by Beamish and Crawford
See also
The Adventures of Willy Beamish, a 1991 computer game | [
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240071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Winwaed | Battle of the Winwaed | The Battle of the Winwaed (Welsh: Maes Gai; ) was fought on 15 November 655 between King Penda of Mercia and Oswiu of Bernicia, ending in the Mercians' defeat and Penda's death. According to Bede, the battle marked the effective demise of Anglo-Saxon paganism.
Background
The roots of the battle lay in Penda's success in dominating England through a number of military victories, most significantly over the previously dominant Northumbrians. In alliance with Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd he had defeated and killed Edwin of Northumbria at Hatfield Chase in 633, and subsequently he defeated and killed Oswald of Northumbria at the Battle of Maserfield in 642. Maserfield effectively marked the overthrow of Northumbrian supremacy, and in the years that followed the Mercians apparently campaigned into Bernicia, besieging Bamburgh at one point; the Northumbrian sub-kingdom of Deira supported Penda during his 655 invasion.
Toponymy, location, and date
Since the nineteenth century, winwœd or winwæd was interpreted as an Old English name, from the elements winnan or win ("strife", "fight") and wæd ("shallow water", "ford"). In 2004, however, Andrew Breeze reinterpreted the name with a Celtic etymology, corresponding to Modern Welsh gwenwedd ('whiteness'). Meanwhile, the campus Gai (Latin) or maes Gai (Welsh) of the Welsh sources means 'Caius's field').
Although the battle is said to be the most important between the early northern and southern divisions of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, few details are available. The two armies met near a river named the "Winwæd", but this river has never been identified. Since, after the battle, Oswiu concludes his campaign in the district of Loidis (which gives its name to the modern West Yorkshire city of Leeds), the Winwæd is usually thought to have been near Leeds and/or a tributary of the Humber. Andrew Breeze argued for the River Went, a tributary of the River Don, situated to the north of modern-day Doncaster. Other identifications include the river now known as Cock Beck, Leeds (which has inspired the modern housing estate name Pendas Fields), before joining the River Wharfe (which eventually feeds into the Humber). Wilder speculations include Oswestry or Winwick.
After his account of the battle and the monastic endowments made by Oswiu in thanks to God for his victory, Bede says that King Oswiu brought the campaign to a close in the district of Loidis (Leeds) on 15 November in the thirteenth year of his reign, to the great benefit of both peoples; for he freed his own subjects from the hostile devastations of the heathen people and converted the Mercians and the neighbouring kingdoms to a state of grace in the Christian faith, having destroyed their heathen ruler. This has traditionally been seen as evidence that the Battle of the Winwæd itself took place on 15 November 655, but Philip Dunshea has argued that Bede's phrasing makes it possible that the battle could have happened some time—even years—before Oswiu 'brought the campaign to a close', and that its location could have been far from Leeds.
Battle
Penda, after gathering allies from East Anglia and Wales, marched with a force led by "thirty warlords". Oswiu, who was Oswald's brother but had succeeded him only in Bernicia, the northern part of Northumbria, was besieged by Penda's forces at a place called Urbs Iudeu (which has been identified, perhaps dubiously, with Stirling) in the north of his kingdom. Iedeu appears as a historic name for Jedburgh, also located in the north of the kingdom. Apparently Oswiu was desperate enough to offer a great deal of treasure to Penda in exchange for peace. Although the sources are unclear, it is likely that some sort of agreement was reached at Iudeu: although Bede says that Oswiu's offers of treasure were rejected by Penda, who, Bede says, was determined to destroy Oswiu's people "from the highest to the lowest", he does mention that Oswiu's young son Ecgfrith was being held hostage by the Mercians, perhaps as part of a deal. The Historia Brittonum contradicts Bede regarding the treasure, saying that Penda distributed it among his British allies, which would presumably mean that he accepted it. The recorded events may be interpreted to mean that Penda and his army then began marching home, but for some reason the two armies met and fought at a place called the River Winwaed. Breeze argues that Penda and his army would have been in a difficult strategic location along the Went during their withdrawal, giving Oswiu a good opportunity to attack. It is almost certain that the small (perparvus, according to Bede) Northumbrian forces were considerably outnumbered by the Mercians and their allies. According to Bede, before the battle Oswiu prayed to God and promised to make his daughter a nun and grant twelve estates for the construction of monasteries if he was victorious.
Penda's army was apparently weakened by desertions. According to the Historia Brittonum, Penda's ally Cadafael ap Cynfeddw of Gwynedd (thereafter remembered as Cadomedd, "battle-shirker") abandoned him, along with his army, and Bede says that Aethelwald of Deira withdrew from the battle to await the outcome from a place of safety. Penda was soundly defeated, and both he and his ally, the East Anglian King Aethelhere, were killed, with thirty allied leaders of warbands (duces regii). The battle was fought by the river in the midst of heavy rains, and Bede says that "many more were drowned in the flight than destroyed by the sword". Bede mentions that Penda's head was cut off. Writing in the 12th century, Henry of Huntingdon expanded his version of Bede's text to include supernatural intervention and remarked that Penda, in dying violently on the battlefield, was suffering the same fate he had inflicted on others during his aggressive reign.
Aftermath
The battle had a substantial effect on the relative positions of Northumbria and Mercia. Mercia's position of dominance, established after the battle of Maserfield, was destroyed, and Northumbrian dominance was restored; Mercia itself was divided, with the northern part being taken by Oswiu outright and the southern part going to Penda's Christian son Peada, who had married into the Bernician royal line (although Peada survived only until his murder in 656). Northumbrian authority over Mercia was overthrown within a few years, however.
Significantly, the battle marked the effective demise of Anglo-Saxon paganism; Charles Plummer, in 1896, described it as "decisive as to the religious destiny of the English". Penda had continued in his traditional paganism despite the widespread conversions of Anglo-Saxon monarchs to Christianity, and a number of Christian kings had suffered death in defeat against him; after Penda's death, Mercia was converted, and all the kings who ruled thereafter (including Penda's sons Peada, Wulfhere and Æthelred) were Christian.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Bede's account of the battle
Winwaed 655
Winwaed 655
the Winwaed
655
7th century in England | [
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240072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20literacy | Media literacy | Media literacy consists of practices that allow people to access, critically evaluate, and create or manipulate media. Media literacy is not restricted to one medium and is understood as a set of competencies that are essential for work, life, and citizenship. Media literacy education is the process used to advance media literacy competencies, and it is intended to promote awareness of media influence and create an active stance towards both consuming and creating media. Media literacy education is part of the curriculum in the United States and some European Union countries, and an interdisciplinary global community of media scholars and educators engages in knowledge sharing through scholarly and professional journals and national membership associations.
Media literacy education
Education for media literacy often uses an inquiry-based pedagogic model that encourages people to ask questions about what they watch, hear, and read. Media literacy moves beyond the traditional no print text and moves to examining more contemporary sources. Some examples of media literacy include, but are not limited to television, video games, photographs, and audio messages. Media literacy education provides tools to help people develop receptive media capability to critically analyze messages, offers opportunities for learners to broaden their experience of media, and helps them develop generative media capability to increase creative skills in making their own media messages. Critical analyses can include identifying author, purpose and point of view, examining construction techniques and genres, examining patterns of media representation, and detecting propaganda, censorship, and bias in news and public affairs programming (and the reasons for these). Media literacy education may explore how structural features—such as media ownership, or its funding model—affect the information presented.
As defined by The Core Principles of Media Literacy Education, "the purpose of media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of expression that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world." Education about media literacy can begin in early childhood by developing a pedagogy around more critical thinking and deeper analysis and questioning of concepts and texts. As students age and enter adulthood, the use of learning media literacy will be impactful in identifying ethical and technical standards in media as well as understanding how media ties to their cognitive, social, and emotional needs.
In North America and Europe, media literacy includes both empowerment and protectionist perspectives. Media literate people can skillfully create and produce media messages, both to show understanding of the specific qualities of each medium, as well as to create media and participate as active citizens. Media literacy can be seen as contributing to an expanded conceptualization of literacy, treating mass media, popular culture and digital media as new types of 'texts' that require analysis and evaluation. By transforming the process of media consumption into an active and critical process, people gain greater awareness of the potential for misrepresentation and manipulation, and understand the role of mass media and participatory media in constructing views of reality. Media literacy education is sometimes conceptualized as a way to address the negative dimensions of media, including media manipulation, misinformation, gender and racial stereotypes, the sexualization of children, and concerns about loss of privacy, cyberbullying and Internet predators. By building knowledge and competencies in using media and technology, media literacy education may provide a type of protection to children and young people by helping them make good choices in their media consumption habits, and patterns of usage.
Proponents of media literacy education argue that the inclusion of media literacy into school curricula promotes civic engagement, increases awareness of the power structures inherent in popular media and aids students in gaining necessary critical and inquiry skills. Media can have a positive or negative impact on society, but media literacy education enables the students to discern inescapable risks of manipulation, propaganda and media bias. A growing body of research has begun focusing on the impact of media literacy on youth. In an important meta-analysis of more than 50 studies, published in the Journal of Communication, media literacy interventions were found to have positive effects on knowledge, criticism, perceived realism, influence, behavioral beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavior. Media literacy also encourages critical thinking and self-expression, enabling citizens to decisively exercise their democratic rights. Media literacy enables the populace to understand and contribute to public discourse, and, eventually, make sound decisions when electing their leaders. People who are media literate can adopt a critical stance when decoding media messages, no matter their views regarding a position.
Theoretical approaches to media literacy education
A variety of scholars have proposed theoretical frameworks for media literacy. In 2010, Renee Hobbs developed the AACRA model (access, analyze, create, reflect and act) and identifies three frames for introducing media literacy to learners: authors and audiences (AA), messages and meanings (MM), and representation and reality (RR), synthesizing the scholarly literature from media literacy, information literacy, visual literacy and new literacies. This model explicitly conceptualizes media literacy as an expanded conceptualization of literacy.
David Buckingham offers "a theoretical framework which can be applied to the whole range of contemporary media and to 'older' media as well, as part of the practice of media education: Production, Language, Representation, and Audience." Elaborating on the concepts presented by David Buckingham, Henry Jenkins discusses the emergence of a participatory culture and stresses the significance of "new media literacies"—a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape.
Douglas Kellner and Jeff Share have categorized four different approaches to media education: the protectionist approach, media arts education, media literacy movement, and critical media literacy. The protectionist approach views audiences of mass media as vulnerable to cultural, ideological or moral influences, and needing protection by means of education. The media arts education approach focuses on creative production of different media forms by learners. The media literacy movement is an attempt to bring traditional aspects of literacy from the educational sphere and apply it to media. Critical media literacy aims to analyze and understand the power structures that shape media representations and the ways in which audiences work to make meaning through dominant, oppositional and negotiated readings of media.
Research on media literacy education
The scholarly knowledge community publishes research in the Journal of Media Literacy Education and other journals, and a robust global community of media literacy scholars has emerged since the European Commission set an ambitious objective for Europe to advance its knowledge economy while being more culturally inclusive. Empirical research on media literacy education is carried out by social science researchers generally falls into three major categories, focusing on (a) health outcomes; (b) curriculum and instruction; and (c) political attitudes, media use and behavior. Meta-analysis of a large number of these studies has found that the average effect size was strong and positive for outcomes including media knowledge, criticism, perceived realism, influence, attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavior. In two recent nationally-representative surveys of U.S. residents, media literacy competencies were associated with health-related decision making in the context of COVID-19, and the study found that media literacy skills promote the adoption of recommended health behaviors. Health interventions have also explored issues such as media violence, stereotypes in the representation of gender and race, materialism and consumer culture, and the glamorization of unhealthy behavior, including smoking. Research shows that media literacy is associated with increased resilience in children and youth that is effective in a wide variety of contexts and learning environments.
Media literacy competencies are frequently measured using self-report measures, where people rate or agree with various statements. These measures are easy to administer to a large group of people. Some researchers use performance- or competency-based measures to examine people's actual ability to critically analyze news, advertising, or entertainment. Media literacy programs that focus on political attitudes and behavior are thought to provide the cognitive and social scaffolding needed for civic engagement. Research on high school students has shown that participation in a media literacy program was positively associated with information-seeking motives, media knowledge, and news analysis skills. Experimental research has shown that young people ages 15 - 27 who had received media literacy education in schools were better able to evaluate the accuracy of political content, even when it aligned with their existing political beliefs.
History and international applications
Media literacy education is actively focused on the instructional methods and pedagogy of media literacy, integrating theoretical and critical frameworks rising from constructivist learning theory, media studies, and cultural studies scholarship. This work has arisen from a legacy of media and technology use in education throughout the 20th century and the emergence of cross-disciplinary work at the intersections of media studies and education. The oldest organization studying Media Literacy is the National Telemedia Council, based in Madison Wisconsin and led by Marieli Rowe for over 50 years. The Voices of Media Literacy, a project through the Center for Media Literacy, sponsored by Tessa Jolls, included first-person interviews with 20 media literacy pioneers active prior to the 1990s in English-speaking countries. The project provided historical context for the rise of media literacy from individuals who helped influenced the field.
UNESCO has investigated which countries were incorporating media studies into different schools' curricula as a means to develop new initiatives in the field of media education. Relying on 72 experts on media education in 52 different countries around the world, the study identified that (1) media literacy occurs inside the context of formal education; (2) it generally relies of partnerships with media industries and media regulators; and (3) there is a robust research community who have examined the needs of educators and obstacles to future development. Although progress around the world is uneven, all respondents realized the importance of media education, as well as the need for formal recognition from their government and policymakers.
In recent years, a wide variety of media literacy education initiatives have increased collaboration in Europe and North America, Many cultural, social, and political factors shape how media literacy education initiatives are believed to be significant. Mind Over Media is an example of an international collaboration in media literacy education: it is a digital learning platform that relies on crowdsourced examples of contemporary propaganda shared by educators and learners from around the world. For educators who are developing media literacy programs, the study of propaganda has become increasingly important, especially with the rise of fake news and disinformation.
Media literacy programs may emphasize these components: Critical thinking: understanding how the media industry works and how media messages are constructed; questioning the motivations of content producers in order to make informed choices about content selection and use; recognizing different types of media content and evaluating content for truthfulness, reliability and value; recognizing and managing online security and safety risks;
Creativity: advancing competencies through activities that involve creating, building and generating media content, often through collaboration;
Intercultural dialogue: practices of human communication, empathy and social interaction, including those that challenge radicalization, violent extremism and hate speech;
Media skills: the ability to search, find and navigate and use media content and services;
Participation and civic engagement: active participation in the economic, social, creative, cultural aspects of society using media in ways that advance democratic participation and fundamental human rights.
North America
In North America, the beginnings of a formalized approach to media literacy as a topic of education is often attributed to the 1978 formation of the Ontario-based Association for Media Literacy (AML). Before that time, instruction in media education was usually the purview of individual teachers and practitioners. Canada was the first country in North America to require media literacy in the school curriculum. Every province has mandated media education in its curriculum. For example, the new curriculum of Quebec mandates media literacy from Grade 1 until final year of secondary school (Secondary V). The launching of media education in Canada came about for two reasons. One reason was the concern about the pervasiveness of American popular culture and the other was the education system-driven necessity of contexts for new educational paradigms. Canadian communication scholar Marshall McLuhan ignited the North American educational movement for media literacy in the 1950s and 1960s. Two of Canada's leaders in Media Literacy and Media Education are Barry Duncan and John Pungente. Duncan died on June 6, 2012. Even after he retired from classroom teaching, Barry had still been active in media education. Pungente is a Jesuit priest who has promoted media literacy since the early 1960s.
Media literacy education has been an interest in the United States since the early 20th century, when high school English teachers first started using film to develop students' critical thinking and communication skills. However, media literacy education is distinct from simply using media and technology in the classroom, a distinction that is exemplified by the difference between "teaching with media" and "teaching about media." In the 1950s and 60s, the ‘film grammar’ approach to media literacy education developed in the United States. Where educators began to show commercial films to children, having them learn a new terminology consisting of words such as: fade, dissolve, truck, pan, zoom, and cut. Films were connected to literature and history. To understand the constructed nature of film, students explored plot development, character, mood and tone. Then, during the 1970s and 1980s, attitudes about mass media and mass culture began to shift around the English-speaking world. Educators began to realize the need to “guard against our prejudice of thinking of print as the only real medium that the English teacher has a stake in.” A whole generation of educators began to not only acknowledge film and television as new, legitimate forms of expression and communication, but also explored practical ways to promote serious inquiry and analysis—- in higher education, in the family, in schools and in society. In 1976, Project Censored began using a service learning model to cultivate media literacy skills among students and faculty in higher education.
Media literacy education began to appear in state English education curriculum frameworks by the early 1990s, as a result of increased awareness in the central role of media in the context of contemporary culture. Nearly all 50 states have language that supports media literacy in state curriculum frameworks. Additionally, an increasing number of school districts have begun to develop school-wide programs, elective courses, and other after-school opportunities for media analysis and production. However, there is no national data on the reach of media literacy programs in the United States.
