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240374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonport%2C%20New%20Zealand | Devonport, New Zealand | Devonport is a harbourside suburb of Auckland, New Zealand. It is located on the North Shore, at the southern end of a peninsula that runs southeast from near Lake Pupuke in Takapuna, forming the northern side of the Waitematā Harbour. East of Devonport lies North Head, the northern promontory guarding the mouth of the harbour.
The population of Devonport and the adjoining suburb of Cheltenham was 5,340 in the 2013 census, an increase of 3 since 2006.
With the additional suburbs of Stanley Bay, Vauxhall and Narrow Neck, the 2006 population was 11,142.
The suburb hosts the Devonport Naval Base of the Royal New Zealand Navy, the main facility for the country's naval vessels, but is best known for its harbourside dining and drinking establishments and its heritage charm. Devonport has been compared to Sausalito, California, US due to its setting and scenery.
Character
The Devonport shops contain a variety of antique, gift and bookshops, and a number of cafes and restaurants, making it a popular destination for tourists and Aucklanders.
Day trips combining a meal in Devonport with a trip up Mount Victoria or an exploration of the military emplacements on nearby North Head are popular. Of note is the Devonport Museum, located near Mount Cambria. In April 2017 the museum was given a complete makeover by local volunteers and a TV production company.
The navy base at Devonport features strongly in the local character, with the North Shore City Council having signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Navy which recognises the developing partnership between them. The Torpedo Bay Navy Museum is also located in Devonport.
Demographics
Devonport had a population of 3,348 at the 2018 New Zealand census, a decrease of 66 people (-1.9%) since the 2013 census, and a decrease of 69 people (-2.0%) since the 2006 census. There were 1,275 households. There were 1,590 males and 1,758 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.9 males per female. The median age was 45.5 years, with 615 people (18.4%) aged under 15 years, 534 (15.9%) aged 15 to 29, 1,575 (47.0%) aged 30 to 64, and 627 (18.7%) aged 65 or older.
Ethnicities were 92.2% European/Pākehā, 5.2% Māori, 2.2% Pacific peoples, 4.1% Asian, and 3.0% other ethnicities (totals add to more than 100% since people could identify with multiple ethnicities).
The proportion of people born overseas was 35.7%, compared with 27.1% nationally.
Although some people objected to giving their religion, 58.7% had no religion, 32.2% were Christian, and 4.0% had other religions.
Of those at least 15 years old, 1,251 (45.8%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 189 (6.9%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $45,800. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 1,320 (48.3%) people were employed full-time, 513 (18.8%) were part-time, and 54 (2.0%) were unemployed.
History
Around 40,000 years ago Devonport consisted of three islands of volcanic origin, Mount Victoria, North Head and between them Mount Cambria (now largely quarried away).
The earliest evidence for Māori settlement dates from the mid-14th century (roughly the same time as the believed landing of the Tainui migration canoe, which is commemorated by a stone memorial on the foreshore). A significant Māori settlement on North Head was ended by attacks from rival tribes in the 1790s. About 50 Māori were still living in Torpedo Bay, with their meeting house just east of Cambridge Terrace, until they fled to the Waikato when the colonial government launched war on Waikato Māori in 1863.
Jules Dumont d'Urville, a French explorer, is thought to have gone ashore in the area in 1827, possibly as the first European. The first European building on the foreshore was a gunpowder magazine built in 1840.
Devonport is one of the oldest colonial settlements in Auckland, and the first on the North Shore. The Royal Navy and survivors of the 1840 of the HMS Buffalo settled at Devonport. In 1841 a signal station for Auckland's shipping was erected on Mount Victoria (Takarunga), and the signal master, Robert Snow, and his family became the first Europeans to live in the area permanently. From then until the 1860s, the settlement was called Flagstaff, because of the flagstaff at the signal station. Flagstaff was subdivided for town sections and farms in the early 1850s.
For the first half century or so of its existence Devonport was geographically isolated from the rest of the North Shore, and was sometimes called "the island" by the local inhabitants. Only a thin strip of land beside the beach at Narrow Neck connected Devonport to Belmont and the rest of the North Shore peninsula. In the late 19th century the mangrove swamp that stretched from Narrow Neck to Ngataringa Bay was filled in to form a racecourse, now a golf course. A new road was built along the western edge of the racecourse allowing more direct travel to the north.
On the southern shore, to the west of the centre of Devonport, a nearby deep water anchorage suitable for Royal Navy vessels, the Devonport Naval Base was established. William Hobson, then the Governor of New Zealand, considered the sandspit-protected area a better choice for a naval installation than the shallower Tamaki waters on the southern side of the harbour. While some facilities have expanded and shifted in location over time, the area is still the primary base for the Royal New Zealand Navy. The Calliope Dock at Stanley Bay, part of the base, was opened on 16 February 1888 and at the time was the largest dock in the Southern hemisphere. The suburb also had one of the oldest New Zealand shipyards, now part of the Devonport Yacht Club area.
The main centre of the suburb slowly shifted west from Church Street and the original wharf at Torpedo Bay, to its current location around the ferry wharf. The settlement itself was renamed Devonport by 1859 after the English naval town of Devonport. Devonport achieved Borough status in 1886 and was incorporated into North Shore City in 1989.
Devonport played a special role in the nuclear free movement. In 1981 the Devonport Borough Council voted to declare Devonport a nuclear-free zone, the first local council in New Zealand to do so.
In July 2007, Devonport was given permission to be excluded from a list of local Auckland growth node centres. The Auckland Regional Council accepted that while it was encouraging intensified growth (such as higher-density housing) around transport nodes such as Devonport, the character and historical nature of the Devonport Wharf area would make such a designation inappropriate in this case.
In 2011 the Devonport community, led by parents and local publication the Devonport Flagstaff, launched a grassroots movement protesting the sale of the synthetic cannabis Kronic in local dairies. The battle was a success, and Kronic was banned from the area.
Ferries
The first ferry services to Auckland city began in the 1840s. These were open sailing cutters operated by local seamen running passengers to the foot of Queen Street, Auckland's main road. In 1860 the first paddlesteamer ferries began operation. These were in turn replaced by double-ended, screw-driven ferries in 1904. Both passenger and vehicle ferries operated on the Devonport run until the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge in 1959. Immediately after the opening of the bridge, passenger ferry services to other North Shore destinations (such as Northcote and Birkenhead) were cancelled, as were all vehicular ferries. The Devonport passenger ferry was retained on a much reduced timetable. The majority of the ferries were scrapped, only a handful being retained until being replaced by more modern vessels. The last of the old-style double-ended ferries, the diesel-engined Kestrel (built in 1905), was retired from the commuter run in 1988 and was then operated for cruises and sightseeing.
In 2002 the Kestrel was moved to Tauranga to serve as a floating restaurant. The Kestrel changed hands again in 2010 and moved back to Auckland. On 8 March 2016 the Kestrel broke up and sank while tethered in its Wynyard Quarter berth. She was refloated, but her future remains uncertain.
Local government
Devonport had a local government just like other suburbs in Auckland at that time. The local government was called Devonport Borough Council, which started in 1886 and merged into North Shore City Council and then eventually amalgamated into Auckland Council.
Mayors during Devonport Borough Council
During its existence from 1886 to 1989, Devonport Borough had 19 mayors. The following is a complete list:
Features
Between the wharf and Mount Victoria are the Devonport shops and several landmarks:
The Esplanade Hotel – this is an elegant example of an 1890s seaside hotel, reminiscent of many an English seaside resort of the period. A modern extension was added on in the 1950s which has now been replaced by an apartment complex. The Edwardian building was sold for $7 million in 2015.
Windsor Reserve – located just to the east of the Devonport Wharf; it is an area of open lawn notable for the 1980s toilet block and the Edwardian archway at the northern end.
King Edward Parade Reserve – to the north of the Windsor Reserve on the other side of the road is the King Edward Parade Reserve; here are located the Public Library, the War Memorial (a bronze soldier figure by Richard Gross) and under the Moreton Bay Fig trees a 1950s styled bandstand.
The former Post Office – an Art Deco building from the 1930s.
The Left Bank – a 1920s neoclassical building now housing a cafe/bar/restaurant.
The Victoria Cinema – built in 1912 and remodelled internally and externally in the 1930s in the then fashionable Art Deco style; this is apparently the oldest cinema in the Southern Hemisphere in continuous use. The cinema was purchased for $1.55 million in 2006 by the North Shore City Council on behalf of the city.
Devonport Museum, a museum on local history, opened in 1977. Torpedo Bay Navy Museum, a military and maritime museum, opened to the public in 2010.
Devonport Wharf
Today, ferry services to Devonport Wharf are more numerous again, and are subsidised by Auckland Transport, . A crossing between the Auckland CBD and Devonport takes about 12 minutes, usually on the 'Seabus Kea', a newer double-ended ferry.
The Devonport Wharf / Ferry Terminal received a variety of maintenance and repairs during 2011 in advance of the Rugby World Cup. Further structural works were carried out in 2012.
In 2015 a $24 million redevelopment project to upgrade parts of Devonport including the wharf began. The renovation of the Devonport wharf is all but complete, with applications for retail services currently underway. The project includes an improved car park and an overall modernization of the building itself, as well as structural improvements and refurbishments.
Local media
The Flea 88.2 FM &107.1FM is a community radio station in Auckland, New Zealand. It broadcasts with a legally restricted 1000 milliwatts from Mount Victoria, Devonport & also from Takapuna. The station is widely heard because of superior aerial location, with a studio located in the Devonport Ferry Building. The station was created by Mike Baker, in May 1999. It was originally developed to serve Devonport and the neighbouring suburbs. In recent times a second transmitter was added in the Takapuna area and the station now covers the Takapuna and Milford suburbs as well. The station founder, Mike Baker, died on 4 April 2009, at the age of 71.
Education
Devonport Primary School is a contributing primary (years 1–6) school with a roll of located on the side of Mount Victoria with the address of 18 Kerr Street. The school was established in 1870 on a plot of land given to them by the Trevarthen family for the purposes of a chapel, before it was later renegotiated to be used as a school.
St Leo's School is a state-integrated Catholic primary (years 1–6) school with a roll of . It was founded in 1893.
Both these schools are co-educational. Rolls are as of
Sport
North Shore United AFC
North Shore United are an association football club that play their football at Allen Hill Stadium, located near the southern end of Lake Road. The club, founded in 1887, currently play in the NRFL Division 1, a league in the third tier of New Zealand Football. The club is the oldest in both New Zealand and Oceania, winning the Chatham Cup 6 times and the New Zealand Club Championship twice.
North Shore RFC
North Shore Rugby Football Club is a Rugby Union club located in Devonport that play their games at Devonport Domain. Founded in 1873, it is one of the oldest clubs in New Zealand.
Notable people
Isabel Peacocke – teacher, novelist, broadcaster, born in Devonport in 1881.
Sir Dove-Myer Robinson – former Auckland Mayor born 1901, died 1989.
A. R. D. Fairburn – poet, satirist, and critic. Born 1904
Sir Peter Blake – international yachtsman, born 1948, died 2001.
Mary Taylor – artist, born 1948.
Tim Finn – musician and singer, current residence in Devonport, born 1952.
Debbie Harwood – musician and singer, notable as a member of When The Cat's Away.
Tom Ashley – sailor, windsurfer. Gold Medal at 2008 Beijing Olympics in Men's Sail Boarding. Born 1984.
Gin Wigmore – singer-songwriter, born 1986.
Finn Andrews & Sophia Burn – members of London-based band The Veils. Both grew up in Devonport and attended Takapuna Grammar School.
Lorde – pop artist born 1996. Attended Takapuna Grammar School.
Eliza McCartney – NZ women's pole vault champion and women's pole vault World Junior Record holder. 2016 Olympics Pole Vault Bronze medal winner. Born 1996.
See also
William C Daldy, a historical steam tug currently berthed in Devonport
References
External links
Devonport School
Photographs of Devonport held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections.
Suburbs of Auckland
North Shore, New Zealand
Populated places around the Waitematā Harbour | [
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240376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Only%20When%20I%20Laugh%20%28film%29 | Only When I Laugh (film) | Only When I Laugh is a 1981 American comedy-drama film based on Neil Simon's 1970 play The Gingerbread Lady.
The story is about an alcoholic Broadway actress who tries to stay sober, while dealing with the problems of her teenaged daughter and her friends: a vain woman who fears the loss of her looks, and a gay actor relegated to small roles in third-rate shows. Simon changed the main character's name to Georgia Hines for the film adaptation; the character was named Evy Meara in the stage version. The main character went from being a cabaret singer to a Broadway stage actress.
The film, written by Simon and directed by Glenn Jordan, stars Marsha Mason, Joan Hackett, James Coco, and Kristy McNichol. It also features two short scenes with then-unknowns Kevin Bacon and John Vargas. Simon's next release, I Ought to Be in Pictures, was released just six months later, and its plot was similar.
It was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Marsha Mason), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (James Coco), and Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Joan Hackett). Only When I Laugh proved to be very successful at the box office.
Coco was also nominated for Worst Supporting Actor in Golden Raspberry Awards for the same role.
Plot
Actress Georgia Hines is released from alcohol rehab and returns to her Manhattan apartment and her supportive friends: Jimmy, a gay unemployed actor, and Toby, a sophisticated socialite. She tells them she will maintain her sobriety and slowly ease back into theatre work.
Soon after, Georgia's teenaged daughter Polly, who has been living with her father and her new stepmother, asks if she could move in with her mother. Georgia agrees, although not confident that she is ready.
Georgia receives a phonecall from her ex-lover, writer David Lowe, who asks if they can meet. With a renewed sense of confidence, she strongly refuses and hangs up.
Polly discusses her personal suffering due to Georgia's alcoholism, foremost not being allowed to grow up with her mother.
Georgia feels more confidence, even calling David to apologize and agreeing to meet him for dinner. At dinner, David presents his new script, based on their turbulent, alcohol-filled relationship. He wants Georgia to play the lead/herself. Furious that David brought her there for business, Georgia makes a scene. He calmly asks her to reconsider and she finally laughs, and takes the script home.
The reunion between Georgia and Polly is turning out to be a success. They go shopping together, flirt with college-aged boys who mistake them for sisters, then happily recount their adventure to Jimmy. They surprise him with a musical number Polly's been working on for a school show. In the middle of their performance, Georgia abruptly stops to take a call from David, leaving Jimmy and Polly to sit in silence.
Georgia shines in rehearsals. When she confuses art with life during a scene and loses her composure, David consoles her and tells her that she is the only one who can do this part, tenderly kissing her on the cheek as he exits.
Georgia arrives at a restaurant, happily late from rehearsals, to find Toby in a foul mood. Georgia continues to talk about the play despite Toby revealing that her marriage might be in trouble. Jimmy bounces in with great news that he finally has been given a part in a play. Georgia congratulates him while Toby looks on in silence.
At rehearsals, Georgia brings David a gift-wrapped present. David is taken aback, then introduces Georgia to his new girlfriend. Georgia finally understands that David's affections towards her were only as a friend. Just then, a disconsolate Georgia receives a phone call from Jimmy, learning that Toby's husband has just asked for a divorce. Devastated for their friend, they agree to meet at Toby's that evening.
Georgia is greeted at the door by an impeccably dressed Toby. Georgia keeps refilling Toby's champagne glass while Toby reminisces about life as an enviable college beauty, an untalented actress, and then a perfect wife. Toby's composure crumbles and when she excuses herself to retouch her makeup, Georgia answers the door to a shaking Jimmy. He immediately starts downing champagne and reveals that he was just fired from his play, three nights before the opening, after having invited all his family and friends. Georgia retreats to the kitchen and proceeds to drink multiple glasses of champagne. She returns to the room tipsy and tries to rally her friends, instead shocking them when they realize she has started drinking again.
Polly, unaware of events, arrives at Toby's with her new boyfriend. The three friends form a plan to conceal their problems from Polly, but Georgia, now very drunk, has an over-the-top reaction to Polly and her date. Polly realizes that her mother has relapsed, and that Toby and Jimmy are back to covering up for her. She scolds her mother for her insensitive attitude towards everyone around her, then storms out with her boyfriend.
Jimmy gets Georgia home, where she insists that Jimmy can trust her to be by herself. After he leaves, Georgia goes out to buy cigarettes at a neighborhood bar, but then sits down to start drinking and strikes up a flirty conversation with a stranger. When Georgia leaves, the stranger follows and violently drags her into a darkened alley where he beats her up.
A battered and bleeding Georgia makes it to Toby's, but begs her not to call the police. While Toby tends to Georgia's wounded face, Georgia continues to drink. When Toby tries to make her see how self-destructive she has become, Georgia lashes out and mocks her. A furious Toby finally expresses that she's had it covering for Georgia, telling her to do everyone a favor and stop being such an “astronomical pain in the ass”. The two old friends share a tender laugh and hug and they walk back inside.
The next morning, Georgia admits to Polly that she isn't ready to handle the responsibilities of caring for another person. Polly feels rejected, again, by her mother's decision. After Polly packs and moves out, Georgia starts to accept Jimmy's consoling when she suddenly realizes that she uses her circle of friends to enable her behavior. The film ends with Georgia meeting Polly and Polly's father for lunch.
Cast
Reception
Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four and wrote, "The only genuine moments amid the phony landscapes of this film come from Kristy McNichol, who turns in a wonderful performance as Mason's daughter. McNichol carries conviction. She suggests the real passions and hurts that her character must feel. The other people in the movie seem to be drawn from superficial medical advice columns, advice for the lovelorn, and the character insights of popular songs." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune also awarded it one star out of four and wrote, "The script by Neil Simon is as phony as can be, with only McNichol giving any credibility to her character. The film would like to be funny and poignant, and it is neither." Vincent Canby of The New York Times was positive, writing that "Mr. Simon's screenplay is also one of his best, and it's been treated with care by Glenn Jordan, a television director whose first theatrical film this is." Canby found the performances "excellent" with the exception of McNichol, whom he faulted for playing her role "in that triply unreal manner of an adult actress imitating an old-time Hollywood child actress imitating an adult actress." Variety praised a "bravura performance" from McNichol and added, "Glenn Jordan's economic direction is sensitively tuned to the border-treading emotions that populate the film, and manages to almost completely skirt the danger of hackneyed treatment this hardly virgin territory might easily have provoked." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called the film "sleekly entertaining, well-produced (in part by Simon himself, a first for him) and a worthy successor to 'The Goodbye Girl' and 'Chapter Two.' David Ansen of Newsweek stated, "Functioning for the first time as his own film producer, Simon made a wise choice in TV director Glenn Jordan. The pathos and the wisecracks don't come at you with the usual relentlessness. Jordan gives both the audience and his excellent cast room to breathe and neatly keeps things just off the brink of overbearing melodrama."
Awards and nominations
James Coco became the first performer in history to be nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Raspberry Award for the same performance. Since, Amy Irving and Glenn Close have achieved the same feat for their performances in Yentl and Hillbilly Elegy respectively.
Home media
The film is available for streaming rental and digital download through Apple's iTunes Store and Amazon Video. Originally released on Laserdisc, CED Videodisc, and both VHS and Betamax videocassettes, the film is now available on DVD through Amazon via Columbia/Sony's manufacture-on-demand (MOD) business.
References
External links
1981 films
1981 comedy-drama films
American comedy-drama films
Columbia Pictures films
English-language films
Films about actors
Films about alcoholism
American films based on plays
American films
Films based on works by Neil Simon
Films directed by Glenn Jordan
Films scored by David Shire
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
Films with screenplays by Neil Simon
1981 directorial debut films | [
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240378 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault%20in%20Formula%20One | Renault in Formula One | The French automotive manufacturer Renault has been associated with Formula One as both team owner and engine manufacturer for various periods since 1977. In 1977, the company entered Formula One as a constructor, introducing the turbo engine to Formula One with its EF1 engine. In 1983, Renault began supplying engines to other teams. Although the Renault team had won races, it withdrew at the end of . Renault engines continued to be raced until 1986.
Renault returned to Formula One in 1989 as an engine manufacturer. It won five drivers' titles and six constructors' titles between 1992 and 1997 with Williams and Benetton, before ending its works involvement after 1997, though their engines continued to be used without works backing until 2000.
In 2000, Renault acquired the Enstone-based Benetton Formula team (formerly Toleman). Renault became a works engine manufacturer again in 2001, and in 2002 the Enstone-based team was re-branded as Renault. The team won the drivers' and constructors' championships in 2005 and 2006.
By 2011, Renault had sold its shares in the Enstone-based team, though it continued to use the Renault chassis name in 2011. Renault remained in the sport as an engine manufacturer, winning four drivers' and constructors' titles with Red Bull Racing in 2010–2013.
The company bought the Enstone-based team again in 2016 and re-branded it as Renault. The team didn't win in the following five seasons and was re-branded as Alpine in 2021 with the Renault marque remaining as engine manufacturer.
As a team owner, Renault has won two constructors' and drivers' championships, while as an engine manufacturer it has 12 constructors' and 11 drivers' championships. It has collected over 160 wins as engine supplier, ranking fourth in Formula One history.
Constructor
Équipe Renault Elf (1977–1985)
1977 season
Renault's first involvement in Formula One was made by the Renault Sport subsidiary. Renault entered the last five races of with Jean-Pierre Jabouille in its only car. The Renault RS01 was well known for its Renault-Gordini V6 1.5 L turbocharged engine, the first regularly used turbo engine in Formula One history. Jabouille's car and engine proved highly unreliable and became something of a joke during its first races, earning the nickname of "Yellow Teapot" and failing to finish any of its races despite being comparatively powerful.
The first race the team, under the name Equipe Renault Elf, entered was the 1977 French Grand Prix, the ninth round of the season, but the car was not yet ready. The team's début was delayed until the following round, the . The car's first qualifying session was not a success, and Jabouille qualified 21st out of the 30 runners and 26 starters, 1.62 seconds behind pole sitter James Hunt in the McLaren. Jabouille ran well in the race, running as high as 16th before the car's turbo failed on lap 17. The team missed the German and Austrian Grands Prix as the car was being improved after its British disappointment. They returned for the , and the qualifying performance was much improved as Jabouille qualified tenth. He had a poor start but ran as high as sixth before the suspension failed on lap 40.
The team's poor qualifying form returned in Italy, as Jabouille qualified 20th. He ran outside the top 10 until his engine failed on lap 24, continuing their awful run of reliability. Things improved at Watkins Glen for the as Jabouille qualified 14th, but the good pace from Zandvoort seemed to be gone as he once again ran outside the top 10 before retiring with yet another reliability problem, this time the alternator, on lap 31. Jabouille failed to qualify in Canada; as 27 drivers entered the race, only one would not qualify, and this was Jabouille as he ended up last, over 7.5 seconds behind the fastest qualifier Mario Andretti of Lotus, and almost two seconds behind his nearest rival, Rupert Keegan in the Hesketh. After this, Renault did not travel to the season finale in Japan.
1978 season
The following year was hardly better, characterised by four consecutive retirements caused by blown engines, but near the end of the year, the team showed signs of success. Twice, the RS01 qualified 3rd on the grid and while finishing was still something of an issue, it managed to finish its first race on the lead lap at Watkins Glen near the end of , giving the team a fourth-place finish and its first Formula One points.
The team did not enter the first two races of 1978, in Argentina and Brazil, but returned for the at Kyalami. Jabouille secured Renault's best qualifying position to date, with sixth place, just 0.71 seconds behind polesitter Niki Lauda in the Brabham. He dropped out of the points early in the race before retiring with electrical problems on lap 39. At Long Beach, Jabouille qualified 13th but retired as the turbo failed again on lap 44. He was twelfth in qualifying for the team's first Monaco Grand Prix, and gave the team their first finish in Formula One, finishing in tenth place four laps down on race-winner Tyrrell's Patrick Depailler.
1979 season
Expanding to two drivers with René Arnoux joining Jabouille, the team continued to struggle although Jabouille earned a pole position in South Africa. By mid-season, both drivers had a new ground-effect car, the RS10, and at Dijon for the French Grand Prix the team legitimised itself with a brilliant performance in a classic race. The two Renaults were on the front row in qualifying, and pole-sitter Jabouille won the race, the first driver in a turbocharged car to do so, while Arnoux and Gilles Villeneuve were involved in an extremely competitive duel for second, Arnoux narrowly getting beaten to the line. While Jabouille ran into hard times after that race, Arnoux finished a career-high second at Silverstone in the following race and then repeated that at the Glen, proving it was not a fluke.
1980–83 seasons
Arnoux furthered this in with consecutive wins in Brazil and South Africa, both on high altitude circuits where the Renaults were dominant. Jabouille continued to have problems with retirements, but in his only points finish he emerged victorious in Austria. At the end of the year, Jabouille crashed heavily at the Canadian GP and suffered serious leg injuries, which effectively ended his career as a Grand Prix driver. Alain Prost was signed up for . In his three years with the team, Prost showed the form that would make him a Formula One legend and the Renaults were among the best in Formula One, twice finishing third in the Constructors' Championships and once second. Prost won nine races with the team while Arnoux added two more in . Arnoux left for rival Ferrari after 1982 and was replaced by American Eddie Cheever. In , Renault and Prost came very close to winning the drivers' title but were edged out by Nelson Piquet (Brabham-BMW) at the last race of the season in South Africa. After the end of the season, a rival fuel company said that the fuel used by the Brabham-BMWs in South Africa had exceeded the maximum Research Octane Number of 102 permitted under the Formula One regulations. BMW said that this was incorrect and FISA released a dossier supporting their stance. No action was taken.
1984–85 seasons
Prost was fired two days after the 1983 season following his public comments about the team's lack of development of the Renault RE40 which resulted in his loss to Piquet and the team's loss to Ferrari in the 1983 championship. He subsequently joined McLaren, while Cheever left to join Alfa Romeo. The team turned to Frenchman Patrick Tambay (who had left Ferrari) and Englishman Derek Warwick (formerly of Toleman) to bring them back to prominence. Despite a few good results, including Tambay giving the team its last pole position at the 1984 French Grand Prix at Dijon, the team was not as competitive in and as in the past, with other teams doing a better job with turbo engines, or more specifically Lotus and to a lesser extent Ligier. provided another F1 first, as the team ran a third car in Germany at the new Nürburgring that featured the first in-car camera which could be viewed live by a television audience. Driven by Frenchman François Hesnault, the car only lasted 8 laps before a clutch problem forced it to retire. In 1985, major financial problems emerged at Renault and the company could no longer justify the large expenses needed to maintain the racing team's competitiveness. CEO Georges Besse pared down the company's involvement in F1 from full-fledged racing team to engine supplier for the season before taking it entirely out of F1 at the end of that year.
Renault F1 Team (2002–2010)
On 16 March 2000, Renault purchased Benetton Formula Limited for $120 million, to return to Formula One. The history of the team acquired by Renault started in 1981 as the Toleman Motorsport team, based in Witney, Oxfordshire, England. In 1986, the team was renamed to Benetton Formula, following its purchase in 1985 by the Benetton family. In 1992/3 the team moved a few miles to a new base in Enstone. Renault continued to use the Benetton constructor name for the and the seasons, with the Renault name returning in 2001 as an engine brand. When reporting the purchase the International Herald Tribune commented that "the team will not race under the Renault name until it is ready to win and reap the marketing benefits". It was not until 2002 that this name change occurred.
2002 season
In , Benetton was rebranded as Renault F1 and contested the season with drivers Jarno Trulli and Jenson Button who scored 23 points during the season.
2003 season
Despite outscoring his teammate during 2002, Button was dropped by Renault in . His replacement was Spain's Fernando Alonso, who had been considered impressive as a test driver the previous year. Alonso won the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix, the first time Renault had won a Grand Prix since the 1983 Austrian Grand Prix. Renault was innovative during this period producing non-standard designs such as the 111° 10-cylinder engine for the 2003 RS23 which was designed to effectively lower the centre of gravity of the engine and thus improve the car's handling. This eventually proved too unreliable and heavy, so Renault returned to a more conventional development route.
2004 season
In , the team were contenders for second place in the Constructors' Championship. Trulli won the Monaco Grand Prix, but his relationship with Renault (particularly with team principal and Trulli's ex-manager Flavio Briatore) deteriorated after he was consistently off the pace in the latter half of the year, and made claims of favouritism in the team towards Alonso (though the two teammates themselves remained friendly).
Commentators regularly point to the French Grand Prix as the final straw for Briatore, where Trulli was overtaken by Rubens Barrichello in the final stages of the last lap, costing Renault a double podium finish at their home Grand Prix. He subsequently announced he was joining Toyota for the following year and in fact left Renault early, driving the Toyota in the last two races of the 2004 season. Hoping to secure second place in the Constructors' Championship, Renault replaced Trulli with World Champion Jacques Villeneuve for the final three races. However, Villeneuve – away from F1 racing for almost an entire season and struggling to acclimatise quickly to racing at the premier level – did not impress, and the team finished third behind Villeneuve's former team BAR.
2005 season
Giancarlo Fisichella was Trulli's replacement for the season. He took advantage of a rain-affected qualifying session to win the first race of the season, the Australian Grand Prix. Fernando Alonso then won the next three races to build a considerable lead in the Drivers' World Championship, thereby doing the same for Renault in the Constructors' Championship. Meanwhile, Fisichella failed to finish several races. After the San Marino Grand Prix, Renault and Alonso's championship leads came under attack from a fast-but-fragile McLaren-Mercedes team and Kimi Räikkönen respectively for the Drivers' Championship. McLaren took the lead of the Constructors' World Championship by securing a one-two finish at the Brazilian Grand Prix, but that was to be the race in which Alonso secured the Drivers' title, becoming the youngest ever driver to do so. This achievement was followed by a win in China to secure the Constructors' World Championship for Renault after McLaren driver Juan Pablo Montoya's car was badly damaged by a drain cover coming loose on the track. This broke Ferrari's six-year stranglehold on that title. It was the first time Renault had won the title as a manufacturer, and Renault became only the second French constructor (after the triumph of Matra in ) and the first French team to win the title.
2006 season
Fernando Alonso and Giancarlo Fisichella were retained for 2006, while test driver Franck Montagny was replaced by Heikki Kovalainen. The team's 2006 contender, the R26 – featuring a seven-speed gearbox made of titanium, was unveiled at a launch event on 31 January.
Alonso won the opening Bahrain Grand Prix as well as the Australian Grand Prix and finished second in Malaysia behind teammate Fisichella to claim Renault's first one-two finish since René Arnoux and Alain Prost in 1982. Alonso took two more second places, and then wins at his home Grand Prix in Spain, and at the Monaco Grand Prix. Fisichella took 8th, 6th and 3rd-place finishes in the San Marino Grand Prix, European Grand Prix and the Spanish Grand Prix.
The team celebrated its 200th Grand Prix at Silverstone, which was won by Alonso. As the season progressed to its North American stint, Alonso won the Canadian Grand Prix in Montreal, Canada. At the U.S Grand Prix, Ferrari had a distinct performance advantage over the whole weekend. However, Renault were the fastest of all the Michelin runners. Fisichella finished 3rd, while Alonso finished 5th.
At the French Grand Prix, Renault was expected to be faster than Ferrari, but Ferrari again had the advantage. Alonso ran third for most of the race, unable to challenge the Ferraris of Schumacher and Massa. However, a tactical switch to a two-stop strategy enabled him to pass Massa and finish second.
On 21 July 2006, the FIA banned the use of mass damper systems, developed and first used by Renault and subsequently used by 7 other teams, including Ferrari. Flavio Briatore claimed that McLaren had raised the issue of the system's legality with the FIA. The system used a spring-mounted mass in the nose cone to reduce the sensitivity of the car to vibration. This was particularly effective in corners and over kerbs to keep the tyres in closer contact to the track surface than they would otherwise be. However race stewards at the German Grand Prix deemed the system legal. The FIA announced its intention to appeal that decision and Renault announced they would not race with the system for fear of retrospective punishment if the appeal was upheld. Renault's performance at the German Grand Prix was one of their worst of the season; however, the team blamed blistering of their Michelin tyres rather than the loss of the mass damper system. The FIA International Court of Appeal met in Paris on 22 August 2006, to examine the appeal made by the FIA against the decision of the German Grand Prix stewards. The Court ruled that the use of the device known as a Tuned Mass Damper is an infringement of Article 3.15 of the Formula One Technical Regulations.
Points scored in the Brazilian Grand Prix secured the Constructors' Championship for Renault in 2006.
On 16 October 2006, Renault announced that the Dutch banking giant ING would replace Mild Seven as title sponsor for three years starting in .
2007 season
Renault confirmed Giancarlo Fisichella and Heikki Kovalainen as their race drivers for 2007 with Nelson Piquet Jr. and Ricardo Zonta as test drivers. The car for 2007, the R27, was unveiled on 24 January 2007 in Amsterdam and bore a new yellow, blue, orange and white livery in deference to the corporate colours of ING, the Dutch financial group based in Amsterdam. Renault engines were also supplied to the Red Bull Racing team for the 2007 season.
Renault struggled in comparison to their form in previous seasons in Australia, with Giancarlo Fisichella finishing the race in 5th place. Rookie Heikki Kovalainen struggled even more than the Italian, spinning his car as he chased Toyota's Ralf Schumacher and ending up in 10th place. Results did not improve until the start of the European season, although both drivers finished in the points in the next race at Malaysia. Heikki Kovalainen struggled in Bahrain too, although the gap between himself and Fisichella at the end of the race was not as great as was seen at Melbourne, with Fisichella finishing only 8th. The team's pace began to pick up in Barcelona, with both drivers making it into Q3, setting competitive lap times in the race (4th fastest lap for Kovalainen) and looking set for 5th and 8th, only to be hampered by an identical problem on both fuel rigs, forcing both drivers to make extra pitstops which dropped them back to 7th and 9th.
On 8 November 2007, the FIA accused Renault F1 of having McLaren F1 technical information in their possession. According to the charge, the information in hand "included the layout and critical dimensions of the McLaren car as well as details of McLaren's fuelling system, gear assembly, hydraulic control system and suspension". The hearing on this matter took place in Monaco on 6 December 2007. The charge faced by Renault F1 – breaching of article 151c of the Sporting Regulations – was the same as that faced by McLaren earlier on in 2007 in the espionage controversy involving Ferrari & McLaren. The FIA found Renault F1 in breach of article 151c but did not penalise the team.
2008 season
It was announced on 10 December 2007 that Fernando Alonso had signed with Renault F1 for . Alonso drove alongside promoted test driver Nelson Piquet Jr. and was believed to have secured number one status within the team. The team similarly started in 2008 as the year before; Fernando Alonso managed to garner fourth at the opening Australian Grand Prix as a result of a mistake from a previous Renault employee Heikki Kovalainen. However, the form was still short of 2006 by a large degree over the first half of the 2008 season. The team brought new parts to the Spanish Grand Prix, including a new engine-cover, dubbed the "Shark-fin", similar to the one introduced by Red Bull on their RB4. Alonso managed to qualify on the front row for that race on a light fuel-load, yet retired with an engine failure halfway through. Alonso's front row qualifying performance in Spain was a rare moment of achievement from the former World Champion. Both cars retired at the Canadian Grand Prix and Nelson Piquet Jr., who retired from six of the first nine races, failed to score until the French Grand Prix.
The German Grand Prix heralded a change in the team's fortune. Piquet Jr. benefited from the deployment of the safety car to secure Renault's first podium of the year with a second. Both drivers scored at the Hungarian Grand Prix although they failed to pick up anything at Valencia two weeks later. Two fourth places for Alonso in Belgium and Italy were a prelude to the Singapore Grand Prix, in which Alonso profited from the early crash of his teammate (later revealed to be a deliberate crash to aid the Spaniard. See: Renault Formula One crash controversy) to claim his first victory of the season, and Renault's first since the 2006 Japanese Grand Prix. This victory made Alonso and Renault the first-ever winners of a Formula One race held under floodlights. Renault underlined their return to the front at the subsequent Japanese Grand Prix, in which Alonso steered clear of Lewis Hamilton's first-corner mistake to record another win. Piquet Jr. finished fourth in the team's best performance of the season. Further double points finish in China was followed by Alonso's second-place finish at the season-ending Brazilian Grand Prix. The Renault R28 was believed by many insiders to have overtaken BMW Sauber by season's end as the closest challenger to the domination of the sport by Ferrari and McLaren.
2009 season
Renault entered the season with high hopes of challenging both world titles. Although Alonso managed four points finishes in the first six races, it was soon clear that this target was unrealistic. By mid-season, it appeared as though Renault were making progress, with Alonso setting the fastest lap in Germany and securing pole position in Hungary, albeit on a light fuel load. However, Alonso was forced to retire early in Hungary due to a fuel pump failure, after a front wheel came loose as it was incorrectly fitted at his first pit stop. At Belgium Alonso again looked like scoring a podium for the team but had to retire with another problem with one of his wheels which was damaged as a result of a first-lap clash with Adrian Sutil. Piquet performed poorly in the first half of the season and was replaced by Romain Grosjean for the last third of the season. Neither Piquet nor Grosjean managed to score a point. A podium in Singapore was little consolation in what had been a frustrating and controversial season for the team.
Renault had been suspended for one race (the 2009 European Grand Prix) due to the incident involving Fernando Alonso's wheel not being fitted properly in the 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix, however, this has been overturned on appeal following a decision from the FIA on 17 August 2009.
On 4 August, Nelson Piquet Jr. was told by Renault he would not continue driving for them for the rest of the season. "I have received notice from Renault of its intention to stop me from driving for them in the current F1 season", read a statement on Piquet's website. Piquet had described the season as "the worst period of my career" and had criticised team boss Flavio Briatore. He was replaced by test driver Romain Grosjean as of the .
After his first podium of the year in Singapore, Fernando Alonso confirmed that he would be leaving Renault, moving to Ferrari in 2010.
Race rigging allegations
During the 2009 season, the actions of Renault F1 during the 2008 season were examined over alleged race-fixing. The issue surrounded Nelson Piquet Jr.'s crash during the 2008 Singapore Grand Prix which Renault teammate Fernando Alonso went on to win. At the time, Piquet Jr. had characterised the incident as a simple mistake. After Piquet Jr. left the Renault team in August 2009, allegations surfaced that this crash had been deliberate, to give an advantage to Alonso. Following a Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) investigation in which Piquet Jr. stated he had been asked by Renault team principal Flavio Briatore and engineer Pat Symonds to stage the crash, on 4 September 2009 Renault were charged with conspiracy and race-fixing and were due to face the FIA World Motor Sport Council in Paris on 21 September 2009. Initially, Renault and Briatore stated they would take legal action against Piquet Jr. for making false allegations, however, before the meeting, Renault announced they would not contest the charges, and that Briatore and Symonds had left the team. At the meeting, the Council banned Renault from Formula One, but suspended this sanction for two years, meaning Renault would have been thrown out of Formula One if a similar incident occurred before the end of the 2011 season. FIA stated that Renault would have likely been thrown out of Formula One if it had not taken swift action in pushing out Briatore and Symonds. At the same meeting, Briatore was banned from FIA events for life, while Symonds received a five-year ban. The bans on Briatore and Symonds were subsequently overturned by a French court in 2010. FIA, Briatore and Symonds reached a settlement that allowed Briatore and Symonds to return to FIA in 2011 and to Formula One in 2013.
2010 season
In 2010, Renault sold a majority stake in the team to Genii Capital, a Luxembourg based investment company. However Renault still retained a 25% share in the team and continued as an engine supplier. Red Bull Racing confirmed they would be using Renault engines for . Robert Kubica was signed as Alonso's replacement on 7 October 2009, but following the shareholding deal, Kubica and his manager Daniel Morelli asked for clarification on the management structure before committing to the outfit. However, in the new year, clarification was sought and Kubica was ready to commit to the outfit. On 31 January, Vitaly Petrov was signed to be Kubica's teammate, becoming Russia's first Formula One driver.
On 5 January, Éric Boullier was announced as the new team principal at Renault, replacing Bob Bell, who would return to his former role as Technical Director.
At the opening round in Bahrain, Petrov retired with broken suspension while in the pit lane on lap 14, and Kubica finished in eleventh place.
Kubica took his first podium with the team, with a second-place finish in Australia. Petrov retired from the race, after spinning off the circuit.
Kubica finished the next 3 races in the points, a 4th place in Malaysia, 5th place in Shanghai, and 8th place in Barcelona. Petrov meanwhile scored his first points in Formula 1 in China with his 7th place, it could have been more, but he spun off whilst in fourth, yet he still recovered to bring some points home.
After setting fast times on Thursday and the fastest time in Saturday's practice session, followed by 2nd place in qualifying, Kubica finished in 3rd place in Monaco, just 1.6 seconds behind the winner. Petrov retired in the closing laps of the race but was still classified 13th.
Vitaly Petrov was out-qualified and out-raced by Robert Kubica at almost every race. However, Petrov did find considerable form at the when he out-qualified Kubica for the first time and finished the race 5th. However, in Belgium, Petrov made a mistake that ended with a crash in the first session of qualifying when he explored the kerbs at Liege corner, claiming he was testing to see how wet they were and if they were usable on his flying lap. His failure to set a time placed him 24th on the grid, though a gearbox penalty to Sauber's Pedro de la Rosa promoted him to 23rd. However, he went on to finish ninth, resulting in three consecutive points finishes in a row. In Singapore, Petrov was running seventh before being pushed off by Nico Hülkenberg, whilst Kubica was forced to make an unscheduled stop late in the race with a puncture, before going on to recover almost every place he had lost.
Rumours had tipped World Champion Kimi Räikkönen to replace Petrov for , but the Finn angrily rejected claims he would join the team, stating that he was upset Renault was using his name for their image and that their actions meant he would not race for them.
Lotus Renault GP (2011)
2011 season
On 5 November 2010, Autosport reported that Renault was poised to scale back its involvement in 2011 and become only an engine supplier, with the team closing in on a tie-up with Lotus Cars to buy its 25% stake in the team. The deal was finalised in early December 2010, with the team to be renamed Lotus Renault GP for 2011, under a sponsorship deal signed with Lotus Cars until 2017. Renault continued to support the team by supplying engines and its expertise and thus Red Bull Racing was promoted to Renault's full-works partnership team. The Renault chassis name continued to be used, with Renault branding featuring in the new black and gold livery that was last used when Renault and Lotus joined forces in the 1980s, harking back to the John Player Special livery of the time. Despite being rebranded to Lotus, Renault still supplied free engines for the Lotus team until 2014.
During 2011, the team raced against another team that was using the Lotus name. The team which raced in the 2010 season as Lotus Racing (using a licence from Group Lotus which was later terminated by Group Lotus) rebranded itself as "Team Lotus" for the 2011 season after purchasing the privately owned rights to the historic name.
In January 2011, team principal Éric Boullier announced that the team would race under a British licence in , having raced as a French outfit since Renault took over in . This left the sport without any team racing under a French licence for the first time since the season. Group Lotus had yet to purchase a stake in the team, but had an option to do so by the end of . Along with the launch of their new car, Lotus Renault GP announced that they had hired Jean Alesi as an ambassador for the team and test driver for the T125 single-seater project.
On 6 February 2011, Robert Kubica was severely injured in an accident during a rally in Italy. It was unclear if he would be able to return to Formula One during the 2011 season. On 16 February, it was announced that Nick Heidfeld was signed as Kubica's replacement, while Kubica still remained signed with the team for 2011.
At the , Petrov took his first podium in Formula One, finishing third, and Heidfeld finished twelfth with a damaged car. Heidfeld finished third in the next race in Malaysia, while Petrov retired late on; he hit a bump caused by a drainage gully which launched his car into the air and broke the car's steering column on landing. In the Chinese Grand Prix, Petrov finished ninth having started tenth after a mechanical problem in qualifying, with Heidfeld finishing twelfth. Heidfeld and Petrov finished seventh and eighth in Turkey, as the team's early-season performance began to fade. Heidfeld finished ninth in Spain after missing qualifying due to a fire in practice, while Petrov finished just outside the points in eleventh place. Heidfeld scored more points in Monaco with eighth place, while Petrov retired after being caught up in an accident involving several other cars. Petrov finished fifth in the rain-affected , with Heidfeld retiring after damaging his car's front wing in a collision with Kamui Kobayashi. The team endured a difficult weekend in Valencia, as Heidfeld scored a single point for tenth place and Petrov finished 15th.
New restrictions over the use of off-throttle blown diffusers were introduced for the , and the team was badly affected having designed their car around the system. Heidfeld managed 8th place in the race, with Petrov 12th. Heidfeld was replaced by Bruno Senna for the in August.
On 29 November 2011, the team confirmed that they had hired Kimi Räikkönen to drive full-time in 2012. On 9 December 2011, the team also confirmed that Romain Grosjean would join Räikkönen in 2012. During the 2012 season, the team would be known as the Lotus F1 Team.
Renault Sport Formula One Team and Renault F1 Team (2016–2020)
2016 season
On 28 September 2015, Renault Sport F1 announced that a letter of intent between Renault Group and Gravity Motorsports which is owned by Genii Capital had been signed and over the following weeks a takeover transaction would be discussed for the Lotus F1 Team (which was previously owned by Renault until 2010) in hopes that the team would compete in the season as Renault Sport Formula One Team in response to the collapse of Renault's relationship with Red Bull. It was speculated that F1 veteran Alain Prost, who drove for Renault from 1981 to 1983, could take a senior role in the team.
On 3 December 2015, Renault announced that they had purchased the Lotus F1 Team and were preparing for the 2016 season with further information to be released in early 2016. As Renault returned to Formula One as a full-works constructor team, Red Bull Racing was officially demoted to Renault's customer team and thus received TAG Heuer rebadging sponsorship from 2016 to 2018 seasons.
On 3 February 2016, Renault unveiled the testing livery for their 2016 car, the Renault R.S.16, and confirmed Kevin Magnussen and Jolyon Palmer as its two race drivers, 2015 GP3 champion Esteban Ocon as its reserve driver, Carmen Jordá as its development driver, and that multiple drivers, including 2015 Formula Renault 3.5 champion Oliver Rowland, Jack Aitken, Louis Delétraz and Kevin Jorg are a part of its driver academy. Additionally, Bob Bell (formerly of Mercedes, Marussia and the previous incarnation of Renault) was confirmed as the team's chief technical officer and Frédéric Vasseur (of ART Grand Prix) as the new racing director. Renault Sport F1 is mainly partnered with the Renault-Nissan Alliance. However it also has other sponsorships with partners including Bell & Ross, Devialet, EMC, Genii Capital, Infiniti, Total, CD-adapco, Microsoft, Pirelli, OZ Racing and Jack & Jones.
The team finished the season in ninth place with 8 points.
2017 season
On 11 January 2017, Frédéric Vasseur left the team after disagreements with team personnel, therefore the team was managed by president Jérôme Stoll and managing director Cyril Abiteboul.
On 14 October 2016, it was announced that Nico Hülkenberg would join the team for the season. Kevin Magnussen later chose to leave the team to join Haas, with Jolyon Palmer remaining at the team for a second season, but was replaced by Carlos Sainz Jr. from the onwards, after only one point scoring finish. Sainz had a good debut at the United States Grand Prix, finishing seventh and out qualifying his teammate who retired from the race. The team finished the season in sixth place with 57 points.
2018 season
Nico Hülkenberg continued to drive for Renault in 2018 as he had signed a multi-year deal the year before. After joining the team mid-season in 2017, Carlos Sainz Jr. continued to drive for them in 2018. They finished 4th in the championship with 122 points.
2019 season
On 3 August 2018, it was announced that Red Bull Racing driver Daniel Ricciardo would be joining the team on a two-year deal to partner Hülkenberg.
Plagued by reliability issues at the start of the season, and aerodynamic poor performance, the team finished 5th in the Constructors' Championship, failing to escape the midfield. Also of note was the 2019 Japanese Grand Prix, which the team was disqualified from as a result of their automatic brake balance changing system, which was deemed illegal.
At the end of the season, the team announced changes to the aerodynamic department of their team as a result of the R.S.19's failures. Chassis Technical Director Nick Chester would leave the team, with former Ferrari and McLaren chassis engineer Pat Fry and former Williams and Ferrari aerodynamicist Dirk de Beer to join the team.
2020 season
Former Force India driver and Mercedes reserve driver Esteban Ocon joined Renault for the 2020 season, on a multiple-year contract, replacing Nico Hülkenberg. In Belgium, Renault finished 4th and 5th, scoring 23 points in one single race, their most in any race ever as a constructor and their first fastest lap for a decade. At the Eifel Grand Prix raced on the Nürburgring circuit, Ricciardo scored a third-place finish, the team's first podium since Malaysia 2011. Ricciardo also scored a third-place finish at the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix. Ocon also scored a second-place finish at the Sakhir Grand Prix, his first podium and Renault's third of the season.
Renault was rebranded as Alpine for the 2021 season.
Engine supplier
Original turbo era (1980s)
Renault began manufacturing engines at the Viry-Châtillon factory in 1976, after closing the former Alpine competition department, which was run in conjunction with the Formula One team under the Renault Sport division. It manufactured the first turbocharged engine seen on the category, the Renault-Gordini EF1 1.5 litres V6, at a time where the naturally aspirated 3-litre engines were predominant. Initially only supplying engines to the works team, Renault began a customer programme in 1983 when it became Team Lotus' engine supplier. Mecachrome, a precision engineering company, prepared the engines for the customer teams.
Though not competitive initially, with the recruitment of designer Gérard Ducarouge the marque gained competitiveness towards the later part of the 1983 season into 1984, with Nigel Mansell and Elio de Angelis scoring regular podiums. That year, Renault also began supplying engines to the Ligier team, which scored three points in 1984, an improvement over not being classified in the 1983 championship. Ayrton Senna joined Team Lotus in 1985 and the combination of his talent and the fast, but fuel-inefficient Lotus 97T gained eight pole positions and three wins (two to Senna, one to de Angelis), but unreliability prevented a sustained attempt at either title. The Tyrrell team started using the Renault engine from the seventh Grand Prix of the year, while Ligier gained three podiums in the Ligier JS25. In 1986, aristocrat Johnny Dumfries was chosen to be Senna's new partner at Lotus after Senna vetoed the original choice of Derek Warwick. More pole positions and two wins for the Brazilian followed with the Lotus 98T, but the car followed similar problems as its predecessor with reliability problems and poor fuel consumption. This saw to it that Lotus could not sustain a season-long challenge to leading teams McLaren and Williams.
After the 1985 season, the Renault works team ended participation in Formula One but continued as an engine supplier for Ligier, Tyrrell and Lotus. 1986 saw the introduction of the EF15B engine, which included several innovations, like static ignition and pneumatic valve return. Renault Sport stopped its engine program at the end of the year, having scored 19 pole positions and 5 Grand Prix victories with customer teams.
Naturally aspirated engines (1990s and 2000s)
Renault returned as a Formula One engine supplier in 1989 with the banning of turbocharged engines, in partnership with the Williams team. The Viry factory produced the first pneumatic valved 3.5 V10 engine, the RS1, while other engine manufacturers supplied V8 (Ford, Judd and Yamaha), V10 (Honda), or V12 (Ferrari and Lamborghini) engines. The Williams-Renault combination scored its first victory at the wet 1989 Canadian Grand Prix, with Thierry Boutsen, and finished their initial season together with Boutsen winning the very wet 1989 Australian Grand Prix.
Williams had signs of promise for the next 2 years and by , with the aid of active suspension and better engines, the Williams-Renault was a World Championship-winning car, winning over half of the races during the season, as its driver Nigel Mansell won the drivers' title. Former customer team Ligier also resumed using the Renault engines in 1992. The championship was won again by Williams in , using the technologically advanced Williams FW15C car – the team had developed technology such as anti-lock brakes, traction control and power steering, along with using the RS5 engine with a redesigned intake and combustion. Alain Prost won the Drivers' Championship after winning 7 of the 16 rounds, and his teammate Damon Hill won another three Grands Prix.
saw Williams driver Ayrton Senna killed at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, which left the Brazilian's inexperienced teammate Damon Hill as team leader. Hill was 37 points behind Championship leader Michael Schumacher by the French Grand Prix, but had managed to close the gap down to 1 point before the last race in Adelaide. The two drivers collided controversially and retired from the race, making Schumacher the Drivers' Champion while Williams retained the Constructors' Championship.
In 1995 engine regulations reduced maximum engine displacement to three litres, with Renault adapting the RS7, making it lighter and featuring a fly-by-wire throttle. Benetton acquired Ligier's Renault engines for and their driver, Michael Schumacher, managed to successfully defend his drivers' title by 33 points from his nearest rival, Damon Hill. Benetton won the constructors' title by 29 points, winning 11 races during the season. Williams won the next two seasons in both the drivers' and Constructors' Championship with Damon Hill winning the title in and Jacques Villeneuve in . Schumacher and other Benetton staff left for Ferrari in 1996, and the team finished in the third position for both years.
Renault left the F1 again at the end of 1997, and evolutions of its last engine, the RS9, were still used by many teams during the following seasons. Renault continued working with Mecachrome, which paid for development of the engines, and supplied them to Williams under the Mecachrome name. Benetton continued to use the engines under the Playlife brand until 2000, although only achieved several podiums during this time. Flavio Briatore's company Supertec distributed the engines from 1999, with Williams and BAR using them under the Supertec name that year, and the Arrows cars using them in 2000. Although on a few occasions points were scored, ultimately the engines were not successful under Supertec's control, subsequently each team moved to another supplier after one season.
After Renault purchased the Benetton team, they did not supply customer engines until , when they signed an agreement with Red Bull Racing on 15 September 2006. Red Bull were a midfield team during the first two years of the partnership, before a change in regulations for the season allowed Red Bull to claim their first victory at the . Drivers Sebastian Vettel and Mark Webber won another five victories to allow the team to finish second in the Constructors' Championship. In 2010, Vettel and Red Bull won both championships, making it the ninth title for a Renault engine, and the first for the RS27.
Modern era and return of turbos (2010s)
At the end of 2010, when Renault sold their remaining stake in the Enstone-based Formula One team, the engine operations at Viry-Châtillon were formed into a subsidiary known as Renault Sport F1. Renault Sport F1 continued to supply engines to their former works team and Red Bull, and expanded their customers to Lotus Racing at the end of 2010. As a result of Renault's full-constructor team being rebranded to Lotus Renault GP, Red Bull Racing was officially promoted to Renault's full-works partnership team and thus received free engines from Renault and thanks to Infiniti sponsorship. Red Bull again won both titles in , the Red Bull RB7 being unmatched by their opponents, and gained 18 pole positions throughout the season. Vettel held the championship lead from the first race in Australia, and finished in first or second position in each Grand Prix until his home race at Germany, where he ended in fourth. He then resumed his podium run, with the exception of one retirement, until the end of the season, while Webber finished behind until the final two races. In 2012, the Red Bull team and Sebastian Vettel were able to achieve both championships for a third time, despite the fact the RB8 car did not enjoy the dominance of the previous season and suffered some reliability problems related to the RS27's alternator. That year, Williams returned to its association with Renault, signing a deal to receive the RS27 engines until the end of 2013. Red Bull came back to a dominant pace in the 2013 season and both the team and Sebastian Vettel secured their fourth consecutive title at the 2013 Indian Grand Prix.
Hybrid turbocharger V6 era
Renault developed a new 1.6-litre V6 turbocharged engine, the Renault Energy F1-2014, in line with the new regulations for with APC Pankl Turbosystems GmbH supplying hybrid turbocharger kits for Renault Formula One engines since 2014 season. On 21 June 2013, Renault unveiled its new engine at the Paris Air Show. It was named Energy F1 after the Renault's road car engines. Red Bull and Caterham (formerly Lotus Racing/Team Lotus) had deals to use Renault engines until 2016. At the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix, Scuderia Toro Rosso announced a contract with Renault for the period 2014–2016.
During the early 2014 tests in Jerez the new Renault engines showed problems with both the turbo unit and the energy recovery systems. Partial fixes were introduced for the last pre-season tests in Bahrain, especially software upgrades. In the early part of the season, the Energy F1-2014 was the subject of various criticisms for its poor reliability and lack of top speed, including one by Red Bull's boss Christian Horner which described the performance as "unacceptable" after an unsuccessful team's home race in Austria. Renault introduced revised components and more software upgrades trying to reduce the gap with rivals.
In 2015, Red Bull unilaterally terminated their contract for 2016 with Renault, alleging a lack of performance from the Renault Energy F1-2015 compared to rivals. However, they later renegotiated their agreement, as plans from Red Bull to get a more competitive power unit failed. In 2016, the Renault power units used by Red Bull would be badged as TAG Heuer. Renault then terminated their 2016 engine supply agreement with Scuderia Toro Rosso, and the team returned to their former supplier Ferrari. During 2016, Red Bull GmbH renewed their contract for a further two years for Red Bull Racing. They also announced that Scuderia Toro Rosso would also return to Renault power from 2017. However, the contract still gave Red Bull the option to badge their engines as they wish, with Christian Horner stating that Red Bull Racing would continue with the TAG Heuer badging despite without Renault works support.
In September 2017, Renault and McLaren announced the latter would use Renault engines from 2018 to 2020. Toro Rosso in turn switched to full-works Honda engines, terminating their 2018 customer deal with Renault. In June 2018, Red Bull announced they would also use full-works Honda engines from 2019 onwards. As McLaren lost its Renault customer partnership due to switch to Mercedes-AMG High Performance Powertrains power units from 2021 season, Renault returned to single-team engine supply for the first time since 2006 season.
The Enstone-based team was rebranded to Alpine from the 2021 season onwards, and the Renault brand would continue in Formula One as its engine supplier for the first time since 2015.
Formula One engine supplier results
* Excludes factory team.
Alpine Young Driver Academy
As part of the company's return to Formula One, it set up a young driver academy, which is tasked with finding future Renault Sport Formula 1 World Champions. The academy was rebranded as Alpine Academy following the rebranding of Renault F1 Team to Alpine F1 Team in 2021.
Formula One results
As a constructor, Renault have achieved the following statistics:
Constructors' Championships winning percentage:
Drivers' Championships winning percentage:
Winning percentage:
Footnotes
References
External links
French Grand Prix 1979, INA archives video (French soundtrack)
Renault's Statistics in F1
Formula One engine manufacturers
Formula One entrants
Formula One
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
British auto racing teams
British racecar constructors
French auto racing teams
French racecar constructors
Companies based in Oxfordshire
Companies based in Paris
Alpine F1 Team
Red Bull Racing
Scuderia Toro Rosso
McLaren Group | [
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240382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand%20equity | Brand equity | Brand equity, in marketing, is the worth of a brand in and of itself — i.e., the social value of a well-known brand name. The owner of a well-known brand name can generate more revenue simply from brand recognition, as consumers perceive the products of well-known brands as better than those of lesser-known brands.
In the research literature, brand equity has been studied from two different perspectives: cognitive psychology and information economics. According to cognitive psychology, brand equity lies in consumer's awareness of brand features and associations, which drive attribute perceptions. According to information economics, a strong brand name works as a credible signal of product quality for imperfectly informed buyers and generates price premiums as a form of return to branding investments. It has been empirically demonstrated that brand equity plays an important role in the determination of price structure and, in particular, firms are able to charge price premiums that derive from brand equity after controlling for observed product differentiation.
The brand equity concept
It has been said that brand equity is "the branding of a product name on an attention-deficit public."
While most brand equity research has taken place in consumer markets, the concept of brand equity is also important for understanding competitive dynamics and price structures of business-to-business markets. In industrial markets competition is often based on differences in product performance. It has been suggested however that firms may charge premiums that cannot be solely explained in terms of technological superiority and performance-related advantages. Such price premiums reflect the brand equity of reputable manufacturers. Three brand equity drivers were selected by researchers from numerous factors that have impact on a brand: brand awareness, brand perspective, and brand attachment.
Brand equity is strategically crucial, but famously difficult to quantify. Many experts have developed tools to analyze this asset, but there is no agreed way to measure it. As one of the serial challenges that marketing professionals and academics find with the concept of brand equity, the disconnect between quantitative and qualitative equity values is difficult to reconcile. Quantitative brand equity includes numerical values such as profit margins and market share, but fails to capture qualitative elements such as prestige and associations of interest. Overall, most marketing practitioners take a more qualitative approach to brand equity because of this challenge. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, only 26 percent responded that they found the "brand equity" metric very useful.
Some marketing researchers have concluded that brands are one of the most valuable assets a company has, as brand equity is one of the factors which can increase the financial value of a brand to the brand owner, although not the only one. Elements that can be included in the valuation of brand equity include (but not limited to): changing market share, profit margins, consumer recognition of logos and other visual elements, brand language associations made by consumers, consumers' perceptions of quality and other relevant brand values.
Consumers' knowledge about a brand also governs how manufacturers and advertisers market the brand. Brand equity is created through strategic investments in communication channels and market education and appreciates through economic growth in profit margins, market share, prestige value, and critical associations. Generally, these strategic investments appreciate over time to deliver a return on investment. This is directly related to marketing ROI. Brand equity can also appreciate without strategic direction. A Stockholm University study in 2011 documents the case of Jerusalem's city brand. The city organically developed a brand, which experienced tremendous brand equity appreciation over the course of centuries through non-strategic activities. A booming tourism industry in Jerusalem has been the most evident indicator of a strong ROI.
Purpose
The purpose of brand equity metrics is to measure the value of a brand. A brand encompasses the name, logo, image, and perceptions that identify a product, service, or provider in the minds of customers. It takes shape in advertising, packaging, and other marketing communications, and becomes a focus of the relationship with consumers. In time, a brand comes to embody a promise about the goods it identifies—a promise about quality, performance, or other dimensions of value, which can influence consumers' choices among competing products. When consumers trust a brand and find it relevant, they may select the offerings associated with that brand over those of competitors, even at a premium price. When a brand's promise extends beyond a particular product, its owner may leverage it to enter new markets. For all these reasons, a brand can hold tremendous value, which is known as brand equity.
Social media has changed the traditional communication between brands and consumers and enabled consumer to make positive as well as negative influence on brand equity.
Brand Equity is best managed with the development of brand equity goals, which are then used to track progress and performance.
Construction
There are many ways to measure a brand. Some measurements approaches are at the firm level, some at the product level and still others are at the consumer level.
Firm Level: Firm level approaches measure the brand as a financial asset. In short, a calculation is made regarding how much the brand is worth as an intangible asset. For example, if you were to take the value of the firm, as derived by its market capitalization—and then subtract tangible assets and "measurable" intangible assets—the residual would be the brand equity. Measuring brand equity in this way is often referred to as brand valuation. The modeling is closely related to brand equity, and a number of models and approaches have been developed by different consultancies. Brand valuation models typically combine a brand equity measure (e.g.: the proportion of sales contributed by "brand") with commercial metrics such as revenue or economic profit.
Product Level: The classic product level brand measurement example is to compare the price of a no-name or private label product to an "equivalent" branded product. The difference in price, assuming all things equal, is due to the brand. More recently a revenue premium approach has been advocated. Marketing mix modeling can isolate "base" and "incremental" sales, and it is sometimes argued that base sales approximate to a measure of brand equity. More sophisticated marketing mix models have a floating base that can capture changes in underlying brand equity for a product over time.
Consumer Level: This approach seeks to map the mind of the consumer to find out what associations with the brand the consumer has. This approach seeks to measure the awareness (recall and recognition) and brand image (the overall associations that the brand has). Free association tests and projective techniques are commonly used to uncover the tangible and intangible attributes, attitudes, and intentions about a brand. Brands with high levels of awareness and strong, favorable and unique associations are high equity brands.
All of these calculations are, at best, approximations. A more complete understanding of the brand can occur if multiple measures are used.
Positive brand equity vs. negative brand equity
Brand equity is the positive effect of the brand on the difference between the prices that the consumer accepts to pay when the brand is known compared to the value of the benefit received.
There are two schools of thought regarding the existence of negative brand equity. One perspective states brand equity cannot be negative, hypothesizing only positive brand equity is created by marketing activities such as advertising, PR, and promotion. A second perspective is that negative equity can exist, due to catastrophic events to the brand, such as a wide product recall or continued negative press attention (Blackwater or Halliburton, for example).
Colloquially, the term "negative brand equity" may be used to describe a product or service where a brand has a negligible effect on a product level when compared to a no-name or private label product.
Family branding vs. individual branding strategies
The greater a company's brand equity, the greater the probability that the company will use a family branding strategy rather than an individual branding strategy. This is because family branding allows them to leverage the equity accumulated in the core brand. Aspects of brand equity include: brand loyalty, awareness, association and perception of quality.
Automobile Industry
One of Oldsmobile's best known brands was "Cutlass". First used in 1961, by the 1980s it was confusingly used on three different platforms, with the Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera becoming Oldsmobile's best selling model, which at different times would be sold alongside the smaller Cutlass Calais, and a newer Cutlass Supreme. The Aurora-inspired Intrigue introduced in 1988 retired the aging Cutlass nameplate with the intention to recast Oldsmobile into a future as in import fighter and its stodgy past as existing model names which had served in the past, including Cutlass, were phased out. But sales would continue to decline, as Cutlass briefly re-appeared as a rebadged Malibu in 1997. To reduce costs at General Motors by consolidating a profusion of divisions, the Oldsmobile division was entirely phased out in 2004.
Rival GM division Chevrolet re-entered the midsize market when the company resurrected the Malibu nameplate in 1997 (and later the Impala in 2000 as their answer to imports e.g. the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry including its stretched platform Avalon) which had been dormant since 1983 when the company phased out its remaining RWD midsize G platform. As of the 2018 model year, both nameplates are still in production. The Malibu, originally part of the mid-size Chevelle lineup until 1977 as the top trim level, GM promoted its trim level to full model status (at the time the Chevelle nameplate was retired (and has remained dormant since because of its association with the musclecar era) its trim level had brand recognition and better known), a practice first demonstrated in 1969 when the Chevy II lineup was rebadged (the Nova was the top trim level; it was one of the finalists for the official model name dating back to 1962 but Chevrolet management wanted its car nameplates beginning with a "C" - the promotion of the Nova from trim level to official model status broke the tradition of using C-word names by Chevrolet with its automobile and truck product lineup on a selective basis.
The Lincoln-Mercury division of the Ford Motor Company best known brand throughout the late 1960s to 2002 was the Mercury Cougar - first used as a twin to the Ford Mustang and later a personal luxury coupe sharing its platform with its midsize Torino lineup until 1977 when its entire midsize lineup (at the time branded as the Montego) was rebadged as part of the Cougar lineup which went viral (from a base coupe to a station wagon) until the early 1980s when L-M repositioned its midsized lineup by rebadging the Cougar under the Marquis nameplate.
In the early 2000s in North America, the Ford Motor Company made a strategic decision to brand all new or redesigned cars with names starting with "F." This aligned with the previous tradition of naming all sport utility vehicles since the Ford Explorer with the letter "E." The Toronto Star quoted an analyst who warned that changing the name of the well known Windstar to the Freestar would cause confusion and discard brand equity built up, while a marketing manager believed that a name change would highlight the new redesign. The aging Taurus, which became one of the most significant cars in American auto history, would be abandoned in favor of three entirely new names, all starting with "F," the Five Hundred, Freestar, and Fusion. By 2007, the Freestar was discontinued without a replacement. The Five Hundred name was thrown out and Taurus was brought back for the next generation of that car in a surprise move by Alan Mulally.
In practice, brand equity is difficult to measure. Because brands are crucial assets, however, both marketers and academic researchers have devised means to contemplate their value. Some of these techniques are described below.
Methodologies
Brand Equity Ten (Aaker)
David Aaker, a marketing professor and brand consultant, highlights ten attributes of a brand that can be used to assess its strength. These include Differentiation, Satisfaction or Loyalty, Perceived Quality, Leadership or Popularity, Perceived Value, Brand Personality, Organizational Associations, Brand Awareness, Market Share, and Market Price and Distribution Coverage. Aaker doesn't weight the attributes or combine them in an overall score, as he believes any weighting would be arbitrary and would vary among brands and categories. Rather he recommends tracking each attribute separately.
Brand Equity Index (Moran)
Marketing executive Bill Moran has derived an index of brand equity as the product of three factors:
Effective Market Share is a weighted average. It represents the sum of a brand's market shares in all segments in which it competes, weighted by each segment's proportion of that brand's total sales.
Relative Price is a ratio. It represents the price of goods sold under a given brand, divided by the average price of comparable goods in the market.
Durability is a measure of customer retention or loyalty. It represents the percentage of a brand's customers who will continue to buy goods under that brand in the following year.
BrandAsset Valuator (Young & Rubicam)
Young & Rubicam, a marketing communications agency, has developed the BrandAsset Valuator, BAV, a tool to diagnose the power and value of a brand. In using it, the agency surveys consumers' perspectives along four dimensions:
Differentiation: The defining characteristics of the brand and its distinctiveness relative to competitors.
Relevance: The appropriateness and connection of the brand to a given consumer.
Esteem: Consumers' respect for and attraction to the brand.
Knowledge: Consumers' awareness of the brand and understanding of what it represents.
Brand Contribution to Market Cap Method (CoreBrand)
CoreBrand — a research, brand strategy, communication, and design firm — utilizes the Brand Contribution to Market Cap method using the Corporate Branding Index® database composed of Familiarity and Favorability data as the quantitative basis of its system.
Familiarity and Favorability scores are analyzed in the context of a company’s size in market cap and revenue to determine a base expected level of Familiarity and Favorability for the brand’s value to be zero. Utilizing a statistical regression analysis of the factors driving the cash flow multiple and thus share price, the variance in Familiarity and Favorability above or below the base expected level is analyzed.
As a point in time analysis, this method is used for brand equity valuation of a company based on its current Familiarity and Favorability, Revenue and Market Cap. The output of the analysis provides the end user with two pieces of data:
The percentage of market cap that is attributable directly to its corporate brand (i.e., how hard the brand is working to create value for the company);
The dollar value of the brand at a point in time, this is the asset value of the brand as a component of the company’s market valuation.
According to this analysis, the corporate brand is responsible for 5-7% of stock performance on average.
Conjoint Analysis
Marketers use conjoint analysis to measure consumers' preference for various attributes of a product, service, or provider, such as features, design, price, or location. By including brand and price as two of the attributes under consideration, they can gain insight into consumers' valuation of a brand—that is, their willingness to pay a premium for it.
Note: These customer satisfaction methodologies have not been independently validated by the Marketing Accountability Standards Board (MASB) according to MMAP (Marketing Metric Audit Protocol).
Brand Equity with Time-Series Data (Event Study)
While event study offer evidence that brand equity positively affects financial performance, many studies focus on customer mindset metrics to offer this relationship (Berger, Eechambadi, George, Lehmann, Rizley & Venkatesan, 2006; Buil, Martinez & de Chernatony, 2013).
Event method is applied to determine the stakeholder interest or value assessed in a brand before, during or after an event. As exemplified by Agrawal & Kamakura’s (1995) research, the economic worth of celebrity endorsers, the authors demonstrate that an announcement of brand association of a product and celebrity creates a movement in stock value; whereby, shareholder interest is influenced by the endorsement as evidenced from the time-series data.
A similar time-series data analysis offered by Lane & Jacobson (1995) also measured stock market reactions to announcements associated with a particular brand, which factored customer attitudes and the familiarity of the brand to determine financial outcomes. The result was that the stock market response was favorable to brand announcements when consumers were familiar with the brand and held the brand in high esteem. The same applied to low familiarity and low esteem brands, which as Keller (2002) explains, was "because there was little to risk and much to gain …"(p. 157).
Other researchers examine the antecedents of brand equity or brand value. For instance, Roy & Cornwell (2003) showed that lesser known brands may benefit from event sponsorships as a brand-building exercise but customers may have associations with the event sponsors or brand associations that could determine affective attitudes. Ultimately, high equity counterparts will yield stronger results due to their market familiarity.
Simon & Sullivan (1993) suggested long-term analysis of events, as determined by financial returns and market performance, better captures the effect of customer mindset brand equity. In the restaurant sector, for example, returns of branding are contemporaneous. The high-tech sector showed no contemporaneous effects and brand equity is realized in the future with significant delay. The distribution/retail sector included both contemporaneous and positive future profitability. Berger et al., (2006) acknowledge the long-term approach for considering customer lifetime value relevant to the shareholder value or financial performance of a brand. This perspective contributed to concepts like "brand awareness", which Huang & Sarigöllü (2012) apply to the commonly used marketing metrics to determine stock market performance.
Managing brand equity
One of the challenges in managing brands is the many changes that occur in the marketing environment. The marketing environment evolves and changes, often in very significant ways. Shifts in consumer behavior, competitive strategies, government regulations, and other aspects of the marketing environment can profoundly affect the fortunes of a brand. Besides these external forces, the firm itself may engage in a variety of activities and changes in strategic focus or direction that may necessitate adjustments in the way that its brands are being marketed. Consequently, effective brand management requires proactive strategies designed to at least maintain - if not actually enhance - brand equity in the face of these different forces.
Brand reinforcement
As a company's major enduring asset, a brand needs to be carefully managed so its value does not depreciate. Marketers can reinforce brand equity by consistently conveying the brand's meaning in terms of
(1) what product it represents, what core benefits it supplies, and what needs it satisfies
(2) how the brand makes the product superior and which strong, favorable, and unique brand associations should exist in consumers' minds.
Both of these issues - brand meaning in terms of products, benefits, and needs as well as brand meaning in terms of product differentiation - depend on the firm's general approach to product development, branding strategies, and other strategic concerns.
Brand re-genesis
Any new development in the marketing environment can affect a brand's fortune. Nevertheless, a number of brands have managed to make impressive comebacks in recent years. Often, the first thing to do in revitalizing a brand is to understand what the sources of brand equity were to begin with. Are positive associations losing their strength or uniqueness? Have negative associations become linked to the brand? Then decide whether to retain the same positioning or create a new one, and if so, which new one.
Maintaining brand consistency
Without question, the most important consideration in reinforcing brands is the consistency of the marketing support that the brand receives - both in terms of the amount and nature of marketing support. Brand consistency is critical to maintaining the strength and favorability of brand associations. Brands that receive inadequate support, in terms of such things as shrinking research and development or marketing communication budgets, run the risk of becoming technologically disadvantaged or even obsolete. Consistency does not mean, however, that marketers should avoid making any changes in the marketing program. On the contrary, the opposite can be quite true - being consistent in managing brand equity may require numerous tactical shifts and changes in order to maintain the proper strategic thrust and direction of the brand. There are many ways that brand awareness and brand image can be created, maintained, or improved through carefully designed marketing programs. The tactics that may be most effective for a particular brand at any one time can certainly vary from those that may be most effective for the brand at another time. As a consequence, prices may move up or down, product features may be added or dropped, ad campaigns may employ different creative strategies and slogans, and different brand extensions may be introduced or withdrawn over time in order to create the same desired knowledge structures in consumers' minds.
See also
Brand
Brand Architecture
Brand extension
Brand language
Brand management
Customer engagement
Equity (disambiguation)
Marketing
Product management
Threaded marketing
Visual brand language
References
Further reading
Agrawal, J., & Kamakura, W.A. (1995). The economic worth of celebrity endorsers: An event study analysis. Journal of Marketing, 56-62.
Berger, P.D., Eechambadi, N., George, M., Lehmann, D.R., Rizley, R., & Venkatesan, R. (2006). From customer lifetime value to shareholder value theory, empirical evidence, and issues for future research. Journal of Service Research, 9(2), 156-167.
Buil, I., Martínez, E., & de Chernatony, L. (2013). The influence of brand equity on consumer responses. Journal of consumer marketing, 30(1), 62-74.
Chu, S., & Keh, H.T. (2006). Brand Value Creation: Analysis of the Interbrand-Business Week Brand Value Rankings. Marketing Letters, 17 (Dec), 323-331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11002-006-9407-6.
Eng, L.L., & Keh, H.T. (2007). The Effects of Advertising and Brand Value on Future Operating and Market Performance. Journal of Advertising, 36 (4), 91-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.2753/JOA0091-3367360407
Huang, R., & Sarigöllü, E. (2012). How brand awareness relates to market outcome, brand equity, and the marketing mix. Journal of Business Research, 65(1), 92-99.
Keller, K.L. (2002). Branding and brand equity. Handbook of marketing, 151-178.
Lane, V., & Jacobson, R. (1995). Stock market reactions to brand extension announcements: The effects of brand attitude and familiarity. Journal of Marketing, 59(1), 63-77.
Simon, C.J., & Sullivan, M.W. (1993). The measurement and determinants of brand equity: a financial approach. Marketing Science, 12(1), 28-52.
Roy, D.P., & Cornwell, T.B. (2003). Brand equity's influence on responses to event sponsorships. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 12(6), 377-393.
Brand management
Branding terminology | [
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240384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20French%20Lieutenant%27s%20Woman | The French Lieutenant's Woman | The French Lieutenant's Woman is a 1969 postmodern historical fiction novel by John Fowles. The plot explores the fraught relationship of gentleman and amateur naturalist Charles Smithson and Sarah Woodruff, the former governess and independent woman with whom he falls in love. The novel builds on Fowles' authority in Victorian literature, both following and critiquing many of the conventions of period novels.
The book was the author's third, after The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965). American Libraries magazine counted the novel among the "Notable Books of 1969". Subsequent to its initial popularity, publishers produced numerous editions and translated the novel into many languages; soon after the initial publication, the novel was also treated extensively by scholars. The novel remains popular, figuring in both public and academic conversations. In 2005 Time chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels since the magazine began publication in 1923.
Part of the novel's reputation concerns its postmodern literary qualities, with expressions of metafiction, historiography, metahistory, Marxist criticism, and feminism. Stylistically and thematically, the novel has been described as historiographic metafiction. The contrast between the independent Sarah Woodruff and the more stereotypical male characters often earns the novel attention for its treatment of gender issues.
The novel was adapted into a film of the same name in 1981, with script by the playwright Harold Pinter, directed by Karel Reisz, starring Meryl Streep and Jeremy Irons. The film received considerable critical acclaim, including several BAFTA and Golden Globe awards.
Background
Before Fowles published The French Lieutenant's Woman in 1969, he had already established his literary reputation with his novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965). While writing The French Lieutenant's Woman, he was working on the screenplay for the film adaptation of The Magus (1968). Moreover, The Collector (1965) had already been adapted in a film which had gained Fowles further popular attention.
Fowles described his main inspiration for The French Lieutenant's Woman to be a persistent image of a "Victorian Woman", who later developed into the novel's titular character Sarah Woodruff. In a 1969 essay entitled "Notes on an Unfinished Novel", Fowles reflects on his writing process. He said he had an image during the autumn of 1966 of: "A woman [who] stands at the end of a deserted quay and stares out to sea." He determined that she belonged to a "Victorian Age" and had "mysterious" and "vaguely romantic" qualities. He made a note at the time about the function of the novel:
In an appended comment, dated "October 27, 1967", he writes that he finished the first draft of the novel at about 140,000 words.
Throughout the essay, Fowles describes multiple influences and issues important to the novel's development, including his debt to other authors such as Thomas Hardy. In the essay, he describes surprise that the female character Sarah had taken the primary role in the novel. Later, Fowles described other influences shaping the characters development, noting that the characters and story of The French Lieutenant's Woman were loosely derived from the Claire de Duras novel Ourika (1823), which features a tragic affair between an African woman and French military man. Fowles later published a 1977 translation of Ourika into English.
Plot summary
Set in the mid-nineteenth century, the narrator identifies the novel's protagonist as Sarah Woodruff, the Woman of the title, also known as "Tragedy" and as "The French Lieutenant's Whore". She lives in the coastal town of Lyme Regis as a disgraced woman, supposedly abandoned by a French ship's officer named Varguennes who had returned to France and married. Employed as a servant in the household of the very pious Mrs. Poulteney, she spends some of her limited free time on The Cobb, a stone jetty where she stares out to sea.
One day, Charles Smithson, an orphaned gentleman, and Ernestina Freeman, his fiancée and a daughter of a wealthy tradesman, see Sarah walking along the cliffside. Ernestina tells Charles something of Sarah's story, and he becomes curious about her. Though continuing to court Ernestina, Charles has several more encounters with Sarah, meeting her clandestinely three times. During these meetings, Sarah tells Charles of her history, and asks for his emotional and social support. During the same period, he learns of the possible loss of his place as heir to his elderly uncle, who has become engaged to a woman young enough to bear a child. Meanwhile, Charles's servant Sam falls in love with Mary, the maid of Ernestina's aunt.
In fact, Charles has fallen in love with Sarah and advises her to leave Lyme for Exeter. Returning from a journey to warn Ernestina's father about his uncertain inheritance, Charles stops in Exeter as if to visit Sarah. From there, the narrator, who intervenes throughout the novel and later becomes a character in it, offers three different ways in which the novel could end:
First ending: Charles does not visit Sarah, but immediately returns to Lyme to reaffirm his love for Ernestina. They marry, though the marriage never becomes particularly happy, and Charles enters trade under Ernestina's father, Mr. Freeman. The narrator pointedly notes the lack of knowledge about Sarah's fate. Charles tells Ernestina about an encounter which he implies is with the "French Lieutenant's Whore", but elides the sordid details, and the matter is ended. The narrator dismisses this ending as a daydream by Charles, before the alternative events of the subsequent meeting with Ernestina are described. Critic Michelle Phillips Buchberger describes this first ending as "a semblance of verisimilitude in the traditional 'happy ending'" found in actual Victorian novels.
Before the second and third endings, the narrator appears as a character sharing a railway compartment with Charles. He tosses a coin to determine the order in which he will portray the other two possible endings, emphasising their equal plausibility. They are as follows:
Second ending: Charles and Sarah have a rash sexual encounter in which Charles realises that Sarah was a virgin. Reflecting on his emotions during this, Charles ends his engagement to Ernestina, and proposes to Sarah through a letter. Charles's servant Sam fails to deliver the letter and, after Charles breaks his engagement, Ernestina's father disgraces him. His uncle marries and his wife bears an heir, ensuring the loss of the expected inheritance. To escape the social suicide and depression caused by his broken engagement, Charles goes abroad to Europe and America. Ignorant of Charles' proposal, Sarah flees to London without telling her lover. During Charles' trips abroad, his lawyer searches for Sarah, finding her two years later living in the Chelsea house of the painter and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti, where she enjoys an artistic, creative life. Sarah shows Charles the child of their affair, leaving him in hope that the three may be reunited.
Third ending: The narrator re-appears outside the house at 16 Cheyne Walk and turns back his pocket watch by fifteen minutes. Events are the same as in the second-ending version until Charles meets Sarah, when their reunion is sour. The new ending does not make clear the parentage of the child and Sarah expresses no interest in reviving the relationship. Charles leaves the house, intending to return to the United States, wondering whether Sarah is a manipulative, lying woman who exploited him.
Characters
The Narrator – as in other works of metafiction, the narrator's voice frequently intervenes in the story with a personality of its own. Though the voice appears to be that of Fowles, Magali Cornier Michael notes that chapter 13, which discusses the role of author and narrator within fiction, distinguishes between the author's role in the text and the narrator's. Alice Ferrebe describes the narrator as both a lens for critiquing traditional gender roles and a perpetuation of the perspectives on gendered identity perpetuated by the male gaze.
Sarah Woodruff – the main protagonist according to the narrator. Formerly a governess, she becomes disgraced after an illicit, but unconsummated, liaison with an injured French naval lieutenant, who washed ashore. The feminist critic Magali Cornier Michael argues that she is more a plot device, not interpretable as a main character because her thoughts and motivations are only interpreted from the perspective of outside male characters. Sarah offers a representation of myth or symbol within a male perspective on women.
Charles Smithson – the main male character. Though born into a family with close ties to nobility, Smithson does not possess a title but has a sizable income and considerable education. Early in the novel he is described both as a casual naturalist and a Darwinist. Though trying to become an enlightened and forward-thinking individual, the narrator often emphasises, through commentary on Smithson's actions and situation, that his identity is strongly rooted in the traditional social system. Moreover, conflicting identification with social forces, such as science and religion, lead Smithson to an existential crisis.
Ernestina Freeman – Smithson's fiancée and daughter to a London-based owner of department stores. Unlike Sarah, Ernestina's temperament is much less complex, and much more simple-minded.
Sam Farrow – Charles's Hackney servant with aspirations to become a haberdasher. Throughout the novel, Sam becomes the narrator's model for the working class peoples of Victorian Britain, comparing Sam's identity with Charles's ignorance of that culture. According to critic David Landrum, the tension between Sam and Charles Smithson importantly demonstrates Marxist class struggle, though this aspect of the novel is often overlooked by criticism emphasizing Charles's relationship to Sarah.
Dr Grogan – an Irish doctor in the town of Lyme Regis who both advises the various upper-class families in the town, and becomes an adviser to Charles. His education and interest in Darwin and other education make him a good companion for Charles.
Mr Freeman – the father of Ernestina, he earned his wealth as an owner of a drapery and clothes sales chain of stores. He "represents the rising entrepreneurial class in England" which stands in stark contrast to the old money which Smithson comes from.
Mrs Tranter – a prominent member of Lyme Regis society who is friends with Grogan and, as her maternal aunt, hosts Ernestina during her stay.
Mrs Poulteney – a wealthy widow and, at the beginning of the novel, the employer of Sarah Woodruff. Hypocritical, and hypersensitive, her character fulfills the archetype of high-society villainess.
Mary – stereotypical lower-class servant to Mrs Tranter and future wife to Sam Farrow.
Montague - Charles Smithson's family lawyer of a firm which has been around since the eighteenth century. 2–3 years older than Charles, he helps his client in search of Sarah towards the end of the novel.
Style and structure
Like many other postmodern novels, Fowles uses multiple different stylistic and structural techniques to highlight his thematic interests in The French Lieutenant's Woman. When discussing these stylistic concerns, many literary critics comment on the importance of the narrator and the narration, the intertextual references to other literary works, and the multiple endings.
Narration
Throughout the novel, the omniscient narrative voice, alongside a series of footnotes, reflect with an objective tone on a number of plot devices: the author's difficulty controlling the characters; the conventions that are expected of a "Victorian novel"; and, analyses of differences in 19th-century customs and class. The narrator often returns to topics of interest to literature and scholarship from the period, like the theories of Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell, the radical politics of Karl Marx, and the works of Matthew Arnold, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and Thomas Hardy.
Through a metafictional and metahistorical voice, the contemporary, postmodern narrator questions the role of the author and the historian in thinking about the past. In her article discussing the use of paratext, or the contextualizing text printed in the book such as the footnotes and epigraphs, Deborah Bowen argues that the novel's paratext forces the reader, like in other postmodern works, to rethink the importance of such peripheral material that in other contexts will get overlooked in light of preference for the main text. Instead of nicely complementing the main plot and adding meaning, these paratextual elements can distract from the effectiveness of the novel and challenging the authority of the narrative voice.
Intertextuality
Beyond the narrator intervening and emphasizing particular interpretations of the text, the book's metafictional approach often relies on intertextual references to provide further commentary. In the epigraphs for each chapter, the book gestures towards a number of important 19th-century texts and ideas. Partially, references to other texts act in "ironic play", parodied by how the novel emulates other Victorian conventions throughout the text. Linda Hutcheon describes the works of William Thackery, George Eliot, Charles Dickens, Froude, and Thomas Hardy as direct inspirations for this parody.
In his discussion of science and religion in the novel, John Glendening notes that both character commentary on Darwin's publications along with the epigraphs mentioning those works as direct contributors to the novel's emphasis on science superseding religion. Similarly, by quoting Marx with the first epigraph, along with multiple subsequent epigraphs, the novel directs thematic attention towards the socio-economics issues within the novel. Deborah Bowen describes literary critics struggling to find readings of the epigraphs that explore the themes of the novel, and argues that the poor relationship between the epigraphs and the text "disperses the authority of the narrative voice, thus destroying his power to speak as a moralist." For Bowen, the epigraphs support the satire of Victorian fiction conventions in the novel.
Multiple endings
Often critics will comment on the novel's multiple endings. Each offers a possible ending for Charles's pursuit of Sarah: the first ends with Charles married to Ernestina, the second with a successful reestablishment of a relationship with Sarah, and the third with Charles cast back into the world without a partner. Michelle Phillips Buchberger discusses these endings as a demonstration of "Fowles's rejection of a narrow mimesis" of reality; rather Fowles presents this multiplicity of endings to highlight the role of the author in plot choices.
It is not enough to suggest that the novel with its multiple endings is a mere experiment with the narrative form. "There is something more in it," as Mandal puts it, "an impasse that resists any straight forward resolution to the story." After all, the form of a narrative is determined by its content. It is Sarah Woodruff "the content of whose character produces multiple and contradictory possibilities" for the narrative.
Themes
Though a bestseller, the novel has also received significant scrutiny by literary critics. Especially during the 1960s and 70s, a novel with great popularity and significant academic scrutiny is unusual; in literary study, the canon and its academic defenders often focused on "high literary" works that didn't have large popular followings. In her study of postmodernism, Linda Hutcheon described The French Lieutenant's Woman'''s binary of popular and academic interest as a paradox similar to the postmodern thematic binaries produced within the novel's content. Because of its prominence since publication, the novel has received a variety of different academic re-examinations in light of numerous critical and thematic approaches. Some of the most popular concerns for the novel are its discussion of gender, especially questioning claims by Fowles that it is a feminist novel, its engagement with metafictional and metahistorical concepts, and its treatment of science and religion.
Gender
The novel creates a number of binaries between men and women. Michelle Phillips Buchberger argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, along with Fowles two earlier novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965), portrays a fundamental binary between the male and female characters: the female characters act as an elite set of "creators" or "educated, visionary, and predominantly female" characters who provide the facilitation for evolution "in existential terms" of the male "'collectors', whose traits are present in all of Fowles's flawed male protagonists." Though acknowledging such binaries in the role of the characters, critic Alice Ferrebe does not treat these binaries as necessary thematic elements. Rather, the binaries demonstrate what she calls a gendered "scopic politics", or a politics created by a gaze (not dissimilar from the "male gaze" noticed in cinema studies), that constructs an artificial gender binary within Fowle's early novels (as opposed to a multiplicity of socially constructed genders). For Ferrebe, this binary creates a tension, especially with Sarah, who becomes a violently fetishised and objectified "other", differentiated from the male characters like Charles.
Feminist novel
A number of critics have treated the work as a feminist novel, while other have debated whether it offers a sufficiently transformative perspective on women. The novel's narrator demonstrates and proclaims a feminist approach to women: Sarah is presented as a more liberated and independently willed woman as compared to the other model female characters, such as Ernestina and her aunt. In a 1985 interview by Jan Relf, Fowles declared himself a "feminist".
Magali Cornier Michael criticises this reading of the text, saying that the novel's overwhelming reliance on male perspectives on women and feminism prevents the novel from meeting feminist objectives. Similarly, Michelle Phillips Buchberger argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, along with Fowles' two earlier novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965), proclaimed a "pseudo-feminism" while advocating some feminist ideas; but, she says, they are permeated by a "fetishism [of women that] perpetuates the idea of woman as 'other'". Alice Ferrebe also notes that, despite Fowles' attempts to critique masculine values, his novels remain male fantasies demonstrative of the "compromises and contradictions" created by the gendered situation in which he was writing. Other literary critics, such as William Palmer, Peter Conradi, Bruce Woodcock and Pamela Cooper, have also critiqued Fowles' claims to a feminist perspective and representation.
Fowles's presentation of Sarah, one of the most enigmatic female characters in literary history, is also psychoanalytically informed. Fowles himself was interested in the psychology of men and women. The enigma of femininity, myth of masculinity, and impossibility of man-woman relationship are some of the crucial themes. Through Sarah's deliberate spreading of lies about herself and her relationship with Charles, Fowles brilliantly brings about the various aspects of femininity that has the potential to authenticate, threaten, and expose the vanity of the male subjects.
Metafiction, historiography and metahistory
In her important study of postmodernity and its poetics in literature, Linda Hucheon describes this novel as definitive of a genre she calls "historiographic metafiction". She defines this postmodern genre as "well-known and popular novels which are both intensely self-reflexive yet paradoxically also lay claim to historical events and personages." Typically postmodern, this genre of fiction blends the creation of imagined narratives with critique on the various modes in which we create knowledge, such as history and literature. Important to her discussion of the genre's post-modern style, The French Lieutenant's Woman's self-reflexive narration bridges different discourses that usually remain separated, such as academic history, literary criticism, philosophy and literature.
The text's representations of the past introduce anachronistic perspectives on the time and the characters. For example, in her queer studies-based article, "Historical Romance, Gender and Heterosexuality", Lisa Fletcher argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, by relying on a "good love story" as the central means of representing the past, projects a contemporary hetero-normative sexuality on the history of Victorian England. For Fletcher, Fowles' paradoxical treatment of Sarah as both a Victorian character and as a desirable "modern woman," through feminist gestures and sexual tension between Charles and Sarah, confines the historical set characters and their experience to stereotypical heterosexual romance. Fletcher believes that overall the text creates a stereotypical and limited perspective on the past, essentially "heterosexualising the passage of (and relationship to) history".
Science and religion
Emphasis on a conflicted relationship between science and religion frequently occurs in both historical studies of Victorian history and Neo-Victorian novels. In his chapter on The French Lieutenant's Woman in his book, Evolution and the Uncrucified Jesus, John Glendening argues that Fowles' novel is one of the first neo-Victorian novels to handle the dynamic created between science and religion in Victorian identity. Glendening notes that more generally "Christian ideas and conventions become appropriated in the service of a secularist and extensional version of truth."
Glendening says that Fowles uses commentary on Darwinism "to comment on characters and their experience and to forward a view of natural and human reality opposed to Christian doctrine, and, within limits amenable to existentialist philosophy. " In general, Glendening sees ideas of science and religion as central to the personal and social identities that develop within the novel, but creating symbolically conflictual binaries. He suggests that Fowles manoeuvres these conflictual forces to favour an existential self-revelation exhibited through the main character of Smithson, leading to a conclusion that "the freedom implicit in accepting alienation should be exercised in overcoming it."
Contemporary reception
The novel received mixed critical attention at its initial publication. Critics focused both praise and critique on its style, plot and approach to metafiction and metahistory. The following samples those responses:The New York Times November 1969 review by Christopher Lehmann-Haupt warned readers to "be certain there's only one log on the fire. If, unhappily, you lack the fireplace by which this book should be read, set an alarm clock." Lehmann-Haupt found the book to begin as "irresistibly novelistic that he has disguised it as a Victorian romance," yet the metafictional construction by the end positively "explodes all the assumptions of our Victorian sensibilities." Time magazine's November 1969 review described the novel as "resourceful and penetrating talent at work on that archaic form." In March 1970, the magazine American Libraries named the novel as one of the "Notable Books of 1969," calling it "A successful blending of two worlds as the author writes in modern terminology of the Victorian era."
Not all of the reviews were positive; for example, Roger Sale in The Hudson Review largely criticized the novel, saying, "At times it seems that the commentary is not so bad and the novel awful, but at others Fowles makes the novel almost work and the comments are embarrassingly vulgar." Ultimately, the reviewer concluded that the novel was "stumbling and gauche and much much too long, but curiously attractive too."
Publication history
The novel has been reprinted in numerous editions and translated into many languages: Taiwanese, Danish, Dutch, Arabic, Finnish, Hungarian, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Chinese, German, Russian, Polish, and Spanish. The novel was originally published in 1969 by Little Brown and Company in both Boston and Toronto. The novel has also been published in a number of English editions from different publishers, represented in the following list (with publication date in parenthesis):
Associated Reprinting Co. (1969)
Cape (June 1969)
International Collectors Library (1969)
Jonathan Cape (1969)
New American Library of Canada (1969)
Penguin (1969)
Triad Granada (1969)
Trinity Press (1969)
New American Library (1970)
Penguin (December 1970)
London World Books (1971)
Panther (1971)
Triad Granada (1977)
Franklin Library (Privately Printed, 1979)
NAL/Dutton (Oct. 1981)
New York American Library (1981)
Penguin (Oct. 1981)
Pan Books in association with Jonathan Cape (1987)
New American Library (1989)
Soho Press, Inc. (1990)
William A. Thomas Braille Bookstore (1990)
Hodder & Stoughton Educational (1991)
Picador (1992)
Buccaneer Books, Inc. (1994)
Vintage (1996)
Back Bay Books (1998)
Legacy
The general popularity of The French Lieutenant's Woman has inspired several responses to the novel, most notably other authors' work and adaptation into film and theatre.
Literary response
The most prominent response to the novel is A.S. Byatt's 1990 Booker Prize-winning novel, Possession. She describes her novel as deliberately responding to the model of postmodern metafiction that critics highlight in The French Lieutenant's Woman. Byatt described her motivation for responding in her essays in On Histories and Stories, saying:
Adaptation
The novel was adapted as a 1981 film, written by playwright Harold Pinter and directed by Karel Reisz. The production staff included composer Carl Davis and the cinematographer Freddie Francis. The film starred Meryl Streep and Jeremy Irons with Hilton McRae, Jean Faulds, Peter Vaughan, Colin Jeavons, Liz Smith, Patience Collier, Richard Griffiths, David Warner, Alun Armstrong, Penelope Wilton and Leo McKern. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards: Streep was nominated for Academy Award for Best Actress and the film was nominated for Academy Award for Best Writing, but both lost to On Golden Pond''. Streep won a BAFTA and a Golden Globe for best actress. The film's music and sound both won BAFTAs, despite not winning the Oscar. Pinter was nominated for a Golden Globe for best script and the work as a whole in the category Best Motion Picture – Drama.
During 2006, a stage version by Mark Healy toured the UK.
Also in 2006, BBC Radio 4 produced an adaptation of two one-hour episodes, starring John Hurt as the narrator.
Notes
References
Works cited
Mandal, Mahitosh (2017). "'Eyes a man could drown in': Phallic Myth and Femininity in John Fowles's The French Lieutenant's Woman." Interdisciplinary Literary Studies: A Journal of Criticism and Theory (19.3). https://muse.jhu.edu/article/672189/pdf https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/intelitestud.19.3.0274
External links
FowlesBooks.com—The Official John Fowles web site
A Database Entry for the novel's publication history at the Brandies
1969 British novels
Jonathan Cape books
British novels adapted into films
English-language books
Metafictional novels
Novels by John Fowles
Novels set in Dorset
Postmodern novels
British historical novels
British romance novels
Novels set in Victorian England
British satirical novels
Lyme Regis
Love stories | [
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240388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Coast%20Ranges | Pacific Coast Ranges | The Pacific Coast Ranges (officially gazetted as the Pacific Mountain System in the United States) are the series of mountain ranges that stretch along the West Coast of North America from Alaska south to Northern and Central Mexico. Although they are commonly thought to be the westernmost mountain range of the continental United States and Canada, the geologically distinct Insular Mountains of Vancouver Island lie further west.
The Pacific Coast Ranges are part of the North American Cordillera (sometimes known as the Western Cordillera, or in Canada, as the Pacific Cordillera and/or the Canadian Cordillera), which includes the Rocky Mountains, Columbia Mountains, Interior Mountains, the Interior Plateau, Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Great Basin mountain ranges, and other ranges and various plateaus and basins.
The Pacific Coast Ranges designation, however, only applies to the Western System of the Western Cordillera, which comprises the Saint Elias Mountains, Coast Mountains, Insular Mountains, Olympic Mountains, Cascade Range, Oregon Coast Range, California Coast Ranges, Transverse Ranges, Peninsular Ranges, and the Sierra Madre Occidental.
Other uses
The term Coast Range is used by the United States Geological Survey to refer only to the ranges south of the Strait of Juan de Fuca in Washington to the California-Mexico border, and to those west of Puget Sound, the Willamette Valley, and the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys (the California Central Valley).
That definition excludes the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges, the Mojave (High), and Sonoran (Low) Deserts, i.e. the Pacific Border province. The same term is used informally in Canada to refer to the Coast Mountains and adjoining inland ranges such as the Hazelton Mountains, and sometimes also the Saint Elias Mountains.
Geography
The character of the ranges varies considerably, from the record-setting tidewater glaciers in the ranges of Alaska, to the rugged Central and Southern California ranges, the Transverse Ranges and Peninsular Ranges, in the chaparral and woodlands eco-region with Oak Woodland, Chaparral shrub forest or Coastal sage scrub-covering them. The coastline is often seen dropping steeply into the sea with photogenic views. Along the British Columbia and Alaska coast, the mountains intermix with the sea in a complex maze of fjords, with thousands of islands. Off the Southern California coast the Channel Islands archipelago of the Santa Monica Mountains extends for .
There are coastal plains at the mouths of rivers that have punched through the mountains spreading sediments, most notably at the Copper River in Alaska, the Fraser River in British Columbia, and the Columbia River between Washington and Oregon. In California: the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers' San Francisco Bay, the Santa Clara River's Oxnard Plain, the Los Angeles, San Gabriel, and Santa Ana Rivers' Los Angeles Basina coastal sediment-filled plain between the peninsular and transverse ranges with sediment in the basin up to 6 miles (10 km) deep, and the San Diego River's Mission Bay.
From the vicinity of San Francisco Bay north, it is common in winter for cool unstable air masses from the Gulf of Alaska to make landfall in one of the Coast Ranges, resulting in heavy precipitation, both as rain and snow, especially on their western slopes. The same Winter weather occurs with less frequency and precipitation in Southern California, with the mountains' western faces and peaks causing an eastward rainshadow that produces the arid desert regions.
Omitted from the list below, but often included is the Sierra Nevada, a major mountain range of eastern California that is separated by the Central Valley over much of its length from the California Coast Ranges and the Transverse Ranges.
Geology
On the West coast of North America, the coast ranges and the coastal plain form the margin. Most of the land is made of terranes that have been accreted onto the margin. In the north, the insular belt is an accreted terrane, forming the margin. This belt extends from the Wrangellia Terrane in Alaska to the Chilliwack group of Canada.
A rupture in Rodinia 750 million years ago formed a passive margin in the eastern Pacific Northwest. The breakup of Pangea 200 million years ago began the westward movement of the North American plate, creating an active margin on the western continent. As the continent drifted West, terranes were accreted onto the west coast. The timing of the accretion of the insular belt is uncertain, although the closure did not occur until at least 115 million years ago. Other Mesozoic terranes that accreted onto the continent include the Klamath Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the Guerrero super-terrane of western Mexico. 80 to 90 million years ago the subducting Farallon plate split and formed the Kula Plate to the North. This formed an area in what is now Northern California, where the plates converged forming a Mélange. North of this was the Columbia Embayment, where the continental margin was east of the surrounding areas. Many of the major batholiths date from the late Cretaceous. As the Laramide Orogeny ended around 48 million years ago, the accretion of the Siletzia terrane began in the Pacific Northwest. This began the volcanic activity in the Cascadia subduction zone, forming the modern Cascade Range, and lasted into the Miocene. Events here may relate to the ignimbrite flare-up of the southern Basin and Range. As extension in the Basin and Range Province slowed by a change in North American Plate movement circa 7 to 8 Million years ago, rifting began on the Gulf of California.
Although many of the ranges do share a common geologic history, the Pacific Coast Ranges province is not defined by geology, but rather by geography. Many of the various ranges are composed of distinct forms of rock from many different periods of geological time from the Precambrian in parts of the Little San Bernardino Mountains to 10,000-year-old rock in the Cascade Range. For one example, the Peninsular Ranges, composed of Mesozoic batholitic rock, are geologically extremely different from the San Bernardino Mountains, composed of a mix of Precambrian metamorphic rock and Cenozoic sedimentary rock. However, both are considered part of the Pacific Coast Ranges due to their proximity and similar economic and social impact on surrounding communities.
Major ranges
These are the members of the Pacific Coast Ranges, from north to south:
Kenai Mountains, southern Alaska
Chugach Mountains, southern Alaska
Talkeetna Mountains, southern Alaska
Yukon Ranges, Alaska, Yukon
Wrangell Mountains, southern Alaska
Saint Elias Mountains, southern Alaska, southwestern Yukon, far northwestern British Columbia
Alsek Ranges
Fairweather Range
Takshanuk Mountains, Haines, Alaska-area. Between Chilkat and Chilkoot watersheds
Coast Mountains
Boundary Ranges, southeastern Alaska, northwestern British Columbia
Cheja Range (southeast of Taku/Whiting Rivers)
Chechidla Range
Chutine Icefield
Adam Mountains
Ashington Range
Burniston Range
Dezadeash Range
Florence Range
Halleck Range
Juneau Icefield
Kakuhan Range
Lincoln Mountains
Longview Range
Peabody Mountains
Rousseau Range
Seward Mountains
Snowslide Range
Spectrum Range
Stikine Icecap
Kitimat Ranges BC North Coast
Pacific Ranges BC South & Central Coast
Rainbow Range northwest Chilcotin, also classifiable as part of the Interior Plateau
Pantheon Range Homathko area
Niut Range Homathko area
Waddington Range Homathko area
Whitemantle Range Homathko area
Bendor Range
Garibaldi Ranges
Clendinning Range
Tantalus Range
Chilcotin Ranges
Dickson Range
Shulaps Range
Camelsfoot Range
Lillooet Ranges, (Fraser Canyon west bank)
Cantilever Range
Cayoosh Range
Douglas Ranges
Front Ranges (North Shore Mountains)
Insular Mountains, British Columbia
Vancouver Island Ranges, British Columbia
Queen Charlotte Mountains, British Columbia
Olympic Mountains, Washington
Cascade Range, British Columbia (Fraser Canyon east bank), Washington, Oregon and California
Oregon Coast Range, Oregon
Northern Oregon Coast Range
Central Oregon Coast Range
Southern Oregon Coast Range
Calapooya Mountains, Oregon
Klamath-Siskiyou, Oregon, Northern California
Klamath Mountains, Oregon, Northern California
Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon, Northern California
Trinity Alps and Salmon Mountains, Northern California
Yolla Bolly Mountains, Northern California
Northern Coast Ranges, Northern California
King Range, Northern California
Mendocino Range, Northern California
Mayacamas Mountains, Northern California
Marin Hills, Northern California, (including Mount Tamalpais)
Central California Coast Ranges, Central California
Santa Cruz Mountains, Central California
Diablo Range, Central California
Gabilan Range, Central California
Santa Lucia Range, Central California
Temblor Range, Central California
Caliente Range, Central California
Transverse Ranges, Southern California
Sierra Madre Mountains, Southern California
Sierra Pelona Mountains, Southern California
San Emigdio Mountains, Southern California
San Rafael Mountains, Southern California
Santa Ynez Mountains, Southern California
Tehachapi Mountains, Southern California
Topatopa Mountains, Southern California
Santa Susana Mountains, Southern California
Simi Hills, Southern California
Santa Monica Mountains, Southern California
Chalk Hills, Southern California
San Gabriel Mountains, Southern California
San Rafael Hills, Southern California
Puente Hills, Southern California
San Bernardino Mountains, Southern California
Little San Bernardino Mountains, Southern California
Peninsular Ranges, Southern California and Mexico
Santa Ana Mountains, Southern California
Chino Hills, Southern California
San Jacinto Mountains, Southern California
Palomar Mountain Range, Southern California
Laguna Mountains, Southern California
Sierra Juarez, Northern Baja California, Mexico
Sierra San Pedro Martir, Central Baja California, Mexico
Sierra de San Borja, Central Baja California, Mexico
Sierra de San Francisco, Central Baja California, Mexico
Sierra de Guadalupe cave paintings, Central Baja California, Mexico
Sierra de la Giganta, Southern Baja California, Mexico
Sierra de la Laguna, Southern Baja California, Mexico
Sierra Madre Occidental, Northwestern Mexico
Major icefields
These are not named as ranges, but amount to the same thing. The Pacific Coast Ranges are home to the largest temperate-latitude icefields in the world.
Harding Icefield
Sargent Icefield
Bagley Icefield
Kluane Icefields
Juneau Icefield
Stikine Icecap
Ha-Iltzuk Icefield (Silverthrone Glacier)
Monarch Icefield
Waddington Icefield
Homathko Icefield
Lillooet Icecap (Lillooet Crown)
Pemberton Icefield
Only the largest icefields are listed above; smaller icefields may be listed on the various range pages. Formally unnamed icefields are not listed
See also
List of Pacific Coast Ranges topics
Coast Range (ecoregion)
California Coast Ranges (geomorphic province)
Coast Ranges (geomorphic province)
United States physiographic regions
References
Mountain ranges of North America
North American Cordillera
Geology of North America
Geography of North America
Geography of the West Coast of the United States
Mountain ranges of Mexico
.
.
.
Physiographic provinces
Physiographic regions of Canada
Physiographic regions of Mexico
Physiographic regions of the United States | [
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240390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando%20Alonso | Fernando Alonso | Fernando Alonso Díaz (; born 29 July 1981) is a Spanish racing driver currently competing for Alpine in Formula One. He won the series' World Drivers' Championship in and with Renault, and has also driven for McLaren, Ferrari, and Minardi. With Toyota, Alonso won the 24 Hours of Le Mans twice, in and , and the FIA World Endurance Championship in 2018–19. He also won the 24 Hours of Daytona with Wayne Taylor Racing in 2019.
Born in Oviedo, Asturias to a working-class family, Alonso began kart racing at the age of three and achieved success in local, national, and world championships. He progressed to car racing at the age of 17, winning the Euro Open by Nissan in 1999 and was fourth in the International Formula 3000 Championship of 2000. He debuted in Formula One with Minardi in before joining Renault as a test driver for . Promoted to a race seat in , Alonso won two drivers' championships in 2005 and 2006, becoming the youngest pole-sitter, youngest race winner, youngest world champion, and youngest two-time champion in the sport's history at the time. After finishing just one point behind eventual champion Kimi Räikkönen with McLaren in , he returned to Renault for and and won two races in the former year for fifth overall. Alonso drove for Ferrari from to , finishing runner-up to Sebastian Vettel in 2010, , and with the title battles in 2010 and 2012 going down to the last race of the season. A second stint with McLaren from to resulted in no further success. After a two-year sabbatical, Alonso returned to Formula One in with Alpine. At the 2021 Qatar Grand Prix, Alonso scored his first podium in seven years.
At the time of his sabbatical, Alonso had won 32 Grands Prix, 22 pole positions, and 1,899 points from 311 starts. He is currently the only Spanish Formula One driver to have won either a Grand Prix or the World Championship. Alonso won the 2001 Race of Champions Nations Cup with the rally driver Jesús Puras and the motorcyclist Rubén Xaus for Team Spain and thrice entered the Indianapolis 500 in 2017, 2019 and 2020. He has been awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for Sports, the Premios Nacionales del Deporte Sportsman of the Year Award and the Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit and has twice been inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame. Alonso runs an eSports and junior racing team and is a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador.
Early life and karting career
Alonso was born on 29 July 1981 to a working-class family in Oviedo, Asturias, Northern Spain. He is the son of the mine shaft explosives factory mechanic and amateur kart driver José Luis Alonso, and his wife, the department store employee Ana Díaz. Alonso has an elder sister, Lorena, who is a doctor.
He was educated at the Holy Guardian Angel Primary School (Spanish: Santo Ángel de la Guarda) in Oviedo from 1985 to 1995 under the Basic Education System (Spanish: Educación General Básica). Alonso attended the Institute Leopoldo Alas Clarín of San Lazaro (Spanish: Instituto Leopoldo Alas Clarín de San Lázaro) until his career in motor racing caused him to leave during his Curso de Orientación Universitaria (English: University Orientation Course) in 2000. He was granted a permit to study away from school, after he disobeyed his mother's orders and seldom attended classes. He achieved a good academic performance by asking his classmates for notes and was unproblematic.
Alonso's father wanted a hobby to share with his children and built a go-kart for Lorena. She was uninterested in karting and a three-year-old Alonso received the kart. The karts' pedals were modified for drive-ability, and the local racing federation granted him a mandatory kart racing license aged five; his father rejected an offer for his son to be a goalkeeper for the RC Celta de Vigo football club. The family lacked the finances required to develop him in karts; they could not purchase rain tyres and forced Alonso to adapt to a wet track on slick tyres. Alonso devised three timing sectors going to school to improve himself daily. His mother sewed his racing overalls and adjusted them as he grew; she also ensured Alonso was academically well off. His father steered the kart early on and was his accountant, counselor, manager and mechanic.
Aged seven, Alonso won his first kart race in Pola de Laviana. He won the 1988 and 1989 children's junior Championship of the Asturias and Galicia, and progressed to the Cadet class in 1990. Go-kart importer Genís Marcó was impressed by Alonso and mentored him; kart track owner José Luis Echevarria told him about Alonso. Marcó found personal and sponsorship money for Alonso's family to defray financial concerns and allow him to enter European series. He spoke to the six-time Karting World Champion Mike Wilson, who gave Alonso a test session at a track in Parma. Marcó taught Alonso to be conservative and maintain the condition of a kart.
Alonso won the 1990 Asturias and the Basque Country Cadet Championship and finished second in the 1991 Spanish Cadet National Championship. The local karting federation allowed him to enter the 100cc class because he was deemed underage to drive more powerful machinery. At a Catalan Karting Championship meet in Móra d'Ebre, Marcó asked Alonso if he wanted to enter the Spanish Karting Championship. Wilson mentored Alonso; he joined the Italian American Motor Engineering works team in 1993. Alonso won three successive Spanish Junior National Championships from 1993 to 1995.
The results allowed him to progress to the world championships. Alonso was third at the 1995 Commission Internationale de Karting (CIK-FIA) Cadets' Rainbow Trophy. Alonso was a mechanic to younger kart drivers to earn money. He won his fourth Spanish Junior Karting Championship, the Trofeo Estival, the Marlboro Masters, and the CIK-FIA 5 Continents Juniors Cup at the Karting Genk in 1996. In 1997, he took the Italian and Spanish International A championships and was second in the European Championship with nine wins, the Masters Karting Paris Bercy and the Spanish Karting Championship.
Motor racing career
Junior racing career
Aged 17, Alonso made his car racing debut in the 1999 Euro Open by Nissan with Campos Motorsport, winning the title from Manuel Gião at the final race of the season with six wins and nine pole positions. For 2000, he progressed to the higher-tier International Formula 3000 Championship with the Minardi-backed Team Astromega, after a sponsorship agreement with driver Robert Lechner fell through. Alonso finished second at the Hungaroring and won the season-ending round at Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps for fourth overall with 17 points.
Minardi and Renault (2001–2006)
Cesare Fiorio, the sports director, gave Alonso a test in a Formula One (F1) car at the Circuito de Jerez in December 1999, as part of the Euro Open by Nissan's organising company RPM's agreement to give its series champion an opportunity to test at a higher level. He was Minardi's test and reserve driver in before joining its race team in . In a non-competitive car, Alonso's best result of the season was a tenth-place finish in the and scored no points for 23rd overall.
He signed as Renault's test driver for per the orders of manager Flavio Briatore to familiarise himself with the team and improve himself for the future. Alonso worked with the engineering department to improve Giancarlo Fisichella's and Jenson Button's performance, and tested in Spain and the United Kingdom. He drove a Jaguar in an evaluation session against test drivers André Lotterer and James Courtney at the Silverstone Circuit in May 2002. Alonso was promoted to the Renault race team for . He went on to break the records of youngest driver to win a pole position at the season's second race, the , and broke Bruce McLaren's record as the youngest F1 race winner at the later in the year. He achieved four podium finishes in 2003 and was sixth in the World Drivers' Championship with 55 points.
He remained with Renault for . Alonso had an improved season: he finished the season-opening in third position and took three more podium finishes that year. He took pole position for the and achieved no race victories en route to fourth in the World Drivers' Championship with 59 points. Alonso stayed at Renault for . He duelled with McLaren driver Kimi Räikkönen for the World Championship in 2005 due to regulation changes mandating teams not to change tyres during a race and engines had to last for two races before they could be changed. Alonso's car was more reliable than Räikkönen's albeit lacking in speed. Alonso eclipsed Emerson Fittipaldi as the youngest World Drivers' Champion, having won seven victories, six pole positions and fourteen podium finishes for 133 points.
He signed a contract extension with Renault for in April 2005. Bookmakers installed Alonso as the favourite to retain the Drivers' Championship. His primary competition was Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher. Alonso won six of the first nine races and finished no lower than second to lead the championship with 84 out of a possible 90 points. An Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA; F1's governing body)-imposed ban on Renault's tuned mass damper device to slow Alonso and an increase of development into Schumacher's Ferrari for competitiveness saw the two tied on points entering the season's penultimate round, the . Alonso won the race as Schumacher retired due to an engine failure whilst leading. He needed to score one point at the season-ending for a second title. Alonso won the championship by finishing second and was Formula 1's youngest double World Champion.
McLaren and second stint with Renault (2007–2009)
He and McLaren team owner Ron Dennis met secretly in Japan after Dennis talked to Alonso about driving for the team in the future and Alonso expressed interest in the idea. Both men agreed to a three-year contract for Alonso to drive for McLaren starting from . Alonso's contract with Renault expired on 31 December 2006, and he was not granted an early release for sponsorship reasons. Renault allowed Alonso to make his first appearance for McLaren in a test session at the Circuito de Jerez in November 2006. His main competitors in 2007 were his teammate Lewis Hamilton and Räikkönen at Ferrari. Alonso achieved four Grand Prix victories in Malaysia, Monaco, Europe and Italy and led the championship until Hamilton overtook him. Prior to the season's final round, the , he had 103 championship points to Räikkönen's 100 and Hamilton's 107, and needed to win the race and for his teammate to finish third or lower for his third title. Alonso finished the event third for third overall with 109 points. He had the same number of points as Hamilton; the tie was broken on count-back as Hamilton finished second more often than Alonso.
Throughout the season, Alonso and Hamilton were involved in a number of incidents, such as the espionage scandal and the flare-up during qualifying for the when Hamilton disobeyed a team instruction, thus disadvantaging Alonso, and Alonso responded by delaying Hamilton in the pit lane. The tensions culminated in Alonso and McLaren terminating their contract by mutual consent in November. Alonso was forbidden from joining a team whom McLaren considered their primary challengers for . After rejecting offers from several teams, he signed a two-year contract to rejoin Renault from 2008 because of the manufacturer's long-term commitment to F1 and on-track record. Alonso's car lacked power early on due to an imposed moratorium in development and he scored nine points in the first seven races. He was thereafter able to improve his performance later due to aerodynamic developments to the car's and won in Singapore and Japan; the former race saw Renault order his teammate Nelson Piquet Jr. to crash deliberately and trigger the deployment of the safety car in what became known as "crashgate". Alonso scored more points than any other driver in the final five races with 43. He scored 61 points for fifth in the Drivers' Championship.
Alonso was due to become a free agent for if Renault were lower than third in the Constructors' Championship. After offers from Red Bull Racing and Honda, he re-signed to Renault on a two-year contract. His car proved to be noncompetitive because it lacked a dual diffuser system and outright speed. Alonso eschewed an aerodynamic front wing mandated in an attempt to make overtaking more possible since he did not believe it would help him. He scored points in eight races and achieved one podium finish: a third-place at the . Alonso won pole position for the and led the first 12 laps before he retired following an incorrectly fitted right-front wheel. Alonso was ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 26 points, his lowest placing since he came sixth in 2003; he maintained his reputation as one of F1's best drivers.
Ferrari (2010–2014)
He agreed with Ferrari president Luca Cordero di Montezemolo to drive for Ferrari in 2009, but team principal Jean Todt extended the contracts of both Felipe Massa and Räikkönen to . Alonso obtained a mid-2009 agreement to drive for Ferrari from on but it was moved to 2010 after Renault were investigated for race fixing in Singapore and Räikkönen was released from the team. McLaren's Hamilton and Button and Red Bull's of Sebastian Vettel and Mark Webber were Alonso's main championship competition. He won five races that season and entered the season-ending leading by eight points after being 47 behind mid-season following errors. Alonso finished runner-up to Vettel after he was unable to pass Renault's Vitaly Petrov following a strategy error by Ferrari.
His 2011 season was mixed: his car was built conservatively and lacked aerodynamic grip and tyre handling in qualifying. He extracted additional pace from his car to claim ten podium finishes and win the after a strategy error from Red Bull. His best qualification of the year was a second at the and he out-qualified his teammate Massa fifteen times over the course of the season. Alonso was fourth overall with 257 points; he was in contention to finish second to eventual champion Vettel following a series of strong finishes until Webber won the season-ending .
Ahead of , Alonso extended his contract with Ferrari until . His main competition for the title in 2012 was Vettel. Wins in Malaysia, Valencia and Germany and consistent points-scoring finishes allowed him to build a 40-point lead in the Drivers' Championship. Thereafter start-line collisions, a mechanical failure and an improved performance for Vettel eliminated Alonso's points lead. Alonso entered the season-ending 13 points behind Vettel and needed to finish third and for Vettel not to score points for a third championship. He was second and Vettel finished fourth to be runner-up for the second time in his career on 278 points.
To begin , Alonso drove an aggressively designed car allowing him to win in China and Spain and consistently scored points. He was slower than Vettel after a change of tyre compound at the and front and rear bodywork components intended to improve his car's performance were ineffective. With 242 points, Alonso was second for the third time in his career. His relationship with Ferrari cooled due to his perception the team could not construct a title-winning car. Alonso's 2014 season saw him achieve no race wins because his car was less powerful than the championship-winning Mercedes but took third in the and second in the . Alonso fell to sixth in the Drivers' Championship with 161 points. He qualified faster than his teammate Räikkönen 16 times by an average of more than second per lap in 2014.
Return to McLaren (2015–2019)
Alonso had severe disagreements with team principal Marco Mattiacci in 2014 and left Ferrari after contract negotiations to remain at the team fell through. He rejoined McLaren on a three-year contract from to with no opt-out clauses. An accident during a pre-season test session at Spain's Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in February 2015 saw Alonso sustain a concussion and he was replaced by reserve driver Kevin Magnussen for the season-opening . He endured a difficult season: his car's Honda engine was under-powered and overall speed leaving him vulnerable to being passed. Alonso scored points twice in 2015: a tenth in the and a fifth in the for 17th in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. He was dissatisfied with a slow pace, which became evident after multiple radio complaints that year.
Despite the unreliable and noncompetitive car, Alonso remained with McLaren for . Injuries from a heavy crash with Esteban Gutiérrez at the season-opening caused him to miss the on medical grounds and was replaced by reserve driver Stoffel Vandoorne. He qualified better than teammate Button fifteen times and scored points nine times, which included two fifth-place finishes in the and the . He was tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 54 points.
Alonso stayed at McLaren in , but poor reliability affected his season, particularly during the early rounds, and his best finish was a sixth place in the . After three consecutive top-ten finishes, Alonso finished 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.
Following contract negotiations with the McLaren CEO Zak Brown, Alonso signed a multi-year extension with McLaren on 19 October 2017. He finished fifth at the season-opening 2018 and took nine top-ten finishes. Alonso out-qualified his teammate Stoffel Vandoorne at every race and drove quickly and aggressively. He became increasingly annoyed with certain drivers and his commitment to F1 waned after McLaren stopped developing their car to focus on . Alonso was 11th in the Drivers' Championship with 50 points, and left the sport as a driver at the end of the 2018 season, citing a perceived lack of on-track racing, the predictability of results and felt discussions away from racing about the broadcast of radio transmissions and polemics harmed the series.
He remained at McLaren as a brand ambassador to aid and advise drivers and drove in select test sessions to develop their cars. Alonso drove the MCL34 during a two-day in-season post-race Bahrain test in April 2019 to develop tyres for Pirelli. No further runs were planned for him and McLaren focused on their current drivers. Alonso's ambassador contract with McLaren expired at the end of 2019, and was not renewed for 2020.
Alpine (2021–)
Alonso was signed to drive for Alpine F1 Team for the season, alongside Esteban Ocon, with Renault having rebranded the team under its new name. In preparation for his F1 return, Alonso performed four testing days driving the Renault R.S.18 and was quickest in the post-2020 season young driver's test driving the Renault R.S.20 for Renault. In his first race with Alpine at the 2021 Bahrain Grand Prix, Alonso was forced to retire after plastic debris entered his brake duct. At the 2021 Emilia Romagna Grand Prix he finished in 11th after qualifying 15th, with teammate Ocon finishing ahead in tenth, but both were upgraded one position after Kimi Räikkönen was penalised, giving Alonso his first points of the season.
In Hungary, Alonso temporarily led the race before he made a pit stop and fell to fourth, ahead of Lewis Hamilton. Teammate Ocon credited Alonso's defence against Hamilton with enabling him to achieve his first race victory. In August 2021, Alonso invoked an option to extend his contract for the season. Alonso scored points in multiple races following the summer break, finishing sixth in the Netherlands, eighth in Italy, sixth in Russia, having run in third in Russia before being forced to pit under wet conditions, and third in Qatar.
Other racing
Alonso made his endurance racing debut at the 1999 24 Hours of Barcelona, finishing 10th overall in an Hyundai Accent he shared with Antonio García, Salvi Delmuns and the journalist Pedro Fermín Flores. He won the 2001 Race of Champions Nations Cup with the rally driver Jesús Puras and the motorcyclist Rubén Xaus for Team Spain, and was eliminated by Jeff Gordon of the United States in his group race a year later.
In 2018, Alonso raced in the 24 Hours of Daytona for the first time. He shared the 22 United Autosports Ligier JS P2 with Lando Norris and Philip Hanson, which finished 38th overall after mechanical issues affected his race. He later raced the full 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship alongside Sébastien Buemi and Kazuki Nakajima at Toyota Gazoo Racing. Sharing the No. 8 Toyota TS050 Hybrid, the trio won the World Drivers' Championship after a season-long duel with their teammates Mike Conway, Kamui Kobayashi and José María López with five race victories, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans in both and . Alonso returned to compete in the 24 Hours of Daytona in 2019, winning the rain-shortened race in a Wayne Taylor Racing-entered Cadillac DPi-V.R with Kobayashi, Renger van der Zande and Jordan Taylor.
He first drove the Indianapolis 500 in 2017. Alonso drove for McLaren Honda Andretti, qualifying in fifth position for the race and leading four times for a total of 24 laps before retiring with engine failure with 21 laps remaining while running in seventh place. He was classified 24th. He returned to the Indianapolis 500 for a second time with McLaren in 2019. An error converting inches to the metric system causing his car to scrape the tarmac surface on his first lap on track and incorrect gear ratios meant Alonso failed to qualify for the race. He entered the Indianapolis 500 in 2020 for his third attempt at winning the race, this time with Arrow McLaren SP after an agreement with Andretti Autosport fell through. Alonso finished the race in 21st after clutch issues slowed pit stops.
Alonso entered the Dakar Rally with Toyota in 2020 following a five-month testing programme in Africa, Europe and the Middle East and driving a series of races to better himself. With co-driver Marc Coma, he finished the event in 13th position with a best stage finish of second place. A stop for repairs on the second stage and a roll on the 10th lost him several hours in the general classification.
Driving style
Alonso is often regarded as one of the greatest F1 drivers in the history of the sport. Journalists and fellow drivers regarded Alonso as a fast and consistent driver who can extract additional pace from a car in all weathers and on all tracks. Fisichella said Alonso understands when to go faster and when to preserve his tyres in a race. Former racing driver and Sky Sports pundit Martin Brundle described Alonso as "Senna-like in his intimate feel for where the grip is" and cited the driver's knowledge on how much grip to use for the entry to a turn. He drives aggressively and uses a braking area to put a car into a corner without losing speed exiting it. This allows Alonso to keep it "on the edge of adhesion" and it has been observed during a qualifying session and the first laps of a race.
Alonso's experience increased his awareness of events around him and competitors in a race and adjusted his situation to focus on the drivers' championship. Alonso is an all-round driver who can mount an apex and correct a sliding car to go faster. He is careful in finding the ideal feeling with his brakes and can apply the maximum amount of force with a fast response time. Alonso's physical strength contrasts his braking skill and regularly exceeded that limit without overdoing it on multiple conditions. According to Jonathan Noble of Motorsport.com, this allows Alonso to "create a kind of natural ABS – fully exploiting tyre grip to achieve greater speeds while turning without locking the wheels."
Helmet and career number
Alonso's helmet manufactured by Bieffe (2001), Arai (2003–2009, 2016), Schuberth (2010–2015)
Bell (2017–) sports the yellow and red colours of the flag of Spain with shades of blue from the Asturias flag coupled with two silver thunderbolt arrows derived from a remote control car he received as a present in his childhood on top. He changed its mainbase colour design when switching teams during his F1 career; in 2008 Alonso attached two pictures of a spade, ace and heart symbol to show he was a two-time world champion.
For three successive Monaco Grand Prix from 2011 to 2013 and at the 2011 Singapore Grand Prix, he wore a gold and white coloured helmet to replace the blue and yellow. At the following 2013 Indian Grand Prix, Alonso sported a white helmet to celebrate his total number of career points scored up to the preceding Japanese Grand Prix of 1571 and with the words "F1 points World Record" accompanied with a thank you message in English, French and Italian.
His final event for Ferrari at the 2014 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix saw him wear a helmet with a picture depicting a pit stop in that year in the colour red, signature of various team members and the flag of Italy in the centre. At the 2017 Indianapolis 500 and the 2017 United States Grand Prix, Alonso sported a black helmet with red, yellow and blue stripes around it and his race number. He revised the livery for the 2018 24 Hours of Daytona to white instead of black and had no stripes around the front. The back had the layout of the Daytona International Speedway and continued to have his usual blue, red and yellow colours.
In 2018 Alonso changed its front livery to be predominantly blue with the back top lighter blue and the rear red and yellow. His helmet for the 2018 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix was divided equally between the flag of Spain on the right with a blue-checkered pattern around its side. The yellow on that area was replaced by gold between two horizontal stripes in red and a thick vertical strip was added with a list of Alonso's 32 F1 race victories.
For the 2014 season, the FIA created a new regulation allowing drivers to select specific car numbers for use throughout their F1 career. Alonso requested the number 14 for it has been his lucky number since his world karting championship victory in a kart with number 14, at the age of 14, on 14 July 1996.
Image and impact
Nate Saunders of ESPN writes that Alonso "is one of the most eloquent speakers in F1 and one of the best at interacting with the media". He occasionally uses press conferences with the press to cultivate particular narratives of a story, convey himself as controlling the F1 driver market or as the one with knowledge of facts of a situation. Alonso dislikes fame and prefers a private life, with Chris Jenkins of USA Today describing him as shy. He has been noted for refraining from expensive habits and possessions.
Alonso's public persona has been noted as being different from his private personality. Fellow Spanish driver Carlos Sainz Jr. claimed "there are two Fernandos", alluding to Alonso's defensive nature when criticised because of his shyness, compared to his sense of humour, generosity and kind-nature when not racing. According to the Autosport journalist Ben Anderson, Alonso's success in F1 required him to behave egotistically and selfishly and to have a self-confidence, in order to cope with the consequences of "burst[ing] egotistical bubbles" to improve himself. Alonso acknowledged the façade and told Anderson "I know who I am outside of F1, but that remains a question mark for everybody because I like to separate my personal life from my professional life" and his different personality traits in public and private. Alonso made a voice cameo appearance as himself as a car in the Spanish-dubbed version of Cars 2 (2011).
Journalist Nigel Roebuck calls Alonso "the first world-class racing driver to come out of Spain", and is credited for popularising F1 in the country, where it was once considered a fringe sport and a lesser known form of motorsport than motorcycling and rallying. He was Personality Media's favourite male athlete with a 99 per cent recognition rating amongst the Spanish public in 2015; in the latter part of his F1 career, Alonso was within the top two most popular drivers in the Grand Prix Drivers' Association fan surveys of 2010, 2015 and 2017.
The Fernando Alonso Sports Complex in Oviedo was opened in June 2015 and features a CIK-FIA compliant karting track featuring 29 layouts. A museum dedicated to his racing career, the 'Museo y Circuito Fernando Alonso', opened in the same year, featuring Alonso's race cars, helmets, overalls, and memorabilia.
Endorsements and philanthropy
Alonso has done business with Banco Santander, Cajastur, TAG Heuer, Europcar, Silestone, Liberbank, ING, Chandon, Adidas, and Bang & Olufsen. He is the founder and brand ambassador of the fashion retailer Kimoa, and intended to establish the Fernando Alonso Cycling Team to compete in UCI events in 2015 before the project failed to materialise. As a result of Alonso's endorsement money and F1 salary, he has been listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes by Forbes every year from 2012 to 2018. The magazine named him motorsport's top-earning driver from June 2012 to June 2013, one of 2016's top earning international stars, and one of 2017's highest-paid international and European celebrities. Alonso also featured on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list in 2008 and 2017. In 2020, Alonso was sponsored by Roff Mortgage for his Indianapolis 500 attempt.
In November 2017 Alonso established the FA Racing G2 Logitech G eSports racing team of which he is the team principal and competes in virtual online racing championships on multiple platforms. The team dissolved in 2018 and launched another in partnership with FA Racing and Veloce Esports in March 2019. Alonso's team has also competed in the F4 Spanish Championship, Formula Renault Eurocup and karting. He is an investor and board member of the eSports multi-racing platform Motorsport Games.
The UNICEF Spanish Committee named Alonso a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in February 2005 to promote and defend children's rights and awareness of UNICEF. Alonso promoted India's efforts to eradicate polio in 2011 and handwashing with soap to school children in 2012, whilst he also supported UNICEF's anti-cyberbullying campaign in November 2017. Alonso founded the Fundación Fernando Alonso () in 2007 to promote motor racing and road safety education.
Awards
Alonso received the 2003 Autosport Gregor Grant Award for winning the 2003 Hungarian Grand Prix. He also won the Princess Cristina National Sports Award for sporting newcomer in that year. Alonso was named the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy's recipient in April 2005. From October 2005 to May 2006 he received the Prince of Asturias Award for Sports, the Premios Nacionales del Deporte Sportsman of the Year Award and the Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit for winning the 2005 F1 World Championship.
He was named the 2006 Autosport International Racing Driver of the Year. Alonso was voted the Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year for his performance in the 2017 Indianapolis 500. He was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame in 2017 for being a F1 World Champion and again as a FIA World Endurance Champion in 2019. This made Alonso the first driver to have been inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame twice.
Personal life
From November 2006 to December 2011, Alonso was married to Raquel del Rosario, the lead singer of the Spanish pop band, El Sueño de Morfeo. Since then he has been in relationships with four different women. Alonso supports the Real Madrid and Real Oviedo football teams, and speaks English, French, Italian and Spanish. Alonso, in his early career, often brought an entourage of childhood friends to F1 races. Alonso is an atheist and a non-believer in destiny, and has a samurai tattoo on his back to show muscle strength, intelligence and force of will inspired by the 18th century spiritual guide Hagakure. He has the birth defect Poland syndrome, meaning he has an underdeveloped right pectoral muscle.
Karting record
Karting career summary
Racing record
Racing career summary
Complete Euro Open by Nissan results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete International Formula 3000 results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number indicates the finishing position)
Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
American open-wheel racing results
IndyCar Series
Indianapolis 500
IMSA WeatherTech SportsCar Championship
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
24 Hours of Daytona
Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
24 Hours of Le Mans results
Dakar Rally results
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Profile – from Formula 1 official website
Profile – from McLaren official website
Career statistics
Fernando Alonso statistics
1981 births
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans winning drivers
Alpine Formula One drivers
Ferrari Formula One drivers
FIA World Endurance Championship drivers
Formula One race winners
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Indianapolis 500 drivers
Indianapolis 500 Rookies of the Year
IndyCar Series drivers
International Formula 3000 drivers
Karting World Championship drivers
Living people
McLaren Formula One drivers
Minardi Formula One drivers
People named in the Paradise Papers
Renault Formula One drivers
Spanish atheists
Spanish expatriate sportspeople in England
Spanish expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
Spanish Formula One drivers
Spanish racing drivers
Sportspeople from Oviedo
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers
Campos Racing drivers
Team Astromega drivers
Toyota Gazoo Racing drivers | [
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240391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall%20line | Fall line | A fall line (or fall zone) is the area where an upland region and a coastal plain meet and is typically prominent where rivers cross it, with resulting rapids or waterfalls. The uplands are relatively hard crystalline basement rock, and the coastal plain is softer sedimentary rock. A fall line often will recede upstream as the river cuts out the uphill dense material, forming "c"-shaped waterfalls and exposing bedrock shoals. Because of these features, riverboats typically cannot travel any farther inland without portaging, unless locks are built. The rapid change in elevation of the water and resulting energy release make the fall line a good location for water mills, grist mills, and sawmills. Seeking a head of navigation with a ready supply of water power, people have long made settlements where rivers cross a fall line.
Geography
The slope of fall zones on rivers played a role in settlement patterns. For example, the fall line represents the inland limit of navigation on many rivers. As such, many fall line cities grew around transferring people and goods between land-based and water-based transportation at this point. Also, fall lines proved useful for hydroelectric dams such as those at Niagara Falls, New York (on the Niagara Escarpment), at Columbia, South Carolina, and at Conowingo, Maryland, on the Susquehanna River (on the Atlantic Seaboard fall line). Cities established along fall lines in the United States include:
New England:
Watertown, Massachusetts (Charles River), dam and mill built 1634
Lowell, Massachusetts (Merrimack River)
Hartford, Connecticut (Connecticut River)
Fall River, Massachusetts (Quequechan River)
Bangor, Maine (Penobscot River)
Augusta, Maine (Kennebec River)
Pawtucket, Rhode Island (Blackstone River)
Atlantic Seaboard fall line (Mid-Atlantic and Southern fall lines):
Trenton, New Jersey, on the Delaware River
Paterson, New Jersey, on the Passaic River
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the Schuylkill River
Wilmington, Delaware, on Brandywine Creek
Baltimore, Maryland, on the Jones Falls, Gunpowder Falls and Gwynns Falls
Washington, D.C., on the Potomac River
Fredericksburg, Virginia, on the Rappahannock River
Hanover, Virginia, on the North Anna River
Richmond, Virginia, on the James River
Petersburg, Virginia, on the Appomattox River
Weldon, North Carolina, and Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina, on the Roanoke River
Rocky Mount, North Carolina, on the Tar River
Raleigh, North Carolina, on the Neuse River
Fayetteville, North Carolina, on the Cape Fear River
Camden, South Carolina, on the Wateree River
Columbia, South Carolina, on the Congaree River
Augusta, Georgia, on the Savannah River
Milledgeville, Georgia, on the Oconee River
Macon, Georgia, on the Ocmulgee River
Columbus, Georgia, on the Chattahoochee River
Tallassee, Alabama, on the Tallapoosa River
Wetumpka, Alabama, on the Coosa River
Tuscaloosa, Alabama, on the Black Warrior River
Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line
The Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line, or Fall Zone, is a escarpment where the Piedmont and Atlantic Coastal Plain meet in the eastern United States. Much of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line passes through areas where no evidence of faulting is present.
The fall line marks the geologic boundary of hard metamorphosed terrain—the product of the Taconic orogeny—and the sandy, relatively flat outwash plain of the upper continental shelf, formed of unconsolidated Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments. Examples of the Fall Zone include the Potomac River's Little Falls and the rapids in Richmond, Virginia, where the James River falls across a series of rapids down to the tidal estuary of the James River. Columbia, South Carolina is similar as well with the Congaree River.
Before navigation improvements such as locks, the fall line was often the head of navigation on rivers due to rapids and waterfalls, such as the Little Falls of the Potomac River. Numerous cities were founded at the intersection of rivers and the fall line. U.S. Route 1 links many of the fall line cities.
Canada
The Laurentian Upland forms a long scarp line where it meets the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands. Along this line numerous rivers have carved falls and canyons (listed East to West):
Saint-Anne Falls and Canyon Sainte-Anne (Sainte-Anne-du-Nord River)
Chaudron à Gaudreault (Rivière aux Chiens)
Unnamed falls (Rivière du Sault à la Puce)
Canyon of the Cazeau River
Montmorency Falls (Montmorency River)
Kabir Kouba Fall (Saint-Charles River)
Chute Ford (Sainte-Anne River)
Sainte-Ursule Falls (Maskinongé River)
Chute à Magnan (Rivière du Loup)
Chutes Émery and Chute du Moulin Coutu (Rivière Bayonne)
Les sept chutes (L'Assomption River)
Dorwin Falls (Ouareau River)
Wilson Falls (Rivière du Nord)
Long Sault, now flooded by the Carillon hydroelectric generating station (Ottawa River)
The Chaudière Falls run over the unrelated Eardley Escarpment of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben
The Jacques-Cartier River and Saint-Maurice River lack such noticeable feature because they cross the scarp through U-shaped valleys. The falls of the lower Saint-Maurice (as well as those of the Beauport River, in Quebec City) are due to the fluvial terraces of the Saint Lawrence river rather than the Laurentian Scarp.
See also
Geologic map of Georgia (U.S. state)
Spring line settlement
References
External links
Geographic coordinate lists
Geomorphology | [
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240395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palawan | Palawan | Palawan (pronounced ), officially the Province of Palawan (; ; ), is an archipelagic province of the Philippines that is located in the region of Mimaropa. It is the largest province in the country in terms of total area of . The capital city is Puerto Princesa. Palawan is known as the Philippines’ Last Frontier and as the Philippines’ Best Island.
The islands of Palawan stretch between Mindoro island in the northeast and Borneo in the southwest. It lies between the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea. The province is named after its largest island, Palawan Island (), measuring long, and wide.
In 2019, it was proposed to divide Palawan into three separate provinces, though it was rejected by the local population in a 2021 plebiscite.
History and prehistory
Prehistory
The early history of Palawan was determined by a team of researchers led by Dr. Robert B. Fox. They found evidence in the Tabon Caves that humans have lived in Palawan for more than 50,000 years. They also found human bone fragments, from an individual known as Tabon Man, in the municipality of Quezon, as well as tools and other artifacts.
Two articulated phalanx bones of a tiger, besides another phalanx piece, were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and stone tools in Ille Cave near the village of New Ibajay. The other animal fossils were ascribed to macaques, deer, bearded pigs, small mammals, lizards, snakes and turtles. From the stone tools, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones, and the use of fire, it would appear that early humans had accumulated the bones. Additionally, the condition of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been exposed to light and air. Tiger parts were commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia, so it may be that the tiger parts were imported from elsewhere, as is the case with tiger canine teeth, which were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan, Mindanao. On the other hand, the proximity of Borneo and Palawan also makes it likely that the tiger had colonized Palawan from Borneo before the Early Holocene.
Using the work of Von den Driesch, all chosen anatomical features of appendicular elements' anatomical features which were chosen, besides molars, were measured to distinguish between taxa that had close relationships, and see morphometric changes over ages, though not for pigs or deer. For the latter two, cranial and mandibular elements, besides teeth of deer from Ille Cave were compared with samples of the Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus), Calamian hog deer (Axis calamianensis), and Visayan spotted deer (Cervus alfredi), and thus two taxa of deer have been identified from the fossils: Axis and Cervus. Remains of pigs were compared with the Eurasian (Sus scrofa) and Palawanese wild boar (Sus ahoenobarbus). It is known that the Eurasian wild boar was imported as a domesticate to the islands from mainland Southeast Asia to the islands during the Terminal Holocene.
Palawan was a major site for the Maritime Jade Road, one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world, operating for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.
Pre-colonial period
Palawan is home to several indigenous groups. The oldest inhabitants are the Palaw'an, Batak, Tagbanwa, and Tau't Bato who are from the interiors and highlands of Palawan, as well as the Calamianes Islands. They traditionally practice animist anito religions. Palawan's coastlines were also settled by later groups that are now collectively known as "Palaweños". These groups are the Islamized Molbog people of southern Palawan (possibly originally from Sabah), and the Cuyonon and Agutaynon groups (from the nearby islands of Cuyo and Agutaya).
Palawan was mentioned as "Pulaoan" or "Polaoan" by Antonio Pigafetta in 1521 during Magellan's expedition. They called it "la terra de missione" ("the land of promise") due to the fact that they were almost starving by the time they reached the island. The local datu made peace with the expedition through a blood compact. The ships' crews were welcomed to the island with rice cooked in bamboo tubes, rice wine, bananas, pigs, goats, chickens, coconuts, sugarcane, and other supplies. Pigafetta described the inhabitants as being farmers. Their primary weapons were blowguns with iron tips that could both shoot thick wooden or bamboo darts (some poisoned) and function as spears once their ammunition were exhausted. Pigafetta also described the islanders as keeping roosters for cockfighting.
Spanish period
The northern Calamianes Islands were the first to come under Spanish authority, and were later declared a province separate from the Palawan mainland. In the early 17th century, Spanish friars sent out missions in Cuyo, Agutaya, Taytay and Cagayancillo but they met resistance from Moro communities. Before the 18th century, Spain began to build churches enclosed by garrisons for protection against Moro raids in the towns of Cuyo, Taytay, Linapacan and Balabac. In 1749, the Sultanate of Brunei ceded southern Palawan to Spain.
In 1818, the entire island of Palawan, or Paragua as it was called, was organized as a single province named Calamianes, with its capital in Taytay. By 1858, the province was divided into two provinces, namely, Castilla, covering the northern section with Taytay as capital and Asturias in the southern mainland with Puerto Princesa as capital. It was later divided into three districts, Calamianes, Paragua and Balabac, with Principe Alfonso town as its capital. During the Spanish colonial period, Cuyo became the second capital of Palawan from 1873 to 1903.
American rule
In 1902, after the Philippine–American War, the Americans established civil rule in northern Palawan, calling it the province of Paragua. In 1903, pursuant to Philippine Commission Act No. 1363, the province was reorganized to include the southern portions and renamed Palawan, and Puerto Princesa declared as its capital.
Many reforms and projects were later introduced in the province. Construction of school buildings, promotion of agriculture, and bringing people closer to the government were among the priority plans during this era.
Japanese invasion
After the Japanese invasion, according to Stephen L. Moore, "Pro-Allied sentiment was strong, and it was later estimated that during the war as many as 1,154 Filipino guerrillas worked against the Japanese on the island. Those in the underground network would proudly refer to themselves as 'Palawan's Fighting One Thousand'." Early resistance leaders included Dr. Higinio Acosta Mendoza, his wife Triny, Thomas F. Loudon, and his son-in-law Nazario Mayor. Capt. Mayor organized Company D in Oct. 1943, and was responsible for the area encompassing Puerto Princesa south to Balabac Island. Capt. Mendoza covered the area north of Puerto Princesa to Caramay. Lt. Felipe Batul operated out of Danlig, while Capt. Carlos Amores operated out of Sibaltan. Overall command of the Palawan Special Battalion was under Maj. Pablo P. Muyco as part of the 6th Military District. The Palawan guerrillas helped any escaping American POWs, supported two coastwatcher groups sending regular radio broadcasts to General MacArthur on Japanese movements, and helped rescue downed airmen as well as survivors from the USS Flier submarine. Most importantly, they helped guide the 8th Army's troop landings.
Palawan Massacre
During World War II, in order to prevent the rescue of prisoners of war by the advancing allies, on 14 December 1944, units of the Japanese Fourteenth Area Army (under the command of General Tomoyuki Yamashita) herded the remaining 150 prisoners of war at Puerto Princesa into three covered trenches which were then set on fire using barrels of gasoline. Prisoners who tried to escape the flames were shot down. Only 11 men escaped the slaughter.
Liberation
During the first phase of the Battle of Leyte Gulf, just off the coast of Palawan, two United States Navy submarines, and attacked a Japanese cruiser task force led by Admiral Takeo Kurita, sinking his flagship (in which he survived) , and her sister ship . Darter later ran aground that afternoon and was scuttled by .
The island was liberated from the Japanese Imperial Forces from February 28 to April 22, 1945, during the Invasion of Palawan.
Contemporary period
In 2005, Palawan was briefly made politically part of Western Visayas or Region VI through Executive Order 429 signed by then-President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on May 23 as a political move to control the province and a response to getting more loans from China. This decree was later deferred on August 18 within the same year reportedly due to the opposition of the province's Sangguniang Panlalawigan (Provincial Council).
On July 21, 2007, its capital city, Puerto Princesa became a highly urbanized city.
Proposed division
In April 2019, a bill dividing Palawan into three provinces was passed into law. The proposed three new provinces are Palawan del Norte, Palawan Oriental, and Palawan del Sur. A plebiscite, originally scheduled in May 2020, was held on March 13, 2021, that decided whether Palawan will be divided into three provinces or not. Some civil society groups and Puerto Princesa residents opposed the proposed division, claiming that there was no extensive public consultation. The Comelec announced on March 16, 2021, that the majority of Palawan residents opposed the division and thus, it will not be carried out.
Geography
The province is composed of the long and narrow Palawan Island, plus a number of other smaller islands surrounding it, totalling roughly 1,780 islands and islets. The Calamianes Group of Islands to the northeast consists of Busuanga, Coron, Culion, and Linapacan islands. Balabac Island is located off the southern tip, separated from Borneo by the Balabac Strait. In addition, Palawan covers the Cuyo Islands in the Sulu Sea. The disputed Spratly Islands, located a few hundred kilometers to the west, are considered part of Palawan by the Philippines, and is locally called the "Kalayaan Group of Islands".
Palawan's almost of irregular coastline is lined with rocky coves and sugar-white sandy beaches. It also harbors a vast stretch of virgin forests that carpet its chain of mountain ranges. The mountain heights average in altitude, with the highest peak rising to at Mount Mantalingahan. The vast mountain areas are the source of valuable timber. The terrain is a mix of coastal plain, craggy foothills, valley deltas, and heavy forest interspersed with riverine arteries that serve as irrigation.
The province has a total land area of . When Puerto Princesa City is included for geographical purposes, its land area is . The land area is distributed to its mainland municipalities, comprising , and the island municipalities, which altogether measure . In terms of archipelagic internal waters, Palawan has the biggest marine resources that covers almost half of the Sulu Sea and a big chunk of the South China Sea that is within the municipal waters of Kalayaan Municipality which was official annexed to the Philippine jurisdiction by virtue of Presidential Decree 1596 dated June 11, 1978.
Climate
The province has two types of climate. The first, which occurs in the northern and southern extremities and the entire western coast, has two distinct seasons – six months dry and six months wet. The other, which prevails in the eastern coast, has a short dry season of one to three months and no pronounced rainy period during the rest of the year. The southern part of the province is virtually free from tropical depressions but northern Palawan experiences torrential rains during the months of July and August. Summer months serve as peak season for Palawan. Sea voyages are most favorable from March to early June when the seas are calm. The average maximum temperature is with little variation all year.
The island ecosystem of Palawan is threatened by climate change. For example, though mangroves and barrier reefs protect Puerto Princesa's coastlines from supertyphoons, these barriers are subject to degradation due to El Niño, rising sea temperatures, and other climate change-related phenomena. A study by the World Wide Fund for Nature revealed that a spike in ocean acidification in 2010 came from Palawan's waters.
Administrative divisions
Palawan comprises 433 barangays in 23 municipalities and the capital City of Puerto Princesa. As an archipelago, Palawan has 13 mainland municipalities and 10 island towns. There are three congressional districts, namely: the first district comprising five northern mainland municipalities and nine island towns; the second district composed of six southern mainland towns and the island municipality of Balabac; and the third district covering the capital City of Puerto Princesa and the town of Aborlan. Thirteen municipalities are considered as mainland municipalities, namely Aborlan, Narra, Quezon, Sofronio Española, Brooke's Point, Rizal, and Bataraza (located south); San Vicente, Roxas, Dumaran, El Nido, and Taytay (found in the north). The remaining island municipalities are: Busuanga, Coron, Linapacan and Culion (forming the Calamianes group of islands), Cuyo, Agutaya and Magsaysay (the Cuyo group of islands), Araceli, Cagayancillo, Balabac and Kalayaan (Spratly Islands). The capital, Puerto Princesa is a highly urbanized city that governs itself independently from the province, but it usually grouped with the province for statistical and geographic purposes.
Had the March 2021 plebiscite (originally scheduled for May 2020 but delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic) approved the partition, Palawan will be divided into three provinces. The three provinces are Palawan del Norte (includes El Nido, Taytay, Coron, Linapacan, Culion, and Busuanga), Palawan Oriental (includes San Vicente, Roxas, Dumaran, Cuyo, Agutaya, Magsaysay, and Cagayancillo), and Palawan del Sur (includes Kalayaan, Aborlan, Narra, Sofronio Española, Brooke's Point, Rizal, Quezon, Bataraza and Balabac).
Region
In 2001, the residents of Palawan voted in a plebiscite to reject inclusion into an expanded Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.
On 17 May 2002, Executive Order No. 103 divided Region IV into Region IV-A (Calabarzon) and Region IV-B (Mimaropa), placing the province of Palawan into Mimaropa.
On 23 May 2005, Executive Order No. 429 directed that Palawan be transferred from Region IV-B to Region VI. However, Palaweños criticized the move, citing a lack of consultation, with most residents in Puerto Princesa City and all municipalities but one preferring to stay with Region IV-B. Consequently, Administrative Order No. 129 was issued on 19 August 2005 that the implementation of EO 429 be held in abeyance pending approval by the President of its implementation Plan. The Philippine Commission on Elections reported the 2010 Philippine general election results for Palawan as a part of the Region IV-B results. , the abeyance was still in effect and Palawan remained a part of Mimaropa.
Demographics
The population of Palawan in the was people, with a density of . When Puerto Princesa is included for geographical purposes, the population is 1,104,585 people, with a density of .
The province is a melting pot of 87 different cultural groups and races. Influx of migrants from other parts of the Philippines, particularly from Muslim Mindanao, accounts for the high population growth rate of 3.98% annually. The native-born Palaweños still predominate the populace. Eighteen percent is composed of cultural minority groups such as the Tagbanwa, Palawano, Batak, and Molbog.
Religion
Roman Catholicism
The predominant religion in Palawan is Roman Catholicism. In 2017, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Princesa had a 68.8% adherence while the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Taytay (Northern Palawan) had an 91.6% adherence. One of the religious orders that had a significant mission in the islands is the Order of Augustinian Recollects.
The Catholics in the province are governed by a single apostolic vicariate until 2002 when it was divided into two: the Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Princesa in Southern Palawan and the Apostolic Vicariate of Taytay in Northern Palawan.
Protestantism and other groups
Several Baptist and other Protestant denominations have a strong presence in Palawan as do the Church of the Foursquare Gospel in the Philippines, and the Seventh-day Adventists. Charismatic groups such as Jesus is Lord (JIL), Jesus Touch Fellowship (JTF) and the Life Church (formerly known at the Life Renewal Center).
The Members Church of God International popularly called Ang Dating Daan established three church districts namely Coron, Northern Palawan and Southern Palawan which signifies strong membership in the province.
Other Christian denominations including the indigenous Iglesia ni Cristo has many local congregations in the province. The United Church of Christ in the Philippines or (UCCP), the Jesus Miracle Crusade, the Pentecostal Missionary Church of Christ or PMCC (4th Watch) as well as the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent Church or Aglipayan Church) which is standing as one diocese (The Diocese of Palawan). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a growing membership in the island province. Jehovah's Witnesses have an active membership of 181,236 in the Philippines as of 2012. Special pioneers from the Witnesses have been preaching to prisoners at the Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm in Palawan, and were permitted to build a small Kingdom Hall right on the premises.
Islam
Around 75,000 to 100,000 Palawan residents (10% to 13%) identify as Muslims, these being mostly the native Molbog who are concentrated in Balabac and Bataraza of the southern part of the island. Large numbers of Jama Mapun (Mapun Island) and Tausug (Sulu) migrants have also settled in southern Palawan, as well as a smaller number of Sama Pangutaran (Tawi-Tawi), Maranao (Lanao del Sur), and Yakan (Basilan). Maranao traders are more widely scattered throughout urban centers in Palawan, while the Yakan are mostly centered in the Rio Tuba area of Bataraza.
Animism
Most of the ethnic minorities such as Batak and Tagbanwa are animists, many of which have continued to preserve their ancient traditions passed on by their ancestors and onto the next generations. However, Christian missionaries have interfered in some communities, to an extent where traditional ways have been obliterated by foreign and foreign-inspired religions.
Other religions
A notable Buddhist Temple in Palawan is Chùa Vạn Pháp. The temple was built by Vietnamese refugees. They were temporarily settled in Palawan during the Indochina refugee crisis, while they awaited permanent resettlement to third countries. Almost all of the refugees have moved on to other countries in 2005 and 2006.
Language
There are 52 languages and dialects in the province, with Tagalog being spoken by more than 50 percent of the people. Languages native to the islands are Cuyonon (26.27 percent), and Palawano (4.0 percent). Kinaray-a is also present at 19 percent. Before mass immigration to Palawan by various groups of people from Southern Tagalog, Illocandia, and Central Luzon, and Panay, Cuyonon was an established lingua franca amongst many of its native peoples, i.e. the Agutaynen, Cagayanen, Tagbanua, Palawan, and others. The usage of Cuyonon significantly dropped during the approach of the new millennium being replaced by the now majority Tagalog. In the south of Palawan during the occupation of the Sulu Sultanate, Tausug was a lingua franca amongst the minority Islamfied ethnic groups i.e. Molbog, Tausug (non native), Muslim Palaw’an, and the migratory Sama. By the 19th century, Cuyonon had replaced Tausug as lingua franca.
Economy
Palawan's economy is basically agricultural. The three major crops are palay, corn and coconut. Mineral resources include nickel, copper, manganese, and chromite. Logging is also a major industry. Palawan has one of the richest fishing grounds in the country. About 45% of Manila's supply of fish comes from here. Having natural gas reserves of approximately 30,000 trillion cubic feet, the province is the only oil-producing province in the country. In addition, tourism is also a thriving sector, having received 1.8 million tourists in 2018, a 21% year-over-year increase from 2017.
Pearl diving used to be a significant economic activity for Palawan until the advent of plastics. The world's largest pearl, the diameter Pearl of Lao Tzu, was found off Palawan in 1934.
The economic and agricultural business growth of province is at 20% per annum. Coconut, sugar, rice, lumber, and livestock are produced here.
Flora and fauna
Unlike most of the Philippines, Palawan is biogeographically part of Sundaland, with a fauna and flora
related to that found in Borneo.
Palawan has 700,000 hectares of forests (as of 2010) and has been called the Philippines' "last biodiversity frontier."
Among the many endemic species are the Palawan peacock-pheasant, Philippine mouse-deer, Philippine pangolin, Palawan bearded pig, and Palawan birdwing. In the forests and grasslands, the air resonates with the songs of more than 200 kinds of birds. Over 600 species of butterflies flutter around the mountains and fields of Palawan, attracted to some 1500 hosts plants found here. Endangered sea turtles nest on white sand beaches. Sea turtles usually go to the nutrient-rich coastal waters of Palawan to rest and look for food. Dugong numbers have fallen seriously, although Palawan still has a larger population than any other part of the country, and organizations such as Community Centred Conservation (C3) are working to end the unsustainable use of marine resources in Palawan and in Philippines.
Total forest cover is about 56 percent of the total land area of the province while mangrove forest accounts for 3.35 percent based on the 1998 Landsat imagery. Grasslands dwindled from 19 percent in 1992 to 12.40 percent in 1998. This is an indication of improving soil condition as deteriorating soil is normally invaded by grass species. Brushlands increased to 25 percent of the total land area. Sprawled beneath the seas are nearly 11,000 square kilometers of coral reefs, representing more than 35% of the country's coral reefs.
Palawan, the only Philippine island cited, is rated by the Condé Nast Traveler Readers as the most beautiful island in the world and is also rated by the National Geographic Traveler magazine as the best island destination in East and Southeast Asia region in 2007, and the equal 27th best island in the world having "incredibly beautiful natural seascapes and landscapes. One of the most biodiverse (terrestrial and marine) islands in the Philippines. The island has had a Biosphere Reserve status since the early 1990s, showing local interest for conservation and sustainable development".
The province was also categorized as "doing well" in the 4th Destination Scorecard survey conducted by the National Geographic Center for Sustainable Destinations, and Conde Nast Traveler magazine voted its beaches, coves and islets as the tourist destination with the best beaches in Asia. Renowned underwater explorer Jacques Cousteau has described the province as having one of the most beautiful seascapes in the world. and Caril Ridley, founder of Palawan Environmental and Marine Studies Center (PEMS) says the Islands of northern Palawan are destined to become a future destination for Asia's growing economic and environmental conferencing.
In 2007, a "shrew-eating pitcher plant", named Nepenthes attenboroughii was discovered in Mount Victoria. There were many species of pitcher plants discovered in this wild mountain paradise, the most recent is named Nepenthes leonardoi. In 2012, the purple crab was discovered here along with four other species.
Attractions
Calauit Game Preserve and Wildlife Sanctuary
A game reserve and wildlife sanctuary of exotic African animals and endangered endemic animals of Palawan. The reserve was established on August 31, 1976, by virtue of the Presidential Decree No. 1578,. This was initiated in response to the appeal of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to help save African wildlife when former President Ferdinand Marcos attended the 3rd World Conference in Kenya. However, the IUCN, which has a policy against relocating animals outside of their natural range, bears no record of such a request. By virtue of Republic Act 7611 (), administrative jurisdiction of DENR was given to the local government of Palawan, effective December 31, 1993. Management of the area is the responsibility of the Office of the Palawan Council of Sustainable Development (PCSD). It is located in Calauit Island in Busuanga.
Coron Reefs, Coron Bay, Busuanga
Seven lakes surrounded by craggy limestone cliffs attract hundreds of nature lovers to Coron Reefs in Northern Palawan, near the town of Coron. Busuanga Island, whose main town is Coron, is the jump-off point for numerous dive operators. The principal dive sites are 12 World War II Japanese shipwrecks sunk on September 24, 1944, by US Navy action. They range in depth from the surface to 40 meters. This large variety offers exciting wreck exploration for enthusiasts, from novice divers and snorkelers and recreational divers to experienced TEC divers.
The aquatic views from the sunken Japanese warships off Coron Island are listed in Forbes Traveler Magazines top 10 best scuba sites in the world.
Kayangan Lake
Accessible by a steep 10-minute climb, the crystal-clear waters of Lake Kayangan are nestled into the mountain walls; underwater is like a moonscape. There’s a little wooden walkway and platform to stash your things if you go for a swim. Don’t expect privacy or quiet, though, as the lake, an Instagram favorite, is overwhelmed by the cellphone-wielding masses during peak hours. To avoid the crowds you'll need to visit on a private tour early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
El Nido Marine Reserve Park
The January 2008 issue of international magazine Travel + Leisure, published by the American Express Co. (which partnered with Conservation International) listed El Nido's sister hotel resorts El Nido Lagen Island and El Nido Miniloc Island in Miniloc and Lagen Islands as "conservation-minded places on a mission to protect the local environment". Travel + Leisures 20 Favorite Green Hotels scored El Nido Resort's protection of Palawan's giant clam gardens and the re-introduction of endangered Philippine cockatoos. Guest cottages on stilts are set above the crystalline ocean. The resorts are active in both reef and island conservation."
Malampaya Sound Land and Seascape Protected Area
Located in the Municipality of Taytay, this important ecological and economic zone is a watershed and fishing ground, and the habitat of Bottle-nosed and Irrawaddy dolphins.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park (1999)
Puerto Princesa City is the home of the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park or the Underground River, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The 8-kilometer long tourist spot that showcases limestone karsts, diverse species and tropical rainforest is one of the world’s longest underground rivers and was also named as one of the “New 7 Wonders of Nature.”
Tubbataha Reef Marine Park (1993)
The Tubbataha Reef Marine Park covers 332 km2, including the North and South Reefs. It is a unique example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100 m perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons, and two coral islands.
Ursula Island
This game refuge and bird sanctuary is situated near the Municipality of Bataraza in southern Palawan. The islet is a migratory and wintering ground for shorebirds and seabirds.
Rasa Island Wildlife Sanctuary
This protected area located in the municipality of Narra is a nesting ground of the endemic Philippine cockatoo or katala. It also harbors other rare bird species and marine turtles.
Security
The Armed Forces of the Philippines–Western Command in Canigaran and the Philippine National Police-Palawan Command with headquarters in Tiniguiban, Puerto Princesa, are responsible for maintenance of the peace and order. Military units in the province under the Western Command are the Naval Forces Northwest (Task Force 41 and 42), Philippine Air Force 4th Naval District IV, Delta Company and 10th Marine Battalion Landing Team located in Tiniguiban, Puerto Princesa. There has been discussion about dredging Ulugan Bay in order to build a larger naval base on Palawan, allowing the Philippines to project naval power into the South China Sea.
The U.S. Department of State issued a travel warning in May 2015, advising foreigners against travel to the southern part of Palawan. The warning continues to be in effect as of May 2017.
Infrastructure
Communication
Four telecommunication companies provide local and international direct distance dialing and fax services. Inter island communications is available through the government's telegraph network and the Provincial Radio Communication System. In addition, there are 19 post offices, a number of cargo forwarders provide air parcel and freight services.
The province has access to two satellite-linked television stations. Cable television in the City of Puerto Princesa offers dozens of foreign channels while smaller firms provide cable services in selected towns. Individual cable facility (Dream Cable) is available locally. Seven radio stations are based in Puerto Princesa, four on the AM and three on the FM bands. Community-based radio stations operate in some of the municipalities in the north and south of the province. Additional stations are expected to set up local affiliates in the capital city of Puerto Princesa.
Two mobile phone companies, Smart Communications and Globe Telecom, are operating in the province. Sun Cellular is expected to start operations in the province soon.
Health facilities
There are nine provincial government hospitals, two national government hospitals, one military hospital and nine private hospitals in the province. The Culion Sanitarium and General Hospital, Ospital ng Palawan, managed and administered by the Department of Health (DOH), MMG-PPC Cooperative Hospital, and the Palawan Adventist Hospital are located in Puerto Princesa.
Utilities
The National Power Corporation has 14 electric facilities all over Palawan. It operates with a total of 51.363 megawatts of electricity. The effective power rates vary across different municipalities. According to Palawan Electric Cooperative (PALECO), the main island composed of 19 city and municipalities, has 59% of electrification with 135,284 households connected to the grid.
Water facilities in Palawan are classified as Level I (deepwell, handpump), Level II (communal faucet), or Level III (house connection). Among all of these types, Level I has the most units, accounting to 17,438; this is followed by Level III, with 1,688 units; and Level II, with only 94 units.
Transportation
Air
The Puerto Princesa International Airport is the only international airport in Palawan, serving as the main gateway to the province. Other airports include:
Domestic
Francisco B. Reyes Airport, Coron, Busuanga Island
El Nido Airport, El Nido
San Vicente Airport, San Vicente
Cuyo Airport, Magsaysay
Taytay Airport, Taytay
Del Pilar Airport, Roxas
Bugsuk (Bonbon) Airport, Balabac (Bugsuk Island)
Tagbita Airport, Rizal
Balabac Airport, Balabac
Rio Tuba Airport, Bataraza
Other
Coron Airstrip, Coron
Culion Airstrip, Culion
Brooke's Point Airstrip, Brooke's Point
Candaraman Airstrip, Balabac (Candaraman Island)
Inandeng Airstrip, San Vicente (under construction)
Pamalican (Amanpulo) Airstrip, Cuyo (Pamalican Island)
Old Busuanga Airstrip, Busuanga
Rancudo Airfield, Kalayaan (military)
Tarumpitao Point Airfield, Rizal
Seaports
Port of Puerto Princesa is the main port on Palawan, serving both cargo and passenger traffic to the island. Scheduled passenger ferry services are running weekly from Manila to this port. The port is managed by the Philippine Ports Authority. Other ports include:
Port of Coron
Port of El Nido
Port Of Mangingisda
Education
The literacy rate in Palawan is increasing by 2% annually because of expanding access to education. Among these programs are the establishment of schools in remote barangays, non-formal education, multi-grade mobile teaching and the drop-out intervention program.
Public schools in the province consist of 623 elementary schools, 126 secondary schools and two universities. Private schools are as follows: 26 elementary, 19 secondary, 4 private colleges, and 10 vocational schools.
Among the public institutions of higher education are the Palawan State University in Puerto Princesa City with 17 other campuses across the province, Western Philippines University with campuses in Aborlan and Puerto Princesa City, Coron College of Fisheries, Puerto Princesa School of Arts and Trade and the Palawan College of Arts and Trade in Cuyo, Palawan.
Some of the private institutions are the Holy Trinity University run by the Dominican Sisters of Saint Catherine of Siena, Palawan Polytechnical College Inc., in Roxas, San Vicente and Puerto Princesa City, Systems Technology Institute (STI), AMA Computer Learning Center (ACLC) in Puerto Princesa City, San Francisco Javier College run by the Augustinian Recollect Sisters in Narra, Loyola College in Culion run by the Jesuits, St. Joseph Academy in Cuyo, St. Augustine Academy in Coron, Coron Technical School, Sacred Heart of Jesus High School in Brooke's Point; Northern Palawan Christian Institute (owned and manage by the Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Palawan Diocese) and the unique educational institution called the St. Ezekiel Moreno Dormitory located in barangay Macarascas, Puerto Princesa City, founded by Bishop Broderick Pabillo, the present auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Manila. The Palawanologist, Andrei Ustares Acosta of El Nido, Palawan, founded the new discipline on the studies of Palawan called the Palawanology.
Awards and Recognition
Palawan earned the third spot in the annual Condé Nast Traveler (CNT) readers' choice awards for top islands to visit in 2021.
See also
Legislative districts of Palawan
Dewil Valley
List of islands of the Philippines
Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park
References
External links
Philippine Standard Geographic Code
Local Governance Performance Management System
1818 establishments in the Philippines
Biosphere reserves of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
Japanese prisoner of war and internment camps
Mimaropa
Provinces of the Philippines
South China Sea
States and territories established in 1818
Sulu Sea | [
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240396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APCO%20radiotelephony%20spelling%20alphabet | APCO radiotelephony spelling alphabet | The APCO phonetic alphabet, a.k.a. LAPD radio alphabet, is the term for an old competing spelling alphabet to the ICAO radiotelephony alphabet, defined by the Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials-International from 1941 to 1974, that is used by the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and other local and state law enforcement agencies across the state of California and elsewhere in the United States. It is the "over the air" communication used for properly understanding a broadcast of letters in the form of easily understood words. Despite often being called a "phonetic alphabet", it is not a phonetic alphabet for transcribing phonetics.
In 1974, APCO adopted the ICAO Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, making the APCO alphabet officially obsolete; however, it is still widely used, and relatively few police departments in the U.S. use the ICAO alphabet.
Development
The APCO first suggested that its Procedure and Signals Committee work out a system for a "standard set of words representing the alphabet should be used by all stations" in its April 1940 newsletter. By this point, APCO President Herb Wareing "came out in favor of a standard list of words for alphabet letters, preferably suitable for both radiophone and radiotelegraph use."
The list was based on the results of questionnaires sent out by the Procedures Committee to all zone and interzone police radio stations. The questionnaire solicited suggestions, but also included the existing Western Union and Bell Telephone word lists, plus another list then in general use by a number of police stations. Lists used by military services were excluded because of a lack of permission to reproduce. The resulting final list differs from the Bell Telephone word list by only five words, and from the Western Union word list by only eight words.
Replacement with international spelling alphabet
In 1974, APCO adopted the ICAO International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, replacing the Adam-Boy-Charlie alphabet APCO first published in 1940. However, most police departments nationwide have kept using the 1940 APCO spelling alphabet, with those using the 1974 APCO spelling alphabet being the exception, rather than the rule. A partial list of police departments using the modern APCO/ICAO spelling alphabet includes:
Saint Paul, Minnesota Police Department
LAPD usage history
At some point in the early history of emergency service mobile radio systems, the LAPD adopted the APCO radio spelling alphabet for relaying precise information on individual letters. For example, the license plate "8QXG518" might be read by a civilian as "eight cue ex gee five eighteen" but with accuracy being paramount, the police dispatcher would say "eight queen x-ray george five one eight." Despite the development in 1941 of the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet and its replacement, circa 1956, by the NATO phonetic alphabet (currently used by all NATO armed forces, civil aviation, telecommunications, and some law enforcement agencies), the LAPD and other law enforcement and emergency service agencies throughout the United States continue to use their traditional system.
APCO's Project 14 updated the definition of Ten-codes, and also adopted the international radiotelephony spelling alphabet for use by law enforcement nationwide.
Comparison of U.S. law enforcement radiotelephony spelling alphabets
The APCO radiotelephony spelling alphabet and its variations represent the letters of the English alphabet using words as follows:
There are several local variations of this system in use. The Metropolitan Police Department (Washington DC), uses the APCO alphabet, however the California Highway Patrol, Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, San Jose Police Department, San Francisco Police Department, and other agencies across the West Coast and Southwestern United States, as well as the use versions that allocate Yellow to "Y" and other agencies' versions allocate Baker or Bravo to "B", or use variations that include Nancy instead of Nora for "N", Easy instead of Edward for "E", or Yesterday for "Y".
With the ultimate goal of clarity, especially in circumstances where signals can be garbled, the use of the word Ocean seems to be advantageous in the radio communication of the letter "O" because it begins with the long, clear vowel "O". The phonetic words Ida and Union feature this same advantage. However, spelling alphabets seem to rarely use initial long vowels. With the exception of Uniform, none of the initial vowels in the NATO alphabet is like this. In an earlier U.S. military alphabet, "A" was indicated by Able, which does start with a long "A", but has since been changed to Alpha (also spelled Alfa, particularly outside the English-speaking countries). In like manner, for clarity, the use of "niner" instead of "nine" for the numeral 9 prevents confusion with the numeral 5, which can sound similar, especially when communications are garbled.
Popular culture
The origin of the name Adam-12 from the television series of the same title comes from this alphabet. The LAPD still calls its basic two-man patrol car an "A" unit, and the letter "A" is spoken as "Adam" in the spelling alphabet. The entire callsign "1-Adam-12" translates to [Division] One (LAPD Central Division) Two Man Patrol Car (Adam unit) in patrol car 12. The 12 refers to what is called "The Basic Car Plan". That is, the patrol area within the precinct. Specialized units use the last numbers as designating the officers. An example would be 6U2, Hollywood Division report writing unit. The patrol car, in LAPD jargon, is called a "black-and-white", owing to the colors. The number that is on the car is called the shop number and is only used for identifying the vehicle.
In the 1970s American television series CHiPs, motorcycle units are identified with the letter "M", such as 7M4 (Seven Mary Four) for Officer Frank Poncherello (portrayed by Erik Estrada). His partner, Officer Jon Baker (portrayed by actor Larry Wilcox), is identified as 7M3 (Seven Mary Three). In these callsigns, "7" designates the patrol beat, "M" designates a motorcycle unit, and "3" is the unit number.
Also, since many police, fire department, and rescue squad TV programs and movies are set in Los Angeles, the words of the LAPD phonetic alphabet have become familiar in the United States, Canada and English-speaking countries around the world due to the wide reach of American entertainment media. When used by workers such as telephone operators speaking to "civilians" who may be unfamiliar with the use of a phonetic alphabet, both the everyday letter and its phonetic alphabet equivalent are spoken, such as "B as in boy", "V as in Victor", etc.
On early seasons of Wheel of Fortune, a close variant of the LAPD phonetic alphabet was used. Players would be encouraged to say things like "I'll have B as in boy" when choosing letters.
See also
Spelling alphabet
Allied Military Phonetic Spelling Alphabet
ICAO/NATO phonetic alphabet - International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) phonetic alphabet, also used in the NATO
Language-specific spelling alphabets
Greek spelling alphabet
German spelling alphabet
Dutch spelling alphabet
Russian spelling alphabet
Cockney alphabet
Notes
References
Provides the LASD and LACDCS APCO Phonetic alphabet
Los Angeles Police Department
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240400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration%20of%20media%20ownership | Concentration of media ownership | Concentration of media ownership (also known as media consolidation or media convergence) is a process whereby progressively fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media. Contemporary research demonstrates increasing levels of consolidation, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms.
Globally, large media conglomerates include Bertelsmann, National Amusements (Paramount Global), Sony Group Corporation, News Corp, Comcast, The Walt Disney Company, AT&T Inc., Fox Corporation, Hearst Communications, MGM Holdings Inc., Grupo Globo (South America), and Lagardère Group.
As of 2020, the largest media conglomerates in terms of revenue are Comcast, The Walt Disney Company, AT&T, and Paramount Global, per Forbes.
Mergers
Media mergers occur when one media company buys another. The current landscape of corporate media ownership in the United States of America can be described as an oligopoly.
Risks for media integrity
Media integrity is at risk when small number of companies and individuals control the media market. Media integrity refers to the ability of a media outlet to serve the public interest and democratic process, making it resilient to institutional corruption within the media system, economy of influence, conflicting dependence and political clientelism.
Elimination of net neutrality
Net neutrality is also at stake when media mergers occur. Net neutrality involves a lack of restrictions on content on the internet, however, with big businesses supporting campaigns financially they tend to have influence over political issues, which can translate into their mediums. These big businesses that also have control over internet usage or the airwaves could possibly make the content available biased from their political stand point or they could restrict usage for conflicting political views, therefore eliminating net neutrality.
Issues
Concentration of media ownership is very frequently seen as a problem of contemporary media and society.
Freedom of the press and editorial independence
Johannes von Dohnanyi, in a 2003 report published by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)'s Office of the Representative on Freedom of the Media, argued market concentration among media—whether driven by domestic or foreign investors—should be "closely monitored" because "Horizontal concentration may cause dangers to media pluralism and diversity, while vertical concentration may result in entry barriers for new competitors." Von Dohnanyi argues that to "safeguard free and independent print media and protect professional journalism as one of the cornerstones of constitutional democracy" there should be standards for editorial independence, better labor protections for professional journalists, and independent institutions "to monitor the implementation and observance of all laws and regulations regarding concentration processes, media pluralism, content diversity and journalistic freedoms."
Deregulation
Robert W. McChesney argues that the concentration of media ownership is caused by a shift to neoliberal deregulation policies, which is a market-driven approach. Deregulation effectively removes governmental barriers to allow for the commercial exploitation of media. Motivation for media firms to merge includes increased profit-margins, reduced risk and maintaining a competitive edge. In contrast to this, those who support deregulation have argued that cultural trade barriers and regulations harm consumers and domestic support in the form of subsidies hinders countries to develop their own strong media firms. The opening of borders is more beneficial to countries than maintaining protectionist regulations.
Critics of media deregulation and the resulting concentration of ownership fear that such trends will only continue to reduce the diversity of information provided, as well as to reduce the accountability of information providers to the public. The ultimate consequence of consolidation, critics argue, is a poorly informed public, restricted to a reduced array of media options that offer only information that does not harm the media oligopoly's growing range of interests.
For those critics, media deregulation is a dangerous trend, facilitating an increase in concentration of media ownership, and subsequently reducing the overall quality and diversity of information communicated through major media channels. Increased concentration of media ownership can lead to corporate censorship affecting a wide range of critical thought.
Media pluralism
The concentration of media ownership is commonly regarded as one of the crucial aspects reducing media pluralism. A high concentration of the media market increases the chances to reduce the plurality of political, cultural and social points of views.
Even if ownership of the media is one of the main concerns when it comes to assessing media pluralism, the concept of media pluralism is broader as it touches many aspects, from merger control rules to editorial freedom, the status of public service broadcasters, the working conditions of journalists, the relationship between media and politics, representation of local and regional communities and the inclusion of minorities' voices. Also, it embraces all measures guaranteeing citizens' access to diversified sources so to allow the formation of a plurality of opinions in the public sphere without undue influence of dominant powers.
Furthermore, media pluralism has a two-fold dimension, or rather internal and external. Internal pluralism concerns pluralism within a specific media organisation: in this regard, many countries request public broadcast services to account for a variety of views and opinions, including those of minority groups. External pluralism applies instead to the overall media landscape, for instance in terms of the number of media outlets operating in a given country.
Media ownership can pose serious challenges to pluralism when owners interfere with journalists' independence and editorial line. However, in a free market economy, owners must have the capacity to decide the strategy of their company to remain competitive in the market. Also, pluralism does not mean neutrality and lack of opinion, as having an editorial line is an integral part of the role of editors provided that this line is transparent and explicit to both the staff and audience.
Determinants of media pluralism
Size and wealth of the market
"Within any free market economy, the level of resources available for the provision of media will be constrained principally by the size and wealth of that economy, and the propensity of its inhabitants to consume media." [Gillian Doyle; 2002:15] Those countries that have a relatively large market, like the United Kingdom, France or Spain have more financial background to support diversity of output and have the ability to keep more media companies in the market (as they are there to make profit). More diverse output and fragmented ownership will, obviously, support pluralism. In contrast, small markets like Ireland or Hungary suffer from the absence of the diversity of output given in countries with bigger markets. It means that "support for the media through direct payment" and "levels of consumers expenditure", furthermore "the availability of advertising support" [Gillian Doyle; 2002:15] are less in these countries, due to the low number of audience. Overall, the size and wealth of the market determine the diversity of both media output and media ownership.
Consolidation of resources
The consolidation of cost functions and cost-sharing. Cost-sharing is a common practice in monomedia and cross media. For example, "for multi-product television or radio broadcasters, the more homogeneity possible between different services held in common ownership (or the more elements within a programme schedule which can be shared between 'different' stations), the greater the opportunity to reap economies". Though the main concern of pluralism is that different organization under different ownership may buy the same e.g. news stories from the same news-supplier agency. In the UK, the biggest news-supplier is The Press Association (PA). Here is a quoted text from PA web site: "The Press Association supplies services to every national and regional daily newspaper, major broadcasters, online publishers and a wide range of commercial organisations." Overall, in a system where all different media organizations gather their stories from the same source, we can't really call that system pluralist. That is where diversity of output comes in.
Pluralism in media ownership
Media privatization and the lessening of state dominance over media content has continued since 2012. In the Arab region, the Arab States Broadcasting Union (ASBU) counted 1,230 television stations broadcasting via Arab and international satellites, of which 133 were state-owned and 1,097 private. According to the ASBU Report, these numbers serve as evidence of a decline in the percentage of state channels and a rise in national private and foreign public stations targeting the Arab region. The reduction of direct government ownership over the whole media sector is commonly registered as a positive trend, but this has paralleled by a growth in outlets with a sectarian agenda.
In Africa, some private media outlets have maintained close ties to governments or individual politicians, while media houses owned by politically non-aligned individuals have struggled to survive, often in the face of advertising boycotts by state agencies. In almost all regions, models of public service broadcasting have been struggling for funding. In Western, Central and Eastern Europe, funds directed to public service broadcasting have been stagnating or declining since 2012.
New types of cross-ownership have emerged in the past five years that have spurred new questions about where to draw the line between media and other industries. A notable case has been the acquisition of the Washington Post by the founder of online retailer Amazon. While the move initially raised concerns about the newspaper's independence, the newspaper has significantly increased its standing in the online media—and print—and introduced significant innovations.
The community-centred media ownership model continues to survive in some areas, especially in isolated, rural or disadvantaged areas, and mostly pertaining to radio. Through this model, not-for-profit media outlets are run and managed by the communities they serve.
In particular nations
Australia
Controls over media ownership in Australia are laid down in the Broadcasting Services Act 1992, administered by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). Even with laws in place Australia has a high concentration of media ownership. Ownership of national and the newspapers of each capital city are dominated by two corporations, Rupert Murdoch's News Corp Australia, (which was founded in Adelaide as News Limited) and Nine Entertainment Co. These two corporations along with Seven West Media co-own Australian Associated Press which distributes the news and then sells it on to other outlets such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Although much of the everyday mainstream news is drawn from the Australian Associated Press, all the privately owned media outlets still compete with each other for exclusive pop culture news.
Rural and regional media is dominated by Australian Community Media, with significant holdings in all states and territories.
Daily Mail and General Trust operate the DMG Radio Australia commercial radio networks in metropolitan and regional areas of Australia. Formed in 1996, it has since become one of the largest radio media companies in the country. The company currently own more than 60 radio stations across New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland and Western Australia.
There are rules governing foreign ownership of Australian media and these rules were loosened by the former Howard Government.
Media Watch is an independent media watchdog televised on the public broadcaster Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), which is one of two government-administered channels, the other being Special Broadcasting Service (SBS).
In late 2011, the Finkelstein Inquiry into media regulation was launched, and reported its findings back to the federal government in early 2012.
New Zealand
Independent Newspapers Limited (INL) formerly published the Wellington-based newspapers The Dominion and The Evening Post, in addition to purchasing a large shareholding in pay TV broadcaster Sky Media Limited in 1997. These two newspapers merged to form the Dominion Post in 2002, and in 2003, sold its entire print media division to Fairfax New Zealand. The remainder of the company officially merged with Sky Media Limited in 2005 to form Sky Network Television Limited.
When INL ceased publishing the Auckland Star in 1991, The New Zealand Herald became the Auckland region's sole daily newspaper. The New Zealand Herald and the New Zealand Listener, formerly privately held by the Wilson & Horton families, was sold to APN News & Media in 1996. The long-running news syndication agency NZPA announced that it would close down in 2011, with operations to be taken over by 3 separate agencies, APN's APNZ, Fairfax's FNZN and AAP's NZN, all owned by Australian parent companies. In 2014, APN's New Zealand division officially changed its name to NZME, in order to reflect the company's convergence with its radio division The Radio Network. As of early 2015, Fairfax New Zealand and NZME have a near duopoly on newspapers and magazines in New Zealand. In May 2016, NZME and Fairfax NZ announced merger talks, pending Commerce Commission approval.