Interdisciplinary scholarship in media literacy education is emerging. In 2009, a scholarly journal was launched, the Journal of Media Literacy Education, to support the work of scholars and practitioners in the field. Universities such as Appalachian State University, Columbia University, Ithaca College, New York University, Brooklyn College of the City, University of New York, the University of Texas-Austin, The University of Rhode Island and the University of Maryland offer courses and summer institutes in media literacy for pre-service teachers and graduate students. Brigham Young University offers a graduate program in media education specifically for in-service teachers. Since 2011, the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, Teacher Education Program has required all new teachers take a 4-unit course on Critical Media Literacy.
Europe
The UK is widely regarded as a leader in the development of media literacy education. Key agencies that have been involved in this development include the British Film Institute, the English and Media Centre Film Education the Centre for the Study of Children, Youth and Media at the Institute of Education, London, and the DARE centre (Digital Arts Research Education), a collaboration between University College London and the British Film Institute. The ‘promotion' of media literacy also became a UK Government policy under New Labour, and was enshrined in the Communications Act 2003 as a responsibility of the new media regulator, Ofcom. After an initial burst of activity, however, Ofcom's work in this regard was progressively reduced in scope, and from the Coalition government onwards, the promotion of media literacy was reduced to a matter of market research – what Wallis & Buckingham have described as an ‘undead' policy.
In the Nordics, media education was introduced into the Finnish elementary curriculum in 1970 and into high schools in 1977. The concepts devised at the Lycée franco-finlandais d'Helsinki became the standard nation-wide in 2016. Media education has been compulsory in Sweden since 1980 and in Denmark since 1970.
France has taught film from the inception of the medium, but it has only been recently that conferences and media courses for teachers have been organized with the inclusion of media production.
Germany saw theoretical publications on media literacy in the 1970s and 1980s, with a growing interest for media education inside and outside the educational system in the 80s and 90s.
In the Netherlands media literacy was placed in the agenda by the Dutch government in 2006 as an important subject for the Dutch society. In April, 2008, an official center has been created (mediawijsheid expertisecentrum = medialiteracy expertisecenter) by the Dutch government. This center is a network organization consisting of different stakeholders with expertise on the subject.
In Russia, the 1970s-1990s brought about the first official programs of film and media education, increasing interest in doctoral studies focused on media education, as well as theoretical and empirical work on media education by O.Baranov (Tver), S.Penzin (Voronezh), G.Polichko, U.Rabinovich (Kurgan), Y.Usov (Moscow), Alexander Fedorov (Taganrog), A.Sharikov (Moscow) and others. Recent developments in media education in Russia are the 2002 registration of a new ‘Media Education’ (No. 03.13.30) specialization for the pedagogical universities, and the 2005 launch of the Media Education academic journal, partly sponsored by the ICOS UNESCO ‘Information for All’.
Montenegro became one of the few countries in the world that have introduced media education into their curriculums, when in 2009 “media literacy” was introduced as an optional subject for 16 and 17-year-old students of Gymnasium high schools.
In Ukraine, media education is in the second stage (2017–2020) of development and standardization. Main centres of media education include the Ivan Franko University of Lviv (led by Borys Potyatynyk), Institute of Higher Education of the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine (Hanna Onkovych), Institute of Social and Political Psychology of the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine (Lyubov Naidyonova).
Asia
Media literacy education is not yet as widespread or as advanced in Asia, comparative to the U.S. or Western countries. Beginning in the 1990s, there has been a shift towards media literacy in East Asia. In recent years, media literacy education is growing in Asia, with several programs in place across countries throughout the Asian Pacific region.
Teachers in Beijing, China are recognizing the importance of media literacy education in primary schools based on their own level of concern for the need of media literacy in education. Other programs in China include Little Masters, a Chinese publication created by children that report on a variety of issues, helping children learn journalism and basic teamwork and communication skills. Studies have been done to test levels of media literacy among Chinese-speaking students in China and Taiwan, but further research is needed. Information literacy is highly regarded in education, but media literacy less recognized.
In India, the Cybermohalla program started in 2001 with the aim to bring access to technology to youths.
In Vietnam, the Young Journalists Group (YOJO) created in 1998 in collaboration with UNICEF and the Vietnamese National Radio to combat false accounts by the media.
In Singapore, the Media Development Authority (MDA) defines media literacy and recognizes it as an important tool for the 21st century, but only from the reading aspect of the term.
Beginning in the 2017 school year, children in Taiwan study a new curriculum designed to teach critical reading of propaganda and the evaluation of sources. Called "media literacy," the course provides training in journalism in the new information society.
In Iran, Nasra is a movement aiming to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults in 2018. This social movement focus on digital media use and mental health and increase the skills of using the media for the public.
Middle East
Jordan is moving forward in fostering media and information literacy, which is crucial to fighting extremism and hate speech, Jordan Media Institute is working on spreading the concepts and skills of positive interaction with the media and tools of communication technology and digital media, and to reduce their disadvantages.
An academy in Beirut, Lebanon opened in 2013, called the Media and Digital Literacy Academy of Beirut (MDLAB) with the goal for students to be critical media consumers.
Australia
In Australia, media education was influenced by developments in Britain related to the inoculation, popular arts, and demystification approaches. Key theorists who influenced Australian media education were Graeme Turner and John Hartley who helped develop Australian media and cultural studies. During the 1980s and 1990s, Western Australians Robyn Quin and Barrie MacMahon wrote seminal textbooks such as Real Images, translating many complex media theories into classroom appropriate learning frameworks. At the same time Carmen Luke connected media literacy with feminism promoting a more critical approach to media education. In most Australian states, media is one of five strands of the Arts Key Learning Area and includes "essential learnings" or "outcomes" listed for various stages of development. At the senior level (years 11 and 12), several states offer Media Studies as an elective. For example, many Queensland schools offer Film, Television and New Media, while Victorian schools offer VCE Media. Media education is supported by the teacher professional association Australian Teachers of Media. With the introduction of a new Australian National Curriculum, schools are beginning to implement media education as part of the arts curriculum, using media literacy as a means to educate students how to deconstruct, construct and identify themes in media.
See also
Critical literacy
Digital literacy
Discourse
Information and media literacy
Information literacy
Intertextuality
Journal of Media Literacy Education
Mind Over Media
Multiliteracy
Postliterate society
Transmediation
Visual literacy
References
External links
National Association for Media Literacy Education
Peter Medlin, WNIJ, "Illinois Is the First State to Have High Schools Teach News Literacy," National Public Radio, August 12, 2021
Literacy
Mass media
Media studies
Pedagogy
Criticism of journalism | [
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240073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20Roshi | Master Roshi | Master Roshi, known in the original Japanese as as well as , is a fictional character from the Dragon Ball series created by Akira Toriyama.
Within the series, he is an elderly martial arts master who is the innovator of the technique. His students include Grandpa Son Gohan, The Ox-King, Son Goku, Krillin and Yamcha. He is bald, sports a thick van dyke beard, and wears sunglasses, beach clothes, or martial arts suits. He usually wields a walking stick and, in early appearances, wears a turtle's shell on his back. In spite of his lechery, cantankerousness and occasional whimsy or foolishness, he is often depicted as wise and perceptive. Reception for the character has been mostly positive, although certain personality traits have been noted as questionable and criticized.
Voice actors
Master Roshi's design was inspired by the character of Kami-sama from Toriyama's previous manga Dr. Slump and accordingly was originally voiced by Kōhei Miyauchi, who also voiced Kami-sama in the original Dr. Slump anime. For unknown reasons Miyauchi was unavailable for the recording of Dragon Ball Episode #137; the role was played by series narrator Jōji Yanami. Miyauchi's final acting session before he died was for episode 260 of Dragon Ball Z, which he recorded only 3 months before his death. Kame-Sennin is voiced by Hiroshi Masuoka from episode 288 of Dragon Ball Z onward, in Dragon Ball GT and the 2008 Jump Super Anime Tour film. He is voiced by Kinya Aikawa in the 10th anniversary movie, by Takko Ishimori in gameplay of Dragon Ball: Advanced Adventure, and by Masaharu Satō in the thirteenth Dragon Ball Z movie and all media following Dragon Ball Kai.
In the Ocean dub, he is voiced by Michael Donovan, Ian James Corlett, Peter Kelamis, Don Brown, and Terry Klassen at various points. Dean Galloway voices him in the Blue Water dub, while Mike McFarland voices him in the Funimation dub. Other English dub voice actors include Ed Marcus, Amir Khafila, Nesty Ramirez, Dave Bridges, and Kirk Thornton.
Appearances
Dragon Ball
Master Roshi's first appearance is in chapter #3 of the Dragon Ball manga. Roshi lives with his longtime companion, an anthropomorphic turtle referred to as Umigame (ウミガメ, "Sea Turtle"), on an island with a house built on it known as "Kame House". Kame House eventually serves as a gathering place for Goku and his associates throughout the series, as well as a home for certain recurring characters like Oolong or Krillin and his young family. Graduates of Roshi's training (i.e. Goku, Krillin, Yamcha) often wear the kanji for "Turtle" ("Kame") 亀 on their dogi. When wishing to fight anonymously at the World Martial Arts Tournament, Roshi assumes a disguise and calls himself "Jackie Chun".
Master Roshi is consistently depicted as a pervert who frequently flirts with or harasses physically attractive female characters. In Chapter 5 of the Dragon Ball manga series, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump on January 15, 1985, Roshi makes sexual advances on "Bulma" who is wearing a suggestive bunny costume; it is in fact an impersonation by a shapeshifting Oolong, who seduces Roshi by inviting him to place his face between his "breasts" and calls the act "Puff Puff". The term is derived from the Japanese onomatopoeia for a woman rubbing her breasts in another person's face, though it can also be used to refer to a woman juggling her own breasts.
When tasked with putting out a fire on Mount Frypan, Master Roshi demonstrated an ability to greatly increase his energy. In this state, his appearance changes dramatically, with an enormous increase in muscle mass and likewise height which was nearly equal to Piccolo. Due to his natural precision in battle, this bulky state does not appear to affect his speed and agility. In this state, he can perform many ki attacks at their maximum potential, most noticeably an enhanced version of his Kamehameha attack, which was so powerful that it was able to destroy the moon.
At the beginning of the Dragon Ball series, he is considered to be the strongest mortal fighter in the Dragon Ball universe, however his power level began to pale in comparison to Goku and his allies later in the series. While his legacy is demonstrated in the prolific use of the Kamehameha technique by numerous characters in the series, his prominence have diminished greatly by the time Goku reaches adulthood. He would only make occasional appearances as a supporting character and no longer operate as an active fighter.
In Toriyama's films and Dragon Ball Super
Master Roshi would return to prominence as a major character with the revival of the Dragon Ball series in the 2010s. In the film Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F' and its counterpart story arc in Dragon Ball Super, Master Roshi would join Goku and his friends in their fight against a resurrected Frieza leading his army to Earth and exact vengeance against Goku. It is also implied on one episode that the Paradise Grass is the source of Master Roshi's long lifespan, as he claims that eating some of it would allow him to live on for another millennia.
In the Universe Survival arc of Dragon Ball Super, Roshi is revealed to have been secretly training and holding back his true strength, and he is later recruited as one of the representatives of the Seventh Universe by Goku. But as his perverted behavior got him caught in a mind control spell by a Crane School student named Yurin, Roshi enlists Puar to build up a resistance to beautiful women. While Master Roshi manages to eliminate four competitors from other universes during the tournament, he is forced to eliminate himself when an altercation with the Sixth Universe warrior Frost nearly kills him from excessive using the Mafuba technique.
In other media
In June 1988, Master Roshi along with other Dragon Ball characters were featured in two public safety announcement shorts. The first was entitled , and the second called where he along with Krillin, Yamcha, and later Goku become volunteer fire fighters.
Master Roshi is portrayed by Chow Yun-fat in the American live-action film Dragonball Evolution; his voice was dubbed over by Tsutomu Isobe in the Japanese version.
Roshi was included as one of eight character pairings in Dragon Ball x One Piece: Cross Epoch, a crossover manga between their respective Dragon Ball and One Piece series. In the 2013 crossover TV special , Roshi is one of the participants in the Food Tournament (Tenkaichi Kuōkai), consisting of a race to the center of the hosting island and the championship prize of luxuriously rare Carat Sizzled Cattle, hosted by the International Gourmet Organization (IGO).
Roshi is a playable character in the following video games:
Dragon Ball Z: Ultimate Battle 22
Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi
Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi 2 (Playable w/Jackie Chun as an alternate outfit, has MAX Power Mode as transformation)
Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi 3 (same as above.)
Dragon Ball: Advanced Adventure (Playable as Jackie Chun)
Dragon Ball FighterZ (DLC)
Reception and legacy
Master Roshi is a popular character who has appeared in several "top" character lists by fans and critics. Japanese fans voted Master Roshi the thirteenth most popular character of the series in a 2004 poll. Master Roshi was ranked second place in a Japanese fan poll conducted by Charapedia for their favorite lecherous male anime and manga characters. Master Roshi is ranked number 9 on IGN's Top 13 Dragon Ball Z Characters List; Carle acknowledged Roshi's primary role within the series as a comic relief character, but also emphasized the importance of the character's legacy for being the inventor of the Kamehameha, "the franchise's most recognizable move and Goku’s signature technique", and that he can still hold his own in battle when necessary. Roshi came in 12th place on Complexs list "A Ranking of All the Characters on 'Dragon Ball Z"; Pearce observed that while Master Roshi's role in the series deteriorated with the arrival of the Saiyan characters, he still pops up to offer advice, support, and comic relief.
Master Roshi has received particular attention for his lewd sensibilities, and his constant attempts to catch the series' female characters in revealing positions". Tim Jones from Them Anime Reviews believed that while fan service is prevalent in the original Dragon Ball series, he opined that it is not very extremely offensive as characters like Roshi quite often gets beaten up or punished in retaliation for comedic effect. Master Roshi's scene with Oolong who is disguised as Bulma originated the slang term "puff puff", which is later referenced in other works which has Toriyama's involvement, such as the Dragon Quest franchise. References to the act were removed from the American television broadcast of the Dragon Ball anime adaptation. The character's lecherous behaviour towards a female character named Yurin in a Dragon Ball Super episode provoked a major complaint by Japan's Broadcasting Ethics and Program Improvement Organization due to the underlying theme of sexual harassment. This same scene led to the series being cancelled in Argentina in 2021.
Reviewing the live-action Dragonball Evolution for IGN, Christopher Monfette said that Chow Yun-Fat's performance successfully captured Master Roshi's "whimsical, half-drunken essence".
References
Dragon Ball characters
Animated human characters
Anime and manga characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Anime and manga characters with superhuman strength
Martial artist characters in anime and manga
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Fictional hermits
Fictional martial arts trainers
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240074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghui | Tongmenghui | The Tongmenghui of China (or T'ung-meng Hui, variously translated as Chinese United League, United League, Chinese Revolutionary Alliance, Chinese Alliance, United Allegiance Society, 中國同盟會) was a secret society and underground resistance movement founded by Sun Yat-sen, Song Jiaoren, and others in Tokyo, Japan, on 20 August 1905. It was formed from the merger of multiple Chinese revolutionary groups in the late Qing dynasty.
History
Revolutionary era
The Tongmenghui was created through the unification of Sun Yat-sen's Xingzhonghui (Revive China Society), the Guangfuhui (Restoration Society) and many other Chinese revolutionary groups. Among the Tongmenghui's members were Huang Xing, Li Zongren, Zhang Binglin, Chen Tianhua, Wang Jingwei, Hu Hanmin, Tao Chengzhang, Cai Yuanpei, Li Shizeng, Zhang Renjie, and Qiu Jin.
In 1906, a branch of the Tongmenghui was formed in Singapore, following Sun's visit there; this was called the Nanyang branch and served as headquarters of the organization for Southeast Asia. The members of the branch included Wong Hong-kui (黃康衢; Huang Kangqu), Tan Chor Lam (陳楚楠; Chen Chu'nan; 1884–1971) and Teo Eng Hock (張永福; Zhang Yongfu; originally a rubber shoe manufacturer). Tan Chor Lam, Teo Eng Hock and Chan Po-yin (陳步賢; Chen Buxian; 1883–1965) started the revolution-related Chong Shing Chinese Daily Newspaper (中興日報, 中興 meaning China revival), with the inaugural issue on 20 August 1907 and a daily distribution of 1,000 copies. The newspaper ended in 1910, presumably due to the Xinhai Revolution in 1911. Working with other Cantonese people, Tan, Teo and Chan opened the revolution-related Kai Ming Bookstore (開明書報社, 開明 meaning open wisdom) in Singapore. For the revolution, Chan Po-yin raised over 30,000 yuan for the purchase and shipment (from Singapore to China) of military equipment and for the support of the expenses of people travelling from Singapore to China for revolutionary work.
In 1909, the headquarters of the Nanyang Tongmenghui was transferred to Penang. Sun Yat-Sen himself was based in Penang from July to December 1910. During this time, the 1910 Penang Conference was held to plan the Second Guangzhou Uprising. The high-powered Preparatory Meeting of Dr. Sun Yat Sen's supporters was subsequently held in Ipoh - at the villa of Teh Lay Seng, chairman of Tungmenghui Ipoh at Jalan Sungai Pari - to raise funds. The Ipoh leaders were Teh Lay Seng, Wong I Ek, Lee Guan Swee and Lee Hau Cheong. The leaders launched a major drive for donations across the Malay Peninsula. An amount of $47, 683 Straits Settlement Dollars was raised. The Tongmenghui also started a newspaper, the Kwong Wah Jit Poh, with the first issue published in December 1910 from 120 Armenian Street, Penang.
In Henan, some Chinese Muslims were members of the Tongmenghui.
Republican era
After Shanghai was occupied by the revolutionaries in November 1911, the Tongmenghui moved its headquarters to Shanghai. After the Nanjing Provisional Government was established, the headquarters was moved to Nanjing. A general meeting was held in Nanjing on 20 January 1912, with thousands of members attending. Hu Hanmin, who represented the Provisional President Sun Yat-sen, moved that the Tongmenghui oath be changed to "overthrow the Manchu government, consolidate the Republic of China, and implement the Min Sheng Chu I. Wang Jingwei was elected as Chairman, succeeding Sun. Wang resigned the following month, and Sun resumed the chairmanship.
After the establishment of the Republic of China, the Tongmenghui transformed itself into a political party on 3 March 1912, in preparation for participation in constitutional and parliamentary activities. It issued a Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which consisted of 34 articles, meaning it had 10 more than the constitutional proposal made when the Tongmenghui was a secret society. The leadership election was held on the same day, with Sun Yat-sen elected as Chairman, Huang Xing and Li Yuanhung as Vice-Chairmen. In May 1912, the Tongmenghui moved its headquarters to Beijing. At that time, the Tongmenghui was the largest party in China, with branches in Guangdong, Szechuan, Wuhan, Shanghai, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Anqing, Fuzhou and Tianjin. It had a membership of about 550,000. In August 1912, the Tongmenghui formed the nucleus of the Kuomintang, the governing political party of the republic.
Slogan and motto
In 1904, by combining republican, nationalist, and socialist objectives, the Tongmenghui came up with their political goal: to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive Zhonghua, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權 Qūchú dálǔ, huīfù Zhōnghuá, chuànglì mínguó, píngjūn dì quán). The Three Principles of the People were created around the time of the merging of Revive China Society and the Tongmenghui.
See also
Revive China Society
Gelaohui
Kuomintang
History of the Republic of China
Huaxinghui
References
External links
Tongmenhui activities in the US
1905 establishments in Japan
Chinese secret societies | [
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240075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Carroll%20of%20Carrollton | Charles Carroll of Carrollton | Charles Carroll (September 19, 1737 – November 14, 1832), known as Charles Carroll of Carrollton or Charles Carroll III, was an Irish-American politician, planter, slaveholder, and signatory of the Declaration of Independence. He was the only Catholic signatory and the last surviving signatory of the Declaration of Independence, dying 56 years after signing the document.
Considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, Carroll was known contemporaneously as the "First Citizen" of the American Colonies, a consequence of signing articles in the Maryland Gazette with that pen name. He served as a delegate to the Continental Congress and Confederation Congress. Carroll later served as the first United States Senator for Maryland. Of all of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Carroll was reputed to have attained the highest formal education and wealthiest of the group. A product of his 17-year Jesuit education in France, Carroll spoke five languages fluently.
Born in Annapolis, Maryland, Carroll inherited vast agricultural estates and was regarded as the wealthiest man in the American colonies when the American Revolution commenced in 1775. His personal fortune at this time was reputed to be 2,100,000 pounds sterling, the (US$375 million). In addition, Carroll presided over his manor in Maryland, a 10,000-acre estate that included approximately 300 enslaved people. Though barred from holding office in Maryland because of his religion, Carroll emerged as a leader of the state's movement for independence. He was a delegate to the Annapolis Convention and was selected as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776. He was part of an unsuccessful diplomatic mission, which also included Benjamin Franklin and Samuel Chase, that Congress sent to Quebec in hopes of winning the support of French Canadians.
Carroll served in the Maryland Senate from 1781 to 1800. He was elected as one of Maryland's inaugural representatives in the United States Senate but resigned from the United States Senate in 1792 after Maryland passed a law barring individuals from simultaneously serving in state and federal office. After retiring from public office, he helped establish the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
Ancestry
The Carroll family were descendants of the Ó Cearbhaill lords of Éile (Lords of Ely) in King's County (now County Offaly), Ireland. Carroll's grandfather was the Irish-born Charles Carroll the Settler (1660–1720) from Litterluna; he was a descendant of Daniel O'Carroll of Aghagurty Clareen, three miles south of Kinnitty, and a clerk in the office of Lord Powis. Carroll left his native Ireland around 1659 and emigrated to St. Mary's City, capital of the colony of Maryland, in 1689, with a commission as attorney general from the colony's Catholic proprietor, Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore.
Charles Carroll the Settler was the son of Daniel O'Carroll of Litterluna. The "O'" in Irish surnames was often dropped with the anglicisation policies adopted by the English administration in Ireland. Charles Carroll the Settler had a son, born in 1702 and also named Charles. To distinguish himself from his father he was known as Charles Carroll of Annapolis.
Early life
Carroll was born on September 19, 1737, in Annapolis, Maryland, the only child of Charles Carroll of Annapolis (1702–1782) and Elizabeth Brooke (1709–1761). He was born illegitimate, as his parents were not married at the time of his birth, for technical reasons to do with the inheritance of the Carroll family estates. They eventually married in 1757.
The young Carroll was educated at a Jesuit preparatory school known as Bohemia Manor in Cecil County on Maryland's Eastern Shore. At age 11, he was sent to France, where he continued in Jesuit schools, first at the College of St. Omer in Northern France and later the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, graduating in 1755. He continued his studies in Europe and read law in London before returning to Annapolis in 1765.
Charles Carroll of Annapolis granted Carrollton Manor to his son, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. It is from this tract of land that he took his title "Charles Carroll of Carrollton." Like his father, Carroll was a Catholic and as a consequence was barred by Maryland statute from entering politics, practicing law and voting. This did not prevent him from becoming one of the wealthiest men in Maryland (or indeed anywhere in the Colonies), owning extensive agricultural estates, most notably the large manor at Doughoregan, Hockley Forge and Mill, and providing capital to finance new enterprises on the Western Shore.
American Revolution
Voice for independence
Carroll was not initially interested in politics, and in any event Catholics had been barred from holding office in Maryland since the 1704 act seeking "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province". But as the dispute between Great Britain and her American colonies intensified in the early 1770s, Carroll became a powerful voice for independence. In 1772, he engaged in a debate, conducted through anonymous newspaper letters, maintaining the right of the colonies to control their own taxation. Writing in the Maryland Gazette under the pseudonym "First Citizen," he became a prominent spokesman against the governor's proclamation increasing legal fees to state officers and Protestant clergy. Opposing Carroll in these written debates and writing as "Antillon" was Daniel Dulany the Younger, a noted lawyer and loyalist politician. In these debates, Carroll argued that the government of Maryland had long been the monopoly of four families, the Ogles, the Taskers, the Bladens and the Dulanys, with Dulany taking the contrary view. Eventually word spread of the true identity of the two combatants, and Carroll's fame and notoriety began to grow. Dulany soon resorted to highly personal ad hominem attacks on "First Citizen", and Carroll responded, in statesmanlike fashion, with considerable restraint, arguing that when "Antillon" engaged in "virulent invective and illiberal abuse, we may fairly presume, that arguments are either wanting, or that ignorance or incapacity know not how to apply them". Following these written debates, Carroll became a leading opponent of British rule and served on various committees of correspondence.
In the early 1770s Carroll appears to have embraced the idea that only violence could break the impasse with Great Britain. According to legend, Carroll and Samuel Chase (who would also later sign the Declaration of Independence on Maryland's behalf) had the following exchange:
Chase: "We have the better of our opponents; we have completely written them down."
Carroll: "And do you think that writing will settle the question between us?"
Chase: "To be sure, what else can we resort to?"
Carroll: "The bayonet. Our arguments will only raise the feelings of the people to that pitch, when open war will be looked to as the arbiter of the dispute."
Continental Congress
Beginning with his election to Maryland's committee of correspondence in 1774, Carroll represented the colony in most of the pre-revolutionary groups. He became a member of Annapolis' first committee of safety in 1775. Carroll was a delegate to the Annapolis Convention, which functioned as Maryland's revolutionary government before the Declaration of Independence. In early 1776, the Congress sent him on a four-man diplomatic mission to the Province of Quebec, in order to seek assistance from French Canadians in the coming confrontation with Great Britain. Carroll was an excellent choice for such a mission, being fluent in French and a Catholic and therefore well suited to negotiations with the French-speaking Catholics of Quebec. He was joined in the commission by Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Chase, and his cousin John Carroll. The commission did not accomplish its mission.
Carroll was elected to the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, and remained a delegate until 1778. He arrived too late to vote in favor of the Declaration of Independence but was present to sign the official document that survives today. After both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died on July 4, 1826, Carroll became the last living signatory of the Declaration of Independence. His signature reads "Charles Carroll of Carrollton" to distinguish him from his father, "Charles Carroll of Annapolis," who was still living at that time, and several other Charles Carrolls in Maryland, such as Charles Carroll, Barrister, and his son Charles Carroll, Jr., also known as "Charles Carroll of Homewood." He is usually referred to this way by historians. At the time, he was the richest man in America and had much to lose by identifying himself on the document. Throughout his term in the Second Continental Congress, he served on the board of war. Carroll also gave considerable financial support to the American Revolutionary War.
Senator
Carroll returned to Maryland in 1778 to assist in the formation of a state government. Carroll was re-elected to the Continental Congress in 1780, but he declined. He was elected to the Maryland Senate in 1781 and served there until 1800. In November 1779, The Maryland House of Delegates moved to pass a bill confiscating the property of those who had sided with the Crown during the Revolution. Carroll opposed this measure, questioning the motives of those who pressed for confiscation and arguing that the measure was unjust. However, such moves to confiscate Tory property had much popular support and eventually, in 1780, the measure passed.
When the United States government was created, the Maryland legislature elected him to the first United States Senate. In 1792, Maryland passed a law that prohibited any man from serving in the state and national legislatures at the same time. Since he preferred to be in the Maryland Senate, he resigned from the U.S. Senate on November 30, 1792.
Attitude toward slavery
The Carroll family were
slaveholders, and Carroll was reputedly the largest single owner of enslaved people at the time of the American Revolution. Carroll was opposed in principle to slavery, asking rhetorically: "Why keep alive the question of slavery? It is admitted by all to be a great evil." However, although he supported its gradual abolition, he did not free his own enslaved people. Carroll introduced a bill for the gradual abolition of slavery in the Maryland Senate, but it did not pass. In 1828, aged 91, he served as president of the Auxiliary State Colonization Society of Maryland, the Maryland branch of the American Colonization Society, an organization dedicated to returning black Americans to lead free lives in African states such as Liberia.
Later life and legacy
Carroll retired from public life in 1801. After Thomas Jefferson became president, he had great anxiety about political activity and was not sympathetic to the War of 1812. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. Carroll came out of retirement to help create the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1827. In 1828, he commissioned the Phoenix Shot Tower and laid its corner stone, which was the tallest building in the United States until the Washington Monument was constructed. His last public act, on July 4, 1828, was the laying of the "first stone" (cornerstone) of the railroad at almost 91 years of age.
He was admitted as an honorary member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Maryland in 1828. Unlike hereditary members, honorary members are not eligible to be represented by a living descendant. In May 1832, he was asked to appear at the first Democratic Party Convention but did not attend on account of poor health. Carroll died on November 14, 1832, at age 95, in Baltimore. He holds the distinction of being the oldest lived Founding Father. He had outlived four of the first six U.S. presidents. His funeral took place at the Baltimore Cathedral (now known as the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary), and he is buried in his Doughoregan Manor Chapel at Ellicott City, Maryland.
Carroll is remembered in the third stanza of the former state song Maryland, My Maryland.
Thou wilt not cower in the dust,
Maryland! My Maryland!
Thy beaming sword shall never rust,
Maryland! My Maryland!
Remember Carroll's sacred trust,
Remember Howard's warlike thrust –
And all thy slumberers with the just,
Maryland! My Maryland!
Named in his honor are counties in Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Virginia as well as two Louisiana parishes, East and West Carroll. Cities and towns named for him are in Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, and New York, as well as neighborhoods in Brooklyn and Tampa. Charles Carroll Middle School in New Carrolltown, Maryland; Charles Carroll High School in the Port Richmond neighborhood of Philadelphia; and Carroll University in Waukesha, Wisconsin, are named in his honor.
In 1876, the Centennial Exhibition held to commemorate the birth of the United States was held in Philadelphia. The Catholic Abstinence Union of America commissioned the Catholic Total Abstinence Union Fountain for the Centennial Exhibition. The fountain was commissioned and created by sculptor Herman Kim to promote American morality, and the centerpiece of the fountain is a statue of Moses. There are four other statues that surround it, making up the points of the Maltese cross: Carroll, Father Mathew, Commodore John Barry, and Archbishop John Carroll. The fountain is located in West Fairmount Park.
In 1903, the state of Maryland added a bronze statue Carroll to the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall Collection. Sculpted by Richard E. Brooks, it is located in the Crypt. In 1906, the University of Notre Dame constructed a residence hall known as Carroll Hall. Paca-Carroll House at St. John's College is named for Carroll and his fellow signer of the Declaration of Independence, William Paca. The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
Family
Carroll married Mary Darnall (1749–1782), known as Molly, on June 5, 1768. She was a granddaughter of Henry Darnall (Carroll was a great grandson of Darnall). They had seven children before Molly died in 1782, but only three survived infancy:
Mary Carroll (1770–1846), who married Richard Caton (1763–1845), an English immigrant who became a Baltimore merchant. From 1820 to 1832, Carroll would winter with the Catons in Baltimore. Their daughters were:
Marianne Caton (1788–1853), who married Robert Patterson (brother of Elizabeth Patterson Bonaparte). After his death, she married Anglo-Irish statesman Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley (1760–1842), who was the brother of the legendary military commander Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, who was believed to have been previously Marianne's paramour.
Elizabeth Caton (1790–1862), who married Sir George Strafford, 8th Baron Strafford.
Louisa Caton (1793–1874), who married Col. Sir Felton Bathurst-Hervey, 1st Baronet. After his death, she married Francis D'Arcy-Osborne (later the 7th Duke of Leeds).
Emily Caton (1794/5-1867), who married John McTavish (1788–1852), who served as British Consul to Baltimore. They were parents of four children including Mary Wellesley McTavish (1826–1915), The Hon. Mrs Henry George Howard (of the Earls of Carlisle).
Charles Carroll Jr. (1775–1825) (sometimes known as Charles Carroll of Homewood because he oversaw its design and construction), married Harriet Chew (1775–1861) from Philadelphia. Harriet was the daughter of Benjamin Chew, the chief justice of Pennsylvania, and her sister married John Eager Howard, who had served in the Senate with Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Charles Jr. reportedly consumed up to two quarts of brandy a day. This led to erratic behavior that resulted in his separation from Harriet.
Catherine ("Kitty") Carroll (1778–1861), who married Robert Goodloe Harper (1765–1826), a lawyer and U.S. senator.
Today, Carroll's descendants continue to own Doughoregan Manor, the largest parcel of land in Howard County, Maryland, with over 1,000 acres (4 km2) of valuable but historically preserved land in Ellicott City, Maryland.
Anne Marie Becraft's grandmother, a free Black, worked as a housekeeper for Carroll and was likely his concubine; Carroll presented Anne Marie's father with several of the Carroll family's prized relics, paintings, and other keepsakes just before Carroll's death in 1832.
Carroll's signature
In the 1940s, newspaper journalist John Hix's syndicated comic Strange as It Seems published an interesting, but apocryphal, explanation for Charles Carroll's distinctive signature on the Declaration of Independence. Every member of the Continental Congress who signed this document automatically became a criminal, guilty of sedition against King George III. Carroll, because of his wealth, had more to lose than most of his companions. Some of the signators, such as Caesar Rodney and Button Gwinnett, had unusual and distinctive names which would clearly identify them to the King; other signators, with more commonplace names, might hope to sign the Declaration without incriminating themselves.