Commercial radio stations are largely divided up between MediaWorks New Zealand and NZME, with MediaWorks also owning TV3 and C4 (now The Edge TV). Television New Zealand, although 100% state-owned, has been run on an almost entirely commercial basis since the late 1980s, in spite of previous attempts to steer it towards a more public service-oriented role. Its primary public-service outlet, TVNZ7, ceased broadcasting in 2012 due to non-renewal of funding, and the youth-oriented TVNZ6 was rebranded as the short-lived commercial channel TVNZ U. In addition, the TVNZ channels Kidzone (and formerly TVNZ Heartland) are only available through Sky Network Television and not on the Freeview platform.
Sky Network Television has had an effective monopoly on pay TV in New Zealand since its nearest rival Saturn Communications (later part of TelstraClear and now Vodafone New Zealand) began wholesaling Sky content in 2002. However, in 2011, TelstraClear CEO Allan Freeth warned it would review its wholesale agreement with Sky unless it allowed TelstraClear to purchase non-Sky content.
Canada
Canada has the biggest concentrated TV ownership out of all the G8 countries and it comes in second place for the most concentrated television viewers.
Broadcasting and telecommunications in Canada are regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), an independent governing agency that aims to serve the needs and interests of citizens, industries, interest groups and the government. The CRTC does not regulate newspapers or magazines.
Apart from a relatively small number of community broadcasters, media in Canada are primarily owned by a small number of groups, including Bell Canada, the Shaw family (via Corus Entertainment and Shaw Communications), Rogers Communications, Quebecor, and the government-owned CBC/Radio-Canada. Each of these companies holds a diverse mix of television, specialty television, and radio operations. Bell, Rogers, Shaw, and Quebecor also engage in the telecommunications industry with their ownership of internet providers, television providers, and mobile carriers, while Rogers is also involved in publishing.
In 2007, CTVglobemedia, Rogers Media and Quebecor all expanded significantly through the acquisitions of CHUM Limited, CityTV and Osprey Media, respectively. In 2010, Canwest Global Communications, having filed for bankruptcy, sold its television assets to Shaw (through a new subsidiary, Shaw Media) and spun off its newspaper holdings into Postmedia Network, a new company founded by the National Posts CEO Paul Godfrey. Later that year, Bell also announced that it would acquire the remaining shares of CTVglobemedia (which was originally majority owned by Bell when it was formed in 2001; Bell had reduced its stake in the following years), forming Bell Media.
Between 1990 and 2005 there were a number of media corporate mergers and takeovers in Canada. For example, in 1990, 17.3% of daily newspapers were independently owned; whereas in 2005, 1% were. These changes, among others, caused the Senate Standing Committee on Transport and Communications to launch a study of Canadian news media in March 2003. (This topic had been examined twice in the past, by the Davey Commission (1970) and the Kent Commission (1981), both of which produced recommendations that were never implemented in any meaningful way.)
The Senate Committee's final report, released in June 2006, expressed concern about the effects of the current levels of news media ownership in Canada. Specifically, the committee discussed their concerns regarding the following trends: the potential of media ownership concentration to limit news diversity and reduce news quality; the CRTC and Competition Bureau's ineffectiveness at stopping media ownership concentration; the lack of federal funding for the CBC and the broadcaster's uncertain mandate and role; diminishing employment standards for journalists (including less job security, less journalistic freedom, and new contractual threats to intellectual property); a lack of Canadian training and research institutes; and difficulties with the federal government's support for print media and the absence of funding for the internet-based news media.
The Senate report expressed particular concern about the concentration of ownership in the province of New Brunswick, where the Irving business empire owns all the English-language daily newspapers and most of the weeklies. Senator Joan Fraser, author of the report, stated, "We didn't find anywhere else in the developed world a situation like the situation in New Brunswick."
The report provided 40 recommendations and 10 suggestions (for areas outside of federal government jurisdiction), including legislation amendments that would trigger automatic reviews of a proposed media merger if certain thresholds are reached, and CRTC regulation revisions to ensure that access to the broadcasting system is encouraged and that a diversity of news and information programming is available through these services.
Public inquires into the concentration of ownership and its impact upon democracy. The Canadian regulatory framework imposes requirements upon the protection and enhancement of Canadian culture (through regulation, subsidies and the operation of the CBC). Increasing acceptance of media/news as commercial enterprise in 1990s driven by: hegemony of new-liberalism, role of commodified information technology in economic growth, commitment to private sector "champions" of Canadian culture.
Brazil
In Brazil, the concentration of media ownership seems to have manifested itself very early. Dr. Venício A. de Lima noted in 2003:
Lima points to other factors that would make media concentration easier, particularly in broadcasting: the failure of legal norms that limit the equity interest of the same economic group in various broadcasting organizations; a short period (five years) for resell broadcasting concessions, facilitating the concentration by the big media groups through the purchase of independent stations, and no restrictions to the formation of national broadcasting networks. He cites examples of horizontal, vertical, crossed and "in cross" concentration (a Brazilian peculiarity).
Horizontal concentration: oligopoly or monopoly produced within an area or industry; television (pay or free) is the Brazilian classical model. In 2002 the cable networks Sky and NET dominated 61% of the Brazilian market. In the same year, 58.37% of all advertising budgets were invested in TV – and in this aspect, TV Globo and its affiliates received 78% of the amount.
Vertical concentration: integration of the different phases of production and distribution, eliminating the work of independent producers. In Brazil, unlike the United States, it is common for a TV network to produce, advertise, market and distribute most of its programming. TV Globo is known for its soap operas exported to dozens of countries; it keeps under permanent contract the actors, authors, and the whole production staff. The final product is broadcast by a network of newspapers, magazines, radio stations and websites owned by Globo Organizations.
Cross ownership: ownership of different kinds of media (TV, newspapers, magazines, etc.) by the same group. Initially, the phenomenon occurred in radio, television and print media, with emphasis on the group of "Diários Associados." At a later stage appeared the RBS Group (affiliated to TV Globo), with operations in the markets of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Besides being the owner of radio and television stations, and of the main local newspapers, it has two Internet portals. The opinions of its commentators are thus replicated by a multimedia system that makes it extremely easy to spread the point of view advocated by the group.
Monopoly "in cross"''': reproduction into local level, of the particularities of cross ownership. Research carried out in the early 1990s, detected the presence of this singularity in 18 of the 26 Brazilian states. Manifests itself by the presence of a TV channel with a large audience, often linked to TV Globo and by the existence of two daily newspapers, in which the one with the largest circulation is linked to the major television channel and to a network of radio stations, that almost always reproduces articles and the editorial line of the newspaper "O Globo". In 2002, another survey (which did not include pay TV), found the presence of the "monopoly in cross" in 13 major markets in Brazil.
The UNESCO office in Brasília has expressed its concern over the existence of an outdated code of telecommunications (1962), which no longer meets the expectations generated by the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 in the political and social fields, and the inability of the Brazilian government to establish an independent regulatory agency to manage the media. Attempts in this direction have been pointed by the mainstream media as attacks on freedom of expression, the trend of the political left in the entire Latin American continent.
Europe
Council of Europe and European Union
Since the 1980, a significant debate has developed at the European level concerning the regulation of media ownership and the principles to be adopted to regulate media ownership concentration. Both the Council of Europe (CoE) and the European Union (EU) have tried to formulate a distinctive and comprehensive media policy, including on the issue of concentration. However, the emphasis of both the organisations was more on strengthening media diversity and pluralism than on limiting concentration, even though they have often expressed the need for common European media concentration regulations. However, the European Union enforces a common regulation for environmental protection, consumer protection and human rights, but it has none for media pluralism.
Although there is no specific media concentration legislation at the European level, a number of existing legal instruments such as the Amsterdam Protocol, the Audiovisual Media Services Directive and actions programs contribute directly and indirectly to curbing media concentration at EU level.
When it comes to regulating media concentration at the common European level, there is a conflict between Member states and the European Commission (EC). Even if Member states do not publicly challenge the need for common regulation on media concentration, they push to incorporate their own regulatory approach at the EU level and are reluctant to give the European Union their regulatory power on the issue of media concentration.
The Council of Europe's initiative promoting media pluralism and curbing media concentration dates back to the mid-1970s. Several resolutions, recommendations, declarations by the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers and studies by experts' groups have addressed the issue since then. The council's approach has been mainly addressed at defining and protecting media pluralism, defined in terms of pluralism of media content in order to allow a plurality of ideas and opinions.
Within the European Union, two main standpoints have emerged in the debate: on the one hand, the European Parliament has favoured the idea that, considering the crucial role that media play in the functioning of democratic systems, policies in this field should prevent excessive concentration in order to guarantee pluralism and diversity. On the other hand, the European Commission has privileged the understanding that the media sector should be regulated, as any other economic field, following the principles of market harmonization and liberalization.
Indeed, media concentration issues can be addressed both by general competition policies and by specific media sector rules. According to some scholars, given the vital importance of contemporary media, sector-specific competition rules in the media industries should be enhanced. Within the EU, the Council regulation 4064/89/EEC on the control of concentrations between undertakings as part of European competition legislation covered also media concentration cases. The need for sector-specific regulation has been widely supported by both media scholars and the European Parliament. In the 1980s, when preparing legislation on cross-border television many experts and MEPs argued for including provisions for media concentration in the EU directive but these efforts failed. In 1992, the Commission of the European Communities published a policy document named "Pluralism and Media Concentration in the internal Market – an assessment of the need for Community action" which outlined three options on the issue of media concentration regulation at the Community level, i.e. no specific action to be taken; action regulating transparency; and action to harmonize laws. Out of these options, the first one was chosen but the debate on this decision lasted for years. Council regulation as a tool for regulating media concentration was excluded and the two proposals on a media concentration directive advanced in the mid 1990s were not backed by the commission. As a consequence, efforts at legislating media concentration at Community level were phased out by the end of the 1990s.
Despite a wide consensus over the idea that the vital importance of contemporary media justifies to regulate media concentration through sector-specific concentration rules going beyond the general competition policy, the need for sector specific regulation has been challenged in recent years due to the peculiar evolution of the media industry in the digital environment and media convergence. In practice, sector-specific media concentration rules have been abolished in some European countries in recent years.
As a consequence, scholars Harcourt and Picard argue that "the trend has been to remove ownership rules and restrictions on media ownership within Europe in order that 'domestic champions' can bulk up to 'fend off' the US threat. This has been a key argument for the loosening of ownership rules within Europe."
In 2002, the European Parliament tried to revitalize the efforts on regulating media concentration at the European level and adopted a resolution on media concentration which called on the European Commission to launch a broad and comprehensive consultation on media pluralism and media concentration and to prepare a Green Paper on the issue by the end of 2003. The European Commission failed to meet this deadline. In the following years, during the process of amending the Televisions Without Frontiers directive, which was adopted by the EP and the Council in 2007, the issue of media concentration was discussed, but it did not represent the core of the debate. In 2003, the European Commission issued a policy document named "The future of European Regulatory Audiovisual Policy" which stressed that, in order to ensure media pluralism, measures should aim at limiting the level of media concentration by establishing "maximum holdings in media companies and prevent[ing] cumulative control or participation in several media companies at the same time".
In 2007, reacting to concerns on media concentration and its repercussion on pluralism and freedom of expression in the EU member states raised by the European Parliament and by NGOs, the European Commission launched a new three-phase plan on media pluralism<ref name="Pisan16082010">Pisanò, Alessio (2010) Se il pluralismo scivola in fondo all’agenda Ue, Il Fatto Quotidiano, August 16, 2010</ref>
In October 2009, a European Union Directive was proposed to set for all member states common and higher standards for media pluralism and freedom of expression. The proposal was put to a vote in the European Parliament and rejected by just three votes. The directive was supported by the liberal-centrists, the progressives and the greens, and was opposed by the European People's Party. Unexpectedly, the Irish liberals made an exception by voting against the directive, and later revealed that they had been pressured by the Irish right-wing government to do so.
Following this debate, the European Commission commissioned a large, in depth study published in 2009 aiming to identify the indicators to be adopted to assess media pluralism in Europe.
The "Independent Study on Indicators for Media Pluralism in the Member States – Towards a Risk-Based Approach" provided a prototype of indicators and country reports for 27 EU member states. After years of refining and preliminary testings, the study resulted in the Media Pluralism Monitor (MPM), a yearly monitoring carried out by the Centre for Media Pluralism and Freedom at the European University Institute in Florence on a variety of aspects affecting media pluralism, including also the concentration of media ownership is considered. To assess the risk that media ownership concentration in a given country may actually hinder media pluralism, the MPM takes into account three specific elements:
Horizontal concentration, that is concentration of media ownership within a given media sector (press, audio-visual, etc.);
Cross-media concentration across different media markets;
Transparency of media ownership.
In 2015, the MPM was carried out in 19 European countries. The results of the monitoring activity in the field of media market concentration identify five countries as facing a high risk: Finland, Luxembourg, Lithuania, Poland and Spain. There are nine countries facing a medium risk: Czech Republic, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden. Finally, only five countries face a low risk: Croatia, Cyprus, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia. In the monitoring carried out in 2014, 7 of 9 countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, the UK) scored a high risk in audience concentration.
Pan-European groups
A 2016 report based on data collected by MAVISE, a free online database on audiovisual services and companies in Europe, highlights the growing number of Pan-European media companies in the field of broadcasting and divides them into different categories: multi‐country media groups, controlling "channels that play an important role in various national markets (for example Modern Times Group, CEME, RTL, a Luxembourg-based media group operating in 10 countries, and Sanoma). These groups generally control a high market share in the countries in which they operate, and have gradually emerged through the acquisition of existing channels or by establishing new companies in countries in which they were not already present. The four groups RTL Group, CEME, Modern Times Group and Sanoma are major players (in the top 4 regarding audience share) in 19 European countries (RTL Group, CEME and Modern Times Group are major players in 17 countries). Pan‐European broadcasters operate with a unique identity and well recognized brands across Europe. Most of them are based in the United States and have progressively expanded their activities in the European market. In many cases, these groups evolved from being content creators to also deliver such contents through channels renamed after the original brands.
Examples of such pan-European groups include Discovery, Paramount Global, WarnerMedia, and The Walt Disney Company, pan‐European distribution groups (cable and satellite operators), companies that operate at the European level in the distribution sector via cable, satellite or IPTV. The emergence of major actors operating in this field has been made possible mainly thanks to the process of digitalization and benefit of specific economies of scale.
EU Member States
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic about 80% of the newspapers and magazines were owned by German and Swiss corporations in 2007, as the two main press groups Vltava Labe Media and Mafra were (completely or partly) controlled by the German group Rheinisch-Bergische Druckerei- und Verlagsgesellschaft (Mediengruppe Rheinische Post), but were both later purchased by Czech-owned conglomerates Penta Investments and Agrofert in 2015 and 2013 respectively. Several major media previously owned by Swiss company Ringier became Czech-owned through their acquisition by the Czech News Center in 2013.
Vltava Labe Media, a subsidiary of Penta Investments, that owns the tabloids ŠÍP and ŠÍP EXTRA, 73 regional dailies Deník and other 26 weeklies and that is major shareholder of publishing houses Astrosat and Melinor and 100% owner of Metropol and also partly controls the distribution of all the prints through PNS, a.s. which was previously part of the German (that controls also the German Neue Presse Verlags, the Polish Polskapresse and the Slovak Petit Press).
Mafra, a subsidiary of Agrofert (that owns the centre-right dailies Dnes, Lidové noviny, the local edition of the freesheet Metro, the periodical 14dní, several monthly magazines, the TV music channel Óčko, the radio stations Expresradio and Rádio Classic FM, several web portals and partly controls, together with Vltava-Labe-Press, the distribution company PNS, a.s.) was previously owned by the German Rheinisch-Bergische Drückerei- und Verlagsgesellschaft, prior to its acquisition by Agrofert.
Czech News Center controls 16 Czech daily tabloids and weeklies (such as 24 hodin, Abc, Aha!, Blesk, Blesk TV Magazin, Blesk pro ženy, Blesk Hobby, Blesk Zdravi, Nedělní Blesk, Nedělní Sport, Reflex, Sport, Sport Magazin) as well as 7 web portals, reaching approximately 3.2 million readers.
Czech governments have defended foreign newspaper ownership as a manifestation of the principle of the free movement of capital.
The weekly Respekt is published by R-Presse, the majority of whose shares are owned by former Czech Minister of Foreign Affairs Karel Schwarzenberg. The national television market is dominated by four terrestrial stations, two public (Czech TV1 and Czech TV2) and two private (NOVA TV and Prima TV), which draw 95% of audience share. Concerning the diversity of output, this is limited by a series of factors: the average low level of professional education among Czech journalists is compensated by "informal professionalization", leading to a degree of conformity in approaches; political parties hold strong ties in Czech media, especially print, where more than 50% of Czech journalists identify with the Right, while only 16% express sympathy for the Left; and the process of commercialization and "tabloidization" has increased, lowering differentiation of content in Czech print media.
Germany
Axel Springer AG is one of the largest newspaper publishing companies in Europe, claiming to have over 150 newspapers and magazines in over 30 countries in Europe. In the 1960s and 1970s the company's media followed an aggressive conservative policy (see Springerpresse). It publishes Germany's only nationwide tabloid, Bild, and one of Germany's most important broadsheets, Die Welt. Axel Springer also owns a number of regional newspapers, especially in Saxony and in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region, giving the company a de facto monopoly in the latter case. An attempt to buy one of Germany's two major private TV Groups, ProSiebenSat.1, in 2006, was withdrawn due to large concerns by regulation authorities as well as by parts of the public. The company is also active in Hungary, where it is the biggest publisher of regional newspapers, and in Poland, where it owns the best-selling tabloid Fakt, one of the nation's most important broadsheets, Dziennik, and is one of the biggest shareholder in the second-ranked private TV company, Polsat.
Bertelsmann is one of the world's largest media companies. It owns RTL Group, which is one of the two major private TV companies in both Germany and the Netherlands and also owning assets in Belgium, France, UK, Spain, Czech and Hungary. Bertelsmann also owns Gruner + Jahr, Germany's biggest popular magazine publisher, including popular news magazine Stern and a 26% share in investigative news magazine Der Spiegel. Bertelsmann also owns Random House, a book publisher, ranked first in the English-speaking world and second in Germany.
Ireland
In Ireland, the company Independent News & Media owns many national newspapers: the Evening Herald, Irish Independent, Sunday Independent, Sunday World and Irish Daily Star. It also owns 29.9% of the Sunday Tribune. Broadcast media is divided between state owned RTÉ, which operates several radio stations and television channels and started digital radio and television services in the early 2010s, TG4, an Irish language broadcaster, and TV3, a commercial television operator. Denis O'Brien an Irish billionaire with a fortune partly accumulated through the Esat Digifone licence controversy, formed Communicorp Group Ltd in 1989, with the company currently owning 42 radio stations in 8 European countries, including Ireland's Newstalk, Today FM, Dublin's 98FM, SPIN 1038 and SPIN South West. In January 2006, O'Brien took a stake in Tony O'Reilly's Independent News & Media (IN&M). As of May 2012, he holds a 29.9% stake in the company, making him the largest shareholder; the O'Reilly family's stake is around 13%.
Italy
Silvio Berlusconi, the former Prime Minister of Italy, is the major shareholder of – by far – Italy's biggest (and de facto only) private free TV company, Mediaset; Italy's biggest publisher, Mondadori; and Italy's biggest advertising company, . One of Italy's nationwide dailies, Il Giornale, is owned by his brother, Paolo Berlusconi, and another, Il Foglio, by his former wife, Veronica Lario. Berlusconi has often been criticized for using the media assets he owns to advance his political career.
United Kingdom
In Britain and Ireland, Rupert Murdoch owns best-selling tabloid The Sun as well as the broadsheet The Times and Sunday Times, in addition having also owned 39% of satellite broadcasting network BSkyB. In March 2011, the United Kingdom provisionally approved Murdoch to buy the remaining 61% of BSkyB; however, subsequent events (News of the World hacking scandal and its closure in July 2011) leading to the Leveson Inquiry have halted this takeover. In 2019, despite the British government granting formal permission for a new take over of Sky (conditional on the divestiture of Sky News), Fox were outbid by American conglomerate Comcast.
Trinity Mirror own five major national titles, the Daily Mirror, Sunday Mirror and The Sunday People, and the Scottish Sunday Mail and Daily Record as well as over 100 regional newspapers. They claim to have a monthly digital reach of 73 million people.
Daily Mail and General Trust (DMGT) own the Daily Mail and The Mail on Sunday, Ireland on Sunday, and free London daily Metro, and control a large proportion of regional media, including through subsidiary Northcliffe Media, in addition to large shares in ITN and GCap Media.
The Guardian is owned by Guardian Media Group.
Richard Desmond owns OK! magazine, the Daily Express, and the Daily Star. He used to own Channel 5; on 1 May 2014 the channel was acquired by Viacom for £450 million (US$759 million).
The Evening Standard and former print publication The Independent are both partly owned by British-Russian media boss Evgeny Lebedev.
BBC News produces news for its television channels and radio stations.
Independent Television News produces news for ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5.
Independent Radio News, which has a contract with Sky News, produces news for the most popular commercial radio stations.
India
In India a few political parties also own media organizations, for example the proprietors of Kalaignar TV are close aides of Tamil Nadu's former Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi. So is also the case with Sun TV. SRM university owner Pachamuthu, a member of Parliament, has stakes in Pudhiyathalaimurai News Channel. AMMK General Secretary TTV Dinakaran, MLA's close aides run Jaya TV.
Sakshi TV a Telugu channel in Andhra Pradesh is owned by ex-chief minister's son and family.
Israel
In Israel, Arnon Mozes owns the most widespread Hebrew newspaper, Yediot Aharonot, the most widespread Russian newspaper Vesty, the most popular Hebrew news website Ynet, and 17% of the cable TV firm HOT. Moreover, Mozes owns the Reshet TV firm, which is one of the two operators of the most popular channel in Israel, Channel 2.
Mexico
In Mexico there are only two national broadcast television service companies, Televisa and Azteca. These two broadcasters together administer 434 of the 461 total commercial television stations in the country (94.14%).
Though concern about the existence of a duopoly had been around for some time, a press uproar sparked in 2006, when a controversial reform to the Federal Radio and Television Law, seriously hampered the entry of new competitors, like Cadena Tres.
Televisa also owns subscription TV enterprises and SKY, a publishing company , and the Televisa Radio broadcast radio network, creating a de facto media monopoly in many regions of the country.
United States
In the United States, movie production has been dominated by major studios since the early 20th century; before that, there was a period in which Edison's Trust monopolized the industry. The music and television industries recently witnessed cases of media consolidation, with Sony Music Entertainment's parent company merging their music division with Bertelsmann AG's BMG to form Sony BMG and Tribune's The WB and CBS Corp.'s UPN merging to form The CW. In the case of Sony BMG, there existed a "Big Five" (now "Big Four") of major record companies, while The CW's creation was an attempt to consolidate ratings and stand up to the "Big Four" of American network (terrestrial) television (this despite the fact that the CW was, in fact, partially owned by one of the Big Four in CBS). In television, the vast majority of broadcast and basic cable networks, over a hundred in all, are controlled by eight corporations: Fox Corporation, The Walt Disney Company (which includes the ABC, ESPN, FX and Disney brands), National Amusements (which owns Paramount Global), Comcast (which owns NBCUniversal), AT&T (which owns WarnerMedia), Discovery, Inc., E. W. Scripps Company, Cablevision (now known as Altice USA), or some combination thereof.
There may also be some large-scale owners in an industry that are not the causes of monopoly or oligopoly. iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel Communications), especially since the Telecommunications Act of 1996, acquired many radio stations across the United States, and came to own more than 1,200 stations. However, the radio broadcasting industry in the United States and elsewhere can be regarded as oligopolistic regardless of the existence of such a player. Because radio stations are local in reach, each licensing a specific part of spectrum from the FCC in a specific local area, any local market is served by a limited number of stations. In most countries, this system of licensing makes many markets local oligopolies. The similar market structure exists for television broadcasting, cable systems and newspaper industries, all of which are characterized by the existence of large-scale owners. Concentration of ownership is often found in these industries.
Effect of ownership on coverage
In a 2020 article, Herzog and Scerbinina argued that CNN's coverage in 2017 of a potential merger between its parent company Time Warner and AT&T was "self-centered, self-promoting, and self-legitimizing."
Recent media mergers in the United States
An infographic created by Jason at Frugal Dad states that in 1983, 90% of US media was controlled by 50 companies, and that in 2011, 90% was controlled by just 6 companies. One of the companies listed, News Corporation, was split into two separate companies on June 28, 2013, with publishing assets and Australian media assets going to News Corp and broadcasting and media assets going to 21st Century Fox.
Venezuela
About 70% of Venezuelan TV and radio stations are privately owned, while only about 5% or less of these stations are currently state-owned. The remaining stations are mostly community owned. VTV was the only state TV channel in Venezuela only about a decade ago. For the last decade, through the present day, the Venezuelan government operates and owns five more stations.
Commercial outlets completely rule over the radio sector. However, the Venezuelan government funds a good number of radio shows and TV stations. The primary newspapers of Venezuela are private companies that are frequently condemning of their government. These newspapers being produced in Venezuela do not have a large following.
See also
Agenda-setting theory
Alternative media
Big Three television networks
Deregulation
Democratic backsliding
Freedom of speech
Freedom of the press
Gleichschaltung
Lists of corporate assets
Local News Service
Mainstream
Mainstream media
Media bias
Media cross-ownership in the United States
Media democracy
Media imperialism
Media manipulation
Media proprietor
Media transparency
Monopolies of knowledge
Network neutrality
Old media
Partido da Imprensa Golpista
Politico-media complex
Prometheus Radio Project
Propaganda model
Retail concentration
State controlled media
Telecommunications Act of 1996
Western media
Transparency of media ownership in Europe
Sources
Notes
Bibliography
Amelia Arsenault & Manuel Castells (2008) The Structure and Dynamics of Global Multi-Media Business Networks. International Journal of Communication.
Imperfect competition
Media bias
Big media | [
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240402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ill | Ill | Ill or ill may refer to:
Ill (France), a river in Alsace, France, tributary of the Rhine
Ill (Vorarlberg), a river in Voralberg, Austria, tributary of the Rhine
Ill (Saarland), a river of Saarland, Germany, tributary of the Theel
Illinois (traditionally abbreviated: Ill.), a state in the midwestern region of the United States
Illness, a generally-used synonym for disease
Koji Nakamura (recording under the name iLL), a Japanese musician
Tommy Ill, Wellington in New Zealand based rapper
Interlibrary loan
See also
III (disambiguation) | [
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240405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stool | Stool | Stool may refer to:
Stool (seat), a type of seat without back or arm rests
Bar stool
Footstool
Stool, feces
Human feces, more commonly called "stool"
Stool test, the collection and analysis of fecal matter to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition
Stool, a living stump of a tree, capable of producing sprouts or cuttings
Stool (hieroglyph), an alphabetic uniliteral sign of ancient Egypt
See also
Golden Stool, throne of kings of the Ashanti people
Groom of the Stool, the most intimate of an English monarch's courtiers
Informant, sometimes called a "stool pigeon" or "stoolie" | [
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240407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romblon | Romblon | Romblon ( ) is an archipelagic province of the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region. Its main islands include Tablas, the largest, which covers nine municipalities, Sibuyan with its three towns, as well as the smaller island municipalities of Corcuera, Banton, Concepcion, San Jose, and Romblon, the provincial capital. The province lies south of Marinduque and Quezon, east of Oriental Mindoro, north of Aklan and Capiz, and west of Masbate. According to the , it has a total population of .
Romblon has been inhabited by aboriginal Filipinos prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1569. Archaeological artifacts recovered by the National Museum in 1936 indicate that the aborigines of Romblon already have a rich and advanced culture. Under Spanish colonial rule, Romblon was initially administered under the newly established province of Arevalo, until 1716, when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the newly created province of Capiz. With arrival of the Americans in 1901, Romblon was declared a province and placed under civilian rule. It lost its provincial status for a short while between 1907 and 1945, but regained it in 1946, just after World War II.
The inhabitants of Romblon are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: Romblomanon, Onhan and Asi. These groups occupy specific islands in the province and have their own language and customs. Romblomanon is mainly spoken in the town of Romblon, in all of three towns of Sibuyan Island, and the town of San Agustin in Tablas Island. Onhan is mainly spoken in the municipalities in the southern part of Tablas Island (Alcantara, Looc, Ferrol, Santa Fe, San Andres, and Santa Maria) as well as in the island municipality of San Jose. The northwestern part of Tablas Island (in Odiongan and Calatrava, as well as the islands municipalities of Corcuera, Banton, and Concepcion, speak the Asi language.
Currently, the province relies on agriculture, particularly rice and copra farming as well as fishing, for its livelihood. It also has a lucrative marble industry due to an abundance of Italian-quality marble, hence, its moniker as the "Marble Capital of the Philippines." In recent years, the province has also become an ecotourism destination, with several white sand beaches, diving spots, mountains and rainforests that tourists visit annually.
Etymology
According to legend, the name "Romblon" was derived from the Romblomanon word Nagalumyom, which pertains to a chicken in the act of sitting on its eggs on a nest. This eventually evolved to Lomlom, and later on to Donblon, the name reported by Spanish chronicler Miguel de Loarca in his book Relacion de las Islas Filipinas in 1582, before finally evolving to Romblon.
Meanwhile, local historians Roland Madeja and Evelyn Reyes relate the origin of the name "Romblon" to the shape of Romblon Island. Madeja claims that the name was derived from the Spanish word ronblon, another term for tornillo, meaning "screw." According to him, the Spanish claimed to have observed the screw-like shape of Romblon Island. Meanwhile, Reyes claims Romblon originated from "doubloon", which refers to the Spanish coin used by Moro pirates in paying dowries for their brides-to-be. The Spanish might have named the island after the shape of the coin.
History
Early history
Romblon's aboriginal inhabitants were the Negritos from Panay and Mangyans from Mindoro, who settled in the islands during the precolonial period. Ancient wooden coffins discovered in the Guyangan Cave System of Banton Island in 1936 signify a rich ancient civilization and culture in the province before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1569. These artifacts are currently on display at the National Museum in Manila. Remnants of Negrito and Mangyan aborigines now live in the mountains of Tablas and Sibuyan after they were displaced by the influx of Hiligaynon, Aklanon, Bicolano and Tagalog migrants as early as 1870.
Spanish period
According to historians Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, the Spanish arrived in Romblon in 1569 led by conquistador Martin de Goiti who was dispatched by Miguel López de Legazpi to explore the western and northern portion of the Visayas region including Romblon and Mindoro. The islands were later organized into three encomiendas and were administered from Arevalo. De Loarca visited Romblon in 1582 and conducted the first census of the islands.
In 1635, Augustinian Recollect missionaries arrived in Romblon to establish Catholic missions and settlements. They helped the Spanish authorities establish peace and order in the islands. In 1868, they established seven missionary centers at Romblon, Badajoz (San Agustin), Cajidiocan, Banton, Looc, Odiongan and Magallanes (Magdiwang). They also built massive forts, churches and watchtowers in the province, such as Fort San Jose in Banton and Fort San Andres in Romblon, following a Dutch attack in 1646 which destroyed the capital town and to repulse recurring Moro raids.
Romblon was separated from the jurisdiction of Arevalo and annexed to Capiz, when the province was created in 1716. More than a century later in 1850, the inhabitants of the province began using Spanish family names after governor-general Narciso Clavería decreed on 21 November 1849 the use of surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos. Asi-speaking natives were assigned the letter F, Romblomanon speakers were assigned the letter M, speakers of the Sibuyanon style of Romblomanon were assigned the letter R, while Onhan-speaking natives were assigned the letter G.
In 1853, the islands were organized into a politico-military comandancia ("sub-province" in English) administered from Capiz and continued to be so until the end of the Spanish rule in 1898. As a sub-province, Romblon was under an army officer with the rank of captain. The town of Romblon was its capital and the other municipalities were Azagra, Badajos (now San Agustin), Banton, Cajidiocan, Corcuera, Looc, Magallanes (now Magdiwang), Odiongan, Despujols (now San Andres) and Santa Fe.
Revolutionary period
In 1898, amid the Philippine Revolution, Katipunan leader Emilio Aguinaldo sent his generals to several provinces in the Visayas to expand the recognition of his revolutionary government in the central and southern Philippines. The Katipunan general Mariano Riego de Dios and his forces liberated Romblon, while generals Ananias Diocno and Leandro Fullon proceeded to Panay. On 25 July the same year, Riego de Dios took the Romblon capital and captured Spanish officials. Four days later, the Spanish politico-military governor Don Carlos Mendoza formally signed the surrender of Romblon's district government, ending more than three hundred years of Spanish rule in the archipelagic province.
Later, Don Wenceslao Molo, a local from Romblon town, was appointed governor and became responsible for the collection of a total amount of , Romblon's share to the war expenditures of the Revolutionary Government from 31 May 1898 to 28 February 1899. A local election was also held in Romblon town for its ministers of justice and barrio officials. However, Molo's term was a brief transition to another era as the Americans arrived in the province a few months later.
American period
Upon the restoration of peace and order in the province following the Philippine–American War, the Americans established civilian government in the islands on 16 March 1901. Romblon was created as a regular province in the same year but due to insufficient income, it became a sub-province of Capiz again in 1907 until 7 December 1917 when Act No. 2724 reestablished the province. Under Commonwealth Act No. 581, enacted without executive approval on 8 June 1940, the province was reorganized with four towns or municipalities, namely: Tablas (composed of Odiongan, Looc, and Badajoz), Romblon (including the islands of Logbon, Cobrador and Alad), Maghali (comprising Banton, Corcuera, and Concepcion), and Sibuyan (composed of the towns of Cajidiocan, Magdiwang and San Fernando).
Japanese period
During World War II, the Japanese Imperial Forces established a garrison in Romblon on 21 March 1942 which they maintained until the end of the war. The islands became one of the centers of resistance movement against the Japanese. The movement was led by the Free Panay Guerilla Forces composed of members from the 6th Military District under the direction of Col. Macario Peralta, Jr. One of the major naval engagements during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the Battle of Sibuyan Sea, happened off the waters of Romblon on 23–24 October 1944 between Japanese Admiral Kurita’s fleet from Singapore and Admiral Halsey's carrier planes from the US Third Fleet then stationed east of the Philippines. Units from Company C of the 19th Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division landed on Sawang, Romblon on the night 11 March 1945. By 18 March, the province was liberated from Japanese forces.
Modern period
On 1 October 1946, Congress passed Republic Act No. 38, sponsored by Cong. Modesto Formilleza, which abolished the four special municipalities and restored Romblon and its municipalities to its pre-war status. In the decades that followed, the province saw the creation of new municipalities, such as Alcantara (1961) from Looc, Calatrava (1969) from San Agustin, Ferrol (1978) from Odiongan, and Santa Maria (1984) from San Agustin.
Geography
Romblon is strategically situated at the center of the Philippine archipelago. Geographically part of the Visayas, it is composed of three major islands (Tablas, Sibuyan and Romblon) and 17 smaller islands. It is surrounded by deep waters, and is bounded by Masbate in the east, Mindoro in the west, Marinduque in the north and Panay in the south. It is approximately and south of Manila. The islands are dispersed and accessible only via sea transportation except for Tablas Island where a domestic airport is located in the municipality of Alcantara.
Topography
The province has a total land area of approximately representing about 5.3 percent of the total land area of Region IV-B Mimaropa. It is generally mountainous with about 40 percent of its land area having an inclination of more than 50 percent. Only four percent of the total area has an inclination of three to eight percent, while a sparse 10 percent has an inclination of three to zero percent. Narrow strips of coastal lowlands, low hills and plains typify the topography of some of the islands.
Romblon Island is hilly with a maximum elevation of about above sea level. Tablas Island shows varied relief characteristics. The western coastal areas are level to undulating while the eastern coastal areas are rough to rugged. The southern section covering Santa Fe and the mid-western portion may be described as having rolling to rough terrain. Extremely rugged areas can be found in the central section of the island. The highest elevation is almost above sea level. Sibuyan Island is a thickly forested mountain mass. The western portion of the island may be characterized as extensively rugged, having ascents of 60 percent or more while the eastern section is relatively undulating to rolling. The highest elevation, the peak of Mt. Guiting-Guiting, reaches about 2,058 meters (6,750 feet) above sea level.
The major areas that are highly productive and buildable are basically in Tablas and Sibuyan. These include Odiongan, San Andres, Looc and Santa Fe in Tablas Island. All three municipalities in Sibuyan Island, on the other hand, have substantial level to gently sloping lands. Overall, good developable lands represent about 13 percent of the province's total area.
Flora and fauna
Romblon, particularly Sibuyan Island, is among the few places in the Philippines with a well-preserved natural environment. Uninterrupted rainforest covers 75 percent of the island. It is also home to the country's cleanest inland body of water, the Cantigas River, as well as 34 waterfalls. Sibuyan is commonly known the country as the "Galapagos of Asia" because of its many endemic plant and animal species, some of which have just been discovered recently. Among these endemic species are nine mammals, seven lizards, two amphibians, three birds and 112 vascular plants, such as the Nepenthes argentii, Nepenthes sibuyanensis, Nepenthes armin, Sibuyan striped shrew rat, Sibuyan shrew, Philippine tube-nosed fruit bat, indigo-banded kingfisher, and the Romblon hawk-owl. In Tablas Island, at least two endemic bird species can be found: the Tablas drongo and Tablas fantail.
Administrative divisions
Romblon comprises 17 municipalities. Of these, nine are located in Tablas Island (San Agustin, Calatrava, San Andres, Odiongan, Ferrol, Santa Fe, Looc, Alcantara and Santa Maria), three in Sibuyan Island (Magdiwang, Cajidiocan and San Fernando) and five (Romblon, San Jose, Banton, Concepcion and Corcuera) are island municipalities.
Climate
Romblon falls under Type III of the Corona climatic classification system which was devised in 1920. It is characterized by no pronounced wet and dry seasons. Generally, the wet season is from June to November and sometimes extends up to December when the southwest monsoon is predominant. The dry season is from January to May but is sometimes interrupted by erratic rainfall. The annual mean temperature is , with February as the coldest month with temperatures dropping to , and May as the warmest month with temperatures reaching up to . Habagat monsoon winds pass through the province from June to October while northeasterly winds or Amihan blows through the islands from December to February.
Demographics
The population of Romblon in the was people, with a density of . It ranks fourth among the five provinces of Mimaropa in terms of population and represents 9.9 percent of the region's population.
San Jose and Romblon are the two most-densely populated municipalities in the province at 490/km2 and 450/km2, respectively. Cajidiocan is the least densely populated municipality at 110/km2.
Males outnumber females in the province with a sex ratio of 102:100 according to the 2010 census. Of the province's 283,482 household population, males accounted for 144,091 or 50.8 percent while females made up 139,391 or 49.2 percent. The voting-age population (18 years old and over) accounted for 56.6 percent of the household population of the province in 2010, up from 52.7 percent in 2000. There were more females (50.2 percent) than males (49.8 percent) among the voting age population.
Language
The languages of Romblon, as well as all languages native to the Philippines, belong to the Austronesian language family, the second largest language family in the world with 1,257 known languages, second only to the Niger–Congo family's 1,538 languages. All of the languages of the Philippines, except Samalan, are classified as Philippine languages under the Western Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian. The Philippine language group has three main branches: Northern, Southern and Central, the latter of which is composed of the Bisayan, Bikol and Tagalog languages.
Unlike other islands or provinces in the Philippines where all local languages are classifiable under the same subgroup of languages, each of the three languages of Romblon — Romblomanon, Onhan and Asi — actually belongs to a different subgroup of the Visayan language group. Romblomanon belongs to the Central Visayan subgroup, which spans from Waray-Waray in Samar and Leyte, through Masbatenyo and Sorsoganon, and as far west as Hiligaynon and Capiznon on Panay. It is spoken in Romblon and Sibuyan Islands, as well as in the municipality of San Agustin in Tablas Island.
Onhan, on the other hand, belongs to the Western Visayan subgroup, which includes Kinaray-a and Aklanon as well as several minor languages spoken on Mindoro, Palawan, and some small islands in between. Its speakers are mainly from the southern portion of Tablas Island, in the municipalities of San Andres, Santa Maria, Alcantara, Ferrol, Looc, and Santa Fe, as well as in the municipality of San Jose in Carabao Island. Finally, Asi is not classified under any specific subgroup of Visayan, and instead makes up its own immediate branch of Visayan. David Paul Zorc, a linguist from the Australian National University whose expertise is on Philippine languages, notes that Asi speakers may have been the first Visayan speakers in the region. He also suggests that Asi may have a Cebuano substratum and that many of its words may have been influenced by the later influx of other languages such as Romblomanon. It is spoken in the island municipalities of Banton, Corcuera and Concepcion, as well as in Odiongan and Calatrava in Tablas. Hiligaynon is spoken in municipalities near Capiz and Aklan.
Religion
The people of the province are predominantly Roman Catholic. In 2012, the UP School of Economics reported that in recent years, 69 percent were Catholics, 30 percent belong to Iglesia Filipina Independiente while five percent to Muslims, and around three percent belonged to Iglesia ni Cristo. Other Christian groups such as Iglesia Filipina Independiente then Mainline Protestant and Evangelicals form a significant minority of up to 8% of the population.
Economy
Romblon used to be one of the poorest provinces in the Philippines until 2015 when it recorded lower poverty incidence of 38.63 percent, according to the Philippine Statistics Authority. Poverty incidence in the province further declined to 28.28 percent in 2018. The provincial economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, tourism and mineral extraction which can be greatly affected by typhoons the frequently pass through the province yearly.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the main industry in Romblon. Coconut is the most cultivated crop with a total planted area of . San Agustin has the most extensive area with coconut plants followed by Romblon and Cajidiocan. Rice is the next crop, cultivated particularly in Odiongan, Looc, Cajidiocan and Santa Fe. Other crops grown include root crops, vegetables and fruits. Odiongan, Banton and Magdiwang have the greatest areas planted with root crops and correspondingly, have the highest volume of production. Vegetable production is mostly for home consumption and grown in small scale.
Livestock development and poultry production is a viable small scale enterprise for farmers in the province. The provincial government maintains breeding facilities in strategic locations province-wide to encourage farmers to engage in livestock and poultry production to augment their income. Livestock and poultry management training and seminars is provided to interested clients.
Due to the geographical condition of the province, crops and livestock production is generally deficient as compared to the food requirements of Romblon population. To meet the rice requirements, Romblon relies on imports from the neighboring provinces while vegetables, poultry meat, vegetables and fruits are supplied mostly by Luzon.
Marine resources
Fishing industry is a major enterprise as Romblon is surrounded by water on all sides. The fishing grounds of Romblon are a migratory path of fish from Sulu and Visayan Seas passing Tablas Strait, Sibuyan Sea and Romblon Pass. The waters also abound with demersal fish due to the coral reefs surrounding the islands.
Because the province has a great potential for aqua-marine development, the province implemented a coastal and resource management program. Each municipality established a fish sanctuary and passed laws on fishery. The use of air compressors in the municipal waters was regulated and banned altogether in some municipalities.
Mineral resources
Marble is the most significant mineral deposit of Romblon and is the most renowned product of the province. Based on statistics, Romblon is the second biggest provincial marble producer of the country next to Bulacan. Romblon marble is of very high quality and comes in shades of white, green, pink, red and black. The Mines and Geosciences Bureau has estimated that Romblon is endowed with about 150 million metric tons of marble. At current rates of extraction, the supply may last for three more centuries. Tablas Island is also believed to have vast reserves of marble.
Marble quarrying and processing are major activities in Romblon. Among the most common marble products are categorized into the following: novelty items (gifts, ashtray, table bars), furniture (dining tables, baptismal fonts) and construction materials (tiles, balusters, marble chips). Other mineral resources with considerable quantity include nickel ore and gold mostly to be found in Sibuyan Island. Gold panning and small-scale mining is a lucrative undertaking in Magdiwang.
Tourism
Natural attractions
Being an archipelago, Romblon has numerous beaches and dive sites. Among its best white sand beaches are Bonbon, Cobrador and Tiamban Beach in Romblon, Macat-ang, Tabunan and Tambak Beach in Banton, Lunas and Bignay Beach in San Jose, and Cresta del Gallo in San Fernando. The sea surrounding Cresta del Gallo is a famous diving site teeming with marine life. Romblon is also home to the only known blue hole in the Philippines in the town of San Agustin. The entrance to the blue hole is a wide volcanic chimney, which drops for before opening up into the massive chamber below with a total depth of .
Mount Guiting-Guiting in Sibuyan, the province's tallest mountain, is considered one of the most difficult climbs in the Philippines, and is thus a major destination of local mountain climbers because of its steep and jagged summit. Another a suitable place for hiking and trekking is Mount Payaopao is Tablas. Meanwhile, Banton's Guyangan Cave System, an Important Cultural Treasure, is where the Banton Cloth — the earliest known warp ikat textile in Southeast Asia — was found in 1936.
Heritage sites
Aside from the precolonial Guyangan Cave System in Banton, the province also has several heritage sites built during the Spanish colonial period. In Romblon town, the forts of San Andres and Santiago served as fortifications against Muslim pirates in the 17th century, while the St. Joseph Cathedral and Belfry houses a centuries-old image of the Santo Niño de Cebú or the Holy Child. Both heritage sites were declared National Cultural Treasures by the National Museum. The town also has colonial-era bridges that were declared Important Cultural Treasures. A similar fort in Banton, the centuries-old Fort San Jose and Banton Church, were built in the 1600s and was also used as defenses against Muslim pirates.
Festivals
Every second week of January, Romblon town celebrates the feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú, also known as the Biniray Festival. In that week, a fluvial parade featuring the image of the Santo Niño goes around Romblon Bay in order to bring good luck to the villages. A mardi gras is also held in the town with various street dancing, food, drinks and music. A similar Biniray Festival also occurs in Banton every 10 September in commemoration of the island's patron, San Nicolas de Tolentino. Other festivals include the Saginyogan Festival in Alcantara, the Sanrokan Festival in Banton, and Looc's Talabukon Festival, which honors the giant genie-like epic hero, Talabukon, who saved the people from pirates.
Scuba diving
In recent years Romblon Island has attracted more scuba divers. It has pristine and untouched reefs with almost undisturbed hard and soft corals around the islands of Romblon, Logbon, Alad and Cobrador. With multiple marine sanctuaries and private associations most of the marine life around Romblon is protected. In addition to the reefs, Romblon has been becoming famous for its rare and unique macro habitat, such as the Melibe colemani, the Cyerce nigra and the Cyerce bourbonica.
Government
Executive
Just like any other province in the Philippines, Romblon's chief executive and head is the provincial governor. Elected to a term of three years and limited to three consecutive terms, he or she appoints the directors of each provincial department, which include the office of administration, engineering office, information office, legal office, and treasury office. As of 30 June 2019, the incumbent governor of Romblon is Jose "Otik" Riano, from the PDPLBN. He was elected in 2013 as vice-governor and reelected in 2016.
The provincial vice governor performs duties as acting governor in the absence of the provincial governor. He or she also automatically succeeds as governor upon the death of the provincial governor. The provincial vice governor also convenes the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan, the provincial legislative body. The incumbent provincial vice governor of Romblon is Felix Ylagan from the LAKAS. He is a grandson of the late governor of the same province, Perpetuo Ylagan.
Legislative
The province, which is a lone congressional district, is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives by longtime Representative Eleandro Jesus "Budoy" Madrona from the Nacionalista Party. He first assumed office from 1992 to 2001, serving three terms. Following two terms wherein Perpetuo Ylagan and Eduardo Firmalo respectively represented the district in Congress, Madrona ran and won again in 2007. His third and last term will expire in 2016.
Within the province, the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan crafts all provincial ordinances, performs appropriation of provincial funds, issues franchises and permits, impose fees on provincial services, and exercise other duties and powers as stipulated by the Local Government Code of 1991. Romblon, being a third-class province in terms of income, is entitled to a Provincial Board composed of eight members, four each from the province's two board districts. , the incumbent board members from the province's two districts are: (First District) Samuel Romero, Anthony Rugas, Abner Perez, Nelson Lim ; (Second District) Felix Ylagan, Juliet Fiel, Venizar Maravilla, and Andres Fondevilla.
Provincial seal
Romblon's provincial sea is composed of two concentric circles: A smaller blue circle over a larger white circle. The white circle forms a band, with the words Lalawigan ng Romblon (Province of Romblon) on top and Pilipinas (Philippines) on the bottom each written in semi-circular fashion. The blue circle symbolizes Romblon's geography as an archipelago surrounded by sea. On the middle of the blue circle is the province's designated five-sided white shield. At the center of the shield are 17 green human figures that appear to be linking arms. These symbolize the 17 municipalities that make up the province. Its green color represents the island's ecological and agricultural resources.
The human figures form a circle surrounding five figures: A marble craftsman and a marble almirez (mortar and pestle), representing the province's marble industry. On its left side is the image of a fish, representing the province's fishing industry, and on its right side is a coconut, representing the province's copra industry. Behind the craftsman is an green outline of a mountain, representing Mount Guiting-Guiting National Park, a protected nature reserve where the province's tallest mountain is located. Behind the mountain is a rising sun, similar to the sun found on the Philippine flag, representing the Divine Providence of abundant natural resources.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Romblon province is connected by a network of national and provincial roads. National roads form much of this network, with a total length of . Provincial roads, meanwhile, total in length. Municipal and barangay roads in far-flung villages and island municipalities are not part of these figures. The primary modes of land transportation in the province are jeepneys, passenger motorcycles, minibuses and tricycles that serve inter-municipal movements and linkages.
Sea transportation is the primary mode of transportation linking Romblon with Luzon and islands in the Visayas. Inter-island ferries, RORO, and cargo ships from Manila, the southern Luzon ports of Batangas City, Lucena City in Quezon province, Roxas, Oriental Mindoro, and Roxas City in Capiz province are the primary modes of transportation linking the province to the rest of the country. Montenegro Lines, 2GO, and Romblon Shipping Lines all have ferry service from Manila to the main ports of entry of Odiongan and the capital town of Romblon and vice versa. From Romblon, Montenegro also serves Magdiwang in Sibuyan, while Romblon Shipping Lines also serves Cajidiocan. Pump boats and wooden launches also link the province to the towns of Buenavista, Marinduque and Pinamalayan, Oriental Mindoro. These pump boats are also used in going to barangays where there are no existing road networks or between municipalities in the province that do not have existing ferry service.
Tugdan Airport in Alcantara is the only airport in the province and is less than an hour away from Metro Manila. Philippine Airlines, the country's flag carrier, used to fly thrice a week (Sunday, Wednesday and Friday) to the airport via its budget carrier, PAL Express, but has ceased as of 1 September 2016 due to transfer of some of its flights to Clark International Airport in Pampanga. Currently, only Cebu Pacific has flights to the airport, with four flights weekly from Manila. At Barangay Azagra, San Fernando in Sibuyan Island, there is also a small airstrip that caters to tourism and general aviation.
Electricity
Power supply in Romblon is generated by the National Power Corporation (NPC) and serviced by two electric cooperatives. Tablas Island Electric Cooperative (TIELCO) serves the power needs of Tablas Island including San Jose. It operates a 5.070 MW diesel power plant in Odiongan and 1.740 MW power barge in San Agustin. The electric cooperative serves a total of 21,097 house connections. In 2013, TIELCO has entered into a 15-year power supply agreement with Sunwest Water and Electric Company (SUWECO) to fill the island's energy needs. In 2015, SUWECO opened a diesel power plant in Barangay Batiano, Odiongan, which supplies TIELCO with 8.8 MW of electricity. In 2019, TIELCO and SUWECO inaugurated the 7.5 MW peak Tumingad Solar Power Plant in Odiongan. The two power plants supply electricity to the towns of Odiongan, San Andres, Calatrava, San Agustin, Santa Maria, Santa Fe, Alcantara, Looc, and Ferrol in Tablas. Likewise, TIELCO supplies electricity to San Jose and has recently held the bidding for the competitive selection process (CSP) for a new power provider to the island municipality.
Romblon Electric Cooperative (ROMELCO) supplies electricity to the capital town of Romblon through a 1.720 MW diesel power plant and a 1.30 MW power barge. It also serves Sibuyan Island using a 3.006 MW diesel power plant in San Fernando. ROMELCO has 5,288 house connections in Romblon and 5,150 house connections in the three municipalities located in Sibuyan Island or a total of 10,438 house connections in their franchise area. Additionally, ROMELCO installed in 2010 a mini hydro power plant in Cantigas, San Fernando, producing 900 kW of power. In 2019, ROMELCO also inagurated the Romblon Wind Farm composed of three 300-kW wind turbines in Barangays Agnay, Bagacay and Lonos in Romblon, Romblon with a combined capacity to generate 2,000,100 kilowatt hours of green energy, or equivalent to 25 percent of the total annual energy requirement of the island. The 42-meter tall wind turbines were manufactured by Japanese company Komaihaltec Inc. and supported by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. An additional 900-kW wind turbines will be installed in 2020. ROMELCO also provides 24-hour electricity to the island municipalities of Banton, Concepcion and Corcuera through diesel power plants operated by the NPC.
Water supply
Out of 17 municipalities, 14 have Level III water supply systems serving 18,590 households or about 32.57 percent of the total provincial households. Level III has a reservoir with house-to-house connections. 5,252 households were serviced by Level II water systems and 24,700 households by Level I water system. Level I category is a common facility where the community members get their water supply from deep wells and shallow wells, while Level II has a reservoir with communal faucet. Based on the report from the Provincial Health Office in 2007, a total of 48,542 households out of the 57,079 or 85.04 percent have access to safe drinking water.
Healthcare
There are eight government-owned hospitals in Romblon that serve the local population's healthcare needs. Four of these hospitals are located in Tablas Island: the 75-bed, Romblon Provincial Hospital in Odiongan, the 25-bed Tablas Island District Hospital in San Agustin, the 25-bed Don Modesto Formilleza Sr. District Hospital in Looc, and the six-bed San Andres District Hospital in San Andres. Of these hospitals, only Romblon Provincial Hospitals is a Level 1 hospital, which has an emergency room and intensive care unit. Two privately owned hospitals, the Tablas Doctors' Hospital and ISIAH Hospital and Medical Center, also operates in Odiongan. In Romblon, the 35-bed Romblon District Hospital provides the healthcare needs of residents in the capitol. It is the only other Level 1 hospital in the province after Romblon Provincial Hospital. In Sibuyan, the 25-bed Sibuyan District Hospital provides basic healthcare for the residents of the island's three municipalities. It opened in 1958 with the enactment of Republic Act No. 2400 by congressman Jose Moreno. There is also the 10-bed San Jose District Hospital in Carabao Island and the 10-bed Malipayon District Hospital in the town of Corcuera in Simara Island. Municipalities that do not have a district hospital or a Level 1 hospital are served by their respective rural health units.
Telecommunications
The province has several operating telecommunication exchanges, namely Kayumanggi, Romblontel, Odiongan Telephone Corporation (OTELCO), the
Telecommunication Office (TELOF), telegram system, Liberty Telecom, public calling stations under the Department of Transportation (DOTr) and the Provincial Communication System (PCS) radio transceivers and receivers. Smart Communications, Sun Cellular and Globe Telecom already have relay stations in Romblon, Odiongan and Cajidiocan, enabling most areas province-wide connected through cellphones, except on some area where the signal is weak or non-existent because of mountains that block the signal. The Triple Peak in Santa Maria has a relay station for PLDT and Liberty Telecom.
Media
There are four radio stations in the province, two of which are operated by the Radyo Natin Network and the other, 97.7 FMR Romblon owned by the Philippine Collective Media Corporation, GM FM 100.5 MHz owned by the Polytechnic Foundation of Cotabato and Asia and Radyo Natin Network operates the call sign DWMM at 104.5 MHz on FM radio from Looc, as well as the call sign DZVG 101.3 MHz on FM radio from Odiongan owned by Manila Broadcasting Company. As for print media, Romblon Text and Romblon Sun are the two major newspapers circulating in the province, aside from broadsheet and tabloid newspapers from Manila. Romblon News, meanwhile, provides provincial and national news and information via the web and social media.
A relay station for GMA Network and Romblon Community TV (affiliate of People's Television Network) in Santa Maria allows the province to access television shows broadcast by the network from Manila. There are also existing cable providers and local cable stations operating in several municipalities in the province, namely Romblon Cable Corporation (Romblon), Accutronics System Inc. (Odiongan), San Agustin Cable Antenna Corp. (San Agustin), Countryside Satellite Television System Inc. (Looc and Romblon), Gateway Cable TV Network (Calatrava), San Andres CATV Service Coop. (San Andres), Josefa J. Martinez CATV Services (Alcantara), Magdiwang Cable Television (Magdiwang), and Sibuyan Cable TV (San Fernando and Cajidiocan). Aside from these cable stations, there are also distributors of direct-to-home (DTH) satellite TV such as Cignal Digital TV, Dream Satellite TV, G Sat, and Sky Direct who provide television services for its subscribers.
Education
The Division of Romblon of the Department of Education (DepEd) supervises and oversees the delivery of education and operations of public schools in the province. It is composed of 13 districts, where there are 228 elementary schools, 216 of which are public and 12 are private. Of the 216 public elementary schools, 162 offer preschool education, while 20 of the private schools have the same offering. There are also 10 private preschools offering pre-elementary. For secondary level, a total of 44 schools offer secondary education, of which 37 are public schools and seven are private institutions. The Virginia Centurione Bracelli School offers both primary and secondary education. There are 13 vocational schools in the province, while tertiary education is offered by privately owned Romblon College and the Romblon State University (RSU), one of the oldest state universities in the Philippines. RSU, which was founded in 1915, is the oldest agricultural university in the Philippines and has campuses in Romblon, Odiongan, Cajidiocan, Calatrava, San Agustin, San Andres, San Fernando, Santa Fe, and Santa Maria.
Notable people
Fitch Arboleda, Filipino footballer who plays for Stallion FC and the Philippines national football team.
Florante Condes, Filipino professional boxer and a former IBF Minimumweight World Champion.
Jose Dalisay, Jr., writer, poet, playwright and screenwriter who won 16 Palanca Awards. He is a recipient of 1993 Ten Outstanding Young Men (TOYM) award.
Gabriel Fabella, co-founder and first president of the Philippine Historical Association; Father of June 12 Independence Day; and sole representative of Romblon in the First National Assembly (1935–1938).
Ephraim Fajutagana, former Obispo Máximo or Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church.
Seth Fedelin, actor, model, singer and dancer who first appeared on television as a housemate on the reality show Pinoy Big Brother: Otso (2018) and has since appeared in various films and television series alongside his love team partner Andrea Brillantes.
Roilo Golez, former member of the Philippine House of Representatives representing the Second District of Parañaque. He is a recipient of 1982 Ten Outstanding Young Men (TOYM) award.
N. V. M. Gonzalez, writer, Palanca Award winner, and National Artist for Literature.
Dinualdo Gutierrez, Filipino prelate of the Roman Catholic Church and bishop of the Diocese of Marbel from 1982 to 2018.
Salvador Leaño, World War II veteran and Foursquare Church Pastor who volunteered as poll watcher during the 1986 Philippine presidential election and was killed in election-related violence at San Andres, Romblon. Honored as a hero at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani.
Elma Muros-Posadas, former track and field athlete who specialized in long jump and won a total of 15 gold medals in several Southeast Asian Games.
Rodne Galicha, environmentalist, 2018 Ten Outstanding Young Men (TOYM) awardee and recipient of national individual award for Gawad Bayani Kalikasan given by the Center for Environmental Concerns and Department of Environment and Natural Resources, former Philippine country manager of The Climate Reality Project.
Jansen Rios, Filipino professional basketball player for the NLEX Road Warriors of the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA).
Nene Tamayo, grand winner of ABS-CBN's Pinoy Big Brother (season 1).
References
External links
Official Website of the Romblon Provincial Government
Local Governance Performance Management System
Provinces of the Philippines
Islands of Luzon
Island provinces of the Philippines
Sibuyan Sea
Mimaropa
States and territories established in 1917
1917 establishments in the Philippines | [
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240410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20%28business%29 | Product (business) | In marketing, a product is an object, or system, or service made available for consumer use as of the consumer demand; it is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy the desire or need of a customer. In retailing, products are often referred to as merchandise, and in manufacturing, products are bought as raw materials and then sold as finished goods. A service is also regarded as a type of product.
Commodities are usually raw materials such as metals and agricultural products, but a commodity can also be anything widely available in the open market. In project management, products are the formal definition of the project deliverables that make up or contribute to delivering the objectives of the project.
A related concept is that of a sub-product, a secondary but useful result of a production process.
Dangerous products, particularly physical ones, that cause injuries to consumers or bystanders may be subject to product liability.
Product classification
A product can be classified as tangible or intangible. A tangible product is an actual physical object that can be perceived by touch such as a building, vehicle, gadget, or clothing. An intangible product is a product that can only be perceived indirectly such as an insurance policy. Services can be broadly classified under intangible products, which can be durable or nondurable.
By use
In its online product catalog, retailer Sears, Roebuck and Company divides its products into "departments", then presents products to potential shoppers according to (1) function or (2) brand. Each product has a Sears item number and a manufacturer's model number. Sears uses the departments and product groupings with the intention of helping customers browse products by function or brand within a traditional department-store structure.
By association
A product line is "a group of products that are closely related, either because they function in a similar manner, are sold to the same customer groups, are marketed through the same types of outlets, or fall within given price ranges."
Many businesses offer a range of product lines which may be unique to a single organisation or may be common across the business's industry. In 2002 the US Census compiled revenue figures for the finance and insurance industry by various product lines such as "accident, health and medical insurance premiums" and "income from secured consumer loans". Within the insurance industry, product lines are indicated by the type of risk coverage, such as auto insurance, commercial insurance and life insurance.
National and international product classifications
Various classification systems for products have been developed for economic statistical purposes. The NAFTA signatories are working on a system that classifies products called NAPCS as a companion to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The European Union uses a "Classification of Products by Activity" among other product classifications. The United Nations also classifies products for international economic activity reporting.
The Aspinwall Classification System classifies and rates products based on five variables:
Replacement rate (How frequently is the product repurchased?)
Gross margin (How much profit is obtained from each product?)
Buyer goal adjustment (How flexible are the buyers' purchasing habits with regard to this product?)
Duration of product satisfaction (How long will the product produce benefits for the user?)
Duration of buyer search behavior (How long will consumers shop for the product?)
The National Institute of Governmental Purchasing (NIGP) developed a commodity and services classification system for use by state and local governments, the NIGP Code. The NIGP Code is used by 33 states within the United States as well as thousands of cities, counties and political subdivisions. The NIGP Code is a hierarchical schema consisting of a 3 digit class, 5 digit class-item, 7 digit class-item-group, and an 11 digit class-item-group-detail. Applications of the NIGP Code include vendor registration, inventory item identification, contract item management, spend analysis, and strategic sourcing.
Product model
A manufacturer usually provides an identifier for each particular type of product they make, known as a model, model variant, or model number (often abbreviated as MN, M/N or model no., and sometimes as M- or Mk). For example, Dyson Ltd, a manufacturer of appliances (mainly vacuum cleaners), requires customers to identify their model in the support section of the website. Brand and model can be used together to identify products in the market. The model number is not necessarily the same as the manufacturer part number (MPN).
Because of the huge amount of similar products in the automotive industry, there is a special kind of defining a car with options (marks, attributes) that represent the characteristics features of the vehicle. A model of a car is defined by some basic options like body, engine, gearbox, and axles. The variants of a model (often called the trim levels) are built by some additional options like color, seats, wheels, mirrors, other trims, entertainment and assistant systems, etc. Options, that exclude each other (pairwise) build an option family. That means that you can choose only one option for each family and you have to choose exactly one option.
In addition, a specific unit of a product is often (and in some contexts must be) identified by a serial number, which is necessary to distinguish products with the same product definition. In the case of automotive products, it is called the vehicle identification number (VIN), an internationally standardised format.
See also
Builder's plate
List of fastest-selling products
Manufacturer part number
Product teardown
References
Further reading
External links
Business terms | [
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240412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Hoffmann%20%28politician%29 | Arthur Hoffmann (politician) | Arthur Hoffmann (18 June 1857, in St. Gallen – 23 July 1927) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1911–1917).
Hoffmann was the son of Karl Hoffmann (1820–1895), who declined his election to the Swiss Federal Council in 1881.
Arthur Hoffmann was elected to the Federal Council on 4 April 1911 and resigned on 19 June 1917 as a result of the Grimm–Hoffmann Affair which seriously questioned Switzerland's neutrality during World War I.
He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During Hoffmann's office time he held the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1911)
Military Department (1912–1913)
Political Department (1914–1917)
Hoffmann was President of the Confederation in 1914.
External links
1857 births
1927 deaths
People from St. Gallen (city)
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
University of Geneva alumni
Foreign ministers of Switzerland | [
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] |
240413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20Brenner | Ernst Brenner | Ernst Brenner (9 December 1856 – 11 March 1911) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 25 March 1897 and died in office on 11 March 1911. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his office time he held the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1897–1900)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1901)
Department of Justice and Police (1902–1907)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1908)
Department of Justice and Police (1909–1911)
External links
1856 births
1911 deaths
People from Basel-Stadt
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Basel alumni | [
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240414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil%20Frey | Emil Frey | Emil Johann Rudolf Frey (24 October 1838 – 24 December 1922) was a Swiss politician, Union Army soldier in the American Civil War and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1890–1897). He served as President of the Swiss Confederation in 1894.
Early life
Frey was born in Arlesheim, in the Canton of Basel-Landschaft, to Emil Remigius Frey and Emma Kloss. His father was a liberal separatist politician.
Frey's family provided refuge for Friedrich Hecker when he fled the repression following the revolution in Germany in 1848. After attending gymnasium in Basel, Frey went to study in an agronomical institute in Jena. In 1860 he emigrated to the United States, arriving in Belleville, Illinois, an area with many Forty-Eighters, veterans of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. For a while he worked for Hecker, but they had a falling-out.
American Civil War
Frey enlisted in the Union Army's 24th Illinois Infantry Regiment as a private. He wrote in his essay "My American Experiences" that "on 17th of June [1861] I enlisted in the 24th at Chicago. On that same day I was appointed by Colonel Hecker to be the colorbearer of the regiment, and in the evening we left Chicago for Alton, Ill." Hecker was his commander, and they became friends again, with Frey sharing a tent with Hecker's son. Frey was later promoted to first lieutenant but resigned on 17 June 1862.
Frey raised the 82nd Illinois Infantry Regiment (known as "Second Hecker Regiment") and was the regiment's acting colonel at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, where he was taken prisoner. He was held in Libby Prison for eighteen months before being exchanged for Captain Gordon, a Confederate prisoner who had been sentenced to death. Frey held the rank of major at the end of the war .
Political career
After the Civil War, Frey returned to Switzerland. From 1866 to 1872, he was a member of the cantonal government of Basel-Country. In 1870, he married Emma Kloss (born 1848) from Liestal, with whom he had five children: Hans (1871–1913), Emil (1872–1913), Carl (1873–1934), Anna (1874–1893) and Helene (1876–1944). In 1877 Emma died from pulmonary tuberculosis, aged just 28 years.
In 1872, Frey was elected to the Swiss National Council, council he presided in 1875/1876.
From 1882 to 1888, Frey was the first ambassador (Minister) of Switzerland to the United States in Washington.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 11 December 1890 and handed over office on 31 March 1897. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party. During his office time he held the Military Department.
He was President of the Confederation in 1894.
International Telegraph Union
In 1897, following his retirement from his second period as a member of Switzerland’s National Council, Frey was nominated as Director of the ITU Bureau at the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference to replace Timotheus Rothen. He held the post for almost a quarter of a century and took part in the International Telegraph Conferences of 1903 in London and 1908 Lisbon.
After leaving ITU in August 1921, Frey died, two months after his eighty-fifth birthday, on Christmas Eve 1922 after a long and very eventful life.
Literary works
Aus den Erlebnissen eines Schweizers im Sezessionskriege, Bern 1893, (translated: "From the experiences of a Swiss in the War of Secession")
Die Kriegstaten der Schweizer, dem Volk erzählt, Neuchâtel 1905, (translated: "The Swiss Acts of War, told to the People")
See also
References
External links
Personenlexikon des Kantons Basel-Landschaft
Emil Frey - der Baselbieter Bundesrat
Archiv der Basler Familie Frey - Family archives in Basel
1838 births
1922 deaths
People from Basel-Landschaft
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Ambassadors of Switzerland to the United States
Arlesheim
Swiss military officers
Union Army officers
American Civil War prisoners of war
People of Illinois in the American Civil War
19th-century Swiss military personnel
International Telecommunication Union people | [
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240415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myllokunmingia | Myllokunmingia | Myllokunmingia is a genus of basal chordate from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan shales of China, thought to be a vertebrate, although this is not conclusively proven. It is 28 mm long and 6 mm high.
It is among the oldest possible craniates, found in the lower Cambrian Chengjiang (). It appears to have a skull and skeletal structures made of cartilage. There is no sign of biomineralization of the skeletal elements.
The holotype was found in the Yuanshan member of the Qiongzhusi Formation in the Eoredlichia Zone near Haikou at Ercaicun, Kunming City, Yunnan, China. The animal has a distinct head and trunk with a forward sail-like (1.5 mm) dorsal fin and a ventral finfold (probably paired) further back. The head has five or six gill pouches with hemibranchs. In the trunk there are 25 segments (myomeres) with rearward-facing chevrons. There is a notochord, a pharynx and a digestive tract that may run all the way to the rear tip of the animal. The mouth cannot be clearly identified. There may be a pericardial cavity. There are no fin radials.
There is only one specimen, which has the tip of the tail buried in sediment. Only one species is known – Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa (Shu, Zhang & Han).
Related creatures are Haikouichthys and Zhongjianichthys.
See also
Haikouichthys
Haikouella
References
External links
http://www.sciencenews.org/sn_arc99/11_6_99/fob1.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20030511135309/http://www.gs-rc.org/repo/repoe.htm
Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China
Oldest fossil fish caught
Prehistoric jawless fish genera
Maotianshan shales fossils
Cambrian fish
la:Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa
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240416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah%20River | Savannah River | The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border. The Savannah River drainage basin extends into the southeastern side of the Appalachian Mountains just inside North Carolina, bounded by the Eastern Continental Divide. The river is around long. The Savannah was formed by the confluence of the Tugaloo River and the Seneca River. Today this confluence is submerged beneath Lake Hartwell. The Tallulah Gorge is located on the Tallulah River, a tributary of the Tugaloo River that forms the northwest branch of the Savannah River.
Two major cities are located along the Savannah River: Savannah and Augusta, Georgia. They were nuclei of early English settlements during the Colonial period of American history.
The Savannah River is tidal at Savannah proper. Downstream from there, the river broadens into an estuary before flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. The area where the river's estuary meets the ocean is known as "Tybee Roads". The Intracoastal Waterway flows through a section of the Savannah River near the city of Savannah.
Name
The name "Savannah" comes from a group of Shawnee who migrated to the Piedmont region in the 1680s. They destroyed the Westo and occupied established Westo lands at the Savannah River's head of navigation on the Fall Line. Present-day Augusta developed near there. These Shawnee were called by several variant names, which all derive from their native name, Ša·wano·ki (literally, "southerners"). The local variants included Shawano, Savano, Savana, and Savannah.
Another theory is that the name was derived from the English term "savanna", a kind of tropical grassland, which was borrowed by the English from Spanish sabana and used in the colonial southeast. The Spanish word was borrowed from the Taino word zabana.
Other theories interpret the name Savannah to have come from Atlantic coastal tribes, who spoke Algonquian languages. These have similar terms meaning "southerner" and, perhaps, "salt".
History
Historical and variant names of the Savannah River, as listed by the U.S. Geological Survey, include May River, Westobou River (for the Westo tribe), Kosalu River, Isundiga River, and Girande River, among others.
The Westobou River was the former name of the Savannah River that was derived from the Westo (also known as Westoe) Native Americans. The Westo were thought to have migrated from the northeast, pushed out by the more powerful tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy, who had acquired firearms through trade. This migration, beginning in the late 16th century, resulted in the Westo Indians reaching the present area of Augusta, Georgia, in what was likely to be the 1660s.
The Westo used the river for fishing and water supplies, for transportation, and for trade. They were strong enough to hold off the Spanish colonists making incursions from Florida. The Carolina Colony needed the Westo alliance during its early years. When Carolinians desired to expand their trade to Charleston, they viewed the Westo tribe as an obstacle. In order to remove the tribe, they sent a group called the Goose Creek Men to arm the Savanna (also known as the Savannah) Indians, a Shawnee tribe, who defeated the Westo in the Westo War of 1680.
Following this, the English colonists renamed the river as the Savannah; it was integral to early development. They founded two major cities on the river during the colonial era: Savannah was established in 1733 as a seaport on the Atlantic Ocean, and Augusta is located where the river crosses the Fall Line of the Piedmont, at the headwaters of the navigable portion of the river downstream to the ocean. The two large cities on the Savannah served as Georgia's first two state capitals. In the nineteenth century, the sandy river channel changed frequently, causing numerous steamboat accidents.
During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a blockade around the Confederate States of America, forcing merchantmen to use specific ports along the coast best suited for this purpose. The harbor at Savannah became one of the busiest ports for blockade runners bringing in supplies for the Confederacy until it was cut off by the reduction of Fort Pulaski and Union capture of Cockspur Island.
20th century to present
The Savannah River was significant during the 1950s when construction started on the U.S. government's Savannah River Plant, intended to produce plutonium and tritium for nuclear weapons. In 1956 Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines detected neutrinos with an experiment carried out at the Savannah River Nuclear Plant, after a preliminary experiment at the Hanford Site. They placed a 10-ton tank of water next to a powerful nuclear reactor engaged in making plutonium for use in nuclear weapons. After shielding the neutrino trap underground and running it for about 100 days over the course of a year, they detected a few synchronized flashes of gamma radiation, which signaled the interaction of a few neutrinos with the protons in the water. The neutrinos were not themselves observed, and they never have been. Their presence is inferred by an exceedingly rare interaction. One out of every billion neutrinos that pass through the water tank hits a proton, producing the telltale burst of radiation. In 1995 Reines was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this accomplishment, but Cowen did not live long enough to share it.
Between 1946 and 1985, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built three major dams on the Savannah for hydroelectricity, flood control, and navigation. The J. Strom Thurmond Dam (1954), the Hartwell Dam (1962), and the Richard B. Russell Dam (1985) and their reservoirs combine in order to form over of lakes.
In December 1986, an oil spill caused by an oil tanker docked at the port of Savannah resulted in approximately of fuel oil leaking into the river.
Natural history
The Savannah River flows through a variety of climates and ecosystems during its course. It is considered an alluvial river, draining a drainage basin and carrying large amounts of sediment to the ocean. At its headwaters in the Blue Ridge Mountains, the climate is quite temperate. The river's tributaries receive a small amount of snow-melt runoff in the winter. The majority of the river's flow through the Piedmont region is dominated by large reservoirs. Below the Fall Line, the river slows and is surrounded by large blackwater bald cypress swamps. Numerous oxbow lakes mark the locations of old river channels, which have shifted course because of earthquakes and silting.
Another prominent feature are the numerous large bluffs that line the river in some locations. Most notable of these is Yamacraw Bluff, the location selected to build the city of Savannah. The river becomes a large estuary at the coast, where fresh- and saltwater mix. River dredging operations to maintain the Port of Savannah have caused the estuary zone to move further upstream than its historical home. This is causing the rare freshwater marshland to be taken over by saltwater spartina marsh.
The river supports a large variety of native and introduced aquatic species:
Upper section - yellow perch, brook trout, brown trout, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, crappie, striped bass, hybrid striped bass, white bass, bluegill, North American river otter, American mink, North American beaver, catfish
Middle section - largemouth bass, crappie, striped bass, spotted bass, bluegill, redbreast sunfish, catfish, American eel, North American river otter, American mink, North American beaver, shortnose sturgeon, chain pickerel, bowfin, longnose gar, snapping turtles, American alligator, water moccasin
Lower section, estuary - largemouth bass, crappie, striped bass, spotted bass, bluegill, redbreast sunfish, catfish, American eel, North American river otter, American mink, North American beaver, shortnose sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon, chain pickerel, bowfin, longnose gar, snapping turtles, American alligator, snakes, red drum, flounder, spotted seatrout, bull shark, tarpon, common bottlenose dolphin, West Indian manatee, diamondback terrapin
Additionally, the river is one of only four left in the southeast with significant populations of Hymenocallis coronaria, the shoals spider-lily. It has three populations in the primary river basin and one each in the tributaries of Stevens Creek in South Carolina and the Broad River in Georgia.
Land cover and land use history
The Savannah River basin in the Southeast region of the U.S. has been experiencing environmental change from anthropocentric activities. The conversion of the vegetation cover, including the urban growth, agriculture expansion, and deforestation and reforestation take place throughout the basin, especially near the lakes and tributary waters in the middle and lower Savannah Basin. The continuous change of land use such as the conversion of forest areas to other types of land cover and vice versa can significantly lead to increasing threats to the environmental systems of the region.
Navigation
Through the building of several locks and dams in the first half of the 20th century (such as the New Savannah Bluff Lock and Dam, completed in 1937 during the Great Depression), and upstream reservoirs like Lake Hartwell, the Savannah River was once navigable by freight barges between Augusta, Georgia (on the Fall Line) and the Atlantic Ocean. Maintenance of this channel for commercial shipping ended in 1979, and the one lock below Augusta has been deactivated.
When a large piece of equipment (a deaerator) needed to be delivered to the Vogtle Electric Generating Plant construction site in 2013, the barge travelled upstream from the Port of Savannah only to the Georgia Power's Plant McIntosh site, near Rincon, Georgia; from there, the cargo was moved by a road transporter.
Pollution
The Savannah River has the fourth-highest toxic discharge in the country, according to a 2009 report by Environment America.
Notable tributaries
Black Creek
Brier Creek
Broad River
Chattooga River
Ebenezer Creek
Knoxboro Creek
Little River (Columbia County, Georgia)
Rocky River
Seneca River
Tugaloo River
Crossings
This is a list of crossings of the Savannah River.
Dams
Hartwell Dam
Richard B. Russell Dam
J. Strom Thurmond Dam (Clarks Hill Dam)
Stevens Creek Dam
Augusta City Dam
New Savannah Bluff Lock and Dam
See also
List of Georgia rivers
List of South Carolina rivers
South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region
References
Stokes, Thomas, L, The Savannah (Rivers of America Series), Rinehart, 1951
Url
Notes
External links
Two Historic Savannah River Ferries historical marker
Rivers of Georgia (U.S. state)
Rivers of South Carolina
Borders of South Carolina
Borders of Georgia (U.S. state) | [
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240418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne%20Borel | Eugène Borel | Eugène Borel (17 June 1835 – 14 June 1892) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1872–1875).
Early life
He was born in Neuchâtel to François-Victor and Louise Borel. He was educated at the humanistic high school in Neuchâtel and then studied the law in Munich and Heidelberg. After finishing his studies he worked as a lawyer in Neuchâtel. In 1861 he married Marie Gullaume.
Borel became an auditor and translator in the National Council of Switzerland in 1860. In 1870 he was elected inquisitor for western Switzerland by the federal court.
Politics
In 1857 he was elected into the legislative branch (Generalrat) of the city of Neuchâtel for the radical party, which is now the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. He was elected to the city council in 1864, to the Grand Council of the canton of Neuchâtel and in 1865 he became a member of the State Council (Staatsrat) where he headed the military department from 1865 to 1870 and the department of justice from 1870 to 1872.
In 1865 he was elected to the Swiss Council of States which he presided in 1869. He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 7 December 1872 with 37 years. During his office time he held the Department of Posts and Telegraph. He was a key player in the founding of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) with the Treaty of Bern in 1874. Borel became the first directory of the UPU and therefore resigned from his job as a federal councillor and handed over office on 31 December 1875 to his successor.
In 1889 there was a big unrest in Ticino. Borel was sent there and, together with troops from Zürich, he managed to restore order.
Borel headed the UPU until his death in 1892.
Quai Eugène-Borel in Neuchâtel is named for him.
References
Works
External links
1835 births
1892 deaths
People from Neuchâtel
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
Universal Postal Union people
19th-century Swiss judges | [
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240419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques%20Challet-Venel | Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel | Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel (11 May 1811, Geneva – 6 August 1893) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1864–1872).
Challet was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 12 July 1864 as the first member from the Canton of Geneva. He handed over office on 31 December 1872 after being voted out of office. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1864–1867)
Department of Posts (1868)
Department of Finance (1869)
Department of Posts (1870–1872)
References
External links
1811 births
1893 deaths
People from Geneva
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the National Council (Switzerland) | [
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240420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Battista%20Pioda | Giovanni Battista Pioda | Giovanni Battista Pioda (4 October 1808, in Locarno – 3 November 1882) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1857–1864).
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 30 July 1857 and resigned on 26 January 1864. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his time in office he held the Department of Home Affairs.
External links
1808 births
1882 deaths
People from Locarno
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Ambassadors of Switzerland to Italy | [
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240422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefano%20Franscini | Stefano Franscini | Stefano Franscini (23 October 1796, Bodio – 19 July 1857) was a Swiss politician and statistician. He was one of the initial members of the Swiss Federal Council elected in 1848 and Switzerland's first native Italian speaking federal councillor. Franscini was affiliated to the Liberal Radical Party of Switzerland. During his office tenure he held the Department of Home Affairs. Important elements of his political legacy include political reforms in the Ticino during the 1830s and 1840s, Switzerland's first federal population census in 1850, and the creation of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in 1854/1855.
Early life and education (1796–1824)
Franscini was born in the village of Bodio, to a farmer's family with humble backgrounds. Until the age of eleven, he visited a winter school run by a priest in the neighbouring village Personico. From 1808 to 1814, he attended the priests' seminary in Pollegio, from where he was sent to continue his education and training at the archiepiscopal seminary for priests in Milan. In 1819, he abandoned his religious classes for the sake of studying history, law, political economics, and pedagogy, financing his studies by working as a teacher and author of textbooks. He became friends with Carlo Cattaneo, who was a member of the liberal Carboneria at the time, and who introduced Franscini to Milan's liberal political circles as well as to the works of political economist Melchiorre Gioia, sparking Franscini's lifelong interest in economical statistics. In 1823, he married Teresa Massari, with whom he had two children before she died in 1831.
Political career (1824–1848)
Franscini returned to Bodio in 1824, where he continued his work as a teacher and author, also writing articles on history, economics, and statistics for the Gazzetta Ticinese. He and his wife founded a girls' school in Lugano based on the popular but controversial Bell-Lancaster method of mutual instruction.
In 1827, Franscini published Switzerland's first comparative statistical analysis ever in Statistica della Svizzera ("Statistics of Switzerland"). The explicitly liberal text and interpretation were also translated to German, and helped build Franscini's reputation in the political scene. One year later, he wrote Della pubblica istruzione nel Cantone Ticino ("On public education in the canton of Ticino"), in which he strongly criticized the backwardness of the cantonal government's education policy. Another political text of his was published in Zurich in 1829, this time anonymously: Della riforma della Costituzione ticinese ("On the reform of the Ticino's constitution"), a call for reform, including an outline of how a liberal constitution should be drafted, and a strong criticism of the canton's restorative and conservative institutions. Franscini continued to write for liberal journals such as L'Osservatore del Ceresio and Il Repubblicano della Svizzera italiana and between 1837 and 1840 published La Svizzera italiana, a reform program for the canton of Ticino, based on a comprehensive statistical analysis of its political and economic condition.
His writings were not well received by the authoritarian cantonal government under Landamano Giovanni Battista Quadri
, but his ideas were shared by a majority of the Ticino's legislative body, and they helped effectuate a constitutional reform and change of government. In the following years of reform, Franscini held several cantonal political offices: As a state secretary, from 1830 to 1837 and from 1845 to 1847, he prepared resolutions and laws for the cantonal government. He himself was an elected member of this government between 1837 and 1845, and again between 1847 and 1848. Franscini also represented the canton of Ticino at the Tagsatzung in 1841, 1843, 1845, and 1846. During his various tenures of office, Franscini was frequently sent on extraordinary missions, such as relief and calming missions in the Mendrisiotto during a cholera epidemic in 1836, and again during the famine of 1847. That same year he helped establish the armed defense in the Ticino to meet an unruly retreat of the Sonderbund's troops who were losing the War of the Sonderbund. On a national level, he attended intercantonal conferences on trade, customs, and postal services, and, in 1847, received a mandate to mitigate a peaceful change to liberal order in the Valais after its defeat in the War of the Sonderbund. The Tagsatzung also sent him on a fact-finding mission to Naples, where Swiss mercenaries had been accused of atrocious behavior while suppressing uprisings preceding the revolutions of 1848.
Federal council and death (1848–1857)
Franscini was the fifth candidate proposed during the Swiss Federal Council's first election which was held by the newborn Federal Assembly on 16 November 1848. He was elected in the third round, receiving 68 out of 135 valid votes – only one vote above the required absolute majority and the weakest result among the first seven members of the Federal Council.
For his entire tenure of eight years, Franscini supervised the Federal Department of Home Affairs. The constitution of 1848 granted the cantons far more autonomy than later revisions after 1874 would ever allow again, and the department's defined scope of responsibility was very small in comparison to what it would become later. Its primary focus was to organize the federal chancellory and federal archive. Other official duties included the collection of statistical data, supervision of religious rights and peace between confessions, sanitary measures in case of epidemic disease, and the standardization of weights and measurement.
One of the department's most important accomplishments under Franscini's supervision was the realization of a federal polytechnical institute. Franscini originally wished to create a national university, built on ideals of patriotic identity, but rivalries among cantons forced him to abandon this plan for the sake of a school of technology. The Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule in Zurich held its first lectures in the autumn of 1855.
Franscini's was able to apply his interest in statistics to his work in 1850, when the distribution of seats in the National Council by canton needed to be calculated, and he was commissioned to organize Switzerland's first federal population census. Despite his strong belief in the value of collecting and evaluating statistical data – he saw it as one of a "socially progressive nation"'s duties – he wasn't able to convince federal or cantonal politicians of its importance. With the aid of a private secretary, he was forced to evaluate the data of the census all by himself after Parliament failed to provide the necessary funds. His evaluations were published in a series of five volumes between 1851 and 1858, titled Beiträge zur Statistik der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft ("Contributions to the Statistics of the Swiss Confederation"). The Federal Statistical Office was not introduced until 1860, after Franscini's death, along with a law on federal population censuses, which were to be held every ten years henceforth.
Though the federal council was always only elected by the Federal Assembly, there was an unwritten rule at the time, relinquished since the 1870s, that federal councillors should be confirmed in their home canton's election for the National Council as well. Franscini passed the test in 1851, but failed three years later, during the national elections of 1854, due to rivalries between the fractions of the Ticino's liberals. He was obliged to run in delayed elections held in the canton of Schaffhausen where he finally managed to obtain the desired percentage of votes. The official election for Federal Council held by the Federal Assembly in 1854 proved to be a struggle as well; Franscini did not receive the absolute majority of votes until the third round, and many members of the assembly had given their vote to his Ticinese friend Giovanni Battista Pioda.
Fatigued by the lack of appreciation for his hard work, and apprehensive of another political embarrassment during the upcoming national elections, Franscini decided to resign from office in 1857. He planned on working in the Ticino's cantonal archive, but died unexpectedly in Bern, while still in office, on 19 July 1857 aged 60. Eleven days later, Pioda was elected as his successor.
References
External links
1796 births
1857 deaths
People from Ticino
Swiss Roman Catholics
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss statisticians | [
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240426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Druey | Henri Druey | Daniel-Henri Druey (12 April 1799 – 29 March 1855) was a Swiss politician of the 19th century and a founding father of constitutional democracy and member of Free Democratic Party in Switzerland.
Early life
Druey was born in Faoug in the Canton of Vaud. After studying law at the academy in Lausanne he engaged in further study at Heidelberg, Paris and London.
Political career in Switzerland
When Druey returned to Switzerland, aged 29, he was chosen to sit on the Canton of Vaud's Great Council. Two years later he became a member of the State Council.
Druey was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 16 November 1848 as one of the seven initial members. During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Justice and Police (1848–1849)
Political Department (1850) as President of the Confederation
Department of Finance (1851)
Department of Justice and Police (1852)
Department of Finance (1853–1855)
and was President of the Confederation in 1850.
Druey died in office on 29 March 1855.
References
External links
|-
1799 births
1855 deaths
People from Broye-Vully District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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240427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20J.%20Patterson | P. J. Patterson | Percival Noel James Patterson, ON, PC, QC, popularly known as P.J. Patterson (born 10 April 1935), is a Jamaican former politician who served as the sixth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1992 to 2006. He served in office for 14 years, making him the longest-serving Prime Minister in Jamaica’s history. He was the leader of the People's National Party from 1992 to 2006.
Patterson served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Westmoreland South Eastern from 1970 to 1980 (when he lost to Euphemia Williams of the Jamaica Labour Party) and again from 1989 to 1993. Following a constituency reorganization, he served as the MP for Westmoreland Eastern from 1993 to 2006. He retired from all of these positions in January 2006.
Cabinet positions he held during his political career include Minister of Industry and Tourism; Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade; Minister of Development, Planning and Production; Minister of Finance and Planning.
Early life and education
Patterson's parents were Henry Patterson, a farmer, and Ina James, a primary school teacher, who both hailed from the Hanover Parish in western Jamaica. He received his secondary education at one of Jamaica's most prominent learning institutions, Calabar High School, before moving on to pursue higher studies at the University College of West Indies and later the London School of Economics.
While pursuing his bachelor's degree in English at the University of the West Indies, he served as Chairman of the university's External Affairs Commission, where he gained exposure to world leaders and international political thought through attendance at a number of international student fora. It was also at university that he developed a commitment to Caribbean regionalism as well as to the causes of the countries of the developing world. In 1958, he graduated with a B.A. (Honours).
His time as a Law student of the London School of Economics consolidated the foundation in international politics that his university experience in Jamaica had provided. He was awarded the Leverhume Scholarship, and the Sir Hughes Parry prize for Excellence in the Law of Contracts.
During his enrolment at the Inns of Court (Middle Temple) he again came in contact with a number of future leaders of the countries of the developing world who were fellow students in England.
Early political life
Patterson joined the organising staff of the People's National Party (PNP) in 1958, and he became a member of the party's National and Executive Councils in 1964. Patterson entered the Parliament of Jamaica as an Opposition Senator in 1969, appointed by Opposition Leader Norman Manley. He was elected the youngest ever Vice President of the PNP later that year at age 33.
When in 1969 his predecessor as Prime Minister of Jamaica, Michael Manley, launched his campaign for the Presidency of the PNP, he turned to P. J. Patterson, youngest of the highest-ranking segment of the party executive, to lead his campaign. This was the beginning of a partnership which endured over the next 23 years, and allowed for an exchange of political ideas and perspectives that proved beneficial to both.
Patterson was elected the Member of Parliament for Westmoreland South Eastern in the constituency's by-election of 1970. The constituency borders were reorganized prior to the general election of 1993 and he was elected as the Member of Parliament for Westmoreland Eastern in that election, a seat he held until his retirement in 2006.
He was Campaign Manager for the PNP's bid for power in the General Elections of 1972, demonstrating skill as a political organizer that played a significant role in the party's victory at the polls that year. This led to his first appointment to the Jamaican Cabinet as Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism. From 1978 to 1980, Patterson served as deputy prime minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade.
The PNP were voted out of power in 1980, and Patterson lost his seat to Euphemia Williams. However, in 1983, he was elected party chairman, and the PNP won by a landslide in 1989, and Patterson was back as deputy prime minister. From 1989 to 1990, Patterson was also Minister of Development, Planning and Production, and from 1990 to 1991, he was Minister of Finance and Planning.
Premiership
He assumed office as Prime Minister after Michael Manley retired in 1992, at a time when the Caribbean island nation was facing the formidable challenge of securing a place in a new global order of economic liberalization and deregulation. In the 1993 Jamaican general election, held on March 30, Patterson led the PNP to a second consecutive victory in the polls, winning 52 of the 60 seats up for grabs, defeating former prime minister Edward Seaga of the Jamaica Labour Party.
Patterson led efforts to strengthen the country's social protection and security systems—a critical element of his economic and social policy agenda to mitigate, reduce poverty and social deprivation.
In the 1997 Jamaican general election, Patterson led the PNP to a third consecutive victory, breaking the "third-term barrier". The PNP won 50 of the 60 seats available.
His massive investments in modernization of Jamaica's infrastructure and restructuring of the country's financial sector are widely credited with having led to Jamaica's greatest period of investment in tourism, mining, ICT and energy since the 1960s. He also ended Jamaica's 18-year borrowing relationship with the International Monetary Fund, allowing the country greater latitude in pursuit of its economic policies. In 2002, when Patterson led the PNP to another general election victory, but with a much-reduced majority of 34 out of 60 seats. He became the first Jamaican prime minister to be sworn in for a fourth consecutive term.
In September 2003 Patterson told a party conference that he wanted Jamaica to be a republic by the time he left office in 2007, saying "The majority of people in Jamaica are ready to consign to history the last vestiges of colonialism". Patterson had long supported moves to make Jamaica a republic, but he was unsuccessful in this aim, as Jamaica is still a monarchy. In 2012 he expressed his frustration that a republic had still not come into being
He made international headlines in 2004 when, as Chairman of CARICOM, he led the regional organization in the decision to refuse recognition of the Gérard Latortue government in Haiti following the removal of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide from office. Patterson arranged for Aristide to take up temporary residence in Jamaica during Aristide's lawsuit against the United States and France accusing the countries of kidnapping him.
In one of his final initiatives as Prime Minister, he launched a program of radical transformation of the island's education system aimed at development of quality human capital equipped to succeed in the competitive global economy. In addition, Patterson presided over a significant decline in poverty during his time in office.
Patterson retired as prime minister on 30 January 2006, and he was succeeded as PM by Portia Simpson-Miller.
Post-premiership
Following his premiership, from 2006 to 2007, he chaired the Committee on Commonwealth Membership, which presented its report on potential changes in membership criteria for the Commonwealth of Nations at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2007 in Kampala, Uganda.
International service
Patterson is a member of the Club de Madrid, a group that consists of more than 100 former presidents and prime ministers of democratic countries, which works to strengthen democracy and democratic leadership worldwide.
Patterson has contributed to numerous Conventions and Statements in the international arena including the Valletta Statement on Multilateral Trade and the Gozo Statement on Vulnerable Small States. These have helped to shape north–south relationship and influence the negotiating position of developing countries.
He is a member of the Global Leadership Foundation, an NGO composed of a number of former statesmen, ex-presidents and prime ministers founded in 2004 by former State President of South Africa and Nobel Prize laureate F. W. de Klerk. The Global Leadership Foundation is an organization which works to support democratic leadership, prevent and resolve conflict through mediation and promote good governance in the form of democratic institutions, open markets, human rights and the rule of law. It does so by making available, discreetly and in confidence, the experience of former leaders to today's national leaders. It is a not-for-profit organization composed of former heads of government, senior governmental and international organization officials who work closely with Heads of Government on governance-related issues of concern to them.
He played a seminal role in the process that marked the transition from the first steps in integration of the Caribbean region to the founding of CARIFTA and its evolution into CARICOM. He drew upon his expertise in law and trade, to steer the regional body toward the development of a Caribbean jurisprudence through the Caribbean Court of Justice, and a borderless regional economy through the CARICOM Single Market, which came to fruition in 2005 and 2006 respectively.
During his tenure as Jamaica's foreign minister he served as president of the ACP/EU Ministerial Council and led negotiations for the ACP group of countries with the European Community. As chairman of the ACP/EEC Ministerial Conference, he played a pivotal role in forging an agreement on the basic framework for the original Lomé Convention, which influenced the outcome of subsequent negotiations that led to the Convention signed in 1975. He has served as president and spokesman of the ACP Ministerial Council on a number of occasions.
A passionate opponent of apartheid, he was an ardent proponent of South Africa's liberation movement.
Memberships and awards
Upon becoming the prime minister of Jamaica in 1992 Patterson was invested with the Order of the Nation, allowing him to be known as "The Most Honourable" and to use the post-nominal letters "ON".
In 2006 he was invested with the Order of Excellence of Guyana, allowing him to use the post-nominal letters "OE".
References
1935 births
Living people
Prime Ministers of Jamaica
Finance ministers of Jamaica
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Alumni of the University of London
University of the West Indies alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Jamaican lawyers
Jamaican republicans
People from Hanover Parish
People's National Party (Jamaica) politicians
Tourism ministers of Jamaica
Recipients of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo
Recipients of the Order of Excellence of Guyana
Recipients of the Order of the Nation
Jamaican Queen's Counsel
People educated at Calabar High School | [
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240428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion%20of%20the%20Waikato | Invasion of the Waikato | The Invasion of the Waikato became the largest and most important campaign of the 19th-century New Zealand Wars. Hostilities took place in the North Island of New Zealand between the military forces of the colonial government and a federation of Māori tribes known as the Kingitanga Movement. The Waikato is a territorial region with a northern boundary somewhat south of the present-day city of Auckland. The campaign lasted for nine months, from July 1863 to April 1864. The invasion was aimed at crushing Kingite power (which European settlers saw as a threat to colonial authority) and also at driving Waikato Māori from their territory in readiness for occupation and settlement by European colonists. The campaign was fought by a peak of about 14,000 Imperial and colonial troops and about 4,000 Māori warriors drawn from more than half the major North Island tribal groups.
Plans for the invasion were drawn up at the close of the First Taranaki War in 1861 but the Colonial Office and New Zealand General Assembly opposed action, and the incoming Governor Sir George Grey (second term: 1861-1868) suspended execution in December of that year. Grey reactivated the invasion plans in June 1863 amid mounting tension between Kingites and the colonial government and fears of a violent raid on Auckland by Kingite Māori. Grey used as the trigger for the invasion Kingite rejection of his ultimatum on 9 July 1863 that all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Waikato River. Government troops crossed into Waikato territory three days later and launched their first attack on 17 July at Koheroa, but were unable to advance for another 14 weeks.
The subsequent war included the Battle of Rangiriri (November 1863)—which cost both sides more men than any other engagement of the New Zealand Wars—and the three-day-long Battle of Ōrākau (March–April 1864), which became arguably the best-known engagement of the New Zealand Wars and which inspired two films called Rewi's Last Stand. The campaign ended with the retreat of the Kingitanga Māori into the rugged interior of the North Island and the colonial government confiscating about 12,000 km2 of Māori land.
The defeat and confiscations left the King Movement tribes with a legacy of poverty and bitterness that was partly assuaged in 1995 when the government conceded that the 1863 invasion and confiscation was wrongful and apologised for its actions. The Waikato–Tainui tribe accepted compensation in the form of cash and some government-controlled lands totalling about $171 million—about 1 percent of the value of the lands confiscated in 1863—and later that year Queen Elizabeth II personally signed the Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlement Act 1995.
(The Governor-General normally gives Royal Assent to legislation by signing on the monarch's behalf.)
Background and origins of the invasion
The First Taranaki War had ended in March 1861 as an uneasy truce between the government and Māori forces, with both sides recognising they had reached a stalemate. The lack of a clear victory by imperial forces led Governor Thomas Gore Browne to turn his attention to the Waikato, the centre of the Kingite movement, where king Tāwhiao was attracting the allegiance of increasing numbers of Māori across the North Island. Browne concluded that members of the Kingite movement would have to be compelled to submit to British rule. After attempting to achieve a peace settlement through "kingmaker" Wiremu Tamihana, in mid-1861 he sent an ultimatum to the movement's leaders, demanding submission to Queen Victoria and the return of plunder taken from Taranaki; when it was rejected he began drawing up plans to invade the Waikato and depose the king—a plan opposed by both the Colonial Office and the New Zealand General Assembly. According to Browne, in response to his belligerence, Kingite leaders formed plans to launch a raid on Auckland on 1 September and burn the town and slaughter most of its residents. This has since been dismissed by such historians as James Belich as being fear-mongering from Browne in order to try and gain military support.
Browne's invasion plan was suspended when he was replaced by Sir George Grey in September that year, and the Kingites in turn abandoned their plan for their uprising. Grey instead instituted a peace policy that included a system of Māori local administration in which they could participate, hoping it would encourage Māori to abandon the Kingite movement and "reduce the number of our enemies". At the same time, however, Grey began planning for war, using troops from the newly formed Commissariat Transport Corps to start construction work on a road from Drury that would run about 18 km south through forest to the Kingite border at the Mangatawhiri Stream—a tributary of the Waikato River—near Pokeno. The so-called Great South Road would provide quick access to troops in the event of an invasion. Using what historian James Belich describes as a campaign of misinformation, Grey retained the Taranaki army and began appealing to the colonial office for more troops to avert "some great disaster", claiming tensions remained high, with a high likelihood of Māori aggression. In November 1862 he ordered a gunboat steamer from Sydney and purchased another in Lyttelton to supplement the supply system. By early 1863 the imperial government had provided Grey with 3000 men for the expected war.
Events in early 1863 brought tensions to a head. In March Kingites obstructed the construction of a police station at Te Kohekohe, near Meremere, and 80 armed warriors raided the 80 hectare property at Te Awamutu occupied by magistrate and Commissioner John Gorst, seizing the printing press on which he published a newspaper and taking it to Kihikihi. The raiders, led by Rewi Maniapoto and Wiremu Kīngi, sent a message to Gorst—who was absent at the time—to quit the property or risk death; Grey recalled Gorst to Auckland soon after. On 4 April Grey arranged for a 300-strong Imperial force to evict Māori from the contested Tataramaika block in Taranaki and reoccupy it. Māori viewed the reoccupation as an act of war and on 4 May a party of about 40 Ngati Ruanui warriors carried out a revenge attack, ambushing a small military party on a coastal road at nearby Oakura, killing all but one of the 10 soldiers. The ambush, ordered by Rewi, may have been planned as an assassination attempt on Grey, who regularly rode the track between New Plymouth and the Tataraimaka military post.
Imperial troops were moved back to Taranaki as hostilities resumed and on 4 June the new British commander, Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, led 870 troops to attack a party of about 50 Māori on the Tataraimaka block, killing 24. Concerned by the renewed aggression, some Kingites began resurrecting their plan to raid Auckland and its frontier settlements. The colonial ministry remained unconvinced Auckland or Wellington were in any danger and had refused to call out the Auckland militia following the Oakura ambush, and missionaries and even Gorst dismissed the likelihood of an attack. But in correspondence to London Grey cited that incident as further proof of the imminent danger to New Zealand settlers.
On 9 July 1863 Grey issued a new ultimatum, ordering that all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the river. As many young men retreated into the bush with their weapons, officials began seizing others—including the ill and aged—who declined to swear the oath, imprisoning them without charge. Two days later Grey issued a proclamation directed to the "Chiefs of Waikato", which read:
Within a day—before the proclamation had even reached the Waikato—Grey ordered the invasion of the Kingite territory, claiming he was making a punitive expedition against Rewi over the Oakura ambush and a pre-emptive strike to thwart a "determined and bloodthirsty" plot to attack Auckland. Though Grey claimed it was a defensive action, historian B. J. Dalton claimed his reports to London had been "a deliberate and transparent falsehood" and that the invasion was an act of "calculated aggression". On 12 July Duncan Cameron and the first echelon of the invading army crossed the Mangatawhiri Stream.
First engagements
Cameron, a Crimean War veteran who had replaced Major-General Thomas Pratt as commander-in-chief of the British troops, began the invasion with fewer than 4000 effective troops in Auckland at his disposal. But the continuous arrival of regiments from overseas rapidly swelled the force. (Total troop numbers reached 10,000 in January 1864 before peaking at about 14,000 in March 1864—9000 imperial troops, more than 4000 colonial and a few hundred kūpapa, or pro-British Māori.)
Cameron's initial invasion force set up camp on the site of an old pā on a hill above the stream. Reinforcements continued to arrive and within days he had 500 troops. On the morning of 17 July Cameron led 553 men on a raid on a new and unfinished entrenchment at Koheroa, near Mercer. Cameron ran ahead of his force after they took early fire from Māori outposts and the Māori fighters fled. According to Belich, the Māori force numbered between 100 and 150 and about 15 were killed, some of them by bayonet. Among the dead were their leader Te Huirama, a relative of King Tāwhiao. British casualties totalled one dead and 12 wounded. But the same day a Māori war party ambushed a convoy of six carts and its 50-man escort well behind British lines, at Martin's Farm near Ramarama on the Great South Road. A third of the British force were cut down—five soldiers killed and 11 wounded—while Māori losses were limited to two. The attack prompted the establishment of five new redoubts on the route, taking 510 of Cameron's men.
The bush raid was the beginning of a new Māori strategy that would drain Cameron's resources and halt his advance for another 14 weeks. On 22 July a group of about 40 Māori fatally shot a settler cutting timber at Pukekiwiriki near Papakura and were pursued into the forest by the Auckland militia. Seven Māori were killed. When two more settlers were killed at isolated farms near Drury on 24 July, the government formed a special corps of bush fighters named the "Forest Rangers", who began a series of bush reconnaissance missions and pursuits of armed Māori bands. Cameron wrote: "The bush is now so infested with these natives that I have been obliged to establish strong posts along our line of communication, which absorbs so large a portion of the force that until I receive reinforcements it is impossible for me to advance further up the Waikato."
By the end of August Cameron's forces had grown to 6000 effectives. He had the armoured 40-ton paddle-steamer [[HMSS Avon (1862)|Avon]]—20m long, drawing one metre of water and armed with a 12-pounder Armstrong in the bows—as well as boats, barges and canoes. But Māori defences had also grown: the so-called Meremere Line—a 22 km-long line of fortifications that spread from Pukekawa to Meremere and Paparata—had been built, commanding about 2000 square kilometres of bush and manned by a force of up to 1500. The Meremere Line allowed bands of between 20 and 200 Māori warriors to freely cross the Waikato River and harass troops and kill settlers towards Auckland. On 25 August a party of Māori snatched up the rifles and ammunition from a group of 25 soldiers who were timber-felling beside the Great South Road—part of an effort to destroy cover for Māori raiders intent on mounting further ambushes—and killed two soldiers. On 2 September a British party of 62 men was fired on from the rear during a march on the village of Pokeno, but managed to pursue their attackers and inflict some casualties.
In mid-August the British established an alternative supply line to the Great South Road, using a combination of steamers from Onehunga to the Waikato Heads and canoes paddled up the Waikato by friendly Māori to Queen's Redoubt at Pokeno. But on 7 September a Ngāti Maniapoto war party launched an attack on that supply line, killing resident magistrate James Armitage—who was supervising a shipment of stores—and burning a stores depot with 40 tons of supplies at Camerontown on the north bank of the Waikato River near Tuakau. The Ngāti Maniapoto then attacked a British redoubt overlooking Pokeno, from which they were driven off. The attack on the supply line, said Belich, "was easily the most important single action of the first phase of the war".
Cameron responded by creating a series of about 20 stockades and redoubts all over the district, designed to protect the supply line and impede the ability of Māori to attack further north. Each stockade needed its own garrison—from 25 to 55 men—and supply line, eventually accounting for almost 6000 of his men, further draining him of frontline manpower. But Māori raids continued: almost 200 Ngāti Maniapoto surrounded a militia stockade at a Pukekohe East church on 14 September, losing about 40 men, and the same day a 20-man Ngāti Pou force attacked a homestead at Paerata, midway between Pukekohe and Drury, but were driven off by neighbours. The turning point for Cameron came in late October when hundreds of Waikato militia replaced regulars at the outposts, another 500 imperial troops arrived from Australia—now giving him a striking force of almost 2000 and a total of 8000 effectives—and a second river steamer, HMS Curacoa, was brought to the front. On 31 October a river flotilla including Avon, the gunboats Curacoa and Pioneer and armoured barges steamed past Meremere—drawing fire from rifle pits and batteries of ships guns, some of them firing pieces of iron chain and pound weights—and landed 600 men at Takapau, 15 km upriver, ready to attack the heart of the defensive line from the rear. The flotilla returned downstream, intending to bring up another 600 men the next day for the attack, but the plan was dropped when the Māori force evacuated the Meremere fortifications the following day and escaped eastwards across flooded lagoons by canoe, falling back to their next defensive system at Rangiriri.
Rangiriri
Three weeks later, on 20 November, Cameron, commanding a battle force of more than 1400 men, launched an attack on Rangiriri, further up the Waikato River. The battle cost both sides more than any other engagement of the land wars and also resulted in the capture of 180 Māori combatants, which impacted on their subsequent ability to oppose the far bigger British force.
The Rangiriri line, engineered by Te Wharepu, a leading Waikato chief, was a one kilometre-long system of deep trenches and high parapets that ran between the Waikato River and Lake Waikare. The front line ran east–west, while another line of defences ran south from the main line, facing the river. In the centre of the main line lay a small but well-protected north-facing redoubt with several lines of concealed rifle pits at its southern side. The defences consisted solely of earthworks, with no palisading; a redoubt midway along the main line, had a low profile and was deceptively strong.
Cameron arrived at Rangiriri with about 850 men, chiefly of the 65th, 14th and 12th regiments, to make the frontal assault. A second division of 320 men of the 40th Regiment under Lieut-Colonel Arthur Leslie with additional naval backup, were transported by barge further south with the aim of gaining possession of a ridge 500 metres behind the main entrenchment and cutting off any escape. The assault force, armed with three Armstrong guns, revolvers, Enfield rifles with fixed bayonets and hand grenades, faced a Māori force of about 500 men, mostly armed with double-barreled shotguns and muskets.
About 3pm Cameron launched a two-hour bombardment from artillery and gunboats. Without waiting for Leslie's division, which was delayed by adverse conditions on the river, he began his frontal attack, storming the Māori positions across a 600m gap under heavy fire and immediately suffering casualties. Members of the 12th and 14th regiments who tried to climb the earthworks near the centre of the line with the aid of ladders were shot down and within a short time 40 of the British were dead or wounded. Members of the 65th Regiment, however, were more successful in reaching the trenches at the river side of the fortification, bridging them with planks and penetrating the Māori line. They killed about 30 Māori, with the surviving defenders fleeing south or towards the main redoubt. But when Cameron ordered an attack on the redoubt from the river side, his men began to come under heavy fire. Cameron ordered two more unsuccessful assaults on the central redoubt, which lifted British casualties to about 110.
As night fell, the British, dispirited by the scale of losses, slept on the wet ground, ready to renew the combat in the morning. But about 5am the Rangiriri garrison—still with arms and ammunition and with an escape route open to the east—raised a white flag, expecting to talk terms with Cameron. British soldiers advanced on the redoubt and entered, shook hands with their combatants, then surprised the Māori by demanding they surrender all their arms and taking them prisoner.
Belich wrote: "The capture of Rangiriri was not the result of assault or encirclement, but of the British misuse of a flag of truce. The Māoris might conceivably have eventually decided to surrender unconditionally anyway, but they might also have repelled further assaults and escaped across the lake." He said they might have also been gaining time waiting for reinforcements who were almost on the scene. About 35 of the Māori force were killed, along with six women and children. Probably an equal number of injured were evacuated by canoe across Lake Waikare. With the capture of more than 180 warriors, the battle became the most costly Māori defeat in the Waikato wars. The 183 prisoners were held without trial on an old coal hulk in Waitematā Harbour before being moved to Kawau Island, north of Auckland, but in September 1864 they escaped and eventually made their way back to the Waikato.
Cameron attracted both praise for his "skilful measures" in the capture of Rangiriri and severe criticism over the high number of British losses. Yet the battle had highlighted the rapidly growing disparity between British and Māori forces and the inability of Waikato Māori to maintain their manpower continuously. Several Waikato chiefs including Te Wharepu expressed a willingness to negotiate and on 8 December the Kingite capital at Ngāruawāhia was abandoned and then taken by Cameron's troops. But Māori were still opposed to the British demands of submitting to the Queen and surrendering all arms and lands and began building further defences south of Ngāruawāhia.
Pāterangi and Rangiaowhia
Construction of a new and even more formidable defence line began 25 km south of Ngāruawāhia, soon after the fall of Rangiriri. The line included fortifications at Pikopiko and Rangiatea and was centered on Paterangi, its largest pā, and was designed to block the main approaches to the agriculturally rich Rangiaowhia district, east of Te Awamutu, a major economic base, trading with Auckland, San Francisco and Melbourne, and a supply centre of the Kingite tribes. By the end of January 1864 the line had become the largest system of Māori fortifications of the land wars, consisting of at least four large pā spaced about 8 km apart, each of which included complex sets of entrenchments and parapets. The defence system, which included two cannons, was manned by a force of between 1200 and 2000 men from a dozen major Waikato iwi.
Two weeks after capturing Ngāruawāhia, Cameron's 3000-strong striking force, protected by another 4000 men, began slowly and cautiously advancing south. In late January Cameron moved his army headquarters to Te Rore, about 5 km from Paterangi, with an advance camp for 600 men positioned just 1.2 km from the pā, from where they judged the defences were "immensely strong". Cameron, whose men continued to be targeted daily by sniper fire and attacks on short reconnaissance missions, decided that rather than a frontal attack, the more prudent approach would be to outflank the Paterangi line. He gained the help of two Māori guides, Himi Manuao (James Edwards) and John Gage, who had previously lived in the area, who revealed a route that bypassed it to the west and south to reach Te Awamutu. A new supply line was established from Auckland, using boats to Raglan and packhorses across the ranges to meet steamers on the Waipa River. But a further advance into the heart of Kingitanga territory was delayed when the Avon—one of the most important components of the transport and supply system—accidentally sank in the Waipa on 8 February.
A significant engagement took place on 11 February when an assault party from Paterangi ambushed a group of soldiers bathing in a loop of the Mangapiki Stream at Waiari, near the British forward position. Two hundred of Cameron's troops, with the Forest Rangers, became involved in a running battle with the attackers and killed an estimated 41 Māori, losing six of their own men.
Bishop George Selwyn, as garrison chaplain, had been told on 12 February that women, children and elderly would be taking refuge at unfortified and undefended Rangiaowhai, and had been asked to communicate that with Cameron. Kingitanga leaders understood they would be unharmed. There were about 200 Ngati-Apakura and Ngati-Hinetu people at Rangiaowhia, supplying food to the garrisons at Paterangi pā.
Cameron, meanwhile, was attracting sharp criticism from both the colonist press and Grey himself about the lack of progress in the eight weeks since Ngāruawāhia's capture. On the night of 20 February, he set out on the narrow bush track to bypass Paterangi with 1230 men led by one of his guides and the Forest Rangers, leaving a large masking force in front of Paterangi. The force marched through rough bush in silence and complete darkness, passing within 1500 metres of the Paterangi pā without detection and arriving in Te Awamutu at dawn. They advanced to the village of Rangiaowhia, where they attacked about 100 mostly elderly men, and about 100 women and children. Most terrified villagers fled, a few shot at the troops, some sheltered in the churches, at least seven were burnt to death in their houses and at least one attempted to surrender, but was murdered by troops ignoring their orders. Women were raped and killed in front of children. About a dozen houses were burned down. The British claimed they killed 12 Māori, including two chiefs, and took 30 prisoners. Their own losses totaled five, including several officers. Some unofficial estimates suggest there were more than 100 Māori deaths. As the village was largely occupied by women, children and older men, the deaths have been regarded as murder, rather than an act of war.
When Cameron's forces returned to Te Awamutu, the men of Rangiaowhia abandoned Paterangi, Pikopiko, and Rangiatea pā to defend their families and began rapidly digging a new trench on the crest of a ridge at Hairini, cutting the route between Te Awamutu and Rangiaowhia. The trench, fortified with a parapet and stakes, ended in swamp at one end and thick bush at the other. A thousand of Cameron's men, supported by three Armstrong guns, advanced on an estimated 100 Māori manning the frontline on the morning of 22 February. With the Armstrong guns firing over their heads, the infantry, cavalry and Forest Rangers moved towards the defensive line before finally charging with bayonets, revolvers and sabres, driving out the Māori. The British forces pursued the Kingites to Rangiaowhia, where they looted the village and later built a redoubt. Belich claims the so-called "Battle of Hairini" was simply a delaying tactic by the Māori, allowing them to move as many supplies as they could from Rangiaowhia and the Paterangi line. He says the Kingites, by abandoning the Paterangi line, managed to save their army which otherwise would have been destroyed in an all-out pitched battle; Cameron's decision to outflank the Paterangi line, meanwhile, was described as a "brilliant" strategy that forced his enemy out of one of its richest economic centres with minimal British losses, becoming the greatest British victory of the Waikato invasion. For Kingitanga supporters, who after the Rangiriri battle had been urged to fight in a "civilised" manner by the British, and had moved their families away from their fortifications to an undefended, open village, the assault on Rangiaowhia was an almost "incomprehensible act of savagery".
The role of Bishop Selwyn in the Rangiaowhia attack is unclear. He came with the invading forces, but also helped with Māori burials. The wife and two daughters of Kereopa Te Rau were killed in the attack, and his sister was killed in defence of the Hairini line a few days later. Colonel Marmaduke Nixon, who had led the Rangiaowhia cavalry charge, was mortally wounded. His remains are buried at the Nixon memorial in Ōtāhuhu, Auckland. There were no memorials to the victims of Rangiaowhia until the 150th anniversary was commemorated in 2014 with the unveiling of a plaque.
Ōrākau
Following the fall of the Paterangi line, Wiremu Tamihana, leading one of the two major Kingite divisions, retreated east to Maungatautari to block a British advance up the Waikato River into Ngati Raukawa territory and Matamata beyond. Cameron remained at Rangiaowhia, preparing to pursue him. Rewi Maniapoto, with the other main division, moved south into the Hangitiki Valley to defend Ngati Maniapoto bases. Ngati Maniapoto fighters and their allies remained determined to continue the war, but were divided over their strategy: whether to guard the hinterland with large defensive systems on the fringes, or to challenge the nearby occupying forces with a new pā. Rewi deferred a decision until he could consult with Tamihana, the kingmaker, and set out with a small group to Tamihana's stronghold near present-day Cambridge on the upper Waikato. On the way he encountered a group of about 140 of the dispersed Paterangi army, mainly warriors from distant Tūhoe and Ngati Raukawa iwi. The Tūhoe chiefs urged Rewi to build a pā at the agricultural village of Ōrākau, near Kihikihi, to challenge the troops, explaining that their guns and ammunition had been carried a long distance and were "too heavy to carry all this way for nothing". Although he strongly opposed the plan, convinced it would result in their defeat, Rewi relented—possibly in return for the loyalty they had shown in crossing the North Island to join the fight for his territory—and accompanied them back to Ōrākau, arriving about 28 March.
For Rewi, a skilled strategist and warrior, the major concerns about Ōrākau were that it had no immediate water supply and, sited on a low hill, overlooked by the nearby "California" ridge, 850m to the southwest, could also be easily encircled. The land immediately to the south of the pa was a series of low undulating hillocks leading to swamp. For two days the villagers, as well as Rewi's forces and the new reinforcements, labored in shifts to strengthen the defences of the pā, located on a slight rise of land in the midst of peach groves. Measuring about 30 metres by 12 metres, the pā was enclosed within a rectangular redoubt and contained interior bunkers, trenches, firing apertures. The main parapet was just 1.2 metres high, the outer trench a metre deep and the entire system was surrounded by a post and three-rail fence. The pā was defended by between 200 and 250 warriors—mainly Tūhoe and Ngati Raukawa—drawn from at least nine tribes, as well as about 50 women and children.
Early on 30 March two surveyors working at Kihikihi observed through a telescope construction of entrenchments at the Ōrākau pa and immediately passed the information to Brigadier General G. J. Carey, who had been left in charge of the British forces. Carey, keen to surprise the Kingites, immediately began organising an expedition and at midnight the first of three separate columns, comprising members of the 40th, 65th and 18th Royal Irish Regiments, as well as Forest Rangers and Waikato Militia, set out for Ōrākau with two Armstrong six-pounders, arriving before daybreak. The total force for the mission was 1120 men. The two cannons were set up on a small plateau 350m to the west and about the same height above the pā. They were shooting across the front of the 40th Regiment who were situated 250 m south of the pā behind a small hill.
31 March – 1 April, days one and two
Early on 31 March the first attack was made on Ōrākau, whose parapets and exterior fence was still incomplete. The Ōrākau garrison spotted the attacking force to their west just minutes before the bugle was sounded to charge and warriors were ordered by Rewi into the outer trenches. The Kingites held their fire until the attackers were within 50 metres, then fired in two volleys, halting the advance. Two more waves of attack were similarly repulsed, with several casualties, including officers.
Realising the strength of Ōrākau, Carey decided to encircle the pā and began shelling it from about 350 metres, though the design and construction methods of the bunkers neutralised the force of the bombardment. He then ordered a start on a shallow sap that zig-zagged towards its western face from a distance of about 120 metres. A party of Māori reinforcements appeared about 2 km to the east, but retreated, unable to break through the British lines. Sporadic shooting continued through the night, with the besieged occupants of Ōrākau chanting and singing.
By dawn the second day—with fog so thick the combatants could not see one another—the Ōrākau garrison realised they had exhausted their water supplies and most of their ammunition. Ngati Maniapoto chief Winitana Tupotahi suggested at a runanga, or council of chiefs, that they abandon the pā, but Rewi rejected the proposal. At midday many attempted to break out of the pā through the cordon at the east, but were driven back twice, suffering the loss of one of their chiefs. One Kingite told Cowan: "We were in better spirits after our fight in the open; nevertheless we realized that our position was hopeless, short of food and water, short of lead, and surrounded by soldiers many times outnumbering our garrison, and with big guns throwing shells into our defences." Further British reinforcements arrived, including a second company of Forest Rangers, taking the British strength to almost 1500. Shelling continued as the sap approached the pā, its progress slowed by accurate fire from the Kingites.
That night, Tupotahi suggested they make a breakout under cover of dark. Rewi supported the plan, but the runanga decided they should stay and fight. With ammunition now running very short, the Kingites—so parched they could not swallow their remaining food—began firing peach stones, 5 cm-long sections of apple tree branches and pieces of metal.
2 April: day three
Another runanga was held before dawn on 2 April and again Tupotahi urged them to break out. Though many of the chiefs remained steadfast in their refusal to retreat, Rewi insisted the effect of the water shortage was now so severe they had to break out, but urged they go out fighting. The plan was aborted when dawn broke and the fog lifted, removing their cover. Through the morning the British sap advanced close enough to the outer trenches of Ōrākau for hand-grenades to be thrown over the ramparts. At noon Cameron arrived with more men, bringing the besieging imperial and colonial force to 1800. One of the Armstrong guns was moved to the head of the sap and fired at the outwork of the pā about 30 metres away, breaching the wall. Under the combination of shells, hand grenades and rifle fire, Māori casualties began to climb rapidly.
Soon after arriving, Cameron, impressed by the courage of the garrison, decided to give them the opportunity to surrender. Two interpreters were sent to the head of the sap with a white flag and Major William Mair called out the offer in Māori, which was passed to Rewi, within the pā. Although there are several versions of Rewi's reply, he is reputed to have declared through his messenger, "Ka whawhai tonu ahau ki a koe, ake, ake" ("I shall fight you forever, and ever, and ever") When a shot was fired at Mair as he withdrew, grazing his shoulder, the British forces responded with a heavier hail of grenades, artillery and gunfire. The Ōrākau garrison repulsed two more attempts by the Waikato militia to rush the north-west outworks, but at 4:00 pm the chiefs, realising the end was near, decided to break out. Placing women and children in the middle of the group and their best warriors in front, the Māori broke through the earthworks at the south-east corner of the pā and ran downhill without opposition 200 metres towards a ridge to the south, behind which the some men of the 40th were sheltering. They then dropped down a sloping 10-metre bank, surprising members of the 40th Regiment, who formed the south eastern edge of the cordon before running for cover in a nearby swamp. The group, many of them holding empty shotguns or tomahawks, was pursued by sword-bearing cavalry and hundreds of soldiers who fired on and bayoneted the fleeing Māori; Forest Rangers kept up the chase until dusk. Back at Ōrākau, meanwhile, soldiers stormed the pā as the garrison fled, bayoneting and shooting many of the wounded, including women and children. One of the women was Hine-i-turama Ngatiki.
Sixteen of the British forces died in the three-day battle and 53 were wounded, some of them mortally; while estimates of Māori fatalities range from 80 to 160, with half of the casualties coming from the Urewera contingent. Another 26 wounded were taken prisoner. The bodies of the Māori were buried in mass graves in the trenches of Ōrākau (just to the north of the road opposite the existing memorial) and beside the nearby swamp to the south. Rewi escaped through the swamp, unharmed, escorted by a 12-man bodyguard.
The Māori saw Ōrākau as a defeat, but both Cameron and Grey were angered by the failure of the 40th Regiment to halt the Ōrākau breakout and kill Rewi, which deprived them of the crushing victory over the Kingites they desperately sought.
The general site of the battle is today marked by a memorial on Arapuni Road, 4 km east of Kihikihi, with the road running through the middle of what were the defences. The site of the pā is on private farmland and no traces of it are now visible. Plans have been proposed to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the battle in 2014, with a call made for a new memorial.
Commissariat
Belich has described the Waikato campaign as one of the best-prepared and best organised ever undertaken by the British Army, proving that many lessons had been learned from the logistical fiasco of the Crimean War. He said the Commissariat Transport Corps (CTC), established in mid-1861, almost two years before the invasion began, was the "vital kernel" because of its efforts in building the southern road and being a separate military supply train. Commissariat sourced much of its food from England and Australia and sent it along with other supplies up to 160 km into the interior via a combination of steamers, barges, bullocks and pack horses. The CTC had found the Otago pack saddle, devised in the Otago goldfields to prevent injury and ruin to horses carrying heavy loads, to be the best suited to their needs. In a report to the War Office, Commissary General Humphrey Stanley Herbert Jones described the CTC as "the foundation of the whole service". The work of the commissariat helped ensure the sick rate of soldiers never rose above 5 percent—a rate far below that of the Crimean War a decade earlier, when 14 percent of the force was incapacitated.
Aftermath
Ōrākau was the last major battle of Cameron's Waikato campaign. Leaving his captured territory occupied by troops, he resumed his preparations to assault one of the strongest of Tamihana's pā, Te Tiki o te Ihingarangi, about 25 km northeast of Ōrākau near modern-day Lake Karapiro. The pā formed part of a long line of pā the Kingites called aukati, or boundary. Cameron assessed the pā as too strong to assault and incapable of outflanking. On 2 April he settled his troops in front of it, and prepared to shell it. After three days the Kingites abandoned the pā, but Cameron decided further effort in the region would be fruitless and withdrew, switching his focus to Tauranga. Land behind the aukati remained native territory, with Europeans warned they crossed it under threat of death. The area subsequently came to be known as the King Country.
In mid-1863 the New Zealand government began planning legislation designed to punish armed Māori resistance and aggression by widespread confiscation of their land, which would be given to colonial settlers. The New Zealand Settlements Act was passed in December 1863 and in 1865 Governor Grey confiscated more than 480,000 hectares of land from the Waikato–Tainui iwi (tribe) in the Waikato as punishment for their earlier "rebellion".
Proclamations under the act were issued on 30 January 1865 for the seizure of the East Wairoa and West Pukekohe blocks for settlement and colonisation, followed by the Central Waikato district and the Mangere, Pukaki, Ihumata and Kerikeri blocks (16 May 1865). As the occupants were evicted from their land, their belongings were looted by colonial forces and neighbouring settlers, with houses ransacked, cattle seized and horses transported for sale in Auckland.
The war and confiscation of land caused heavy economic, social and cultural damage to Waikato-Tainui. King Tāwhiao and his people were forced to retreat into the heartland of Ngāti Maniapoto. The Maniapoto, by contrast, had been more zealous for war than the Waikato, yet suffered no loss of land because its territory was too remote to be of use to white settlers. The 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land, chaired by senior supreme court judge Sir William Sim, concluded that although the government restored a quarter of the 1,202,172 acres (486,500 hectares) originally seized and paid almost £23,000 compensation, the Waikato confiscations had been "excessive". The Waitangi Tribunal in 1985 declared the Tainui people of the Waikato had never rebelled, but had been forced into a defensive war.
In the early 1990s Tainui opted to bypass the Waitangi Tribunal and concluded a treaty claims settlement with the Crown through direct negotiation. In May 1995 the Crown signed a deed of settlement with Waikato–Tainui that included cash and land valued at $170 million. The settlement included an admission by the Crown that it had "unjustly confiscated" the land. It formally and publicly apologised to Waikato–Tainui and the Kingitanga for unjustly invading Waikato–Tainui lands, for sending imperial forces across the Mangataawhiri, and for the loss of life and the devastation of property that ensued. The Crown expressed profound regret and apologised unreservedly for the invasion and the crippling effects it had on the welfare of the Waikato-Tainui people.Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlements Act 1995, Parliamentary Counsel Office, NZ Legislation Queen Elizabeth II affirmed the apology of the Crown by signing the Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlement Act 1995 in the presences of the head of the Kingitanga, Māori Queen Dame Te Atairangikaahu. As a result of this settlement the Crown agreed to return as much land as possible to Waikato and to pay compensation, and said that it sought on behalf of all New Zealanders to atone for these acknowledged injustices, and to begin the process of healing and to enter a new age of co-operation with the Kingitanga and Waikato.
References
Further reading
Belich, James, Making Peoples. Penguin Press, 1996.
Gorst, J. E., The Maori King, 1865, NZETC.org
Simpson, Tony, Te Riri Pākehā. Hodder and Stoughton, 1979.
The People of Many Peaks: The Māori biographies. (1990). From The dictionary of New Zealand biographies, Vol. 1, 1769–1869. Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, New Zealand.
Dr Neville Ritchie, The Waikato War 1863–64 (2001). .
The Waikato War of 1863–64, "A guide to the main events and sites", Richie
"Taranaki and Waikato wars", New Zealand History Online
Bohan, Edmund, Climates of War, Hazard Press, 2005.
Nicholson, John. White Chief, the Story of a Pakeha Maori,'' Penguin, 2006.
External links
War in the Waikato, (NZHistory)
Conflicts in 1863
Conflicts in 1864
New Zealand Wars
1863 in New Zealand
1864 in New Zealand
History of Waikato | [
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240432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20Argentina | Provinces of Argentina | Argentina is subdivided into twenty-three provinces ( singular provincia) and the autonomous city (ciudad autónoma) of Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation () as decided by the Argentine Congress.
The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system.
History
During the War of Independence the main cities and their surrounding countrysides became provinces though the intervention of their cabildos. The Anarchy of the Year XX completed this process, shaping the original thirteen provinces. Jujuy seceded from Salta in 1834, and the thirteen provinces became fourteen.
After seceding for a decade, Buenos Aires Province accepted the 1853 Constitution of Argentina in 1861, and its capital city was made a federal territory in 1880.
A law from 1862 designated as national territories those under federal control but outside the frontiers of the provinces. In 1884 they served as bases for the establishment of the governorates of Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, La Pampa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego.
The agreement about a frontier dispute with Chile in 1900 created the National Territory of Los Andes; its lands were incorporated into Jujuy, Salta and Catamarca in 1943. La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951. Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province in 1990.
Political organization
Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, which is divided into partidos and localidades. Buenos Aires City itself is divided into communes (comuna) and non-official neighbourhoods (barrios).
Provinces hold all the power that they chose not to delegate to the federal government; they must be representative commonwealths and must not contradict the Constitution. Beyond this, they are fully autonomous: they enact their own constitutions, freely organize their local governments, and own and manage their natural and financial resources. Thus, each province has its own set of provincial laws and justice system, a supreme court, a governor, an autonomous police force, and a congress; in eight provinces, this legislature is bicameral, comprising an upper chamber (the Senate) and a lower chamber (the House of Deputies), while in the remaining fifteen provinces and in Buenos Aires City, it is unicameral.
In case of sedition, insurrection, territorial invasion, or any other emergent against the laws of the Nation on any province or the federal capital, the Congress has the authority to declare a federal intervention on the compromised district, even in the absence of a formal request by the affected part. When Congress is in recess and thus unable to decide, the President is entitled to decree such intervention, but this executive order is subject to Congressional override upon the Houses' immediate reassembly.
Once the intervention is declared the compromised district's government is immediately dissolved—in whole or in part depending on Congressional decision—and the President appoints a representative or intervenor, who will serve for a short time until the emergency is solved.
Since 1983 four provinces were intervened, namely Catamarca, Corrientes (twice), Santiago del Estero (twice), and Tucumán.
During the 20th century, some provinces have had governments that are traditionally controlled by a single family (i.e. the Saadi family in Catamarca, or the Sapag family in Neuquén); in one case, it is still the same situation from 2009: the Province of San Luis was ruled almost without a break by the Rodríguez Saá family since December 1983.
Article 61 of the Constitution of the city of Buenos Aires states that "Suffrage is free, equal, secret, universal, compulsory and not accumulative. The foreign residents enjoy this right, with the correlative obligations, on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in this district, in the terms established by the law."
List of provinces
See also
Comparison between Argentine provinces and countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
Demographics of Argentina
ISO 3166-2:AR, the ISO codes for the provinces of Argentina.
List of Argentine provinces by gross regional product
List of Argentine provinces by Human Development Index
Notes
References
Bibliography
Legal documents
Books
External links
Provinces of Argentina at statoids.com
Argentine Provinces since 1973 at World Statesmen
Subdivisions of Argentina
Provinces
Provinces, Argentina
Argentina geography-related lists | [
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240433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska%20Highway | Alaska Highway | The Alaska Highway (; also known as the Alaskan Highway, Alaska-Canadian Highway, or ALCAN Highway) was constructed during World War II to connect the contiguous United States to Alaska across Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in Dawson Creek, British Columbia, and runs to Delta Junction, Alaska, via Whitehorse, Yukon. When it was completed in 1942, it was about long, but in 2012, it was only . This is due to the continuing reconstruction of the highway, which has rerouted and straightened many sections. The highway opened to the public in 1948. Once legendary for being a rough, challenging drive, the highway is now paved over its entire length. Its component highways are British Columbia Highway 97, Yukon Highway 1 and Alaska Route 2.
An informal system of historic mileposts developed over the years to denote major stopping points. Delta Junction, at the end of the highway, makes reference to its location at "Historic Milepost 1422". It is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the Richardson Highway, which continues to the city of Fairbanks. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the northwestern portion of the Alaska Highway, with Fairbanks at Historic Milepost 1520. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from the port of Valdez on Prince William Sound, rather than the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is popularly (but unofficially) considered part of the Pan-American Highway, which extends south (despite its discontinuity in Panama) to Argentina.
History
Proposal
Proposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s. Thomas MacDonald, director of the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, Slim Williams originally traveled the proposed route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial. However, the Canadian government perceived no value in putting up the required funds to build the road, since the only part of Canada that would benefit was not more than a few thousand people in Yukon.
In 1929, the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President Herbert Hoover appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea. Its 1931 report supported the idea for economic reasons, but both American and Canadian members recognized that a highway would benefit the American military in Alaska. In 1933, the joint commission proposed the U.S. government contribute $2 million of the capital cost, with the $12 million balance borne by the Canadian and BC governments. The Great Depression and the Canadian government's lack of support caused the project to not proceed.
When the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the military implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. During a June 1936 visit to Canada, President Franklin D. Roosevelt told Prime Minister W. L. M. King that a highway to Alaska through Canada could be important in quickly reinforcing the American territory during a foreign crisis. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the military benefits of a highway in an August speech in Chautauqua, New York. He again mentioned the idea during King's visit to Washington in March 1937, suggesting that a $30 million highway would be helpful as part of a larger defense against Japan that included, the Americans hoped, a larger Canadian military presence on the Pacific coast. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling Cordell Hull in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible. By 1938, Duff Pattullo, the BC premier, favored a route through Prince George. The U.S. offered either a $15 million interest-free loan, or to cover half the construction costs.
The attack on Pearl Harbor and beginning of the Pacific Theater in World War II, coupled with Japanese threats to the west coast of North America and the Aleutian Islands, changed the priorities for both nations. On February 6, 1942, the construction of the Alaska Highway was approved by the United States Army and the project received the authorization from the U.S. Congress and Roosevelt to proceed five days later. Canada agreed to allow construction as long as the United States bore the full cost, and that the road and other facilities in Canada be turned over to Canadian authority after the war ended. It proved unimportant for the military because 99 percent of the supplies to Alaska during the war were sent by sea from San Francisco, Seattle, and Prince Rupert.
Routing
The Americans preferred Route A, which starting at Prince George, went northwest to
Hazelton, along the Stikine River, by
Atlin, Teslin and Tabish Lakes, and from Whitehorse, Yukon to Fairbanks, Alaska via the Tanana Valley. However, the route was vulnerable to possible enemy attack from the sea, experienced steep grades and heavy snowfall, and had no airbases along the way.
The Canadians favored Route B, also starting at Prince George, but followed the Rocky Mountain Trench up the valleys of the Parsnip and Finlay Rivers to Finlay Forks and Sifton Pass, then north to Frances Lake and the Pelly River in the Yukon. From there it went to Dawson City and down the Yukon Valley to connect the Richardson Highway to Fairbanks. The advantages of this inland route was the safe distance from enemy planes, and shorter with lower elevations enabling lower construction and maintenance costs. The disadvantages were the bypassing of respective airbases, and Whitehorse, the principal town in the Yukon. Optional variations in the southern portion of this route were via Vanderhoof to the west or Monkman Pass to the east.
Route C, the Prairie option, advocated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, was the only practical one. It was far enough inland from enemy planes and it linked the airfields of the Northwest Staging Route that conveyed lend-lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. This option encountered more level terrain, not ascending a pass over . There was also a railhead at Dawson Creek, British Columbia, and a winter trail from there to
Fort Nelson, to the northwest. It followed the Rocky Mountain Trench toward Dawson City before turning west to Fairbanks.
Construction
The official start of construction took place on March 9, 1942, after hundreds of pieces of construction equipment were moved on priority trains by the Northern Alberta Railways to the northeastern part of British Columbia near Mile 0 at Dawson Creek. Construction accelerated through the spring as the winter weather faded away and crews were able to work from both the northern and southern ends; they were spurred on after reports of the Japanese invasion of Kiska Island and Attu Island in the Aleutians. During construction the road was nicknamed the "oil can highway" by the work crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans and fuel drums that marked the road's progress. The construction crew had also passed through an Indigenous village known as Champagne (Shadhala-ra) which they used to set up camp. Unfortunately, disease had spread and nearly wiped out the entire indigenous population of the village. After the war, the survivors left the village to find work rendering this location a ghost town.
On September 24, 1942, crews from both directions met at Mile 588 at what became named Contact Creek, at the British Columbia-Yukon border at the 60th parallel; the entire route was completed October 28, 1942, with the northern linkup at Mile 1202, Beaver Creek, and the highway was dedicated on November 20, 1942, at Soldier's Summit.
The road was originally built mostly by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a supply route during World War II. In 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers assigned more than 10,000 men, about a third of whom were black soldiers, members of three newly formed "Negro regiments". There were four main thrusts in building the route: southeast from Delta Junction, Alaska, toward a linkup at Beaver Creek, Yukon; north then west from Dawson Creek (an advance group started from Fort Nelson, British Columbia, after traveling on winter roads on frozen marshland from railway stations on the Northern Alberta Railways); both east and west from Whitehorse after being ferried in via the White Pass and Yukon Route railway. The Army commandeered equipment of all kinds, including local riverboats, railway locomotives, and housing originally meant for use in southern California.
Although it was completed on October 28, 1942, and its completion was celebrated at Soldier's Summit on November 21 (and broadcast by radio, the exact outdoor temperature censored due to wartime concerns), the "highway" was not usable by general vehicles until 1943. Even then there were many steep grades, a poor surface, switchbacks to gain and descend hills, and few guardrails. Bridges, which progressed during 1942 from pontoon bridges to temporary log bridges, were replaced with steel bridges where necessary. A replica log bridge, the Canyon Creek bridge, can be seen at the Aishihik River crossing; the bridge was rebuilt in 1987 and refurbished in 2005 by the Yukon government as it is a popular tourist attraction. The easing of the Japanese invasion threat resulted in no more contracts being given to private contractors for upgrading of specific sections.
Some of route between Burwash Landing and Koidern, Yukon, became nearly impassable in May and June 1943, as the permafrost thawed, no longer protected by a layer of delicate vegetation. A corduroy road was built to restore the route, and corduroy still underlays old sections of highway in the area. Modern construction methods do not allow the permafrost to thaw, either by building a gravel berm on top or replacing the vegetation and soil immediately with gravel. The Burwash-Koidern section, however, is still a problem as the new highway built there in the late 1990s continues to experience frost heave.
Pincers on Japan and Look to the North, both 1944 productions, were National Film Board of Canada documentaries that depicted the construction of the Alaska Highway.
Post war
The original agreement between Canada and the United States regarding construction of the highway stipulated that its Canadian portion be turned over to Canada six months after the end of the war. This took place on April 1, 1946, when the U.S. Army transferred control of the road through Yukon and British Columbia to the Canadian Army, Northwest Highway System. The Alaskan section was completely paved during the 1960s. The lower 50 miles of the Canadian portion were paved in 1959, but the remainder was largely gravel. Now completely paved (mostly with bituminous surface treatment), as late as the mid-1980s, it included sections of winding dusty road sandwiched between high quality reconstructed paved segments.
The Milepost, an extensive guide book to the Alaska Highway and other highways in Alaska and Northwest Canada, was first published in 1949 and continues to be published annually as the foremost guide to travelling the highway.
The British Columbia government owns the first of the highway, the only portion paved during the late 1960s and 1970s. Public Works Canada manages the highway from Mile 82.6 (km 133) to Historic Mile 630. The Yukon government owns the highway from Historic Mile 630 to Historic Mile 1016 (from near Watson Lake to Haines Junction), and manages the remainder to the U.S. border at Historic Mile 1221. The State of Alaska owns the highway within that state (Mile 1221 to Mile 1422).
The Alaska Highway was built for military purposes and its route was not ideal for postwar development of northern Canada. Rerouting in Canada has shortened the highway by about since 1947, mostly by eliminating winding sections and sometimes by bypassing residential areas. The historic milepost markings are therefore no longer accurate but are still important as local location references. Some old sections of the highway are still in use as local roads, while others are left to deteriorate and still others are plowed up. Four sections form local residential streets in Whitehorse and Fort Nelson, and others form country residential roadways outside of Whitehorse. Although Champagne, Yukon was bypassed in 2002, the old highway is still completely in service for that community until a new direct access road is built.
Rerouting continues, expected to continue in the Yukon through 2009, with the Haines Junction-Beaver Creek section covered by the Canada-U.S. Shakwak Agreement. The new Donjek River bridge was opened September 26, 2007, replacing a 1952 bridge. Under Shakwak, U.S. federal highway money is spent for work done by Canadian contractors who win tenders issued by the Yukon government. The Shakwak Project completed the Haines Highway upgrades in the 1980s between Haines Junction and the Alaska Panhandle, then funding was stalled by Congress for several years.
The Milepost shows the Canadian section of the highway now to be about , but the first milepost inside Alaska is 1222. The actual length of the highway inside Alaska is no longer clear because rerouting, as in Canada, has shortened the route, but unlike Canada, mileposts in Alaska are not recalibrated. The BC and Yukon governments and Public Works Canada have recalibrated kilometre posts. The latest BC recalibration was carried out in 1990; using its end-point at the border at Historic Mile 630, the Yukon government has recalibrated in three stages: in 2002, from Mile 630 to the west end of the Champagne revision; in fall 2005, to a point just at the southeast shore of Kluane Lake, and in fall 2008, to the border with Alaska.
There are historical mileposts along the B.C. and Yukon sections of the highway, installed in 1992, that note specific locations, although the posts no longer represent accurate driving distance. There are 80 mileposts in B.C., 70 in Yukon and 16 in Alaska with a simple number marker of the original mile distance. There are 31 "historic signs" in B.C., 22 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska, identifying the significance of the location. There are 18 interpretive panels in B.C., 14 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska which give detailed text information at a turn-off parking area.
The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is designated Alaska Route 2. In Yukon, it is Highway 1 (designated in 1968) and in British Columbia, Highway 97. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is also unsigned Interstate A-1 and unsigned Interstate A-2.
Route markings
The Canadian section of the road was delineated with mileposts, based on the road as it was in 1947, but over the years, reconstruction steadily shortened the distance between some of those mileposts. In 1978, metric signs were placed on the highway, and the mileposts were replaced with kilometre posts at the approximate locations of a historic mileage of equal value, e.g. km post 1000 was posted about where historical Mile 621 would have been posted.
As reconstruction continues to shorten the highway, the kilometre posts, at intervals, were recalibrated along the B.C. section of road to reflect the driving distances in 1990. The section of highway covered by the 1990 recalibration has since been rendered shorter by further realignments, such as near Summit Pass and between Muncho Lake and Iron Creek.
Based on where those values left off, new Yukon kilometre posts were erected in fall 2002 between the B.C. border and the west end of the new bypass around Champagne, Yukon; in 2005, additional recalibrated posts continued from there to the east shore of Kluane Lake near Silver City; and in fall 2008, from Silver City to the boundary with Alaska. Old kilometre posts, based on the historic miles, remained on the highway, after the first two recalibrations, from those points around Kluane Lake to the Alaska border. The B.C. and Yukon sections also have a small number of historic mileposts, printed on oval-shaped signs, at locations of historic significance; these special signs were erected in 1992 on the occasion of the highway's 50th anniversary.
The Alaska portion of the highway is still marked by mileposts at intervals, although they no longer represent accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.
The historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.
Residents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use "east" and "west" to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; "north" and "south" are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise be confused, particularly when a westbound travel routes southwestward or even due south to circumvent a natural obstacle such as Kluane Lake.
Some B.C. sections west of Fort Nelson also route more east-to-west, with southwest bearings in some section; again, "north" is used in preference to "west".
Since 1949 The Milepost, an exhaustive guide to the Alaska Highway and all other routes through the region, has been published each year.
The community Wonowon, British Columbia, is named by its location at mile 101, spoken "one-oh-one".
Proposed U.S. Route 97 designation
The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska was planned to become part of the United States Numbered Highway System, and to be signed as part of U.S. Route 97 (US 97). In 1953, the British Columbia government renumbered a series of highways to Highway 97 between the U.S. border at Osoyoos, US 97's northern terminus, and Dawson Creek. In 1964, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved an extension of US 97 from the Yukon border to Livengood along Route 2, conditional to Yukon renumbering its portion of the Alaska Highway; the Yukon government declined to renumber its portion of the highway and approval was withdrawn in 1968.
Route description
The pioneer road completed in 1942 was about from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction. The Army then turned the road over to the Public Roads Administration, which then began putting out section contracts to private road contractors to upgrade selected sections of the road. These sections were upgraded, with removal of excess bends and steep grades; often, a traveler could identify upgraded sections by seeing the telephone line along the PRA-approved route alignment. When the Japanese invasion threat eased, the PRA stopped putting out new contracts. Upon hand-off to Canada in 1946, the route was from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction.
The route follows a northwest then northward course from Dawson Creek to Fort Nelson. On October 16, 1957, a suspension bridge crossing the Peace River just south of Fort St. John collapsed. A new bridge was built a few years later. At Fort Nelson, the road turns west and crosses the Rocky Mountains, before resuming a westward course at Coal River. The highway crossed the Yukon-BC border nine times from Mile 590 to Mile 773, six of those crossings were from Mile 590 to Mile 596. After passing the south end of Kluane Lake, the highway follows a north-northwest course to the Alaska border, then northwest to the terminus at Delta Junction.
Postwar rebuilding has not shifted the highway more than from the original alignment, and in most cases, by less than . It is not clear if it still crosses the Yukon-BC border six times from Mile 590 to Mile 596.
Interstate Highway System
The Alaska portion of the Alaska Highway is an unsigned part of the Interstate Highway System east of Fairbanks. The entire length of Interstate A-2 follows Route 2 from the George Parks Highway (Interstate A-4) junction in Fairbanks to Tok, east of which Route 2 carries Interstate A-1 off the Tok Cut-Off Highway to the international border. Only a short piece of the Richardson Highway in Fairbanks is built to freeway standards.
United States Numbered Highway System
At one point, the Alaskan portion of the Alaska Highway was proposed to be designated part of U.S. Highway 97 (US 97), but this was never carried out. Certain prior editions of United States Geological Survey topographic maps, mostly published during the 1950s, do bear the US 97 highway shield along or near portions of the current AK-2. The Alaska International Rail and Highway Commission lobbied for the designation of US 97 from Fairbanks to Mexico City in the late 1950s.
Major intersections
The following is a list of major intersections along the Alaska Highway:
Bypassed road segments still in use
Fort Nelson
Mile 301 to 308, now local residential feeder roads Wildflower Drive, Highland Road, Valleyview Drive
Whitehorse
Mile 898, now local residential road just west of Yukon River Bridge
Mile 920.3 to 922.5, now the southern and northern portions of Centennial Street; middle portion is Birch Street
Mile 922.5 to 922.7, now a portion of Azure Road
Mile 924, now a portion of Cousins Airfield Road
Mile 925.5 to 926.9, now Parent Road (east end overlooks Alaska Highway/Klondike Highway junction)
Mile 927.2 to 927.7, now Echo Valley Road
Mile 928 to 928.3, now Jackson Road
Mile 929 to 934, now Old Alaska Highway
Mile 968, now entrance road to Mendenhall River Subdivision
Champagne-Aishihik traditional territory
Mile 969 to 981, Champagne loop (bypassed in fall 2002 by revision)
Mile 1016, Hume Street in Haines Junction including access to First Nation subdivision
Alaska
Mile 1348, one bypassed section of the original route, about southeast of Delta Junction, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as "one of the few sections of the road in Alaska virtually unchanged". The unpaved road is used by local residents to access Craig Lake, and is signed as Craig Lake Trail.
Other former segments have deteriorated and are no longer usable. More recent construction projects have deliberately plowed up roadway to close it.
See also
Inter-American Highway
R504 Kolyma Highway
List of Yukon territorial highways
Pan-American Highway
Sign Post Forest
Alcan–Beaver Creek Border Crossing
References
http://pgnewspapers.pgpl.ca/fedora/repository
External links
Alaska Highway – A Yukon perspective – From the Yukon Archives
Alaska Highway Driving Facts – From the authors of the Milepost
Bell's Alaska – mile by mile description of the Alaska Highway
Building the Alaska Highway – Companion Website for the PBS program.
Alcan-Highway.com – U.S. Army 95th Engineer Regiment (Colored) building the Alcan Highway
Forgotten Facts About the African American Engineers Who Worked on the Alaska-Canada Highway – An article describing contributions made by the four African American regiments of the US Army Corps of Engineers that worked on the ALCAN Project
Shortcut To Tokyo, September 1942 one of the earliest articles on the Alaskan Highway
Many Wonders (but Few Amenities) on a Legendary Highway July 23, 2012 The New York Times
American Society of Civil Engineers - International Historic Civil Engineering Landmark
U.S. Route 97
Interstate Highways in Alaska
U.S. Highways in Alaska
State highways in Alaska
Yukon territorial highways
British Columbia provincial highways
Pan-American Highway
Transport in Whitehorse
Southeast Fairbanks Census Area, Alaska
Northern Rockies Regional Municipality
Peace River Regional District
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Highway
Transportation in Unorganized Borough, Alaska
World War II sites in Canada
World War II sites in the United States
Logistics routes of World War II | [
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240436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Milepost | The Milepost | The Milepost is an extensive guide book covering Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and British Columbia. It was first published in 1949 as a guide about traveling along the Alaska Highway, often locally referred to as "The ALCAN". It has since expanded to cover all major highways in the northwest corner of North America, including the Alaska Marine Highway. It is updated annually.
History
The Milepost is packaged and distributed like a book (2008 edition: ), but like the Yellow Pages it includes paid advertising. The original 1949 edition was a mere 72 pages, by 2014 it had expanded to 752 pages, detailing every place a traveler might eat, sleep, or just pull off the road for a moment on all of the highways of northwestern North America. In addition to the paid ads, descriptions are provided of interesting hikes or side trip drives near the highways, campgrounds, and other public facilities, as well as short histories of most of the settlements on the highways. Newer additions include special sections on selected areas popular with tourists, such as the Kenai Peninsula. It is also exhaustively cross-indexed and maps and charts are provided so that travelers can determine the total driving distance between any two points covered by the guide.
Publishing
Since 1997 The Milepost has been published by Morris Communications and currently shares publishing offices with Alaska magazine. Beginning in 2009, The Milepost is also available in an interactive digital format or download.
References
External links
1949 establishments in Alaska
1949 non-fiction books
Books about Alaska
Books about British Columbia
Books about the Northwest Territories
Books about Yukon
Directories
Morris Communications
Publications established in 1949
Roads in Alaska
Travel guide books | [
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] |
240440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant%20Fornerod | Constant Fornerod | Constant Fornerod (30 May 1819 – 27 November 1899) was a Swiss politician, originally from Avenches, and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1855-1867).
He was elected to the Federal Council on 11 July 1855 as a representative for Vaud. He handed over office on 31 October 1867. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party.
During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Trade and Customs (1855 - 1856)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1857)
Department of Trade and Customs (1858)
Department of Finance (1859 - 1861)
Military Department (1862)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1863)
Military Department (1864 - 1866)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1867).
References
External links
1819 births
1899 deaths
People from Gros-de-Vaud District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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] |
240442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Ruffy | Victor Ruffy | Victor Ruffy (18 January 1823, in Lutry – 29 December 1869) was a Swiss politician elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 6 December 1867
He died in office on 29 December 1869, and was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1868)
Military Department (1869)
His son Eugène Ruffy (1854–1919) was member of the Federal Council from 1893 to 1899.
References
External links
1823 births
1869 deaths
People from Lavaux-Oron District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
19th-century Swiss judges
19th-century Swiss politicians | [
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240444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus%20Nomi | Klaus Nomi | Klaus Sperber (January 24, 1944 – August 6, 1983), known professionally as Klaus Nomi, was a German countertenor noted for his wide vocal range and an unusual, otherworldly stage persona.
In the 1970s Nomi immersed himself in the East Village art scene. He was known for his bizarrely visionary theatrical live performances, heavy make-up, unusual costumes, and a highly stylized signature hairdo that flaunted a receding hairline. His songs were equally unusual, ranging from synthesizer-laden interpretations of classical opera to covers of 1960s pop standards like Chubby Checker's "The Twist" and Lou Christie's "Lightnin' Strikes". Nomi was one of David Bowie's backup singers for a 1979 performance on Saturday Night Live.
Nomi died in 1983 at the age of 39 as a result of complications from AIDS. He was one of the earliest known figures from the arts community to die from the illness.
Biography
Early life and career
Klaus Nomi was born Klaus Sperber in Immenstadt, Bavaria, Germany on January 24, 1944. In the 1960s, he worked as an usher at the Deutsche Oper in West Berlin where he sang for the other ushers and maintenance crew on stage in front of the fire curtain after performances. He also sang opera arias at the Berlin gay discothèque Kleist Casino.
Nomi emigrated to New York City in 1972. He did some off-Broadway theater work and moonlighted as a pastry chef.
In 1977, Nomi appeared in a satirical camp production of Richard Wagner's Das Rheingold at Charles Ludlam's Ridiculous Theater Company as the Rheinmaidens and the Wood Bird.
Music career
Nomi came to the attention of the East Village art scene in 1978 with his performance in "New Wave Vaudeville", a four-night event MC'd by artist David McDermott. Dressed in a skin-tight spacesuit with a clear plastic cape, Nomi sang the aria "Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix" ("My heart opens to your voice") from Camille Saint-Saëns' opera Samson et Dalila The performance ended with a chaotic crash of strobe lights, smoke bombs, and loud electronic sound effects as Nomi backed away into the smoke. Joey Arias recalled: "I still get goose pimples when I think about it... It was like he was from a different planet and his parents were calling him home. When the smoke cleared, he was gone." After that performance Nomi was invited to perform at clubs all over New York City.
At the New Wave Vaudeville show Nomi met Kristian Hoffman, songwriter for the Mumps. Hoffman was a performer and MC in the second incarnation of New Wave Vaudeville and a close friend of Susan Hannaford and Tom Scully, who produced the show, and Ann Magnuson, who directed it. Anya Phillips, then manager of James Chance and the Contortions, suggested Nomi and Hoffman form a band. Hoffman became Nomi's de facto musical director, assembling a band that included Page Wood from another New Wave vaudeville act, Come On, and Joe Katz, who was concurrently in The Student Teachers, the Accidents, and The Mumps.
Hoffman helped Nomi choose his pop covers, including the Lou Christie song "Lightnin' Strikes". Hoffman wrote several pop songs with which Nomi is closely identified: "The Nomi Song", "Total Eclipse", "After The Fall", and "Simple Man", the title song of Nomi's second RCA French LP. This configuration of the Klaus Nomi band performed at Manhattan clubs, including several performances at Max's Kansas City, Danceteria, Hurrah and the Mudd Club. He also appeared on Manhattan Cable's TV Party.
Disagreements with the management Nomi engaged led to a dissolution of this band, and Nomi continued without them. In the late 1970s, while performing at Club 57, The Mudd Club, The Pyramid Club, and other venues, Nomi assembled various up-and-coming models, singers, artists, and musicians to perform live with him, including Joey Arias, Keith Haring, John Sex and Kenny Scharf. He was briefly involved with Jean-Michel Basquiat, then known for his graffiti art as SAMO.
Nomi and Arias were introduced to David Bowie at the Mudd Club, who hired them as performers and backup singers for his appearance on Saturday Night Live on December 15, 1979. They performed "TVC 15", "The Man Who Sold the World", and "Boys Keep Swinging". During the performance of "TVC 15", Nomi and Arias dragged around a large prop pink poodle with a television screen in its mouth. Nomi was so impressed with the plastic quasi-tuxedo suit that Bowie wore during "The Man Who Sold the World" that he commissioned one for himself. He wore the suit on the cover of his self-titled album, as well as during a number of his music videos. Nomi wore his variant of the outfit, in monochromatic black-and-white with spandex and makeup to match, until the last few months of his life.
Nomi played a supporting role as a Nazi official in Anders Grafstrom's 1980 underground film The Long Island Four.
The 1981 rock documentary film Urgh! A Music War features Nomi's live performance of "Total Eclipse." His performance of "Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix" was used for the closing credits. In the liner notes of Nomi's 1981 self-titled record, 666 Fifth Avenue was listed as the contact address.
He released his second album, Simple Man, in November 1982. He also collaborated with producer Man Parrish, appearing on Parrish's 1982 album Man Parrish as a backup vocalist on the track "Six Simple Synthesizers".
In the last several months of his life, Nomi changed his focus to operatic pieces and adopted a Baroque era operatic outfit complete with full collar as his typical onstage attire. The collar helped cover the outbreaks of Kaposi's sarcoma on his neck, one of the numerous AIDS-related diseases Nomi developed toward the end of his life.
Illness and death
Nomi died at the Sloan Kettering Hospital Center in New York City on August 6, 1983. He was one of the first celebrities to die of complications from AIDS. Upon his death, Nomi's close friend Joey Arias became the executor of his estate. His ashes were spread across New York City.
Legacy
Filmmakers such as Andrew Horn and writers such as Jim Fouratt consider Nomi an important part of the 1980s East Village scene, which was a hotbed of development for punk rock music, the visual arts and the avant-garde. Although Nomi's work had not yet met with national commercial success at the time of his death, he garnered a cult following, mainly in New York and in France. Andrew Horn's 2004 feature documentary about Nomi's life, The Nomi Song, which was released by Palm Pictures, helped spur renewed interest in the singer, including an art exhibit in San Francisco at the New Langton Arts gallery and one in Milan at the Res Pira Lab, which subsequently moved to Berlin's Strychnin Gallery, called "Do You Nomi?". New music pieces inspired by Nomi were commissioned by the gallery for a variety of European musicians, including Ernesto Tomasini.
In pop culture
In 2001, German pop duo Rosenstolz and English singer Marc Almond recorded a cover version of "Total Eclipse". Garbage used his "Valentine’s Day" song as the basis for their 2012 "Beloved Freak".
Nomi makes an appearance in Derf Backderf's graphic novel Punk Rock and Trailer Parks, released in 2008.
Nomi is one of the Sovereign's bodyguards in the Adult Swim series The Venture Bros. The Sovereign is the leader of the Guild of Calamitous Intent, and often takes the form of David Bowie.
In the film Suspiria (2018), Nomi singing "Total Eclipse" can be heard on the in the background on the radio in the room of another dancer.
Discography
Albums
1981: Klaus Nomi (RCA)
1982: Simple Man (RCA)
2007: Za Bakdaz: The Unfinished Opera (Heliocentric)
Compilations
1983: Encore
1991: The Collection
Live
1986: In Concert (RCA) – Recorded in 1979
Singles
1981: "Total Eclipse" / "Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)"
1981: "You Don't Own Me" / "Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)"
1982: "Simple Man" / "Death"
1982: "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" / "ICUROK"
1982: "Nomi Song" / "Cold Song"
1982: "Lightnin' Strikes" / "Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)"
1983: "ICUROK" / "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead"
1983: "Just One Look" / "Rubberband Lazer"
1986: "I Feel Love"
1998: "Za Bak Daz" / "Silent Night"
Music videos
1982: "Simple Man" (directed and edited by John Zieman)
1982: "Lightning Strikes"
1982: "Nomi Song"
1982: "Falling in Love Again"
Film appearances
Long Island Four (1979)
Mr. Mike's Mondo Video (1979)
Urgh! A Music War (1982)
The Nomi Song (2004)
See also
LGBT culture in New York City
List of LGBT people from New York City
References
External links
Klaus Nomi papers, circa 1950-1983, Houghton Library, Harvard University
1944 births
1983 deaths
AIDS-related deaths in New York (state)
German countertenors
Dark cabaret musicians
German electronic musicians
German experimental musicians
German male singers
German new wave musicians
German performance artists
German singer-songwriters
Avant-garde singers
LGBT singers from Germany
LGBT songwriters
Performance art in New York City
People from Immenstadt
Synth-pop singers
Gay musicians
20th-century German male singers
20th-century LGBT people
German emigrants to the United States
People from the East Village, Manhattan
RCA Records artists | [
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240446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20C%C3%A9r%C3%A9sole | Paul Cérésole | Paul Cérésole (16 November 1832, in Friedrichsdorf, Hesse-Homburg – 7 January 1905) was a Swiss politician, judge of the Supreme Court (1867–1870) and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1870–1875).
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 1 February 1870, and handed over office on 31 December 1875. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland.
While in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1870–1871)
Military Department (1872)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1873)
Department of Justice and Police (1874–1875)
His son Pierre was a noted pacifist.
Cérésole died 1905 in Lausanne.
"Avenue Paul-Cérésole" in Vevey is named for him.
References
External links
1832 births
1905 deaths
People from Friedrichsdorf
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Swiss people of Italian descent
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland judges
University of Lausanne alumni
19th-century Swiss judges
19th-century Swiss politicians | [
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240447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%20Alaska%20earthquake | 1964 Alaska earthquake | The 1964 Alaskan earthquake, also known as the Great Alaskan earthquake and Good Friday earthquake, occurred at 5:36 PM AKST on Good Friday, March 27. Across south-central Alaska, ground fissures, collapsing structures, and tsunamis resulting from the earthquake caused about 131 deaths.
Lasting four minutes and thirty-eight seconds, the magnitude 9.2 megathrust earthquake remains the most powerful earthquake recorded in North American history, and the second most powerful earthquake recorded in world history. of fault ruptured at once and moved up to , releasing about 500 years of stress buildup. Soil liquefaction, fissures, landslides, and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property. Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake-engineered houses, buildings, and infrastructure (paved streets, sidewalks, water and sewer mains, electrical systems, and other man-made equipment), particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm. southwest, some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by . Southeast of Anchorage, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as , requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark.
In Prince William Sound, Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide, resulting in the deaths of 32 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks, and inside the ship that was docked there at the time. Nearby, a tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega, killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there; survivors out-ran the wave, climbing to high ground. Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier, Seward, Kodiak, and other Alaskan communities, as well as people and property in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan. Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas.
Geology
On March 27, 1964, at 5:36 p.m. AKST (3:36 a.m. UTC), a fault between the Pacific and North American plates ruptured near College Fjord in Prince William Sound. The epicenter of the earthquake was 12.4 mi (20 km) north of Prince William Sound, 78 miles (125 km) east of Anchorage and 40 miles (64 km) west of Valdez. The focus occurred at a depth of approximately 15.5 mi (25 km). Ocean floor shifts created large tsunamis (up to 220 feet (67 m) in height), which resulted in many of the deaths and much of the property damage. Large rockslides were also caused, resulting in great property damage. Vertical displacement of up to 38 feet (11.5 m) occurred, affecting an area of within Alaska.
Studies of ground motion have led to a peak ground acceleration estimate of 0.14–0.18 g.
The Alaska earthquake was a subduction zone (megathrust) earthquake, caused by an oceanic plate sinking under a continental plate. The fault responsible was the Aleutian Megathrust, a reverse fault caused by a compressional force. This caused much of the uneven ground which is the result of ground shifted to the opposite elevation.
Tsunamis
Two types of tsunami were produced by this subduction zone earthquake. There was a tectonic tsunami produced in addition to about 20 smaller and local tsunamis. These smaller tsunamis were produced by submarine and subaerial landslides and were responsible for the majority of the tsunami damage. Tsunami waves were noted in over 20 countries, including Peru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Mexico, and in the continent of Antarctica. The largest tsunami wave was recorded in Shoup Bay, Alaska, with a height of about .
Death toll, damage, and casualties
As a result of the earthquake, 131 people are believed to have died: Nine died as a result of the earthquake itself and another 122 died from the subsequent tsunami all over the world. Five died from the tsunami in Oregon, and 12 died from the tsunami in Crescent City, California.
The quake was a reported XI on the modified Mercalli Intensity scale "indicating major structural damage, and ground fissures and failures". Property damage was estimated at $116 million ($ billion in dollars). It is likely that the toll would have been much higher had the quake not occurred after 5 PM on Good Friday.
Anchorage area
Most damage occurred in Anchorage, 75 mi (120 km) northwest of the epicenter. Anchorage was not hit by tsunamis, but downtown Anchorage was heavily damaged, and parts of the city built on sandy bluffs overlying "Bootlegger Cove clay" near Cook Inlet, most notably the Turnagain neighborhood, suffered landslide damage. The neighborhood lost 75 houses in the landslide, and the destroyed area has since been turned into Earthquake Park. The Government Hill school suffered from the Government Hill landslide, leaving it in two jagged, broken pieces. Land overlooking the Ship Creek valley near the Alaska Railroad yards also slid, destroying many acres of buildings and city blocks in downtown Anchorage. Most other areas of the city were only moderately damaged. The 60-foot (18 m) concrete control tower at Anchorage International Airport was not engineered to withstand earthquake activity and collapsed, killing William George Taylor, the Federal Aviation Agency air traffic controller on duty in the tower cab at the time the earthquake began.
One house on W. 10th Avenue suffered peripheral damage, but only one block away the recently completed (and still unoccupied) Four Seasons Building on Ninth Avenue collapsed completely, with the concrete elevator shafts sticking up out of the rubble like a seesaw.
The hamlets of Girdwood and Portage, located southeast of central Anchorage on the Turnagain Arm, were destroyed by subsidence and subsequent tidal action. Girdwood was relocated inland and Portage was abandoned. About of the Seward Highway sank below the high-water mark of Turnagain Arm; the highway and its bridges were raised and rebuilt in 1964–66.
Elsewhere in Alaska
Most coastal towns in the Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula, and Kodiak Island areas, especially the major ports of Seward, Whittier and Kodiak were heavily damaged by a combination of seismic activity, subsidence, post-quake tsunamis and/or earthquake-caused fires. Valdez with 32 dead was not totally destroyed, but after three years, the town relocated to higher ground west of its original site. Some Alaska Native villages, including Chenega and Afognak, were destroyed or damaged. The earthquake caused the Cold-War era ballistic missile detection radar of Clear Air Force Station to go offline for six minutes, the only unscheduled interruption in its operational history. Near Cordova, the Million Dollar Bridge crossing the Copper River also suffered damage, with Span #4 slipping off its pylon and collapsing. The community of Girdwood was also confined to the southern side of the Seward Highway when water rushed into Turnagain Arm and flooded or destroyed any buildings left standing to the north of the highway. Only the ground immediately along the highway and that on the north side of the road dropped, prompting geologists to speculate that Girdwood may rest upon an ancient cliff face, now covered by countless thousands of years of sediment and glacial deposits.
Canada
A 4.5 ft (1.4 m) wave reached Prince Rupert, British Columbia, just south of the Alaska Panhandle, about three hours after the earthquake. The tsunami then reached Tofino, on the exposed west coast of Vancouver Island, and traveled up a fjord to hit Port Alberni twice, washing away 55 homes and damaging 375 others. The towns of Hot Springs Cove, Zeballos, and Amai also saw damage. The damage in British Columbia was estimated at CA$10 million ($ in Canadian dollars or $ in US dollars).
Elsewhere
Twelve people were killed by the tsunami in or near Crescent City, California, while four children were killed on the Oregon coast at Beverly Beach State Park. Other coastal towns in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and Hawaii were damaged. Minor damage to boats occurred as far south as Los Angeles. Effects of the earthquake were even noted as far east as Freeport, Texas, where tide gauges recorded waves similar to seismic surface waves. Seiches were detected in wells in countries around the world, including England, Namibia, and Australia.
Aftershocks
There were hundreds of aftershocks in the first weeks following the main shock. In the first day alone, eleven major aftershocks were recorded with a magnitude greater than 6.0. Nine more struck over the next three weeks. In all, thousands of aftershocks occurred in the months following the quake, and smaller aftershocks continued to strike the region for more than a year.
Recovery efforts
Alaska had never experienced a major disaster in a highly populated area before, and had very limited resources for dealing with the effects of such an event. In Anchorage, at the urging of geologist Lidia Selkregg, the City of Anchorage and the Alaska State Housing Authority appointed a team of 40 scientists, including geologists, soil scientists, and engineers, to assess the damage done by the earthquake to the city. The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Dr. Ruth A. M. Schmidt, a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage. The team of scientists came into conflict with local developers and downtown business owners who wanted to immediately rebuild; the scientists wanted to identify future dangers to ensure that rebuilt infrastructure would be safe. The team produced a report on May 8, 1964, just a little more than a month after the earthquake.
The United States military, which has a large active presence in Alaska, also stepped in to assist within moments of the end of the quake. The U.S. Army rapidly re-established communications with the lower 48 states, deployed troops to assist the citizens of Anchorage, and dispatched a convoy to Valdez. On the advice of military and civilian leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared all of Alaska a major disaster area the day after the quake. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard deployed ships to isolated coastal communities to assist with immediate needs. Bad weather and poor visibility hampered air rescue and observation efforts the day after the quake, but on Sunday the 29th the situation improved and rescue helicopters and observation aircraft were deployed. A military airlift immediately began shipping relief supplies to Alaska, eventually delivering of food and other supplies. Broadcast journalist, Genie Chance, assisted in recovery and relief efforts, staying on the KENI air waves over Anchorage for more than 24 continuous hours as the voice of calm from her temporary post within the Anchorage Public Safety Building. She was effectively designated as the public safety officer by the city's police chief. Chance provided breaking news of the catastrophic events that continued to develop following the magnitude 9.2 earthquake, and she served as the voice of the public safety office, coordinating response efforts, connecting available resources to needs around the community, disseminating information about shelters and prepared food rations, passing messages of well-being between loved ones, and helping to reunite families.
In the longer term, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led the effort to rebuild roads, clear debris, and establish new townsites for communities that had been completely destroyed, at a cost of $110 million. The West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center was formed as a direct response to the disaster. Federal disaster relief funds paid for reconstruction as well as financially supporting the devastated infrastructure of Alaska's government, spending hundreds of millions of dollars that helped keep Alaska financially solvent until the discovery of massive oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay. At the order of the U.S. Defense Department, the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters.
See also
1965 Rat Islands earthquake
List of megathrust earthquakes
List of earthquakes in Alaska
List of earthquakes in 1964
References
Specific
General
Geology, Seismology and Geodesy, Hydrology, Biology, Oceanography And Coastal Engineering, Engineering, Human Ecology, Summary and Recommendation
External links
The Face of Disaster: The Great Alaska Earthquake – US Office of Civil Defense
1964 Good Friday Great Alaskan Earthquake – University of Arizona, Department of Geosciences
1964 Great Alaska Earthquake – United States Geological Survey
The Effects of the March 28, 1964 Alaska Tsunami in British Columbia, Canada – George Pararas-Carayannis
The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964 – Alaska Earthquake Information Center
Anchorage, AK Good Friday Earthquake, Mar 1964 – GenDisasters.com
Tsunami Anniversary – Oregon Field Guide
Fifty Years Since the Great Alaska Earthquake: The Role of First Responders in Catastrophic Disaster Planning – 113th United States Congress
Tsunami Forecast Model Animation: Alaska 1964 – Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
1964 earthquakes
1964 in Alaska
1964 in Canada
1964 in Hawaii
1964 Alaska
Landslides in the United States
1964 Alaska
1964 Alaska
1964 tsunamis
1964 Alaska
1964 Alaska
Articles containing video clips
Alaska earthquake
1964 natural disasters in the United States
March 1964 events in the United States
1964 in British Columbia
1964 disasters in Canada | [
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240448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numa%20Droz | Numa Droz | Numa Droz (27 January 1844 – 15 December 1899) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1875–1892).
Born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, he was elected to cantonal government of Neuchâtel in 1871 and to the Swiss Council of States in 1872.
On 18 December 1875, he was elected to the Swiss Federal Council and handed over office on 31 December 1892. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. He was elected President of Switzerland in 1881 and 1887.
During his office time he held the following departments:
Department of Home Affairs (1876–1878)
Department of Trade and Agriculture (1879–1880)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1881)
Department of Trade and Agriculture (1882–1886)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1887)
Department of Foreign Affairs (1888–1892)
He died in Bern in 1899.
Droz has been described as a "man of progress" and "one of Switzerland's major political figures".
He was appointed by Swiss Government for presiding the ALAI conferences following of which the Berne convention for the protection of literary and artistic works was concluded in 1886. "Numa Droz was an admirable choice for this role from the point of view of authors, as he had a strong interest in copyright matters, and had, in an article ... declared himself in favour of an international convention on literary and artistic property." He was to play a crucial role in the realization of the final convention.
He was a radical democrat who clashed with Bismarck over a police spying case, the Wohlgemut Affair, in 1889.
In La Chaux-de-Fonds a street (rue Numa-Droz, the longest in the town) and in Neuchâtel a square (place Numa-Droz) are named after him. A statue by Charles l'Eplattenier which was erected by the station is at present being renovated and will be placed on Rue Numa-Droz in the autumn of 2012.
Works
Numa Droz, Souvenirs d'un vieux montagnard. Histoire d'un proscrit de 1793. Nouvelle neuchâteloise, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Imprimerie du National suisse, 1869
Numa Droz, Instruction civique : manuel à l'usage des écoles primaires supérieures, des écoles secondaires, des écoles complémentaires et des jeunes citoyens, Lausanne, D. Lebet, 1884
Numa Droz, Études et portraits politiques, C. Eggimann (Genève), F. Alcan (Paris), 1895
Numa Droz, Le rachat des chemins de fer suisses, Bâle et Genève, Georg, 1898
Numa Droz, Essais économiques, Genève, C. Eggimann, 1906
References
Archive sources
The Numa Droz collection is conserved in the State Archives of Neuchâtel. It contains documents about his privacy and documents of different fields of research.
External links
1844 births
1899 deaths
People from La Chaux-de-Fonds
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland) | [
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240449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien%20Lachenal | Adrien Lachenal | Adrien Lachenal (19 May 1849, in Geneva – 29 June 1918) was a Swiss politician and Jurist. He was president of the Swiss Confederation in 1869.
Married to Anne Louise Eggly in 1878, he had four sons. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party. He was a Freemason, and belonged to the Masonic lodge "Fidélité et Prudence" in Geneva. Lachenal is buried at the Cimetière des Rois, Geneva.
Career and politics
Adrien Lachenal was an outstanding speaker and lawyer, and he became known through defensive mandates in awe-inspiring trials. From 1885 to 1892 he was a substitute judge at the canton of Geneva. His military career led him to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. His nephew and later President of the Grand Council Paul Lachenal joined him in his lawfirm. He was also the chairman of the Military Court of Cassation. In 1880 Lachenal was elected to the Grand Council (Grand Conseil), to which he belonged until 1892. Soon he was one of the most influential politicians of the radical faction. Over time, he turned to a policy of reconciliation. His commitment to social policy finally led to the formation of an alliance with the socialists. In 1881, the Grand Council elected Lachenal into the Council of States. there he spoke in particular on topics such as military, customs and finance. After the parliamentary elections in 1884, he moved to the National Council where he was the President in 1885 and 1891.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 15 December 1892 and handed over office on 31 December 1899. In 1896 he was elected President of the Swiss Confederation.
During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Foreign Affairs (1893–1895)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1896)
Department of Trade, Industry and Agriculture (1897)
Department of Home Affairs (1898–1899)
Rue Adrien-Lachenal in Geneva and Avenue Adrien-Lachenal Versoix are named after him.
External links
References
1849 births
1918 deaths
People from Geneva
Swiss Roman Catholics
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss Freemasons
Swiss military officers
University of Geneva alumni | [
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240450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUSCULAR%20%28surveillance%20program%29 | MUSCULAR (surveillance program) | MUSCULAR (DS-200B), located in the United Kingdom, is the name of a surveillance program jointly operated by Britain's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) that was revealed by documents released by Edward Snowden and interviews with knowledgeable officials. GCHQ is the primary operator of the program. GCHQ and the NSA have secretly broken into the main communications links that connect the data centers of Yahoo! and Google. Substantive information about the program was made public at the end of October 2013.
Overview
The programme is jointly run by:
– Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (United Kingdom)
– U.S. National Security Agency (NSA)
MUSCULAR is one of at least four other similar programs that rely on a trusted 2nd party, programs which together are known as WINDSTOP. In a 30-day period from December 2012 to January 2013, MUSCULAR was responsible for collecting 181 million records. It was however dwarfed by another WINDSTOP program known (insofar) only by its code DS-300 and codename INCENSER, which collected over 14 billion records in the same period.
Operational details
According to the leaked document the NSA's acquisitions directorate sends millions of records every day from internal Yahoo! and Google networks to data warehouses at the agency's headquarters at Fort Meade, Maryland. The program operates via an access point known as DS-200B, which is outside the United States, and it relies on an unnamed telecommunications operator to provide secret access for the NSA and the GCHQ.
According to the Washington Post, the MUSCULAR program collects more than twice as many data points ("selectors" in NSA jargon) compared to the better known PRISM. Unlike PRISM, the MUSCULAR program requires no (FISA or other type of) warrants.
Because of the huge amount of data involved, MUSCULAR has presented a special challenge to NSA's Special Source Operations. For example, when Yahoo! decided to migrate a large amount of mailboxes between its data centers, the NSA's PINWALE database (their primary analytical database for the Internet) was quickly overwhelmed with the data coming from MUSCULAR.
Closely related programmes are called INCENSER and TURMOIL. TURMOIL, belonging to the NSA, is a system for processing the data collected from MUSCULAR.
According to a post-it style note from the presentation, the exploitation relied on the fact that (at the time at least) data was transmitted unencrypted inside Google's private cloud, with "Google Front End Servers" stripping and respectively adding back SSL from/to external connections. According to the Washington Post: "Two engineers with close ties to Google exploded in profanity when they saw the drawing." After the information about MUSCULAR was published by the press, Google announced that it was working on deploying encrypted communication between its datacenters.
Reactions and countermeasures
In early November 2013, Google announced that it was encrypting traffic between its data centers. In mid-November, Yahoo! announced similar plans.
In December 2013, Microsoft announced similar plans and used the expression "advanced persistent threat" in their press release (signed-off by their top legal representative), which the press immediately interpreted as comparison of the NSA with the Chinese government-sponsored hackers.
Gallery
See also
2013 mass surveillance disclosures
DISHFIRE, another NSA–GCHQ collaboration collecting SMS and similar messages worldwide
List of government mass surveillance projects
Mass surveillance
Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom
Mass surveillance in the United States
Squeaky Dolphin, program targeting Facebook, YouTube, and Blogger
STELLARWIND
Total Information Awareness
References
External links
GCHQ operations
National Security Agency operations
Intelligence agency programmes revealed by Edward Snowden
Secret government programs
Surveillance scandals
Hacking of Yahoo!
Google
Email hacking
Cyberattacks | [
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240452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20life-cycle%20management%20%28marketing%29 | Product life-cycle management (marketing) | Product life-cycle management (PLM) is the succession of strategies by business management as a product goes through its life-cycle. The conditions in which a product is sold (advertising, saturation) changes over time and must be managed as it moves through its succession of stages.
Goals
The goals of product life cycle management (PLM) are to reduce time to market, improve product quality, reduce prototyping costs, identify potential sales opportunities and revenue contributions, maintain and sustain operational serviceability, and reduce environmental impacts at end-of-life. To create successful new products the company must understand its customers, markets and competitors. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) integrates people, data, processes and business systems. It provides product information for companies and their extended supply chain enterprise. PLM solutions help organizations overcome the increased complexity and engineering challenges of developing new products for the global competitive markets.
Product life cycle
The concept of product life cycle (PLC) concerns the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial costs and sales measures. The product life cycle proceeds through multiple phases, involves many professional disciplines, and requires many skills, tools and processes. PLC management makes the following three assumptions:
Products have a limited life and thus every product has a life cycle.
Product sales pass through distinct stages, each posing different challenges, opportunities, and problems to the seller.
Products require different marketing, financing, manufacturing, purchasing, and human resource strategies in each life cycle stage.
Once the product is designed and put into the market, the offering should be managed efficiently for the buyers to get value from it. Before entering into any market complete analysis is carried out by the industry for both external and internal factors including the laws and regulations, environment, economics, cultural values and market needs. From the business perspective, as a good business, the product needs to be sold before it finishes its life. In terms of profitability, expiry may jolt the overall profitability of the business therefore there are few strategies, which are practiced to ensure that the product is sold within the defined period of maturity.
Extending the product life cycle
Extending the product life cycle by improving sales, this can be done through
Advertising: Its purpose is to get additional audience and potential customers.
Exploring and expanding to new markets: By conducting market research and offering the product (or some adapted form of it) to new markets, it is possible to get more customers.
Price reduction: Many customers are attracted by price cuts and discount tags.
Adding new features: Adding value to the product to enhance its usability or to attract the attention of a wider customer base.
Packaging: New, attractive, useful or eco-friendly packaging influence the target customers.
Changing customer consumption habits: Promoting new trends of consumption can increase the number of customers.
Special promotions: Raising interest by offering Jackpot and other offers.
Heightening interest: Many of the following things attract many customers who match certain profiles: Eco-friendly production processes, good work conditions, funding the efforts of non-profit organizations (cancer cure, anti-war efforts, refugees, GLTBI, environment and animal protection, etc.) and the like.
Something important to notice is that all these techniques rely on advertising to become known. Advertising needs the others to target other potential customers and not the same over and over again.
Characteristics of PLC stages
There are the following major product life cycle stages:
Identifying PLC stages
Identifying the stage of a product is an art more than a science, but it's possible to find patterns in some of the general product features at each stage. Identifying product stages when the product is in transition is very difficult. More recently, it has been shown that user-generated contents (UGC) (e.g., in the form of online product reviews) has the potential to reveal buyer personality characteristics that can in turn be used to identify product life cycle stage.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: bottom;text-align: center;"| Identifyingfeatures
| colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | Stages
|-
! Introduction !! Growth !! Maturity !! Decline
|-
| Sales || Low || High || High || Low
|-
| Investment cost || Very high || High (lower than intro stage) || Low || Low
|-
| Competition || Low or no competition || High || Very high || Very High
|-| Low
|-
| Profit || Low || High || High || Low
|}
See also
Application lifecycle management
Brand awareness
Consumer behaviour
Diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS)
Material selection
New product development
Obsolescence
Open Innovation
Planned obsolescence
Product lifecycle management
Product management
Product teardown
Software product management
Technology life cycle
Toolkits for user innovation
References
Further reading
Box, Jonathan Mbosia, Extending product lifetime: Prospects and opportunities, Tanzanian Journal of Marketing September, 1983
Day, G. "The product life cycle: Analysis and applications issues", Journal of Marketing, vol 45, Autumn 1981, pp 60–67.
Levitt, T., "Exploit the product life cycle", Harvard Business Review, vol 43, November–December 1965, pp 81–94.
Dhalla, N.K., Yuspeh, S., "Forget the product life cycle concept", Harvard Business Review, Jan–Feb 1976
Levitt, T., 1965. Exploit the Product Life Cycle. Harvard Business Review
Brand management
Business terms
Marketing strategy
Product management | [
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240454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow%20bunting | Snow bunting | The snow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) is a passerine bird in the family Calcariidae. It is an Arctic specialist, with a circumpolar Arctic breeding range throughout the northern hemisphere. There are small isolated populations on a few high mountain tops south of the Arctic region, including the Cairngorms in central Scotland and the Saint Elias Mountains on the southern Alaska-Yukon border, as well as the Cape Breton Highlands. The snow bunting is the most northerly recorded passerine in the world.