According to Hix, when it was Carroll's turn to sign the Declaration of Independence, he rose, went to John Hancock's desk where the document rested, signed his name "Charles Carroll" and returned to his seat. At this point another member of the Continental Congress, who was prejudiced against Carroll because of his Catholicism, commented that Carroll risked nothing in signing the document, as there must be many men named Charles Carroll in the colonies, and so the King would be unlikely to order Carroll's arrest without clear proof that he was the same Charles Carroll who had signed the Declaration. Carroll immediately returned to Hancock's desk, seized the pen again, and added "of Carrollton" to his name.
In fact, Carroll had been appending "of Carrollton" to his signature for over a decade, the earliest surviving example appearing at the end of a September 15, 1765, letter to his English friend William Gibson. Carrollton Manor was the name of a tract of more than twelve thousand acres in Frederick County, Maryland, which the Carroll family leased to tenant farmers.
See also
1840s Carrollton Inn
Annapolis Convention (1774–1776)
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Carrollton Manor
Maryland in the American Revolution
O'Carroll
References
Further reading
Birzer, Bradley J. (2010). American Cicero: The Life of Charles Carroll, Intercollegiate Studies Institute.
Breidenbach, Michael D. (2013). 'Conciliarism and American Religious Liberty, 1632–1835' (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Cambridge).
Carroll, Charles. Unpublished Letters of Charles Carroll of Carrollton and of his Father, Charles Carroll of Doughoregan, United States Catholic Historical Society, 1902.
Gleeson, John. 1913 'History of the Ely O'Carroll Territory'
Leonard, Lewis A. Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Moffat, Yard and Company, 1918.
Rowland, Kate Mason. The Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, 1737–1832, Vol. 2, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1898.
Sergeant, John. Eulogy on Charles Carroll of Carrollton: Delivered at the Request of the Select and Common Councils of the City of Philadelphia, December 31, 1832, L.R. Bailey, 1833.
Smith, Ellen Hart. Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1942.
External links
. Retrieved November 2010.
Quotes by Charles Carroll. Retrieved November 2010.
"Charles Carroll of Carrollton and Revolutionary Religious Toleration: The Making of a Founder". Article by Matthew Wigler in the Journal of the American Revolution. Retrieved February 2017.
A Moment in Time Archives: Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Retrieved November 2010.
Homewood House Museum. Retrieved November 2010.
Research into Homewood House. Retrieved November 2010.
Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856. Retrieved November 2010.
ZENIT: How Charles Carroll Influenced U.S. Founding Fathers (Part 1) and (Part 2) (interview with Scott McDermott; McDermott mentions various facts about Carroll). Retrieved November 2010.
Catholic Encyclopedia: Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Charles Carroll of Carrollton historical marker
The Society of the Cincinnati
1737 births
1832 deaths
Politicians from Annapolis, Maryland
People of colonial Maryland
Charles
American people of Irish descent
American Roman Catholics
Continental Congressmen from Maryland
Signers of the United States Declaration of Independence
Pro-Administration Party United States senators from Maryland
Maryland Federalists
Presidents of the Maryland State Senate
American people in rail transportation
American slave owners
American colonization movement
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
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240079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend%20Update | Weekend Update | "Weekend Update" is a Saturday Night Live sketch and satirical news program that comments on and parodies current events. It is the show's longest-running recurring sketch, having been on since the show's first broadcast, and is typically presented in the middle of the show immediately after the first musical performance. Historically, one or two of the players are cast in the role of news anchor, presenting gag news items based on current events and acting as hosts for occasional editorials, commentaries, or other performances by other cast members or guests. In modern times, dedicated anchors are chosen among writing staff, often lead writers, in lieu of cast or featured players.
Chevy Chase has said that "Weekend Update" which he started as anchor in 1975 paved the way for comedic news shows like The Daily Show and The Colbert Report.
History
"Weekend Update" (1975–1981)
Chevy Chase (1975–1976)
"Weekend Update" was created by original anchor Chevy Chase and SNL writer Herb Sargent, and it appeared on the first SNL broadcast on October 11, 1975. Chase popularized several catchphrases during the segment, such as his "I'm Chevy Chase... and you're not" greeting; and his repeated announcement that "Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead". When "Weekend Update" began, Chase was consistently on the phone presumably talking to his lover, and would talk until realizing he was "on air". Chase would always end Weekend Update with "That's the news. Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow."
In addition, Garrett Morris parodied the practice of a picture insert of a person simultaneously giving the news read in sign language for the hearing impaired in "The News for the Hard of Hearing". Chase would sometimes repeat the top story at the end of the segment, while Morris simply cupped his mouth and shouted the headline loudly.
Jane Curtin (1976–1980)
Jane Curtin substituted for Chase during Season 2 for a few shows due to Chase's injury. Subsequently, she replaced him when he left in the fall of 1976. Curtin stayed as anchor until the end of Season 5 in 1980. She finished Season 2 solo but was then paired with co-anchors Dan Aykroyd (1977–1978) and Bill Murray (1978–1980), with Aykroyd being "promoted" to "Station Manager" in September 1978.
A frequent feature of "Weekend Update" during this time was "Point/Counterpoint", a send-up of the then-current 60 Minutes segment of the same name with James J. Kilpatrick and Shana Alexander. SNL'''s version of "Point/Counterpoint" featured Curtin and Aykroyd as debaters, making personal attacks on each others' positions. The sketch had Aykroyd announcing the topic, Curtin making an opening statement, and then Aykroyd typically retorting with, "Jane, you ignorant slut" (becoming an SNL catch phrase), and Curtin frequently replying "Dan, you pompous ass".
Other popular running features were John Belushi giving editorials that usually ended with him working himself into a frenzy and stating "But Noooooo...." When Curtin would try to calm him down, Belushi would promptly raise a fist at her and scream, "Don't push me, Curtin!" Also included was Gilda Radner's character Emily Litella. Radner's Litella character was prone to misinterpreting topics (leading her to present editorials on such things as the Eagle Rights Amendment) and not being aware of her error until Curtin would correct her, after which Litella would cheerfully say "Never mind." Litella was later replaced by another Radner character, consumer affairs reporter Roseanne Roseannadanna, who would attempt to answer a viewer question, but would ultimately digress into a graphic story involving some gross bodily function–often featuring an interaction with a celebrity figure which Curtin would finally interrupt, tersely pointing out to her, "Roseanne, you're making me sick." During Curtin's tenure as host, she opened each Weekend Update segment with Roger Grimsby's "Here now the news" sign-on, and closed with Chase's "That's the news. Goodnight and have a pleasant tomorrow".
Charles Rocket (1980–1981)
Charles Rocket (later teamed with Gail Matthius) anchored during the one-season (1980–1981) tenure of new executive producer Jean Doumanian. Rocket is notable as being the only "Weekend Update" anchor to have experience as a real news anchor, having served as anchorman at KOAA-TV in Pueblo, Colorado, under his birth name Charles Claverie and WTVF Nashville under the name Charles Kennedy.
Rocket's final appearance was on the penultimate episode of the season, airing on March 7, 1981, and hosted by Bill Murray. For that episode, "Weekend Update" received a one-time name and set change to "Saturday Night NewsLine" and featured three segments: science edition, hosted by Dr. Jonathan Lear (Mark King), arts and leisure correspondent Bill Murray, and news by Rocket. Rocket signed off each week by saying "Good night and watch out."
Prior to the final episode of the season, Jean Doumanian and most of the cast, including Rocket, were fired. Chase hosted the last episode and anchored "Weekend Update", as he had on his previous appearances as host.
"SNL NewsBreak" (1981–1982)
The anchor position changed hands frequently under Dick Ebersol, executive producer of SNL from 1981 to 1985. Brian Doyle-Murray was teamed first with Mary Gross, then going solo for three months, then back with Gross for one more month before finally being teamed with Christine Ebersole for the remainder of the season. Doyle-Murray signed off each week with "Good night, and good news."
"Saturday Night News" (1982–1985)
Brad Hall took over the desk of the retitled "Saturday Night News" in 1982 through most of the 1983 season. By the 1983 season, he began signing out with phrase "Thanks for coming out in the rain!" Hall was removed from the anchor position halfway through the 1983–84 season. For the rest of the season, and into the next, there were no regular anchors–both cast members and SNL guest-hosts took turns at the chair (Hall himself left the show at the end of the 1983–1984 season). In December 1984, Christopher Guest became the new anchor.
"Weekend Update" (1985–present)
Dennis Miller (1985–1991)
In 1985, Lorne Michaels returned to produce the show, bringing the "Weekend Update" name back with him. The new anchor was Dennis Miller, who remained in the chair for six years, the longest run for a solo "Weekend Update" anchor. Miller opened the segments by saying "Good evening, and what can I tell ya?" and signed off by saying "Guess what, folks? That's the news, and I am outta here!" He would then scribble nonsense on his script, sometimes throwing it into the air. Miller left in 1991.
Kevin Nealon (1991–1994)
Kevin Nealon took over with his "Mr. Subliminal" character and as the straight man in many highlights such as "Operaman" and "Cajun Man" (with both characters being played by Adam Sandler) and also for Chris Farley's "Bennett Brauer" character. Nealon had a three-year stint at the Update desk before requesting his departure, as he felt his time behind the desk was drawing away from other acting opportunities on the show. Nealon signed off with the tagline "I'm Kevin Nealon, and that's news to me".
Norm Macdonald (1994–1997)
Norm Macdonald, whom Chase called "the only other guy who did [the segment] funny", took over the role for Season 20. Al Franken, whose history with SNL dated back to 1975, had been lobbying to replace Nealon as "Weekend Update" host. Accordingly, Franken left the show after losing the anchor spot. Although Nealon no longer anchored "Weekend Update", he still remained on the show until the end of Season 20. Macdonald would open each segment with "I'm Norm Macdonald, and now the fake news".
Running gags by Macdonald included punchlines involving Frank Stallone and Germans loving David Hasselhoff. In his last two seasons, he introduced another recurring gag where he would read a news story and then record a "note to self" on a tape recorder regarding the story he had just read. One of the most frequent guest correspondents during Macdonald's run was Joe Blow (played by Colin Quinn), a blue-collar guy who would rant about things that bother him. He would often make Macdonald uncomfortable and always ask when they were "gonna go for a beer together", to which Macdonald would always end up turning him down. His sign off was frequently "And that's the way it is", emulating Walter Cronkite's famous sign off.
Another common topic of Macdonald's jokes was O. J. Simpson after his arrest and trial for murder. For example, he joked that "A down-and-out O. J. Simpson... has decided to go back to doing what he does best: killing people." SNL writer Jim Downey recalled that "we did, like three solid years of, like, 60 shows of O.J. jokes in a row". Macdonald made his final appearance as "Weekend Update" anchor in December 1997, after NBC executive Don Ohlmeyer—a longtime friend of Simpson, who had previously told Michaels to not let his friendship affect the show—demanded Macdonald's dismissal from the segment, despite Michaels's protest that making the change in the middle of the season would be difficult for the show. Ohlmeyer told Macdonald that he was fired because he was not funny.
Colin Quinn (1998–2000)
Macdonald was replaced by Colin Quinn, who started on the first episode after Macdonald had been removed and served through the 1999–2000 season. His first edition of "Weekend Update" began with "Have you ever gone to a bar and found that your favorite bartender was replaced with a guy named Steve? -pause- Well I'm Steve, what can I get you?" His sign-off, borrowing from a Collin Raye song, was "I'm Colin Quinn, that's my story and I'm sticking to it!"
For the first half of the 1998–1999 season, Quinn would do a pre-desk monologue, where he would provide commentary and rant about the week's biggest news stories. This feature was discontinued after the January 16, 1999 episode.
Quinn stepped down from "Weekend Update" after 1999–2000, when he left SNL at the end of the season. He anchored the segment for two-and-a-half seasons.
Jimmy Fallon and Tina Fey (2000–2004)
Over the summer of 2000, cast members auditioned to be replacements. Among the candidates were stand-up comics Kevin Brennan and Jeffrey Ross plus two duos–Ana Gasteyer with Chris Parnell and Jimmy Fallon with writer Tina Fey. The latter duo was chosen, and they made their first on-air appearance that October. Fallon ended each "Weekend Update" sketch by throwing his pencil at the camera and cheering if he managed to hit it. Fey often signed off with Chase and Curtin's "Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow".
Recurring features of the Fallon/Fey era included the "Update Door", a door on the left of the set where celebrities, as impersonated by SNL cast members (and at one time the Land Shark) would walk through to do a commentary—a segment called "Terrible ReEnactments", in which Chris Kattan would do an intentionally bad re-enactment of a news story that had occurred during the week (usually the story involved a celebrity being injured); and regular appearances from Jeff Richards's Drunk Girl character.
Chris Parnell announced the intro for the first few seasons. He was then followed by future Update co-anchor Amy Poehler.
Tina Fey and Amy Poehler (2004–2006)
Fallon left to pursue a film career in 2004, and was replaced by fellow cast member Amy Poehler as co-anchor, giving the sketch its first two-woman anchor team. Fallon would become the announcer for the Weekend Update intro for the next few seasons.
The 2005–2006 season began with Poehler returning to her seat behind the desk.
The segment is featured in the 2006 film Man of the Year in which Robin Williams appears on "Weekend Update" alongside Poehler and Fey.
Amy Poehler and Horatio Sanz (2005)
Fey temporarily left the show after giving birth to her first child and was replaced briefly by Horatio Sanz as co-anchor (Sanz wore horn-rimmed glasses during Fey's absence). Fey returned to the show in October for the season's third live episode.
Amy Poehler and Seth Meyers (2006–2008)
After the departure of Fey, Poehler continued as co-anchor along with new co-anchor Seth Meyers for the 2006–2007 season. The duo began a string of running gags, including "Really!?! with Seth and Amy", in which the pair lambast celebrities for lack of common sense. Poehler left SNL in fall 2008 to give birth to her first child.
During the 2007–2008 season, two previous hosts returned to the "Weekend Update" desk for one-off appearances–Chevy Chase, as "Senior Political Correspondent" and Tina Fey, as "Special Women's News Correspondent". Women's News was a running segment during the Fey/Poehler era. Alaska Governor Sarah Palin also appeared on "Weekend Update" once during the 2008–09 season and ended the segment with the traditional "Good night and have a pleasant tomorrow", as Poehler had left her seat to perform a "Sarah Palin rap".
Seth Meyers (2008–2013)
Beginning October 25, 2008, Meyers anchored the segment alone with Poehler still being credited, but not appearing. On December 6, 2008, Poehler returned, four weeks after the birth of her child, to do "Weekend Update" with Meyers, but on the December 13, 2008, "Weekend Update" segment, she announced to the audience that the show was her last one.
After that, Meyers continued anchoring "Weekend Update" solo. The "Really!?!" celebrity-mocking gag (retitled "Really!?! with Seth") remained, featuring various hosts and guests including Tracy Morgan and Jerry Seinfeld in March 2009 and Kermit the Frog in November 2011. In May 2010, Poehler returned to do it once more, alongside Tina Fey as well.
A running gag of this era was Bobby Moynihan's portrayal of Snooki from Jersey Shore. Moynihan displays a certain attraction to Meyers, who makes fun of the general attitude of the cast members of Jersey Shore as well as Snooki's own personal attributes. Another popular segment was city correspondent Stefon, played by Bill Hader.
During his time in office, New York Governor David Paterson (played by Fred Armisen) often appeared as a guest on the segment. In the premiere episode of SNLs 36th season, Paterson, himself, made a guest appearance on "Weekend Update" next to Armisen. Amy Poehler, who had returned to host the episode, co-anchored "Weekend Update" as she traditionally did before her departure.
On the December 17, 2011, episode, which was hosted by Jimmy Fallon, multiple former anchors returned for a "Weekend Update Joke-Off". Along with Meyers, the anchors included Fallon, Poehler, and Fey.
Entertainment Weekly confirmed that Amy Poehler would appear on Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday for at least two broadcasts as co-anchor in fall 2009. For the third episode of Weekend Update Thursday, Seth Meyers anchored solo. After each episode, the anchor(s) would throw to Parks and Recreation. Lorne Michaels had stated that there would be six more episodes of Weekend Update Thursday; however, the spring 2010 episodes were scrapped.
Poehler returned on both the February 18, 2012, and May 18, 2013, episodes to perform "Really!?! with Seth and Amy" twice more. In both instances, Meyers asked her if she would like to co-anchor with him again for the rest of that segment; he was barely able to finish asking before she accepted.