Characteristics
The snow bunting is a sexually dimorphic, medium-sized passerine bird. This passerine is a ground-dwelling species that walks, runs and could potentially jump if needed. It is fairly large and long-winged for a bunting. It measures 15 cm with a wingspan of and weights 30 to 40 grams. The bill is yellow with a black tip, and is all black in summer for males. The plumage is white in the underparts and the wings and back have black and white on them. The female and male have a different plumage. During the breeding season, the male is white with black wingtips and a black back, while the female has black wingtips and a rufous back. During the winter, they will both have a rufous colouration in the back. In the spring, the buntings will not go through a moult as other passerines birds do, instead the breeding colouration comes with the wearing and abrasion of the feathers. Unlike most passerines, it has feathered tarsi, an adaptation to its harsh environment. No other passerine can winter as far north as this species apart from the common raven.
This species is often confused with the McKay's bunting (Plectrophenax hyperboreus) due to the similar colouration of their plumage. Even more, the challenge of identification becomes harder when this two species hybridize in the boundaries of their territories. Another similar species is the horned lark, although it has a larger black tail and it has a smaller white patch on the wings.
Taxonomy
The snow bunting was formerly classified in the family Emberizidae, which included American sparrows, buntings, towhees and finches. All these species came into existence after a broad geologically recent radiation of passerine birds. However, it is now part of the narrower family Calcariidae, which also contains the longspurs. Despite the wide distribution of this species there is no significant difference between different phenotypes.
The genus name Plectrophenax is from Ancient Greek plektron, "cock’s spur", and phenax "imposter", and the specific nivalis is Latin for "snow-white".
There are four subspecies, which differ slightly in the plumage pattern of breeding males:
Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis (Linnaeus, 1758): Arctic Europe, Arctic North America. Head white, rump mostly black with a small area of white.
Plectrophenax nivalis insulae (Salomonsen, 1931): Iceland, Faroe Islands, Scotland. Head white with a blackish collar, rump black.
Plectrophenax nivalis vlasowae (Portenko, 1937): Arctic Asia. Head white, rump mostly white.
Plectrophenax nivalis townsendi (Ridgway, 1887): Aleutian Islands, Kamchatka, coastal far eastern Siberia. As vlasowae, but slightly larger.
It is very closely related to the Beringian McKay's bunting, which differs in having even more white in the plumage. Hybrids between the two occur in Alaska, and they have been considered conspecific by some authors, though they are generally treated as separate species.
The species also mated with a Lapland Longspur creating a hybrid. The first photographs of this hybrid were taken in April 2011, during its spring migration.
Habitat and distribution
The snow bunting lives in very high latitudes in the Arctic tundra. There is no apparent limit to its northern range, while the southern range is limited by the duration of daylight, which influences their reproductive activity. This species is found in the high Arctic tundra of North America, Ellesmere Island, Iceland, higher mountains of Scotland, Norway, Russia, North Greenland, Siberia, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land. During the winter, this bird migrates to the circumglobal northern temperate zone including the south of Canada, north of the United States, north of Germany, Poland, Ukraine, and east to central Asia. During the last ice age, the snow bunting was widespread throughout continental Europe.
During the breeding period the snow bunting looks for rocky habitats in the Arctic. Since the vegetation in the tundra is low growing, this bird and its nestlings are exposed to predators, and in order to ensure the survival of its offspring, the snow bunting nests in cavities in order to protect the nestlings from any threat. During this period, buntings also look for a habitat rich in vegetation such as wet sedge meadows and areas rich in dryas and lichens. In the winter, they seek open habitats such as farms, barren fields, and lakeshores, where they feed on seeds in the ground.
Migration
The snow buntings migrate to the Arctic to reproduce and they are the first migrant species that arrives to these territories. They must gain at least 30% of body mass before migration. The males will arrive first at the beginning of April, when temperature could reach −30 degrees Celsius. This early migration could be explained by the fact that this species is highly territorial and the quality of the nesting area is crucial to their reproductive success. Females will arrive four to six weeks later, when the snow starts to melt. They tend to migrate in small flocks and have an undulate flight at a moderate height.
This passerine bird overwinters in northern temperate zones in open fields forming moving flocks that can number into the hundreds. They will leave the Arctic at the middle and end of September, although some will start the migration at the beginning of November. The female leaves first and tends to winter in more southern territories than the male, while the juveniles will leave the Arctic even later than the adults.
The migration of this bird is nocturnal and they are able to detect the geomagnetic field of the earth in order to guide themselves to their breeding and overwinter territory. The orientation of the snow bunting during migration is independent of any type of visual cue. Furthermore, studies have shown that only those individuals with adequate energy storage will be able to select seasonally appropriate directions during their migration.
Behaviour
Diet
From the fall to the spring the snow bunting eats a variety of weeds such as knotweed, ragweed, amaranth, goosefoot, aster, and goldenrod and also eats various types of grass seeds. During this season it will forage in the snow collecting seeds from lower stems. During the summer their diet includes seeds of crowberry, bilberry, bistort, dock, poppy, purple saxifrage and invertebrates such as butterflies, true bugs, flies, wasps and spiders. The nestlings are fed exclusively on invertebrates. Snow buntings also prey on basking spiders by throwing rocks around and less regularly they will try to catch invertebrates in flight.
Vocalizations
The call is a distinctive rippling whistle, per,r,r,rit and the typical Plectrophenax warble hudidi feet feet feew hudidi.
Snow buntings use vocalizations to communicate among each other and males will have a song to attract the female. The communication calls are done by both the male and the female and they tend to be emitted in flight or in the ground, while the males will often emit the song from a perching position or in a flight display. The males will start singing as soon as they will reach the breeding grounds, and will stop once they find a mate. Studies have shown that the quality and the rate at which a song is emitted affect the reproductive success of a male. The rate of a song measured by the number of strophes per minute is limited by the foraging needs of the male; therefore, a male that is able to sing more frequently shows that he is more successful and effective in his foraging behavior. The song becomes an indicator of the parental care qualities of the male, since having an effective foraging behavior will provide a better probability of survival of the nestlings. Females will then choose their mates based on their song rate.
Within snow buntings, vocalizations in males are unique to each individual, although there is certain syllable sharing between one another. The uniqueness of each song reveals a capacity of recognition between individuals and has an effect in the individual fitness and reproductive success. The songs have duration of 2 seconds and have a frequency of 2 to 6 kHz. Each song is composed of similar and dissimilar figures that create different motifs that will alternate and repeat, resulting in a unique pattern for every male individual.
Reproduction
Snow buntings have a monogamous behaviour in which the males have a positive impact in the reproductive success of the female, although they are not essential to the survival of the nestling. The male will follow the female during her fertile period to make sure that she will not mate with any other male. The nest sites provide safety but bring other challenges to snow buntings, since in rock cracks and fissures the microclimate could be harsh, the incubation time might be longer for this species and there is a risk that the
lower temperatures kill the embryo. To overcome this challenge, the male will bring food to the female during the incubation time, in this way she will be able to constantly control the temperatures of the nest microclimate improving the hatching success and reducing the incubation time.
This passerine lays eggs as soon as the ambient temperature is above 0 degrees Celsius The eggs are blue-green, spotted brown, and hatch in 12–13 days, and the young are already ready to fly after a further 12–14 days.
Courtship behaviour
The courtship behaviour of snow buntings varies in different parts of the world. In Greenland, the male will have a threat display to ensure his territory. This display will consist of very loud calls, the male will lower its head down and will turn completely to face the newcomer. The males will also have a ceremonial flight to attract the female, in which they will reach a height of 30 to 50 feet, then they will glide, they will sing the song very loudly and will then keep on singing from a perching position.
Effects of climate change in snow bunting populations
Several index suggest that climate change could potentially have an important impact in the snow buntings populations. The Arctic oscillation index (AO) is a regional climate index
that helps to predict ecological processes. In the Arctic, when the AO index is in a positive phase there are higher winter temperatures and precipitations, there are earlier and warmer springs and in the summer it is cloudy, humid and there are lower temperatures. Usually the AO index tends to oscillate from a positive to a negative phase, but during the last past 40 years, the AO index has remained in
the positive phase. Studies have shown that warmer springs trigger an early breeding behavior in the snow buntings that mismatches the peak of their food sources, leading to a lower success rate of the hatchlings. Even more, the higher temperatures will bring to the Arctic other species that will compete with the snow bunting, it is also thought that higher temperatures might allow a better survival of second broods in the snow bunting species.
Gallery
References
External links
Snow Bunting Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Snow Bunting - Plectrophenax nivalis - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Stamps (with world range map) at bird-stamps.org
Snow Bunting Images - ARKive
The Birds of North America Online
Audubon Guide to North American Birds
Bird Web: Snow Bunting
Wild Bird Habitat Store
snow bunting
Birds of the Arctic
Native birds of Alaska
Birds of Iceland
snow bunting
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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240462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal%20nerve | Spinal nerve | A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body. In the human body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, one on each side of the vertebral column. These are grouped into the corresponding cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions of the spine. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. The spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system.
Structure
Each spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, formed from the combination of nerve fibers from its dorsal and ventral roots. The dorsal root is the afferent sensory root and carries sensory information to the brain. The ventral root is the efferent motor root and carries motor information from the brain. The spinal nerve emerges from the spinal column through an opening (intervertebral foramen) between adjacent vertebrae. This is true for all spinal nerves except for the first spinal nerve pair (C1), which emerges between the occipital bone and the atlas (the first vertebra). Thus the cervical nerves are numbered by the vertebra below, except spinal nerve C8, which exists below vertebra C7 and above vertebra T1. The thoracic, lumbar, and sacral nerves are then numbered by the vertebra above. In the case of a lumbarized S1 vertebra (aka L6) or a sacralized L5 vertebra, the nerves are typically still counted to L5 and the next nerve is S1.
Outside the vertebral column, the nerve divides into branches. The dorsal ramus contains nerves that serve the posterior portions of the trunk carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and somatic sensory information to and from the skin and
muscles of the back (epaxial muscles). The ventral ramus contains nerves that serve the remaining anterior parts of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs (hypaxial muscles) carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the ventrolateral body surface, structures in the body wall, and the limbs. The meningeal branches (recurrent meningeal or sinuvertebral nerves) branch from the spinal nerve and re-enter the intervertebral foramen to serve the ligaments, dura, blood vessels, intervertebral discs, facet joints, and periosteum of the vertebrae. The rami communicantes contain autonomic nerves that serve visceral functions carrying visceral motor and sensory information to and from the visceral organs.
Some anterior rami merge with adjacent anterior rami to form a nerve plexus, a network of interconnecting nerves. Nerves emerging from a plexus contain fibers from various spinal nerves, which are now carried together to some target location. Major plexuses include the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.
Regional nerves
Cervical nerves
The cervical nerves are the spinal nerves from the cervical vertebrae in the cervical segment of the spinal cord. Although there are seven cervical vertebrae (C1-C7), there are eight cervical nerves C1–C8. C1–C7 emerge above their corresponding vertebrae, while C8 emerges below the C7 vertebra. Everywhere else in the spine, the nerve emerges below the vertebra with the same name.
The posterior distribution includes the suboccipital nerve (C1), the greater occipital nerve (C2) and the third occipital nerve (C3). The anterior distribution includes the cervical plexus (C1-C4) and brachial plexus (C5-T1).
The cervical nerves innervate the sternohyoid, sternothyroid and omohyoid muscles.
A loop of nerves called ansa cervicalis is part of the cervical plexus.
Thoracic nerves
The thoracic nerves are the twelve spinal nerves emerging from the thoracic vertebrae. Each thoracic nerve T1 -T12 originates from below each corresponding thoracic vertebra. Branches also exit the spine and go directly to the paravertebral ganglia of the autonomic nervous system where they are involved in the functions of organs and glands in the head, neck, thorax and abdomen.
Anterior divisions: The intercostal nerves come from thoracic nerves T1-T11, and run between the ribs. At T2 and T3, further branches form the intercostobrachial nerve. The subcostal nerve comes from nerve T12, and runs below the twelfth rib.
Posterior divisions: The medial branches (ramus medialis) of the posterior branches of the upper six thoracic nerves run between the semispinalis dorsi and multifidus, which they supply; they then pierce the rhomboid and trapezius muscles, and reach the skin by the sides of the spinous processes. This sensitive branch is called the medial cutaneous ramus.
The medial branches of the lower six are distributed chiefly to the multifidus and longissimus dorsi, occasionally they give off filaments to the skin near the middle line. This sensitive branch is called the posterior cutaneous ramus.
Lumbar nerves
The lumbar nerves are the five spinal nerves emerging from the lumbar vertebrae. They are divided into posterior and anterior divisions.
Posterior divisions: The medial branches of the posterior divisions of the lumbar nerves run close to the articular processes of the vertebrae and end in the multifidus muscle.
The laterals supply the erector spinae muscles.
The upper three give off cutaneous nerves which pierce the aponeurosis of the latissimus dorsi at the lateral border of the erector spinae muscles, and descend across the posterior part of the iliac crest to the skin of the buttock, some of their twigs running as far as the level of the greater trochanter.
Anterior divisions: The anterior divisions of the lumbar nerves (rami anteriores) increase in size from above downward. They are joined, near their origins, by gray rami communicantes from the lumbar ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. These rami consist of long, slender branches which accompany the lumbar arteries around the sides of the vertebral bodies, beneath the psoas major. Their arrangement is somewhat irregular: one ganglion may give rami to two lumbar nerves, or one lumbar nerve may receive rami from two ganglia.
The first and second, and sometimes the third and fourth lumbar nerves are each connected with the lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk by a white ramus communicans.
The nerves pass obliquely outward behind the psoas major, or between its fasciculi, distributing filaments to it and the quadratus lumborum.
The first three and the greater part of the fourth are connected together in this situation by anastomotic loops, and form the lumbar plexus.
The smaller part of the fourth joins with the fifth to form the lumbosacral trunk, which assists in the formation of the sacral plexus. The fourth nerve is named the furcal nerve, from the fact that it is subdivided between the two plexuses.
Sacral nerves
The sacral nerves are the five pairs of spinal nerves which exit the sacrum at the lower end of the vertebral column. The roots of these nerves begin inside the vertebral column at the level of the L1 vertebra, where the cauda equina begins, and then descend into the sacrum.
There are five paired sacral nerves, half of them arising through the sacrum on the left side and the other half on the right side. Each nerve emerges in two divisions: one division through the anterior sacral foramina and the other division through the posterior sacral foramina.
The nerves divide into branches and the branches from different nerves join with one another, some of them also joining with lumbar or coccygeal nerve branches. These anastomoses of nerves form the sacral plexus and the lumbosacral plexus. The branches of these plexus give rise to nerves that supply much of the hip, thigh, leg and foot.
The sacral nerves have both afferent and efferent fibers, thus they are responsible for part of the sensory perception and the movements of the lower extremities of the human body. From the S2, S3 and S4 arise the pudendal nerve and parasympathetic fibers whose electrical potential supply the descending colon and rectum, urinary bladder and genital organs. These pathways have both afferent and efferent fibers and, this way, they are responsible for conduction of sensory information from these pelvic organs to the central nervous system (CNS) and motor impulses from the CNS to the pelvis that control the movements of these pelvic organs.
Coccygeal nerve
The bilateral coccygeal nerves, Co, are the 31st pair of spinal nerves. It arises from the conus medullaris, and its ventral ramus helps form the coccygeal plexus. It does not divide into a medial and lateral branch. Its fibers are distributed to the skin superficial and posterior to the coccyx bone via the anococcygeal nerve of the coccygeal nerve plexus.
Function
Clinical significance
The muscles that one particular spinal root supplies are that nerve's myotome, and the dermatomes are the areas of sensory innervation on the skin for each spinal nerve. Lesions of one or more nerve roots result in typical patterns of neurologic defects (muscle weakness, abnormal sensation, changes in reflexes) that allow localization of the responsible lesion.
There are several procedures used in sacral nerve stimulation for the treatment of various related disorders.
Sciatica is generally caused by the compression of lumbar nerves L4, or L5 or sacral nerves S1, S2, or S3, or by compression of the sciatic nerve itself
Additional Images
See also
Cranial nerves
References
Blumenfeld H. 'Neuroanatomy Through Clinical Cases'. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates; 2002.
Drake RL, Vogl W, Mitchell AWM. 'Gray's Anatomy for Students'. New York: Elsevier; 2005:69-70.
Ropper AH, Samuels MA. 'Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology'. Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill; 2009.
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240464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainui | Tainui | Tainui is a tribal waka confederation of New Zealand Māori iwi. The Tainui confederation comprises four principal related Māori iwi of the central North Island of New Zealand: Hauraki, Ngāti Maniapoto, Ngāti Raukawa and Waikato.
There are other Tainui iwi whose tribal areas lay outside the traditional Tainui boundaries – Ngāi Tai in the Auckland area, Ngāti Raukawa ki Te Tonga and Ngāti Toa in the Horowhenua, Kapiti region, and Ngāti Rārua and Ngāti Koata in the northern South Island.
History
Early history
The Tainui iwi share a common ancestry from Polynesian migrants who arrived in New Zealand on the Tainui waka, which voyaged across the Pacific Ocean from Hawaiki to Aotearoa (North Island) approximately 800 years ago. According to Pei Te Hurinui Jones, the Tainui historian, Tainui first entered the Waikato about 1400 bringing with them kumara plants. By about 1450 they had conquered the last of the indigenous people in a battle at Atiamuri.
Contact with Europeans
During the late 1840s and early 1850s European missionaries introduced Tainui to modern inventions such as the water mill and gave then instruction in how to raise various European crops: potatoes were particularly widely planted. They set up a trade school in Te Awamutu to educate young Tainui so they became literate and taught the basics of numeracy and farming skills. Two mills were built to grind the wheat into flour – one near Cambridge on a stream leading to the Waikato River, parts of the mill being still visible. Later in the 1850s six others were built in the general area. Produce was exported as far as Victoria and California.
The relationship was far from one-sided. The Tainui tribe provided food to the European settlers, and "the present European population…would have been literally starved out of the country but for the extraordinary exertions made by the aboriginal inhabitants to supply them with cheap provisions", as the Southern Cross newspaper reported in 1844. A year later, when the less than 4,000 settlers of Auckland were under threat from an attack by Ngāpuhi from the south, Tainui rangatira Te Wherowhero responded to a request to assist with the planned attack, "You must fight me if you come on to Auckland; for these Europeans are under my protection", referring to Auckland as the "hem of his cloak" and placing it under his personal tapu.
During this time large numbers of new migrants came to Auckland and Te Wherowhero established a house in Mangere so he could oversee trade and get advice from the government. For a brief period until the mid-1850s Tainui made a good return from selling food to the new settlers but this came to a sudden end when traders realised they could get food – especially flour – much cheaper from New South Wales. Tainui set up a bank at Cambridge to take the deposits of Maori traders; it was burnt down by the people when it was found that chiefs were using the money as their own.
Relationships between Europeans and Tainui soured as Europeans began to outnumber Māori (around 1858, across all of New Zealand), stopping them from being dependent on friendly tribes for food and protection. At the same time as respect for even high-ranking Māori waned, desire for land settled by them grew among Europeans. At the outbreak of the First Taranaki War, "friendly Māori" in Auckland had to be issued with arm badges to protect them from assault.
Tainui people were expelled from the Auckland area in 1863 because of their refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Crown and hand in their weapons, which the governor thought posed a threat to Auckland and the new settlers as it had done in Taranaki.
Kīngitanga
Tainui were the tribe responsible for the setting up of the Kīngitanga in 1858 – a pan-Māori movement of mainly central North Island iwi who aimed at establishing a separate Māori nation with a Māori King. The key aim was the refusal of the kingites to sell land to the government. The first Māori king was the great Waikato warrior Te Wherowhero who came from a great line of rangatira. Tainui, who had conquered much Taranaki land, sent warriors to help fight the settlers and British soldiers in Taranaki to prevent minor chiefs selling land to the government. Missionaries at Te Awamutu told the Kīngitanga they would be considered rebels by the government after they refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown. Te Awamutu was a missionary settlement built by the missionaries and Māori Christians in July 1839 after they observed Tainui cannibals who had been fighting at Rotorua, return with 60 backpacks of human remains and proceed to cook and eat them in the Otawhao pa.
Onset of conflict in the Waikato
Missionaries, who had been advising the government that Maniapoto in particular were collecting guns and powder, were expelled from Te Awamutu. Rewi Maniapoto and his followers tried to kill magistrate Gorst in 1863 but his life was saved as he was absent. The rebels stole his property and burnt down the mission and the native trade school. All of the farmers and missionaries who had lived in peace for many years were threatened and forced out of the Waikato. In 1863 kingitanga supporters tried to kidnap the Maori wives of European settlers and their children and extort a tax from them but most families escaped due to the help of Christian Maori who did not support the kingites. Only French catholic settlers were allowed to stay provided they paid the tax. Wiremu Tamihana, the kingmaker, who was considered a moderate, wrote a series of threatening letters to Governor George Grey. He was an educated Christian who had lived with Governor Grey as a youth, and tried to stop Tainui fighting. At Rangiriri he went to the defensive line and tried 12 times to persuade the warriors to leave but they refused. After their defeat in 18 battles at the hands of the British and kūpapa Māori, who fought alongside the troops, the remaining Tainui retreated south of the Punui River and set up a quasi-autonomous community based around the Kīngitanga. Some Tainui, such as Wiremu Te Whereo of Ngati Naho, who was a magistrate for the Pokeno area, fought with the British at Rangiriri and later manned a new wooden redoubt at Rangiriri for 4 years after the defeat of the Kingites. Later he became a Maori MP.
Living in the King Country
They established their own press, police force, laws and governing body. Europeans who entered the Kīngitanga area were killed. However, because the country was unproductive and the people cut themselves off from European civilization they struggled to develop the Kīngitanga ideal. A number of Pakeha had lived with Ngati Maniapoto since 1842 such as the French trader Louis Hetet. All of them married Maori women. Drunkenness became a problem among the Kingitanga supporters south of the Puniu, particularly after the arrival of Te Kooti, who had a long established drink problem from his youth. Friction broke out between the Maniapoto hosts who wanted to engage with the European settlers and the conservative Kīngitanga adherents who wanted to retain power and remain isolated.
Peace
Over time the more forward thinking ideas of Maniapoto prevailed, land was sold to the government and work was given to Tainui men on roads and on the main trunk line railway. Māori men were given the vote and Māori were given four Members in Parliament who all argued strongly for modernisation and acceptance of the benefits of Pākehā civilization. Following this schools, stores and churches were built. Some of the Tainui leaders were employed by the government as advisors or given government pensions in recognition of their change of heart and willingness to engage with the government. Tainui continued to work behind the scenes to recover the remainder of the land they believed was wrongly confiscated ( was returned by 1873) from them after their defeat during the land wars. Some land or reserves were given back to Tainui but this act caused intra-tribal friction for many years because most of the land retained by the government was in the north and central Waikato. None of the Maniapoto land was confiscated, despite the fact they were the most actively hostile iwi in Taranaki and during the Waikato campaign, and this annoyed the other Tainui iwi.
Return of confiscated land and compensation
of land was returned to the rebels a few months after the British victory. In 1926 a government commission agreed to pay an annual payment of £3000. Te Puea, the main force in Tainui leadership, indicated to the government that the tribe was prepared to accept money in compensation for the confiscated land. In April 1946 an additional payment of £5000 (later $15,000) per annum was made in perpetuity – this was considered a full and final payment by the Crown, but although accepted by the Kingitanga royalty some members remained discontented as they wanted land. This was a deal worked out directly between Tainui leadership and the Prime Minister Fraser after a hui at Turangawaewae. The deal was accepted by Roore Edwards speaking for Te Puea. Tainui have been actively seeking a resolution to their ongoing grievance over the 1863 confiscation of lands, water rights, and harbour rights. Tribal members were annoyed that the leadership appeared to be frittering away the large annual income on expensive hui. Most of the funds were spent on administration costs, grants to marae for functions such as tangi and entertaining visitors. In 1995 as part of the Treaty of Waitangi settlement the tribe received a second lot of compensation amounting to $195 million, made up of cash and parcels of land in and around Hamilton such as the former air force base at Te Rapa, now called The Base. The compensation is a little over 1 percent of the value of the lands taken as a result of the 1863 invasion.
Tainui business
At first many of the investments made were poor such as a fisheries deal, the purchase of the Auckland Warriors rugby league team and a hotel in Singapore, which all failed. A financial overhaul and the separation of the Kīngitanga from Tainui business enterprise has paid dividends. The construction of The Base shopping complex has been a winner for the iwi, drawing many retail customers from the Hamilton central business district. Tainui business supports the Kīngitanga financially, as well as fostering tertiary education for tribal members with grants. Tainui has very close links with Waikato University and each year the university closes down during major Tainui celebrations. From 2002 until 2008 Tainui was also the name of a Māori electorate in Parliament. It was replaced by the Hauraki-Waikato electorate.
In 2009 it was announced that Tainui Group Holdings was to develop farm land adjacent to the Ruakura Research Station and University of Waikato and plan to establish an inland hub for the redistribution and repackaging of containerized products complementing the ports of Auckland and Tauranga. Ruakura will be centered around the existing and planned infrastructure being the East Coast Main Trunk railway line and the proposed Waikato Expressway. Ruakura is intended to support more freight by rail versus road, thus reducing CO2 emissions and congestion around the ports of Auckland and Tauranga. Tainui have said that this may provide up to 12,000 jobs and will be a 30-50 year project. The project will include a 195ha Logistics precinct, 262ha Light Industrial precinct, 108ha Innovation precinct, 3 retail areas, 1,800 mixed density houses and over 60ha of public open space for walk and cycle ways, ecological and storm water functions.
The project has been approved by an independent Board of Inquiry, which will enable development to start in 2015 which will provide much needed employment and amenities to the eastern side of Hamilton.
In 2008 Tainui started work on developing a luxury $10 million resort at Lake Taupo. The business failed with the onset of the recession and the assets were valued by Jones, Lang, Lasalle registered valuers, at about $3 million. The failure of this venture under the direction of Mike Pohio Tainui Holdings CEO has raised questions about the ability of the iwi to develop the $3 billion inland port. Few details of the Taupo disaster have been made public. The Waikato Times in September 2014 reported internal friction in the tribe between those who see the Port development as risky and those favouring a higher risk model. After the failure of the Taupo venture the tribe is uneasy about risking its asset base on such a huge venture. In November 2014 a new marae based management structure was voted in designed to rein in risky development.
References
Further reading
Kelly, Leslie G. (1949). Tainui: the story of Hoturoa and his descendants. Wellington: Polynesian Society.
Bohan, Edmund (2005). Climates of War. Hazard Press.
External links
Official site of the tribe, Waikato
Ruakura Development website
Official site of the tribe, Maniapoto
Official site of the tribe, Raukawa
Official site of the tribe, Hauraki
Hauraki tribes in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
New Zealand Warriors chairmen and investors | [
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240465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20English-language%20idioms%20derived%20from%20baseball | Glossary of English-language idioms derived from baseball | This is an alphabetical list of common English-language idioms based on baseball, excluding the extended metaphor referring to sex, and including illustrative examples for each entry. Particularly American English has been enriched by expressions derived from the game of baseball.
See also the Glossary of baseball terms for the jargon of the game itself, as used by participants, fans, reporters, announcers, and analysts of the game.
B
ballpark
Ballpark, in the ballpark, ballpark figure, and out of the ballpark — "Ballpark" has been used to mean a broad area of approximation or similarity, or a range within which comparison is possible; this usage the Oxford English Dictionary dates to 1960. Another meaning, "sphere of activity or influence", is cited in 1963. "In the (right) ballpark", meaning "within reasonable bounds" dates to 1968. A "ballpark figure" or "ballpark estimate", one that is reasonably accurate, dates to at least 1957. The meaning of "out of the ball park" is to hit a home run; its non-baseball equivalent is to do something well or exactly as it should be done.
"'They said Itanium would never be their fastest 32-bit processor, but it would be in the ballpark. The original x86 hardware execution mechanism was not in the ballpark. It was barely in the parking lot around the ballpark,' Brookwood said.' – Stephen Shankland The New York Times, 23 April 2003.
"Patrick Wiles, a vice president of First Pioneer Farm Credit in Riverhead, said the 'ballpark figure' for prime vineyard land on the North Fork is $50,000 to $60,000 an acre, 'assuming the development rights have been sold.'" – Howard G. Goldberg, The New York Times, 18 July 2004.
MSNBC said Hillary knocked it "out of the park". –New American Media, 27 August 2008.
batting 1000
Also batting a thousand. Getting everything in a series of items right. In baseball, someone with a batting average of one thousand (written as 1.000) has had a hit for every at bat in the relevant time period (e.g., in a game). AHDI dates its non-baseball usage to the 1920s. May also be used sarcastically when someone is getting everything wrong.
"'But Boston Scientific also needs to hope that a rare event does not become magnified,' he said. 'It has to be pretty much batting a thousand for a time,' he said". — Reed Abelson, The New York Times, 27 July 2004.
beanball or throw a beanball
To attack an opponent by aiming at their head. In baseball, a beanball is a pitch intentionally thrown at a batter's head. In politics, it can be a verbal assault or a policy that is targeted to seriously hurt a particular opponent or group.
headline: "Senator Jim Bunning Throws Beanball at America's Unemployed" – Mason Lerner, The Faster Times, 26 February 2010.
[Note: Then-Sen. Bunning had an established career as a Major League Baseball pitcher prior to running for public office.]
"But Brown and Whitman didn't swing at the questions, instead choosing to stick to a game of political beanball — trading jabs on Whitman's housekeeper, a Brown aide's "whore" remark and even verbal miscues. – Steven Luo, California Beat, 13 October 2010.
big hitter(s)
At the highest level; used as a noun ("He is a big hitter").
big league(s)
At the highest level; used as a noun ("You're in the big leagues now") or an adjective ("big-league lawyer"). OED cites "big league" as specifically American Major League Baseball, and cites its first use in 1899; the non-baseball use appears in 1947. Synonym: major league. Contrast bush league, below.
"For a listener who last heard the New Haven Symphony in the mid-60's, in a game but scrappy performance of Britten's War Requiem, its concert on Friday evening was a happy surprise. Under its music director, Michael Palmer, it sounded for the most part like a big-league band, at home in a big-league setting". — James Oestreich, The New York Times, 25 January 1994.
brand new ballgame
In baseball, when a team that has been behind in runs ties up the game, it is sometimes said to be a brand new ballgame. This does not mean that the game starts over from the first inning; it only means that neither team is ahead, and the game continues. In other realms, the term is used to connote a change in tactics or who is ahead in a competition.
"It's a Brand New Ballgame for Outsourcing Real Estate" — John C. Maher, National Real Estate Investor, 1 July 2005.
"Brand new ball game: New peanut program brings change" — Paul L. Hollis, Southwest Farm Press, 21 March 2002.
brush back
To subvert or threaten verbally. In baseball, a nickname for any pitch intended to establish a pitcher's command of the inside portion of the strike zone, usually involving throwing a pitch at or near a hitter who may be covering that portion of the strike zone. Its baseball usage is cited in many dictionaries, but its transition to the vernacular has yet to be dated.
"The Washington Times' George Archibald reports that Gerald A. Reynolds, assistant secretary for civil rights in the Department of Education, has sent a long overdue brush-back letter to college and university officials concerning their odious and oppressive campus speech codes". — David Limbaugh,The Washington Times, August 19, 2003.
"One spokeswoman, Andrea Saul, has been throwing brushback pitches at reporters who write about Romney's faith, asking if they would write similar stories about Jews". – Jeffrey Goldberg, Bloomberg News, June 18, 2012.
bush-league
Amateur, unsophisticated, unprofessional. From the baseball term for a second-rate baseball league and therefore its players (as in bush-league pitcher etc.). OED cites its first baseball use as 1906 (although there are uses as early as 1896), non-baseball in 1914. Contrast big league, above.
"Kinsley, who does come off as the stereotypical Los Angeles-hating East Coast wonk, said recently that because L.A. is the second biggest city in the country, 'it's really bush league to care about where the writers are from.'"— Catherine Seipp, National Review, March 24, 2005.
C
Charley horse
Sudden stiffness or a cramp in the leg. Of unknown etymology; CDS cites its first use c. 1887 as baseball slang; OED states such cramps occur "especially in baseball players" and cites this usage to 1888.
"Tried on more than 1,400 patients for almost two years, it has proved effective for many kinds of pain in the muscles and around joints — charley horse, tennis elbow, stiff neck, torticollis ('wryneck'), whiplash injury, muscular rheumatism, and muscle pain resulting from slipped disks". — Time, 8 June 1959
cleanup hitter
Someone who comes in to solve a problem or lead a team. In baseball a cleanup hitter is the fourth man in the batting order, typically a slugger who is expected to clear the bases by driving other runners home to score runs. The OED first attributes "cleanup hitter" or "cleanup man" in its modern baseball usage to 1922.
Under the headline "Merrill's cleanup hitter: new position focuses on quality of research," it is stated that "at Merrill Lynch & Co. Inc., the "buy," "sell" and "hold" buck stops with William J. Genco".
Under the headline "Trimeris Gets a Cleanup Hitter," it is stated that "Yesterday, tiny drug developer Trimeris (Nasdaq: TRMS) announced that it finally found a permanent CEO to help get itself in order following the resignation of its former leader a year ago.
Referring to President George W. Bush: "There is a reason he is the current president and it is not just because of his Daddy or money — I think he makes a pretty solid cleanup hitter for the Republican Party and brought home the points made during the previous 4 days of the convention".
closer
In baseball, a closing pitcher brought in to finish the game. In business, the person brought in to close the deal, get things done.
cover one's bases
Also cover all the bases. To ensure safety. In baseball, a defensive player covers a base by standing close to it, ensuring a runner cannot reach it safely. In business, covering one's bases means being prepared for every contingency. Mentioned but not dated by Oxford University Press.
"Arson investigators sifted through the rubble of an Airdrie Stud barn today, but failed to determine the cause of a fire that killed 15 thoroughbred broodmares and yearlings Saturday night. The horses were worth more than $1 million, according to Brereton Jones, owner of the stud farm. 'We do not have any reason to believe it was arson, but you just want to be sure you cover all the bases,' he said". — Associated Press, in The New York Times, 7 January 1985."Cisco's FastHub 400 series has the bases covered".
curve, curveball
As in "He really threw me a curveball". A surprise, often completely and totally unexpected, and usually unpleasant. The curveball is a pitch in baseball designed to fool the batter by curving unexpectedly. AHDI dates this usage to the mid-20th century.
"Because of my personal story, I'm very interested in illness. One thing we discovered as a family is that when you're thrown a curveball like cancer or multiple sclerosis, often people do not know what to do first". – Meredith Vieira, quoted by Jeff Chu, Time, 27 August 2006.
"Desormeaux chalked up the latest loss, his second so close to the Triple Crown, to another twist in a life so full of them. 'Life throws curves,' he said, 'Some of us hit it, and some of us will sulk around. We've continued to hit the curveball'". – The New York Times, 8 June 2008.
D
double header
Two contests (or similar events) held on the same day with the same participants.
"The city's three mayoral candidates finished Wednesday's political double header with a debate at First Congregational United Church for Christ. ...The evening debate did not differ greatly from the luncheon forum that local Rotarians and Kiwanians hosted earlier in the day" — Andrew Edwards, Contra Costa Times, 21 October 2009
down to the last out
To be near the end of a competition and have just one last chance to succeed. Also sometimes expressed as "down to the last strike."
"Hillary Clinton is now down to her last out".
ducks on a pond
In baseball, having runners in scoring position, ready for a batter to drive them home. In business, "a situation with a good chance to succeed".
E
extra innings
To extend the original time allotted in order to break a tie or settle an issue. In baseball, this means going beyond the standard nine-inning length of a game.
headline: "Extra Innings for the Cloned Food Debate" – Pallavi Gogoi, Bloomberg Businessweek, 2 April 2007
headline: "Microsoft, Yahoo Game Going Into Extra Innings?" – Erika Morphy, E-Commerce Times, 5 June 2008
F
first base
In baseball, a batter hopes to reach first base and then continue around second and third bases before reaching home and scoring a run. In interpersonal relations, an individual who cannot get to first base with another person is unable to achieve some initial goal or to establish a relationship. A kiss might be first base in a romantic relationship. (See Baseball metaphors for sex.) Getting an appointment with a potential customer might be first base in a business transaction or negotiation.
Under the headline, "Getting Past First Base," a writer asks: "How do you turn an initial contact with a prospect into a fully-fledged business relationship? It's the essence of sales – but it's an area where many people really struggle". — Ian Brodie, 8 November 2008.
first inning or early innings
The early stages of a competition. A game of baseball typically lasts nine innings, so the first inning or the early innings (the first three innings) often do not determine the outcome. Also see "Ninth inning" (below).
headline: "Geithner: Tax reform debate in 'first inning'" — Bernie Becker, The Hill, 27 January 2011.headline: "Early Innings of a Banking Recovery" — Duncan Frearson, Smith Street Capital, July 13, 2010.
foot in the bucket
To act in a timid or cowardly fashion. A batter who steps away from home plate with his leading foot (usually in fear of being struck by a pitched ball) instead of a straight-ahead stride is said to "step in the bucket".
"Even if you haven't stepped in the bucket yet, you may one day. So here are Be Better Guys' Tips for Handling a Screw Up at Work" – Be Better Guys: A Guy's Guide to Getting a Life, 17 June 2009.
four-bagger
A complete success; compare home run, below. In baseball, "four-bagger" is another term for a home run, since the batter who hits a home run touches all four bags or bases, including home plate. A "four-bagger" in baseball may also mean any combination of hits and errors in one at-bat where the batter touches all four bases (a triple and an error, for example, a double and a two-base error, a single and a three-base error, or four-base error).
Referring to the prospects of a high-tech company, a headline reads, "Is Netflix a Four-Bagger in the Making"? – The Motley Fool, 6 October 2013.
G
grand slam
Any sudden, sweeping victory. A batter who hits a home run with bases loaded has hit a four-run "grand slam," a term originally borrowed from contract bridge for winning thirteen tricks. Aside from baseball, the term now refers to a situation which may or may not end badly for the protagonist but from which they emerge as an obvious winner. The term also can refer to anything good which comes in four parts, such as a "grand slam breakfast."
headline: "Natural Gas in Bear Market 'Grand Slam'" – Patti Domm, Market Insider, CNBC, 11 February 2011.
headline: "Boeing Hits Grand Slam with Four DoD Deals" – John Adams, GovconWire, 7 September 2010.
grandstanding
In baseball, a player who shows off or showboats to win the favor of the fans (in the grandstand) is said to be grandstanding. In other contexts, including politics, playing to the crowd, the audience, or the media might be described as grandstanding.
"Tellem weighed in with a thoughtful back-page article in this Sunday's New York Times regarding the recent Congressional and mainstream media grandstanding over steroids". — Jay Jaffe, Futility Infielder, 5 April 2005.
headline: "Stop the grandstanding on the debt ceiling!" — CNN Money, 5 January 2011.
"Opinions were varied and passionate, but there was no sniping, no partisan grandstanding." — Alex Williams, The New York Times, June 22, 2012.
ground ball
A prosaic or ordinary accomplishment, beneath higher hopes or expectations. In baseball, a ground ball is a batted ball that bounces or rolls on the ground, perhaps for a base hit, perhaps for an out.
"Sony once hit home runs, but now it's lost its touch," said Akihiko Jojima, an analyst and author of the book Sony's Sickness. "Sony still makes competent products but they're all just boring ground balls." — Hiroko Tabuchi, New York Times, 28 March 2010.
H
hardball, play hardball
To be or act tough or aggressive. Refers to the comparison between balls in baseball and softball. As a synonym for baseball, OED dates this use of "hardball" to 1883; its non-baseball use appears in 1973.
"Hauser would like to extend its three-year contract with Bristol-Myers, becoming a supplier of the material for semi-synthetic Taxol. 'I think this is just tough bargaining,' said Deborah Wardwell of Dain Bosworth Securities. 'It seems to suggest hardball tactics.'" — Milt Freudenheim, The New York Times, 10 January 2007.
heavy hitter
A powerful or commanding person, a leader. In baseball a heavy hitter is a slugger, someone who hits a lot of extra-base hits or home runs. In business, the heavy hitters may be those who draw the most clients or make the most sales, or who lead the organization. In politics a heavy hitter draws crowds or has a lot of power or influence.
headline: "Heavy-hitters line up for Hong Kong Tourism pitch".
headline: "Boeing uses him as its heavy hitter. As it's done with other troubled programs, the company is relying on Patrick Shanahan to get the 787 back on track" — Los Angeles Times, 24 February 2008.
headline: "UW Adds Heavy Hitters from High Tech and Biotech to Turn More Ideas Into Companies".
hit it out of the park
Also knock it out of the park. To achieve complete or even a spectacular success; compare home run, below. A home run is automatically scored when a batter strikes the ball with such force as to hit it out of the stadium or playing field.
"11:55 AM: Kerry stumbled over the question of whether God is on America's side. But Edwards hit it out of the park with his anecdote about Abraham Lincoln saying America is on God's side. He is the more nimble debater and conversationalist". — Katherine Q. Seelye, The New York Times, 29 February 2004.
hit or miss
To either achieve success or completely fail. In baseball, when a batter swings their bat at a pitched ball, they may either hit the ball or miss it.
headline: "Treating Depression Can Be Hit or Miss" – Los Angeles Times, 3 August 2009.
"Hit or Miss? Kim Kardashian's T-Shirt Dress".
hit singles
See "singles".
home run
A complete success (opposite of strike out); often used in the verb phrase "hit a home run". OED cites this usage to 1965.
"HGTV caught on quickly, and is now carried in 90 million homes. The Food Network has been a home run as well, luring viewers interested in cooking". — Geraldine Fabrikant, The New York Times, 14 August 2006.
"It was Silver's later, 15-month training period with the Apollo 15 astronauts, and that crew's brilliant geological performance on the lunar plain between the Apennine Mountains and Hadley Rille, a sinuous gorge, that, in Silver's words, "hit a home run."" — Marcy Drexler, Caltech News, 1999.
I
inside baseball
Within the sport, "inside baseball" refers to the stratagems that managers use to get their team to score runs, perhaps not as obvious as simply getting players to hit home runs or to catch the ball, but to do the little things that move runners towards home plate. Akin to the idea of small ball. Outside the game, "inside baseball" may refer to the behind-the-scenes machinations of politicians, bankers, or other professionals.
under the headline "Dana Milbank's Inside Baseball," a news story begins: "With a few deft strokes and in fewer than 25 inches, Dana Milbank draws behind-the-scenes portraits of Washington power with such dexterity and hilarity that his Washington Sketch column is a must-read for anyone who wants to know how politics in this city really works". – Brigid Schulte, The Washington Post, 2 March 2010.
"I once had to hire a writer to create my firm's brochure, because what I did was far too "inside baseball." Meaning, too focused on the details only an insider could love and not enough on what the audience wanted to know".
"It ain't over till it's over!"
A famous quotation from baseball player and manager Yogi Berra; one of many yogiisms. Berra used it in 1973, while managing the New York Mets, to mean a team is not out of the pennant race until they are mathematically eliminated. In sports, it is usually used to mean that a game is not officially over until time expires or the final out is registered, and that the players need to stay mentally focused until that point, particularly when their team has a large lead but there is sufficient time for the opposing team to come back and win. The original and self-evident adage, misstated by Berra, is "The game is not over until the last man is out." In non-sports contexts, the quotation means that one should not assume a dangerous or disadvantageous situation has ended or passed until this has been confirmed by other events.
"In spite of last winter's nice snowpack and a wet summer, here's the bad news about New Mexico's drought: It ain't over till it's over, and it ain't over". — Staci Matlock, The New Mexican, 9 October 2005.
"It's like déjà vu all over again!"
Another famous (attributed) yogiism; a redundant way of saying "Here we go again!" It has come into general usage to describe any situation that seems to be observably repeating itself.
"Kay told CNN he is worried because he's hearing some of the same signals about Iran and its nuclear program that were heard as the Bush administration made its case for the war in Iraq. 'It's déjà vu all over again,' Kay said". — David Kay, former U.S. chief weapons inspector (quote).
K
knock it out of the park
See hit it out of the park.
knock the cover off the ball
To succeed beyond expectation. Derived from the act of hitting the ball exceptionally hard, so as to make the leather covering come off. Tearing the cover off the ball was possible in the early days of baseball, since a single ball was often used for the entire game (as is the case in the game of cricket). The phrase was used in a newspaper account of a baseball game as early as 1866.
"In the last two quarters, we knocked the cover off the ball. . . . We exceeded analysts' expectations on Wall Street and our own guidance in both quarters".
L
late innings
See "ninth inning".
leadoff hitter
In baseball, a leadoff hitter is the player who bats first in the lineup. It can also refer to any batter who bats first in an inning. In other fields of endeavor, the leadoff hitter is the one who goes first in a series.
headline: "The American Patriot Program announces August leadoff hitters for its national campaign".
"The decision to place Ms. Obama centre stage in Denver is something of a gamble; rarely have the spouses of presidential candidates played leadoff hitter in such a high-stakes political exercise".
left field
As in "that insult really came out of left field". Unusual, unexpected, or irrational. In baseball, the fielders are focused on home plate, which is the place from which they expect balls to be hit to them. If a ball (e.g., one that was previously hit into the stands) or some other object is thrown at the fielder or onto the field from the outfield seats behind them, it is unexpected and surprising. This may be the origin of the expression "out of left field." First used in the idiomatic sense in the early 20th century by song pluggers working in the American music industry to indicate an unexpectedly successful song.
"Depp's performance came out of left field in The Curse of the Black Pearl; nobody had ever thought of channeling Keith Richards and Pepé Le Pew before". — Kent Williams, Isthmus: The Daily Page.
M
major league
At the highest level. Synonym: big league.
"When you've landed a tenure-track position at that university, you're playing in the major leagues."
Mendoza line
A line marking a very poor performance or the threshold for barely competent performance, referring to the Mendoza line of a .200 batting average in baseball.
"Over the last five years, Wall Street analysts have only been right once. They're below the Mendoza line, batting just 200. And they're misleading investors again" — Brit Ryle, Taipan Financial News, 13 December 2005.
Murderers' Row
A large group of talented individuals or valuable assets. Most notably used to describe the 1927 New York Yankees, who had fearsome hitters throughout their line-up, although it was used to describe other baseball teams as early as 1905.
"He was the unexpected underdog who comes out of nowhere and starts landing one uppercut after another into the chins of a murderer's [sic] row of 800-pound gorillas." — Andrew Leonard, Salon.com, 10 March 2008.
Headline: "Here's The Murderers' Row Of Talent Bill Simmons Recruited For His New Site" — Noah Davis, Business Insider, 2 June 2011.
N
ninth inning
An expression that an event or process is near the end – in the last of a nine-inning game. Referring to a trend in market expansion, a financial analyst may say "We're in the eighth or ninth inning". During a seemingly never-ending crisis, an analyst might remark "No Ninth Inning for Credit Crisis". The president of an academic association may title his farewell column to the members "A Ninth-Inning Farewell".
"'We're in the late innings for U.S. small-cap stocks,'" said Richard Bernstein, chief investment strategist at Merrill Lynch & Co." – Wall Street Journal, 31 December 2007.
O
o-fer
Also oh-fer. If a baseball batter gets 0 hits in any number of at-bats in a game, he's said to go "oh for" that number (as in 0-3, said as "Oh for three"), or perhaps even more colloquially, to "have an o-fer". In business, an example of an "o-fer" would be to try repeatedly and fail to make any sales.
Under the headline "Senate Dems go O-fer," it is reported: "The Senate just voted on whether to proceed with four budgets: the House 2012 budget, the Toomey budget, the Paul budget, and President Obama's 2012 proposal. All were voted down".
off base
Unawares or by surprise, usually in the phrase "caught off base"; OED dates to 1935. Can also mean misguided, mistaken, or working on faulty assumptions; this usage dates to 1940. Both of these uses derive from the situation of a runner being away from a base and thus in a position to being put out (1872).
"The absence of any sharp new angle, any strong new drive in Mr. Roosevelt's messages reflected the fact that he and his Cabinet (only Messrs. Hull, Murphy, Woodring, Edison and Ickes were at hand) had been caught off-base with the rest of the world by the Hitler-Stalin deal, the sudden push for Poland". — Time, 3 September 1939.
"Lotte Ulbricht replied that Madame Yang was way off base. No one was demanding that oppressed nations live happily with their oppressors, she said, and added that Russia was, as always, 'wholeheartedly behind the revolutionary struggles of colonial peoples.'" — Time, 5 July 1963.
on deck
Next in line to face a particular challenge. In baseball, a batter emerges from the dugout and loosens up "on-deck" just before his turn to face the pitcher. OED mentions usage of "on deck" first in 1867 in the context of baseball ("on deck fig. [orig. U.S.]: at hand; ready for action; alive; in Baseball, next at the bat, with the right or privilege of batting next".)
headline: "Barletta, 0-2, back on deck" – Roderick Random, Scranton Times, 30 May 2009.lede: "With no one else as formidable, Republicans are pressuring the Hazleton mayor [Barletta] to run against the longtime Democratic congressman next year". – Scranton Times, 30 May 2009.headline: "Loren French is On Deck to Speak to Us at EntConnect 2007!" – A Better Blogsite, 1 February 2007
one base at a time
In baseball, a manager may adopt a strategy of moving runners along one base at a time rather than emphasizing power hitting and high-scoring innings. In other walks of life, such a step-by-step approach may also be referred to as a "one base at a time" approach.
"Organizations instead need a deep bench of players with varying capabilities and a clear strategy for advancing ideas one base at a time. That's what puts runs on the scoreboard and delivers value to members or customers".
headline: "For RNA polymerase, it's one base at a time".
out of left field
See left field.
P
pinch hit
To act as a substitute or stand-in for someone when in a "pinch", especially in an emergency. In baseball, sometimes a substitute batter would be brought in, especially at a crucial point in the game. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the first non-baseball use in 1918, from sports columnist and short-story writer Ring Lardner:
"He had the thing running, with a piece of common binding twine pinch-hitting for the cord." — Ring Lardner, My Four Weeks In France, viii.179 (1918).
pitch a shutout
To not allow an opponent any wins. In baseball, a shutout occurs when a pitcher does not allow the opponent any runs."The Republican Party pitched a shutout in the South in 2000 and 2004".
play ball
To get going, or to start. Before every baseball game, and after a dead ball situation such as a foul ball or a time-out, the umpire traditionally shouts "play ball" in order to (re-)start the game. AHDI dates this usage to the late 19th century. An alternate meaning, "to cooperate", is not explicitly connected to baseball by ADHI, but is so derived by the Cambridge Dictionary of American Idioms.
"'Eight U.S. attorneys who did not play ball with the political agenda of this administration were dropped from the team,' said Senate Democratic Whip Dick Durbin of Illinois".
play softball
To ask easy questions. Perhaps the opposite of playing hardball (baseball) or throwing difficult or probing questions at a respondent.
in a pickle
To be caught in a tough spot. See rundown.
R
rain-check (rain-cheque)
A ticket given to a spectator at an outdoor event providing for admission at a later date (in lieu of a refund of entrance money), should the event be interrupted by rain; an assurance of a deferred extension of an offer, especially an assurance that a customer can take advantage of a sale later if the item or service offered is not available (as by being sold out); or a (sometimes vague) promise to accept a social offer at an unnamed later date. The latter two meanings derive from the first, which dates at least to 1877 – see rain check (baseball) – and metaphorical usage dates to at least 1896 – see rain check.
"To deal with frustration among holiday shoppers hunting for its Wii game console, Nintendo Co. and retailer GameStop Corp. are launching a rain check program". — Tribune wires, Chicago Tribune, 19 December 2007.
"Another scheduled member of the party, Pat McKenna, White House doorkeeper for thirty-five years, was prevented from making the trip due to an illness in his immediate family, but the President said at his press conference today that he had given McKenna a rain check on the next cruise." — "Roosevelt starts for ocean cruise." The New York Times, April 30, 1938.
rally cap
In baseball, a rally cap is a baseball cap worn while inside-out and/or backwards or in another unconventional manner by players or fans, in order to will a team into a come-from-behind rally late in the game. The rally cap is primarily a baseball superstition. The term may also be used by other groups, such as stock market traders.
headline: "Muni Market Traders Keep Their Rally Caps On" – Patrick McGee, The Bond Buyer, 15 April 2011.
relief pitcher
In baseball a relief pitcher comes in as a replacement for the starting pitcher or another relief pitcher. A relief pitcher in other realms of activity also comes in as a substitute or replacement for the initial or regular occupant of a role.
"Vincent B. Orange doesn't see himself as an opportunist. Rather, he's more of a 'relief pitcher' with the chops to push the District's business goals, he said, after council member Harry Thomas Jr. relinquished control of the Committee on Economic Development while he fights a lawsuit accusing him of taking public funds for personal use".—The Washington Times, 9 June 2011.
rhubarb
A heated argument or noisy dispute; especially, between players on a playing field. Originally the word traditionally muttered by actors in a play to provide background noise. Online Etymology Dictionary attributes the "loud squabble on the field" usage to broadcaster Garry Schumacher in 1938, while OED and CDS both credit sportscaster Red Barber at a baseball game in 1943. OED's first non-baseball cite is 1949.
"If the theater people won their point, it was not much of a point to win. The entire rhubarb, after all, was about nothing but money". — Time, 7 June 1963.
right off the bat
Immediately; without any delay. The Oxford English Dictionary dates this term to 1914 in Maclean's, a Canadian magazine. An older term, "hot from the bat" dates to the 1888 play Meisterschaft by Mark Twain.
"'It was very clear right off the bat that the loss of Cdk5 made them have a much stronger associative memory,' Professor Bibb said". — Reuters, The New York Times, 29 May 2007.
S
"Say it ain't so, Joe!"
An expression of disbelief. A reference to the Black Sox scandal of 1919, when several members of the Chicago White Sox conspired with gamblers to lose the World Series on purpose. When Shoeless Joe Jackson was implicated in the scandal, an apocryphal story says that a young fan approached him and said, "Say it ain't so, Joe!"
screwball
Eccentric, zany, or crazy; OED dates this usage to 1933. The screwball is a rarely used pitch (because of its effect on the arm) that is intended to behave erratically — it "breaks" in the opposite direction a curveball would break.
"And now, as we enter not only the best season for stocks in the calendar year, but also the very best three quarters in the four-year election cycle, you'd think you should just sit back and enjoy the ride, right? But I'm worried the market may be getting ready to throw us a screwball". – MarketWatch, 16 October 2010.
shutout
See "pitch a shutout".
singles or hit singles
To seek modest, or step-by-step gains instead of large ones. In baseball, hitting singles or playing small ball instead of seeking to hit home runs is sometimes a good strategy for teams that do not have many power hitters.
"With the duration [of bonds] tailwind on the wane, investors must literally scour the globe for opportunities, seeking coins and jewels rather than treasure chests. In baseball vernacular, investors must now aim to hit singles rather than swinging for the fences". – Anthony J. Crescenzi, Morningstar.com, 22 December 2010.
small ball
In modern baseball play and analysis (sabermetrics), small ball refers to a strategy that focuses on gaining a small or step-by-step edge on the opponent not by trying to knock the ball out of the ballpark but instead by getting singles, stealing bases, and moving runners along one base at a time. In other endeavors, a similar focus on the details, winning a few points at a time rather than trying for large gains, may also be described as small ball.
headline: "The president plays small ball" – Charles Krauthammer, The Washington Post, 26 January 2012.
headline: "In Need of a Game Change, Santorum Plays Small Ball" – Nate Silver, The New York Times, 17 March 2012.
softball
See "play softball".
step up to the plate
Often shortened to step up. To rise to an occasion in life. Refers to when a player must approach home plate to take a turn at batting. OED cites baseball usage in 1875, general usage in 1919.
headline: "First Responders Stepped Up to the Plate".
headline: "Pig Farmers Have Stepped Up to the Plate".
strike
As in "strike out", "three strikes, you're out", "a strike against you", "he was born with two strikes against him". In baseball, a strike is when the batter swings at and misses a pitch, or when the pitch crosses the strike zone without the batter swinging. A batter with three strikes is out and must stop batting.
The word strike has crept into common English usage to mean a failure or a shortcoming or a loss. When a person has "gotten three strikes" and "struck out", they have failed completely. The three strikes laws refer to more severe punishments for criminals with a third conviction. Someone seeking romance with another person may "strike out" and fail to impress on a first meeting. Also A swing and a miss.
headline: "Everybody Struck Out in Marietta Teen Drinking Incident" – Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 25 February 2010.
Having "two strikes against you" means that you have just one remaining chance to succeed at something, or that you are given little chance to succeed, perhaps because you have been prejudged.
"The British bank Barclays has announced its next CEO. But Bob Diamond already seemingly has two strikes against him going in. One thing, he's an American. And number two, he's head of the company's investment banking arm". – American Public Media, "Marketplace", 7 September 2010.
strike out swinging
To fail while giving it your best effort.
strike out looking
To fail by being passive, without even making an effort.
swing and miss
To try but fail, like swinging a bat and missing the ball. Also see "whiff.""I've swung and missed a lot in my hunt for vintage Levis".
Referring to the disappointing purchase of a living-room couch, "Todd: Hey batter, hey batter, sometimes when you're looking for the rainbow curve away, you get the heater down the middle. Maybe that's why you swung and missed".
"The 1988-2000 employment projections: how accurate were they? In the late 1980s, we projected future employment in scores of occupations for the 1988-2000 period. That future is now the past. See where we scored a hit, landed in the ballpark, and – now and then – swung and missed.
swing for the fences
To try for a substantial gain; to make a big score. In baseball, to swing for the fences is to try to hit a home run, rather than trying to hit singles or play small ball.
"These are opportunities that traders look for every day. That many of them noticed it and swung for the fences all at once is not collusion, it's just the sign of a huge softball coming right down the line".
switch hitter
Refers to baseball players who are capable of hitting as a left-handed or right-handed batter (OED, 1948). Colloquially, a switch hitter is a bisexual. More broadly, "switch-hitting" can refer to an ability to perform double functions or roles.
An article titled "Hatteras Plans Switch-Hitting Ethernet" discusses a network switch that can operate either on fiber optic or copper wiring.
T
take cuts at someone
In baseball, a batter swinging the bat at a ball is sometimes said to "take cuts" at the ball. A person who "takes cuts" at somebody else may be taking a verbal swing or striking a blow at the person's reputation.
headline: "Ex-teammates take cuts at A-Rod".headline: "Opponents Sure to Take Cuts at Stadium Votes in Anaheim Political Game"
three strikes law
See Strike.
took the collar
From the phrase for failing to get any hits, it can be used to indicate failure at something. Referring to the competition between two newspapers, the Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News:
"The News, you recall, took the collar as the 'failing newspaper' when the two sought Justice Department approval in 2000 to merge their business operations".
touch base(s)
As in "we will touch base(s) at the meeting". To make contact with someone, to inform someone of one's plans or activities, perhaps in anticipation of an event. In baseball, a player who is touching a base is not in danger of being put out. Another explanation is that a player must briefly touch each of the bases in order after hitting a home run. It may also refer to the fact that after a fly ball has been caught for an out, a runner on base who has taken a lead or is standing off his base towards the next base, must go back to touch or tag that base ("tag up") before he can advance to the next one.
"Trevor, it's been a while. I'd like to touch bases with you next week to discuss our quarterly sales targets."
triple play
In baseball a triple play is the rare act of making three outs during the same continuous play. The OED attributes the original usage of "triple play" to the American game of baseball as early as 1869.
headline: "President Obama's Wednesday NYC Triple Play." – Celeste Katz, New York Daily News, 26 April 2011.lede on same story: "Brace yourself, New York City! President Obama is returning tomorrow for his third visit in less than a month, bringing the increasingly familiar swirl of traffic – and buckraking – that surrounds presidential campaigns".headline: "Cosmic Triple-Play: Asteroid Flyby, Fireball over Utah, Meteor Shower" – Charles Q. Choi, SPACE.com, 18 November 2009.
W
wheelhouse
From the term for a batter's power zone, usually waist high and over the middle of the plate. Etymology attributed to Peter Tamony who suggested that batters "wheel" at the ball and "take good, level 'roundhouse' swings."
"Carville also said he had not spoken with Hillary Clinton about Richardson's endorsement, but that he was outraged. 'I doubt if Gov. Richardson and I will be terribly close in the future,' he said, but 'I've had my say. . . . I got one in the wheelhouse and I tagged him.'"
whiff
In general usage, the word "whiff" may refer to the movement or sound of air or wind, perhaps as an object moves through it. In baseball a whiff is when a batter swings and misses a pitch. Such usage in baseball is attributed by the OED to 1913. Perhaps derived from this, the term "whiff" has also come to mean trying and failing at something. Also see "swing and miss".
"After Richardson whiffed on the question, Joe Biden parked it".
"Yahoo and MSN each whiffed on six questions. There was only one question that baffled all the search engines".
whole new ball game
Also brand new ball game; whole 'nother ball game. In common usage, a "whole new ball game" or "brand new ball game" signifies a drastic turn of events, a completely altered situation. In baseball, an announcer says "it's a whole new ball game" when the trailing team ties the score or takes the lead, usually after being behind by several runs. AHDI traces this to the 1960s. A "whole 'nother ball game" signifies something completely unrelated, different, or irrelevant. Also said extensively and out of context in the world of selling ads for trade mags.
Under the headline "It's a Whole New Ballgame for Obama," it is stated that, "Barack Obama, we all know by now, is not an ideologue. But where his roots are planted is also nowhere near the progressive pendulum, particularly on domestic issues. Now he's got a playing field that suits his natural political conservatism". – Taylor Marsh, Huffington Post, 7 January 2011.
"In fact, on-demand applications are a whole 'nother ballgame — which is why personally I try to avoid the popular phrase software as a service (SaaS) since I feel it's a phrase that's born of the 'nothing changes' mindset". – Phil Wainewright, ZDNet, 16 March 2006.
See also
Baseball metaphors for sex
Glossary of baseball
List of sports idioms
References
External links
USA Today article on sports jargon used in business
Baseball, Glossary Of Eng
Idioms
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240466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinduque | Marinduque | Marinduque () is an island province in the Philippines located in Southwestern Tagalog Region or Mimaropa, formerly designated as Region IV-B. Its capital is the municipality of Boac. Marinduque lies between Tayabas Bay to the north and Sibuyan Sea to the south. It is west of the Bondoc Peninsula of Quezon province; east of Mindoro Island; and north of the island province of Romblon. Some parts of the Verde Island Passage, the center of the center of world's marine biodiversity and a protected marine area, are also within Marinduque's provincial waters.
The province of Marinduque was ranked number 1 by the Philippine National Police and Philippine Security Forces as the 2013 Most Peaceful Province of the country due to its low crime rate statistics alternately ranking with the province of Batanes yearly. Furthermore, for almost 200 years, the province is home to one of the oldest religious festivals of the country, the Moriones celebrated annually every Holy Week.
History
The most accepted theory of the etymology of the province's name is a Hispanized corruption of either malindig or malindug, which means "stand tall" or "elegant", in reference to a potentially active volcano in the southern section of the island, the Mount Malindig. Domingo Navarette ('Tratados...', 1676) wrote "The island which the natives call Minolo is named Mindoro by the Spaniards, and that of Malindic we call Marinduque." (trans. by Blair and Robertson).
During the Spanish and early American occupations, Marinduque was part of Balayan Province (now Batangas) in the 16th century, Mindoro in the 17th century, and had a brief period as an independent province in 1901, when the Americans arrived.
During the Philippine–American War, Marinduque was the first island to have American concentration camps. Marinduque is the site of the Battle of Pulang Lupa, where 250 Filipino soldiers under Colonel Maximo Abad, defeated a smaller force of 54 American Infantrymen. It is one of the few battles during the pacification of the Philippines where the tenacity and bravery of the Filipinos prevailed over the well-armed Americans. Col. Abad after capturing the Americans later surrendered on April 15, 1901, upon orders from Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo and due to the capture of Gov. Martin Lardizabal and two other officials of the revolutionary who were held hostage by the Americans in Fort Santiago.
In 1902, the US-Philippine Commission annexed the islands of Mindoro (now two separate provinces) and Lubang (now part of Occidental Mindoro) to the province.
Four months later, the province became part of the province of Tayabas (now Quezon).
On February 21, 1920, Act 2280 was passed by the Philippine Congress, reestablishing Marinduque as a separate province.
In 1942 during the Second World War, the Japanese Imperial forces landed in Marinduque.
In 1945, combined American and Filipino troops liberated the province from the Japanese forces. Two government agencies were stationed in the province during the American period, the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the Philippine Constabulary. The general headquarters of the PCA was active from 1935 to 1942 and again from 1945 to 1946 while the PC was active from 1945 to 1946.
Archaeological finds
Archaeology in the Philippines began in Marinduque. Prior to 1900, only one important archaeological investigation had been carried out in the country: the Antoine-Alfred Marche’s exploration of Marinduque from April to July 1881. According to anthropologist Henry Otley Beyer, while many other accidental discoveries and finds have been recorded from time to time and a few burial caves and sites had been casually explored by European and local scientists, no systematic work had been done anywhere else prior to these explorations. After Marche, the next important archaeological work was undertaken by Dr. Carl Gunthe in the Visayas Island Group in 1922.
An abundant yield of Chinese urns, vases, gold ornaments, skulls, and other ornaments of pre-colonial origin was what Marche finds represented. He brought back to France the Marinduque artifacts he uncovered in 40 crates. Part of it now is said to be housed at the Musée de l'Homme in France. The finds also included a wooden image of the Marinduque anito called "Pastores" by the natives.
One of these artifacts also found its way into the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. (Catalogue No. A127996-0, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution). These fragile jarlets traveled from China to the pre-colonial Philippines. Buried in a cave in Marinduque for centuries, excavated in the late 19th century, brought to Paris and eventually one ended up at the Smithsonian Institution museum.
Part of Marinduque's history lies at the Marinduque Museum in Poblacion at Boac and in museums abroad. It will take some time to analyze these artifacts to piece together its pre-colonial past.
Geography
Marinduque is considered as the geographical center of the Philippine archipelago by the Luzon Datum of 1911, the mother of all Philippine geodetic surveys. The province is a "heart-shaped" island with a total land area of , situated between Tayabas Bay in the north and Sibuyan Sea to the south. It is separated from the Bondoc Peninsula in Quezon by the Mompong Pass. West of Marinduque is Tablas Strait, which separates it from Mindoro Island.
Some of the smaller islands to the northeast are Polo Island, Maniwaya Island, and Mompong Island. Southwest portion includes the Tres Reyes Islands and Elephant Island.
The highest peak in Marinduque is Mount Malindig (formerly called Mt. Marlanga), a potentially active stratovolcano with an elevation of above sea level, located at the southern tip of the island.
Cave Systems
Various cave systems occupy the province, including:
Bathala Cave located near Barangay Ipil in Sta.Cruz town;
Tarug Caves located at Barangay Tarug, in the town of Mogpog, a three-chambered caves of limestone formation. It rises steeply to 270 feet above the ground and is located 331 ft above sea level. Pinnacle is barely 3 square meters.
Bagumbungan Cave, a cave system in San Isidro and Punong with complex subterranean river
Talao Caves, a 12 series of caves overlooking the western part of the island.
Climate
Marinduque has a Type III climate, having rainfall more or less evenly distributed throughout the year with no clear boundary between dry and wet seasons. The annual mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures were calculated at , and respectively. Humidity average is 78% year-round with an average annual rainfall totaling .
Administrative divisions
Marinduque comprises 6 municipalities, further subdivided into 218 barangays. A double legislative districts encompasses all towns.
Boac The capital of the province. The most populous town in the province Boac remains the center of industry, culture, economy, and education. Most government and private offices are in the municipality of Boac. It also borders all five municipalities. Mogpog to the North, Santa Cruz to the Northeast, Torrijos to the East, Buenavista to the South, and Gasan to the Southwest. Boac is named after the Tagalog word, , which means divided, due to the Boac River dividing the town in the geographic north and south.
Gasan The Cultural Nerve Center of the province. Dubbed as one of the cleanest and greenest municipalities in the Philippines, Gasan's land area covers a forest reserve in the eastern part. It is also the gateway to the island of Mindoro. Handicrafts and the famous Kalutang boasts from the town of Gasan. It was named after , a local term for corals found in the municipality.
Buenavista The smallest of the six municipalities. It was once part of the municipality of Gasan known as Sabang. It was named such because of the "good view" of the Tablas Strait and offshore islands.
Torrijos Named after three purported origins; 1) from Gen. Torrijos, 2) from torrillos, referring to the cows which pastured in its vast plains, and 3) from torre y hijos, referring to the watchtower men guarding the parish. Torrijos is deemed to be the summer capital of the Province and known for locally-grown strawberries.
Santa Cruz The largest of all the six municipalities in terms of land area and the second most populous town after Boac . It is considered as a secondary municipality after Boac (since it is the capital). Together with Boac, it is also a first-class municipality with established industries and commercial routines.
Mogpog The Primary Gateway of the Province through the Balanacan Port. It is the original home of the Moriones Lenten Rites and Kangga Festiva. Mogpog was named after the Tagalog word, or kiln makers abundant in the municipality.
Demographics
The population of Marinduque in the was people, with a density of , hence, it is the most densely populated province in the Mimaropa Region.
Religion
Marinduque is resided by various religious groups, with Catholics belonging to the Latin Rite predominantly making up the greatest number with 70%. The Iglesia Filipina Independiente has 25% of the population and the rest belongs to the different denominations such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo, and various Mainline Protestant denominations which include Assemblies of God, Baptists, JIL, Methodists, Presbyterian, Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA), and the non-denominational Evangelical churches also known as Born-Again Christians. Muslims, Anitists, animists, and atheists are also present in the province.
Language
The version of Tagalog spoken in Marinduque, known as the Marinduque Tagalog, has been described as "the root from which modern national forms of speech have sprung," where remnants of archaic Tagalog could be found, spoken in a lilting manner by its inhabitants. If this linguistic theory is accurate, Marinduque's Tagalog has contributed significantly to the development of the official Philippine national language.
To this day, Marinduqueños speak an old variation of the Tagalog language that is very close to the way Tagalog was spoken before the Spanish colonization. According to language experts , the Tagalog dialects of Marinduque are the most divergent, especially the Eastern Marinduque dialect, perhaps due to the relative isolation from the Tagalogs of Luzon and also perhaps due to the influence of the Visayan and Bikol migrants.
Linguist Rosa Soberano's 1980 The Dialects of Marinduque Tagalog goes into great depth concerning the dialects spoken there. The following is a verb chart which outlines the conjugation of the Eastern Marinduque dialect of Tagalog:
Linguist Christopher Sundita observed that some of the affixes in Marinduque Tagalog, particularly "a-" and "ina-," are affixes used in Asi (Bantoanon), a Visaya language spoken in Romblon, just south of Marinduque. Marinduque Tagalog, like the Tagalog spoken over two centuries ago, had an additional verb category, the imperative, which was used for commands and requests (e.g., Matulog ka na - Go to sleep). Even then, the imperative and the infinitive were used side by side in expressing commands; but in standard Tagalog, apparently the infinitive became used exclusively. And in the Eastern Marinduque dialect, the imperative affixes are very much alive.
Economy
Marinduque is an agricultural province, primarily growing rice and coconuts. Handicrafts from Marinduque are also exported to dıfferent parts of the world, and fishing is another important part of the economy. Mining was once an important player in the economy until a mining accident (the Marcopper Mining Disaster) occurred, bringing the industry to a standstill on the island and causing enormous damage to the inhabitants. The provincial government has just recently sued Marcopper's parent company, Placer Dome, for $100 million in damages. Placer Dome was purchased in 2006 by Barrick Gold, who has now been joined in the lawsuit.
A significant role in Marinduque's economy is also played by tourism, especially during the Lenten season. While this is not one of the larger parts of the island's economy, it has shown great growth. Recently, some residents are now engaged in butterfly farming. Butterflies are raised for export to countries in both Europe and the Americas. Locally, live butterflies are released in celebration on different occasions, such as birthdays, weddings, and some corporate events.
Culture
Festivals
The Moriones Festival is an annual festival, locally known as "Moryonan", celebrated in Marinduque from March to April. In Santa Cruz, Gasan, Boac, and Mogpog, a parade of people dressed as "Moryons" can be seen on the main road connecting the towns of the island. Boac and Santa Cruz, the biggest towns in the province, shows a reenactment in the evening of the actual event when Longinus, a blind soldier, punctures Jesus with his spear and blood droplets from the wound restores Longinus's sight.
Music
Marinduque is home to the kalutang, a musical instrument made of two pieces of wood that produce different note ranges depending on its size. A band of 10 to 12 can create music with this instrument. In 2011, the kalutang instrument was cited by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts as one of the intangible cultural heritage of the Philippines under the traditional craftsmanship category that the government may nominate in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.
Government
Marinduque has had its own Governor since becoming a sub-province of Tayabas (now Quezon) in 1902 and after gaining its independence from Tayabas in 1920.
Transport
Marinduque is served by direct Cebu Pacific flights to-and-from Manila and Marinduque Airport which is located in Masiga, roughly between Gasan and Boac. The province is also served by a seaport in Balanacan transporting cargo and passengers to and from Lucena in Quezon province. There is also a daily boat trip from General Luna in Quezon province to Santa Cruz and vice versa which stops at Maniwaya Island to drop off cargo and passengers.
Media
There are four radio stations in the province, three of which are operated by the Radyo Natin Network and the other, FM Nutriskwela Community Radio Station Radyo Kamalindig 94.1 DZNS, by the National Nutrition Council. Radyo Natin Network operates the call sign DZVH at 105.7 MHz on FM radio from Boac, as well as the call sign DWMD 104.5 MHz on FM radio from Santa Cruz and 100.1 FM from Torrijos. As for print media, there is no existing newspapers circulating in the province, aside from broadsheet and tabloid newspapers from Manila. Marinduque News Network, meanwhile, provides provincial and national news and information via the web and social media. In 2018, Marinduque News Network ventured with Lucky Seven Cable Services Corporation, a cable provider in Marinduque to showcase their programs through local cable television. The online news website which was founded by Romeo Mataac, Jr. in 2016 is located in Boac, Marinduque.
There are also existing cable providers and local cable stations operating in several municipalities in the province, namely Lucky Seven Cable Services Corporation (Boac), Marinduque Cable Television, Inc. (Boac), and G.R. CATV Services (Santa Cruz & Torrijos). Aside from these cable stations, there are also distributors of direct-to-home (DTH) satellite TV such as Cignal Digital TV, Dream Satellite TV, G Sat, and Sky Direct who provide television services for its subscribers.
Education
Tertiary
Buyabod School of Arts and Trades (BSAT) — Buyabod, Santa Cruz
Educational Systems Technological Institute (ESTI) — Murallon, Boac
Lighthouse Maritime Schools, Inc. (LMSI) — Boac
Malindig Institute (MI) — Lapu-Lapu, Santa Cruz
Marinduque Midwest College (MMC) — Dili, Gasan
Marinduque State University (MSU) — College of Agriculture in Poctoy, Torrijos
Marinduque State University (MSU) — College of Fisheries in Banuyo, Gasan
Marinduque State University (MSU) — Main College Campus in Tanza, Boac
Marinduque State University (MSU) — Marinduque Community University in Matalaba, Santa Cruz
Marinduque State University (MSU) — Santa Cruz Annex, Santa Cruz
Marinduque Victorian University (MVU) — Buenavista
Saint Mary's College of Boac (SMCB) — Isok, Boac
Santa Cruz Institute (SCI) — Banahaw, Santa Cruz
Torrijos Poblacion School of Arts and Trades (TPSAT) — Poctoy, Torrijos
References
Moriones Festival at travelingmorion.com
External links
Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay as of August 1, 2007
Provinces of the Philippines
Island provinces of the Philippines
States and territories established in 1920
1920 establishments in the Philippines
Former sub-provinces of the Philippines | [
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240468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20security | National security | National security, or national defence, is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military attack, national security is widely understood to include also non-military dimensions, including the security from terrorism, minimization of crime, economic security, energy security, environmental security, food security, and cyber-security. Similarly, national security risks include, in addition to the actions of other nation states, action by violent non-state actors, by narcotic cartels, and by multinational corporations, and also the effects of natural disasters.
Governments rely on a range of measures, including political, economic, and military power, as well as diplomacy, to safeguard the security of a nation state. They may also act to build the conditions of security regionally and internationally by reducing transnational causes of insecurity, such as climate change, economic inequality, political exclusion, and nuclear proliferation.
Definitions
The concept of national security remains ambiguous, having evolved from simpler definitions which emphasised freedom from military threat and from political coercion. Among the many definitions proposed to date are the following, which show how the concept has evolved to encompass non-military concerns:
"A nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate ínterests to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by war." (Walter Lippmann, 1943).
"The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation." (Harold Lasswell, 1950)
"National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked." (Arnold Wolfers, 1960)
"National security then is the ability to preserve the nation's physical integrity and territory; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms; to preserve its nature, institution, and governance from disruption from outside; and to control its borders." (Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defense, 1977–1981)
"National security... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy, prosperity, and wellbeing." (Charles Maier, 1990)
"National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity, human resources, economic structure and capacity, technological competence, industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might." (National Defence College of India, 1996)
"[National security is the] measurable state of the capability of a nation to overcome the multi-dimensional threats to the apparent well-being of its people and its survival as a nation-state at any given time, by balancing all instruments of state policy through governance... and is extendable to global security by variables external to it." (Prabhakaran Paleri, 2008)
"[National and international security] may be understood as shared freedom from fear and want, and the freedom to live in dignity. It implies social and ecological health rather than the absence of risk... [and is] a common right." (Ammerdown Group, 2016)
Dimensions of national security
Potential causes of national insecurity include actions by other states (e.g. military or cyber attack), violent non-state actors (e.g. terrorist attack), organised criminal groups such as narcotic cartels, and also the effects of natural disasters (e.g. flooding, earthquakes). Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational, include climate change, economic inequality and marginalisation, political exclusion, and militarisation.
In view of the wide range of risks, the security of a nation state has several dimensions, including economic security, energy security, physical security, environmental security, food security, border security, and cyber security. These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power.
Increasingly, governments organise their security policies into a national security strategy (NSS); as of 2017, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States are among the states to have done so. Some states also appoint a National Security Council and/or a National Security Advisor which is an executive government agency, it feeds the head of the state on topics concerning national security and strategic interest. The national security council/advisor strategies long term, short term, contingency national security plans. India holds one such system in current, which was established on 19 November 1998.
Although states differ in their approach, with some beginning to prioritise non-military action to tackle systemic drivers of insecurity, various forms of coercive power predominate, particularly Military Capabilities. The scope of these capabilities has developed. Traditionally, military capabilities were mainly land- or sea-based, and in smaller countries, they still are. Elsewhere, the domains of potential warfare now include the air, space, cyberspace, and psychological operations. Military capabilities designed for these domains may be used for national security, or equally for offensive purposes, for example to conquer and annex territory and resources.
Physical security
In practice, national security is associated primarily with managing physical threats and with the military capabilities used for doing so. That is, national security is often understood as the capacity of a nation to mobilise military forces to guarantee its borders and to deter or successfully defend against physical threats including military aggression and attacks by non-state actors, such as terrorism. Most states, such as South Africa and Sweden, configure their military forces mainly for territorial defence; others, such as France, Russia, the UK and the US, invest in higher-cost expeditionary capabilities, which allow their armed forces to project power and sustain military operations abroad.
Infrastructure security
Infrastructure security is the security provided to protect infrastructure, especially critical infrastructure, such as airports, highways, rail transport, hospitals, bridges, transport hubs, network communications, media, the electricity grid, dams, power plants, seaports, oil refineries, and water systems. Infrastructure security seeks to limit vulnerability of these structures and systems to sabotage, terrorism, and contamination.
Many countries have established government agencies to directly manage the security of critical infrastructure, usually, through the Ministry of Interior/Home Affairs, dedicated security agencies to protect facilities such as United States Federal Protective Service, and also dedicated transport police such as the British Transport Police. There are also commercial transportation security units such as the Amtrak Police in the United States. Critical infrastructure is vital for the essential functioning of a country. Incidental or deliberate damage can have a serious impact on the economy and essential services. Some of the threats to infrastructure include:
Terrorism: person or groups deliberately targeting critical infrastructure for political gain. In the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, the Mumbai central station and hospital were deliberately targeted.
Sabotage: person or groups such as ex-employees, anti-government groups, environmental groups. Refer to Bangkok's International Airport Seized by Protestors.
Information warfare: private person hacking for private gain or countries initiating attacks to glean information and damage a country's cyberinfrastructure. Cyberattacks on Estonia and cyberattacks during the 2008 South Ossetia war are examples.
Natural disaster: hurricane or other natural events that damage critical infrastructures such as oil pipelines, water, and power grids. See Hurricane Ike and Economic effects of Hurricane Katrina for examples.
Computer security
Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to the security of computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, and the Internet. It concerns the protection of hardware, software, data, people, and also the procedures by which systems are accessed, and the field has growing importance due to the increasing reliance on computer systems in most societies. Since unauthorized access to critical civil and military infrastructure is now considered a major threat, cyberspace is now recognised as a domain of warfare. One such example is the use of Stuxnet by the USA and Israel against the Iranian nuclear programme
Political security
Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, Jaap de Wilde and others have argued that national security depends on political security: the stability of the social order. Others, such as Paul Rogers, have added that the equitability of the international order is equally vital. Hence, political security depends on the rule of international law (including the laws of war), the effectiveness of international political institutions, as well as diplomacy and negotiation between nations and other security actors. It also depends on, among other factors, effective political inclusion of disaffected groups and the human security of the citizenry.
Economic security
Economic security, in the context of international relations, is the ability of a nation state to maintain and develop the national economy, without which other dimensions of national security cannot be managed. Economic capability largely determines the defence capability of a nation, and thus a sound economic security directly influences the national security of a nation. That is why we see countries with sound economy, happen to have sound security setup too, such as The United States, China, India among others. In larger countries, strategies for economic security expect to access resources and markets in other countries and to protect their own markets at home. Developing countries may be less secure than economically advanced states due to high rates of unemployment and underpaid work.
Ecological security
Ecological security, also known as environmental security, refers to the integrity of ecosystems and the biosphere, particularly in relation to their capacity to sustain a diversity of life-forms (including human life). The security of ecosystems has attracted greater attention as the impact of ecological damage by humans has grown. The degradation of ecosystems, including topsoil erosion, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change, affect economic security and can precipitate mass migration, leading to increased pressure on resources elsewhere. Ecological security is also important since most of the countries in the world are developing and dependent on agriculture and agriculture gets affected largely due to climate change. This effect affects the economy of the nation, which in turn affects national security.
The scope and nature of environmental threats to national security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. Romm (1993) classifies the major impacts of ecological changes on national security as:
Transnational environmental problems. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to global warming, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity.
Local environmental or resource pressures. These include resource scarcities leading to local conflict, such as disputes over water scarcity in the Middle East; migration into the United States caused by the failure of agriculture in Mexico; and the impact on the conflict in Syria of erosion of productive land. Environmental insecurity in Rwanda following a rise in population and dwindling availability of farmland, may also have contributed to the genocide there.
Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare. These include acts of war that degrade or destroy ecosystems. Examples are the Roman destruction of agriculture in Carthage; Saddam Hussein's burning of oil wells in the Gulf War; the use of Agent Orange by the UK in the Malayan Emergency and the USA in the Vietnam War for defoliating forests; and the high greenhouse gas emissions of military forces.
Security of energy and natural resources
Resources include water, sources of energy, land, and minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is important for a nation to develop its industry and economic power. For example, in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq captured Kuwait partly in order to secure access to its oil wells, and one reason for the US counter-invasion was the value of the same wells to its own economy. Water resources are subject to disputes between many nations, including India and Pakistan, and in the Middle East.
The interrelations between security, energy, natural resources, and their sustainability is increasingly acknowledged in national security strategies and resource security is now included among the UN Sustainable Development Goals. In the US, for example, the military has installed solar photovoltaic microgrids on their bases in case of power outage.
Issues in national security
Consistency of approach
The dimensions of national security outlined above are frequently in tension with one another. For example:
The high cost of maintaining large military forces can place a burden on the economic security of a nation And annual defence spending as percent of GDP varies significantly by country. Conversely, economic constraints can limit the scale of expenditure on military capabilities.
Unilateral security action by states can undermine political security at an international level if it erodes the rule of law and undermines the authority of international institutions. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the annexation of Crimea in 2014 have been cited as examples.
The pursuit of economic security in competition with other nation states can undermine the ecological security of all when the impact includes widespread topsoil erosion, biodiversity loss, and climate change. Conversely, expenditure on mitigating or adapting to ecological change places a burden on the national economy.
If tensions such as these are not managed effectively, national security policies and actions may be ineffective or counterproductive.
National versus transnational security
Increasingly, national security strategies have begun to recognise that nations cannot provide for their own security without also developing the security of their regional and international context. For example, Sweden's national security strategy of 2017 declared:"Wider security measures must also now encompass protection against epidemics and infectious diseases, combating terrorism and organised crime, ensuring safe transport and reliable food supplies, protecting against energy supply interruptions, countering devastating climate change, initiatives for peace and global development, and much more."
The extent to which this matters, and how it should be done, is the subject of debate. Some argue that the principal beneficiary of national security policy should be the nation state itself, which should centre its strategy on protective and coercive capabilities in order to safeguard itself in a hostile environment (and potentially to project that power into its environment, and dominate it to the point of strategic supremacy). Others argue that security depends principally on building the conditions in which equitable relationships between nations can develop, partly by reducing antagonism between actors, ensuring that fundamental needs can be met, and also that differences of interest can be negotiated effectively. In the UK, for example, Malcolm Chalmers argued in 2015 that the heart of the UK's approach should be support for the Western strategic military alliance led through NATO by the United States, as "the key anchor around which international order is maintained". The Ammerdown Group argued in 2016 that the UK should shift its primary focus to building international cooperation to tackle the systemic drivers of insecurity, including climate change, economic inequality, militarisation and the political exclusion of the world's poorest people.
Impact on civil liberties and human rights
Approaches to national security can have a complex impact on human rights and civil liberties. For example, the rights and liberties of citizens are affected by the use of military personnel and militarised police forces to control public behaviour; the use of surveillance, including mass surveillance in cyberspace, which has implications for privacy; military recruitment and conscription practices; and the effects of warfare on civilians and civil infrastructure. This has led to a dialectical struggle, particularly in liberal democracies, between government authority and the rights and freedoms of the general public.
Even where the exercise of national security is subject to good governance, and the rule of law, a risk remains that the term national security may become a pretext for suppressing unfavorable political and social views. In the US, for example, the controversial USA Patriot Act of 2001, and the revelation by Edward Snowden in 2013 that the National Security Agency harvests the personal data of the general public, brought these issues to wide public attention. Among the questions raised are whether and how national security considerations at times of war should lead to the suppression of individual rights and freedoms, and whether such restrictions are necessary when a state is not at war.
Perspectives
Africa
Conceptualizing and understanding the National Security choices and challenges of African States is a difficult task. This is due to the fact that it is often not rooted in the understanding of their (mostly disrupted) state formation and their often imported process of state-building.
Although Post-Cold War conceptualisations of Security have broadened, the policies and practices of many African states still privilege national security as being synonymous with state security and, even more narrowly- regime security.
The problem with the above is that a number of African states (be specific) have been unable to govern their security in meaningful ways. Often failing to be able to claim the monopoly of force in their territories. The hybridity of security ‘governance’ or ‘providers’ thus exists. States that have not been able to capture this reality in official National Security strategies and policies often find their claim over having the monopoly of force and thus being the Sovereign challenged. This often leads to the weakening of the state. Examples of such states are South Sudan and Somalia.
Argentina and Brazil
National Security ideology as taught by the US Army School of the Americas to military personnel was vital in causing the military coup of 1964 in Brazil and the 1976 one in Argentina. The military dictatorships were installed on the claim by the military that Leftists were an existential threat to the national interests.
China
China's Armed Forces are known as the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The military is the largest in the world, with 2.3 million active troops in 2005.
The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's socialist system."
India
The state of the Republic of India's national security is determined by its internal stability and geopolitical interests. While Islamic upsurge in Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir demanding secession and far left-wing terrorism in India's red corridor remain some key issues in India's internal security, terrorism from Pakistan based militant groups has been emerging as a major concern for New Delhi.
The National Security Advisor of India heads the National Security Council of India, receives all kinds of intelligence reports, and is chief advisor to the Prime Minister of India over national and international security policy. The National Security Council has India's defence, foreign, home, finance ministers and deputy chairman of NITI Aayog as its members and is responsible for shaping strategies for India's security in all aspects.
Illegal immigration to India, most of whom are Muslims from Bangladesh and Myanmar (Rohingya muslims) are a national security risk. There is an organised influx of nearly 40,000 illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingya Muslim immigrants in Delhi who pose a national security risk, threaten the national integration, and alter the demographics. A lawyer Ashwini Upadhyay filed a Public interest litigation (PIL) in the "Supreme Court of India" (SC) to identify and deport these. Responding to this PIL, Delhi Police told the SC in July 2019 that nearly 500 illegal Bangladeshi immigrants have been deported in the preceding 28 months. There are estimated 600,000 to 700,000 illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingya immigrants in National Capital Region (NCR) region specially in the districts of Gurugram, Faridabad, and Nuh (Mewat region), as well as interior villages of Bhiwani and Hisar. Most of them are Muslims who have acquired fake Hindu identity, and under questioning, they pretend to be from West Bengal. In September 2019, the Chief Minister of Haryana, Manohar Lal Khattar announced the implementation of NRC for Haryana by setting up a legal framework under the former judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Justice HS Bhalla for updating NRC which will help in weeding out these illegal immigrants.
Russia
In the years 1997 and 2000, Russia adopted documents titled "National Security Concept" that described Russia's global position, the country's interests, listed threats to national security, and described the means to counter those threats. In 2009, these documents were superseded by the "National Security Strategy to 2020". The key body responsible for coordinating policies related to Russia's national security is the Security Council of Russia.
According to provision 6 of the National Security Strategy to 2020, national security is "the situation in which the individual, the society and the state enjoy protection from foreign and domestic threats to the degree that ensures constitutional rights and freedoms, decent quality of life for citizens, as well as sovereignty, territorial integrity and stable development of the Russian Federation, the defence and security of the state."
Singapore
Total Defence is Singapore’s whole-of-society national defence concept based on the premise that the strongest defence of a nation is collective defence – when every aspect of society stays united for the defence of the country. Adopted from the national defence strategies of Sweden and Switzerland, Total Defence was introduced in Singapore in 1984. Then, it was recognised that military threats to a nation can affect the psyche and social fabric of its people. Therefore, the defence and progress of Singapore were dependent on all its citizens and their resolve, not just the government or the armed forces. Total Defence has since evolved to take into consideration threats and challenges outside of the conventional military domain.
Ukraine
National security of Ukraine is defined in Ukrainian law as "a set of legislative and organisational measures aimed at permanent protection of vital interests of man and citizen, society and the state, which ensure sustainable development of society, timely detection, prevention and neutralisation of real and potential threats to national interests in areas of law enforcement, fight against corruption, border activities and defence, migration policy, health care, education and science, technology and innovation policy, cultural development of the population, freedom of speech and information security, social policy and pension provision, housing and communal services, financial services market, protection of property rights, stock markets and circulation of securities, fiscal and customs policy, trade and business, banking services, investment policy, auditing, monetary and exchange rate policy, information security, licensing, industry and agriculture, transport and communications, information technology, energy and energy saving, functioning of natural monopolies, use of subsoil, land and water resources, minerals, protection of ecology and environment and other areas of public administration, in the event of emergence of negative trends towards the creation of potential or real threats to national interests.".
The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in Ukraine is the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine.
It is an advisory state agency to the President of Ukraine, tasked with developing a policy of national security on domestic and international matters. All sessions of the council take place in the Presidential Administration Building. The council was created by the provision of Supreme Council of Ukraine #1658-12 on October 11, 1991. It was defined as the highest state body of collegiate governing on matters of defence and security of Ukraine with the following goals:
Protecting sovereignty
Constitutional order
Territorial integrity and inviolability of the republic
Developing strategies and continuous improvement of policy in the sphere of defence and state security
Comprehensive scientific assessment of the military threat nature
Determining position toward modern warfare
Effective control over the execution of the tasks of the state and its institutions keeping defence capabilities of Ukraine at the level of defence sufficiency
United Kingdom
The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in the UK is the National Security Council (United Kingdom) which helps produce and enact the UK's National Security Strategy. It was created in May 2010 by the new coalition government of the Conservative Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats. The National Security Council is a committee of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and was created as part of a wider reform of the national security apparatus. This reform also included the creation of a National Security Adviser and a National Security Secretariat to support the National Security Council.