Seth Meyers and Cecily Strong (2013–2014)
On May 12, 2013, NBC announced that Seth Meyers would become the new host of Late Night in 2014, succeeding Jimmy Fallon, who would take over as the new host of The Tonight Show. In September 2013, Lorne Michaels confirmed that Meyers, who would stay on at SNL for at least the first half of the show's 39th season, would be joined at the "Weekend Update" anchor desk by a new co-anchor, Cecily Strong, beginning with the show's season premiere on September 28, 2013. Strong, who joined SNL the previous season, was no stranger to the segment, making visits to the "Weekend Update" desk as her recurring character "The Girl You Wish You Hadn't Started a Conversation with at a Party". Michaels, who also produces Late Night, hinted at Meyers potentially dropping in as "Weekend Update" co-anchor, noting that Meyers's Late Night will not tape on Friday nights. Meyers and Strong sign off with "For 'Weekend Update', I'm Seth Meyers!" "And I'm Cecily Strong, good night!" before performing a fist bump or blowing kisses to the audience.
On February 1, 2014, Meyers performed his final episode of SNL and was joined at the "Weekend Update" desk by Strong, Poehler, Hader in character as Stefon, Andy Samberg, and Armisen as Governor Paterson.
Cecily Strong and Colin Jost (2014)
On January 23, 2014, it was announced that, starting March 1, 2014, SNL writer Colin Jost would replace Meyers as co-anchor of "Weekend Update". Jost made his debut as co-anchor as scheduled on the March 1 episode, which was hosted by Jim Parsons. For the duration of this tenure, Strong stayed to the right side while Jost went to the left. Strong led off each broadcast except for the May 3, 2014 episode hosted by Andrew Garfield, when Jost led off.
Colin Jost and Michael Che (2014–present)
On September 11, 2014, it was announced that comedian and SNL writer Michael Che would replace Cecily Strong as the new "Weekend Update" anchor. His first episode was the season 40 premiere, hosted by Chris Pratt. Che's pairing with Colin Jost is the first in which both anchors are male. Che is also the first African-American Weekend Update Anchor. As of the 2021–22 season, Jost and Che are the longest tenured Update duo in the show's history.
Che led off the broadcast on his premiere episode. Starting with the October 4, 2014, episode hosted by Sarah Silverman, each anchor tells at least one extended joke per segment.
So far, this era features many appearances from cast members playing some version of themselves, most notably Pete Davidson and Leslie Jones. Longtime cast member Kenan Thompson has also developed several new characters and impressions, including Willie, Michael Che's fictional neighbor. Thompson also has brought on impressions of former MLB star David Ortiz and Lavar Ball. With Cecily Strong no longer anchoring Weekend Update, she now reprises characters like The Girl You Wish You Hadn't Started a Conversation with at a Party and Cathy Anne, a woman with a southern accent who hits on Michael Che.
On October 13, 2018, former cast member/Weekend Update anchor Seth Meyers hosted the show for the first time since taking over hosting Late Night, and he returned to Weekend Update for the first time since he left the show, in a segment called "Really?!? With Seth, Colin, and Michael", a callback to the "Really?!? With Seth and Amy" segments. This time, Meyers, Jost, and Che talk and joke about rapper Kanye West (a Trump supporter) visiting the White House.
As of season 44, at the end of each Christmas show and season finale, Jost and Che do joke swaps, where they read jokes that the other had written for each other. The lone exception was during season 47 when Jost was absent during the Christmas episode.
Due to COVID-19 issues, the December 18, 2021 episode was filmed with no audience and a limited cast and crew. Weekend Update was still performed, but Jost was not part of the episode's cast. Tina Fey made a surprise guest appearance to fill in for Jost; due to the reduced staff, the segment was performed on chairs placed on the main stage rather than its usual newsroom set.
Timeline
A total of 32 people have anchored the "Weekend Update" desk. Below is a complete list of any and all who have served as an anchor at one time or another, and the season(s) in which they served. Note that throughout most of 1984, different cast members, special guests, or the weekly host handled the task. Those individuals (denoted in italics) are also listed below.
"Weekend Update" (1975–1981) Season 1 (1975–1976) Chevy ChaseSeason 2 (1976–1977) Chevy Chase (Last: October 30, 1976)
Jane Curtin (First: September 25, 1976)
Jane Curtin and Buck Henry (February 20, 1977)
Note that Chase began the season as anchor on September 18, but missed the next two episodes because of an injury sustained while performing a sketch in the season's first episode. He was replaced by Curtin during his absence. Chase returned to the show (and the Weekend Update desk) from October 16 to 30. Curtin permanently took over Weekend Update beginning November 13. Henry co-anchored with Curtin on the Mardi Gras special.Season 3 (1977–1978) Jane Curtin and Dan AykroydSeasons 4–5 (1978–1980) Jane Curtin and Bill Murray (Aykroyd is now "Station Manager")Season 6 (1980–1981) Charles Rocket
Charles Rocket and Gail Matthius (January 10 to February 21, 1981)
Saturday Night NewsLine with Jonathan Lear, Bill Murray, and Charles Rocket (March 7, 1981)
Show host Chevy Chase (April 11, 1981)
"SNL NewsBreak"Season 7 (1981–1982) Brian Doyle-Murray and Mary Gross (October 3–17, December 5, 1981)
Brian Doyle-Murray (October 31, 1981 to February 6, 1982)
Brian Doyle-Murray and Mary Gross (February 20 to March 20, 1982)
Brian Doyle-Murray and Christine Ebersole (March 27 to May 22, 1982)
"Saturday Night News"Season 8 (1982–1983) Brad HallSeason 9 (1983–1984) Brad Hall (Last: December 10, 1983)
Show host Don Rickles (January 28, 1984)
Show host Robin Williams (February 11, 1984)
Joe Piscopo (February 18, 1984)
Show host Billy Crystal (as Fernando) (March 17, 1984 and May 5, 1984)
Show host Edwin Newman (February 25, 1984)
Show host Michael Douglas (April 7, 1984)
Show host George McGovern (April 14, 1984)
Show host Edwin Newman (May 12, 1984)Season 10 (1984–1985): Billy Crystal (as Fernando) (October 6, 1984)
Show host Bob Uecker (October 13, 1984)
Show host Jesse Jackson (October 20, 1984)
Special guest Edwin Newman (November 3, 1984)
Show host George Carlin (November 10, 1984)
Show host Ed Asner (November 17, 1984)
Christopher Guest (December 1, 1984 to April 13, 1985)
"Weekend Update" (1985–present)Seasons 11–16 (1985–1991): Dennis MillerSeasons 17–19 (1991–1994): Kevin NealonSeasons 20–22 (1994–1997): Norm MacdonaldSeason 23 (1997–1998): Norm Macdonald (Last: December 13, 1997)
Colin Quinn (First: January 10, 1998)Seasons 24–25 (1998–2000): Colin QuinnSeasons 26–29 (2000–2004): Jimmy Fallon and Tina FeySeason 30 (2004–2005): Tina Fey and Amy PoehlerSeason 31 (2005–2006) Amy Poehler and Horatio Sanz (Last: October 8, 2005)
Note that Sanz filled in on a temporary basis while Fey was pregnant; the piece was still announced as "Weekend Update with Tina Fey and Amy Poehler" (Sanz wore a pair of horn-rimmed glasses, only during the Weekend Update sketches)
Tina Fey and Amy Poehler (First: October 22, 2005)Seasons 32–33 (2006–2008) Amy Poehler and Seth MeyersSeason 34 (2008–2009) Amy Poehler and Seth Meyers (Last: December 13, 2008)
Seth Meyers (First: October 25, 2008)Seasons 35–38 (2009–2013) Seth MeyersSeason 39 (2013–2014) Seth Meyers and Cecily Strong (Last: February 1, 2014)
Cecily Strong and Colin Jost (First: March 1, 2014)Season 40–46 (2014–2021) Colin Jost and Michael CheSeason 47–present (2021-present)' Colin Jost and Michael Che
Michael Che and Tina Fey (December 18, 2021)Note that Fey filled in for Jost when he was absent due to COVID-19 issues with the cast; the piece was still announced as "Weekend Update with Colin Jost and Michael Che" Visual timeline
Tenures by length
Non-cast members who guest anchored
Several people who have never been SNL cast members appeared as Weekend Update guest anchors (or co-anchors). Almost all these occurrences took place in the year 1984, during seasons 9 and 10, when a rotating series of Weekend Update guest hosts were employed. As well, actor Mark King (as "Dr. Jonathan Lear") made a lone co-anchor appearance during season 6, in 1981.
Edwin Newman (Three appearances: February 25, May 12 and November 3, 1984)
Mark King (as "Dr. Jonathan Lear") (March 7, 1981)
Don Rickles (January 28, 1984)
Robin Williams (February 11, 1984)
Michael Douglas (April 7, 1984)
George McGovern (April 14, 1984)
Bob Uecker (October 13, 1984)
Jesse Jackson (October 20, 1984)
George Carlin (November 10, 1984)
Ed Asner (November 17, 1984)
See also
Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday''
Saturday Night Live characters appearing on "Weekend Update"
Recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches
References
External links
Official Saturday Night Live Website
saturday-night-live.com – "Weekend Update"
American news parodies
Saturday Night Live sketches
Saturday Night Live in the 1970s
Fictional elements introduced in 1975
Television series segments | [
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240082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer%20Abraham | Spencer Abraham | Edward Spencer Abraham (born June 12, 1952) is an American attorney, author and politician who was a United States Senator from Michigan from 1995 to 2001 and the tenth United States Secretary of Energy, serving under President George W. Bush, from 2001 to 2005. Abraham, a Republican, is one of the founders of the Federalist Society and a co-founder of the Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy.
Education and family
Abraham was born in East Lansing, Michigan, the son of Juliette Elizabeth (Sear), a member of the Michigan Republican State Central Committee, and Eddie Joseph Abraham. He is a graduate of East Lansing High School. Of Lebanese descent, Abraham is married to Jane Abraham, current co-chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party, and chair of the Susan B. Anthony List. They have three children. He holds a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree from Harvard University, and is a 1974 Honors College graduate of Michigan State University. In 1978, while at Harvard Law School, Abraham helped found the Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy. It became one of the official journals of the Federalist Society, which was founded in 1982.
Political career
Before his election to the Senate, Abraham was a law professor at Thomas M. Cooley Law School.
Republican Party service
He was elected chairman of the Michigan Republican Party from 1983 to 1990. He was deputy chief of staff for Vice President Dan Quayle from 1990 to 1991. He later served as co-chairman of the National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC) from 1991 to 1993 and ran for chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1993, coming second to Haley Barbour.
United States Senate
Abraham was elected to represent Michigan in the United States Senate in 1994, and he served until 2001 after being defeated for reelection in 2000 by Debbie Stabenow. He was the only Arab American in the chamber. According to the New York Times, state Republicans attributed his loss to "scathing advertisements by a wide range of special interest groups, including advertisements that criticized Mr. Abraham's support for a relaxation of some immigration restrictions". During the campaign, the Federation for American Immigration Reform, an anti-immigration advocacy group with ties to white nationalism, ran ads asking: "Why is Senator Spencer Abraham trying to make it easier for terrorists like Osama bin Laden to export their war of terror to any city street in America?" The media denounced these commercials as "vengeful". In 1996, when President Bill Clinton endorsed Representative Barbara Jordan's proposed cuts to legal immigration, Abraham played a leading role in blocking the cuts. Another factor in his defeat was his vote to convict Clinton in his 1999 impeachment trial. The next year he received the "Defender of the Melting Pot" award from the National Council of La Raza for his efforts on immigration.
Committee service and legislation
Abraham served on the Budget, Commerce, Science and Transportation, Judiciary, and Small Business Committees. He also chaired two subcommittees: Manufacturing and Competitiveness, and Immigration. Abraham authored the H1B Visa in Global and National Commerce Act, establishing a federal framework for online contracts and signatures; the Government Paperwork Elimination Act, and the Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, which protects Internet domain names for businesses and persons against copyright and trademark infringements. In 1999, Abraham co-sponsored S.896, a bill to abolish the U.S. Department of Energy, which would have transferred control of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in large part to the Defense Department.
U.S. Energy Secretary
In 2001 George W. Bush appointed Abraham Secretary of Energy. On November 15, 2004, Abraham announced that he would resign from this position, effective with the swearing-in of his successor, Samuel W. Bodman, on February 1, 2005.
In 2004, Lebanese Ambassador Farid Abboud awarded Abraham the National Order of the Cedar.
Hoover Institution
From 2005 to 2007, Abraham was a Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, a think tank based at Stanford University. After leaving office, he opened The Abraham Group, a Washington DC-based international strategic consulting firm, of which he is chairman and CEO.
Thompson for President
On July 24, 2007, Abraham was announced as an "ambassador to official Washington" in Fred Thompson's presidential campaign.
Later career
In 2006 Abraham was appointed Non-Executive Chairman of the Board of AREVA Inc., the American arm of the French nuclear company Areva, which is planning to build EPR nuclear power plants in the United States and is building the mixed oxide fuel (MOX) manufacturing plant at the Savannah River Site to convert legacy weapons-grade plutonium into power station fuel.
With William Tucker, Abraham wrote Lights Out!: Ten Myths About (and Real Solutions to) America's Energy Crisis (2010).
In 2016, Abraham was elected to the board of trustees of the California Institute of Technology.
Electoral history
See also
List of Arab and Middle-Eastern Americans in the United States Congress
References
External links
Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham
Presidential Profile: George W. Bush's Cabinet
|-
|-
|-
1952 births
21st-century American politicians
American politicians of Lebanese descent
Federalist Society members
George W. Bush administration cabinet members
Harvard Law School alumni
Living people
Michigan Republicans
Michigan Republican Party chairs
Michigan State University alumni
Middle Eastern Christians
People from East Lansing, Michigan
Recipients of the National Order of the Cedar
Republican Party United States senators
United States Secretaries of Energy
United States senators from Michigan | [
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240088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20Living%20Color | In Living Color | In Living Color is an American sketch comedy television series that originally ran on Fox from April 15, 1990 to May 19, 1994. Keenen Ivory Wayans created, wrote and starred in the program. The show was produced by Ivory Way Productions in association with 20th Television and was taped at stage 7 at the Fox Television Center on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood, California.
The title of the series was inspired by the NBC announcement of broadcasts being presented "in living color" during the 1960s, prior to mainstream color television. It also refers to the fact that most of the show's cast was Black, unlike other sketch comedy shows such as Saturday Night Live, whose casts were mostly White at the time. It was controversial due to the Wayans' decision to portray Black humor from a raw and uncut perspective in a time when mainstream American tastes regarding Black comedy had been set by shows such as The Cosby Show, causing an eventual feud for control between Fox executives and the Wayans.
Other members of the Wayans family—Damon, Kim, Shawn, and Marlon—had regular roles, while brother Dwayne frequently appeared as an extra. The show also starred several previously unknown comedians and actors, including Jamie Foxx, Jim Carrey, Tommy Davidson, David Alan Grier, and T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh. The show introduced Jennifer Lopez and Carrie Ann Inaba as members of In Living Color's dance troupe The Fly Girls, with actress Rosie Perez serving as choreographer. The show was immensely popular in its first two seasons, capturing more than a 10-point Nielsen rating; in the third and fourth seasons, ratings faltered as the Wayans brothers fell out with the Fox network's leadership over creative control and rights.
The series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series in 1990. The series gained international prominence for its bold move and its all-time high ratings gained by airing a live, special episode as a counterprogram for the halftime show of U.S. leader CBS's live telecast of Super Bowl XXVI, prompting the National Football League to book A-list acts for future game entertainment, starting with Michael Jackson the following year. In 2018, a history of the show, Homey Don't Play That! by David Peisner, was released by 37 INK, an imprint of Simon & Schuster.
Episodes
Cast
Cast members
Guest stars
Chris Rock appeared (as a "special guest star") in a number of sketches in the fifth season, and reprised his "Cheap Pete" character from I'm Gonna Git You Sucka. In the early years of In Living Color, Rock was parodied as being the only African American cast member on Saturday Night Live (despite SNL also having Tim Meadows and Ellen Cleghorne at the time). In an SNL episode honoring Mother's Day, Rock's mother states that she is disappointed in him for not trying out for In Living Color, to which Rock states he is happy with his job on SNL.
Other recurring guest stars in the fifth season include Nick Bakay (for The Dirty Dozens sketches) and Peter Marshall (for several editions of East Hollywood Squares). Rapper Biz Markie also appeared in various roles as a guest star in the fifth season, such as being in drag as Wanda the Ugly Woman's sister or as "Dirty Dozens" contestant Damian "Foosball" Franklin. Ed O'Neill made a cameo appearance as Al Bundy in a "Dirty Dozens" segment.
Production
Early history
Following Keenen Ivory Wayans' success with Hollywood Shuffle and I'm Gonna Git You Sucka, Fox Broadcasting Company approached Wayans to offer him his own show. Wayans wanted to produce a variety show similar to Saturday Night Live, but with a cast of people of color that took chances with its content. Fox gave Wayans a lot of freedom with the show, although Fox executives were a bit concerned about the show's content prior to its television debut.