United States
National Security Act of 1947
The concept of national security became an official guiding principle of foreign policy in the United States when the National Security Act of 1947 was signed on July 26, 1947, by U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As amended in 1949, this Act:
created important components of American national security, such as the precursor to the Department of Defense;
subordinated the military branches to the new cabinet-level position of Secretary of Defense;
established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency;
Notably, the Act did not define national security, which was conceivably advantageous, as its ambiguity made it a powerful phrase to invoke against diverse threats to interests of the state, such as domestic concerns.
The notion that national security encompasses more than just military security was present, though understated, from the beginning. The Act established the National Security Council so as to "advise the President on the integration of domestic, military and foreign policies relating to national security".
While not defining the "interests" of national security, the Act does establish, within the National Security Council, the "Committee on Foreign Intelligence", whose duty is to conduct an annual review "identifying the intelligence required to address the national security interests of the United States as specified by the President" (emphasis added).
In Gen. Maxwell Taylor's 1974 essay "The Legitimate Claims of National Security", Taylor states:
National security state
To reflect on the institutionalisation of new bureaucratic infrastructures and governmental practices in the post-World War II period in the U.S., when a culture of semi-permanent military mobilisation brought around the National Security Council, the CIA, the Department of Defense, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, national-security researchers apply a notion of a national security state:
Obama administration
The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff defines national security of the United States in the following manner :
In 2010, the White House included an all-encompassing world-view in a national security strategy which identified "security" as one of the country's "four enduring national interests" that were "inexorably intertwined":
Empowerment of women
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has said that, "The countries that threaten regional and global peace are the very places where women and girls are deprived of dignity and opportunity". She has noted that countries, where women are oppressed, are places where the "rule of law and democracy are struggling to take root", and that, when women's rights as equals in society are upheld, the society as a whole changes and improves, which in turn enhances stability in that society, which in turn contributes to global society.
Cyber
The Bush Administration in January 2008, initiated the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI). It introduced a differentiated approach, such as: identifying existing and emerging cybersecurity threats, finding and plugging existing cyber vulnerabilities, and apprehending actors that trying to gain access to secure federal information systems. President Obama issued a declaration that the "cyber threat is one of the most serious economic and national security challenges we face as a nation" and that "America's economic prosperity in the 21st century will depend on cybersecurity."
See also
Deep state
Fourth branch of government
Homeland security
Human security
International security
Military–industrial complex
Security
National interest
National economic security
References
Further reading
Bhadauria, Sanjeev. National Security. Allahabad: Dept. of Defence and Strategic Studies, University of Allahabad, 2002.
Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983.
Chen, Hsinchun. National Security. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2007.
Cordesman, Anthony H. Saudi Arabia: National Security in a Troubled Region. Santa Barbara, Calif: Praeger Security International, 2009.
Devanny, Joe, and Josh Harris, The National Security Council: national security at the centre of government. London: Institute for Government/King's College London, 2014.
Jordan, Amos A., William J. Taylor, Michael J. Mazarr, and Suzanne C. Nielsen. American National Security. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
MccGwire, Michael. Perestroika and Soviet National Security. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1991.
Mueller, Karl P. Striking First: Preemptive and Preventive Attack in U.S. National Security Policy. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Project Air Force, 2006.
National Research Council (U.S.). Beyond "Fortress America": National Security Controls on Science and Technology in a Globalized World. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2009.
Neal, Andrew. Security in a Small Nation: Scotland, Democracy, Politics. Open Book Publishers, 2017.
Rothkopf, David J. Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power. New York: PublicAffairs, 2005.
Ripsman, Norrin M., and T. V. Paul. Globalization and the National Security State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Tal, Israel. National Security: The Israeli Experience. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2000.
Tan, Andrew. Malaysia's security perspectives. Canberra : Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University, 2002
Scherer, Lauri S. National Security. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2010.
External links
National Security Internet Archive (NSIA) at the Internet Archive
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240469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindoro | Mindoro | Mindoro is the seventh largest and eighth-most populous island in the Philippines. With a total land area of 10,571 km2 ( 4,082 sq.mi ) and has a population of 1,408,454 as of 2020 census. It is located off the southwestern coast of Luzon and northeast of Palawan. Mindoro is divided into two provinces: Occidental Mindoro and Oriental Mindoro. San Jose is the largest settlement on the island with a total population of 143,430 inhabitants as of 2015. The southern coast of Mindoro forms the northeastern extremum of the Sulu Sea. Mount Halcon is the highest point on the island, standing at above sea level located in Oriental Mindoro. Mount Baco is the island's second highest mountain with an elevation of , located in the province of Occidental Mindoro.
Geography
Mindoro is seventh (7th) largest island in the Philippines. It is divided by two provinces Occidental Mindoro and Oriental Mindoro. Mindoro Mountain Range is the largest and longest mountain range in the island with a total length of north-south and 58 km (36 miles) width east-west. Mount Halcon is a 8,484 feet (2,586 meters) is the island highest point located in Oriental Mindoro.
Topography
Mindoro Mountain Range List of highest Peaks by elevation.
Mount Halcon 8,484 ft (2,586 m)
Mount Baco 8,163 ft (2,488 m)
Mount Wood
Mount Sinclair
Mount Patrick
Mount Indie
Mount Merril
Mount Calavite
Mount Tallulah
Babuy Peak
Mount Iglit
Mount Roosevelt
Mount Burburungan
Mount Malasimbo
Mount Balatic
Mount Talipanan
Mt. Abra de Ilog
Mount Mearns
Mount Alinyaban
River System
List of major river in Mindoro by length.
Bucayao River
Lumintao River
Bongabong River
Busuanga River
Mantangcob River
Balingkawing River
Amnay River
Mongpong River
Mag-asawang Tubig 48.2 km (30 mi)
Pagbahan River
Arigoy River
Lantuyan River
Pandurucan River
Pameyas River
Santa Cruz River
Anahawin River
Abra de Ilog River
Naujan River
Calapan River
Etymology
The name Mindoro was likely a corruption of the native name "Minolo". Domingo Navarette ('Tratados...', 1676) wrote "The island which the natives call Minolo is named Mindoro by the Spaniards..." (trans. by Blair and Robertson).
History
In past times, it has been called Ma-i or Mait by Han Chinese traders. Indigenous groups are called Mangyans. The Spaniards called the place as Mina de Oro (meaning "gold mine") from where the island got its current name. According to the late historian William Henry Scott, an entry in the official history of the Sung Dynasty for the year 972 mentions Ma-i as a state which traded with China. Other Chinese records referring to Ma-i or Mindoro appear in the years that follow.
The products that Mindoro traders exchanged with the Chinese included "beeswax, cotton, true pearls, tortoiseshell, medicinal betelnuts and yu-ta [jute?] cloth" for Chinese porcelain, trade gold, iron pots, lead, copper, colored glass beads and iron needles.
The island was briefly invaded by the Sultanate of Brunei and housed Moro settlements before the Spanish invaded and Christianized the population. Afterward, the area was depopulated due to wars between the Spaniards and the Moros from Mindanao who sought to enslave the Hispanized people and to re-Islamize the island. Consequently, most of the population fled to nearby Batangas and the once rich towns of Mindoro fell to ruin. In the seventeenth century, Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri visited the island.
In 1898, Mindoro joined in the Philippine Revolution against Spain due to the influx of rebels settling into the island from Cavite and Bataan. Local patriotism died down however during the American occupation of the Philippines and the Japanese era.
The island was the location of the Battle of Mindoro in World War II.
Nevertheless, upon Philippine independence, the area recovered and from 1920 to 1950, the island was a single province with Calapan as the provincial capital. In 1950, it was partitioned into its two present-day provinces, Occidental Mindoro and Oriental Mindoro, following a referendum.
Economy
The economy of Mindoro is largely based on agriculture. Products consist of a wide variety of fruits, such as citrus, bananas, lanzones, rambutan and coconuts, grains (rice and corn), sugarcane, peanuts, fish (catfish, milkfish and tilapia), livestock and poultry. Logging and the mining of marble and copper also thrive. Only 5% of the original forest remains as a result of extensive logging, prevalent agricultural practices, and population growth.
Tourism is a lucrative business as well, with locations such as Apo Reef National Park, Lubang Island, Puerto Galera, Sabang Beach and Mount Halcon. Puerto Galera's beaches are the island's most known tourist attraction and are widely visited.
Culture
The principal language in Mindoro is Tagalog, although in some parts it has been greatly influenced by the native Mangyan and Visayan languages. Visayan and Mangyan languages, too, are spoken on the island, as are Ilocano, Bicolano, and some foreign languages – e.g., English, Hokkien (a national dialect of Chinese), and to a lesser extent, Spanish.
The following indigenous languages (all of them being part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages family, like also like Ilocano, Bicolano, and the nationally designated official Filipino dialect of Tagalog) are spoken in Mindoro:
Northern Mindoro languages – 16,000 speakers
Iraya – 10,000 speakers
Alangan – 2,150 speakers
Tadyawan – 4,200 speakers
Southern Mindoro languages – 30,000 speakers
Buhid – 8,000 speakers
Tawbuid – 8,000 speakers
Hanuno'o – 14,000 speakers
Visayan languages
Ratagnon language – 2 speakers
Only the indigenous Mangyan language spoken in the southern part of the island is not part of the Philippine branch, but it is still a Malayo-Polynesian languages, historically developed separately from a common Proto-Malay substrate but under the influence of very ancient and more extensive contacts with Sino-Tibetan languages and cultures (from which a significant part of the native tribes seem to originate), and to a lesser extent with Indo-Aryan languages. Today, however, their local language is under strong influence of other Philippines languages (and notably with dominant Tagalog) and the more recent influence of English.
The common religions on the island fall under Christianity. The religion of the indigenous Mangyan population is animism. Though they are into animism as a principal religion, the Roman Catholic Church in some of Mindoro's parts is also active, so are a few independent subdivisions, like Iglesia ni Cristo and Philippine Independent Church, as well as the Baptist Church.
Fauna
Mindoro is also home to the tamaraw or Mindoro dwarf buffalo (Bubalus mindorensis), which is endemic to the island. The tamaraw is a bovine related to the water buffalo (carabao) and is an endangered species.
Bibliography
C.Michael Hogan. 2011. Sulu Sea. Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. P.Saundry & C.J.Cleveland. Washington DC
References
External links
"Map of Mindoro" showing towns and major mountain tops
Mindoro Tourists and Exploration
Islands of Luzon
Landforms of the Sulu Sea
Islands of Occidental Mindoro
Islands of Oriental Mindoro | [
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240470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortolan | Ortolan |
Ortolan may refer to:
Animals
Ortolan bunting (Emberiza hortulana), a bird in the bunting family Emberizidae considered a delicacy in France.
Cuisine
L'Ortolan, a gourmet restaurant in the village of Shinfield, Berkshire, England.
People
Joseph Louis Elzéar Ortolan (1802–1873), a French jurist
Marcel Augusto Ortolan (born 1981), a Brazilian footballer
U.S. Navy ships
, a Lapwing-class minesweeper in the United States Navy
earned four battle stars during World War II
, a twin-hulled submarine rescue ship
Other uses
Ortolan, an alien race in Star Wars
See also
Ortolani (disambiguation) | [
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240480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunting | Bunting | Bunting may refer to:
Animals
Birds
Bunting (bird) or Emberizidae, a family of Eurasian and African passerine birds
New World buntings or Passerina, a genus of American passerine birds in the family Cardinalidae
Blue bunting, a species of American passerine bird in the family Cardinalidae
Snow buntings or Plectrophenax, a genus of Arctic passerine birds in the family Calcariidae
Lark bunting, a species of North American passerine bird in the family Passerellidae
Other
Bunting (horse) (1961–1985/86), a Swedish horse
Bunting (animal behavior)
Other uses
Bunting (surname)
Bunting (textile), lightweight cloth material often used for flags and festive decorations
Baby bunting (bunting bag): a warm, hooded infant garment, like a sleeper or (hooded) babygrow.
Bunting, the act of laying down a bunt in baseball
See also
Bye, baby Bunting, nursery rhyme | [
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240483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Britain%20%28film%29 | Battle of Britain (film) | Battle of Britain is a 1969 British Second World War film directed by Guy Hamilton, and produced by Harry Saltzman and S. Benjamin Fisz. The film documents the events of the Battle of Britain. The film drew many respected British actors to accept roles as key figures of the battle, including Laurence Olivier as Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, Trevor Howard as Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, and Patrick Wymark as Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Air Officer commanding No. 12 Group RAF. It also starred Michael Caine, Christopher Plummer, and Robert Shaw as Squadron Leaders. The script by James Kennaway and Wilfred Greatorex was based on the book The Narrow Margin by Derek Wood and Derek Dempster.
The film endeavoured to be an accurate account of the Battle of Britain, when in the summer and autumn of 1940 the British RAF inflicted a strategic defeat on the Luftwaffe and so ensured the cancellation of Operation Sea Lion, Adolf Hitler's plan to invade Britain. The film is notable for its spectacular flying sequences. It was on a far larger scale than had been seen on film before, and this made the film's production very expensive.
Plot
During the Battle of France in June 1940, RAF pilots evacuate a small airfield in advance of the German Blitzkrieg. The pilots, along with British and French military, leave just as German aircraft arrive and execute a heavy strafing attack. RAF Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding (Laurence Olivier), realising that an imminent invasion of Great Britain will require every available aircraft and airman to counter it, stops additional aircraft being deployed to France so that they are available to defend Britain. In the next dramatic scene, French civilians watch in grim despair as a convoy of German troops marches into France and takes control.
At the deserted beaches of Dunkirk, the BBC reports British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's declaration that "what General Weygand called the 'Battle of France' is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin." Luftwaffe Inspector-General Field Marshal Milch arrives to inspect a large German airfield in captured France. Hundreds of Heinkel He 111 bomber aircraft are stationed under Luftwaffe General Kesselring's command.
Luftwaffe commanders are stunned when the Führer informs them that the British are not their "natural enemy" and delays their attack while attempting a diplomatic settlement. In neutral Switzerland, the German ambassador, Baron von Richter (Curd Jürgens), officially proposes new peace terms to his British counterpart, Sir David Kelly (Ralph Richardson), stating that continuing to fight the "masters" of Europe is hopeless. Kelly's brave retort, "Don't threaten or dictate to us until you're marching up Whitehall ... and even then we won't listen", is followed by a private comment to his wife that von Richter is probably correct. In England, commanders celebrate their good fortune, using the delay to build up their strength and continually train their pilots and ground controllers.
The wait finally ends when Luftwaffe pilots receive orders to move to the front, where troops are preparing for a sea-borne invasion. The campaign begins with the Luftwaffe launching an early morning assault on "Eagle Day". The plan is to destroy the RAF on the ground before they have time to launch their Spitfire and Hurricane fighters.
Eagle Day proves highly successful, with attacks on British radar installations by Stuka dive bombers. Two radar stations are put out of action and a number of British airfields are damaged or destroyed but British losses are relatively light. A grueling battle of attrition ensues, with the RAF airfields under repeated attack while inflicting heavy, but non-critical, damage on the attacking forces.
Adding to the RAF's problems is a battle between the commanding officers of 11 Group, Keith Park (Trevor Howard), and 12 Group, Trafford Leigh-Mallory (Patrick Wymark). 12 Group is tasked with protecting 11 Group's airfields while 11 Group meets the enemy, but in raid after raid 12 Group aircraft are nowhere to be seen. Called to meet Dowding, Leigh-Mallory explains that the "Big Wing" tactic takes time for form up, while Park complains that the tactic simply is not working. Dowding ends the debate noting a critical shortage of pilots, wearily remarking, "We're fighting for survival, and losing."
The turning point occurs when a squadron of German bombers becomes lost in bad weather at night and drops bombs on London. In retaliation, the RAF attacks Berlin. Though the damage is negligible, an enraged Adolf Hitler publicly orders London to be razed. Hermann Göring (Hein Riess) arrives in France to personally command the attack, confident that the end of the battle nears. Their first attack skirts the RAF, who are still defending their airfields to the south, and they bomb unopposed. Night time attacks follow and London burns.
One of the film's most poignant scenes takes place during the Blitz. Non-commissioned fighter pilot Andy Moore (Ian McShane) comes home on leave and is furious to discover that his family have returned to London from their place of evacuation. Meeting them in a church during a raid, he gives his children presents of model aeroplanes, and tells his wife she must return them to the country at once. As they argue, an ARP warden arrives with news of a family trapped in a burning house. Andy goes to help but when he returns, the church has been reduced to a flaming ruin, leaving his wife and children dead.
Meanwhile, to supplement Commonwealth forces, the RAF has been forming units of foreign pilots who have escaped German-occupied countries; the main difficulty is their lack of English-language skills. While on a training flight, a Free Polish Air Force squadron accidentally runs into an unescorted flight of German bombers. Ignoring the commands of their British training officer, they peel off one by one and shoot down several of the bombers with unorthodox aggressive tactics. Park rewards them by elevating them to operational status, leading Dowding to do the same for the Canadian and Czech squadrons as well.
While discussing the day's events, Park and Dowding examine the German switch to London. Given a respite, Park notes that he will be able to repair his airfields and bring his squadrons back to full strength. Dowding adds that 12 Group units north of London are now all within range, while enemy fighters are at the extreme edge of their own range. He concludes that "turning on London could be the Germans' biggest blunder."
The next German daytime raid is met by a massive response; watching his formations build up in 11 Group's operations room, Wing Commander Willoughby (Robert Flemyng) wryly states "this should give them something to think about." RAF fighters arranged into large groups attack en masse, overwhelming the German raids. Luftwaffe losses are now critical and Göring is incensed, ordering his fighters remain with the bombers, an order the pilots hate because it robs them of the mobility required to keep the British squadrons off the German bombers. Losses continue to mount on both sides.
The climactic air battle of 15 September 1940 arrives, with Winston Churchill in attendance at 11 Group's operations room. In the underground bunker, British ground control personnel order every squadron into the air to meet the massive attack. Intense combat in the sky over London follows, with both sides taking heavy losses. The outcome is so confused that Dowding refuses to comment on the events.
The next day the RAF anxiously await a raid that never comes. Likewise the Luftwaffe is disheartened by heavy losses and also await orders that never come to resume raiding. Two German anti-aircraft gunners, who had earlier observed a French port teeming with Kriegsmarine vessels and landing barges, now observe a deserted harbour basin. Göring leaves the front, accusing his commanders of betrayal. Dowding looks out over the gardens and up to the sky where the words of Winston Churchill appear onscreen: "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."
Cast
The Battle of Britain has a large all-star international cast. The film was notable for its attempt to accurately portray the role of the Germans, with participants in the battle including Group Captain Tom Gleave, Wing Commander Robert Stanford Tuck, Squadron Leader Bolesław Drobiński and Luftwaffe Generalleutnant Adolf Galland involved as consultants. During the war, Drobiński had heavily damaged Galland's plane and forced him into a crash-landing.
Subtitled German-speaking actors were utilised, a departure from other English language British films in the postwar period, where Germans were often played by Anglophone actors.
British Commonwealth and Allies
Harry Andrews as Harold Balfour, Under-Secretary of State for Air
Michael Caine as Squadron Leader Canfield
Trevor Howard as Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, Air Officer Commanding No. 11 Group RAF
Ian McShane as Sergeant Pilot Andy Moore
Kenneth More as Group Captain Barker, Station Commander at RAF Duxford
Laurence Olivier as Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief RAF, Fighter Command
Nigel Patrick as Group Captain Hope
Christopher Plummer as Squadron Leader Colin Harvey, a Canadian pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF)
Michael Redgrave as Air Vice-Marshal Douglas Evill, Senior Air Staff Officer Fighter Command
Ralph Richardson as Sir David Kelly, British Ambassador to Switzerland
Robert Shaw as Squadron Leader "Skipper"
Patrick Wymark as Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, Air Officer Commanding No. 12 Group RAF
Susannah York as Section Officer Maggie Harvey, Colin's wife
John Baskcomb as Farmer
Michael Bates as Warrant Officer Warwick
Isla Blair as Moore's wife
Tom Chatto as Willoughby's Assistant Controller
James Cosmo as Jamie
Robert Flemyng as Wing Commander Willoughby
Barry Foster as Squadron Leader Edwards
Edward Fox as Pilot Officer Archie
Bill Foxley as Squadron Leader Evans
David Griffin as Sergeant Pilot Chris
Jack Gwillim as Senior Air Staff Officer
Myles Hoyle as Peter
Duncan Lamont as Flight Sergeant Arthur
Sarah Lawson as Skipper's wife
Mark Malicz as Pasco
André Maranne as French NCO
Anthony Nicholls as Minister
Nicholas Pennell as Simon
Andrzej Scibor as Ox
Jean Wladon as Jean Jacques
Nick Tate as RAF Pilot (Uncredited)
Germans and Axis
Curd Jürgens as Maximilian, Baron von Richter
Hein Riess as Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe
Dietrich Frauboes as Generalfeldmarschall Erhard Milch (Inspector General, Luftwaffe)
Peter Hager as Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring
Wilfried von Aacken as Gen. Theo Osterkamp
Karl-Otto Alberty as Gen. Hans Jeschonnek (Luftwaffe chief of staff)
Wolf Harnisch as General Johannes Fink
Malte Petzel as Colonel Beppo Schmid (Luftwaffe Intelligence)
Manfred Reddemann as Major Falke
Paul Neuhaus as Major Föhn
Alexander Allerson as Major Brandt
Alf Jungermann as Lieutenant Froedl, Brandt's navigator
Helmut Kirchner as Boehm
Reinhard Horras as Bruno
Rolf Stiefel as Adolf Hitler
Production
Former participants of the battle served as technical advisers including Douglas Bader, James Lacey, Robert Stanford Tuck, Adolf Galland and Dowding himself.
Aircraft
The film required a large number of period aircraft. In September 1965 producers Harry Saltzman and S. Benjamin Fisz contacted former RAF Bomber Command Group Captain T.G. 'Hamish' Mahaddie to find the aircraft and arrange their use. Eventually 100 aircraft were employed, called the "35th largest air force in the world". With Mahaddie's help, the producers located 109 Spitfires in the UK, of which 27 were available although only 12 could be made flyable. Mahaddie negotiated use of six Hawker Hurricanes, of which three were flying. The film helped preserve these aircraft, including a rare Spitfire Mk II which had been a gate guardian at RAF Colerne in Wiltshire.
During the actual aerial conflict, all RAF Spitfires were Spitfire Mk I and Mark II variants. However, only one Mk Ia and one Mk IIa (the latter with a Battle of Britain combat record) could be made airworthy, so the producers had to use seven other different marks, all of them built later in the war. To achieve commonality, the production made some modifications to "standardise" the Spitfires, including adding elliptical wingtips, period canopies and other changes. To classic aircraft fans, they became known as "Mark Haddies" (a play on Grp. Capt. Mahaddie's name).
A pair of two-seat trainer Spitfires were camera platforms to achieve realistic aerial footage inside the battle scenes. Lieutenant Maurice Hynett, RN, on leave from duties at Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough flew a number of Spitfire sequences in the film, including one of the opening scenes which features a single Spitfire in flight. A rare Hawker Hurricane XII had been restored by Canadian Bob Diemert, who flew the aircraft in the film. Eight non-flying Spitfires and two Hurricanes were set dressing, with one Hurricane able to taxi.
A North American B-25 Mitchell N6578D, flown by pilots John "Jeff" Hawke and Duane Egli, was the primary filming platform for the aerial sequences. It was fitted with camera positions in what were formerly the aircraft's nose, tail and waist gun positions. An additional camera, on an articulating arm, was mounted in the aircraft's bomb bay and allowed 360-degree shots from below the aircraft. The top gun turret was replaced with a clear dome for the aerial director, who would co-ordinate the other aircraft by radio.
N6578D was painted garishly for line-up references and to make it easier for pilots to determine which way it was manoeuvring. When the brightly coloured aircraft arrived at Tablada airbase in Spain in early afternoon of 18 March 1968, the comment from Derek Cracknell, the assistant director, was "It's a bloody great psychedelic monster!" The aircraft was henceforth dubbed the Psychedelic Monster.
For the German aircraft, the producers obtained 32 CASA 2.111 twin-engined bombers, a Spanish-built version of the German Heinkel He 111H-16. They also located 27 Hispano Aviación HA-1112 M1L 'Buchon' single-engined fighters, a Spanish version of the German Messerschmitt Bf 109. The Buchons were altered to look more like correct Bf 109Es, adding mock machine guns and cannon, and redundant tailplane struts, and removing the rounded wingtips. The Spanish aircraft were powered by British Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, and thus almost all the aircraft used, British and German alike, were Merlin-powered. After the film, one HA-1112 was donated to the German Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, and converted to a Messerschmitt Bf 109 G-2 variant, depicting the insignias of German ace Gustav Rödel.
Two Heinkels and the 17 flyable Messerschmitts (including one dual-controlled HA-1112-M4L two-seater, used for conversion training and as a camera ship), were flown to England to complete the shoot. In the scene where the Polish training squadron breaks off to attack (the "Repeat, please" sequence), the three most distant Hurricanes were Buchons marked as Hurricanes, as there were not enough flyable Hurricanes. In addition to the combat aircraft, two Spanish-built Junkers Ju 52 transports were used.
Locations
Filming in England was at Duxford, Debden, North Weald and Hawkinge, all operational stations in 1940; one surviving First World War "Belfast" hangar at Duxford was blown up and demolished for the Eagle Day sequence. Some filming also took place at Bovingdon, a former wartime bomber airfield. The title sequence scene, showing a review of German bombers on the ground by Fieldmarshal Milch, was filmed at Tablada Airfield in Spain. Stunt coordinator Wilson Connie Edwards retained a Mark IX Spitfire, six Buchons, and a P-51 Mustang in lieu of payment, which were stored in Texas until sold to collectors in 2014.
The village of Chilham in Kent became the base of operations for the radio controllers in the film.
Denton, another Kent village, and its pub, The Jackdaw Inn, features in the film as the location where Christopher Plummer and his on-screen wife argue about her relocating closer to his posting. The Jackdaw Inn has a room devoted to an extensive collection of RAF Second World War memorabilia.
Another early scene was the Dunkirk recreation which was shot at the beachfront in Huelva, Spain. To reflect the cloudless skies of summer of 1940, many upward-facing shots were filmed over Spain, while downward-facing shots were almost all below the clouds, over southern England, where farmland is distinctive. However, 1940 camouflage made it difficult to see the aircraft against the ground and sky, so a cloud background was used where possible. Only one Spitfire was relocated to Spain to stand in for the RAF defenders. After filming began, the English weather proved too unreliable and filming was moved to Hal Far and Luqa Airfields in Malta to complete the aerial sequences.
Numerous scenes were shot in the preserved operations rooms, illustrating the operation of the Dowding system that controlled the fighter squadrons. Much of this footage takes place in 11 Group's operations room, today preserved as the Battle of Britain Bunker. Other scenes take place in Fighter Command's central "filter room" as well as recreations of the squadron ops rooms. One scene shows the hit on Biggin Hill's ops room, and another shows its relocation to a local bakery, although this is a recreation of another squadron's backup room in a local butcher's shop.
Location filming in London was carried out mainly in the St Katharine Docks area where older houses were being demolished for housing estates. Partly demolished buildings represented bombed houses and disused buildings were set on fire. St Katharine Docks was one of the few areas of London's East End to survive the Blitz. Many extras were survivors of the Blitz. Aldwych tube station, used as a wartime air-raid shelter, was also used as a filming location. Almost all the period equipment from the London Fire Brigade Museum was used in the film. The night scenes of wartime Berlin were filmed in Donostia-San Sebastian, Basque Country.
Production gaffers were allowed to blackout the city on demand, with health facilities and official buildings backed up with generators.
The scenes at RAF Fighter Command were filmed at RAF Bentley Priory, the headquarters of Fighter Command. Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding's original office, with the original furniture, was used.
Aircraft models
Permission was granted to the producers to use the Royal Air Force Museum's Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bomber (one of only two that survive intact). The 1943 aircraft was repainted and slightly modified to resemble a 1940 model Ju 87. The engine was found to be in excellent condition and there was little difficulty in starting it, but returning the aircraft to airworthiness was ultimately too costly for the filmmakers. Instead, two Percival Proctor training aircraft were converted into half-scale Stukas, with a cranked wing, as "Proctukas" though, in the film, they were not used on-screen. Instead, to duplicate the steep dive of Ju 87 attacks, large models were flown by radio control.
To recreate airfield scenes, with the limited number of period aircraft available for the film, large scale models were used. The first requirement was for set decoration replicas. Production of full-size wood and fibreglass Hurricanes, Spitfires and Bf 109s commenced in a sort of production line set up at Pinewood Studios. A number of the replicas were fitted with motorcycle engines to enable them to taxi. Although most of these replicas were destroyed during filming, a small number were made available to museums in the UK.
The other need was for models in aerial sequences, and art director and model maker John Siddall was asked by the producer to create and head a team specifically for this because of his contacts in the modelling community. A test flight was arranged at Lasham Airfield in the UK and a model was flown down the runway close behind a large American estate car with a cameraman in the rear. This test proved successful, leading to many radio-controlled models being constructed in the band rehearsal room at Pinewood Studios.
Over a period of two years, a total of 82 Spitfires, Hurricanes, Messerschmitts, and He 111s were built. Radio-controlled Heinkel He 111 models were flown to depict bombers being destroyed over the English Channel. When reviewing the footage of the first crash, the producers noticed a trailing-wire antenna; this was explained by an added cutaway in which the control wires of a Heinkel are seen shot loose.
Releases
The quote from the 20 August 1940 speech was changed when the movie was released on DVD in 2003. Onscreen, instead of the quote about "The Few," this Churchill quote appears: "This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning," which was a reference to the Second Battle of El Alamein being a turning point in the war. The 2004 Special Edition, however, reverts to the quotation about The Few: "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."
Historical accuracy
The film is generally faithful to events and, although merging some characters, it sticks to the orthodox view – that the Germans threw away strategic advantage by switching bombing from RAF airfields to London in revenge for RAF raids on Berlin.
Some later scholarship has cast doubt on one or another aspect of the orthodox view, arguing either: (a) that the switch to bombing London was made not for reasons of revenge but because the Germans thought they had already defeated RAF Fighter Command or (b) that accelerated British aircraft production meant that the prospect of a German victory was never likely (this view seems doubtful, in part because the issue was the number of pilots).
The film includes a sequence which relates the events of 15 August 1940, in which the Luftwaffe attempted to overwhelm fighter defences by simultaneous attacks on northern and southern England, the Luftwaffe reasoning that "even a Spitfire can't be in two places at once". North East England was attacked by 65 Heinkel He 111s escorted by 34 Messerschmitt Bf 110s and RAF Driffield was attacked by 50 unescorted Junkers Ju. 88s. Out of 115 bombers and 35 fighters sent, 16 bombers and seven fighters were lost. As a result of these casualties, Luftflotte 5 did not appear in strength again in the campaign.
The Robert Shaw character "Skipper" is based loosely on Squadron Leader Sailor Malan, a South African fighter ace and No. 74 Squadron RAF commander during the Battle of Britain. The scene in the operation room in which the British listen to their fighters' wireless transmissions relies on dramatic licence, as the operations room received information by telephone from the sector airfields. The scenes at the end, where the RAF pilots are seen suddenly idle and left awaiting the return of the Luftwaffe raids, rely similarly on licence; the fighting fizzled out through late September, although daylight raids continued for some weeks after the 15 September engagement. 31 October 1940 is regarded as the official end on the British side.
The Edward Fox character "Pilot Officer Archie", is based on Ray Holmes of No. 504 Squadron RAF. On 15 September 1940, now known as "Battle of Britain Day", Holmes used his Hawker Hurricane to destroy a Dornier Do 17 bomber over London by ramming but at the cost of his own aircraft (and almost his own life). Holmes, making a head-on attack, found his guns inoperative. He flew his plane into the top-side of the German bomber, cutting off the rear tail section with his wing and causing the bomber to dive out of control and crash. The Dornier pilot, Feldwebel Robert Zehbe, bailed out, only to die later of wounds suffered during the attack, while the injured Holmes bailed out of his plane and survived.
As the RAF did not practise ramming as an air combat tactic, this was considered an impromptu manoeuvre and an act of selfless courage. Holmes was feted by the press as a war hero who saved Buckingham Palace. This event became one of the defining moments of the Battle of Britain and elicited a congratulatory note to the RAF from Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands who had witnessed the event. The ramming is depicted in the film, with considerable artistic licence.
The confrontation between Dowding and Keith Park and Trafford Leigh-Mallory is fictitious, though there were undoubted tensions between the two sides. The film does not mention that, following the Battle of Britain, Dowding and Park were replaced by Sholto Douglas and Leigh-Mallory, despite Dowding and Park having demonstrated that Leigh-Mallory's "Big Wing" strategy was unworkable.
One omission is at the end of the film, when casualties are listed. The film does not mention losses by the Corpo Aereo Italiano, an Italian expeditionary force that took part, nor is its participation mentioned during the film. One anomalous entry in the list of pilots who served with the RAF is a Palestinian pilot described by the credits as Israeli, even though the State of Israel was only created in 1948. This referred to George Goodman, an ace born in Haifa while Palestine was under British administration, who was killed in action in 1941. In the combat scenes there was no attempt to recreate tracer rounds.
Göring's train in the film is Spanish rather than French (the RENFE markings are just visible on its tender) and the steam locomotive shown did not come into service on Spanish National Railways (RENFE) until 1951.
The character Major Falke is based on Generalleutnant Adolf Galland, a famous ace during the Second World War, who did ask Reichsmarshall Göring for "an outfit of Spitfires for my squadron". Galland explained in his autobiography that his request was only a way to upset Göring, because he was "unbelievably vexed at the lack of understanding and stubbornness with the command (i.e. Göring) who gave us orders we could not execute". Galland did feel that the Spitfire was more manoeuvrable than the Bf 109, which he felt made it more suitable as a defensive fighter but he also states that "fundamentally I preferred the Bf 109". Galland was upset about the director's decision not to use the real names. While making the film, Galland was joined by his friend Robert Stanford Tuck.
During filming, Galland, who was acting as a German technical adviser, took exception to a scene where Kesselring is shown giving the Nazi salute, rather than the standard military salute. Journalist Leonard Mosley witnessed Galland spoiling the shooting and having to be escorted off the set. Galland subsequently threatened to withdraw from the production, warning "dire consequences for the film if the scene stayed in". When the finished scene was screened before Galland and his lawyer, he was persuaded to accept the scene after all.
Reported German losses during the battle derive from claims made and believed at the time. Subsequent research shows that these were substantial overestimates, resulting from, for example, multiple claims on the same downed aircraft. The actual number of German losses on 15th September was 56.
An RAF officer pilot with a disfigured face appears in a scene with Kenneth More and Susannah York. This is not an actor but retired Squadron Leader Bill Foxley, a trainee navigator with RAF Bomber Command during World War II who suffered severe burns following a crash. He was notable for the support he gave to other burns victims and for this film appearance that gave a wide audience some awareness of the facial burns suffered by World War II aircrew.
Musical score
As recounted in Mervyn Cooke's A History of Film Music (2008), the film has two musical scores. The first was written by Sir William Walton, then in his late 60s, and conducted by Malcolm Arnold, who also assisted Walton with the orchestration – notably the music accompanying the Blitz sequences, and some sections of "Battle in the Air", which may have involved some compositional "patches" by Arnold. Aside from the undoubted originality and impact of "The Battle in the Air" sequence, and an opening march (conducted at the sessions by Walton) which was described by a journalist present at its recording as "a grand patriotic tune to out-type and out-glory any that Sir William has yet written, whether for films or coronations", much of Walton's score involves parodies of the horncall from Wagner's Siegfried.
However, Arnold and David Picker – the uncle and nephew in charge of United Artists – insisted on having the music tracks sent to them in New York; their verdict on hearing the music, unaccompanied by the film, was that it was unsuitable and that a composer known to them should be hired to write a replacement score. The music department at United Artists furthermore objected that the score was too short to fill an LP recording which was intended to be marketed with the film. As a result, John Barry – who had scored several James Bond films – was approached, but he declined. The job was finally accepted by Ron Goodwin, who also served as conductor. Producer S. Benjamin Fisz and actor Sir Laurence Olivier protested against this decision, and Olivier threatened to take his name from the credits. In the end, one segment of the Walton score, "Battle in the Air", which depicted the climactic air battles of 15 September 1940, was retained in the final cut, as well as a few bars of his march edited into the final scene before the credits roll. The Walton score for the battle sequence was played with no sound effects of aircraft engines or gunfire, giving the segment a transcendent, lyrical quality.
Prime Minister Edward Heath retrieved Walton's manuscript from United Artists in 1972, presenting it to the composer at Walton's 70th birthday party held at 10 Downing Street. Tapes of the Walton score were believed lost forever until being rediscovered in 1990 in the sound mixer's garage. Since then the score has been restored and released on compact disc. The option to watch the film with the complete Walton score was included on the Region 2 special edition DVD of the film, which was released in June 2004 and the Region A Blu-ray released on 3 June 2008.
Ron Goodwin's score opens with the "Luftwaffe March", later retitled "Aces High", in the style of a traditional German military march in 6/8 time. The march places heavy emphasis on the "oom-pah" sound of tubas and lower-pitched horns on the first and second beats and has the glockenspiel double the horns in the melody. Because of the great length of this sequence, which shows a Luftwaffe general's inspection of a Heinkel squadron in occupied France, the "Aces High" has three separate bridges between choruses of the main theme, one of which recurs several times in a gently sentimental variation. Despite its origin in a representation of a tyrannical threat to democracy, the march has become a popular British march tune, like the Dambusters March; an adaptation was first played by a British military band in 1974 by the Corps of Drums of the Royal Pioneer Corps and is now frequently played at military parades and by marching bands in Northern Ireland. American radio personality and convicted Watergate conspirator G. Gordon Liddy used the march as bumper music on his syndicated radio programme.
Reporting on the film's premiere, The Times commented: "Handsomely shot, soberly put together, it is weighed down somewhat by a platitudinous score from Ron Goodwin. The only sequence of the rejected Walton score, the Battle in the Air, turned down allegedly because it was not long enough to fill an LP, is not perhaps vintage Walton, but at least lifts the film with moments of sharp excitement."
In 2004, both Ron Goodwin's and Sir William Walton's scores were released on a single CD for the first time - Goodwin's music occupied tracks 1 to 19, while Walton's was tracks 20 to 28.
Reception
In the United Kingdom, filming of the aerial battle scenes over London and the home counties had generated considerable interest. Pre-release publicity included the film's quad posters on prominent billboard locations and features in The Sunday Times magazine and local press. However, the film was released at a time when anti-war feeling stirred by the Vietnam War was running high, together with cynicism among post-war generations about the heroism of those who participated in the Battle of Britain.
The film's premiere was held at the Dominion Theatre in London on 15 September 1969 and was attended by 350 Battle of Britain veterans, including Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding.
It received mixed reviews in the UK and was not well received by American critics either. The Evening Standard called it "an absorbing rather than a stirring film", The Times noted that it was "a discreet mixture of all possible approaches, tastefully done, not unintelligent, eminently respectable, and for the most part deadly dull" while The Guardian was less impressed calling it "neither a very good movie nor a very formidable piece of history". Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that, "Battle of Britain, which opened yesterday at the DeMille, 86th Street East and 34th Street East Theaters, is a homage to those airmen who, in 1940, broke the back of the threatened Nazi invasion. It is also one of those all-star non-movies, of a somewhat lower order than The Longest Day, that attempt to recapitulate history, but add nothing to one's understanding. The mixture of minor-key fiction and restaged fact is – for me, anyway – never particularly satisfying, since it is denied the prerogatives and possibilities of both the documentary and the fiction film."
In the Chicago Tribune, Gene Siskel stated, "We believe American film audiences are no longer impressed by casts of thousands and budgets of millions. Unfortunately, Harry Saltzman, who produced The Battle of Britain, disagrees. The film is a 12-thousand-megadollar bomb that features 100 vintage planes eating up 40 minutes of film. The film has absolutely no dramatic Interest in the other 93 minutes, and I challenge the notion that it is worth seeing just for the aerial sequences." He later placed it on his list of the twenty worst films to have been released that year; commenting on the audience reaction to the aerial footage, he remarked that "the planes had the only good lines in the film." Remarking on the same footage, Roger Ebert wrote that "the aerial scenes are allowed to run forever and repeat themselves shamelessly, until we're sure we saw that same Heinkel dive into the sea (sorry – the "drink") three times already. And the special effects aren't all that good for a movie that cost $12,000,000."
Battle of Britain currently scores a 67% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 9 reviews.
In its first two days in 11 cities in the UK, the film grossed $56,242. It was the number one film in the United Kingdom for a total of 14 weeks beginning 26 September 1969 (4 weeks), 7 November 1969 (7 weeks), 6 February 1970 (2 weeks) and finally 27 February 1970 (1 week).
After worldwide distribution, the film grossed just under $13 million according to Guy Hamilton in an interview on the two-disc DVD edition, but due to the large cost of production, the film lost $10 million, although home media sales finally moved it into profit.
The use of actual aircraft in flying sequences has led to a number of subsequent productions utilising stock footage derived from Battle of Britain. These productions include the films Adolf Hitler: My Part in his Downfall (1972), Carry On England (1976), Midway (1976), Baa Baa Black Sheep (television series 1979), Hope and Glory (1987), Piece of Cake (1988 ITV mini-series), No Bananas (BBC drama series 1996), Dark Blue World (2001), and First Light (BBC drama 2010). as well as the History Channel documentary The Extraordinary Mr Spitfire about the life of wartime test pilot Alex Henshaw (2007).
Merchandise
Both a hardcover and paperback book on the making of the movie were published in 1969.
A set of 66 bubble-gum collector cards to accompany the film was produced by Spitfire Productions.
Dinky Toys produced a pair of diecast model aircraft based on the film. A Spitfire Mk II (Dinky Toys 719) in 1/65 scale and Junkers Ju 87B Stuka (Dinky Toys 721) in 1/72 scale were released in special boxes with Battle of Britain logo on the box and photographs from the film included.
In popular culture
The formative strategy war-game Empire was notably inspired by the RAF Fighter Command scenes in Battle of Britain in which staff move counters representing friendly and enemy aircraft and ships over the large map of Britain, from which tactical decisions are made by the air commanders.
A fragment of the soundtrack of one of the dogfights is used on the album The Wall (1979) by Pink Floyd, immediately before the start of the track "Vera".
Footage of Bf 109s exploding and crashing into the English Channel was inserted into the opening "Skeet Surfing" music video in the parody film Top Secret! (1984).
Michael Caine appears in a spoken cameo role in the film Dunkirk (2017) as a Royal Air Force Spitfire pilot, as a nod to his role of RAF fighter pilot Squadron Leader Canfield in Battle of Britain.
A running joke in James May's YouTube cooking show on the FoodTribe channel involves May (or others) quoting the film, particularly the lines "plenty of it" (usually also referring to a food item) and "flood the cowling".
See also
Hawker Hurricane survivors
Messerschmitt Bf 109 survivors
Supermarine Spitfire survivors
Battle of Britain II: Wings of Victory
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Cooke, Mervyn. A History of Film Music. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008. .
Crump, Bill. "Bandits on Film." FlyPast October 2007.
Galland, Adolf. Die Ersten und die Letzten (The First and the Last) (in German). Munich: Franz Schneekluth-Verlag Darmstadt, First edition, 1953. .
Galland, Adolf. The First and the Last: Germany's Fighter Force in WWII (Fortunes of War). South Miami, Florida: Cerberus Press, 2005. .
Hankin, Raymond. "Filming the Battle." Flying Review International, Vol. 24, no. 2, October 1968.
Kennedy, Michael. Portrait of Walton. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1989.
MacCarron, Donald. "Mahaddie's Air Force." FlyPast September 1999. .
Mackenzie, S. P. The Battle of Britain on Screen: 'The Few' in British Film and Television Drama. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. .
Prins, François. "Battle of Britain: Making an epic." FlyPast August 2009.
Robinson, Anthony. RAF Squadrons in the Battle of Britain. London: Arms and Armour Press Ltd., 1987 (republished 1999 by Brockhampton Press). .
Rudhall, Robert. "The Battle of Britain: The Movie, Part one: Opening Shots." Warbirds Worldwide, Number 5, Volume Two, No. 1, May 1988.
Rudhall, Robert. "The Battle of Britain: The Movie, Part two: Lights, Camera's,(sic) Action." Warbirds Worldwide, Number 6, Volume Two, No. 2, August 1988.
Rudhall, Robert J. Battle of Britain: The Movie. Worcester: Ramrod Productions, 2000. .
Schnepf, Ed, ed. "The Few: Making the Battle of Britain." Air Classics Vol. 6, No. 4, April 1970.
Swern, Phil. The Guinness Book of Box Office Hits. Guinness Publishing Ltd, 1995. .
Tierney, Neil. William Walton: His Life and Music. London: Robert Hale, 1984. .
External links
Battle of Britain a 1969 Flight article
1960s war films
1969 films
Battle of Britain films
British aviation films
British epic films
British films
British war films
Cultural depictions of Adolf Hitler
Cultural depictions of Hermann Göring
English-language films
Epic films based on actual events
Films about shot-down aviators
Films directed by Guy Hamilton
Films produced by Harry Saltzman
Films scored by Ron Goodwin
Films scored by William Walton
Films set in 1940
Films set in England
Films set in Germany
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in Spain
United Artists films
War epic films
World War II aviation films
World War II films based on actual events | [
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240489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gekiganger%20III | Gekiganger III | is an anime series within the anime series Martian Successor Nadesico that plays a critical part in the plot thereof. Gekiganger III was designed to mimic 1970s Super Robots, especially Getter Robo. Initially, only Gai Daigoji and Akito Tenkawa are depicted as enjoying the series. Later in the series, Hikaru Amano becomes the other resident anime fanatic, and towards the end of the series everyone on the ship learns to love the series.
Story
Gekiganger III exists only as brief clips within Nadesico, but a basic storyline can nonetheless be determined. As seen in the OVA, the story began with Professor Kokubunji (a character similar to the professors seen in other Super Robot series, such as Professor Saotome of Getter Robo) discovering cave paintings somewhere underground placed by the "Super Paleolithic people". The paintings predicted that the Kyo'akk Empire would invade the Earth, and provided plans for a super robot, Gekiganger III.
Other clips seen throughout Nadesico establish the characters and setting. The main characters, and pilots of the titular robot, are Tenku Ken (A reference to Voltes V's sword name), Umitsubame Joe, and Daichi Akira. The characters are similar in appearance and personality to the Getter Team from Getter Robo, as well as having counterparts in Nadesico itself (most prominently Gai and the Jovian robot pilots).
Also similar to Getter is the Gekiganger robot, which is made up of three machines: the Gekiga Jet, piloted by Ken; the Gekiga Marine, piloted by Joe; and the Gekiga Tank, piloted by Akira. The names of the machines are similar to three of the component parts of Combattler V, bringing another 70s mecha anime into the influence on the series.
Like Getter, the machines assemble in three different ways to form three robots: Gekiganger III is formed with Jet as the head and torso, Marine as its waist and upper legs, and Tank as its lower legs, and is similar to Getter 1 in its preference for air combat. Umiganger is formed with Marine as the head and torso, Tank as the waist and Jet as the legs, and is the fastest, but weakest, form of Gekiganger. Finally, Rikuganger is formed with Tank as the head and torso, Jet as the waist and Marine as the legs, and is slow but has great brute strength. These last two, however, switch their best areas of battle from Getter Robo: Umiganger works best underwater and Rikuganger works more on land, whereas Getter 2 was the land-based robot and Getter 3 was for water in that series.
The villains of Gekiganger are the Kyo'akk Empire, an alien race from the "Dark String Universe" (a galaxy shaped like the infinity symbol). They are led by the Emperor Hyperion, and under him Prince Akara. Throughout Nadesico we see that Akara sends out many "mecha-monsters" to fight Gekiganger.
There are only a few major plot advancements that occur in Gekiganger, many of which are actually shown out of order in Nadesico. In one clip, a new character, Cowboy Johnny is introduced. He is from America, and pilots the "Texas Robo" machine, an obvious parody of Jack King and the "Texas Mack" from Getter Robo. Another clip features the death of Akara's sidekick, Mii-e Mii-e who was in love with the oblivious prince. Akara himself is killed later after infiltrating a highschool finding to his shock that humans are capable of emotions.
By far the most important plot moment in Gekiganger is the death of Joe, at the hands of Prince Akara's replacement, General Masaka. In Nadesico, seeing this scene is a major bonding moment between Akito and Gai, and it is seen and heard several times in the first few episodes.
The characters continue to watch Gekiganger past this point, though not much is known about the remainder of the series. Joe is replaced by a new character, Ryuuzaki Tetsuya, and the Gekiganger III is replaced by Gekiganger V. (Like Combattler V, the V is pronounced as the letter V; the English dub, however, referred to it as "Gekiganger 5"). Eventually, it is seen that Masaka is defeated. The final episode features a battle between the Gekiganger V (upgraded into "Spaceganger") and Emperor Hyperion, which Gekiganger is losing until the original Gekiganger III appears, piloted by Joe. With a final Super Passion Slash and Double Gekigan Fire, Hyperion is defeated. However, by this point most of the Nadesico characters have given up their fanaticism over Gekiganger; several characters criticize the ending.
OVA
The Gekiganger III OVA, "Hot-Blooded Great Battle!" includes all clips of Gekiganger shown in Nadesico, a few never-before-seen clips, and a new "movie" featuring a battle between Gekiganger III and the Super Paleolithic people who designed it. Akara is also seen here, but later allies himself with the heroes against their common enemy. The opening mimics that of Mazinger Z vs. The Great General of Darkness, showing pictures of Gekiganger III that children drew, and involves a similar plotline to that movie as well.
Gekiganger within Nadesico
As Nadesico progresses, we find that the very reason the Jovians (who are really humans) are attacking Earth is because they believe their cause to be just and that their path is the only true righteous one as they idolize the Gekiganger anime series. Toward the end, even Captain Yurika Misumaru is a Gekiganger otaku. In the end, the Gekiganger series becomes a lesson on why people should not be narrow minded and think that their point of view is that of everyone else. That their moral code is the only one. A lot of violence and death occurs as a result of the Jovian's adaptation of this point of view into their society and their leader's attempts to preserve this adapted moral code.
Episode 14 of Nadesico, Let's go with hot-blooded anime, is both a recap episode for that series and an episode of Gekiganger III. In that episode, the characters from Gekiganger watch Nadesico'''s recap episode and comment on it at times. Both the heroes and villains of Gekiganger draw inspiration from Nadesico for their new technologies, with Prince Akara copying the Nadesico's distortion field and Professor Kokubunji countering it with the Gekigan Flare, which he later admits was inspired by Nadesico. At the end of the episode, the Nadesico crew is seen watching the Gekiganger episode. Despite the continuity paradoxes this relationship causes, this episode is apparently canon to Gekiganger, if not to Nadesico'', as Akara uses the distortion field again in the movie. The comments made by Ruri Hoshino in regards to the story and how the next episode will get back on track with it at the end of the episode along with the fact that the placing of the episode seems odd giving the events in the episodes before and after episode 14. seem to suggest the Nadesico episode being non-canon at the very least.
See also
Story within a story
Kujibiki Unbalance
External links
1998 anime OVAs
Anime spin-offs
Comedy anime and manga
Fictional television shows
Martian Successor Nadesico
Super robot anime and manga
Xebec (studio) | [
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240490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauda%20equina | Cauda equina | The cauda equina () is a bundle of spinal nerves and spinal nerve rootlets, consisting of the second through fifth lumbar nerve pairs, the first through fifth sacral nerve pairs, and the coccygeal nerve, all of which arise from the lumbar enlargement and the conus medullaris of the spinal cord. The cauda equina occupies the lumbar cistern, a subarachnoid space inferior to the conus medullaris. The nerves that compose the cauda equina innervate the pelvic organs and lower limbs to include motor innervation of the hips, knees, ankles, feet, internal anal sphincter and external anal sphincter. In addition, the cauda equina extends to sensory innervation of the perineum and, partially, parasympathetic innervation of the bladder.
Structure
In adulthood, the cauda equina is made of lumbosacral spinal nerve roots.
Development
In humans, the spinal cord stops growing in infancy and the end of the spinal cord is about the level of the third lumbar vertebra, or L3, at birth. Because the bones of the vertebral column continue to grow, by about 12 months of age, the end of the cord reaches its permanent position at the level of L1 or L2 (closer to the head). However, due to normal anatomical variations, the final cord end position may occur anywhere from T12 twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) to L3. Individual spinal nerve roots arise from the cord as they get closer to the head, but as the differential growth occurs, the top end of the nerve stays attached to the spinal cord while the lower end of the nerve exits the spinal column at its proper level. This results in a "bundle"-like structure of nerve fibers that extends caudally from the end of the spinal cord, gradually declining in number further down as individual pairs leave the spinal column.
Clinical significance
Needle insertion
The cauda equina exists within the lumbar cistern, a gap between the arachnoid membrane and the pia matter of the spinal cord, called the subarachnoid space. Cerebrospinal fluid also exists within this space. Because the spinal cord terminates at level L1/L2, lumbar puncture (or colloquially, "spinal tap") is performed from the lumbar cistern between two vertebrae at level L3/L4, or L4/L5, where there is no risk of accidental injury to the spinal cord, when a sample of CSF is needed for clinical purposes.
Cauda equina syndrome
Cauda equina syndrome, a rare disorder affecting the bundle of nerve roots (cauda equina) at the lower (lumbar) end of the spinal cord, is a surgical emergency. Cauda equina syndrome occurs when the nerve roots in the lumbar spine are compressed, disrupting sensation and movement. Nerve roots that control the function of the bladder and bowel are especially vulnerable to damage. It can lead to permanent paralysis, impaired bladder and/or bowel control, loss of sexual sensation, and other problems if left untreated. Even with immediate treatment, some patients may not recover complete function.
Cauda equina syndrome most commonly results from a massive disc herniation in the lumbar region. A disc herniation occurs when one of the soft flexible discs that functions as an elastic shock absorber between the bones of the spinal column displaces from its normal position. The herniation occurs after the disc begins to break down with aging and can be precipitated by stress or a mechanical problem in the spine. The result is that the softer, center portion of the disc pushes out and causes pressure on the nerve roots in the lumbar spine. Other causes include spinal lesions and tumors, spinal infections or inflammation, lumbar spinal stenosis, trauma to the lower back, birth abnormalities, spinal arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), spinal hemorrhages (subarachnoid, subdural, epidural), narrowing of the spinal canal, postoperative lumbar spine surgery complications or spinal anesthesia.
Radiculopathy
The cauda equina is vulnerable to being compressed, causing a radiculopathy.
History
The cauda equina was named after its resemblance to a horse's tail () by the French anatomist Andreas Lazarius (André du Laurens) in the 17th century.
See also
Spinal cord
Cauda equina syndrome
Conus medullaris
References
Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy and Physiology The Unity of Form and Function
Smith's Anesthesia for infants and children. 8th edition, Chapter 1, Page 8.
External links
Dissection of deep back and spinal cord video: great view of the Cauda Equina
https://web.archive.org/web/20170617012537/http://www.caudaequinauk.com/welcome.php - Cauda Equina Syndrome UK Charity social network
Cauda equina
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240494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy%20PQ%2017 | Convoy PQ 17 | PQ 17 was the code name for an Allied Arctic convoy during the Second World War. On 27 June 1942, the ships sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland, for the port of Arkhangelsk in the Soviet Union. The convoy was located by German forces on 1 July, after which it was shadowed continuously and attacked. The First Sea Lord Admiral Dudley Pound, acting on information that German surface units, including the German battleship Tirpitz, were moving to intercept, ordered the covering force built around the Allied battleships HMS Duke of York and the USS Washington away from the convoy and told the convoy to scatter. Because of vacillation by Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, German armed forces high command), the Tirpitz raid never materialised. The convoy was the first large joint Anglo-American naval operation under British command; in Churchill's view this encouraged a more careful approach to fleet movements.
As the close escort and the covering cruiser forces withdrew westwards to intercept the German raiders, the merchant ships were left without escorts. The merchant ships were attacked by Luftwaffe aircraft and U-boats and of the 35 ships, only eleven reached their destination, delivering of cargo. The convoy disaster demonstrated the difficulty of passing adequate supplies through the Arctic, especially during the summer midnight sun. The German success was possible through German signals intelligence and cryptological analysis.
Background
With Operation Barbarossa, the beginning of the German war against the USSR, the British and American governments agreed to send unconditional aid to their Soviet allies. The Beaverbrook-Harriman Anglo-American Mission visited Moscow in October 1941, agreeing to a series of munitions deliveries to the Soviet Union. The most direct way to carry these supplies was by sea around the North Cape, through Arctic waters to the ports of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The agreement stated that the Soviet government was responsible for receiving the supplies in Soviet ships at British or American ports. However, since the Soviets did not have enough ships for the quantities of aid being sent by the Western allies to the Soviet Union, British and American ships began to constitute an increasing proportion of the convoy traffic.
Although the defence of the Arctic convoys was the responsibility of the Royal Navy, the American Admiral Ernest King assigned Task Force 39 (TF 39) – built around the carrier and the battleship – to support the British.
The first convoy sailed from the United Kingdom in August 1941, two months after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa. By the spring of 1942, twelve more convoys had made the passage with the loss of only 1 out of 103 ships. From then, the threat of attacks on the convoys increased, with the Germans preparing to stop the flow of supplies to the USSR with every means at their disposal, including the basing of heavy ships in Norway. In 1941, the Kriegsmarine had already begun concentrating its strength in Norway in winter, to prevent a British invasion of Norway and to obstruct Allied supply lines to the Soviet Union. The battleship was moved to Trondheim in January, where she was joined by the heavy cruiser and in March by the heavy cruiser . The battleships , and the heavy cruiser were also sent to Arctic waters but fell victim to Allied air attacks and had to turn back for repairs. The Germans had bases along the Norwegian coast, which meant, until escort carriers became available, Allied convoys had to be sailed through these areas without adequate defence against aircraft and submarine attack.
British plans
British naval intelligence in June reported the Operation Rösselsprung (Unternehmen Rösselsprung) the German plan to bring out major naval units to attack the next eastbound convoy, east of Bear Island. Thus German forces would operate close to the Norwegian coast, with support of shore-based air reconnaissance and striking forces, with a screen of U-boats in the channels between Svalbard and Norway. Allied covering forces, on the other hand, would be without air support, one thousand miles from their base, and with the destroyers too short on fuel to escort a damaged ship to harbour.
To prevent such a situation, the Admiralty issued instructions on 27 June, which allowed the convoy to be turned back temporarily in order to shorten the distance to the nearest Allied base. In the event, enemy surface movements took place later than expected, making these instructions unnecessary. The Admiralty also instructed the safety of the convoy from surface attack to the westward of Bear Island depended on Allied surface forces, while to the eastward it was to be met by Allied submarines. Furthermore, the convoy's cruiser covering force was not to go east of Bear Island, unless the convoy was threatened by the presence of a surface force which the cruiser force could fight, nor to go beyond 25° East under any circumstance.
A decoy convoy was also organised to divert enemy forces, consisting of the First Minelaying Squadron and four colliers, escorted by HMS Sirius and , five destroyers, and some trawlers. This diversionary force assembled at Scapa Flow for a week, sailing two days after the convoy. German reconnaissance of Scapa during the period of assembly failed to notice the diversion, which was also not sighted on its passage. The operation was repeated on 1 July, again without success. Additionally on 26 June the Admiralty took the opportunity to pass a westbound convoy QP 13, in conjunction with PQ 17. The former was made up of returning merchant ships from Arkhangelsk, with some ships leaving Murmansk. It consisted of thirty-five ships and was escorted by five destroyers, three corvettes, one anti-aircraft ship, three minesweepers, two trawlers, and, as far as the Bear Island area, one submarine. It was sighted by German aircraft on 30 June and 2 July. However, QP 13 was not attacked, since the German tactic was to concentrate on eastbound (laden) convoys, rather than westbound convoys in ballast.
A fresh ice reconnaissance done on 3 July found the passage north of Bear Island had widened. The Admiralty suggested the convoy should pass at least north of it. The senior officer of the escort (SOE), Commander J. E. Broome, preferred to stay in the low visibility on the original route, and to make ground to the eastward. Rear Admiral L. H. K. Hamilton, in command of the cruiser squadron, later decided that a more northerly route was necessary, ordered the SOE to alter the convoy's course to pass north of Bear Island and, later on to open to from Banak.
Covering forces
The convoy's close escort was the First Escort Group (EG1), under Cdr. J Broome, and included six destroyers, eleven corvettes, minesweepers, or armed trawlers, and two anti-aircraft auxiliaries. The destroyers were (SOE), , , , and . The anti-aircraft auxiliaries were and . The other escorting ships were the corvettes , , and , the minesweepers , and , and the anti-submarine trawlers HMT Lord Middleton, Lord Austin, Ayrshire and Northern Gem. In a more distant covering role was the First Cruiser Squadron (CS1), under the command of Rear Admiral L. H. K. Hamilton, consisting of the British cruisers (flagship) and , the American cruisers and , and four destroyers, of which two belonged to the United States Navy. As further protection, the convoy was to be tracked at about by Home Fleet battleships.
The second, heavy covering force, under the command of Admiral John Tovey, was made up of the British aircraft carrier , battleship (flagship), cruisers and , the American battleship , and nine destroyers. As the convoy began its preliminary movements, the covering forces planned by the Admiralty were moving to positions. Hamilton's First Cruiser Squadron left Seidisfjord in the night of 30 June/1 July. It arrived in a covering position north of the convoy on 2 July. The cruisers were not sighted by the Germans until late on 3 July. The heavy cover force was shadowed for a short period while north-east of Iceland on 1 July, while the cruiser screen was refuelling at Seidisfiord. It was shadowed for a short period early on 3 July, while in a covering position south of the convoy. Later that day, course was altered northwards to cross the convoy's track and to reach a position north-west of Bear Island. This would place Victorious within air striking range of the convoy on the morning of 4 July. This was calculated to occur at the same time at which a surface attack was expected to materialise. While en route to the new covering area, the force was joined by and from Spitzbergen.
Air reconnaissance of the Norwegian harbours had been hindered by weather but information showed German heavy units were probably moving northwards and an air photograph of Trondheim late on 3 July showed that Tirpitz and Hipper had sortied. The flying boat patrol and the two lines of submarines between North Cape and Bear Island were being adjusted to cover the line of approach to the convoy as it moved eastwards. In view of the uncertainty of the two German ships' positions, Rear Admiral Hamilton decided to continue to provide close cover with the cruiser squadron and to pass east of Bear Island.
German forces
Ranged against PQ 17 were the German Navy’s surface and submarine forces.
The U-boat Arm had deployed a patrol group, codenamed Eisteufel, to intercept the convoy; three U-boats were in a patrol line north of the Denmark Strait to give advance warning, and another five further north off Jan Mayen Island.
The Kriegsmarine also had two battlegroups in Norwegian ports, totalling four capital ships (the battleship Tirpitz and the cruisers Hipper, Scheer, and Lutzow) and twelve destroyers, ready to carry out a surface attack on the convoy. This was orchestrated as a complex two-stage operation codenamed Rosselsprung; the force was the strongest yet assembled for a convoy attack, but was hampered by a complex command process, with the authority to attack resting with Hitler himself, and a contradictory mission statement; the forces were instructed not only to attack and destroy the convoy, but also to avoid any action that would lead to damage to the capital ships, particularly Tirpitz.
These forces were supported by aircraft of Luftflotte 5, some 243 aircraft based at various airfields in northern Norway.
Convoy movement, covering forces, and escort
The convoy sailed from Hvalfjord on 27 June, under the command of Convoy Commodore John Dowding. In addition to the 34 merchant ships, an oiler (RFA Grey Ranger) for the escort, and 3 rescue ships (Rathlin, Zamalek, and Zaafaran) sailed with the convoy. The escort was made up of six destroyers, four corvettes, three minesweepers, four trawlers, two anti-aircraft ships, and two submarines. The route was longer than earlier convoys, since the ice allowed for a passage north of Bear Island with an evasive detour in the Barents Sea. Moreover, all the convoy was bound for Arkhangelsk, because recent heavy air raids had destroyed most of Murmansk. One ship suffered mechanical failure just out of port and was forced to turn back. Another, SS Exford, turned back after sustaining ice damage.
Part of the convoy ran into drifting ice in thick weather of the Denmark Strait. Two merchant ships were damaged and had to turn back. Grey Ranger was also damaged, her speed reduced to , and since it was doubtful if she could face heavy weather, it was decided to transfer her to the fuelling position northeast of Jan Mayen in exchange for the RFA Aldersdale.
Shortly after it entered the open sea, PQ 17 was sighted and tracked by U-456, and shadowed continuously except for a few short intervals in fog. This was augmented by Luftwaffe BV 138s on 1 July. On 2 July, the convoy sighted the returning convoy QP 13. It suffered its first air attack, by nine torpedo aircraft, later the same day. The planes were unsuccessful, one being shot down. At 13:00 on 3 July, PQ 17's destroyer screen was steering east to pass between Bear Island and Spitsbergen.
On the morning of 4 July, a German Heinkel He 115, from Küstenfliegergruppe 906, scored a hit on the Liberty ship , around northeast of Bear Island, at . The escort ship, submarine HMS P-614, attempted to scuttle her but she remained afloat. sank the abandoned Liberty ship at 08:08. There was an unsuccessful attack by six bombers in the evening. successfully broke up an air attack on the convoy the same day. Later the same evening, another attack – by 25 torpedo bombers – took place, sinking . Two ships were now sunk, and at least four aircraft were shot down.
'Convoy is to scatter'
At 12:30 on 4 July, the Admiralty gave Hamilton permission to proceed east of 25° east, should the situation demand, unless contrary orders were received from Admiral Tovey. This was a reversal of previous orders and as no information in Tovey's possession justified this change, Hamilton was ordered to withdraw when the convoy was east of 25° east or earlier at his discretion, unless the Admiralty assured him Tirpitz would not be met. At 18:58 the Admiralty informed Hamilton further information was expected shortly and instructed him to remain with the convoy pending further instructions. At 21:11, the Admiralty sent a message prefixed "Most Immediate" ordering Hamilton to withdraw westwards at high speed. This was due to U-boat information, a fact not shared with Hamilton. At 21:23, the Admiralty—in a message prefixed "Immediate"—ordered the convoy to disperse and proceed to Russian ports owing to threat from surface ships. At 21:36, the Admiralty sent another "Most Immediate" message, ordering the convoy to scatter.
Admiral Hamilton, Commander Broome and Commodore Dowding took these signals to indicate an attack by Tirpitz was imminent. The convoy was immediately ordered to scatter, with the escorting destroyers ordered to join the cruiser force and the merchantmen to proceed independently. The Admiralty's decision and orders would not have been so vehement had only British warships been concerned but the idea the first joint Anglo-American operation under British command might involve the destruction of American as well as British units may well have influenced the decisions of First Sea Lord Pound. The Allied cruiser squadron was already beyond the standing orders set by the Admiralty and if no new orders had gone out, the cruisers would have had to withdraw some time afterwards in any case. The earlier cruiser movement did not influence the tactical situation but in light of later knowledge, the decision was deemed precipitate.
Unbeknownst to the escort and convoy commanders, Tirpitz and its battlegroup was not actually advancing toward the convoy or in the vicinity. Tirpitz had left Trondheim on July 2 to the port of Vestfjord; the next day, Kriegsmarine Commander-in-Chief Admiral Raeder received permission to move the Tirpitz to Altenfjord to join up with friendly ships. Prior to issuing the orders, Pound visited Whitehall and consulted intelligence officer Lieutenant Commander Norman Denning to confirm that Tirpitz had left Altentfjord. Though Denning couldn't answer if she was still anchored there he did explain that his sources would have confirmed if the ship had or was about to put to sea at that time. It would not be until several hours after Pound's orders that Tirpitz was confirmed as still being anchored at Altenfjord. Although the Tirpitz's battlegroup did set out to open sea on July 5, the operation by surface ships to attack the convoy was canceled and the ships returned to Altenfjord that same day.
Convoy losses
When the order to scatter the convoy was received, it had covered more than half of its route and lost three ships. The consequences for the merchantmen were dire, the ships were spread over a wide area, stripped of mutual protection and their trained escort. As the larger escort vessels retreated from the suspected German surface force, messages on Merchant Navy wavelengths began to be received by the destroyers: "Am being bombed by a large number of planes", "On fire in the ice", "Abandoning ship", "Six U-boats approaching on the surface." With the majority of the escorts ordered to return to Scapa Flow, only the close escort of anti-aircraft auxiliaries, corvettes, minesweepers and armed trawlers was left to protect the scattered ships.
On 5 July, six merchantmen, including SS Fairfield City and SS Daniel Morgan, were sunk by the Luftwaffe and six more by four U-boats. Among the losses that day were SS Pan Kraft, Washington, Carlton, Honomu, the Commodore's flagship , and Peter Kerr (Kerr was abandoned after a fire got out of control.) Commodore Dowding's refusal to accept defeat contributed to the rescue of most of the ships that eventually survived the convoy. SS Paulus Potter had been abandoned by her crew after an aerial attack on 5 July; the ship was boarded by sailors from on 13 July; after taking the ship's documents and flag, Kptlt. Reche sank the Potter with a torpedo.
On 6 July, SS Pan Atlantic was sunk by the Luftwaffe and SS John Witherspoon by U-255. On 7–8 July, five more ships were sunk (two by U-255), including SS Olapana and SS Alcoa Ranger. The remaining escort withdrew into the Arctic Ocean on 9 July but the merchant ships suffered no more that day. The last losses were SS Hoosier and SS El Capitan on 10 July. The Luftwaffe flew over 200 sorties and lost only five aircraft in exchange for the eight merchantmen.
On receiving the third order to scatter on 4 July 1942, RNVR T/Lt Leo Gradwell commanding the ASW adapted Middlesbrough-built trawler HMS Ayrshire (FY 225), concluded that as he was heading north to the Arctic ice shelf, nothing prevented him from escorting merchantmen. Leading his convoy of Ayrshire and three US merchant vessels, the Panamanian-registered Troubador, Ironclad and Silver Sword, he proceeded north, using only a sextant and The Times World Geographic Pocket Book. On reaching the Arctic ice pack, the convoy stuck fast and so the ships stopped engines and then banked their fires. Gradwell arranged a defence, formulated around the fact that Troubador was carrying a cargo of bunkering coal and drums of white paint: the crews painted all the vessels white; covered decks with white linen; and arranged the Sherman tanks on the merchant vessels decks into a defensive formation, with loaded main guns. After a period of waiting and having evaded Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft, finding themselves unstuck, they proceeded to the Matochkin Strait. They were found there by a flotilla of corvettes, who escorted the four-ship convoy plus two other merchant vessels to the Russian port of Archangel, arriving on 25 July. Gradwell was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross on 15 September 1942.
In the voyage to the Russian ports, some of the ships and lifeboat craft took refuge along the frozen coast of Novaya Zemlya, landing at Matochkin. The Soviet tanker Azerbaijan had lost her cargo of linseed oil and much of SS Winston-Salems cargo had been jettisoned in Novaya Zemlya.
Many of the ships' locations were unknown, in spite of searches by Coastal Command aircraft, which had proceeded to north Russia after their patrols, and by minesweepers and corvettes in the waters. A fortnight elapsed before the results of these attacks and the fate of the various ships of the convoy were fully known. Of the 34 ships which had left Iceland, 23 were sunk and 11 made port. Two British, four American, one Panamanian and two Russian merchant ships reached Arkhangelsk. Two American ships, the SS Samuel Chase and Benjamin Harrison, docked at Murmansk. The total deliveries amounted to out of the which had started from Iceland.
Aftermath
Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the event, "one of the most melancholy naval episodes in the whole of the war." An inquiry assigned no blame to anyone, since orders were issued by the First Sea Lord, and blaming the First Sea Lord himself was considered politically unacceptable. The Soviet Union did not believe so many ships could be lost in one convoy and openly accused the Western Allies of lying. Despite the help provided by the material delivered, PQ 17 actually worsened Soviet-Allied relations over the short term, with the Soviets never acknowledging the efforts of Allied merchant seaman or sailors in either navy. Joseph Stalin, and Soviet naval experts, found it difficult to understand the order to scatter given by the Admiralty, given "that the escorting vessels of the PQ 17 should return, whereas the cargo boats should disperse and try to reach the Soviet ports one by one without any protection at all." Admiral King, already known to distrust the British, was furious with what he perceived as Admiral Pound's bungling and promptly withdrew TF 39, sending it to the Pacific. He hesitated to conduct further joint operations under British command.
Admiral Dan Gallery, USN, serving in Iceland at that time, called PQ 17 "a shameful page in naval history".
In view of PQ 17, the Admiralty proposed to suspend the Arctic convoys at least until the ice receded and perpetual daylight passed. At a conference with Hitler, Kriegsmarine Commander-in-Chief Admiral Raeder stated, "...our submarines and aircraft, which totally destroyed the last convoy, have forced the enemy to give up this route temporarily..." At a meeting with the head of the Soviet Military Mission, Admiral Nikolay Kharlamov and the Soviet ambassador in London, Ivan Maisky, the Soviets requested to know the scheduled departure of PQ 18. Pound said nothing could be done until better Russian air cover was arranged, after which Kharlamov criticised the order to withdraw the cruisers from PQ 17. Pound was furious, and deeply resented the Russian attitude. Pound angrily admitted that PQ 17 was scattered by his personal order while Maisky stated that "even British admirals make mistakes".
It was not until September that another convoy set out for North Russia. The convoy's defence scheme was revised, with a very strong constant close escort of sixteen destroyers and the first of the new escort carriers, , herself equipped with twelve fighters. After the war there was criticism of this incident, both from American and Soviet sources. Soviet historians give varying reasons for the suspension and reduction in supply caused by the halt in the Arctic convoys. Some considered it the result of "the fact that in 1942, Anglo-American (ocean) communications were destroyed."
At least sixteen officers and men of the Merchant Navy were honoured for gallantry or distinguished service for the actions in the convoy. A supplement to the London Gazette published on 6 October 1942 carried notification of two George Medals, six appointments to various grades of the Order of the British Empire, six British Empire Medals and two King's Commendation for Brave Conduct.
In December 2012 the Arctic Star medal was created and on 19 March 2013 the first medals were presented to approximately 40 veterans, in London.
Broome v Cassell & Co Ltd, the David Irving Libel Case
In 1968, David Irving published a controversial book about PQ 17. It concentrated on Allied blunders and shortcomings, alleging that Broome's decision to withdraw his destroyers was the primary cause of the disaster to the convoy. Broome mounted a libel action, Broome v Cassell & Co Ltd, to defend his reputation. He was successful, winning £40,000 in damages and securing the withdrawal of all copies of the offending book from circulation (it has since been republished, with corrections.) The damages payment (donated by Broome to charity) was the highest paid in legal history until Jeffrey Archer's controversial action against the Daily Star newspaper.
In popular culture
Action in the North Atlantic, a 1943 war movie starring Humphrey Bogart and Raymond Massey, includes a section which is drawn from Lt. Gradwell's actions after PQ-17 scattered.
HMS Ulysses (1955), a novel written by Alistair MacLean, who served on on Arctic convoys and against .
The Captain, a 1967 novel based on the experiences of this convoy by Dutch writer Jan de Hartog, also translated into Dutch as De kapitein.
A Northern Saga, a 1976 novel written by Steven C. Lawrence, a World War II U.S. merchant marine officer, recounts the story of PQ-17.
Requiem for Convoy PQ-17, a novel by Valentin Pikul is dedicated to the fate of the convoy. The book is also interesting since it describes the Soviet belief that Soviet submarine K-21 hit the Tirpitz. From 2003–04, a film was released in Russia based on this book.
Requiem for Convoy PQ-17 is also the title of a dance, orchestra, and choir piece based on the events surrounding the sinkings. Choreographer and dancer Bill Coleman's father was a merchant mariner on board the Bolton Castle. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
In January 2014, the hour-long BBC Two documentary PQ17: An Arctic Convoy Disaster, written and narrated by Jeremy Clarkson, retold the story of the convoy with first-hand testimony from the men who served.
See also
Convoy Battles of World War II
Notesa.''' This latter signal was intended merely as a correction of technical wording from "disperse" to "scatter", but this was not known at the time. The order to scatter was only used under immediate threat of surface attack. Detailed instructions in each ship's signal book laid down the actions that were to be taken by each ship on receipt of this order.
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
U.S. Naval Historical Center account of PQ 17
Description of Rösselsprung
The Requiem on Convoy PQ-17, Russian novel by Valentin Pikul
Memoirs of Chief Steward Horace Carswell DSM, MM, BEM during Convoy PQ.17
Coxswain Sid Kerslake of armed trawler "Northern Gem" in PQ.17
Convoy PQ.17, a primary source diary and supporting material by Jack Bowman, ERA aboard HMS La Malouine''.
PQ 17 at Convoyweb
PQ 17
White Sea
Naval battles of World War II involving Germany
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240496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus%20stop | Bus stop | A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to get on and off the bus. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage, where stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating, and possibly electronic passenger information systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location. Bus stops are, in some locations, clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes to maximise convenience.
Types of service
For operational purposes, there are three main kinds of stops: Scheduled stops, at which the bus should stop irrespective of demand; request stops (or flag stop), at which the vehicle will stop only on request; and hail and ride stops, at which a vehicle will stop anywhere along the designated section of road on request.
Certain stops may be restricted to "discharge/set-down only" or "pick-up only". Some stops may be designated as "timing points", and if the vehicle is ahead of schedule it will wait there to ensure correct synchronization with the timetable. In dense urban areas where bus volumes are high, skip-stops are sometimes used to increase efficiency and reduce delays at bus stops. Fare stages may also be defined by the location of certain stops in distance or zone-based fare collection systems. Sunday stops are close to a church and used only on Sundays.
History
From the 17th to the 19th century, horse drawn stage coaches ran regular services between many European towns, starting and stopping at designated Coaching inns where the horses could be changed and passengers board or alight, in effect constituting the earliest form of bus stop. The Angel Inn, Islington, the first stop on the route from London to York, was a noted example of such an inn. A seat in a Stage coach usually had to be booked in advance.
John Greenwood opened the first bus line in Britain in Manchester in 1824, running a fixed route and allowing passengers to board on request along the way without a reservation. Landmarks such as Public houses, rail stations and road junctions became customary stopping points.
Regular Horse drawn buses started in Paris in 1828 and George Shillibeer started his London horse Omnibus service in 1829. running between stops at Paddington (at a pub - The Yorkshire Stingo) and the Bank of England to a designated route and timetable. By the mid 19th Century guides were available to London bus routes including maps with routes and the main stops.
In the UK National National Public Transport Access Node database of all UK stops, developed by the Department of Transport in 2001, stops are classified as marked or custom and usage (i.e. unmarked stops where the driver will stop the vehicle on request). Use of a marked stop may be changed - the bus will always stop, or by request only.
Design
Bus stop infrastructure ranges from a simple pole and sign, to a rudimentary shelter, to sophisticated structures. The usual minimum is a pole mounted flag with suitable name/symbol. Bus stop shelters may have a full or partial roof, supported by a two, three or four sided construction. Modern stops are mere steel and glass/perspex constructions, although in other places, such as rural Britain, stops may be wooden brick or concrete built.
The construction may include small inbuilt seats. The construction may feature advertising, from simple posters, to complex illuminated, changeable or animated displays. Some installations have also included interactive advertising. Advertising may be the primary reason for the shelter and the advertising pays for the bus shelter. Design and construction may be uniform to reflect a large corporate or local authority provider, or installations may be more personal or distinctive where a small local authority such as a parish council is responsible for the stop. The stop may include separate street furniture such as a bench, lighting and a trash receptacle.
Individual bus stops may simply be placed on the sidewalk next to the roadway, although they can also be placed to facilitate use of a busway. More complex installations can include construction of a bus turnout or a bus bulb, for traffic management reasons, although use of a bus lane can make these unnecessary. Several bus stops may be grouped together to facilitate easy transfer between routes. These may be arranged in a simple row along the street, or in parallel or diagonal rows of multiple stops. Groups of bus stops may be integral to transportation hubs. With extra facilities such as a waiting room or ticket office, outside groupings of bus stops can be classed as a rudimentary bus station.
Convention is usually for the bus to draw level with the 'flag', although in areas of mixed front and rear entrance buses, such as London, a head stop, and more rarely a tail stop, indicates to the driver whether they should stop the bus with either the rear platform or the drivers cab level with the flag.
In certain areas, the area of road next the bus stop may be specially marked, and protected in law. Often, car drivers can be unaware of the legal implications of stopping or parking in a bus-stop.
In bus rapid transit systems, bus stops may be more elaborate than street bus stops, and can be termed 'stations' to reflect this difference. These may have enclosed areas to allow off-bus fare collection for rapid boarding, and be spaced further apart like tram stops. Bus stops on a bus rapid transit line may also have a more complex construction allowing level boarding platforms, and doors separating the enclosure from the bus until ready to board.
Information
Public facing information
Most bus stops are identified with a metal sign attached to a pole or light standard. Some stops are plastic strips strapped on to poles and others involve a sign attached to a bus shelter. The signs are often identified with a picture of a bus and/or with the words "bus stop" (or similar in non-English-speaking places).
The bus stop "flag" (a panel usually projecting from the top of a bus stop pole) will sometimes contain the route numbers of all the buses calling at the stop, optionally distinguishing frequent, infrequent, 24-hour, and night services. The flag may also show the logo of the dominant bus operator, or the logo of a local transit authority with responsibility for bus services in the area. Additional information may include an unambiguous, unique name for the stop, and the direction/common destination of most calling routes.
Bus stops will often include timetable information, either the full timetable, or for busier routes, the times or frequency that a bus will call at the specific stop. Route maps and tariff information may also be provided, and telephone numbers to relevant travel information services.
The stop may also incorporate, or have nearby, real time information displays with the arrival times of the next buses. Increasingly, mobile phone technology is being referenced on more remote stops, allowing the next bus times to be sent to a passenger's handset based on the stop location and the real time information. Automated ticket machines may be provided at busy stops.
Data model
Modern passenger information systems and journey planners require a detailed digital representation of stops and stations. The CEN Transmodel data model, and the related IFOPT data interchange standard, define how transport systems, including bus stops, should be described for use in computer models. In Transmodel, a single bus stop is modeled as a "Stop Point", and a grouping of nearby bus stops as a "Stop Area" or "Stop Place". The General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) standard, originally developed by Google and TriMet, defines a simple and widely used data interchange standard for public transport schedules. GTFS also includes a table of stop locations which for each stop gives a name, identifier, location, and identification with any larger station that the stop may be a part of. OpenStreetMap also has a modelling standard for bus stops.
The United Kingdom has collected a complete database of its public transport access points, including bus stops, into the National Public Transport Access Nodes (NaPTAN) database with details of 350,000 nodes and which is available as open Data from data.gov.uk.
Safety
Bus stops enhance passenger safety in a number of ways:
Bus stops prevent passengers from trying to board or alight in hazardous situations such as at intersections or where a bus is turning and is not using the curb lane.
A bus driver cannot be expected to continuously look for intending passengers. A bus stop means that the driver only needs to look for intending passengers at the approach to each bus stop.
Having bus stops requires passengers to group themselves prior to boarding, which reduces time spent at boarding.
At night, when passenger numbers are lower, restrictions are sometimes relaxed and passengers may be allowed to exit the bus anywhere within reason.
Bus turnouts, or lay-bys, allow buses to stop without impeding the flow of traffic on the main roadway.
Air-Conditioned Bus Stop shelters
In countries with hot climates, sometimes, are used air-conditioned bus stop shelters, for example in Dubai in United Arab Emirates, Hyderabad in India, Eilat in Israel, Ashgabat in Turkmenistan.
Regulation
Some jurisdictions have introduced particularised legislative controls to foster safer bus stop design and management. The State of Victoria, Australia, for example, has enacted a Bus Safety Act which contains performance-based duties of care which apply to all industry participants who are in a position to influence the safety of bus operations - what is called the "chain of responsibility". The safety duties apply to all bus services, both commercial and non-commercial, and to all buses regardless of seating capacity. Breach of the duty is a serious criminal offence which carries a heavy penalty.
The primary duty holder under the Bus Safety Act is the operator of the bus service, as the person who has effective responsibility and control over the whole operation. However, the Act also contains a safety duty covering "people with responsibility for bus stops", including people who design, build, or maintain the stop, plus those who decide on its location.
This duty was introduced in response to research showing that the most serious hazard associated with bus travel occurs when passengers, especially children, are crossing the road after alighting from the bus. The location and layout of a bus stop is therefore a factor in the level of risk.
Safety duties are also imposed by the Bus Safety Act on a range of other people including -
"bus safety workers" including drivers, schedulers who set bus timetables, and mechanics and testers who repair or assess vehicle safety
"procurers" - people who procure the bus service, known as the "customer" in the commercial charter sector.
All of these persons can clearly affect bus safety. They are required by the Bus Safety Act to ensure that, in carrying out their activities, they eliminate risks to health and safety if 'practicable' - or work to reduce those risks 'so far as is reasonably practicable'. This familiar practicability formula is borrowed from Victoria's Rail Safety Act (and a subsequent national model Rail Safety Bill) and the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004.
Research
Many transit agencies have developed guidelines for preferred bus stop spacing. In most US cities, however, the typical bus stop spacing is between 650 and 900 feet (200–275 m), well below the optimal.
Bus stop capacity is often an important consideration in the planning of bus stops serving multiple routes within urban centers. Limited capacity may mean buses queue up behind each other at the bus stop, which can cause traffic blockages or delays. Bus stop capacity is typically measured in terms of buses/hour that can reliably use the bus stop. The main factors that affect bus stop capacity are:
Number of loading areas (or number of buses that can stop at one time)
Average dwell time (How much time it takes a bus to load/unload passengers)
G/C ratio of nearby traffic signal (green time / cycle length)
Clearance time (time it takes bus to re-enter the traffic stream)
Detailed procedures for calculating bus stop capacity and bus lane capacity using skip stops are outlined in Part 4 of the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual, published by the US Transportation Research Board.
Transit agencies are increasingly looking at consolidation of possibly previously haphazardly placed bus stops as a way to improve service cheaply and easily. Bus stop consolidation evaluates the bus stops along an established bus route and develops a new pattern for optimal bus stop placement. Bus stop consolidation has been proven to improve operating efficiency and ridership on bus routes.
Fakes
Some nursing homes and hospitals have built fake, imitation bus stops for their residents who have dementia. Some of these bus stops are even fitted with old advertisements and timetables to give a sense of familiarity. The residents will sit at the bus stop waiting for a bus to take them to their imagined destination. After some time, a staff member comes to escort the clients back to the home.
In popular culture
Bus stops are common tropes in popular culture. In 1956 there was a Marilyn Monroe film called Bus Stop. A famous scene in the movie Forrest Gump takes place at a bus stop and almost all episodes of South Park series start by presenting the main characters in a bus stop.
In Japanese culture, the movie My Neighbor Totoro featured a bus stop, both for ordinary buses and a cat bus. The opening scene of the anime Air shows the main character getting off at a bus stop. The Japanese movie Summer Wars features a rural bus stop.
Renowned rabbis have taught lessons in Judaism from their interaction and experience with bus stops.
Gallery
See also
Automatic vehicle location
Bus bulb
Bus Safety Act
Bus station
Bus terminus
Hail and ride
Intermodal passenger transport
Metro station
Street furniture
Train station
Tram stop
Ticket (admission)
Wait/walk dilemma
References
External links
Bus stop design guidance from the National Association of City Transportation Officials Transit Street Design Guide
Stop
Stop
Street furniture
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240498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibularis%20longus | Fibularis longus | In human anatomy, the fibularis longus (also known as peroneus longus) is a superficial muscle in the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to extend the foot downward away from the body (plantar flexion) at the ankle.
The fibularis longus is the longest and most superficial of the three fibularis (peroneus) muscles. At its upper end, it is attached to the head of the fibula, and its "belly" runs down along most of this bone. The muscle becomes a tendon that wraps around and behind the lateral malleolus of the ankle, then continues under the foot to attach to the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal. It is supplied by the superficial fibular nerve.
Structure
The fibularis longus arises from the head and upper two-thirds of the lateral, or outward, surface of the fibula, from the deep surface of the fascia, and from the connective tissue between it and the muscles on the front and back of the leg. It occasionally is also connected by a few fibers from the lateral condyle of the tibia. Between the muscle's attachments to the head and body of the fibula, there is a gap through which the common fibular nerve passes to the front of the leg.
The muscle ends in a long tendon, which runs behind the lateral malleolus of the ankle in a groove that it shares with the tendon of the fibularis brevis; the groove is converted into a canal by the superior fibular retinaculum, and the tendons in it are contained in a common mucous sheath.
The tendon then extends forward at an angle across the lateral side of the foot, below the fibular trochlea and the tendon of the fibularis brevis, and under cover of the inferior fibular retinaculum. It crosses the lateral side of the cuboid and then runs underneath the cuboid in a groove that is converted into a canal by the long plantar ligament. The tendon then crosses the sole of the foot at an angle and inserts into the lateral side of the base of the first metatarsal and the lateral side of the medial cuneiform. Occasionally, it also sends a slip to the base of the second metatarsal.
The tendon changes direction at two points: first, behind the lateral malleolus; second, on the cuboid bone. In both of these locations, the tendon is thickened. At the cuboid, a fibrocartilaginous sesamoid (sometimes a sesamoid bone) usually develops in the substance of the tendon.
The fibularis longus muscle is supplied by the superficial fibular nerve, which arises from the fifth lumbar and first sacral roots of the spinal cord.
Function
The fibularis longus, together with the fibularis brevis and the tibialis posterior, extend the foot downward away from the body at the ankle (plantar flexion). It opposes the tibialis anterior and the fibularis tertius, which pull the foot upward toward the body (dorsiflexion).
The fibularis longus also tilts the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion). Because of the angle at which it crosses the sole of the foot, it plays an important role in maintaining the transverse arch of the foot.
Together, the fibularis muscles help to steady the leg upon the foot, especially in standing on one leg.
Nomenclature and etymology
Terminologia Anatomica designates "fibularis" as the preferred word over "peroneus.".
The word "peroneus" comes from the Greek word "perone," meaning pin of a brooch or a buckle. In medical terminology, the word refers to being of or relating to the fibula or to the outer portion of the leg.
Additional images
See also
Fibularis muscles
Fibularis brevis
Fibularis tertius
References
Muscles of the lower limb | [
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240503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Sedgemoor | Battle of Sedgemoor | The Battle of Sedgemoor was the last and decisive engagement between the Kingdom of England and rebels led by the Duke of Monmouth during the Monmouth rebellion, fought on 6 July 1685, and took place at Westonzoyland near Bridgwater in Somerset, England, resulting in a victory for the English army.
It was the final battle of the Monmouth Rebellion and followed a series of skirmishes around south-west England between the rebel forces of the Duke of Monmouth, and the Royal Army still loyal to James II. Victory went to the Government and about 500 prisoners fell into their hands. Monmouth escaped from the battlefield but was captured, taken to London and executed nine days later. Many of Monmouth's supporters were tried during the Bloody Assizes. Many were transported abroad, while others were executed by drawing and quartering.
Background
It was the final battle of the Monmouth Rebellion, by which the rebel James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, attempted to seize the English throne from his uncle James II of England. James II had succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother Charles II on 2 February 1685; James Scott was Charles' illegitimate son.
After Monmouth landed from the Dutch Republic at Lyme Regis in Dorset, there had been a series of marches and skirmishes throughout Dorset and Somerset. Eventually Monmouth's poorly equipped army was pushed back to the Somerset Levels, becoming hemmed in at Bridgwater on 3 July. He ordered his troops to fortify the town. The force was made up of around 3,500, mostly nonconformist, artisans and farm workers armed with farm tools (such as pitchforks).
The royalist troops, led by Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham, and Colonel John Churchill, were camped behind the Bussex Rhine at Westonzoyland. The infantry forces included 500 men of the 1st Regiment of Foot (the Royal Scots), known as Dumbarton's Regiment, under Lieutenant-Colonel Douglas; two battalions of the 1st or King's Royal Regiment of Guards (Grenadier Guards), respectively led by Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton and Major Eaton; 600 men of the Second Regiment of Guards (later the Coldstream Guards) under Lieutenant-Colonel Sackville; five companies of the Queen Dowager's or the Tangier Regiment (later 2nd Foot), known as "Kirke's Lambs"; and five companies of the Queen Consort's Regiment (Kings Own Royal Regiment), also known as Trelawny's Regiment, which was commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Churchill, Colonel John Churchill's younger brother. The Horse and Foot, the Royal Train of Artillery was camped along the road to Bridgwater. The Royal Cavalry, with seven troops of 420 men of the Earl of Oxford's, the Kings Regiment of Horse (Blues and Royals), led by Colonel Sir Francis Compton; the King's Own Royal Dragoons; and three troops of the King's Horse Guards (Lifeguards) made up the army.
Royalist force
The royalist force included the following regiments:
Royal Regiment of Horse, commanded by Lieutenant General Aubrey de Vere, 20th Earl of Oxford KG
Queen's Regiment of Horse, commanded by Lieutenant General Sir John Lanier
King's Own Royal Regiment of Dragoons, commanded by General John Churchill
1st Regiment of Foot Guards, commanded by Brigadier General Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Grafton KG
1st Battalion, Earl of Dumbarton's Regiment of Foot, commanded by Lieutenant General Lord George Douglas, 1st Earl of Dumbarton KT
The battle
The Duke eventually led his troops out of Bridgwater at around 10:00 pm to undertake a night-time attack on the King's army. They were guided by Richard Godfrey, the servant of a local farmer, along the old Bristol road towards Bawdrip. With their limited cavalry in the vanguard, they turned south along Bradney Lane and Marsh Lane, and came to the open moor with its deep and dangerous rhynes.
There was a delay while the rhyne was crossed and the first men across startled a royalist patrol. A shot was fired and a horseman from the patrol galloped off to report to Feversham. Lord Grey of Warke led the rebel cavalry forward and they were engaged by the King's Regiment of Horse which alerted the rest of the royalist forces. The superior training of the regular army and their horses enabled them to rout the rebel forces by outflanking them.
Aftermath
Monmouth escaped from the battlefield with Grey and they headed for the south coast disguised as peasants. They were captured near Ringwood, Hampshire. Monmouth was taken to the Tower of London, where he was, after several blows of the axe, beheaded.
A letter written by the Earl of Shaftesbury in 1787 provides more detail as to Monmouth's capture:
After the battle, about 500 of Monmouth's troops were captured and imprisoned in St Mary's Parish Church in Westonzoyland, while others were hunted and shot in the ditches where they were hiding. More were hanged from gibbets erected along the roadside. The royalist troops were rewarded, with Feversham being made a Knight of the Garter, Churchill promoted to Major-General and Henry Shires of the artillery receiving a Knighthood. Other soldiers, particularly those who had been wounded, received allowances ranging from £5 to £80. Some of the wounded were among the first to be treated at the newly opened Royal Hospital Chelsea.
The king sent Lord Chief Justice Jeffreys to round up the Duke's supporters throughout the south-west and try them in the Bloody Assizes at Taunton Castle and elsewhere. About 1,300 people were found guilty, many being transported abroad, while some were executed by drawing and quartering. Daniel Defoe, who would later write the novel Robinson Crusoe, had taken part in the uprising and battle. He was heavily fined by Jeffreys, losing much of his land and wealth. Two brothers Benjamin Hewling, a commander of a troop of horse, and William Hewling, lieutenant of foot, were among those condemned to death. Benjamin Hewling was hanged rather than drawn and quartered following a payment of £1000 by his sister.
James II was overthrown in a coup d'état three years later, in the Glorious Revolution.
Last battle on English soil
The Battle of Sedgemoor is often referred to as the last pitched battle fought on English soil, but this depends on the definition of 'battle', for which there are different interpretations. Other contenders for the title of last English battle include: the Battle of Preston in Lancashire, which was fought on 14 November 1715, during the First Jacobite Rebellion; and the Second Jacobite Rebellion's Clifton Moor Skirmish, near Penrith, Cumberland, on 18 December 1745. The Battle of Culloden, fought on Drumossie Moor to the north-east of Inverness on 16 April 1746, was the last pitched battle fought on British soil.
Cultural references
The Battle of Sedgemoor is depicted in detail at the climax of the plot in Arthur Conan Doyle's historical adventure novel Micah Clarke. The Battle also appears in Blackmore's Lorna Doone, where the hero arrives on the battlefield as the battle is finishing, and is then escorted home by the King's soldiers to safety. Likewise, The Royal Changeling (1998) by John Whitbourn describes the rebellion, with some fantasy elements added. The Battle of Sedgemoor both opens and concludes the novel. A collection of poems (Sedgemoor), exploring the battle and consequences of the rebellion, was written by poet and academic Malcolm Povey and published by Smokestack Books in 2006. The poems move between 1685 and the present day, as a narrative technique. Povey's book received widespread praise, especially for its originality: "Not many poets try something as different and ambitious as this. It deserves to be widely read." The battle is commemorated in Val Wake's poem "Dead Willows Mourn". Val Wake, the Australian born journalist and author, lived in Westonzoyland from 1973 to 1979. Events surrounding the battle occupy the first few chapters of Rafael Sabatini's novel Captain Blood. The battle is also included/mentioned in the beginning of the 1935 movie Captain Blood.
The battle serves as the historical background to a series of murders in the novel “Down Among the Dead” (2020) by Damien Boyd.
The Sealed Knot re-enactment society have re-enacted important parts of the rebellion's campaign, on the 300th anniversary in 1985, and again in 2005. For the first re-enactment, the folk trio Strawhead produced an album of various songs from the time and written especially, entitled 'Sedgemoor'. The Battle of Sedgemoor was also a central plot in the 1972 HTV series Pretenders, which was broadcast in 13 half-hour episodes. A mural depicting the battle can be found on display at Sedgemoor motorway services on the North carriageway of the M5.
References
Further reading
1685 in England
Conflicts in 1685
Sedgemoor 1685
Military history of Somerset
Registered historic battlefields in England
17th century in Somerset
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240504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite%20Treaty | Tripartite Treaty | The Tripartite Treaty may refer to:
The Hewett Treaty between Ethiopia, Egypt, and the United Kingdom concerning ownership of Eritrea and the evacuation of Egyptian troops from Mahdist Sudan
The Tripartite Treaty (1906) between France, Italy, and the United Kingdom concerning Ethiopian sovereignty and railroad construction
The Tripartite Agreement of 1915 between China, Russia and Mongolia wherein the latter was recognised as an autonomous part of China
The Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy, and Japan, establishing the Axis alliance
hands of Ethiopia...no more | [
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240506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Comtesse | Robert Comtesse | Robert Comtesse (14 August 1847, in Valangin – 17 November 1922) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1899-1912).
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 14 December 1899 and resigned on 4 March 1912. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
While in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1900)
Department of Justice and Police (1901)
Department of Posts and Railways (1902, 1912)
Department of Finance (1903, 1905–09, 1911)
Political Department as President of the Confederation (1904, 1911)
"Quai Robert-Comtesse" in Neuchâtel and "Rue Robert-Comtesse" in Cernier are named after Comtesse.
References
External links
1847 births
1922 deaths
People from Val-de-Ruz District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Neuchâtel alumni
Foreign ministers of Switzerland | [
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240508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Perrier | Louis Perrier | Frédéric-François-Louis Perrier (22 May 1849 – 16 May 1913) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1912–1913). , he is the member with the shortest time in office (14 months).
Biography
Perrier was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. He was the uncle of Denise and Raymonde Berthoud and was the eldest child of architect Louis-Daniel Perrier and Cécile Dardel. At the age of 19, he went to study in Stuttgart, Germany. He obtained his architect degree from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich. He first acquired work experience with his father and participating in the construction of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres. After this his real career as an architect began. The University of Neuchâtel and the Hôtel des Postes de La-Chaux-de-Fonds are two among many of his prestigious works.
In 1889 he became a member of the Grand Conseil neuchâtelois before becoming a member of the Conseil national of the Canton of Neuchâtel in 1902. From 1903 to 1912, Perrier was a member of the Conseil d'Etat of the Canton of Neuchâtel (cantonal government). He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party. He presided the Conseil d'Etat twice: 1905/1906 and 1909/1910.
He was elected to the Federal Council on 12 March 1912 and died in office the subsequent year on 16 May 1913. During his time in office he held the following departments:
Department of Posts and Railways (1912)
Department of Home Affairs (1913)
As a single, Perrier also manage to find the time to pursue an impressive military career. He became colonel in 1896 and between 1902 and 1905, commanded the génie du 1er corps d'armée and the forts de Saint-Maurice troops.
Quai Louis-Perrier in Neuchâtel is named after him.
References
Dictionnaire biographique des cent premiers conseillers fédéraux - Urs Altermatt, 1993 (p. 312-315)
http://www.ne.ch/neat/site/jsp/rubrique/rubrique.jsp?DocId=4679
External links
1849 births
1913 deaths
People from Neuchâtel
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
ETH Zurich alumni | [
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240510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix%20Calonder | Felix Calonder | Felix Louis Calonder (7 December 1863 – 14 June 1952) was a Swiss politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council from 1913 to 1920, and President of the Confederation in 1918. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party. During his tenure of office, he held the Department of Home Affairs from 1913 to 1917, and the Political Department from 1918 to 1919. As of 2022, Felix Calonder has been the Federal Council's only native Romansh speaker.
Early life (1863–1891)
Calonder was born in Scuol in the Engadin valley, the son of a master builder from Trin. When Calonder was six years old, his family moved to Trin, where he went to elementary school. From 1878 to 1881 Calonder visited the cantonal school in Chur. He dropped out, worked as a commercial trainée for three years, and didn't graduate with a Matura until 1885 in Zurich. He studied law in Zurich, Munich, Paris, and Bern, where he submitted his doctoral thesis on international law in 1889. He was active in the student corporation "Zofingia", and became a militia officer and judge in the Swiss Armed Forces.
After completing his studies, Calonder returned to Chur, where he worked as a court secretary, and later established his own partnership in a lawyer's office. In 1892, he married Ursulina Walther, with whom he had three children.
Legislative offices (1891–1913)
In 1891, Calonder was elected to the Grisons' cantonal legislative (cussegl grond) where he represented the Free Democrats, and kept his mandate until 1913. He unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the cantonal executive (regenza) in 1893. By the late 1890s, he had gained a reputation in transport policy; his struggle for an eastern alpine railway and his lobbying for federal subsidies to the Rhätische Bahn's narrow gauge system helped him win his party one of the Grisons' two seats in the Swiss Council of States in 1899. During his tenure in the Council of States, he was given the mandate to negotiate an agreement with the Grand Duchy of Baden regarding the usage of the Rhine for ship transport and hydropower. He presided the Council of States for the 1911/1912 term.
Federal council (1913–1920)
When Federal Councillor Adolf Deucher died in 1912, Calonder was one of the candidates for the vacant seat in the Swiss Federal Council. On 17 July 1912 he lost the election to Edmund Schulthess in the first vote, partially due to Schulthess's strong support by Catholic Conservatives, farmers' organizations, and the industrial lobby. Disappointed by the result, Grison politicians and media called for a boycott of the Swiss National Day (1 August) in 1912.
The following year, in May 1913, Federal councillor Louis Perrier died, and Calonder's candidacy looked more promising. The Catholic Conservatives now supported him. A few federal politicians were worried about Calonder's bias in promoting the Grisons' interests in the alpine railway, and Calonder's election would make the Romandie lose one of its two councillors it had been providing since 1881. Nevertheless, Calonder won the election in the first round with 151 out of 199 valid votes, and without any noteworthy opposition (Arthur Couchepin received the second-best result with 11 votes). Calonder assumed office in the Swiss Federal Council on 21 June 1913.
For the first four years, Calonder held the Department of Home Affairs. One of the first bills he had to represent before the Federal Assembly concerned the federal decision on creating the only Swiss National Park.
In 1918, Calonder was elected President of the Swiss Confederation and, as was customary for that office at the time, also took over the "Political Department" (foreign relations). In his function as president, he was faced with increased expression of social grievances by the working class and poor, and started meeting with the "Oltener Aktionskomitee" (OAK) in August 1918. The OAK was a committee of Swiss labor unions and Social democrats, formed to demand and enforce socio-political reforms, and led by Robert Grimm. When the authorities used military force to discontinue the extension of an originally peaceful protest strike in Zurich on 10 November, the committee gave Calonder the ultimatum to either call back the militia or accept the consequences of a nationwide strike, Calonder declined in the name of the Federal Council, and on 11 November 1918 the committee called for an indefinite strike, now referred to as the . Around 400,000 workers went on strike, militia regiments were ordered to counter them, and the railway system was militarized. Three demonstrators were killed by soldiers in Grenchen, and there were violent clashes in Zurich and Biel as well. The OAK recognized the strike's futility, and called for its ending, Calonder informed the Federal Assembly with the words "The nightmare has gone away. Free and proud, Swiss democracy stands with its head raised high."
Calonder was criticized for his actions during the Landesstreik. He had already been mocked by Grimm for "nearly breaking out in tears during negotiations, instead of firmly standing his ground", and the Federal Assembly and media saw his reactions to the strike as ambiguous: On the one hand, Calonder held a speech on 12 November, when he promised the Social Democrats a seat in the Federal Council. On the other hand, put under pressure by the army command and centre-right parliamentarians, he signed the Federal Council's ultimatum addressed to the OAK one day later. He never regained the left's support, and after his demission in 1920, the Social Democratic newspaper characterized him as "a rather limited reactionary".
In his final year in the Federal Council, Calonder was a proponent of Woodrow Wilson's idea for a League of Nations, and appointed historians and legal experts to study questions of international law in the aftermath of World War I. Instead of "absolute" neutrality, he suggested a "differential" neutrality, which could include carrying out economic sanctions proposed by the League of Nations. With the support of fellow councillors Giuseppe Motta and Gustave Ador, Calonder finally succeeded in passing the bill to join the League of Nations against strong opposition by politicians from German speaking rural and conservative cantons, but also against the majority of Social Democrats. He gained less support for his actions regarding the "Vorarlberg question" - on 11 May 1919 80% of the Vorarlberger had voted that their state should join Switzerland, and Calonder advocated these plans as well. He met fierce opposition within the Federal Council, namely by Schulthess and Motta, and was eventually forced to abandon his advancements in this direction.
His actions during the nationwide strike, his advancement of membership in the League of Nations, and his weak position in the Vorarlberg question resulted in a meager count of votes for Calonder's reconfirmation by the Federal Assembly in December 1919. He asked for sick leave five days later, and announced his resignation on 21 January 1920. The Federal Assembly officially approved his request on 12 February 1920 and elected Heinrich Häberlin as his successor.
Later years (1920-1952)
After his demission, Calonder was appointed by the League of Nations to mediate in the Åland crisis in 1920. In 1921 he led the Geneva conference for regulating conditions in Upper Silesia in connection with the Silesian Uprisings. From 1922 to 1937, he lived in Katowice where, as president of the mixed German-Polish commission, he supervised the execution of the conference's outcome. In 1937, he moved to Zurich and worked as a legal consultant. Felix Louis Calonder died on 14 June 1952 in Zurich.
References
Simonett, Jürg. Felix Calonder in Altermatt, Urs (Editor). Die Schweizer Bundesräte - Ein biographisches Lexikon, Artemis & Winkler, Zürich (1991). .
External links
1863 births
1952 deaths
People from Scuol
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers | [
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240512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duiker | Duiker | A duiker is a small to medium-sized brown antelope native to sub-Saharan Africa, found in heavily wooded areas. The 22 extant species, including three sometimes considered to be subspecies of the other species, form the subfamily Cephalophinae or the tribe Cephalophini.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The tribe Cephalophini (formerly the subfamily Cephalophinae) comprises three genera and 22 species, three of which are sometimes considered to be subspecies of the other species. The three genera include Cephalophus (15 species and three disputed taxa), Philantomba (three species), and Sylvicapra (one species). The subfamily was first described by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1871 in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. The scientific name "Cephalophinae" probably comes from the combination of the New Latin word cephal, meaning head, and the Greek word lophos, meaning crest. The common name "duiker" comes from the Afrikaans word duik, or Dutch duiken - both mean "to dive", which refers to the practice of the animals to frequently dive into vegetation for cover.
The three disputed species in Cephalophus are Brooke's duiker (C. brookei), Ruwenzori duiker (C. rubidis), and the white-legged duiker (C. crusalbum). Considered to be a subspecies of Ogilby's duiker (C. nigrifrons), Brooke's duiker was elevated to species status by British ecologist Peter Grubb in 1998. Its status as a species was further seconded in a 2002 publication by Grubb and colleague Colin Groves. However, zoologists such as Jonathan Kingdon continue to treat it as a subspecies. The Ruwenzori duiker is generally considered to be a subspecies of the black-fronted duiker (C. nigrifrons). However, significant differences from another race of the same species, C. n. kivuensis, with which it is sympatric on the Ruwenzori mountain range, led Kingdon to suggest that it might be a different species altogether. Grubb treated the white-legged duiker as a subspecies of Ogilby's duiker in 1978, but regarded as an independent species by him and Groves after a revision in 2011. This was supported by a 2003 study.
A 2001 phylogenetic study divided Cephalophus into three distinct lineages - the giant duikers, east African red duikers, and west African red duikers. Abbott's duiker (C. spadix), the bay duiker (C. dorsalis), Jentink's duiker (C. jentinki) and the yellow-backed duiker (C. silvicultor) were classified as the giant duikers. The east African red duikers include the black-fronted duiker (C. nigrifrons), Harvey's duiker (C. harveyi), red-flanked duiker (C. rufilatus), red forest duiker (C. natalensis), Ruwenzori duiker, and white-bellied duiker (C. leucogaster). The third group, the west African red duikers, comprises the black duiker (C. niger), Ogilby's duiker, Peters's duiker (C. callipygus), and Weyns's duiker (C. weynsi). However, the status of two species, Aders's duiker and zebra duiker, remained dubious.
In 2012, Anne R. Johnston (of the University of Orleans) and colleagues constructed a cladogram of the subfamily Cephalophinae (duiker) based on mitochondrial analysis.
Etymology
The name is borrowed from (), meaning "diver".
Description
Duikers are split into two groups based on their habitat – forest and bush duikers. All forest species inhabit the rainforests of sub-Saharan Africa, while the only known bush duiker, grey common duiker occupies savannas. Duikers are very shy, elusive creatures with a fondness for dense cover; those that tend to live in more open areas, for example, are quick to disappear into thickets for protection.
Because of their rarity and interspersed population, not much is known about duikers; thus, further generalizations are widely based on the most commonly studied red forest, blue, yellow-backed, and common grey duiker. In tropical rainforest zones of Africa, people nonselectively hunt duikers for their hide, meat, and horns at highly unsustainable rates. Population trends for all species of duikers, excluding the common duiker and the smallest blue duiker, are significantly decreasing; Aders' and particularly the larger duiker species such as the Jentink's and Abbott's duikers, are now considered endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species .
Anatomy and physiology
Duikers range from the blue duiker to the yellow-backed duiker. With their bodies low to the ground and with very short horns, forest duikers are built to navigate effectively through dense rainforests and quickly dive into bushes when threatened. Since the common grey duiker lives in more open areas, such as savannas, it has longer legs and vertical horns, which allow it to run faster and for longer distances; only the males, which are more confrontational and territorial, exhibit horns. Also, duikers have well-developed preorbital glands, which resemble slits under their eyes, or in the cases of blue duikers, pedal glands on their hooves. Males use secretions from these glands to mark their territories.
Besides reproduction, duikers behave in highly independent manner and prefer to act alone. This may, in part, explain the limited sexual size dimorphism shown by most duiker species, excluding the common duiker, in which the females are distinctly larger than the males.
Also, body size is proportional to the amount of food intake and the size of food. Anatomical features such as “the head and neck shape” also limit the amount and size of food intake. “Anatomical variations... impose further constraints on ingestion” causing differences in the food sources among different species of duiker.
Behaviour
Interactions
In 2001, Helen Newing's study in West Africa on the interactions of duikers found that body size, “habitat preference, and activity patterns” were the main differentiating factors among the seven species of duikers. These differences specific to each species of duiker allow them to coexist by "limiting niche overlap". However, although some species are yet to be considered ‘endangered’, because of the repeated damage and Habitat fragmentation of their habitat by human activities, such specialization of the niches are gradually becoming impaired and are contributing to the significant decrease in population.
Due to their relative size and reserved nature, duikers’ primary defense mechanism is to hide from predators. Duikers are known for their extreme shyness, freezing at the slightest sign of a threat and diving into the nearest bush. Duikers’ “social behavior” involves maintaining “[sufficient distance] between” any other individual. However, in contrast to their conserved nature, duikers are more aggressive when dealing with territories; they mark their territory and their mates with secretions from their preorbital glands and fight other duikers that challenge their authorities. Male common duikers, especially the younger males, mark their territories also by defecation.
For those duikers that travel alone, they choose to interact with other duikers once or twice a year, solely for the purpose of mating. Although duikers occasionally form temporary groups to “gather…fallen fruit”, because so little is known about how they interact and affect one another, determining which factors contribute the most to their endangerment is difficult.
Duikers prefer to live alone or as pairs to avoid the competition that comes from living in a large group. They have also evolved to become highly selective feeders, feeding only on specific parts of plants. In fact, in his study regarding the relationship between “group size and feeding style”, P.J. Jarman found that the more selective an organism's diet is, the more dispersed its food will be, and consequently, the smaller the group becomes.
Diet
Duikers are primarily browsers rather than grazers, eating leaves, shoots, seeds, fruit, buds, and bark, and often following flocks of birds or troops of monkeys to take advantage of the fruit they drop. They supplement their diets with meat: duikers consume insects and carrion from time to time and even manage to capture rodents or small birds. Since food is the deciding factor, various locations of food sources often dictate the distribution of duikers. While they feed on a wide range of plants, they choose to eat specific parts of the plant that are most nutritious. Therefore, to feed efficiently, they must be familiar with their territory and be thoroughly acquainted with the geography and distribution of specific plants. For such reasons, duikers readjusting to novel environments created by human settlements and deforestation is not easy.
The smaller species, for example the blue duiker, generally tend to eat various seeds, while larger ones tend to feast more on larger fruits. Since blue duikers are very small, they are “more efficient [in] digesting small, high-quality items”. Receiving most of their water from the foods they eat, duikers do not rely on drinking water and can “be found in waterless localities”.
Activity patterns
Duikers can be diurnal, nocturnal, or both. Since the majority of the food source is available in the daytime, duiker evolution has rendered most duikers as diurnal. A correlation exists between body size and sleep pattern in duikers. While smaller to medium-sized duikers show increased activity and scavenge for food during the daytime, larger duikers are most active at night. An exception to this is the yellow-backed duiker, the largest species, which is active during both day and night.
Distribution and abundance
Duikers are found sympatrically in many different regions. Most species dwell in the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa, creating overlapping regions among different species of forest duikers. Although "body size is the primary factor in defining the fundamental niches of each species", often dictating the distribution and abundance of duikers in a given habitat, distinguishing between the numerous species of duikers based purely on distribution and abundance is often difficult. For example, the blue duiker and red forest duiker coexist within a small area of Mossapoula, Central African Republic. While blue duikers are seen more frequently than red forest duikers “in the heavily hunted area of Mossapoula, Central African Republic", red forest duikers are more observed in a less exploited regions such as the western Dja Reserve, Cameroon.
Ecology
Conservation of duikers has a direct and critical relationship with their ecology. Disruption of balance in the system leads to unprecedented competition, both interspecific and intraspecific. Before intervention, the system of specialized resources in which larger duikers exploit a particular type of food and smaller duikers on another, is functional as modeled in the diurnal and nocturnal nature of the duikers; this allows the niche to be shared by others without distinct interspecific competition. Similarly, they decrease intraspecific competition by being solitary, independent, and selective in eating habits. In consequence, disruption of the competitive balance in one habitat often cascades its effect on to the competitive balance in another habitat.
Also, a correlation exists between body size and diet. Larger animals have more robust digestive systems, stronger jaws, and wider necks, which allow them to consume lower-quality foods and larger fruits and seeds.
Similarly, bay and Peters's duikers can coexist because of their different sleep patterns. This allows Peters's duikers to eat fruits by day, and the bay duikers to eat what is left by night. In consequence of such a life pattern, the Bay duiker's digestive system has evolved to consume remaining, rather poor-quality foods.
Another critical influence that duikers have on the environment is acting as “seed dispersers for some plants”. They maintain a mutualistic relationship with certain plants; the plants serve as a nutritious and abundant food source for the duikers, and simultaneously benefit from the extensive dispersal of their seeds by the duikers.
Conservation
Duikers live in an environment where even a subtle change in their life patterns can greatly impact the surrounding ecosystem. Two of the main factors that directly lead to duiker extinction are “habitat loss” and overexploitation. Constant urbanization and the process of “shifting agriculture” is gradually taking over many of duikers’ habitats; at the same time, overexploitation is also permitting the overgrowth of other interacting species, resulting in an inevitable disruption of coexistence.
Overexploitation of duikers affects their population and organisms that rely on them for survival. For instance, plants that depend on duikers for seed dispersal may lose their primary method of reproduction, and other organisms that depend on these particular plants as their resources would also have their major source of food reduced.
Duikers are often captured for bushmeat. In fact, duikers are one of the most hunted animals “both in terms of number and biomass” in Central Africa. For example, in areas near the African rain forests, because people do not raise their own livestock, “bushmeat is what most people of all classes rely on as their source of protein” For these people, if the trend of overexploitation continues at such a high rate, the effects of the population decrease in duikers will be too severe for these organisms to serve as a reliable food source.
In addition to the unnaturally high demand for bushmeat, unenforced hunting law is a perpetual threat to many species, including the duiker. Most hunters believe that the diminishing number of animals was due to overexploitation. “The direct effects of hunting consist of two main aspects: overexploitation of target species and incidental hunting of nontargeted or rare species because hunting is largely nonselective”.
To avoid this outcome, viable methods of conserving duikers are access restriction and captive breeding. Access restriction involves imposing "temporal or spatial restrictions" on hunting duikers. Temporal restrictions include closing off certain seasons, such as the main birth season, to hunting; spatial restrictions include closing off certain regions where endangered duikers are found. Captive breeding has been used and is often looked to as a solution to ensuring the survival of the duiker population; however, due to the duikers’ low reproductive rate, even with the protection provided by the conservationists, captive breeding would not increase the overall population's growth rate.
The greatest challenge facing the conservation of duikers is the lack of sufficient knowledge regarding these organisms, coupled with their unique population dynamics. The need is to not only thoroughly understand their population dynamics, but also establish methods to differentiate among the various species.
Bushmeat industry
The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified the sale of duiker bushmeat as contributing to the spread of Filoviruses such as Ebola, citing Georges et al., 1999. The WHO notes that risk of infection predominantly arises from slaughter and preparation of meat, and that consumption of properly cooked meat does not pose a risk.
Species
Tribe Cephalophini
Genus Cephalophus
Abbott's duiker, C. spadix
Aders's duiker, C. adersi
Bay duiker, C. dorsalis
Black duiker, C. niger
Black-fronted duiker, C. nigrifrons
Brooke's duiker, C. brookei
Harvey's duiker, C. harveyi
Jentink's duiker, C. jentinki
Ogilby's duiker, C. ogilbyi
Peters's duiker, C. callipygus
Red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus
Red forest duiker, C. natalensis
Ruwenzori duiker, C. rubidus (may be a subspecies of the black-fronted duiker or the red-flanked duiker)
Weyns's duiker, C. weynsi
White-bellied duiker, C. leucogaster
White-legged duiker C. crusalbum (may be a subspecies of Ogilby's duiker)
Yellow-backed duiker, C. silvicultor
Zebra duiker, C. zebra
Genus Philantomba
Blue duiker, P. monticola
Maxwell's duiker, P. maxwellii
Walter's duiker, P. walteri
Genus Sylvicapra
Common duiker, S. grimmia
See also
List of even-toed ungulates by population
Notes
References
et al. 2010: Discovery of a new duiker species (Bovidae: Cephalophinae) from the Dahomey Gap, West Africa. Zootaxa, 2637: 1–30. Preview
The African Wildlife Foundation
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences: New species of antelope discovered
Noss, A. (2000) Cable snares and nets in the Central African Republic. In: Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests (Eds. J. ROBINSON, and E. BENNETT). Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 282–304.
Lydekker, R., 1926, The game animals of Africa, 2nd ed., revised by J. G. Dollman. London: Rowland Ward Ltd.
Weber, W. 2001, African rain forest ecology and conservation: an interdisciplinary perspective. Yale University Press: 201–202
Finnie, D. 2008. Cephalophus adersi. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 23 April 2013.
Further reading
Duikers
Bovidae
Mammal tribes
Afrikaans words and phrases
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Edward Blyth | [
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240514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20H%C3%A4berlin | Heinrich Häberlin | Heinrich Häberlin (6 September 1868 – 26 February 1947) was a Swiss politician, judge and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1920–1934).
From 1904 he was a member of the Swiss Council of States, from 1905 member of the Grand Council of the Canton of Thurgau. For four years he presided over the FDP in the Swiss Federal Assembly. On 12 February 1920, he was elected to the Federal Council and was in charge of the Justice and Police Department from which he resigned on 30 April 1934. Twice, in 1926 and 1931, he was elected President of the Federal Council, making him the highest ranking representative of the Swiss Confederation.
Biography
Family background, education
Heinrich Häberlin was born 1868 in Weinfelden as the son of Friedrich Heinrich Häberlin (1834–1897).
The Häberlin family was influential on many levels in Swiss politics over the years and for this reason was occasionally referred to as the Dynastengeschlecht der Häberlinge (Family Dynasty of Häberlin).
His uncle Eduard Häberlin (1820–1884) was president of the Council of States.
Professional life
Upon graduation from Kantonsschule Frauenfeld in 1887, he began law studies at the University of Zürich and continued his studies at the University of Leipzig and at the Humboldt University in Berlin. While in Leipzig which was the German stronghold for jurisprudence, he formed a friendship with Prinz Ferdinand von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was later crowned King Ferdinand I. of Great Romania. Though their ways parted, they met again years later when King Ferdinand I. was on an official state visit in Switzerland.
Häberlin received his lawyer´s license in 1891 and completed a short internship in Lausanne at the lawyer´s office of Federal Councillor Louis Ruchonnet. In 1892 he opened his own law firm in Weinfelden, which two years later he moved to the canton capital of Frauenfeld. He quickly gained a reputation for being an outstanding lawyer and became the most sought after in this area of Switzerland. From 1899 to 1920 he presided over the District Court Frauenfeld. Häberlin got actively involved in politics, which was a common practice among judges and lawyers at that time. And in 1904 he was elected into the Swiss Federal Council of which he was president in 1918–1919. In addition to his political activities at the national level, Häberlin was also active in local politics in the Canton of Thurgau. In 1905 he was elected to the Grand Council of the Canton of Thurgau, where he served for 15 years. Twice he was appointed President of the Grand Council (1909/10 and 1915/16). Following the resignation of Federal Councillor Calonder, Häberlin was elected in the first ballot with 124 out of 159 votes as successor on 12 February 1920.
While in office he was in charge of the Justice and Police Department. During his time in the Federal Council, he was President of the Swiss Confederation in 1926 and 1931.
Häberlin was to a large extent instrumental in the unification of criminal law. Characteristic of his tenure were particularly two rejected laws by the people for the expansion of state security laws, which became known as Lex Häberlin I and II. The purpose of these proposed laws was to protect the civil and democratic state against extremist influences. And in the wake of the rise of Nazism in Germany, he strongly condemned fascist and Nazi totalitarianism based on his democratic-liberal attitude and was warning of the danger of Hitler’s martial aspirations as early as 1932. Moreover, he was highly regarded for his expertise in his chosen field, the sharpness and preciseness of his dialectic skills, wit and humour.
He was known for having a strong sense of justice, whether royalty, upper class, or common people, he treated them all equally. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire, Kaiser Karl I. and his wife Zita von Bourbon-Parma went into exile in Switzerland. Kaiser Karl I. gave his word of honor to the Swiss authorities to give notification in case of any intentions of travelling abroad, however, he broke it twice and went to Hungary in a futile attempt to restore the monarchy and to regain power over his lost empire. After that, based on Häberlin’s initiative, the whole family and entourage were no longer granted asylum in Switzerland due to their violation of Swiss asylum law and were asked to leave. Nevertheless, when one of the children of Empress Zita came down with appendectomy and needed to undergo surgery in Zürich, Häberlin granted them visa extensions for the time being.
Retirement
Even after his retirement he was still much sought after in important matters. He became a board member of one of the biggest Swiss insurance companies Winterthur, and also first president of Pro Helvetia, and was friends and acquaintance with such diverse personalities as the famous German writer Hermann Hesse, and Walter Mittelholzer who was not only a pioneer of Swiss aviation but also one of the first aviation entrepreneurs. Others included the Nobel prize winner for literature Romain Rolland, the Swiss painters Cuno Amiet who is considered a pioneer of modern art in Switzerland and Carl Liner among others.
Häberlin died 1947 in Frauenfeld.
Anecdotes
Häberlin´s most famous and interesting client at the time when he practiced law in Weinfelden was certainly the airship inventor Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838–1917). In Häberlin´s diaries an entry can be found from 16 September 1934 in which he writes that Count Zeppelin was among other things his client in manners such as border disputes with the eminent psychiatrist Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966) who was running an exclusive psychiatric clinic nearby, the Sanatorium Bellevue.
When Häberlin and the Count were discussing business matters in the lounge of the Count´s family estate Schloss Girsberg, it was not rare that they heard the propeller noise of Count Zeppelin’s airship passing by. In moments like these, Count Zeppelin’s attention was drawn away from matters at hand and Häberlin suggested, “Excellency, shall we take a break until the airship has passed?”, upon which Count Zeppelin stood up, went to the window with a smile, saying, “Yes, you are right, Sir.”
In the rare moments of leisurely life, Häberlin found a lot of comfort in mountaineering and one day he took his wife to the beautiful Alpine village of Zermatt and when he was introducing her to the different peaks surrounding it, an American tourist standing nearby overheard his explanations and assumed Häberlin to be a local mountain guide. The American approached and asked politely if it was possible to have him - the President of the Federal Council of Switzerland - as a mountain guide. In his usual manner of being low-key, the president politely explained to the American that he was on a holiday with his wife to show her the natural wonders of the Swiss Alps and thus wasn’t the “mountain guide” the gentlemen had mistaken him to be.
During World War I Häberlin was a regiment commander and was stationed with his troops in the Swiss Alps. - In those days it was strongly prohibited for the soldier in charge of guarding horse carriages to ride on top of the carriage, instead the soldier had the duty to run behind the carriage in case anything fell off during the transportation. Needless to say, the soldier on duty was not too thrilled with this task, especially when the carriage was empty after delivering the goods and still he was not allowed to ride on it. So one day a guard of Häberlin´s regiment sat next to the coachman on the horse carriage on their way back after dropping off their goods at the designated area. They were on a mountainous road which had many turns, when all of a sudden Häberlin appeared out of nowhere and harshly questioned the guard why he was sitting on the coach instead of running alongside it. The flabbergasted soldier answered in all honesty, “Because Colonel, Sir, I noticed you too late!”, upon hearing this, Häberlin started to laugh heartily and let the soldier off due to the guard´s honesty.
Further reading
Soland, Rolf (1997). Zwischen Proletariern und Potentaten: Bundesrat Heinrich Haberlin, 1868-1947 und seine Tagebucher, p. 422. Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung.
External links
1868 births
1947 deaths
People from Weinfelden
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Swiss military officers
University of Zurich alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
People from Frauenfeld | [
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240515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Baumann | Johannes Baumann | Johannes Baumann (27 November 1874, in Herisau – 8 September 1953) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1934–1940).
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 22 March 1934 and handed over office on 31 December 1940. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his office time he held the Department of Justice and Police and was President of the Confederation in 1938.
External links
1874 births
1953 deaths
People from Appenzell Ausserrhoden
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Presidents of the Council of States (Switzerland)
University of Basel alumni
University of Bern alumni
Leipzig University alumni
University of Zurich alumni | [
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240516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monmouth%20Rebellion | Monmouth Rebellion | The Monmouth Rebellion, also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion, the Revolt of the West or the West Country rebellion, was an attempt to overthrow James II. He had become king of England, Scotland, and Ireland upon the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685. James II was a Roman Catholic and some Protestants under his rule opposed his kingship. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, the eldest illegitimate son of Charles II, claimed the throne in an attempt to displace his uncle.
Plans were discussed to overthrow the king following the failure of the Rye House Plot to assassinate Charles II and James in 1683, while Monmouth was in self-imposed exile in the Dutch Republic. The Monmouth rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's Rising, a rebellion in Scotland, where Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, landed with a small force. The Duke of Monmouth had been popular in the South West of England, so he planned to recruit troops locally and take control of the area before marching on London.
Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis on 11 June 1685. In the following few weeks, his growing army of nonconformists, artisans and farm workers fought a series of skirmishes with local militias and regular soldiers commanded by Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham, and John Churchill. Monmouth's forces were unable to compete with the regular army and failed to capture the city of Bristol. The rebellion ended with the defeat of Monmouth's army at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 by forces led by Feversham and Churchill.
Monmouth was beheaded for treason on 15 July 1685. Many of his supporters were tried during the Bloody Assizes, led by Judge Jeffreys, and were condemned to death or transportation. James II was able to consolidate his power and reigned until 1688, when he was deposed by another nephew, William III of Orange, in the Glorious Revolution.
Duke of Monmouth
Monmouth was an illegitimate son of Charles II. There had been rumours that Charles had married Monmouth's mother, Lucy Walter, but no evidence was forthcoming, and Charles always said that he only had one wife, Catherine of Braganza.
Monmouth had been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the English Army by his father in 1672 and Captain general in 1678, enjoying some successes in the Netherlands in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, as commander of a British brigade in the French army.
Context
The English Civil War had left resentment among some of the population about the monarchy and the penalties which had been imposed on the supporters of the Commonwealth. The South West of England contained several towns where opposition remained strong. Fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife to produce any children. A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a "Popish Plot" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne. The Earl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and a leading opponent of Catholicism, attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession. Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, who became the Duke of Monmouth. In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill - which would exclude the King's brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, from the line of succession - in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament. Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason.
After the Rye House Plot of 1683, an attempt to assassinate both Charles and James, Monmouth went into self-imposed exile in the Netherlands, and gathered supporters in The Hague. Monmouth was a Protestant and had toured the South West of England in 1680, where he had been greeted amicably by crowds in towns such as Chard and Taunton. So long as Charles II remained on the throne, Monmouth was content to live a life of pleasure in Holland, while still hoping to accede peaceably to the throne. The accession of James II and coronation at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 put an end to these hopes.
Plan
The Monmouth rebellion was planned in Holland and coordinated with another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, the Earl of Argyll. Several areas of England were considered as potential locations for rebellion, including Cheshire and Lancashire along with the South West, as these were seen as having the highest number of opponents of the monarchy. Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, stadtholder William III of Orange, had not detained them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland and, on arriving there, raised recruits mainly from his own clan, the Campbells, as part of the Scottish revolt. He had previously been involved in the Rye House Plot of 1683.
Another important member of the rebellion was Robert Ferguson, a radical Scottish Presbyterian minister. He was also known as "the plotter". It was Ferguson who drew up Monmouth's proclamation, and he who was most in favour of Monmouth being crowned King. Thomas Hayward Dare was a goldsmith from Taunton and a Whig politician, a man of considerable wealth and influence who had been jailed during a political campaign calling for a new parliament. He was also fined the huge sum of £5,000 for uttering "seditious" words. After his release from jail, he fled to Holland and became the paymaster general to the Rebellion.
To raise the funds for ships and weaponry, Monmouth pawned many of his belongings. His wife Anne Scott, 1st Duchess of Buccleuch, and her mother also pawned their jewellery to hire the Dutch warship Helderenberg. Ann Smith, wealthy widow of a London sugar-baker, gave him £1,000.
From Lyme Regis to Sedgemoor
On 30 May 1685 Monmouth set sail for South West England, a strongly Protestant region, with three small ships, four light field guns, and 1500 muskets. He landed on 11 June with 82 supporters, including Lord Grey of Warke, Nathaniel Wade, and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun. They gathered about 300 men on the first day at Lyme Regis in Dorset, where a long statement prepared by Ferguson denounced the king.
King James had previously received intelligence about the impending plot, and the ships leaving Holland, ten days before. He was warned of Monmouth's arrival soon after the first landing. The mayor of the town, Gregory Alford, informed the local militias while Samuel Damsell and another customs officer rode from Lyme to London, arriving on 13 June, having ridden . To face Monmouth's rebels, John Churchill was given command of the regular foot in the King's army, and the honour of leading the campaign passed to the Huguenot Earl of Feversham. It would take a few days to assemble the army and travel from London to the west country, therefore initial defence was left to local militias.
Over the next couple of days volunteers arrived in Lyme offering to serve under Monmouth. By 15 June he had a force in excess of 1,000 men. On 13 June he lost two of his leading supporters when Dare and Fletcher disputed who should ride one of the best horses provided by local supporters. Fletcher shot and killed Dare and was then put under arrest and sent back to the frigate Helderenberg. The next day, 40 cavalry and 400 foot soldiers, under the command of Lord Grey and Wade, moved on to the nearby town of Bridport, where they encountered 1,200 men from the local royalist Dorset militia. The skirmish ended with the retreat of Grey and the cavalry followed by Wade with the foot soldiers. Many of the militiamen deserted and joined Monmouth's army. Following this confrontation, Lord Albermarle led a royalist force from Exeter towards the forces of the Duke of Somerset, who were approaching Lyme Regis from the opposite direction.
Monmouth learned of the approach of royalist reinforcements and departed, but instead of marching to London, he headed north with his force towards the county of Somerset. On 15 June he fought with the militia at Axminster, taking the town before the militias could join up. More recruits joined his disorganised force, which was now around 6,000, consisting mostly of nonconformists, artisans, and farm workers armed with farm tools (such as pitchforks). One famous supporter was the young Daniel Defoe.
Monmouth again denounced the king in Chard and was the subject of a coronation in Taunton on 20 June 1685, against the wishes of some of his republican supporters such as Wade. The Taunton Corporation was forced to witness the event at sword point outside the White Hart Inn, to encourage the support of the country gentry. In Taunton, Monmouth was joined by many new supporters and formed a new regiment of 800 men. The king's force of Dragoons under Churchill continued to close on Monmouth, arriving in Chard on 19 June. With the assistance of the local militias they attempted to stop new recruits arriving in Taunton to join Monmouth. Feversham meanwhile moved with his forces into Bristol, on the assumption that this would be Monmouth's next target, and took overall charge of the campaign.
Monmouth and his growing force then continued north to Bridgwater, where he took up residence at Bridgwater Castle on 21 June, Glastonbury (22 June) and on to Shepton Mallet, arriving on 23 June in worsening weather. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy captured Monmouth's ships, cutting off any hope of an escape back to the continent. The Royalist forces of Churchill, who was now in Chard, and of Feversham, in Bristol, also received reinforcements who had marched from London.
On 24 June, Monmouth's army encamped at Pensford, and a small force skirmished with the Gloucester Militia to take control of Keynsham, a vital crossing point over the River Avon. He made Keynsham Abbey his headquarters there. Monmouth intended to attack the city of Bristol, after London the largest and most important city in England at that time, However, he heard the city had been occupied by Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort. There were inconclusive skirmishes with a force of Life Guards commanded by Feversham. These attacks gave the impression that there was a much larger royalist force in the vicinity than there actually was. Several historians have speculated that if Monmouth had marched as quickly as possible for Bristol at this point, when it was only protected by the Gloucestershire militia, he would probably have been able to take the city and the final outcome of the rebellion might have been very different. Once Bristol had been taken, more recruits would have been attracted to the Rebellion and a later march on London would have been possible.
On 26 June, Monmouth moved towards Bath, and arriving on the south side of it found it had also been occupied by royalist troops. He camped for the night in Philips Norton (now Norton St Philip), where his forces were attacked on the morning of 27 June by the leading elements of Feversham's forces, which had now combined into a larger force, but were still awaiting their artillery. Monmouth’s half-brother Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, led some cavalry, dragoons, and 500 musketeers into the village, where they were surrounded by the rebels and had to hack through hedges to escape. They were rescued by Churchill and withdrew with approximately twenty casualties on each side; however, each side believed that the other had taken greater losses.
Monmouth then marched overnight to Frome, arriving on 28 June. The morale of Monmouth's forces started to collapse as news of the failure of the rebellion in Scotland arrived that day, while the makeshift army was camped in Frome. Argyll's small force had been involved in minor skirmishes at Greenock and Ellangreig. He took Ardkinglass castle, but after disagreements with key supporters about when and where to fight the royalists commanded by Rosse and William Cleland, his supporters dwindled away and the Scottish rebellion failed.
The rebels planned to go next to Warminster, where there were many nonconformist wool workers, but on 27 June the Wiltshire Militia had marched from Bath to Trowbridge, and on 29 June entered Westbury. Hearing that an army supporting him had gathered near Bridgwater, Monmouth turned back through Shepton Mallet and arrived in Wells on 1 July. His men damaged the Bishop's Palace and the west front of Wells Cathedral, tearing lead from the roof to make bullets, breaking the windows, smashing the organ and the furnishings, and for a time stabling their horses in the nave.
Feversham aimed to contain the rebels in the South West until the rest of his forces, including three battalions of British mercenaries sent by William III of Orange from Holland arrived. In the light of propaganda suggesting the rebels had an army of 40,000 and that 500 royalist troops had been lost at Norton St Philip, Feversham was ordered to engage Monmouth's forces. On 30 June the final parts of Feversham's army, including his artillery, arrived and eventually Monmouth was pushed back via Shepton Mallet to the Somerset Levels, where Alfred the Great had found refuge in his conflicts with the Vikings. Becoming hemmed in at Bridgwater on 3 July, he ordered his troops to fortify the town.
Battle of Sedgemoor
Monmouth was finally defeated by Feversham with John Churchill, his second in command, on 6 July at the Battle of Sedgemoor.
Once Monmouth's force had entered and started to fortify Bridgwater, he sent some of his cavalry to collect six cannon from Minehead. He planned to stay in Bridgwater until they returned and then break out and head for Bristol. Feversham and his army of 500 horse and 1,500 militiamen camped on the edge of Sedgemoor at the village of Westonzoyland. Monmouth could view them from the tower of Church of St Mary and may have inspected them more closely from the Church of St Mary in Chedzoy, before deciding to attack them.
The Duke eventually led his untrained and ill-equipped troops out of Bridgwater at around 10:00 pm to undertake a night-time attack on the King's army. They were guided by Richard Godfrey, the servant of a local farmer, along the old Bristol road towards Bawdrip. With their limited cavalry in the vanguard, they turned south along Bradney Lane and Marsh Lane and came to the open moor with its deep and dangerous rhynes (drainage ditches).
There was a delay while the rhyne was crossed and the first men across startled a royalist patrol. A shot was fired and a horseman from the patrol galloped off to report to Feversham. Lord Grey of Warke led the rebel cavalry forward and they were engaged by the King's Regiment of Horse which alerted the rest of the royalist forces. The superior training of the regular army and their horses routed the rebel forces by outflanking them. His untrained supporters were quickly defeated by the professionals, and hundreds were cut down by cannon- and musket-fire.
The death count on the rebel side has variously been given as between 727 and 2,700, with royalist losses of 27 who were buried in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary the Virgin in Westonzoyland, which was used as a prison for rebel soldiers.
After Sedgemoor
Monmouth fled from the field of battle, but was captured in a ditch on 8 July (either at Ringwood in the New Forest, or at Horton in Dorset). Parliament had passed an Act of Attainder, on 13 June sentencing Monmouth to death as a traitor, therefore no trial was needed before his execution. Despite begging for mercy and claims of conversion to Roman Catholicism, he was beheaded at Tower Hill by Jack Ketch on 15 July 1685. It is said that it took multiple blows of the axe to sever his head. Though some sources say it took eight blows, the official Tower of London website says it took five blows, while Charles Spencer, in his book Blenheim, claims it was seven. The Hangman in 'Punch and Judy' is named after this notorious character, Jack Ketch. The dukedoms of Monmouth and Buccleuch were forfeited, but the subsidiary titles of the dukedom of Monmouth were restored to the Duke of Buccleuch.
The subsequent Bloody Assizes of Judge Jeffreys were a series of trials of Monmouth's supporters in which 320 people were condemned to death and around 800 sentenced to be transported to the West Indies, for ten years' hard labour.
James II took advantage of the suppression of the rebellion to consolidate his power. He asked Parliament to repeal the Test Act and the Habeas Corpus Act, used his dispensing power to appoint Roman Catholics to senior posts, and raised the strength of the standing army. Parliament opposed many of these moves, and on 20 November 1685 James dismissed it. In 1688, when the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart heralded a Catholic succession, James II was deposed by William of Orange in the Glorious Revolution at the invitation of the disaffected Protestant Establishment.
Literary references
The Monmouth Rebellion and the events surrounding it have formed the basis for several works of fiction. John Dryden's work Absalom and Achitophel is a satire partially concerned with equating biblical events with the Monmouth Rebellion. It also plays an important role in R. D. Blackmore's novel Lorna Doone. Arthur Conan Doyle's historical novel Micah Clarke deals directly with Monmouth's landing in England, the raising of his army, its defeat at Sedgemoor, and the reprisals which followed. The Monmouth Rebellion plays a key role in Peter S. Beagle's novel Tamsin, about a 300-year-old ghost who is befriended by the protagonist. Several characters in Neal Stephenson's trilogy The Baroque Cycle, particularly Quicksilver and The Confusion, play a role in the Monmouth Rebellion and its aftermath.
In Lorna Doone, Richard Doddridge Blackmore's romantic novel of 1869, Farmer John Ridd rescues his brother-in-law Tom Faggus from the battlefield of Sedgemoor, but is captured as a rebel, and is brought before Judge Jefferies. Another novel, of 1889, covering the events of the Rebellion was Sir Walter Besant's For Faith and Freedom. John Masefield's 1910 novel Martin Hyde: The Duke's Messenger tells the story of a boy who plays a central part in the Monmouth Rebellion, from the meeting with Argyll in Holland to the failed rebellion itself. Dr. Peter Blood, main hero of Rafael Sabatini's 1922 novel Captain Blood, was sentenced by Judge Jeffreys for aiding wounded Monmouth rebels. Transported to the Caribbean, he started his career as a pirate there. Another of Sabatini's novels, Mistress Wilding, also takes place during this time, as the hero, Anthony Wilding, is a supporter of Monmouth. The Royal Changeling, (1998), by John Whitbourn, describes the rebellion with some fantasy elements added, from the viewpoint of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe.
The events immediately before and after the Battle of Sedgemoor, and leading up to James II's exile following The Glorious Revolution provide the setting for Robert Neill's historical novel Lilliburlero. The aftermath of the Rebellion is the setting for A.E.W. Mason's 1896 novel The Courtship of Morrice Buckler.
References
Bibliography
External links
HTV series following two children who get caught up in the rebellion (1972)
Rebellion Playing Cards (c. 1685)
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe | [
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240518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Lepori | Giuseppe Lepori | Giuseppe Lepori (2 June 1902 – 6 September 1968) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 16 December 1954 and handed over office on 31 December 1959. He was affiliated to the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland (CVP).
During his time in office he held the Department of Posts and Railways.
External links
1902 births
1968 deaths
People from Lugano District
Swiss Roman Catholics
Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) | [
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240519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Peter%20Tschudi | Hans-Peter Tschudi | Hans-Peter Tschudi (22 October 1913 – 30 September 2002) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1959–1973) heading the Department of Home Affairs (Swiss interior minister).
Tschudi was a member of the Cantonal Government of Basel-City from 1953 to 1959. He was affiliated to the Social Democratic Party. From 1956, he represented the canton of Basel-City in the Swiss Council of States, until he was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 17 December 1959.
During his time in office he held the Department of Home Affairs and was President of the Confederation twice in 1965 and 1970. Tschudi handed over office on 31 December 1973. In his position as the head of the Department of Home Affairs , he promoted the expansion of social security during the economic boom years.
References
External links
Hans-Peter Tschudi in History of Social Security in Switzerland
Personal archives at Staatsarchiv des Kantons Basel-Stadt
1913 births
2002 deaths
People from Basel-Stadt
Swiss nobility
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Social Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
University of Basel alumni
University of Paris alumni | [
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240520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody%20Assizes | Bloody Assizes | The Bloody Assizes were a series of trials started at Winchester on 25 August 1685 in the aftermath of the Battle of Sedgemoor, which ended the Monmouth Rebellion in England.
History
There were five judges: Sir William Montague (Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer), Sir Robert Wright, Sir Francis Wythens (Justice of the King's Bench), Sir Creswell Levinz (Justice of the Common Pleas) and Sir Henry Pollexfen, led by Lord Chief Justice George Jeffreys.
Over 1,000 rebels were in prison awaiting the trials, which started in the Great Hall of Winchester Castle in Winchester on 26 August. The first notable trial was that of an elderly gentlewoman named Dame Alice Lisle. The jury reluctantly found her guilty and, the law recognising no distinction between principals and accessories in treason, she was sentenced to be burned. This was commuted to beheading, with the sentence being carried out in Winchester market-place on 2 September 1685.
From Winchester the court proceeded through the West Country, and conducted a brief hearing in Salisbury, where there were no rebels to be tried for high treason, on 1 September 1685. The court went on to the main centres of rebellion holding assizes at the Antelope Hotel in Dorchester on 5 September 1685, Exeter Guildhall on 14 September 1685 and the Great Hall of Taunton Castle on 17 September 1685, before finishing up at Wells Market and Assize Hall on 23 September 1685. More than 1,400 prisoners were dealt with and although most were sentenced to death, fewer than 300 were hanged or hanged, drawn and quartered. Of more than 500 prisoners brought before the court at Taunton between 17 and 19 September, 144 were hanged and their remains displayed around the county to ensure people understood the fate of those who rebelled against the king.
Some 800–850 men were transported to the West Indies where they were worth more alive than dead as a source of cheap labour (the novel Captain Blood, and the later movies based on it, graphically portray this punishment). Others were imprisoned to await further trial, although many did not live long enough, succumbing to 'Gaol Fever' (typhus), which was rife in the unsanitary conditions common to most English gaols at that time. A woman named Elizabeth Gaunt had the gruesome distinction of being the last woman burnt alive in England for political crimes.
Jeffreys returned to London after the Assizes to report to King James, who rewarded him by making him Lord Chancellor (at the age of only 40), 'For the many eminent and faithful services to the Crown'. Jeffreys became known as "the hanging judge".
After the Glorious Revolution, Jeffreys was incarcerated in the Tower of London, where he died in 1689. His death was probably due to his chronic medical history of kidney and bladder stones leading to an acute infection, kidney failure and possibly toxaemia.
Writing as recently as 1929, Sir John C. Fox said:Even to the present day, the mothers of West Somerset control their unruly offspring by threatening to send for 'Judge Jeffreys'.
See also
Captain Blood (1935 film)
References
Further reading
The Bloody Assize, web site of Somerset County Council
English law
History of Somerset
Stuart England
History of Dorchester, Dorset
Monmouth Rebellion
1685 in England
1685 in law | [
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240523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Spitzweg | Carl Spitzweg | Carl Spitzweg (February 5, 1808 – September 23, 1885) was a German romanticist painter, especially of genre subjects. He is considered to be one of the most important artists of the Biedermeier era.
Life and career
Spitzweg was born in Unterpfaffenhofen, near Munich, Bavaria, the second of three sons of Franziska (née Schmutzer) and Simon Spitzweg. His father, a wealthy merchant, had Carl trained as a pharmacist. He attained his qualification from the University of Munich but, while recovering from an illness, he took up painting.
Spitzweg was self-taught as an artist, starting out by copying the works of Flemish masters. He contributed his first work to satiric magazines. Upon receiving an inheritance in 1833, he was able to dedicate himself to painting.
Later, Spitzweg visited European art centers in Prague, Venice, Paris, London, and Belgium studying the works of various artists and refining his technique and style. His later paintings and drawings are often humorous genre works. Many of his paintings depict sharply characterized eccentrics, for example The Bookworm (1850) and The Hypochondriac (c. 1865, in the Neue Pinakothek, Munich).
His paintings inspired the musical comedy Das kleine Hofkonzert by Edmund Nick.
Playing Piano, an etching by Spitzweg, was found as part of the Munich Art Hoard.
Spitzweg is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich.
Forgeries
In the late 1930s an art forgery case in Germany involved 54 paintings which had been passed off as Spitzweg originals. They had been painted by a Traunstein copyist named Toni who worked from reproductions and picture postcards. Toni signed the works with his own name as "after Spitzweg", but fraudsters later removed his name and artificially aged the paintings in order to sell them as originals. At the Stuttgart Criminal Court Assizes the conspirators were jailed for up to ten years for the swindle.
Selected paintings
References
Sources
Murray, P. & L. (1996). Dictionary of Art and Artists. London: Penguin Books. .
External links
Biography and selected paintings of Carl Spitzweg
The Spitzweg Game
Spitzweg Gallery at MuseumSyndicate
Milwaukee Art Museum has a large Spitzweg collection
German masters of the nineteenth century: paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Carl Spitzweg (no. 87–90)
1808 births
1885 deaths
19th-century German painters
19th-century male artists
Burials at the Alter Südfriedhof
German male painters
German romantic painters
People educated at the Wilhelmsgymnasium (Munich)
Artists from Munich
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Orientalist painters
Biedermeier painters
People from Fürstenfeldbruck (district) | [
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240525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20the%20Swiss%20Confederation | List of presidents of the Swiss Confederation | Below is a list of presidents of the Swiss Confederation (1848–present). It presents the presiding member of the Swiss Federal Council, the country's seven-member executive.
Elected by the Federal Assembly for one year, the President of the Confederation chairs the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties. Primus inter pares, the officeholder has no powers above the other Federal Councillors and continues to head his or her department. Traditionally, the duty rotates among the members in order of seniority and the previous year's vice president becomes president.
1848–1899
1900–1999
2000–present
Political parties
See also
Presidents of the Swiss Diet (before 1848)
Chancellor of Switzerland
President of the Confederation
Federal Council (Switzerland) | [
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240527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courts%20of%20England%20and%20Wales | Courts of England and Wales | The courts of England and Wales, supported administratively by Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service, are the civil and criminal courts responsible for the administration of justice in England and Wales.
The United Kingdom does not have a single unified legal system—England and Wales has one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland a third. There are exceptions to this rule; for example in immigration law, the Asylum and Immigration Tribunal's jurisdiction covers the whole of the United Kingdom, while in employment law there is a single system of employment tribunals for England, Wales, and Scotland but not Northern Ireland. Additionally, the Military Court Service has jurisdiction over all members of the armed forces of the United Kingdom in relation to offences against military law.
The Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the County Court, and the magistrates' courts are administered by Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service, an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice.
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England and Wales. Before the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 this role was held by the House of Lords. The Supreme Court is also the highest court of appeal for devolution matters, a role previously held by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
The Supreme Court has a separate administration from the other courts of England and Wales, and its administration is under a Chief Executive who is appointed by the President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
Senior Courts of England and Wales
The Senior Courts of England and Wales were originally created by the Judicature Acts as the "Supreme Court of Judicature". It was renamed the "Supreme Court of England and Wales" in 1981, and again to the "Senior Courts of England and Wales" by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (to distinguish it from the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom). It consists of the following courts:
Court of Appeal (formally Her Majesty's Court of Appeal in England)
High Court of Justice (High Court, formally Her Majesty's High Court of Justice in England)
Crown Court
The Senior Courts of England and Wales, along with the Tribunals and other courts, are administered and supported by HM Courts and Tribunals Service.
Court of Appeal
The Court of Appeal deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. The Court of Appeal consists of two divisions: the Civil Division hears appeals from the High Court and the County Court and certain superior tribunals, while the Criminal Division may only hear appeals from the Crown Court connected with a trial on indictment (i.e., for a serious offence). Its decisions are binding on all courts, including itself, apart from the Supreme Court.
High Court
The High Court of Justice functions both as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court for cases from the subordinate courts. It consists of three divisions: the Queen's Bench, the Chancery, and the Family divisions. The divisions of the High Court are not separate courts but have somewhat separate procedures and practices adapted to their purposes. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each division depending on their subject matter, each division may exercise the jurisdiction of the High Court. However, beginning proceedings in the wrong division may result in a cost penalty.
The formation of The Business and Property Courts of England & Wales within the High Court was announced in March 2017, and launched in London in July 2017. The courts would in future administer the specialist jurisdictions that had previously been administered in the Queen's Bench Division under the names of the Admiralty Court, the Commercial Court, and the Technology & Construction Court, and under the Chancery Division's lists for Business, Company and Insolvency, Competition, Intellectual Property, Revenue, and Trusts and Probate.
Crown Court
The Crown Court is a criminal court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal. It was established by the Courts Act 1971. It replaced the assizes whereby High Court judges would periodically travel around the country hearing cases, and quarter sessions which were periodic county courts. The Old Bailey is the unofficial name of London's most famous criminal court, which is now part of the Crown Court. Its official name is the "Central Criminal Court". The Crown Court also hears appeals from magistrates' courts.
The Crown Court is the only court in England and Wales that has the jurisdiction to try cases on indictment, and when exercising such a role, it is a superior court in that its judgments cannot be reviewed by the Administrative Court of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court.
The Crown Court is an inferior court in respect of the other work it undertakes, viz. inter alia, appeals from the magistrates' courts and other tribunals.
Subordinate courts
The most common subordinate courts in England and Wales are
County Court
Family Court
Magistrates' courts
Youth courts
County Court
The County Court is a national court with a purely civil jurisdiction, sitting in 92 different towns and cities across England and Wales. As of 22 April 2014 there has been a single County Court for England and Wales where previously there was a series of courts. The County Court is so named after the ancient sheriff's court held in each county, but it has no connection with it nor indeed was the jurisdiction of the county courts based on counties.
A County Court hearing is presided over by either a district or circuit judge and, except in a small minority of cases such as civil actions against the police, the judge sits alone as a trier of fact and law without assistance from a jury. The old county courts' divorce and family jurisdiction was passed on 22 April 2014 to the single Family Court.
Until unification in 2014, county courts were local courts in the sense that each one has an area over which certain kinds of jurisdiction, for example, proceedings for possession of the land had to be started in the county court in whose district the property lay, but in general, any county court in England and Wales could hear any action and claims were frequently transferred from court to court.
Family Court
The Family Court is a national court and has jurisdiction to hear all family cases in England and Wales. Local jurisdictional boundaries have disappeared and there is only one single jurisdiction for all family proceedings. The Family Court sits at many locations in England and Wales, and it usually sits at the County Court centres and magistrates courts where family work was previously heard by county courts or family proceedings courts. Family Court judges are now more categories of judges who will be eligible to hear family cases including lay magistrates, district judges, circuit judges, and High Court judges from the Family Division.
Magistrates' and youth courts
Magistrates' courts are the criminal court where all criminal proceedings start. They are presided over by a bench of lay magistrates (A.K.A. justices of the peace), or a legally trained district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), sitting in each local justice area. There are no juries. They have jurisdiction to hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals. Youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates' courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge. Youth magistrates have a wider catalog of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths (which for adults would normally be dealt with by the Crown Court). Youth courts are not open to the public for observation, only the parties involved in a case being admitted.
Prior to the enactment of the Crime and Courts Act 2013, some magistrates' courts were also a family proceedings court and heard family law cases including care cases and they had the power to make adoption orders. Family cases are no longer heard by the magistrates' courts, instead being heard by the single Family Court established by the 2013 Act.
Special courts and tribunals
In addition, there are many other specialist courts. These are often described as "tribunals" rather than courts, but the difference in name is meaningless. For example, an employment tribunal is an inferior court of record for the purposes of the law of contempt of court. In many cases, there is a statutory right of appeal from a tribunal to a particular court or specially constituted appellate tribunal. In the absence of a specific appeals court, the only remedy from a decision of a tribunal may be via judicial review to the High Court, which will often be more limited in scope than an appeal.
Examples of specialist courts are:
Employment tribunals (formerly industrial tribunals) with an appeal to the Employment Appeal Tribunal
the Employment Appeal Tribunal, which is a superior court of record, and therefore not subject to judicial review, appeals go to the Court of Appeal
the First-tier Tribunal and the Upper Tribunal established under the Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 have absorbed the function of many pre-existing tribunals.
Coroners' courts
The post of coroner is ancient, dating from the 11th century, and coroners still sit today to determine the cause of death in situations where people have died in potentially suspicious circumstances, abroad, or in the care of central authority. They also have jurisdiction over treasure trove.
Ecclesiastical courts
The Church of England is an established church (i.e. it is the official state church) and formerly had exclusive or non-exclusive subject matter jurisdiction over marriage and divorce cases, testamentary matters, defamation, and several other areas. Since the 19th century, the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts has narrowed principally to matters of church property and errant clergy. Each diocese has a 'chancellor' (either a barrister or solicitor) who acts as a judge in the consistory court of the diocese. The bishop no longer has the right to preside personally, as he formerly did. Appeals lie to the Arches Court (in Canterbury) and the Chancery Court (in York), and from them to the Court of Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved (CECR). From the CECR appeals lie to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
Military courts
Military courts of the United Kingdom include
the Summary Appeal Court
the Service Civilian Court
the Court Martial
the Court Martial Appeal Court
Other courts
Election court (ad-hoc courts hearing petitions against election results)
Barmote court (largely ceremonial court dealing with lead mining rights in Derbyshire)
The High Court of Chivalry (ancient and rarely convened court dealing with heraldry)
Verderers' courts (dealing with commoners' rights and related matters in the formerly royal hunting forests of the New Forest, the Forest of Dean and Epping Forest.)
Criminal cases
There are two kinds of criminal trials: 'summary' and 'on indictment'. For an adult, summary trials take place in a magistrates' court, while trials on indictment take place in the Crown Court. Despite the possibility of two venues for trial, almost all criminal cases, however serious, commence in a magistrates' courts. It is possible to start a trial for an indictable offence by a voluntary bill of indictment, and go directly to the Crown Court, but that would be unusual.
A criminal case that starts in the magistrates' courts may begin either by the defendant being charged and then being brought forcibly before magistrates or by a summons to the defendant to appear on a certain day before the magistrates. A summons is usually confined to very minor offences. The hearing (of the charge or summons) before the magistrates is known as a "first appearance".
Offences are of three categories: indictable only, summary, and either way. Indictable only offences such as murder and rape must be tried on indictment in the Crown Court. On first appearance, the magistrates must immediately refer the defendant to the Crown Court for trial, their only role being to decide whether to remand the defendant on bail or in custody.
Summary offences, such as most motoring offences, are much less serious and most must be tried in a magistrates' court, although a few may be sent for trial to the Crown Court along with other offences that may be tried there (for example assault). The vast majority of offences are also concluded in a magistrates' court (over 90% of cases).
Either way offences are intermediate offences such as theft and, with the exception of low-value criminal damage, maybe tried either summarily (by magistrates) or by judge and jury in the Crown Court. If the magistrates consider that an either way offence is too serious for them to deal with, they may "decline jurisdiction" which means that the defendant will have to appear in the Crown Court. Conversely, even if the magistrates accept jurisdiction, an adult defendant has a right to compel a jury trial. Defendants under eighteen years of age do not have this right and will be tried in a youth court (similar to a magistrates' court) unless the case is homicide or else is particularly serious.
A magistrates' court is made up in two ways. Either a group (known as a 'bench') of 'lay magistrates', or a district judge, will hear the case. A lay bench must consist of at least three magistrates. Alternatively, a case may be heard by a district judge (formerly known as a stipendiary magistrate), who will be a qualified lawyer and will sit singly, but has the same powers as a lay bench. District judges usually sit in the more busy courts in cities or hear complex cases (e.g. extradition). Magistrates have limited sentencing powers.
In the Crown Court, the case is tried before a recorder (part-time judge), circuit judge or a High Court judge, and a jury. The seniority of the judge depends on the seriousness and complexity of the case. The jury is involved only if the defendant enters a plea of "not guilty".
Appeals
From the magistrates' courts, an appeal can be taken to the Crown Court on matters of fact and law or, on matters of law alone, to the Administrative Court of Queen's Bench Division of the High Court, which is called an appeal "by way of case stated". The magistrates' courts are also inferior courts and are therefore subject to judicial review.
The Crown Court is more complicated. When it is hearing a trial on indictment (a jury trial) it is treated as a superior court, which means that its decisions may not be judicially reviewed and appeal lies only to the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal.
In other circumstances (for example when acting as an appeal court from a magistrates' court) the Crown Court is an inferior court, which means that it is subject to judicial review. When acting as an inferior court, appeals by way of case stated on matters of law may be made to the Administrative Court.
Appeals from the High Court, in criminal matters, lie only to the Supreme Court. Appeals from the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) may also only be taken to the Supreme Court.
Appeals to the Supreme Court are unusual in that the court from which appeal is being made (either the High Court or the Court of Appeal) must certify that there is a point of law of general public importance. This additional control mechanism is not present with civil appeals and means that far fewer criminal appeals are heard by the Supreme Court.
Civil cases
Under the Civil Procedure Rules 1998, civil claims under £10,000 are dealt with in the County Court under the 'small claims track'. This is generally known to the lay public as 'small claims court' but does not exist as a separate court. Claims between £10,000 and £25,000 that are capable of being tried within one day are allocated to the 'fast track' and claims over £25,000 to the 'multi-track'. These 'tracks' are labels for the use of the court system – the actual cases will be heard in the County Court or the High Court depending on their value.
For personal injury, defamation cases, and in some landlord and tenant disputes, the thresholds for each track have different values.
History
For nearly 300 years, from the time of the Norman Conquest until 1362, French was the language of the courts, rather than English. Until the twentieth century, many legal terms were still expressed in Latin.
The Supreme Court of Judicature was formed in 1875 from the merging of various courts then existing, such as the
Court of Queen's Bench
High Court of Chancery
Court of Exchequer
High Court of Admiralty
Court of Common Pleas
Court of Probate and Matrimonial Causes
Court of Common Pleas of the County Palatine of Lancaster
Court of Pleas of the County Palatine of Durham and Sadberge
The Court of Appeal in Chancery was merged into the Court of Appeal.
Other historical courts include:
House of Lords
Star Chamber
Court of High Commission
Court of Criminal Appeal
Court for Crown Cases Reserved
Courts of piepowders (marketplace courts)
Assize Court
Restrictive Practices Court
Courts leet
Quarter sessions
Local courts of special jurisdiction
The courts of session of the County Palatine of Chester and the Principality of Wales were abolished section 14 of by the Law Terms Act 1830.
The Court of the County of Durham was abolished by section 2 of the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836.
The Stannaries Court was abolished by the Stannaries Court (Abolition) Act 1896.
The following courts were merged into the High Court by section 41 of the Courts Act 1971 following the report by Dr. Beeching:
The Court of Chancery of the County Palatine of Lancaster
The Court of Chancery of the County Palatine of Durham and Sadberge
Section 42 replaced the Mayor's and City of London Court with a county court of the same name.
Section 43 abolished:
The Tolzey and Pie Poudre Courts of the City and County of Bristol
The Liverpool Court of Passage
The Norwich Guildhall Court
The Court of Record for the Hundred of Salford
Section 221 of the Local Government Act 1972 abolished the borough civil courts listed in Schedule 28 to that Act.
Part II of Schedule 4 to the Administration of Justice Act 1977 curtailed the jurisdiction of certain other anomalous local courts.
See also
Courts of Northern Ireland
Courts of Scotland
Judiciary of England and Wales
Her Majesty's Courts Service
List of courts in England and Wales
Legal year
English law
Welsh Law
Scots Law
European Union Law
Canon Law
Courts of the Republic of Ireland
List of Supreme Court of Judicature cases
Personal Support Unit
References
External links
HM Courts & Tribunals Service website
Official list of senior judges in the courts of England and Wales
Organisation of justice in England and Wales (pdf)
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240537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Put | Put | Put or PUT may refer to:
A term in Tifa to describe a party
Finance
Put option, a financial contract between a buyer and a seller
CBOE S&P 500 PutWrite Index (ticker symbol)
Science and technology
Programmable unijunction transistor
Computing
Parameterized unit testing, in computer programming
Put, a Hypertext Transfer Protocol request method
Put, a File Transfer Protocol option to copy a file to a remote system; see List of FTP commands
Put, an output procedure in Pascal, Turing, and other programming languages
In C, simple functions, puts and puts(), that put text on the screen
Education
Petroleum University of Technology, Abadan, Ahvaz, Mahmud Abad and Tehran, Iran
Poznań University of Technology, Poland (Polish name: Politechnika Poznańska)
Transportation
Pui To stop (MTR station code), Hong Kong
Putney railway station (National Rail station code), London
Sri Sathya Sai Airport (IATA code), Puttaparthi, Andhra Pradesh, India
Other uses
Phut or Put, Biblical grandson of Noah
Put (band), from Rijeka, Croatia
Put (card game), a 16th-century card game
See also
Putt (disambiguation)
Putte (disambiguation)
ca:Llista de personatges bíblics#Put | [
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240539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBM | GBM | GBM may refer to:
Medicine
Glioblastoma multiforme
Glomerular basement membrane
Science and technology
Gateway belief model, a model in psychology and the communication sciences
Geometric Brownian motion, continuous stochastic process where the logarithm of a variable follows a Brownian movement, that is a Wiener process
Gradient boosting, a machine learning technique
Generic Buffer Management, a graphics API
Gamma-ray Burst Monitor, aboard the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
Other uses
Grand Besançon Métropole, a French intercommunal structure
GBM (League of Legends player) (born 1994), Korean video gamer
Game Boy Micro, a 2005 handheld game console and the last model in the Game Boy line
Garbaharey Airport, in Somalia
Garhwali language
Grand Bauhinia Medal, an honour of Hong Kong
Greater Britain Movement, a short-lived far-right group
Green Belt Movement, a Kenyan environmental organisation | [
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240540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi | Albert Szent-Györgyi | Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt (September 16, 1893 – October 22, 1986) was a Hungarian biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937. He is credited with first isolating vitamin C and discovering the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle. He was also active in the Hungarian Resistance during World War II and entered Hungarian politics after the war.
Early life
Szent-Györgyi was born in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary in 1893. His father, Miklós Szent-Györgyi, was a landowner, born in Marosvásárhely, Transylvania (today Târgu Mureş, Romania), a Calvinist, and could trace his ancestry back to 1608 when Sámuel, a Calvinist predicant, was ennobled. At the time of Szent-Györgyi's birth, being of the nobility was considered important and created opportunities that otherwise were not available. (Miklós Szent-Györgyi's parents were Imre Szent-Györgyi and Mária Csiky). His mother, Jozefina, a Roman Catholic, was a daughter of József Lenhossék and Anna Bossányi. Jozefina was a sister of Mihály Lenhossék; both of these men were Professors of Anatomy at the Eötvös Loránd University. His family included three generations of scientists. Music was important in the Lenhossék family. His mother Jozefina prepared to become an opera singer and auditioned for Gustav Mahler, then a conductor at the Budapest Opera. He advised her to marry instead, since her voice was not enough. Albert himself was good at the piano, while his brother Pál became a professional violinist.
Education
Szent-Györgyi began his studies at the Semmelweis University in 1911, and then began research in his uncle's anatomy lab. His studies were interrupted in 1914 to serve as an army medic in World War I. In 1916, disgusted with the war, Szent-Györgyi shot himself in the arm, claimed to be wounded from enemy fire, and was sent home on medical leave. He was then able to finish his medical education and received his MD in 1917. He married Kornélia Demény, the daughter of the Hungarian Postmaster General, that same year.
After the war, Szent-Györgyi began his research career in Pozsony (today Bratislava, Slovakia). He switched universities several times over the next few years, finally ending up at the University of Groningen, where his work focused on the chemistry of cellular respiration. This work landed him a position as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow at the University of Cambridge. He received his PhD from the University of Cambridge in 1929 where he was a student at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge. His research involved isolating an organic acid, which he then called "hexuronic acid", from adrenal gland tissue.
Career and research
He accepted a position at the University of Szeged in 1930. There Szent-Györgyi and his research fellow Joseph Svirbely found that "hexuronic acid" was actually the thus far unidentified antiscorbutic factor, known as vitamin C. After Walter Norman Haworth had determined the structure of vitamin C, and in honour of its antiscorbutic properties, it was given the formal chemical name of L-ascorbic acid. In some experiments they used paprika as the source for their vitamin C. Also during this time, Szent-Györgyi continued his work on cellular respiration, identifying fumaric acid and other steps in what would become known as the Krebs cycle. In Szeged he also met Zoltán Bay, physicist, who became his personal friend and partner in research on matters of bio-physics.
In 1937 he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion process with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid". Albert Szent-Györgyi offered all of his Nobel prize money to Finland in 1940. (The Hungarian Volunteers in the Winter War travelled to fight for the Finns after the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939.)
In 1938 he began work on the biophysics of muscle movement. He found that muscles contain actin, which when combined with the protein myosin and the energy source ATP, contract muscle fibers. In 1946, Albert received the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.
In 1947 Szent-Györgyi established the Institute for Muscle Research at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts with financial support from Hungarian businessman Stephen Rath. However, Szent-Györgyi still faced funding difficulties for several years, due to his foreign status and former association with the government of a Communist nation. In 1948, he received a research position with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland and began dividing his time between there and Woods Hole. In 1950, grants from the Armour Meat Company and the American Heart Association allowed him to establish the Institute for Muscle Research.
During the 1950s Szent-Györgyi began using electron microscopes to study muscles at the subunit level. He received the Lasker Award in 1954. In 1955, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He was elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1956.
In the late 1950s, Szent-Györgyi developed a research interest in cancer and developed ideas on applying the theories of quantum mechanics to the biochemistry (quantum biology) of cancer. The death of Rath, who had acted as the financial administrator of the Institute for Muscle Research, left Szent-Györgyi in a financial mess. Szent-Györgyi refused to submit government grants which required him to provide minute details on exactly how he intended to spend the research dollars and what he expected to find. After Szent-Györgyi commented on his financial hardships in a 1971 newspaper interview, attorney Franklin Salisbury contacted him and later helped him establish a private nonprofit organization, the National Foundation for Cancer Research. Late in life, Szent-Györgyi began to pursue free radicals as a potential cause of cancer. He came to see cancer as being ultimately an electronic problem at the molecular level. In 1974, reflecting his interests in quantum physics, he proposed the term "syntropy" replace the term "negentropy". Ralph Moss, a protégé of his in the years he performed his cancer research, wrote a biography entitled Free Radical: Albert Szent-Gyorgyi and the Battle over Vitamin C. Aspects of this work are an important precursor to what is now dubbed redox signaling.
Statement on scientific discovery
Albert Szent-Györgyi, who realized that "a discovery must be, by definition, at variance with existing knowledge," divided scientists into two categories: the Apollonians and the Dionysians. He called scientific dissenters, who explored "the fringes of knowledge," Dionysians. He wrote, "In science the Apollonian tends to develop established lines to perfection, while the Dionysian rather relies on intuition and is more likely to open new, unexpected alleys for research...The future of mankind depends on the progress of science, and the progress of science depends on the support it can find. Support mostly takes the form of grants, and the present methods of distributing grants unduly favor the Apollonian."
Involvement in politics
As the government of Gyula Gömbös and the associated Hungarian National Defence Association gained control of politics in Hungary, Szent-Györgyi helped his Jewish friends escape from the country. During World War II, he joined the Hungarian resistance movement. Although Hungary was allied with the Axis Powers, the Hungarian prime minister Miklós Kállay sent Szent-Györgyi to Istanbul in 1944 under the guise of a scientific lecture to begin secret negotiations with the Allies. The Germans learned of this plot and Adolf Hitler himself issued a warrant for the arrest of Szent-Györgyi. He escaped from house arrest and spent 1944 to 1945 as a fugitive from the Gestapo.
After the war, Szent-Györgyi had become well-recognized as a public figure and there was some speculation that he might become President of Hungary, should the Soviets permit it. Szent-Györgyi established a laboratory at the University of Budapest and became head of the biochemistry department there. He was elected a member of Parliament and helped re-establish the Academy of Sciences. Dissatisfied with the Communist rule of Hungary, he emigrated to the United States in 1947.
In 1967, Szent-Györgyi signed a letter declaring his intention to refuse to pay taxes as a means of protesting against the U.S. war against Vietnam, and urging other people to take a similar stand.
Works online
"Teaching and the Expanding Knowledge", in Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought, Vol. 1, No. 1 (March 1965). 24–28. (Reprinted from Science, Vol. 146, No. 3649 [December 4, 1964]. 1278–1279.)
Publications
On Oxidation, Fermentation, Vitamins, Health, and Disease (1940)
Bioenergetics (1957)
Introduction to a Submolecular Biology (1960)
The Crazy Ape (1970)
What next?! (1971)
Electronic Biology and Cancer: A New Theory of Cancer (1976)
The living state (1972)
Bioelectronics: a study in cellular regulations, defense and cancer
Lost in the Twentieth Century (Gandu) (1963)
Personal life
He married Cornelia Demény, daughter of the Hungarian Postmaster-General, in 1917. Their daughter, Cornelia Szent-Györgyi, was born in 1918. He and Cornelia divorced in 1941.
In 1941, he wed Marta Borbiro Miskolczy. She died of cancer in 1963.
Szent-Györgyi married June Susan Wichterman, the 25-year-old daughter of Woods Hole biologist Ralph Wichterman, in 1965. They were divorced in 1968.
He married his fourth wife, Marcia Houston, in 1975. They adopted a daughter, Lola von Szent-Györgyi.
Death and legacy
Szent-Györgyi died in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, US, on October 22, 1986. He was honored with a Google Doodle September 16, 2011, 118 years after his birth. In 2004, nine interviews were conducted with family, colleagues, and others to create a Szent-Györgyi oral history collection.
Notes
References
Bibliography
US National Library of Medicine. The Albert Szent-Györgyi Papers.NIH Profiles in Science
Ilona Újszászi (ed.): The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014.
László Dux: On the Basics of Biochemistry. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 13–23.
János Wölfling: Life through the eyes of a chemist. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 24–34.
Gábor Tóth: From vitamins to peptides - Research topics in Szent-Györgyi's departments. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 35–57.
István Hannus: The Analysis of Vitamin C in Szeged. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 58–76.
Mária Homoki-Nagy: Protection of the creations of the mind in the history of Hungarian law. Copyright and patent rights; primacy and ethics in science. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 77–93.
Miklós Gábor: Albert Szent-Györgyi's Studies on Flavones. Impact of the Discovery. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 94-122.
Tamás Vajda: Effects of the discovery of vitamin C on the paprika industry and the economy of the southern part of the Hungarian Great Plain. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 123–152.
Béla Pukánszky: The thoughts of Albert Szent-Györgyi on pedagogy. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 153–169.
Csaba Jancsák: Albert Szent-Györgyi and the Student Union of the University of Szeged. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 170–193.
József Pál: From the Unity of Life to the Coequality of the Forms of Consciousness. Worries of Albert Szent-Györgyi in Times of War. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 194–210. http://publicatio.bibl.u-szeged.hu/6615/1/Sz_Gy-Unity_of_life.pdf
Ildikó Tasiné Csúcs: The science-rescuing activity of Albert Szent-Györgyi and its roots in Hungary after 1945. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 211–227. http://publicatio.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5744/1/Science_rescuing.pdf
József Pál: About Albert Szent-Györgyi's Poems. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 228–237. https://web.archive.org/web/20160506215625/http://publicatio.bibl.u-szeged.hu/6611/1/A_Sz-Gy_poems.pdf
Gábor Szabó: The passage of Szent-Györgyi to biophysics: a journey from the blur of the boundaries of disciplines through the instruments used for research with a stopover at the paprika centrifuge and arriving at the super lasers. In: The intellectual heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi = Szegedi Egyetemi Tudástár 2.(Series editors.: László Dux, István Hannus, József Pál, Ilona Újszászi) Publishing Department-University of Szeged. 2014. 238–253.
External links
1893 births
1986 deaths
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
American anti-war activists
American tax resisters
Citric acid cycle
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Hungarian biochemists
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Hungarian Nobel laureates
Austro-Hungarian Nobel laureates
Hungarian people of World War II
Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1945–1947)
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Hungarian physiologists
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
Semmelweis University alumni
University of Szeged faculty
Vitamin C
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240542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Siberia | History of Siberia | The early history of Siberia was greatly influenced by the sophisticated nomadic civilizations of the Scythians (Pazyryk) on the west of the Ural Mountains and Xiongnu (Noin-Ula) on the east of the Urals, both flourishing before the Christian era. The steppes of Siberia were occupied by a succession of nomadic peoples, including the Khitan people, various Turkic peoples, and the Mongol Empire. In the late Middle Ages, Tibetan Buddhism spread into the areas south of Lake Baikal.
During the Russian Empire, Siberia was chiefly developed as an agricultural province. The government also used it as a place of exile, sending Avvakum, Dostoevsky, and the Decemberists, among others, to work camps in the region. During the 19th century, the Trans-Siberian Railway was constructed, supporting industrialization. This was also aided by discovery and exploitation of vast reserves of Siberian mineral resources.
Prehistory and antiquity
According to the field of genetic genealogy, people first resided in Siberia by 45,000 BCE and spread out east and west to populate Europe and the Americas, including the prehistoric Jomon people of Japan, who are the ancestors of the modern Ainu. Genetic data suggests that Siberia was populated during the Terminal Upper-Paleolithic (36+-1,5ka) period from both, a deeply European-related population, which was once widespreaded in Northern Eurasia, and from an early East Asian-related group, which migrated northwards into Central Asia and Siberia, merging with this deeply European-related population, forming the Ancient North Eurasians. These population dynamics and later constant northwards geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry during the late Paleolithic would later gave rise to the "Ancestral Native Americans" and Paleosiberians, which replaced the ANE as dominant population of Siberia. Further northwards geneflow from Northeast Asia resulted in the modern distribution of "Neo-Siberians".
According to Vasily Radlov, among the Paleo-Siberian inhabitants of Central Siberia were the Yeniseians, who spoke a language different from the later Uralic and Turkic people. The Kets are considered the last remainder of this early migration. Migrants are estimated to have crossed the Bering Land Bridge into North America more than 20,000 years ago.
The shores of all Siberian lakes, which filled the depressions during the Lacustrine period, abound in remains dating from the Neolithic age. Countless kurgans (tumuli), furnaces, and other archaeological artifacts bear witness to a dense population. Some of the earliest artifacts found in Central Asia derive from Siberia.
The Yeniseians were followed by the Uralic Samoyeds, who came from the northern Ural region. Some descendant cultures, such as the Selkup, remain in the Sayan region. Iron was unknown to them, but they excelled in bronze, silver, and gold work. Their bronze ornaments and implements, often polished, evince considerable artistic taste. They developed and managed irrigation to support their agriculture in wide areas of the fertile tracts.
Indo-Iranian influences in southwestern Siberia can be dated to the 2300–1000 BCE Andronovo culture. Between the 7th and 3rd centuries BCE, the Indo-Iranian Scythians flourished in the Altai region (Pazyryk culture). They were a major influence on all later steppe empires.
As early as the first millennium BCE, trade was underway over the Silk Road. Silk goods were imported and traded in Siberia.
The establishment of the Xiongnu empire in the 3rd century BCE started a series of population movements. Many people were probably driven to the northern borders of the great Central Siberian Plateau. Turkic people such as the Yenisei Kirghiz had already been present in the Sayan region. Various Turkic tribes such as the Khaka and Uyghur migrated northwestwards from their former seats and subdued the Ugric people.
These new invaders likewise left numerous traces of their stay, and two different periods may be easily distinguished from their remains. They were acquainted with iron, and learned from their subjects the art of bronze casting, which they used for decorative purposes only. They refined the artistry of this work. Their pottery is more artistic and of a higher quality than that of the Bronze Age. Their ornaments are included among the collections at the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.
Middle Ages
Mongol conquest of Southern and Western Siberia
The Mongols had long maintained relations with the people of the Siberian forest (taiga). They called them oin irged ("people of the forest"). Many of them, such as the Barga and Uriankhai, were little different from the Mongols. While the tribes around Lake Baikal were Mongol-speaking, those to the west spoke Turkic, Samoyedic, or Yeniseian languages.
By 1206, Genghis Khan had united all Mongol and Turkic tribes in Mongolia and southern Siberia. In 1207 his eldest son Jochi subjugated the Siberian forest people, the Uriankhai, the Oirats, Barga, Khakas, Buryats, Tuvans, Khori-Tumed, and Kyrgyz. He then organized the Siberians into three tumens. Genghis Khan gave the Telengit and Tolos along the Irtysh River to an old companion, Qorchi. While the Barga, Tumed, Buriats, Khori, Keshmiti, and Bashkirs were organized in separate thousands, the Telengit, Tolos, Oirats and Yenisei Kirghiz were numbered as tumens. Genghis created a settlement of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-kemchik after the first phase of the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. The Great Khans favored gyrfalcons, furs, women and Kyrgyz horses for tribute.
Western Siberia came under the Golden Horde. The descendants of Orda Khan, the eldest son of Jochi, directly ruled the area. In the swamps of western Siberia, dog sled Yam stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute.
In 1270, Kublai Khan sent a Chinese official, with a new batch of settlers, to serve as judge of the Kyrgyz and Tuvan basin areas (益蘭州 and 謙州). Ogedei's grandson Kaidu occupied portions of Central Siberia from 1275 on. The Yuan dynasty army under Kublai's Kipchak general Tutugh reoccupied the Kyrgyz lands in 1293. From then on the Yuan dynasty controlled large portions of Central and Eastern Siberia.
The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Chinese origin and Samarkand and Outer Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin seen by Changchun.
Novgorod and Muscovy
As early as the 11th century the Novgorodians had occasionally penetrated into Siberia. In the 14th century the Novgorodians explored the Kara Sea and the West Siberian river Ob (1364). Though the more Russian people advanced to the East, the less developed the local people were, and the more resistance they offered. In 1607–1610, the Tungus fought strenuously for their independence, but were subdued around 1623. The Buryats also offered some opposition, but were swiftly pacified. The most resistance was offered by the Koryak (on the Kamchatka Peninsula) and Chukchi (on the Chukchi Peninsula), the latter still being at the Stone Age level of development. Resistance by local people may have been the result of forced unfair terms, that recorders would have benefitted from omitting.
The Manchu resistance, however, obliged the Russian Cossacks to quit Albazin, and by the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) Russia abandoned her advance into the basin of the river, instead concentrating on the colonisation of the vast expanses of Siberia and trading with China via the Siberian trakt. In 1852 a Russian military expedition under Nikolay Muravyov explored the Amur, and by 1857 a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants were settled along the whole course of the river. The accomplished fact was recognised by China in 1860 by the Treaty of Aigun.
Scientists in Siberia
The scientific exploration of Siberia, commenced in the period of 1720 to 1742 by Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt, Johann Georg Gmelin, and Louis de l'Isle de la Croyere, was followed up by Gerhardt Friedrich Müller, Johann Eberhard Fischer, and Johann Gottlieb Georgi. Peter Simon Pallas, with several Russian students, laid the first foundation of a thorough exploration of the topography, fauna, flora, and inhabitants of the country. The journeys of Christopher Hansteen and Georg Adolf Erman were the most important step in the exploration of the territory. Alexander von Humboldt, Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, and Gustav Rose also paid short visits to Siberia, which gave a new impulse to the accumulation of scientific knowledge; while Carl Ritter elaborated in his Asien (1832–1859) the foundations of a sound knowledge of the structure of Siberia. Aleksandr Fyodorovich Middendorf's journey (1843–1845) to north-eastern Siberia — contemporaneous with Matthias Castrén's journeys for the special study of the Ural-Altaic languages — directed attention to the far north and awakened interest in the Amur, the basin of which soon became the scene of the expeditions of Akhte and Schwarz (1852), and later on of the Siberian expedition, advanced knowledge of East Siberia.
The Siberian branch of the Russian Geographical Society was founded at the same time in Irkutsk, and afterwards became a permanent centre for the exploration of Siberia; while the opening of the Amur and Sakhalin attracted Richard Maack, Schmidt, Glehn, Gustav Radde, and Leopold von Schrenck, who created works on the flora, fauna, and inhabitants of Siberia.
Russian settlement
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Russian people that migrated into Siberia were hunters, and those who had escaped from Central Russia: fugitive peasants in search for life free of serfdom, fugitive convicts, and Old Believers. The new settlements of Russian people and the existing local peoples required defence from nomads, for which forts were founded. This way forts of Tomsk and Berdsk were founded.
In the beginning of the 18th century the threat of the nomads' attacks weakened; thus the region became more and more populated; normal civic life was established in the cities.