In announcing its debut, Fox described In Living Color as a "contemporary comedy variety show". In its preview, the Christian Science Monitor warned that its, "raw tone may offend some, but it does allow a talented troupe to experiment with black themes in a Saturday Night Live-ish format." Keenen Ivory Wayans said, "I wanted to do a show that reflects different points of view. We've added an Asian and a Hispanic minority to the show. We're trying in some way to represent all the voices. ... Minority talent is not in the system and you have to go outside. We found Crystal doing her act in the lobby of a theater in Chicago. We went beyond the Comedy Stores and Improvs, which are not showcase places for minorities."
The first episode aired on Sunday, April 15, 1990, following an episode of Married... with Children. The first episode was watched by 22.7 million people, making it the 29th-most-viewed show for the week.
The Miami Herald said the show was as "smart and saucy as it is self-aware" and "audacious and frequently tasteless, but terrific fun". The Philadelphia Inquirer called it "the fastest, funniest half-hour in a long time". The Seattle Times said it had "the free-wheeling, pointed sense of humor that connects with a large slice of today's audience". The Columbus Dispatch described it as a "marvelously inventive" show that has "catapulted television back to the cutting edge".
Description
The sketch comedy show helped launch the careers of comedians/actors Jim Carrey (then credited as "James Carrey"), one of only two white members of the original cast; Jamie Foxx, who joined the cast in the third season; and David Alan Grier (an established theater actor who had worked in Keenen Ivory Wayans' 1988 motion picture I'm Gonna Git You Sucka).
The series strove to produce comedy with a strong emphasis on modern Black subject matter. It became renowned for parody, especially of race relations in the United States. For instance, Carrey was frequently used to ridicule white musicians such as Snow and Vanilla Ice, who performed in genres more commonly associated with Black people. The Wayans themselves often played exaggerated Black ghetto stereotypes for humor and effect. A sketch parodying Soul Train mocked the show as Old Train, suggesting the show (along with its host, Don Cornelius) was out of touch and only appealed to the elderly and the dead. When asked about the show's use of stereotypes of Black culture for comedy, Wayans said, "Half of comedy is making fun of stereotypes. They only get critical when I do it. Woody Allen has been having fun with his culture for years, and no one says anything about it. Martin Scorsese, his films basically deal with the Italian community, and no one ever says anything to him. John Hughes, all of his films parody upscale white suburban life. Nobody says anything to him. When I do it, then all of a sudden it becomes a racial issue. You know what I mean? It's my culture, and I'm entitled to poke fun at the stereotypes that I didn't create in the first place. I don't even concern myself with that type of criticism, because it's racist in itself."
Prominent skits:
"The Homeboy Shopping Network", featuring Damon and Keenan as streetwise criminals operating an unlicensed, Home Shopping Network-style shopping network out of the back of their van to sell stolen goods.
"Fire Marshal Bill", featuring Carrey as an unhinged, dangerously incompetent fire marshal.
"Men on Film", featuring Damon and Grier as effeminate Black film critics with exaggerated physical motions, such as "two snaps up".
"Homey D. Clown", featuring Damon as a misanthropic, verbally abusive clown doing demeaning entertainment gigs for low pay as part of his prison release program.
"East Hollywood Squares", featuring many of the cast in a ghetto parody of the game show Hollywood Squares.
"Benita Buttrell", featuring Kim Wayans as an untrustworthy neighborhood gossip.
Parodies of Arsenio Hall (who was popular on his own show at the time) by Keenan Wayans.
"Calhoun Tubbs", a blues singer (played by Grier) who sang extremely short songs (about 10 seconds each) at the slightest provocation.
Opening credits
For the first episode, an exotic-looking logo was used for the opening credits. However, after the band Living Colour claimed in a lawsuit that the show stole the band's logo and name, the logo was changed to one with rather plain-type letters of three colors. The show title itself is a homage to the NBC Peacock tag line, "The following program is brought to you in living color" from the 1960s when television was transitioning from black & white to color TV.
In the first two seasons, the opening sequence was set in a room covered with painters' tarps. Each cast member, wearing black-and-white, played with brightly colored paint in a different way (throwing paintballs at the camera by hand, spray painting the lens, using a roller to cover the camera lens, etc.). The sequence ended with a segue to a set built to resemble the rooftop of an apartment building, where the show's dancers performed a routine and opened a door to let Keenen Ivory Wayans greet a live audience.
For the third and fourth seasons, an animated sequence and different logo were used. Cast members were superimposed over pictures hanging in an art gallery and interacted with them in different ways (spinning the canvas to put it right-side up, swinging the frame out as if it were a door, etc.). The final image was of the logo on a black canvas, which shattered to begin the show. The fifth season retained the logo, but depicted the cast members on various signs and billboards around a city (either New York or Chicago), ending with the logo displayed on a theater marquee. The main title sequences were created by Klasky Csupo and produced by Robert Jason with some graphics by Beau Tardy.
The hip-hop group Heavy D & the Boyz performed two different versions of the opening theme. One version was used for the first two seasons and remixed for the fifth, while the other was featured in the third and fourth seasons.
Live musical performances
In Living Color was known for its live music performances, which started in Season 2 with Queen Latifah as their first performer (appearing again in the third season). Additional musical acts who appeared were Heavy D, Public Enemy, Kris Kross, En Vogue, Eazy-E, Da Youngsta's, Monie Love, Onyx, 3rd Bass, MC Lyte, Arrested Development, Jodeci, Mary J. Blige, Tupac Shakur, Father MC, Gang Starr, The Pharcyde, Simple E, Us3, Digable Planets, Pete Rock & CL Smooth, Nice & Smooth, Wreckx-n-Effect, A.D.O.R., Redman, Showbiz and A.G., Patra, Naughty By Nature, Lords of the Underground, Prince Markie Dee, A Tribe Called Quest, and Leaders of the New School.
The Fly Girls
The show employed an in-house dance troupe known as the "Fly Girls". The original lineup consisted of Carrie Ann Inaba (who became a choreographer and judge on Dancing with the Stars), Cari French, Deidre Lang, Lisa Marie Todd, Barbara Lumpkin and Michelle Whitney-Morrison. Rosie Perez was the choreographer for the first four seasons. The most notable former Fly Girl was future actress/singer Jennifer Lopez, who joined the show in its third season.
Throughout the show's run, the Fly Girls frequently performed a dance routine to lead into commercial breaks and/or during the closing credits. In the first two seasons, they also performed a routine that immediately followed the opening sequence. Music was provided by an in-house DJ - Shawn Wayans (credited as SW-1) in the first two seasons, then DJ Twist from season 3 onward.
The Fly Girls would sometimes be used as extras in sketches, or as part of an opening gag. In one sketch, they were shown performing open-heart surgery (in the sketch, the girls are dancing in order to pay their way through medical school). Another routine featured the three original female cast members dancing off-beat during the introduction of the show, when it was revealed that the regular Fly Girls were all bound and gagged and breaking through the door where Keenan Ivory Wayans enters.
Three of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonight'''s second season in 1997.
Controversies
Keenen Ivory Wayans stopped appearing in sketches in 1992 after the end of the third season, over disputes with Fox about the network censoring the show's content and rerunning early episodes without his consultation. Wayans feared that Fox would ultimately decrease the syndication value of In Living Color.
Damon went on to pursue a movie career around the same time, though he made occasional return appearances in the fourth season. During the fourth season (1992–1993), Keenen appeared only in the season opener, though he remained the executive producer and thus stayed in the opening credits until the thirteenth episode. Marlon left shortly after Keenen resigned as producer, and Shawn and Kim both left at the end of the fourth season.
Broadcast and syndication
Originally produced by 20th Television on Fox, the series was in reruns on local affiliates for a few years, but has since become a longstanding mainstay on FX and FXX, which had been sister channels to Fox prior to being acquired by The Walt Disney Company. In syndication, the series is distributed by Disney-ABC Domestic Television.
Reruns have also aired on MTV2, VH1, Comedy Central, nuvoTV, Fusion, BET, and Centric, while the series currently airs on Aspire and TV One as of September 2020.
Unlike past runs on FX and the Viacom Media Networks, the FXX cut of episodes are mostly uncut and censored. The music video parodies and spoken references to licensed songs have been reinstated, but the "Bolt 45" sketch, the "drop the soap" line, and the "Men on Football" sketch with the adlibbed lines about Richard Gere's and Carl Lewis's alleged homosexuality are still edited (though the facial ejaculation shot on "Men on Fitness" was reinstated), along with a line from the season five sketch "Fire Marshall Bill at the Magic Show" that makes reference to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing (the missing line is, "That's what they said about the World Trade Center, son. But me and my friend Abdul and a couple of pounds of plastique explosives showed them different." Bill's laugh and his catchphrase "Lemme show ya somethin'" was also cut abruptly), due to the September 11, 2001 attacks.The Best of In Living Color aired on MyNetworkTV from April 16 to June 18, 2008. Hosted by David Alan Grier, it was a retrospective featuring classic sketches, along with cast interviews and behind-the-scenes footage. The show aired on Wednesdays at 8:30 pm Eastern/7:30 pm Central, after MyNetworkTV's sitcom Under One Roof.
Home media
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all five seasons of In Living Color on DVD in Region 1. Due to music licensing issues, some sketches have been edited to remove any and all mention of licensed songs, from characters waxing lyrical to entire performances (including the music video parodies and some of the Fly Girl dancing interstitials). Additionally, the "Bolt 45" sketch (which aired one-time only on May 5, 1990) was omitted, and the "soap" portion of the "drop the soap" line in the second "Men on Film" sketch has been muted.
As of 2022, the show has not been made available for purchase or streaming on any digital media platform or streaming service.
Reception
Ratings
1990–91: #62 (10.5 rating)
1991–92: #42 (12.2 rating)
1992–93: #53 (10.4 rating)
1993–94: #90 (7.6 rating)
Awards
Image Awards 1994 for Outstanding Variety Series
Image Awards 1992 for Outstanding Comedy Series
PGA Awards 1992 for Most Promising Producer in Television: Keenen Ivory Wayans
People's Choice Award 1991 for Favorite New TV Comedy Series Tied with The Simpsons (1989)
TV Land Awards 2012 for Groundbreaking Show: Shared with whole cast
Primetime Emmy 1990 for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series
Crossovers
At the 2006 BET Awards when the show returned from one of its commercial breaks, the show's host Damon Wayans played a character very reminiscent to "Men on ..." critic Blaine EdwardsIn Living Color alums Damon Wayans, Jim Carrey, and David Alan Grier reprised some of their In Living Color characters on Saturday Night Live:
Damon Wayans, a featured player during that show's eleventh season, hosted an episode from SNLs 20th season in 1995, where he brought on two of his famous In Living Color characters: homeless wino Anton Jackson and gay film critic Blaine Edwards. In the latter sketch, David Alan Grier made a surprise on-set appearance as Antoine Merriweather; Grier himself would also host SNL on December 9, 1995 (season 21) and January 18, 1997 (season 22), but did not reprise any of his In Living Color characters during those respective episodes.
Jim Carrey auditioned to be one of the repertory members on SNL 's ill-fated 1980–1981 season, but was dropped in favor of Charles Rocket (who later appeared in the 1988 film Earth Girls Are Easy and the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber with Carrey). Carrey also auditioned for the 1985–1986 season (season eleven), but backed out after seeing a man threatening to jump from 30 Rockefeller Center, believing that the stress of working on Saturday Night Live would drive Carrey to suicide. Carrey hosted the season finale of SNL'''s 21st season in 1996, where he impersonated Fire Marshal Bill during the monologue. Carrey's most recent hosting stint, in October 2014, involved a Carrey family reunion sketch in which Cecily Strong plays Carrey's aunt, who is modeled after Fire Marshal Bill.
Jamie Foxx reprised his role as Wanda in a short segment at the 2009 BET Awards.
In 1997, three of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonights second season.
In the 1997 film Liar Liar, Jim Carrey reprised his "Fire Marshal Bill" character (albeit with no lines) in the background of one of the closing scenes.
The February 10, 2001 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Jennifer Lopez included a sketch where Lopez "reunited" with the Fly Girls (played by Rachel Dratch, Jerry Minor and Tracy Morgan).
Attempted revival
In 2011, there were plans to make a revival of the original series that featured a new cast, characters, and sketches. The pilot episodes were hosted and executive produced by original series creator and cast member Keenen Ivory Wayans. In early 2012, Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo were hired as the choreographers. They cast the new line-up of The Fly Girls and shot pilot episodes for the show which were set to air on Fox, like the original. However, on January 8, 2013, Keenen Ivory Wayans confirmed the reboot had been canceled because he and Fox did not feel that the show was sustainable after one season.
Reported cast members included Cooper Barnes, Jennifer Bartels, Sydney Castillo, Josh Duvendeck, Jermaine Fowler, Ayana Hampton, Kali Hawk, and Lil Rel Howery. In addition, featured cast members were Henry Cho, Melanie Minichino, and Chris Leidecker. Members of the new Fly Girls included Christina Chandler, Tera Perez, Lisa Rosenthal, Katee Shean, and Whitney Wiley.
Many of the cast members of the revival (Bartels, Fowler, and Howery) went on to create the TruTV sketch show Friends of the People.
Legacy
Singer Bruno Mars paid tribute to the television program in the music video, "Finesse".
See also
List of American television programs
References
External links
Clips and Skits from the Show
In Living Color streaming episodes on TheWB
1990s American black television series
1990s American sketch comedy television series
1990s American variety television series
1990 American television series debuts
1994 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Fox Broadcasting Company original programming
Hip hop television
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series winners
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television shows adapted into video games | [
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240089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay%20Byrne | Gay Byrne | Gabriel Mary "Gay" Byrne (5 August 1934 – 4 November 2019) was an Irish presenter and host of radio and television. His most notable role was first host of The Late Late Show over a 37-year period spanning 1962 until 1999. The Late Late Show is the world's second longest-running chat show. He was affectionately known as "Uncle Gay", "Gaybo" or "Uncle Gaybo". His time working in Britain with Granada Television saw him become the first person to introduce The Beatles on-screen, and Byrne was later the first to introduce Boyzone on screen in 1993.
From 1973 until 1998, Byrne presented The Gay Byrne Hour – later The Gay Byrne Show when it expanded to two hours – on RTÉ Radio 1 each weekday morning. After retiring from his long-running radio and television shows, Byrne presented several other programmes, including Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, The Meaning of Life and For One Night Only on RTÉ One and Sunday Serenade/Sunday with Gay Byrne on RTÉ lyric fm. In 2006, he was elected Chairman of Ireland's Road Safety Authority. In his retirement he was described as the "Elder Lemon of Irish broadcasting".
In 2010, The Irish Times said Byrne was "unquestionably the most influential radio and television man in the history of the Irish State". He was approached to run in the 2011 Irish presidential election but declined to run, despite topping early opinion polls.
Early life
Byrne was the son of Edward Byrne, who joined the Irish Volunteers in 1912. In 1913, Edward Byrne enlisted as a professional trooper with the British Army's 19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars cavalry regiment, given a background as a horseman from his father's employment by the Earl of Meath as a coachman in County Wicklow. On the outbreak of World War I he was mobilized and went with his unit to the Western Front, where he took part in heavy fighting in the Ypres Salient and at the Battle of the Somme. He was discharged from the British Army at the war's end in 1919. He later took part in the Irish War of Independence.
In the early 1920s, Edward Byrne was employed by Guinness' St. James's Gate Brewery, where he worked for most of the rest of his life on the barges that operated on the River Liffey, transporting wooden casks from St. James's Gate Brewery to sea ships at the North Wall in Dublin. Byrne's father, Edward, married his mother, Annie, in 1917, when briefly home on leave from the war. The two had met near Bray just before the war began. Both of them were from County Wicklow. His siblings were Ray, Al, Ernest and Mary; all but Mary predeceased him.
Byrne was born on 5 August 1934 and grew up in The Liberties in Dublin. He first lived with his family at 17 Rialto Street, Rialto, Dublin, before his parents moved to 124 (later renumbered 512) South Circular Road, Dublin, in 1944. Byrne's mother, Annie, died in late 1964.
Byrne attended Rialto National School (since closed) and a number of other schools for short periods. Subsequently, he was educated by the Irish Christian Brothers at Synge Street CBS. He and two classmates bought a jazz record when Byrne was fourteen years old in January 1948, at a time when Radio Éireann refused to play it because of its "licentious" content. In December 2009, Byrne returned to his old primary school on Synge Street to launch an online children's book club, and read an extract from Marita Conlon-McKenna's storybook In Deep Dark Wood. In 2009, whilst celebrating the 250th anniversary of Guinness, he revealed that he had once tried unsuccessfully to earn a job in the brewery near his childhood home.
When he was young, Byrne was inspired by the broadcaster Eamonn Andrews, who had a successful career on British television, and "wanted to be what he was". Andrews was friendly with Byrne's eldest brother. In 1958, he moved over to broadcasting when he became a presenter on Radio Éireann. He also worked with Granada Television and the BBC in England. At Granada, Byrne became the first person to introduce the Beatles on television when they made their small-screen debut on local news programme People and Places. In 1961, Telefís Éireann (later Radio Telefís Éireann and now Raidió Teilifís Éireann) was set up. Byrne finally worked exclusively for the new Irish service after 1969. He introduced many popular programmes, with his most popular and successful programme being The Late Late Show.
Radio career
Byrne began his broadcasting career on radio. Radio Éireann gave him a 15-minute slot on Monday nights which he used to play Jazz, his first broadcast for the station being in 1958.
He is now best remembered for his two-hour morning show, The Gay Byrne Hour, which was later renamed The Gay Byrne Show (1972–1999). For many years the show was produced by John Caden. Joe Duffy was a reporter and occasional co-presenter on The Gay Byrne Show.
Byrne featured on radio occasionally since retiring from The Gay Byrne Show – in 2006, he began presenting a weekly Sunday afternoon show entitled Sunday Serenade on RTÉ lyric fm. After 2010, he could be heard playing jazz on Sunday afternoons on lyric fm. This two-hour show began after an encounter with Head of Lyric FM Aodán Ó Dubhghaill at the National Concert Hall. Sunday with Gay Byrne attracted 55,000 listeners through "word of mouth": no advertising and no mention in the RTÉ Guide. The show was broadcast weekly approximately from September to March, with a break during the intervening six months. Byrne once commented on the emptiness of RTÉ at this time of the week:
Television
The Late Late Show
On 5 July 1962, the first episode of The Late Late Show was aired on Irish television. Originally the show was scheduled as an eight-week summer filler. The programme, which is still broadcast, has become the world's second longest running chat show. The show became a forum where controversial topics such as the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, contraception, AIDS, unemployment, homosexuality, abortion, divorce and other hitherto taboo subjects were discussed openly in Ireland, alongside book reviews, celebrity visits, and music acts such as the Boomtown Rats, U2, Sinéad O'Connor, Elkie Brooks, Boyzone and Noel Gallagher. Other guests included Presidents of Ireland, successive Archbishops of Armagh, minor members of the British Royal Family, politicians, actors and authors.
The show had much to do in shaping the new Ireland that was emerging from the 1960s. Indeed, it was famously said by politician and Papal Knight, Oliver J. Flanagan that, "there was no sex in Ireland until Teilifís Éireann went on the air". Bishop of Galway Michael Browne called him "a purveyor of filth" after he asked a woman what colour nightie she wore on her wedding night and she had replied that she believed she'd worn nothing.
More than a decade after departing his role as host of The Late Late Show Byrne is remembered for conducting memorable interviews with former politician Pádraig Flynn and then Bishop of Galway Eamon Caseys lover Annie Murphy, among others. Another memorable moment to occur on The Late Late Show was when he called the winner of a prize car live on air only to discover the woman's daughter had died since she had entered.
During the early years of Byrne's time hosting The Late Late Show, prior to about 1978 when the second national Irish TV channel was launched, he was employed by RTÉ on a continuously renewing 3-month contract, lest his employer might want to fire him any time they choose.
Byrne and The Late Late Show were central to the development of the careers of figures such as Mary Coughlan.
He was noted for wearing a "Bing Crosby sweater" when presenting The Late Late Toy Show.
On 21 May 1999, Byrne presented his last edition of The Late Late Show. He was presented with a Harley-Davidson motorcycle by Bono and Larry Mullen, Jr. Pat Kenny succeeded Byrne as presenter in September 1999, subsequently succeeded by Ryan Tubridy in September 2009. Byrne gave Tubridy his blessing upon taking over the role, saying: "He has all the qualities required, the light deft touch together with a serious mind. I think it's a great adventure that he's setting off on". Byrne returned to The Late Late Show as a guest twice during Tubridy's first season as presenter, the latter appearance on the day of Gerry Ryan's death.
The Meaning of Life
In April 2009, RTÉ One began broadcasting a series called The Meaning of Life, during which Gay Byrne interviewed public figures about issues of meaning and life. He preferred not to discuss his own faith: The programme has contained a number of significant moments, including actor Gabriel Byrne's admission that he had been abused as a child at the start of the second series and Stephen Fry's denunciation of God during the tenth series.
Other television work
In the 1960s, Byrne presented Let's Dance for Granada Television with popular singing star Marion Ryan. The programme was filmed in the Ballroom at Belle Vue, Manchester and also featured original Come Dancing stars Syd Perkin and Edna Duffield.
Byrne compèred the finals of the Castlebar Song Contest in 1966 and 1967. He also presented the Rose of Tralee festival for 17 years until 1994. Between 1989 and 2001, Byrne hosted the RTÉ People in Need Telethon several times.
After "retiring", Byrne hosted the Irish version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?. He also hosted The Gay Byrne Music Show and Make 'Em Laugh, a series about comedy in Ireland, Gaybo's Grumpy Men and Class Reunion.
In the summer season of 2000, Byrne hosted The Gay Byrne Music Show, which was a studio-based show aired on Saturday nights as a summer filler between 8 July and 19 August 2000 and showcased all genres of music in the company of the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. From 2011, he presented more summer filler light entertainment in the form of For One Night Only.
Retirement
Byrne did not completely retire and continued to feature occasionally on radio and television after leaving The Late Late Show and The Gay Byrne Show. He launched Joe Duffy's autobiography Just Joe in Harry's Bar in October 2011.
In March 2006, Byrne was appointed as the chairman of the Irish Road Safety Authority, a public body given the task of improving road safety in the Republic of Ireland. The role saw him visit hospitalised survivors alongside President of Ireland Mary McAleese.
Politics
Views
In "retirement", Byrne continued to make his political views known, including questioning then Taoiseach Brian Cowen and "whether you can be Taoiseach and still sit up and have a pint in the local pub. You have to dignify the office". In later years he became known for his anti-EU stance. Bookmakers suggested Byrne might become Mayor of Dublin.
Presidential prospects
In August 2011, Byrne was approached by the once dominant political party Fianna Fáil as a possible independent nominee for that year's presidential election. The media advised Byrne, who had enjoyed an avuncular relationship with the public as a performer over many decades, against such a move. An editorial in the Irish Independent said: "This isn't some sort of a reality TV show but a contest for the highest office in the land." The Irish Times queried the distinction between Byrne as a performer versus Byrne as an individual. "But who is it that the Irish people really love? Is it Gaybo or Gabriel Byrne? Given they don't really know the man himself – a man who has retained his privacy throughout a lifetime of fame – the love is surely for the persona rather than the person." Byrne topped polls as the candidate people were most likely to vote for.
On 13 August 2011, Byrne announced that he would not be a candidate for the Presidency. Appearing later on TV3's Midweek programme he called Martin McGuinness, who was contesting the election as a representative of Sinn Féin, a "liar".
One-man show
Byrne performed a one-man show in front of a sold-out audience at the Gate Theatre on 18 September 2011. The performance was part of a benefit night to raise funds for the Irish Cancer Society. British Ambassador Julian King and Senator David Norris were among those in attendance.
Personal life
Byrne was married to Kathleen Watkins, formerly a well-known harpist. Watkins was also the first continuity announcer to appear on-screen on the opening night of Telefís Éireann on New Year's Eve in 1961. Byrne first met Watkins, a native of Saggart, County Dublin, in 1957. They married in Saggart Catholic church in 1964. The couple had two daughters, Suzy and Crona. The Byrne family lived on Howth Head in Dublin and in later years in Sandymount in Dublin. Byrne became a grandfather on 15 September 2004.
Byrne relied on an accountant friend, Russell Murphy, to manage his finances, and was personally distraught when upon the accountant's death in 1986, it was found that most of his savings had been squandered, and this had been hidden from him.
His interests included jazz. He continued to play jazz on the radio during his "retirement".
He was a qualified private pilot.
Health
In later years, Byrne revealed he had hearing loss in one ear. He thought originally that it was due to working in the television and radio industry for over 50 years that caused his hearing loss, but later found out it was genetic as his mother, his sister and three brothers all had hearing problems.
In 2011, Byrne experienced a health scare at his home in Sandymount when he struggled to breathe. He was admitted to St Vincent's hospital complaining his lungs felt as if they were "made of concrete" and there was "nothing going in" and that he expected to die. In 2015, after spending Christmas at home with his family, he had a heart attack and was readmitted to hospital.
On 20 November 2016, he revealed live on his Time Warp radio broadcast on RTÉ Lyric FM that he was to begin treatment for prostate cancer, and that the cancer might have also spread to his lower back. He told listeners he would be taking a one-week break before returning to work. However, he did not return to the air. Byrne had been quoted by the Irish Mirror saying that "Ideally, I would like to get back to doing my Sunday afternoon radio show on Lyric FM, but my wife and daughters tell me I'm not ready and won't let me do it."
Death
Byrne died on 4 November 2019 at his home in Howth, aged 85, after a 3-year battle with prostate cancer.
On 5 November 2019, a special live edition of the Late Late Show was broadcast on RTÉ One, with various tributes made to him.
His funeral took place on 8 November 2019 at St Mary's Pro-Cathedral in Dublin and was shown live on RTÉ; several thousand fans lined the route of his cortège from his home in Howth to the Church with thousands more gathering outside the church. The funeral mass was celebrated by Fr Leonard Moloney SJ. Gay's daughter Suzy welcomed mourners with a moving speech which thanked all who had helped her father through his illness, and she also thanked her father. Byrne's coffin was carried by family and friends, including his eldest grandson, Cian.
After the mass, the hearse carrying Byrne's remains made its way back to Howth and was greeted by fans along the route. He was laid to rest, privately at Saint Fintans Cemetery, Sutton. It has been said that he will always be remembered as the greatest broadcaster to ever grace the television screens of Ireland.
Honours and awards
In 1988, Byrne was awarded an honorary doctorate in letters from Trinity College, Dublin.
In 1999 he was granted the Freedom of the City of Dublin.
He received a Lifetime Achievement Award in February 2007 from Irish Film and Television Network.
He holds the record for the greatest number of Jacob's Awards received, winning a total of six for his radio and television work.
He was appointed chairman of the Road Safety Authority in Ireland in 2006.
Outstanding Achievement PPI Radio Award (2009) "The only surprise is that it has taken so long for Gaybo to get it".
Marking RTÉ's 50th anniversary in 2011, Byrne appeared on a postage stamp, part of a set of three that also featured Anne Doyle and Emma O'Driscoll.
A wax figure of Gay Byrne has been put on public display at Wax Museum Plus on Dublin's College Green.
Legacy
Credited with being a catalyst in the transformation of Irish society since the 1960s, Byrne broke several societal taboos by engaging in discourse on subjects like contraception, homosexuality, and abortion. For example, when Barry Galvin—then Cork's state solicitor—guested with Byrne on The Late Late Show in 1992 to discuss Ireland's mounting problems with the illegal drug trade, he was subsequently given the post of first-ever head of the important Criminal Assets Bureau. Alongside Terry Wogan, Byrne was one of two Irish broadcast giants, but he was also described as solely "the most famous Irish broadcaster in history", and he was lauded by the media as "the man who changed Ireland".
According to Ryle Dwyer, writing in the Irish Examiner, Byrne "had more influence on changing life in this country than any of the political leaders". A 1998 poll found Byrne level with notorious former Taoiseach Charles Haughey as the most hated public figure in the country, but the same poll also found Byrne to be the most popular public figure.
Bibliography
Byrne, Gay. To Whom It Concerns (1972)
Byrne, Gay; Purcell, Deirdre. The Time of My Life: An Autobiography (Gill & Macmillan, Dublin; 1989)
See also
List of people on stamps of Ireland
References
1934 births
2019 deaths
Burials at St. Fintan's Cemetery, Sutton
Irish game show hosts
Irish performance artists
Irish radio presenters
Irish television presenters
Irish television talk show hosts
Jacob's Award winners
People educated at Synge Street CBS
People from Howth
Rose of Tralee hosts
RTÉ Radio 1 presenters
RTÉ lyric fm presenters
RTÉ television presenters
Television personalities from Dublin (city)
20th-century Irish people
21st-century Irish people
Deaths from cancer in the Republic of Ireland
Deaths from prostate cancer | [
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240090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piacenza | Piacenza | Piacenza (; ; ) is a city and comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy, the capital of the eponymous province. The etymology is long-standing, tracing an origin from the Latin verb , "to please." In French, and occasionally in English, it is called Plaisance. The name means a "pleasant abode", or as James Boswell reported some of the etymologists of his time to have translated it, "comely". This was a name "of good omen."
Piacenza is located at a major crossroads at the intersection of Route E35/A1 between Bologna and Milan, and Route E70/A21 between Brescia and Turin. Piacenza is also at the confluence of the Trebbia, draining the northern Apennine Mountains, and the Po, draining to the east. Piacenza also hosts two universities, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Polytechnic University of Milan and University of Parma.
History
Ancient history
Pre-Roman era
Before its settlement by the Romans, the area was populated by other peoples; specifically, most recently to the Roman settlement, the region on the right bank of the Po between the Trebbia and the Taro had been occupied by the Ananes or Anamari, a tribe of Cisalpine Gauls. Before then, says Polybius, "These plains were anciently inhabited by Etruscans" before the Gauls took the entire Po Valley from them.
Roman age
Piacenza and Cremona were founded as Roman military colonies in May 218 BC. The Romans had planned to construct them after the successful conclusion of the latest war with the Gauls ending in 219 BC. In the spring of 218 BC, after declaring war on Carthage, the Senate decided to accelerate the foundation and gave the colonists 30 days to appear on the sites to receive their lands. They were each to be settled by 6,000 Roman citizens, but the cities were to receive Latin Rights; that is, they were to have the same legal status as the many colonies that had been co-founded by Rome and towns of Latium.
The reaction of the region's Gauls was swift; they drove the colonists off the lands. Taking refuge in Mutina, the latter sent for military assistance. A small force under Lucius Manlius was prevented from reaching the area. The Senate then sent two legions under Gaius Atelius. Collecting Manlius and the colonists, they descended on Piacenza and Cremona and successfully placed castra there of to support the building of the city. Piacenza must have been walled immediately, as the walls were in place when the Battle of the Trebia was fought around the city in December. There is no evidence either textual or archaeological of a prior settlement at that exact location; however, the site would have been obliterated by construction. Piacenza was the 53rd colony to be placed by Rome since its foundation. It was the first among the Gauls of the Po valley.
It had to be supplied by boat after the Battle of Trebbia, when Hannibal controlled the countryside, for which purpose a port (Emporium) was constructed. In 209 BC, Hasdrubal Barca crossed the Alps and laid siege to the city, but he was unable to take it and withdrew. In 200 BC, the Gauls sacked and burned it, selling the population into slavery. Subsequently, the victorious Romans restored the city and managed to recover 2000 citizens. In 198 BC, a combined force of Gauls and Ligurians plundered the whole region. As the people had never recovered from being sold into slavery, in 190 BC they complained to Senate of underpopulation; in response the Senate sent 3000 new settlers. The construction of the Via Aemilia in the 180's made the city easily accessible from the Adriatic ports, which improved trade and the prospects for timely defense.
The Liver of Piacenza, a bronze model of a sheep's liver for the purposes of haruspicy discovered in 1877 at Gossolengo just to the south of Piacenza, bears witness to the survival of the disciplina Etrusca well after the Roman conquest.
Although sacked and devastated several times, the city always recovered and by the 6th century Procopius was calling it "the principal city in the country of Aemilia".
The first Bishop of Piacenza (322–357), San Vittorio, declared Saint Antoninus of Piacenza, a soldier of the Theban Legion (and not to be confused with the sixth-century Antoninus of Piacenza), the patron saint of Piacenza and had the first basilica constructed in his honor in 324. The basilica was restored in 903 and rebuilt in 1101, again in 1562, and is still a church today. The remains of the bishop and the soldier-saint are in urns under the altar. The theme of Antoninus, protector of Piacenza, is well known in art.
Middle Ages
Piacenza was sacked during the course of the Gothic War (535–554). After a short period of being reconquered by the Roman emperor Justinian I, it was conquered by the Lombards, who made it a duchy seat. After its conquest by Francia in the ninth century, the city began to recover, aided by its location along the Via Francigena that later connected the Holy Roman Empire with Rome. Its population and importance grew further after the year 1000. That period marked a gradual transfer of governing powers from the feudal lords to a new enterprising class, as well to the feudal class of the countryside.
In 1095, the city was the site of the Council of Piacenza, in which the First Crusade was proclaimed. From 1126, Piacenza was a free commune and an important member of the Lombard League. In this role, it took part in the war against Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, and in the subsequent battle of Legnano (1176). It also successfully fought the neighbouring communes of Cremona, Pavia and Parma, expanding its possessions. Piacenza also captured control of the trading routes with Genoa, where the first Piacentini bankers had already settled, from the Malaspina counts and the bishop of Bobbio.
In the 13th century, despite unsuccessful wars against Frederick I, Piacenza managed to gain strongholds on the Lombardy shore of the Po. The preliminaries of the Peace of Constance were signed in 1183 in the Saint Antoninus church. Agriculture and trade flourished in these centuries, and Piacenza became one of the richest cities in Europe. This is reflected in the construction of many important buildings and in the general revision of the urban plan. Struggles for control were commonplace in the second half of the 13th century, not unlike the large majority of Medieval Italian communes. The Scotti family, Pallavicini family and (1290–1313) held power in that order during the period. Scoto's government ended when the Visconti of Milan captured Piacenza, which they would hold until 1447. Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti rewrote Piacenza's statutes and relocated the University of Pavia to the city. Piacenza then became a possession of the House of Sforza until 1499.
Modern era
A coin from the 16th century features the motto: Placentia floret ("Piacenza flourishes") on one of its sides. The city was progressing economically, chiefly due to the expansion of agriculture in the countryside surrounding the city. Also in the course of that century a new city wall was erected. Piacenza was ruled by France until 1521, and briefly, under Pope Leo X, it became part of the Papal States. In 1545, it became part of the newly created Duchy of Parma, which was ruled by the House of Farnese.
Piacenza was the capital city of the duchy until Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (1547–1586), moved it to Parma. The city underwent some of its most difficult years during the rule of Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma (1622–1646), when between 6000 and 13,000 Piacentini out of a total population of 30,000 died from famine and plague. The city and its countryside were also ravaged by bandits and French soldiers.
Between 1732 and 1859, Parma and Piacenza were ruled by the House of Bourbon. In the 18th century, several edifices which belonged to noble families such as Scotti, Landi and Fogliani were built in Piacenza.
In 1802, Napoleon's army annexed Piacenza to the French Empire. Young Piacentini recruits were sent to fight in Russia, Spain and Germany, while the city was plundered of a great number of artworks which are currently exhibited in many French museums.
The Habsburg government of Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma (1816–1847), is remembered fondly as one of the best in the history of Piacenza; the duchess drained many lands, built several bridges across the Trebbia and the Nure and created educational and artistic activities.
Union with Italy
Austrian troops occupied Piacenza until, in 1860, a plebiscite marked the entrance of the city into the Kingdom of Sardinia. 37,089 voters out of 37,585 voted for the annexation. Piacenza was therefore declared Primogenita dell'Unità di Italia ("First-born of the Unification of Italy") by the monarch. The Piacentini enrolled en masse in the Giuseppe Garibaldi's army in the Expedition of the Thousand.
In 1858 the geologist Karl Mayer-Eymar named the Piacenzian Age of the Pliocene Epoch based on deposits close to Piacenza.
In June 1865, the first railway bridge over Po river in northern Italy was inaugurated (in southern Italy a railroad bridge had already been built in 1839). In 1891, the first Chamber of Workers was created in Piacenza.
World War II
During World War II, the city was heavily bombed by the Allies. The important railway and road bridges across the Trebbia and the Po and the railway yards were destroyed. The historic centre of city itself also suffered collateral damage. In 1944, the bridges over the Po became vital for the supply from Austria of Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's Gothic Line, which protected the withdrawal of Kesselring's troops from Italy. Foremost among these were the railway and road bridges at Piacenza, along with supply depots and railway yards. In Operation Mallory Major, July 12–15, allied medium bombers from Corsica flew 300 sorties a day, knocking out 21 bridges east of Piacenza, and then continued to the west for a total of 90 by July 20. Fighter-bombers prevented reconstruction and cut roads and rail lines. By August 4, all the cities of northern Italy were isolated and had suffered heavy bombing, especially Piacenza. Transport to Genoa to the south or through Turin to the north was impossible; nevertheless, Kesselring continued to supply his men.
On the hills and the Apennine Mountains, partisans were active. On April 25, 1945, a general partisan insurrection by the Italian resistance movement broke out and on 29 April, troops of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force entered the city. In 1996, president Oscar Luigi Scalfaro honoured Piacenza with the gold medal for Valour in Battle.
There was a prisoner of war (POW) camp located here, Veano Camp PG 29, Piacenza.
Geography
Climate
Climate in this area is humid subtropical with no dry season, constantly moist. Summers are hot and sultry. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid subtropical climate).
Government
Main sights
Piacenza boasts a great number of historical palaces, often characterized by splendid gardens.
[[File:Gotico facciata-500.jpg|thumb|Piazza Cavalli and the façade of Palazzo Comunale il Gotico.]]
PalacesPalazzo Comunale, also known as il Gotico, was built in 1281 as the town hall. It is a prototypic Broletto of Lombardy. Of the original design, only the northern side was completed, with its typical Ghibelline merlons, the arcaded frame, the central bell tower with two lesser ones at the sides. The façade, with five arcades, is in pink marble in the lower part and in brickwork (decorated with geometrical figures) in the upper part. The main hall has frescoes, and is used for meetings, lectures and conferences.Palazzo Farnese, begun in 1568 by Ottavio Farnese and his wife, Margaret of Parma. The initial project was devised by Francesco Paciotto, from Urbino, and works were entrusted to Giovanni Bernardo Della Valle, Giovanni Lavezzari and Bernardo Panizzari (Caramosino). The design was modified in 1568 by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, better known as "Vignola".Palazzo Landi, built in the Middle Ages but renovated in the late 15th century.Palazzo Costa.Palazzo Somaglia.Palazzo Baldini, on Via San Siro. Palazzo Scotti (also known as Palazzo della Prefettura) housing the Museum of Natural History.Palazzo dei Mercanti (17th century), the current Town Hall.
Other places of interest
Piazza Cavalli is the main square of the town. It is named ("Cavalli" means "horses") for the two bronze equestrian monuments of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (r. 1586-), nephew and valiant general of Philip II of Spain) and his son Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, who succeeded him. The statues are masterpieces of Francesco Mochi, a Mannerist sculptor.
Piacenza Cathedral: This is the Catholic cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Piacenza-Bobbio, built from 1122 to 1233 and is a valuable examples of a Northern-Italian Romanesque architecture. The façade, in Veronese pink marble and gilted stone, is horizontally parted by a gallery that dominates the three gates, decorated with capitals and Romanic statues. The interior has a nave and two aisles, divided by 25 large pillars. It has noteworthy frescoes, made in the 14th-16th centuries by Camillo Procaccini and Ludovico Carracci, while those of the dome are by Morazzone and Guercino. The presbytery as a wooden sculpture from 1479, a wooden choir by Giangiacomo da Genova (1471) and statues of Lombard school from the 15th century. The crypt, on the Greek cross plan, has 108 Romanesque small columns and is home to the relics of Saint Justine, to which the first cathedral (crumbled down in the 1117 Verona earthquake) was dedicated.
San Francesco Church: Located centrally in Piazza Cavalli, this 12th-century Romanesque/Gothic edifice assumed the role of civic sanctuary in the Middle Ages. Part of the medieval cloisters remains. The main portal is surmounted by a 15th-century lunette depicting the Ecstasy of St. Francis. The nave and two aisles, are divided by low and sturdy brick pillars that support high gothic arches. The church has a Latin cross layout. The nave, taller than the aisles, has a pentahedric apse in which the aisle apses meet; decorations include 15th-16th centuries frescoes. In 1848, the annexion of Piacenza to the Kingdom of Sardinia was announced from here.Basilica of Sant'Antonino: This is an example of Romanesque architecture, characterized by a large octagonal tower. It was commissioned by St. Victor, first bishop of the city, in 350 CE, and completed in 375. It contains the relics of the eponymous saint, martyred near Travo, in the Val Trebbia. In 1183 the delegates of Frederick Barbarossa and of the Lombard League met here for the preliminaries of peace of Constance. The church was renovated after damage created by the barbarian invasion, and has a 15th-century cloister. In the interior, the main artworks are the frescoes by Camillo Gervasetti (1622).Basilica of San Savino: this church was dedicated to St. Victor's successor, was begun in 903 but consecrated only in 1107. The façade and the portico are from the 17th-18th centuries. The presbytery and the crypts contain 12th century polychrome mosaics. The interior is in Lombard-Gothic style, with anthropomorphic capitals of the columns. Over the high altar is a 12th-century wooden crucifix by an unknown artist.San Giovanni in Canale was founded by the Dominicans in 1220, and enlarged in the mid-16th century.Santa Maria in Campagna: This Renaissance church, faces Piazzale delle Crociate ("Crusades Square"), so called because Pope Urban II summoned the First Crusade here in 1095. The church was built in 1522–1528 to house a miraculous wooden sculpture of the Madonna. The layout was originally in a central Greek-cross plan, but later altered into a Latin cross type. Il Pordenone frescoed the dome and in two chapels on the left side.St Sixtus is a Renaissance church with a choir designed by Gio Pietro Pambianco da Colorno and Bartolomeo da Busseto (1512-1514). It was begun in the 15th century over a temple built in 874 by Empress Angilberga. Also by Alessio Tramello is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1513, the monks of St. Sixtus commissioned Raphael to produce the altarpiece known as the Sistine Madonna. They sold it in 1754 to Augustus III of Poland. It is now on display in Dresden.
The Piacenza's Archaeological Museum, part of the Civic Museums of Palazzo Farnese, houses the pre-Roman bronze Liver of Piacenza, an Etruscan bronze model of a sheep's liver dating from the end of the 2nd century to the beginning of the 1st century BCE. It was discovered in 1877 in Ciavernasco di Settima, near Gossolengo in the Piacenza hinterland. Containing writing on its surface delineating the various parts of the liver and their significance, it was likely used as an educational tool for students studying haruspicy, or divination.Palazzo Landi, built in the Middle Ages but rebuilt in the current form in the 15th century by Lombard craftsmen. It has a Renaissance marble portal. It is now seat of the local Tribunal.
Galleria d'arte moderna Ricci Oddi is an art museum dedicated mainly to modern Italian painters.
Collegio Alberoni is a Roman Catholic seminary founded by Cardinal Giulio Alberoni in the 18th Century. The seminary maintains a gallery which displays Alberoni's personal collection of fine tapestries and Renaissance and Baroque paintings by notable artists such as Luca Giordano, Antonello da Messina, and Guido Reni.
Dialect
Many inhabitants of Piacenza and the surrounding province still use Piacentino, which is a variety of the Emilian dialect the Emilian-Romagnol language. Emilian-Romagnol is a member of a different Romance subfamily (Gallo-Italic) than Standard Italian (which is an Italo-Dalmatian language) and its distinct grammar and phonology make it mutually unintelligible with that language.
Although there have been a number of notable poets and writers using Piacentino, it has experienced a steady decline during the 20th century due to the growing standardization of the Italian language in the national educational system.
Sport
Piacenza Calcio 1919 was the main and most supported football team and played in Serie A for eight seasons. The team ceased to exist in 2012 after its bankruptcy. Currently there are two football teams playing in Serie D: S.S.D. Piacenza Calcio 1919, which acquired Piacenza Football Club coat of arms following the bankruptcy, and Pro Piacenza 1919, which declared bankruptcy in 2019.
Volley Piacenza is the main man volleyball team and currently plays in serie A1; its palmares entails a championship, a national cup, a national supercup and two European cups. River Volley is the main female volleyball team and won the national championship twice.
Rugby is relatively popular compared with Italian standards and Piacenza has a number of rugby teams: Piacenza Rugby Club and Rugby Lyons Piacenza are the most important.
Cuisine
Piacenza and its province are known for the production of seasoned and salted pork products. The main specialities are pancetta (rolled seasoned pork belly, salted and spiced), coppa (seasoned pork neck, containing less fat than pancetta, matured at least for six months) and salame (chopped pork meat flavoured with spices and wine, and made into sausages).Bortellina (salted pancakes made with flour, salt, and water or milk) and chisulén (torta fritta in Standard Italian; made with flour, milk, and animal fats mixed together and then fried in hot strutto, or clarified pork fat) are the perfect coupling of pancetta, coppa, and salame, but they are also good with cheeses, particularly Gorgonzola and Robiola.Pisarei e faśö is a mixture of handmade pasta and borlotti beans. This is served with a sauce made of tomato puree, extra virgin olive oil, onion, salt, and pepper. It's preferred to be consumed with grated Parmigiano on top.
Among the culinary specialties of the Piacenza region (although also enjoyed in nearby Cremona) is mostarda di frutta, consisting of preserved fruits in a sugary syrup strongly flavored with mustard. Turtlìt (tortelli dolci in standard Italian), or fruit dumplings, are filled with mostarda di frutta, mashed chestnuts, and other ingredients, and are served at Easter. Turtlìt are also popular in the Ferrara area. Turtéi, a similarly named Piacentine specialty, is a kind of pasta filled with spinaches and ricotta cheese, or filled with calabash. A similar Piacentine dish is the Panzerotti al Forno, which is made with pasta, ricotta cheese and spinach.
Piacentine staple foods include corn (generally cooked as polenta) and rice (usually cooked as risotto), both of which are very common across northern Italy. There are also locally produced cheeses, such as Grana Padano, though nearby Parma is more famous for its dairy products.
The hills surrounding Piacenza are known for their vineyards. The wine produced in this area is qualified with a denominazione di origine controllata called "Colli Piacentini" ("Hills of Piacenza"). The main wines are Gutturnio (red wines, both sparkling and still), Bonarda (a red wine, often sparkling and foamy, made from Croatina grapes), Ortrugo (a dry white wine) and Malvasia'' (a sweet white wine).
People
Saint Gerard of Potenza (died 1119), Bishop of Potenza from 1111 until his death.
Placentinus (died 1192), founder of the Law School of the University of Montpellier.
Teobaldo Visconti (c. 1210–1276), elected Pope Gregory X.
Saint Conrad of Piacenza (1290–1351), medieval Franciscan hermit.
Giovanni Battista Guadagnini (1711–1786), member of the Guadagnini family of luthiers.
Antonio Cornazzano (c.1432-1484), poet and humanist, courtier at Milan and Ferrara.
Cardinal Giulio Alberoni (1664-1752), Italian-Spanish statesman who served as Bishop of Malaga and Chief Minister to Philip V of Spain from 1715 to 1719 during the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
Melchiorre Gioia (1767–1829), Philosopher and political economist.
Pietro Giordani (1774–1848), writer and classical literary scholar.
Amilcare Ponchielli (1834–1886), musician and composer, began his career here in 1861.
Alfredo Soressi (1897–1982), painter.
Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Bishop of Bergamo and mentor of the future Pope John XXIII
Giorgio Armani (born 1934), fashion designer.
Giovanni Paolo Panini (1691–1765), vedute painter and architect
Luigi Illica (1857–1919), librettist, author and co-author (with Giuseppe Giacosa) of opera librettos for Giacomo Puccini (La bohème, Tosca, Madama Butterfly), Alfredo Catalani (La Wally) and Umberto Giordano (Andrea Chénier).
Giuseppe Merosi (1872–1956), automobile engineer.
Ettore Boiardi (1897–1985), chef, better known as Chef Boyardee.
Edoardo Amaldi (1908–1989), physicist, professor at Sapienza University of Rome (1938–1979), co-founder of CERN, ESA, and INFN.
Amedeo Guillet (1909–2010), World War II cavalry commander and diplomat, also known as "Comandante Diavolo".
Cardinal Agostino Casaroli (1914–1998), Catholic priest and diplomat for the Holy See, Cardinal Secretary of State (1979–1990).
Pino Dordoni (1926–1998), 50 km walk Olympic gold medallist at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki.
Tarquinio Provini (1933–2005), twice World Champion Grand Prix motorcycle racer.
Mario Arcelli (1935–2004), economist and once Minister for Budget of the Italian Government (1996).
Ettore Gotti Tedeschi (born 1945), economist and banker, former President of the Vatican Bank.
Gen. (born 1945), Chief of Staff of the Italian Army (2007-2009).
Giuseppe Orsi (born 1945), CEO of Finmeccanica (2011-2013).
Federico Ghizzoni (born 1955), CEO of Unicredit.
Filippo "Pippo" Inzaghi (born 1973), World Cup-winning footballer and football coach.
Ilaria Ramelli (born 1973), Italian-born historian
Simone Inzaghi (born 1976), professional footballer.
Nina Zilli (born 1980), singer and songwriter who represented Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest 2012.
Giorgia Bronzini (born 1983), cyclist, World Champion of female Cycling in 2010 and 2011.
While he himself was born in New York City, highly decorated policeman and US Congressman Mario Biaggi's (1917-2015) parents immigrated there from Piacenza.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Piacenza is twinned with:
Plasencia, Spain
Erfurt, Germany
Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina
See also
Conrad of Piacenza
Piacenza railway station
Roman Catholic Diocese of Piacenza-Bobbio
References
Bibliography
External links
Piacenza on The Campanile Project
Roman towns and cities in Italy
Roman sites of Emilia-Romagna
Cities and towns in Emilia-Romagna
218 BC
210s BC establishments
Populated places established in the 3rd century BC | [
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