In the 18th century in Siberia, a new administrative guberniya was formed with Irkutsk, then in the 19th century the territory was several times re-divided with creation of new guberniyas: Tomsk (with center in Tomsk) and Yenisei (Yeniseysk, later Krasnoyarsk).
In the 1730, the first large industrial project — the metallurgical production found by Demidov family — gave birth to the city of Barnaul. Later, the enterprise organized social institutions like library, club, theatre. Pyotr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who stayed in Barnaul in 1856–1857, wrote: "The richness of mining engineers of Barnaul expressed not merely in their households and clothes, but more in their educational level, knowledge of science and literature. Barnaul was undoubtedly the most cultured place in Siberia, and I've called it Siberian Athenes, leaving Sparta for Omsk".
The same events took place in other cities; public libraries, museums of local lore, colleges, theatres were being built, although the first university in Siberia was opened as late as 1880 in Tomsk.
Siberian peasants more than those in European Russia relied on their own force and abilities. They had to fight against the harder climate without outside help. Absence of serfdom and landlords also contributed to their independent character. Unlike peasants in European Russia, Siberians had no problems with land availability; the low population density gave them the ability to intensively cultivate a plot for several years in a row, then to leave it fallow for a long time and cultivate other plots. Siberian peasants had an abundance of food, while Central Russian peasantry had to moderate their families' appetites. Leonid Blummer noted that the culture of alcohol consumption differed significantly; Siberian peasants drank frequently but moderately: "For a Siberian vodka isn't a wonder, unlike for a Russian peasant, which, having reached it after all this time, is ready to drink a sea." The houses, according to travellers' notes, were unlike the typical Russian izbas: the houses were big, often two-floored, the ceilings were high, the walls were covered with boards and painted with oil-paint.
Russian Empire
Administrative divisions
The Siberia Governorate was established in 1708 as part of the administrative reforms of Peter I.
In 1719, the governorate was divided into three provinces, Vyatka, Solikamsk and Tobolsk.
In 1762, it was renamed to Tsardom of Siberia (Сибирское царство).
In 1782, under the impression of Pugachev's Rebellion, the Siberian kingdom was divided into three separate viceregencies (наместничество), centered at Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan. These viceregencies were downgraded to the status of governorate in 1796 (Tobolsk Governorate, Irkutsk Governorate, Vyatka Governorate).
Tomsk Governorate was split off Tobolsk governorate in 1804. Yakutsk Oblast was split off Irkutsk Governorate in 1805.
In 1822, the subdivision of Siberia was reformed again. It was divided into two governorates general, West Siberia and East Siberia.
West Siberia comprised the Tobolsk and Tomsk governorates, and East Siberia comprised Irkutsk Governorate, and the newly formed Yeniseysk Governorate.
Decembrists and other exiles
Siberia was deemed a good place to exile for political reasons, as it was far from any foreign country. A St. Petersburg citizen would not wish to escape in vast Siberian countryside as the peasants and criminals did. Even the larger cities such as Irkutsk, Omsk, and Krasnoyarsk, lacked that intensive social life and luxurious high life of the capital.
About eighty people involved in the Decembrist revolt were sentenced to obligatory work in Siberia and perpetual settlement here. Eleven wives followed them and settled near the labour camps. In their memoirs, they noted benevolence and prosperity of rural Siberians and severe treatment by the soldiers and officers.
"Travelling through Siberia, I was wondered and fascinated at every step by the cordiality and hospitality I met everywhere. I was fascinated by the richness and the abundance, with which the people live until today (1861), but that time there was even more expanse in everything. The hospitality was especially developed in Siberia. Everywhere we were received like being in friendly countries, everywhere we were fed well, and when I asked how much I owed them, they didn't want to take anything, saying "Put a candle to the God"."
"...Siberia is an extremely rich country, the land is unusually fruitful, and little work is needed to get a plentiful harvest."
Polina Annenkova, Notes of a Decembrist's Wife
A number of Decembrists died of diseases, some suffered psychological shock and even went out of their mind.
After completing the term of obligatory work, they were sentenced to settle in specific small towns and villages. There, some started doing business, which was well permitted. Only several years later, in the 1840s, they were allowed to move to big cities or to settle anywhere in Siberia. Only in 1856, 31 years after the revolt, Alexander II pardoned and restituted the Decembrists in honour of his coronation.
Living in the cities of Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Irkutsk, the Decembrists contributed extensively to the social life and culture. In Irkutsk, their houses are now museums. In many places, memorial plaques with their names have been installed.
Yet, there were exceptions: Vladimir Raevskiy was arrested for participation in Decembrists' circles in 1822, and in 1828 was exiled to Olonki village near Irkutsk. There he married and had nine children, traded with bread, and founded a school for children and adults to teach arithmetics and grammar. Being pardoned by Alexander II, he visited his native town, but returned to Olonki.
Despite the wishes of the central authorities, the exiled revolutioners unlikely felt outcast in Siberia. Quite the contrary, Siberians having lived all the time on their own, "didn't feel tenderness" to the authorities. In many cases, the exiled were cordially received and got paid positions.
Fyodor Dostoevsky was exiled to katorga near Omsk and to military service in Semipalatinsk. In the service he also had to make trips for Barnaul and Kuznetsk, where he married.
Anton Chekhov was not exiled, but in 1890 made a trip on his own to Sakhalin through Siberia and visited a katorga there. In his trip, he visited Tomsk, speaking disapprovingly about it, then Krasnoyarsk, which he called "the most beautiful Siberian city". He noted that despite being more a place of criminal rather than political exile, the moral atmosphere was much better: he did not face any case of theft. Blummer suggested to prepare a gun, but his attendant replied: What for?! We are not in Italy, you know. Chekhov observed that besides of the evident prosperity, there was an urgent demand for cultural development.
Many Poles were also exiled to Siberia (see Sybiraks). In 1866 they incited rebellion in Siberia.
Trans-Siberian Railway
The development of Siberia was hampered by poor transportation links within the region as well as between Siberia and the rest of the country. Aside from the Sibirsky trakt, good roads suitable for wheeled transport were few and far apart. For about five months of the year, rivers were the main means of transportation; during the cold half of the year, cargo and passengers travelled by horse-drawn sleds over the winter roads, many of which were the same rivers, now ice-covered.
The first steamboat on the Ob, Nikita Myasnikov's "Osnova", was launched in 1844; but the early starts were difficult, and it was not until 1857 that steamboat shipping started developing in the Ob system in the serious way. Steamboats started operating on the Yenisei in 1863, on the Lena and Amur in the 1870s.
While the comparably flat Western Siberia was at least fairly well served by the gigantic
Ob-Irtysh-Tobol-Chulym river system, the mighty rivers of Eastern Siberia --
Yenisei, Upper Angara River (Angara River below Bratsk was not easily navigable because of the rapids),
Lena — were mostly navigable only in the north–south direction. An attempt to somewhat
remedy the situation by building the Ob-Yenisei Canal were not particularly successful.
Only a railroad could be a real solution to the region's transportation problems.
The first projects of railroads in Siberia emerged since the creation of the Moscow–St. Petersburg railroad. One of the first was Irkutsk–Chita project, intended to connect the former to the Amur River and, consequently, to the Pacific Ocean.
Prior to 1880 the central government seldom responded to such projects, due to weakness of Siberian enterprises, fear of Siberian territories' integration with the Pacific region rather than with Russia, and thus falling under the influence of the United States and Great Britain. The heavy and clumsy bureaucracy and the fear of financial risks also contributed to the inaction: the financial system always underestimated the effects of the railway, assuming that it would take only the existing traffic.
Mainly the fear of losing Siberia convinced Alexander II in 1880 to make a decision to build the railway. Construction started in 1891.
Trans-Siberian Railroad gave a great boost to Siberian agriculture, allowing for increased exports to Central Russia and European countries. It pushed not only the territories closest to the railway, but also those connected with meridional rivers, such as the Ob (Altai) and the Yenisei (Minusinsk and Abakan regions).
Siberian agriculture exported a lot of cheap grain to the West. The agriculture in Central Russia was still under pressure of serfdom, formally abandoned in 1861.
Thus, to defend it and to prevent possible social destabilization, in 1896 (when the eastern and western parts of the Trans-Siberian did not close up yet), the government introduced Chelyabinsk tariff break ()—a tariff barrier for grain in Chelyabinsk, and a similar barrier in Manchuria. This measure changed the form of cereal product export: mills emerged in Altai, Novosibirsk, and Tomsk; many farms switched to butter production. From 1896 to 1913 Siberia on average exported 30.6 million poods (~500,000 tonnes) of cereal products (grain, flour) annually.
Stolypin's resettlement programme
One early significant settlement campaign was carried out under Nicholas II by Prime Minister Stolypin in 1906–1911.
The rural areas of Central Russia were overcrowded, while the East was still lightly populated despite having fertile lands. On May 10, 1906, by the decree of the Tsar, agriculturalists were granted the right to transfer, without any restrictions, to the Asian territories of Russia, and to obtain cheap or free land. A large advertising campaign was conducted: six million copies of brochures and banners entitled What the resettlement gives to peasants, and How the peasants in Siberia live were printed and distributed in rural areas. Special propaganda trains were sent throughout the countryside, and transport trains were provided for the migrants. The State gave loans to the settlers for farm construction.
Not all the settlers decided to stay; 17.8% migrated back. All in all, more than three million people officially resettled to Siberia, and 750,000 came as foot-messengers. From 1897 to 1914 Siberian population increased 73%, and the area of land under cultivation doubled.
Tunguska event
The Tunguska Event, or Tunguska explosion, was a powerful explosion that occurred near the Podkamennaya (Lower Stony) Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai of Russia, at around 7:14 a.m. (0:14 UT, 7:02 a.m. local solar time) on June 30, 1908 (June 17 in the Julian calendar, in use locally at the time).
The cause of the explosion is controversial, and still much disputed to this day. Although the cause of the explosion is the subject of debate, it is commonly believed to have been caused by a meteor air burst: the atmospheric explosion of a large meteoroid or comet fragment at an altitude of 5–10 kilometres (3–6 miles) above the Earth's surface. Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the object's size, with general agreement that it was a few tens of metres across.
Although the Tunguska event is believed to be the largest impact event on land in Earth's recent history, impacts of similar size in remote ocean areas would have gone unnoticed before the advent of global satellite monitoring in the 1960s and 1970s. Because the event occurred in a remote area, there was little damage to human life or property, and it was in fact some years until it was properly investigated.
The first recorded expedition arrived at the scene more than a decade after the event. In 1921, the Russian mineralogist Leonid Kulik, visiting the Podkamennaya Tunguska River basin as part of a survey for the Soviet Academy of Sciences, deduced from local accounts that the explosion had been caused by a giant meteorite impact. He persuaded the Soviet government to fund an expedition to the Tunguska region, based on the prospect of meteoric iron that could be salvaged to aid Soviet industry.
Kulik's party reached the site in 1927. To their surprise, no crater was to be found. There was instead a region of scorched trees about across. A few near ground zero were still strangely standing upright, their branches and bark stripped off. Those farther away had been knocked down in a direction away from the center.
Russian Civil War
By the time of the revolution Siberia was an agricultural region of Russia, with weak entrepreneur and industrial classes. The intelligentsia had vague political ideas. Only 13% of the region's population lived in the cities and possessed some political knowledge. The lack of strong social differences and scarcity of urban population and intellectuals led to the uniting of formally different political parties under ideas of regionalism.
The anti-Bolshevik forces failed to offer a united resistance. While Kolchak fought against the Bolsheviks intending to eliminate them in the capital of the Empire, the local Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks tried to sign a peace treaty with the Bolsheviks, on terms of independence. Foreign allies, though being able to make a decisive effort, preferred to stay neutral, although Kolchak himself rejected the offer of help from Japan.
After a series of defeats in Central Russia, Kolchak's forces retreated to Siberia. Amid resistance of Socialist-Revolutionaries and waning support from the allies, the Whites had to evacuate from Omsk to Irkutsk, and finally Kolchak resigned under pressure of the Socialist-Revolutionaries, who soon submitted to the Bolsheviks.
Soviet era
1920s and 1930s
By the 1920s the agriculture in Siberia was in decline. With the large number of immigrants, land was used very intensively, which led to exhaustion of the land and frequent bad harvests.
Agriculture wasn't destroyed by the civil war, but the disorganization of the exports destroyed the food industry and reduced the peasants' incomes. Furthermore, prodrazvyorstka and then the natural food tax contributed to growing discontent. In 1920–1924 there was a number of anti-communistic riots in rural areas, with up to 40,000 people involved. Both old Whites (Cossacks) and old "Reds" partisans, who earlier fought against Kolchak, the marginals, who were the major force of the Communists, took part in the riots. According to a survey of 1927 in Irkutsk Oblast, the peasants openly said they'd participate in anti-Soviet rebel and hoped for the foreign help. It should also be noticed that the KVZhD builders and workers were declared enemies of the people by a special order of the Soviet authorities.
The youth, that had socialized in the age of war, was highly militarized, and the Soviet government pushed the further military propaganda by Komsomol. There are many documented evidences of "red banditism", especially in the countryside, such as desecration of churches and Christian graves, and even murders of priests and believers. Also in many cases a Komsomol activist or an authority representative, speaking with a person opposed to the Soviets, got angry and killed him/her and anybody else. The Party faintly counteracted this.
In the 1930s, the Party started the collectivization, which automatically put the "kulak" label on the well-off families living in Siberia for a long time. Naturally, raskulachivanie applied to everyone who protested. From the Central Russia many families were exiled to low-populated, forest or swampy areas of Siberia, but those who lived here, had either to escape anywhere, or to be exiled in the Northern regions (such as Evenk and Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrugs and the northern parts of Tomsk Oblast). Collectivization destroyed the traditional and most effective stratum of the peasants in Siberia and the natural ways of development, and its consequences are still persisting.
In the cities, during the New Economic Policy and later, the new authorities, driven by the romantic socialistic ideas made attempts to build new socialistic cities, according to the fashionable constructivism movement, but after all have left only numbers of square houses. For example, the Novosibirsk theatre was initially designed in pure constructivistic style. It was an ambitious project of exiled architects. In the mid-1930s with introduction of new classicism, it was significantly redesigned.
After the Trans-Siberian was built, Omsk soon became the largest Siberian city, but in 1930s Soviets favoured Novosibirsk. In the 1930s the first heavy industrialization took place in the Kuznetsk Basin (coal mining and ferrous metallurgy) and at Norilsk (nickel and rare-earth metals). The Northern Sea Route saw industrial application. At the same time, with growing number of prisoners, Gulag established a large network of labour camps in Siberia.
World War II
In 1941, many enterprises and people were evacuated into Siberian cities by the railroads. In urgent need of ammunition and military equipment, they started working right after being unloaded near the stations. The workshops' buildings were built simultaneously with work.
Most of the evacuated enterprises remained at their new sites after the war. They increased industrial production in Siberia to a great extent, and became constitutive for many cities, like Rubtsovsk. The most Eastern city to receive them was Ulan-Ude, since Chita was considered dangerously close to China and Japan.
On August 28, 1941 the Supreme Soviet stated an order "About the Resettlement of the Germans of Volga region", by which many of them were deported into different rural areas of Kazakhstan and Siberia.
By the end of war, thousands of captive soldiers and officers of German and Japanese armies were sentenced to several years of work in labour camps in all the regions of Siberia. These camps were directed by a different administration than Gulag. Although Soviet camps hadn't the purpose to lead prisoners to death, the death rate was significant, especially in winters. The range of works differed from vegetable farming to construction of the Baikal Amur Mainline.
Industrial expansion
In the second half of the 20th century, the exploration of mineral and hydroenergetic resources continued. Many of these projects were planned, but were delayed due to wars and the ever-changing opinions of Soviet politicians.
The most famous project is Baikal Amur Mainline. It was planned simultaneously with Trans-Siberian, but the construction began just before World War II, was put on hold during the war and restarted after. After Joseph Stalin's death, it was again suspended for years to be continued under Leonid Brezhnev.
The cascade of hydroelectric powerplants was built in the 1960s–1970s on the Angara River, a project similar to Tennessee Valley Authority in the United States. The powerplants allowed creation and support of large production facilities, such as the aluminium plant in Bratsk, Ust-Ilimsk, rare-earth mining in Angara basin, and those associated with the timber industry. The price of electricity in Angara basin is the lowest in Russia. But the Angara cascade is not fully finished yet: the Boguchany power plant waits to be finished, and a series of enterprises will be set up.
The downside of this development is the ecological damage due to low standards of production and excessive sizes of dams (the bigger projects were favoured by the industrial authorities and received more funding), the increased humidity sharpened the already hard climate. Another powerplant project on Katun River in Altai mountains in the 1980s, which was widely protested publicly, was cancelled.
There are a number of military-oriented centers like the NPO Vektor and closed cities like Seversk. By the end of the 1980s a large portion of the industrial production of Omsk and Novosibirsk (up to 40%) was composed of military and aviation output. The collapse of state-funded military orders began an economic crisis.
The Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences unites a lot of research institutes in the biggest cities, the biggest being the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Akademgorodok (a scientific town) near Novosibirsk. Other scientific towns or just districts composed by research institutes, also named "Akademgorodok", are in the cities of Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk. These sites are the centers of the newly developed IT industry, especially in that of Novosibirsk, nicknamed "Silicon Taiga", and in Tomsk.
A number of Siberian-based companies extended their businesses of various consumer products to meta-regional and an All-Russian level. Various Siberian artists and industries, have created communities that are not centralized in Moscow anymore, like the Idea (annual low-budged ads festival), Golden Capital (annual prize in architecture).
Recent history
Until completion of the Chita-Khabarovsk highway, the Transbaikalia was a dead end for automobile transport. While this recently constructed through road will at first benefit mostly the transit travel to and from the Pacific provinces, it will also boost settlement and industrial expansion in the sparsely populated regions of Zabaykalsky Krai and Amur Oblast.
Expansion of transportation networks will continue to define the directions of Siberian regional development. The next project to be carried out is the completion of the railroad branch to Yakutsk. Another large project, proposed already in the 19th century as a northern option for the Transsiberian railroad, is the Northern-Siberian Railroad between Nizhnevartovsk,
Belyi Yar, Lesosibirsk and Ust-Ilimsk. The Russian Railroads instead suggest an ambitious project of a railway to Magadan, Chukchi Peninsula and then the supposed Bering Strait Tunnel to Alaska.
While the Russians continue to migrate from the Siberian and
Far Eastern Federal Districts to Western Russia, the Siberian cities attract labour (legal or illegal) from the Central Asian republics and from China. While the natives are aware of the situation, in Western Russia myths about thousands and millions of Chinese living in the Transbaikalia and the Far East are widespread.
Research centers
The largest research center in Russia, which systematically studies the history of Siberia, is Institute of History of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
See also
Age of Discovery
Education in Siberia
Explorers of Siberia
Ket people
List of Sibir khans
Russian conquest of Siberia
Trans-Siberian railway
Cities in Siberia
Timeline of Novosibirsk
Timeline of Omsk
References
Sources
Further reading
Bassin, Mark. "Inventing Siberia: visions of the Russian East in the early nineteenth century." American Historical Review 96.3 (1991): 763–794. online
Bassin, Mark. Imperial visions: nationalist imagination and geographical expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840–1865 (Cambridge UP, 1999).
Bobrick, Benson. East of the Sun: the epic conquest and tragic history of Siberia (Henry Holt and Company, 1993)
Cheng, Tien-Fong. A History Of Sino-Russian Relations (1957)
Forsyth, James. A history of the peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian colony 1581-1990 (Cambridge University Press, 1994) excerpt
Gibson, James R. "The Significance of Siberia to Tsarist Russia." Canadian Slavonic Papers 14.3 (1972): 442–453.
Hartley, Janet M. Siberia: A History of the People (Yale UP, 2014) excerpt
McAleavy, Henry. "China and the Amur Provinces" History Today (1964) 14#6 pp 381–390.
March, G. Patrick. "Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific" (1996)
Marks, S.G. Road to Power: The Trans-Siberian Railroad and the Colonization of Asian Russia, 1850–1917 (1991)
Naumov, Igor V. The history of Siberia (Routledge, 2006)
Wood, Alan, ed. The history of Siberia: from Russian conquest to revolution (Taylor & Francis, 1991.)
Yakhontoff, Victor A. Russia And The Soviet Union In The Far East (1932) online
External links
"Sibirskaya Zaimka" — an internet journal of scientific publications on the Siberian history (in Russian, with a link to an online translated version)
Siberia (Сибирь) in Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary
Siberian Expedition website, by Benjamin Isitt
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240546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Blake%20%28admiral%29 | Robert Blake (admiral) | General at Sea Robert Blake (27 September 1598 – 17 August 1657) was an important naval commander of the Commonwealth of England and one of the most famous English admirals of the 17th century. His successes have been considered to have "never been excelled, not even by Nelson" according to one biographer. Blake is recognised as the chief founder of England's naval supremacy, a dominance subsequently inherited by the British Royal Navy into the early 20th century. Despite this, due to deliberate attempts to expunge the Parliamentarians from history following the Restoration, Blake's achievements tend to remain unrecognized.
Family and early life
The Blake family had a seat for several generations at (and were Lords of the Manor of) Tuxwell, in the parish of Bishops Lydeard, near Bridgwater, Somerset. The earliest member of the family located in records was Humphrey Blake, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII. Admiral Blake's grandfather, also named Robert, was the first of the family to strike out on his own from country life as a merchant, hoping to become rich from Spanish trade. He served as chief magistrate and member of Parliament for Bridgwater several times, in recognition of the esteem in which the townspeople held him. His son, Humphrey, succeeded him in business, and in addition to his father's estates at Puriton (of which he held the lordship), Catcot, Bawdrip, and Woolavington, came into the estate at Plainsfield held by the family of his wife, Sara Williams, since the reign of Henry VII.
Robert Blake was the first son of thirteen children born to Humphrey and Sara. He attended Bridgwater Grammar School for Boys, then went up to Wadham College, Oxford. He had hoped to follow an academic career, but failed to secure a fellowship to Merton College, probably in consideration of his political and religious views, but also because the warden of Merton, Sir Henry Savile, had 'an eccentric distaste for men of low stature'. Blake, at five feet, six inches tall, thus failed to meet Savile's 'standard of manly beauty'.
After his departure from university in 1625, it is believed that Blake was engaged in trade, and a Dutch writer subsequently claimed that he had lived for 'five or six years' in Schiedam. Having returned to Bridgwater, probably because of the death of his mother in 1638, he decided to stand for election to Parliament.
In politics
In 1640 Blake was elected as the Member of Parliament for Bridgwater in the Short Parliament. When the English Civil War broke out during the period of the Long Parliament, and having failed to be re-elected, Blake began his military career on the side of the parliamentarians despite having no substantial experience of military or naval matters.
He would later return to recover from an injury sustained in the Battle of Portland. During that time he represented Bridgwater in the Barebone's Parliament of 1653 and First Protectorate Parliament of 1654 and Taunton in the Second Protectorate Parliament of 1656 before returning to sea.
On land
After joining the New Model Army as a captain in Alexander Popham's regiment, Blake distinguished himself at the Siege of Bristol (July 1643) and was promoted to lieutenant colonel. After his leading role in holding Lyme Regis in the Siege of Lyme Regis (April 1644) he was promoted to colonel. He went on to hold the Parliamentary enclave of Taunton during the Siege of Taunton (1645), which earned him national recognition and where he famously declared that he would eat three of his four pairs of boots before he would surrender. He subsequently succeeded in winning the Siege of Dunster (November 1645).
At sea
Blake was appointed general at sea in 1649. Although it is commonly used, Blake's name was never prefixed by 'admiral', a rank which was not used in the Parliamentarian navy; his actual rank of general at sea combined the role of an admiral and commissioner of the Navy. In 1651 he led a force to successfully remove the Royalist Sir John Grenville from the Scilly Isles, where he had been appointed Governor by Charles II after a local rebellion.
Blake is often referred to as the 'Father of the Royal Navy'. As well as being largely responsible for building the largest navy the country had then ever known, from a few tens of ships to well over a hundred, he was first to keep a fleet at sea over the winter. Blake also produced the navy's first ever set of rules and regulations, The Laws of War and Ordinances of the Sea, the first version of which, containing 20 provisions, was passed by the House of Commons on 5 March 1649, with a printed version published in 1652 as The Laws of War and Ordinances of the Sea (Ordained and Established by the Parliament of the Commonwealth of England), listing 39 offences and their punishments – mostly death. The Instructions of the Admirals and generals of the Fleet for Councils of War, issued in 1653 by Blake, George Monck, John Disbrowe and William Penn, also instituted the first naval courts-martial in the English navy.
Blake developed new techniques to conduct blockades and landings; his Sailing instructions and Fighting Instructions, which were major overhauls of naval tactics written while recovering from injury in 1653, were the foundation of English naval tactics in the Age of Sail. Blake's Fighting Instructions, issued by the generals at sea on 29 March 1653, are the first known instructions to be written in any language to adopt the use of the single line ahead battle formation Blake was also the first to repeatedly successfully attack despite fire from shore forts.
In 1656, the year before his death, Blake was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.
English Civil War
See also English Civil War
On 11 January 1649 Prince Rupert of the Rhine led eight undermanned ships to Kinsale in Ireland in an attempt to prevent the Parliamentarians taking Ireland from the Royalists. Blake blockaded Rupert's fleet in Kinsale from 22 May, allowing Oliver Cromwell to land at Dublin on 15 August. Blake was driven off by a storm in October and Rupert escaped via Spain to Lisbon, where he had expanded his fleet to 13 ships. Blake put to sea with 12 ships in February 1650 and dropped anchor off Lisbon in an attempt to persuade the Portuguese king to expel Rupert. After two months the king decided to back Rupert. Blake was joined by another four warships commanded by Edward Popham, who brought authority to go to war with Portugal.
Rupert twice failed to break the blockade, which was finally raised after Blake sailed for Cádiz with seven ships he had captured after a three-hour engagement with 23 ships of the Portuguese fleet (during which the Portuguese vice-admiral was also sunk.) Blake re-engaged with Rupert, now with six ships, on 3 November near Málaga, capturing one ship. Two days later Rupert's other ships in the area were driven ashore attempting to escape from Cartagena, securing Parliamentarian supremacy at sea, and the recognition of the Parliamentary government by many European states. Parliament voted Blake 1,000 pounds by way of thanks in February 1651. In June of the same year Blake captured the Isles of Scilly, the last outpost of the Royalist navy, for which he again received Parliament's thanks. Soon afterwards he was made a member of the Council of State.
Thanks to its command of the sea, the fleet was able to supply Cromwell's army with provisions as it successfully marched on Scotland. By the end of 1652 the various English colonies in the Americas had also been secured.
First Anglo-Dutch War
See also First Anglo-Dutch War
Blake's next adventures were during the First Anglo-Dutch War. The war started prematurely with a skirmish between the Dutch fleet of Maarten Tromp and Blake off Folkestone on 29 May 1652, the Battle of Dover. The proper war started in June with an English campaign against the Dutch East Indies, Baltic and fishing trades by Blake, in command of around 60 ships. On 5 October 1652 Dutch Vice-Admiral Witte Corneliszoon de With, underestimating the strength of the English, attempted to attack Blake, but due to the weather it was Blake who attacked on 8 October 1652 in the Battle of the Kentish Knock, sending de With back to the Netherlands in defeat. The English government seemed to think that the war was over and sent ships away to the Mediterranean. Blake had only 42 warships when he was attacked and decisively defeated by 88 Dutch ships under Tromp on 9 December 1652 in the Battle of Dungeness, losing control of the English Channel to the Dutch. Meanwhile, the ships sent away had also been defeated in the Battle of Leghorn.
Following the navy's poor performance at Dungeness, Blake demanded that the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty enact major reforms. They complied by, among other things, enacting Articles of War to reinforce the authority of an admiral over his captains. Blake then sailed with around 75 ships to disrupt Channel shipping, engaging Tromp with a similar sized fleet in the Battle of Portland from 28 February to 2 March 1653 when Tromp escaped with his convoy under cover of darkness.
At the Battle of the Gabbard on 12 and 13 June 1653 Blake reinforced the ships of Generals Richard Deane and George Monck and decisively defeated the Dutch fleet, sinking or capturing 17 ships without losing one. Now also the North Sea was brought under English control, and the Dutch fleet was blockaded in various ports until the Battle of Scheveningen, where Tromp was killed.
Peace with the Dutch achieved, Blake sailed in October 1654 with 24 warships as commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, successfully deterring the Duke of Guise from conquering Naples.
Bey of Tunis
In April 1655 Blake was sent to the Mediterranean again to extract compensation from the piratical states that had been attacking English shipping. The Dey of Tunis refused compensation, and with 15 ships Blake destroyed the two shore batteries and nine Algerian ships in Porto Farina, the first time shore batteries had been taken out without landing men ashore.
Anglo-Spanish War
See also Anglo-Spanish War (1654)
In February 1656 commercial rivalry with Spain was soon turned to war. In the Anglo-Spanish War Blake blockaded Cádiz, during which one of his captains, Richard Stayner, destroyed most of the Spanish plate fleet at the Battle of Cádiz. A galleon of treasure was captured, and the overall loss to Spain was estimated at £2,000,000. Blake maintained the blockade throughout the winter, the first time the fleet had stayed at sea over winter.
On 20 April 1657 Blake totally destroyed another armed merchant convoy, the Spanish West Indian fleet, in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife – a port so well fortified that it was thought to be impregnable to attack from the sea – for the loss of just one ship. Although the silver had already been landed, Blake's victory delayed its arrival at the royal treasury of the Spanish government and earned the new English Navy respect throughout Europe. As a reward Blake was given an expensive diamond ring by Cromwell. The action also earned him respect 140 years later from Lord Nelson who lost his arm there in a failed attack; in a letter written on 17 April 1797, to Admiral Sir John Jervis, Nelson wrote "I do not reckon myself equal to Blake", before going on to outline the plans for his own attack. Lord Nelson ranked Robert Blake as one of the greatest naval generals ever known, even when compared with his own reputation.
Death
After again cruising off Cadiz for a while, Blake turned for home but died of old wounds within sight of Plymouth. After lying in state in the Queen's House, Greenwich, he was given a full state funeral and was buried in Westminster Abbey in the presence of Oliver Cromwell and the members of the Council of State (although his internal organs had earlier been buried at St Andrew's Church, Plymouth). After the restoration of the Monarchy his body was exhumed in 1661 and dumped in a common grave in St Margaret's churchyard, adjoining the Abbey, on the orders of the new king, Charles II.
Honouring Blake
In Westminster Abbey, a stone memorial of Robert Blake, unveiled on 27 February 1945, can be found in the south choir aisle.
St Margaret's Church, where Blake was reburied, has a stained glass window depicting Blake's life, together with a brass plaque to his memory, unveiled on 18 December 1888. A modern stone memorial to Blake and the other Parliamentarians reburied in the churchyard has been set into the external wall to the left of the main entrance of the church.
In 1926 the house in Bridgwater where it is believed that Blake was born was purchased and turned into the Blake Museum, where a room is devoted to him and his exploits.
Blake is one of four maritime figures depicted with a statue on the facade of Deptford Town Hall, in the London Borough of Lewisham.
Blake and his flagship Triumph featured on a second class postage stamp issued in 1982.
In 2007 various events took place in Bridgwater, Somerset, from April to September to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the death of Robert Blake. These included a civic ceremony on 8 July 2007 and a 17th-century market on 15 July 2007.
In the Royal Navy a series of ships have carried the name HMS Blake in honour of the general at sea. The bell of the last HMS Blake, scrapped in 1982, was on display in Saint Mary's Church, Bridgwater. This was moved to the Blake Museum in 2017 when the church was re-ordered.
The Blake Oilfield in the United Kingdom Sector of the North Sea is named in honour of the general at sea.
Blake is also mentioned in the poem Ye Mariners of England by Thomas Campbell, and is the subject of the poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon (1836).
Blake also has a school house named after him at The Royal Hospital School, and a Division at Britannia Royal Naval College.
Relatives
Blake's brother, Benjamin Blake (1614–1689), served under Robert, emigrated to Carolina in 1682, and was the father of Joseph Blake, governor of South Carolina in 1694 and from 1696 to 1700.
Blake's brother Samual Blake fought under Popham before being killed in a duel in 1645.
A collateral relative was the historian Robert Blake, Baron Blake (1916–2003).
See also
British ensign
British military history
List of English people
References
Further reading
Dixon, William Hepworth. Robert Blake: Admiral and General at Sea: Based on Family and State Papers. Mount Kisco, N.Y.: Regatta Press, 2000. ; This volume was originally published in London by Chapman and Hall in 1852.
Knight, Frank General-at-Sea The Life of Admiral Robert Blake London Macdonald 1971
External links
The Blake Museum, Bridgwater
The Friends of Blake Museum, Bridgwater
Admiral Blake – Article in Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, 29 May 1852
Robert Blake, admiral and general at sea, William Hepworth Dixon, 1852
Roundheads
English admirals
English generals
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Alumni of Wadham College, Oxford
People from Bridgwater
Burials at Westminster Abbey
1598 births
1657 deaths
English merchants
Burials at St Margaret's, Westminster
17th-century merchants
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
Royal Navy personnel of the Anglo-Dutch Wars
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1653 (Barebones)
English MPs 1654–1655
English MPs 1656–1658
17th-century English businesspeople
Military personnel of the English Civil War | [
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240547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Blake%20%28actor%29 | Robert Blake (actor) | Robert Blake (born Michael James Gubitosi; September 18, 1933) is an American actor known for his roles in the 1967 film In Cold Blood and the 1970s U.S. television series Baretta.
Blake began acting as a child, with a lead role in the final years of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Our Gang (Little Rascals) short film series from 1939 to 1944. He also appeared as a child actor in 22 entries of the Red Ryder film franchise. In the Red Ryder series and in many of his adult roles, the Italian-American actor was often cast as an American Indian or Latino character. After a stint in the United States Army, Blake returned to acting in both television and movie roles. Blake continued acting until 1997's Lost Highway in a career that author Michael Newton called "one of the longest in Hollywood history."
In March 2005, Blake was tried and acquitted of the 2001 murder of his second wife, Bonnie Lee Bakley. In November 2005, he was found liable in a California civil court for her wrongful death.
Early life
Robert Blake was born Michael James Gubitosi in Nutley, New Jersey, on September 18, 1933. His parents were Giacomo (James) Gubitosi and his wife, Elizabeth Cafone. In 1930, James worked as a die setter for a can manufacturer. Eventually, Blake's parents began a song-and-dance act. In 1936, their three children began performing, billed as "The Three Little Hillbillies." They moved to Los Angeles, California in 1938, where their children began working as movie extras.
Blake had an unhappy childhood in which he was abused by his alcoholic father. When he entered public school at age 10, he was bullied and had fights with other students, which led to his expulsion. Blake stated that he was physically and sexually abused by both of his parents while growing up and was frequently locked in a closet and forced to eat off the floor as punishment. At age 14, he ran away from home, leading to several more difficult years. His father committed suicide in 1956.
Child actor
Then known as "Mickey Gubitosi", Blake began his acting career as Toto in the MGM movie Bridal Suite (1939), starring Annabella and Robert Young. Blake then began appearing in MGM's Our Gang short subjects (a.k.a. The Little Rascals) under his real name, replacing Eugene "Porky" Lee. He appeared in 40 of the shorts between 1939 and 1944, eventually becoming the series' final lead character. Blake's parents also made appearances in the series as extras. In Our Gang, Blake's character, Mickey, was often called upon to cry, for which he was criticized for being unconvincing. He was also criticized for being obnoxious and whiny. In 1942, he acquired the stage name "Bobby Blake" and his character in the series was renamed "Mickey Blake." In 1944, MGM discontinued Our Gang, releasing the final short in the series, Dancing Romeo. In 1995, Blake was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award for his role in Our Gang. In 1942, Blake appeared as "Tooky" Stedman in Andy Hardy's Double Life.
In 1944, Blake began playing an American Indian boy, "Little Beaver," in the Red Ryder western series at the studios of Republic Pictures (now CBS Radford Studios), appearing in twenty-three of the movies until 1947. He also had roles in one of Laurel and Hardy's later films The Big Noise (1944), and the Warner Bros. movies Humoresque (1946), playing John Garfield's character as a child, and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), playing the Mexican boy who sells Humphrey Bogart a winning lottery ticket and gets a glass of water thrown in his face by Bogart in the process. In 1950, at age 17, Blake appeared as Mahmoud in The Black Rose and as Enrico, Naples Bus Boy (uncredited) in Black Hand.
Career as an adult
In 1950, Blake was drafted into the United States Army. Upon leaving at the age of 21, he found himself without any job prospects and fell into a deep depression. This led to a two-year addiction to heroin and cocaine. He also sold drugs. Blake entered Jeff Corey's acting class and began working on improving his personal and professional life. He eventually became a seasoned Hollywood actor, playing notable dramatic roles in movies and on television. In 1956, he was billed as Robert Blake for the first time.
In 1959, Blake turned down the role of Little Joe Cartwright, a character ultimately portrayed by Michael Landon, in NBC's western television series Bonanza. He did appear that year as Tobe Hackett in the episode "Trade Me Deadly" of the syndicated western series 26 Men, which dramatized true stories of the Arizona Rangers. Blake also appeared twice as "Alfredo" in the syndicated western The Cisco Kid and starred in "The White Hat" episode of Men of Annapolis, another syndicated series. He appeared in three distinctive guest lead roles in the CBS series Have Gun Will Travel, as well as one-time guest roles on John Payne's NBC western The Restless Gun, Nick Adams's ABC western The Rebel, and in season 3, episode 25 of Bat Masterson, the NBC western series The Californians, the short-lived ABC adventure series Straightaway, and the NBC western television series Laramie.
Blake performed in numerous motion pictures as an adult, including the starring role in The Purple Gang (1960), a gangster movie, and featured roles in Pork Chop Hill (1959) and, as one of four U.S. soldiers participating in a gang rape in occupied Germany, in Town Without Pity (1961). He was also in Ensign Pulver (1964), The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965) and other films.
Blake garnered further exposure as a member of the ensemble cast of the 1963 acclaimed but short-lived The Richard Boone Show, appearing in fifteen of the NBC series' 25 episodes. At 33, Blake played Billy the Kid in the 1966 episode "The Kid from Hell's Kitchen" of the syndicated western series Death Valley Days, hosted by Robert Taylor. In the story line, The Kid sets out to avenge the death of his friend John Tunstall played by John Anderson.
In 1967, Blake experienced a career breakout due to his work in the film In Cold Blood. Blake played real-life murderer Perry Smith, to whom he bore a chilling resemblance. Richard Brooks received two Oscar nominations for the film: one for his direction, and one for his adaptation of Truman Capote's book.
With In Cold Blood, Blake was the first actor to utter the expletive "bull----" in a mainstream American motion picture.
Blake played a Native American fugitive in Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here (1969), starred in a TV movie adaptation of Of Mice and Men (1981), and played a motorcycle highway patrolman in iconoclastic Electra Glide in Blue (1973). He played a small-town stock car driver with ambitions to join the NASCAR circuit in Corky, which MGM produced in 1972. The film featured real NASCAR drivers, including Richard Petty and Cale Yarborough.
Blake may be best known for his Emmy Award-winning role of Tony Baretta in the popular television series Baretta (1975 to 1978), playing a street-wise, plain clothes police detective. The show's trademarks included Baretta's pet cockatoo "Fred" and his signature phrases—notably "Don't do the crime if you can't do the time", "That's the name of that tune", and "You can take that to the bank."
After Baretta ended, NBC offered to produce several pilot episodes of a proposed series titled Joe Dancer, in which Blake would play the role of a hard-boiled private detective. In addition to starring, Blake also was credited as the executive producer and creator. Three television films aired on NBC in 1981 and 1983, and the series never ultimately sold.
He continued to act through the 1980s and 1990s, mostly in television, in such roles as Jimmy Hoffa in the miniseries Blood Feud (1983) and as John List in the murder drama Judgment Day: The John List Story (1993), which earned him a third Emmy nomination. Blake starred in the 1985 television series Hell Town, playing a priest working in a tough neighborhood. He also had character parts in the theatrical movies Money Train (1995) and played the Mystery Man in David Lynch's Lost Highway (1997).
Marriages and children
Blake and actress Sondra Kerr were married in 1961, and divorced in 1983. It was his first marriage, from which came two children: actor Noah Blake (born 1965) and Delinah Blake (born 1966).
In 1999, Blake met Bonnie Lee Bakley, formerly of Wharton, New Jersey, who had already been married nine times and reportedly had a history of exploiting older men, especially celebrities, for money. She was dating Christian Brando, the son of Marlon Brando, during her relationship with Blake. Bakley became pregnant and told both Brando and Blake that her baby was theirs. Initially, Bakley named the baby "Christian Shannon Brando" and stated that Brando was the father. Bakley wrote letters describing her dubious motives to Blake. Blake insisted that she take a DNA test to prove the paternity. Blake became Bakley's tenth husband on November 19, 2000, after DNA tests proved that Blake was the biological father of her child, who was renamed Rosie. Blake remained married to Bakley until she was murdered on May 4, 2001.
In a March 2016 interview at age 82, Blake indicated he had a new woman in his life, who remained unnamed. In 2017, Blake applied for a marriage license for his fiancée, Pamela Hudak, whom he had known for decades, and who had testified on his behalf at his trial. On December 7, 2018, it was announced that Blake had filed for divorce.
Murder of Bonnie Lee Bakley
On May 4, 2001, Blake took Bakley out for dinner at Vitello's Italian Restaurant at 4349 Tujunga Avenue in Studio City, California. Bakley was fatally shot in the head while sitting in Blake's vehicle, which was parked on a side street around the corner from the restaurant, across the street and behind a dumpster next to a construction site. Blake claimed that he had returned to the restaurant to collect a pistol which he had left inside and claimed that he had not been present when the shooting took place. The pistol Blake claimed to have left in the restaurant was later found and determined by police not to be the murder weapon.
Arrest
On April 18, 2002, Blake was arrested and charged with Bakley's murder. His longtime bodyguard, Earle Caldwell, was also arrested and charged with conspiracy in connection with the murder. A key event that gave the Los Angeles Police Department the confidence to arrest Blake came when a retired stuntman, Ronald "Duffy" Hambleton, agreed to testify against him. Hambleton alleged that Blake tried to hire him to kill Bakley. Another retired stuntman and an associate of Hambleton's, Gary McLarty, also came forward with a similar story. According to author Miles Corwin, Hambleton had agreed to testify against Blake only after being told that he would be subject to a grand jury subpoena and a misdemeanor charge.
On April 22, 2002, Blake was charged with one count of murder with special circumstances, an offense which carried a possible death penalty. He was also charged with two counts of solicitation of murder and one count of conspiracy to commit murder. Blake entered a plea of not guilty. On March 13, 2003, after almost a year in jail, Blake was granted bail, which was set at $1.5 million, and was allowed to go free to await trial. Blake was placed under house arrest during this time. On October 31, in a major reversal for the prosecution, the judge dismissed the conspiracy charges against Blake and Caldwell during a pre-trial hearing. The junior prosecutor who handled the case, Shellie Samuels, was interviewed by CBS reporter Peter Van Sant for the CBS program 48 Hours Investigates. During the interview, broadcast in November 2003, she admitted that the prosecutors had no forensic evidence implicating Blake in the murder and that they could not tie him to the murder weapon.
Trial and acquittal
Blake's criminal trial for murder began on December 20, 2004, with opening statements by the prosecution and opening statements by the defense the following day. The prosecution contended that Blake intentionally murdered Bakley to free himself from a loveless marriage, while the defense claimed that Blake was an innocent victim of circumstantial and fabricated evidence. McLarty and Hambleton each testified that Blake had asked them to murder Bakley. On cross-examination, the defense brought up McLarty's mental health problems and Hambleton's criminal history. The lack of gunshot residue on Blake's hands was a key part of the defense's case that Blake was not the shooter. Blake chose not to testify.
On March 16, 2005, Blake was found not guilty of murder and not guilty of one of the two counts of solicitation of murder. The other count, for solicitation to commit murder, was dropped after it was revealed that the jury was deadlocked 11–1 in favor of an acquittal. Los Angeles District Attorney Stephen Cooley, commenting on this ruling, called Blake "a miserable human being" and the jurors "incredibly stupid" to fall for the defense's claims. Public opinion regarding the verdict was mixed, with some feeling that Blake was guilty, though many felt that there was not enough evidence to convict him. On the night of his acquittal several fans celebrated at Blake's favorite haunt – and the scene of the crime – Vitello's.
Civil case
Bakley's three children filed a civil suit against Blake, asserting that he was responsible for their mother's death. During the trial, the girlfriend of Blake's co-defendant Earle Caldwell said she believed Blake and Caldwell were involved in the crime.
On November 18, 2005, a jury found Blake liable for the wrongful death of his wife and ordered him to pay $30 million. On February 3, 2006, Blake filed for bankruptcy.
Blake's attorney, M. Gerald Schwartzbach, appealed the court's decision on February 28, 2007. On April 26, 2008, an appeals court upheld the civil case verdict, but cut Blake's penalty assessment to $15 million.
Aftermath
Blake has maintained a low profile since his acquittal and filing for bankruptcy, with debts of $3 million for unpaid legal fees as well as state and federal taxes. Due to his legal problems Blake has said that he might return to acting someday in order to help himself financially. On April 9, 2010, the state of California filed a tax lien against Blake for $1,110,878 in unpaid back taxes.
On July 16, 2012, Blake was interviewed on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight. When Piers Morgan asked Blake about the night of Bakley's murder, Blake became defensive and angry, stating he resented Morgan's questioning and felt he was being interrogated. Morgan responded he was only asking questions that he felt people were eager to have answered.
In January 2019, Blake was interviewed by 20/20. Initially he seemed to decline the interview and instead delegated it to a friend, but then began to participate, discussing the murder and the behavior of the police officers who dealt with him, the culture of Hollywood and its reaction to the event, and his early life and difficulties with his parents.
In September 2019, Blake started a YouTube channel titled 'Robert Blake: I ain't dead yet, so stay tuned,' in which he discusses his life and career.
Later in October the same year, Blake's daughter, Rose Lenore, opened up about her childhood and how the trial affected her. She discussed reuniting with her father, visiting her mother's grave and her own desire to get into acting. Regarding knowing the truth about her mother's murder and whether Blake did it she declined to know the details but is open to knowing the truth "If it's ever an option".
In 2021, Blake opened up a website, "Robert Blake's Pushcart", where scripts, memorabilia and books including his autobiography 'Tales of a Rascal' are available to read and in the case of the latter can be ordered.
Quentin Tarantino's novel of Once Upon a Time in Hollywood based on his film of the same name is dedicated to Blake. Notably Blake's later life dealing with his wife's murder mirrors Brad Pitt's character Cliff Booth who is also accused of murdering his wife.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
Further reading
Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, pp. 185–186.
Dye, David. Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914–1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p. 20–22.
External links
1933 births
20th-century American male actors
American male child actors
American male comedy actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of Italian descent
Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Living people
Male actors from New Jersey
Male Western (genre) film actors
Our Gang
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People acquitted of murder
People from Nutley, New Jersey
Western (genre) television actors | [
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240550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trygve%20Lie | Trygve Lie | Trygve Halvdan Lie ( , ; 16 July 1896 – 30 December 1968) was a Norwegian politician, labour leader, government official and author. He served as Norwegian foreign minister during the critical years of the Norwegian government in exile in London from 1940 to 1945. From 1946 to 1952 he was the first Secretary-General of the United Nations. Lie earned a reputation as a pragmatic, determined politician.
Early life
Lie was born in Kristiania (now Oslo) on 16 July 1896. His father, carpenter Martin Lie, left the family to emigrate to the United States in 1902, and was never heard from again. Trygve grew up under poor conditions together with his mother Hulda and a sister who was six at the time. His mother ran a boarding house and café in Grorud in Oslo.
Lie joined the Labour Party in 1911 and was named as the party's national secretary soon after receiving his law degree from the University of Oslo in 1919. Lie was editor-in-chief for Det 20de Aarhundre ('The 20th Century') from 1919 to 1921. From 1922 to 1935 he was a legal consultant for the Workers' National Trade Union (named Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions from 1957). He chaired the Norwegian Workers' Confederation of Sports from 1931 to 1935.
Political career
In local politics he served as a member of the executive committee of Aker municipality council from 1922 to 1931. He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Akershus in 1937. He was appointed Minister of Justice when a Labour Party government was formed by Johan Nygaardsvold in 1935. Lie was later appointed Minister of Trade (July to October 1939) and Minister of Supplies (October 1939 to 1941).
A socialist from an early age, Lie once met Vladimir Lenin while on a Labour Party visit to Moscow and gave permission for Leon Trotsky to settle in Norway after he was exiled from the Soviet Union. However, because of pressure from Joseph Stalin, he forced Trotsky to leave the country.
When Nazi Germany invaded Norway in 1940, Lie ordered all Norwegian ships to sail to Allied ports. In 1941, Lie was named as Foreign Minister of the Norwegian government-in-exile, and he remained in this position until 1946.
United Nations career
Lie led the Norwegian delegation to the United Nations conference in San Francisco in 1945 and was a leader in drafting the provisions of the United Nations Security Council. He was the leader of the Norwegian delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in 1946. On 1 February 1946, he was elected as the first Secretary-General of the United Nations as a result of a compromise between the major powers, having missed being elected President of the first General Assembly by only a small margin.
As Secretary-General, Lie supported the foundations of Israel and Indonesia. His passionate support for Israel included passing secret military and diplomatic information to Israeli officials. He sent 50 members of the United Nations guard force from Lake Success to assist the Mediator in supervising the Truce in the former British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and the "UNTSO", the first peacekeeping operation was established by the United Nations. He worked for the withdrawal of Soviet forces in Iran and a ceasefire to fighting in Kashmir. He attracted the ire of the Soviet Union when he helped gather support for the defence of South Korea after it was invaded in 1950 and later worked to end the Soviet boycott of UN meetings, though his involvement had little to do with the eventual return of the Soviet Union to the UN. He was opposed to Spain's entry into the United Nations because of his opposition to Francisco Franco's government.
He also sought to have the People's Republic of China recognized by the United Nations after the Nationalist government was exiled to Taiwan, arguing that the People's Republic was the only government that could fulfill the membership obligations in full.
He has been criticized for his failures to facilitate negotiation in the Berlin Blockade, as well as his failure to bring about a swifter end to the Korean War. His critics argue that he was under the influence of a select few in the UN Secretariat. He has also been criticized for his arrogance and stubbornness.
On 1 November 1950, over objections by the Soviet Union, the UN General Assembly voted by 46 votes to 5 (and 8 abstentions) to extend Lie's term of office. The vote was a consequence of an impasse in the Security Council in which the Soviet Union refused to consider Lie due to his involvement in the Korean War, while the US refused to accept any candidate except Lie. The Soviet Union subsequently refused to acknowledge Lie as Secretary-General and, having been accused by Joseph McCarthy of hiring "disloyal" Americansan allegation that he attributed to the pressing need for civil servants following the establishment of the UNLie resigned on 10 November 1952.
The UN came under US official scrutiny after the conviction of Alger Hiss, who had served as acting Secretary General at the first convening of the UN in San Francisco (in 1945). A State Department report dated 17 January 1951, states: Subject: McCarran Act—Possible Conflict with Headquarters AgreementIn conversation with Abe Feller in New York recently he expressed the view that the regulations which have been issued under the McCarran Act make it fairly clear to him that there is likely to be some conflict between that Act and the way in which it is being interpreted and the Headquarters Agreement. He expressed the view that in the event of such conflict the UN secretariat would be forced to resort to the arbitration procedure under the Agreement. He stated he thought this would be very unfortunate and wondered whether any consideration was being given to a general amendment to the McCarran Act which would waive its provisions so far as it conflicted with international obligations or international agreements. I told him I did not know whether any amendments were under consideration but that I would bring his view to your attention. Abraham Feller, General Counsel and Principal Director, Legal Department, United Nations Secretariat, was "reportedly" a "close friend" of Alger Hiss. On 14 November 1952, just days after Lie's resignation from the UN, Feller committed suicide by jumping out of the window of his apartment in New York City.
After the United Nations
Lie remained active in Norwegian politics after his resignation from the UN. He was the County Governor of Oslo and Akershus, Chairman of the Board of Energy, Minister of Industry, and Minister of Trade and Shipping. He wrote a number of books, including In the Cause of Peace, an account of his years at the UN.
Personal life and death
Lie married Hjørdis Jørgensen (1898–1960) in 1921. The couple had three daughters; Sissel, Guri, and Mette.
Lie died on 30 December 1968 of a heart attack in Geilo, Norway. He was 72 years old.
Awards
Trygve Lie was awarded a large number of Norwegian and foreign orders. Among these, the Norwegian highest civilian award Medal for Outstanding Civic Service (Medaljen for borgerdåd) (1966), the Grand Cross of the Order of Dannebrog (1954) and Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (1953), Czechoslovak OWL (1948). He was awarded numerous honorary doctorates by universities throughout the U.S. and Europe. Trygve Lie was the holder of a number of other orders, decorations and other honors.
Legacy
Some scholars rank him at the bottom of all UN secretaries-general; one who "presided over a long list of diplomatic failures, tarnished the UN, and accomplished very little". On the other hand, it can be argued that Trygve Lie built the United Nations organisation from nothing, including establishing a physical presence in a huge office building in New York, after having started in a sort of "gypsy camp" on Long Island. In addition to this he had to deal with a number of post-World War II conflicts and conflicts with roots in the creation of the Iron Curtain.
"Trygve Lie′s Square" is located in Furuset center in Oslo. In the square stands the bronze statue of Trygve Lie, which was created by the Norwegian artist Nicolaus Widerberg and erected in 1994. Trygve Lie Gallery and Trygve Lie Plaza are both located in New York City.
Selected works
Den nye arbeidstvistlov, 1933
De forente nasjoner, 1949
Syv år for freden, 1954 (published in English as In the Cause of Peace: Seven Years With the United Nations)
Internasjonal politikk, 1955
Leve eller dø. Norge i krig, 1955
Med England i ildlinjen 1940–42, 1956
Hjemover, 1958
Oslo–Moskva–London, 1968
Source:
References
Sources
Gaglione, Anthony (2001) The United Nations under Trygve Lie, 1945-1953 (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.)
Barros, James (1989) Trygve Lie and the Cold War: The UN Secretary-General Pursues Peace, 1946-1953 (Northern Illinois Univ Press)
External links
Trygve Lie papers at the United Nations Archives
About Trygve Lie (Trygve Lie Gallery)
Trygve Lie Gallery in New York City
Trygve Lie Plaza in New York City
Trygve Lie Symposium
1896 births
1968 deaths
Akershus politicians
Foreign Ministers of Norway
Ministers of Trade and Shipping of Norway
Members of the Storting
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Norwegian Lutherans
Norwegian people of World War II
People of the Korean War
Secretaries-General of the United Nations
University of Oslo alumni
World War II political leaders
Politicians from Oslo
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog
Grand Crosses of the Order of the White Lion
20th-century Norwegian politicians
Norwegian officials of the United Nations
Ministers of Justice of Norway
20th-century Lutherans | [
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240552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20American%20Racing | British American Racing | British American Racing (BAR) was a Formula One constructor that competed in the sport from 1999 to 2005. BAR began by acquiring Tyrrell, and used Supertec engines for their first year. Subsequently, they formed a partnership with Honda which lasted for the next six years.
The team was named after British American Tobacco plc (BAT), which owned and sponsored it in order to display its Lucky Strike and 555 brands. The headquarters were in Brackley, Northamptonshire, United Kingdom.
In mid-November 2004, Japanese automobile manufacturer Honda purchased 45% of the team, and in September 2005, purchased the remaining 55% share to become the sole owner. Consequently, BAR Honda became Honda Racing F1 Team for the 2006 Formula One season. BAT continued as title sponsor with the Lucky Strike brand, but due to new tobacco advertising regulations worldwide, pulled its sponsorship from Formula One entirely at the end of the 2006 season.
Honda ran the team for the 2006, 2007 and 2008 seasons. During 2008, the Honda RA109 was being developed for the following year while Honda attempted to sell the team. A management buy-out by team principal Ross Brawn and an engine supply deal with Mercedes-Benz resulted in a remarkable 2009 season in which Brawn GP team won the Constructors' Championship with Jenson Button winning the Drivers' Championship. Mercedes bought the team in November 2009 and , the team competes as Mercedes-AMG Petronas Formula One Team.
History
British American Tobacco (BAT) had been involved in Formula One for many years, with several of its brands being displayed on F1 cars run by various teams.
In 1997, the corporation was convinced by Craig Pollock to provide most of the equity to purchase the Tyrrell Formula One team for GB£30 million. Pollock, Adrian Reynard and Rick Gorne were the minority partners. The deal was announced on 2 December 1997. The team was still officially known as Tyrrell in 1998, before it became BAR the following year.
Preparations
On 23 July 1998, BAR announced the signing of 1997 World Champion Jacques Villeneuve away from Williams with a lucrative contract for the 1999 season. Pollock had managed Villeneuve throughout his racing career. Villeneuve was joined by F1 rookie Ricardo Zonta. The car's chassis was built by Reynard Motorsport at a new factory in Brackley and was powered by Supertec (rebadged Renault) engines.
At the launch of their new car, BAR unveiled separate liveries for their cars; Villeneuve's car painted in a white and red Lucky Strike livery and Zonta's carrying a blue and yellow 555 livery. The FIA deemed the dual liveries illegal under F1 regulations which state that a team's cars must carry largely identical liveries. BAR lodged a complaint with the International Chamber of Commerce (as permitted under F1's regulations) but simultaneously lodged a complaint with the European Commission. Pollock was summoned to the World Motor Sport Council to explain the team's behaviour. A potential fine and/or ban was averted when Pollock agreed to abide by the F1 arbitration process, admitted that in filing the complaint to the EC his lawyers had acted independently and that declarations made in the claim did not reflect his personal views. He also apologised to the Council and reiterated his acceptance of the FIA's authority. To get around the ban, BAR ran one side of their cars painted in the Lucky Strike colours, and the other side in the blue and yellow of 555. BAR reverted to a more traditional style of livery for 2000 onwards.
BAR had the slogan of "A tradition of excellence", which was viewed as humorous by pundits as the team had no history and therefore no such tradition at all. Adrian Reynard also made an ambitious claim that the team would win a race in their debut season.
1999
In a disastrous maiden season, BAR failed to score a single point in the Constructors' Championship. The car was relatively quick and often qualified in the midfield, as seen especially in the Spanish Grand Prix, where Villeneuve had briefly run in 3rd place ahead of the Ferraris before pitting in.
However, the car suffered from chronic reliability issues, resulting in many instances of the car failing to finish the race. This was especially the case of Villeneuve, who started the season with 11 straight retirements before his first race finish of the season at Belgium, only to twice more fail to finish the race in the European and Malaysian Grands Prix later on.
Zonta sustained an injury during practice for the Brazilian Grand Prix and was unable to participate in qualifying for the race. He was also forced to miss out on the next three races due to that injury. Mika Salo, who filled in for Zonta in those three races, provided the team with its season best finish of 7th at San Marino (although Salo himself did not reach the chequered flag at the end of the race).
2000
During the 1999 season, BAR announced that Honda had become their engine supplier beginning in 2000. The Honda deal not only meant they would supply engines, but that Honda staff would work with the team at their Brackley base. Honda had planned to enter Formula One as a factory team, but relented. It was the first time Honda had been directly involved in Formula One since 1992. BAR did not have exclusive use of Honda engines though, as Jordan Grand Prix also used Mugen Honda power units. The following year, Jordan were given factory Honda engines, but the engine manufacturers could not supply two teams forever. This prompted a battle between BAR and Jordan for the use of Honda engines in the long term.
The car was once again designed in co-operation with Adrian Reynard despite talk of tension between him and team principal Craig Pollock. At the launch of the 002 car, Pollock himself described the 2000 season as a chance to "wipe the slate clean" following their awful first season and admitted that the team had made many mistakes in their first season.
In 2000, the new Honda powered BAR did show a significant improvement. It proved to be considerably more reliable than the team's previous effort, but the team still only had a best finish of 4th and the victory they had promised in 1999 still eluded them. At the end of the season, the team finished 5th in the Constructors' Championship. The progression and improvement of the team was enough to convince Villeneuve to remain at the team.
2001
Villeneuve reached the podium twice in 2001 for BAR, but neither he nor his new teammate Olivier Panis's results were consistent enough.
2002
Under pressure from British American Tobacco, Pollock resigned on the eve of the launch of the 2002 car and was replaced as team principal by David Richards. Richards' Prodrive company was also awarded a five-year management contract to run BAR. BAT and Prodrive had a prior relationship with BAT sponsoring Subaru's World Rally Championship team, operated by Prodrive.
2002 was a transient season for BAR. A significant proportion of the workforce was culled while technical director Malcolm Oastler and designer Andy Green left. Villeneuve still struggled to score points and Panis also failing to reach expectations. BAR signed a deal to become Honda's only team in 2003, despite finishing behind Honda's other team, Jordan, in both 2001 and 2002.
2003
BAR brought in Jenson Button to replace Panis for the 2003 Formula One season. Villeneuve's contract negotiation arguments with David Richards eventually ended with him being replaced before the end of the season by Japanese driver Takuma Sato. Honda has traditionally liked its teams to field Japanese drivers for publicity reasons in its home country. Jenson Button led a race for the first time at the 2003 United States Grand Prix. The team struggled due to its use of Bridgestone tyres. In the off-season they changed to rival company Michelin.
Peak in 2004
Early in 2004, the team saw a further upswing in its fortunes, Button scoring many podium finishes. He also took their first pole position at San Marino. BAR finished the season in 2nd place in the Constructors' Championship, beating every team except for Ferrari. Despite this, BAR's first win still eluded them.
During the course of the 2004 season, a dispute with WilliamsF1 threatened to overshadow BAR's on-track performance. Both teams believed they had a valid contract for Button in 2005. The issue finally went to the Contract Recognition Board, which found in favour of BAR. Button was to drive for BAR in 2005, but signed a contract to join Williams for 2006.
With increasing restrictions being placed upon tobacco companies' opportunities to advertise in Formula One, rumours suggested that BAT would try to sell the team. In mid-November 2004, BAR announced that Honda had purchased 45% and, as part of the deal, David Richards left to be replaced by Nick Fry as team principal. Prodrive's management contract was also terminated early.
2005: Poor start and controversy
The start of the 2005 season didn't go according to plan for BAR, as they struggled in the "flyaway" races at the start of the season. Just as they became competitive in San Marino, BAR Honda was disqualified for running with illegal cars. The allegation was that the cars were able to race with their total weight below 605 kg (1323 lb), the minimum weight required for a Formula 1 car. BAR disputed this, saying that the engine required a minimum of of fuel to work, thus keeping them above the minimum weight. Their interpretation of the rules was that this limit applies only during the race, not during the post-race scrutineering. The FIA, and later the court, disagreed. In addition to the disqualification, the team was banned for two races, a period which included the lucrative Monaco Grand Prix. The team initially indicated that they planned to fight the decision before a regular civil court but later decided to accept the verdict. Max Mosley, the president of the FIA, saw the sanction as very lenient; he had wanted the team to be banned for the rest of the season. However, they were unable to prove deliberate intent to cheat as they had with BAR's predecessor, Tyrrell, in the 1984 season.
When BAR returned at the European Grand Prix, the team struggled to find its feet. In stark contrast to the previous season, BAR failed to score a single point until the midway point, at the 2005 French Grand Prix, not helped by the team's use of Michelin tyres causing them to not start the 2005 United States Grand Prix. Takuma Sato had a particularly poor season, scoring just one point, and subsequently, his contract was not renewed by BAR at the end of the season. Sato was replaced in the new Honda team by former Ferrari driver Rubens Barrichello. Button scored in each of the last 10 races of the season, culminating in 2 podium positions. Confirmation of this improvement was shown in a skillful pass made by Jenson Button, overtaking Jacques Villeneuve at the fast Pouhon corner at Spa-Francorchamps, in the rain, and around the outside.
At the end of 2005, Honda obtained 100% ownership of BAR from British American Tobacco, completing their ambition to become a full F1 manufacturer team. In addition, Jenson Button's Williams contract was bought out for US$30 million, and Button signed a multi-year contract with Honda.
Following the sale of the team to Honda, BAT would return to Formula One in sponsoring McLaren in a "global partnership" agreement under its A Better Tomorrow campaign, relating to electronic cigarettes and related alternative smoking products.
Complete Formula One results
(key)
Notes
– The driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified, as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
Speed record attempt
BAR tested a modified BAR-Honda 007 car, which they intended to use in an attempt to set the land speed record for a car meeting FIA Formula One regulations. The team aimed for , and had planned to attempt the record at Bonneville Salt Flats. The driver for this project was Alan van der Merwe. The modified chassis performed a shakedown test on the long runway at Mojave Airport in California, on 5 November 2005, under the supervision of safety co-ordinator executive, Jamie Hardwick. The four published times recorded in this test were , , and . However, these tests did not constitute the record attempt itself and waterlogging of the salt flats resulted in the attempt being postponed. The chassis was used by BAR's successor, Honda, to set a new record the following year.
References
External links
Bonneville 400 website (Defunct link)
Formula One constructors
Formula One entrants
British auto racing teams
British racecar constructors
British American Tobacco
Auto racing teams established in 1999
Auto racing teams disestablished in 2005
1999 establishments in the United Kingdom
2005 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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240559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusional%20parasitosis | Delusional parasitosis | Delusional parasitosis (DP) is a mental disorder in which individuals have a persistent belief that they are infested with living or nonliving pathogens such as parasites, insects, or bugs, when no such infestation is present. They usually report tactile hallucinations known as formication, a sensation resembling insects crawling on or under the skin. Morgellons is considered to be a subtype of this condition, in which individuals have sores that they believe contain harmful fibers.
Delusional parasitosis is classified as a delusional disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM5). The cause is unknown, but is thought to be related to excess dopamine in the brain. Delusional parasitosis is diagnosed when the delusion is the only symptom of psychosis and the delusion—that cannot be better explained by another condition—has lasted a month or longer. Few individuals with the condition willingly accept treatment, because they do not recognize the illness as a delusion. Antipsychotic medications offer a cure, while cognitive behavioral therapy and antidepressants can be used to help alleviate symptoms.
The condition is rare, and is observed twice as often in women as men. The average age of people with the disorder is 57. An alternative name, Ekbom's syndrome, refers to the neurologist Karl-Axel Ekbom, who published seminal accounts of the disease in 1937 and 1938.
Classification
Delusional infestation is classified as a delusional disorder of the somatic subtype in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM5). The name delusional parasitosis has been the most common name since 2015, but the condition has also been called delusional infestation, delusory parasitosis, delusional ectoparasitosis, psychogenic parasitosis, Ekbom syndrome, dermatophobia, parasitophobia, formication and "cocaine bugs".
Morgellons is a form of delusional parasitosis in which people have painful skin sensations that they believe contain fibers of various kinds; its presentation is very similar to other delusional infestations, but people with this self-diagnosed condition also believe that strings or fibers are present in their skin lesions.
Delusory cleptoparasitosis is a form of delusion of parasitosis where the person believes the infestation is in their dwelling, rather than on or in their body.
Signs and symptoms
People with delusional parsitosis believe that "parasites, worms, mites, bacteria, fungus" or some other living organism has infected them, and reasoning or logic will not dissuade them from this belief. Details vary among those who have the condition, though it typically manifests as a crawling and pin-pricking sensation that is most commonly described as involving perceived parasites crawling upon or burrowing into the skin, sometimes accompanied by an actual physical sensation (known as formication). Sufferers may injure themselves in attempts to be rid of the "parasites"; resulting skin damage includes excoriation, bruising and cuts, as well as damage caused from using chemical substances and obsessive cleansing routines.
A "preceding event such as a bug bite, travel, sharing clothes, or contact with an infected person" is often identified by individuals with DP; such events may lead the individual to misattribute symptoms because of a more awareness of symptoms they were previously able to ignore. Nearly any marking upon the skin, or small object or particle found on the person or their clothing, can be interpreted as evidence for the parasitic infestation, and individuals with the condition commonly compulsively gather such "evidence" to present to medical professionals. This presentation is known as the "matchbox sign", "Ziploc bag sign" or "specimen sign", because the "evidence" is frequently presented in a small container, such as a matchbox. The matchbox sign is present in five to eight out of every ten people with DP. Related is a "digital specimen sign", in which individuals bring collections of photographs to document their condition.
Similar delusions may be present in close relatives—a shared condition known as a folie à deux—that occurs in 5 to 15% of cases and is considered a shared psychotic disorder. Because the internet and the media contribute to furthering shared delusions, DP has also been called folie à Internet; when affected people are separated, their symptoms typically subside, but most still require treatment.
Approximately eight out of ten individuals with DP have co-occurring conditions—mainly depression, followed by substance abuse and anxiety; their personal and professional lives are frequently disrupted as they are extremely distressed about their symptoms.
A 2011 Mayo Clinic study of 108 patients failed to find evidence of skin infestation in skin biopsies and patient-provided specimens; the study concluded that the feeling of skin infestation was DP.
Cause
The cause of delusional parasitosis is unknown. It may be related to excess dopamine in the brain's striatum, resulting from diminished dopamine transporter (DAT) function, which regulates dopamine reuptake in the brain. Evidence supporting the dopamine theory is that medications that inhibit dopamine reuptake (for example cocaine and amphetamines) are known to induce symptoms such as formication. Other conditions that also demonstrate reduced DAT functioning are known to cause secondary DP; these conditions include "schizophrenia, depression, traumatic brain injury, alcoholism, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and iron deficiency". Further evidence is that antipsychotics improve DP symptoms, which may be because they affect dopamine transmission.
Diagnosis
Delusional parasitosis is diagnosed when the delusion is the only symptom of psychosis, the delusion has lasted a month or longer, behavior is otherwise not markedly odd or impaired, mood disorders—if present at any time—have been comparatively brief, and the delusion cannot be better explained by another medical condition, mental disorder, or the effects of a substance. For diagnosis, the individual must attribute abnormal skin sensations to the belief that they have an infestation, and be convinced that they have an infestation even when evidence shows they do not.
The condition is recognized in two forms: primary and secondary. In primary delusional parasitosis, the delusions are the only manifestation of a psychiatric disorder. Secondary delusional parasitosis occurs when another psychiatric condition, medical illness or substance (medical or recreational) use causes the symptoms; in these cases, the delusion is a symptom of another condition rather than the disorder itself. Secondary forms of DP can be functional (due to mainly psychiatric disorders) or organic (due to other medical illness or organic disease. The secondary organic form may be related to vitamin B12 deficiency, hypothyroidism, anemia, hepatitis, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, syphilis, or abuse of cocaine.
Examination to rule out other causes is key to diagnosis. Parasitic infestations are ruled out via skin examination and laboratory analyses. Bacterial infections may be present as a result of the individual constantly manipulating their skin. Other conditions that can cause itching skin are also ruled out; this includes a review of medications that may lead to similar symptoms. Testing to rule out other conditions helps build a trusting relationship with the physician; this can include laboratory analysis such as a complete blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, urinalysis for toxicology and thyroid-stimulating hormone, in addition to skin biopsies and dermatological tests to detect or rule out parasitic infestations. Depending on symptoms, tests may be done for "human immunodeficiency virus, syphilis, viral hepatitis, B12 or folate deficiency," and allergies.
Differential
Delusional parasitosis must be distinguished from scabies, mites, and other psychiatric conditions that may occur along with the delusion; these include schizophrenia, dementia, anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and affective or substance-induced psychoses or other conditions such as anemia that may cause psychosis.
Pruritus and other skin conditions are most commonly caused by mites, but may also be caused by "grocer's itch" from agricultural products, pet-induced dermatitis, caterpillar/moth dermatitis, or exposure to fiberglass. Several drugs, legal or illegal, such as amphetamines, dopamine agonists, opioids, and cocaine may also cause the skin sensations reported. Diseases that must be ruled out in differential diagnosis include hypothyroidism, and kidney or liver disease. Many of these physiological factors, as well as environmental factors such as airborne irritants, are capable of inducing a "crawling" sensation in otherwise healthy individuals; some people become fixated on the sensation and its possible meaning, and this fixation may then develop into DP.
Treatment
As of 2019, there have not been any studies that compare available treatments to placebo. The only treatment that provides a cure, and the most effective treatment, is low doses of antipsychotic medication. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can also be useful. Risperidone is the treatment of choice. For many years, the treatment of choice was pimozide, but it has a higher side effect profile than the newer antipsychotics. Aripiprazole and ziprasidone are effective but have not been well studied for delusional parasitosis. Olanzapine is also effective. All are used at the lowest possible dosage, and increased gradually until symptoms remit.
People with the condition often reject the professional medical diagnosis of delusional parasitosis, and few willingly undergo treatment, despite demonstrable efficacy, making the condition difficult to manage. Reassuring the individual with DP that there is no evidence of infestation is usually ineffective, as the patient may reject that. Because individuals with DP typically see many physicians with different specialties, and feel a sense of isolation and depression, gaining the patient's trust, and collaborating with other physicians, are key parts of the treatment approach. Dermatologists may have more success introducing the use of medication as a way to alleviate the distress of itching. Directly confronting individuals about delusions is unhelpful because by definition, the delusions are not likely to change; confrontation of beliefs via CBT is accomplished in those who are open to psychotherapy. A five-phase approach to treatment is outlined by Heller et al. (2013) that seeks to establish rapport and trust between physician and patient.
Prognosis
The average duration of the condition is about three years. The condition leads to social isolation and affects employment. Cure may be achieved with antipsychotics or by treating underlying psychiatric conditions.
Epidemiology
While a rare disorder, delusional parasitosis is the most common of the hypochondriacal psychoses, after other types of delusions such as body odor or halitosis. It may be undetected because those who have it do not see a psychiatrist because they don't recognize the condition as a delusion. A population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota found a prevalence of 27 per 100,000 person-years and an incidence of almost 2 cases per 100,000 person-years. The majority of dermatologists will see at least one person with DP during their career.
It is observed twice as often in women than men. The highest incidence occurs in people in their 60s, but there is also a higher occurrence in people in their 30s, associated with substance use. It occurs most often in "socially isolated" women with an average age of 57.
Since the early 2000s, a strong internet presence has led to increasing self-diagnosis of Morgellons.
History
Karl-Axel Ekbom, a Swedish neurologist, first described delusional parasitosis as "pre-senile delusion of infestation" in 1937. The common name has changed many times since then. Ekbom originally used the German word dermatozoenwahn, but other countries used the term Ekbom's syndrome. That term fell out of favor because it also referred to restless legs syndrome. Other names that referenced "phobia" were rejected because anxiety disorder was not typical of the symptoms. The eponymous Ekbom's disease was changed to "delusions of parasitosis" in 1946 in the English literature, when researchers J Wilson and H Miller described a series of cases, and to "delusional infestation" in 2009. The most common name since 2015 has been "delusional parasitosis".
Ekbom's original was translated to English in 2003; the authors hypothesized that James Harrington (1611–1677) may have been the "first recorded person to suffer from such delusions when he 'began to imagine that his sweat turned to flies, and sometimes to bees and other insects'.
Morgellons
Mary Leitao, the founder of the Morgellons Research Foundation, coined the name Morgellons in 2002, reviving it from a letter written by a physician in the mid-1600s. Leitao and others involved in her foundation (who self-identified as having Morgellons) successfully lobbied members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to investigate the condition in 2006. The CDC published the results of its multi-year study in January 2012. The study found no underlying infectious condition and few disease organisms were present in people with Morgellons; the fibers found were likely cotton, and the condition was "similar to more commonly recognized conditions such as delusional infestation".
An active online community has supported the notion that Morgellons is an infectious disease, and propose an association with Lyme disease. Publications "largely from a single group of investigators" describe findings of spirochetes, keratin and collagen in skin samples of a small number of individuals; these findings are contradicted by the much larger studies conducted by the CDC.
Society and culture
Jay Traver (1894–1974), a University of Massachusetts entomologist, was known for "one of the most remarkable mistakes ever published in a scientific entomological journal", after publishing a 1951 account of what she called a mite infestation which was later shown to be incorrect, and that has been described by others as a classic case of delusional parasitosis as evidenced by her own detailed description. Matan Shelomi argues that the historical paper should be retracted because it has misled people about their delusion. He says the paper has done "permanent and lasting damage" to people with delusional parasitosis, "who widely circulate and cite articles such as Traver's and other pseudoscientific or false reports" via the internet, making treatment and cure more difficult.
Shelomi published another study in 2013 of what he called scientific misconduct when a 2004 article in the Journal of the New York Entomological Society included what he says is photo manipulation of a matchbox specimen to support the claim that individuals with DP are infested with collembola.
See also
Stimulant psychosis
Formication
References
Further reading
Hallucinations
Psychosis
Symptoms and signs of mental disorders
Neurocutaneous conditions
Delusional disorders
Psychopathological syndromes
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240560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belcea%20Quartet | Belcea Quartet | The Belcea Quartet is a string quartet, formed in 1994, under the leadership of violinist Corina Belcea.
History
The quartet was formed while its members were studying at the Royal College of Music in London. Whilst there, they were coached by the Chilingirian Quartet. They subsequently studied with the Alban Berg Quartet at Cologne.
The quartet was one of the first groups to participate in the BBC Radio 3 New Generation Artists scheme, from 1999 to 2001. They made their Carnegie Hall debut in 2000 as part of the 'Distinctive Debuts' series. Their first performance at the Edinburgh International Festival was in August 2001. The Belcea Quartet were quartet in-residence at Wigmore Hall in London from 2001 to 2006. During their Wigmore residency, the quartet participated in the first performances of The Canticle of the Rose by Joseph Phibbs.
In the 2010/11 season, the Belcea Quartet gave the world premiere of Mark Anthony Turnage's new work for string quartet Twisted Blues with Twisted Ballad at Wigmore Hall, Cologne Philharmonie, Amsterdam Concertgebouw and the Vienna Konzerthaus. In May 2011, they will be curating their own 'Beethoven & Schubert: Final Years’ project with concerts in Aldeburgh, the Gulbenkian Grand Auditorium and Philharmonie Luxembourg, collaborating with Imogen Cooper, Ian Bostridge, Mark Padmore, Julius Drake and Valentin Erben. Towards the end of 2011, the Belcea Quartet will embark on an ambitious survey of the complete string quartets by Beethoven with cycles of concerts planned in the UK, Germany, Austria, Sweden and the USA.
The Belcea Quartet won the Gramophone Award for best debut recording in 2001. Their discography for EMI includes Fauré's La Bonne Chanson with Ian Bostridge; Schubert's Trout Quintet with Thomas Adès and Corin Long; a double disc of Britten's string quartets, which won a MIDEM Cannes Award; Mozart's "Dissonance" and "Hoffmeister" quartets; and the complete Bartók quartets, for which the Quartet was awarded the title Chamber Music Ensemble of the Year by Germany's Echo Klassik Awards and nominated for a 2008 Gramophone Award. Their most recent release, a double disc of the late Schubert Quartets and the String Quintet with Valentin Erben for EMI, was nominated for a Gramophone Award.
The Belcea Quartet are Quartet in Residence Guildhall School of Music and Drama, London, and, from the beginning of the 2010/11 season, Ensemble in Residence at the Vienna Konzerthaus.
Current members
Corina Belcea-Fisher, violin
Axel Schacher, violin, since 2010
Krzysztof Chorzelski, viola
Antoine Lederlin, cello, since 2006
Former members
Alasdair Tait, cello
Laura Samuel, violin
Matthew Talty, cello
Recordings
Partial list of recordings:
Debussy, Dutilleux, Ravel – String Quartets, 2001
Schubert – String Quartets, 2002
Brahms – String Quartets, 2004
Britten – String Quartets, 2005
Schubert – Trout Quintet (with pianist Thomas Adès), 2005
Mozart – String Quartets, 2006 (original line-up)
Bartók – Complete String Quartets, 2008
Schubert – String Quintet (with Valentin Erben), Quartet in G, Quartet in D minor, 2009
Beethoven – Complete String Quartets, 2014
Notes
References
EMI Liner Notes
EMI Germany page
External links
Official website
Home Page at their management agency
MUSO magazine interview
Selected concert reviews
Tim Ashley, "Belcea/ Bostridge/ Adès". The Guardian, 7 December 2001.
Ivan Hewett, "Poise and personality". Telegraph, 9 July 2002.
Tom Service, "Bostridge/ Drake/ Belcea Quartet". The Guardian, 19 August 2002.
Geoffrey Norris, "Quest for the new". Telegraph, 31 October 2002.
Geoffrey Norris, "Profundity and vision". Telegraph, 4 March 2003.
David Fanning, "Aldeburgh Festival: precision of a madman". Telegraph, 24 June 2003.
Andrew Clements, "The Turn of the Screw". The Guardian, 20 July 2004.
Tom Service, "Belcea Quartet/Kildea". The Guardian, 1 November 2004.
Erica Jeal, "Janacek at 150". The Guardian, 16 December 2004.
Rian Evans, "An Evening in Buenos Aires" (review from Bath Festival). The Guardian, 7 June 2005.
George Hall, review of June 2005 Wigmore Hall concert. The Guardian, 22 June 2005.
Geoffrey Norris, "Four strings weave a taut web". Telegraph, 5 June 2006.
Geoffrey Norris, "Apt tribute to Britten's originality". Telegraph, 5 December 2006.
Musical groups established in 1994
English string quartets
1994 establishments in England
BBC Radio 3 New Generation Artists | [
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240561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonated%20water | Carbonated water | Carbonated water (also known as soda water, sparkling water, fizzy water, club soda, water with gas, in many places as mineral water or (especially in the U.S.) as seltzer or seltzer water) is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially-produced sparkling water.
Club soda and sparkling mineral water and some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.
It is thought that the first person to aerate water with carbon dioxide was William Brownrigg in 1740. Joseph Priestley invented carbonated water, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, England. He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. Priestley's apparatus, almost identical to that used by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, was soon joined by a wide range of others. However, it was not until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.
While Priestley's discovery ultimately led to the creation of the soft drink industry—which began in 1783 when Johann Jacob Schweppe founded Schweppes to sell bottled soda water, he did not benefit financially from his invention. Priestley did however receive scientific recognition when the Council of the Royal Society "were moved to reward its discoverer with the Copley Medal" in 1772.
Composition
Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas (which creates low 5-6 pH carbonic acid solution when dissolved in water).
Artesian wells in such places as Mihalkovo in the Bulgarian Rhodope Mountains, Medžitlija in North Macedonia, and most notably in Selters in the German Taunus mountains, produce naturally effervescent mineral waters.
Health effects
By itself, carbonated water appears to have little impact on health.
Carbonated water such as club soda or sparkling water is defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value, even if minerals, vitamins, or artificial sweeteners have been added to it.
Carbonated water may increase irritable bowel syndrome symptoms of bloating and gas due to the release of carbon dioxide in the digestive tract. It does not appear to have an effect on gastroesophageal reflux disease. There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke.
A 2002 study found that "Carbonated water improved both indigestion and constipation compared to tap water."
A 2004 study states that consumers of carbonated water prepared at home had significantly higher mean drinking water intake (tap + bottled + carbonated water) in percentage of total water intake than non-consumers, and lower mean intakes of milk, bottled water and tap water, respectively.
A 2006 study attempted to find a correlation between consumption of carbonated water and lower bone mineral density, but found no such correlation.
A 2017 rat study found that carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages induces ghrelin release and increased food consumption implicated in obesity.
Acid erosion
While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 1% as corrosive as soft drinks are. A 2017 study by the American Dental Association showed that it would take over 100 years of daily sparkling water consumption to cause damage to human teeth - a claim that could not apply if there is added sugar or artificial flavorings, which often include citric acid and other fruit acids, predicted to have an impact on human teeth.
Chemistry
Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water at a low concentration (0.2–1.0%) creates carbonic acid (H2CO3) according to the following reaction:
(l) + (g) ⇌ (aq)
The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. The pH level between 5 and 6 is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.
The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process, water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.
History
Many alcoholic drinks, such as beer, champagne, cider, and spritzer, were naturally carbonated through the fermentation process for centuries. In 1662 Christopher Merret was creating 'sparkling wine'. William Brownrigg was apparently the first to produce artificial carbonated water, in the early 1740s, by using carbon dioxide taken from mines. In 1750 the Frenchman Gabriel François Venel also produced artificial carbonated water, though he misunderstood the nature of the gas that caused the carbonation. In 1764, Irish chemist Dr. Macbride infused water with carbon dioxide as part of a series of experiments on fermentation and putrefaction. In 1766 Henry Cavendish devised an aerating apparatus that would inspire Joseph Priestley to carry out his own experiments with regards to carbonated waters. Cavendish was also aware of Brownrigg's observations at this time and published a paper on his own experiments on a nearby source of mineral water at the beginning of January in the next year.
In 1767 Priestley discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide by pouring water back and forth above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. The air blanketing the fermenting beer—called 'fixed air'—was known to kill mice suspended in it. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a cool, refreshing drink. In 1772, Priestley published a paper titled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he describes dripping "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) onto chalk to produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water. Priestley referred to his invention of this treated water as being his "happiest" discovery.
Priestley's apparatus, which was very similar to that invented by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, and was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it was not until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows. J. J. Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regards Priestley as “the father of our industry”. In 1792 he moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. A London Globe article claims that this company was the first to patent and sell "Soda Water" under that name. The article says that in the hot summer of 1777 in London "aerated waters" (that is, carbonated) were selling well but there was as yet no mention of "soda water", though the first effervescent drinks were probably made using "soda powders" containing bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The name soda water arose from the fact that soda (sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) was often added to adjust the taste and pH.
Modern carbonated water is made by injecting pressurized carbon dioxide into water. The pressure increases the solubility and allows more carbon dioxide to dissolve than would be possible under standard atmospheric pressure. When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released, allowing gas to exit the solution, forming the characteristic bubbles.
Etymology
In the United States, plain carbonated water was generally known either as soda water, due to the sodium salts it contained, or seltzer water, deriving from the German town Selters renowned for its mineral springs.
Sodium salts were added to plain water both as flavoring (to mimic famed mineral waters, such as naturally effervescent Selters, Vichy water and Saratoga water) and acidity regulators (to offset the acidic 5-6 pH carbonic acid created when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water).
In the 1950s the term club soda began to be popularized.
In the 1970s marketing-driven terms such as sparkling water gained favor, with an explosion of consumption of the naturally carbonated Perrier water .
Generally, seltzer water has no added sodium salts, while club soda still retains some sodium salts.
Products for carbonating water
Home
Soda siphons
The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight in bars and in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.
The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.
Home soda siphons can carbonate flatwater through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.
Gasogene
The gasogene (or gazogene, or seltzogene) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide. The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode.
Codd-neck bottles
In 1872, soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented the Codd-neck bottle, designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle encloses a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.
Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries mainly in the UK and the rest of Europe, Asia, and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. R. White's, the biggest soft drinks company in London and south-east England when the bottle was introduced, was among the companies that sold their drinks in Codd's glass bottles. One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology.
The bottles were regularly produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, vintage bottles are relatively rare and have become collector items, particularly in the UK. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is discouraged in most countries. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune and in the Indian drink called Banta.
Soda makers
Soda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. Soda makers may reach a higher level of carbonation than home soda siphons. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists. The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.
One major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.
Commercial
The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is called carbonation. Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to or below, optionally adding a sodium or potassium based alkaline compound such as sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acid created when pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (which creates high 8-10 pH carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer solution when dissolved in water). The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately , some higher than is present in fermenting champagne bottles.
In many modern restaurants and bars soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with carbon dioxide from pressurized tanks at approximately . The pressurized carbonated water then flows either directly to taps or mixing heads where flavoring is added before dispensing.
Uses
Carbonated beverages
Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks, beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener, and a flavoring such as cola, ginger, or citrus.
Plain carbonated water or sparkling mineral water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks. Club soda is carbonated water to which compounds such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium sulfate have been added. Many manufacturers produce unsweetened sparkling water products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. Carbonated water is often mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling alcoholic and non-alcoholic punches.
Alcoholic beverages
Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provides a degree of 'fizz'.
Adding soda water to 'short' drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them 'long' not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth. Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.
Cooking
Carbonated water is increasingly popular in Western cooking as a substitution for plain water in deep-frying batters to provide a lighter texture to doughs similar to tempura. Kevin Ryan, a food scientist at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, says the effervescent bubbles when mixed with dough provide a light tempura-like texture, which gives the illusion of being lower calorie than regular frying batters. The lightness is caused by pockets of carbon dioxide gas being introduced into the batter (a process which natural rising using yeast also creates) and further expanding when cooked.
Stain remover
The dissolved gas in carbonated water acts as a temporary surfactant, causing it to be recommended as a household remedy for removing stains, particularly those of red wine.
See also
Premix and postmix
Soda jerk
Sodium carbonate
Tonic water
Limnic eruption – in deep water lakes, a massive, sudden eruption of dissolved carbon dioxide
References
External links
The Priestley Society
Priestley's paper Impregnating Water with Fixed Air 1772
Interview with one of New York City's last seltzer delivery men
Carbonated drinks
English inventions
British culture
Industrial gases
Soft drinks
18th-century inventions
Drinks | [
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240562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Pentecostal%20Church%20International | United Pentecostal Church International | The United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI) is a Oneness Pentecostal denomination headquartered in Weldon Spring, Missouri, United States. The United Pentecostal Church International was formed in 1945 by a merger of the former Pentecostal Church, Inc. and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ. The United Pentecostal Church International began with 521 churches and has grown, according to their own figures, to more than 42,000 churches (including daughter works and preaching points), 41,000 credentialed ministers, and a total worldwide constituency of around 5.2 million. The international fellowship of United Pentecostals consists of national organizations that are united as the Global Council of the UPCI, which is chaired by the general superintendent of the UPCI, currently David K. Bernard.
History
The United Pentecostal Church International emerged from the Pentecostal movement, which traces its origins to the teachings of Charles Parham in Topeka, Kansas, and the Azusa Street Revival led by William J. Seymour in 1906. The UPCI traces its organizational roots to 1916, when a large group of Pentecostal ministers within the Assemblies of God USA began to unite around the teaching of the oneness of God and water baptism in the name of Jesus Christ. Several Oneness ministers met in Eureka Springs, Arkansas, and on January 2, 1917, formed a Oneness Pentecostal organization called the General Assembly of the Apostolic Assemblies.
The General Assembly of the Apostolic Assemblies merged with another church, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (PAW), and accepted the leadership of G. T. Haywood, an African American. This group held the first meeting in Eureka Springs in 1918. This interracial organization adopted the PAW name and remained the only Oneness Pentecostal body until late 1924. Southern Jim Crow laws and racial hatred resulted in many white leaders withdrawing from the PAW rather than remaining under African American leadership. Many local congregations in the Southern U.S., however, remained integrated while attempting to comply with local segregation laws.
In 1925, three new Oneness churches were formed: the Apostolic Churches of Jesus Christ, the Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance, and Emmanuel's Church in Jesus Christ. In 1927, steps were taken toward reunifying these organizations. Meeting in a joint convention in Guthrie, Oklahoma, Emmanuel's Church in Jesus Christ and the Apostolic Churches of Jesus Christ merged, taking the name the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ. This merger united about 400 Oneness Pentecostal ministers. In 1931, a unity conference with representatives from four Oneness organizations met in Columbus, Ohio attempting to bring all Oneness Pentecostals together. The Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance voted to merge with the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ, but the terms of the proposed merger were rejected by that body. Nevertheless, a union between the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ and the PAW was consummated in November 1931. The new body retained the name of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World.
In 1932, the Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance changed its name to the Pentecostal Church, Incorporated to reflect its organizational structure. In 1936, Pentecostal Church, Incorporated ministers voted to work toward an amalgamation with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ. Final union, however, proved elusive until 1945 when these two Oneness Pentecostal organizations combined to form the United Pentecostal Church International. The merger of these two Oneness Pentecostal bodies brought together 521 churches.
In the U.S. and Canada, the newly formed United Pentecostal Church International traditionally reflected the surrounding demographics, with the majority of its constituency being White and Anglo-American. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, however, the United Pentecostal Church International attempted to shift its doctrines toward the inclusion of every race and culture in North America. In 2008, the United Pentecostal Church International published a statement against racism. Despite attempts to reconcile with minorities, several congregations have left the United Pentecostal Church International citing persistent racism.
Beliefs
The UPCI's theology is consistent with that of Oneness Pentecostalism. They reject the Trinity and instead believe that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are different manifestations of God, as opposed to separate persons. The UPCI believes that one must repent, be baptized "in the name of Jesus" (as opposed to "in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit"), and receive the Holy Ghost with the evidence of speaking in tongues to be saved, as outlined in Acts 2:38.
Ministers at all levels of the UPCI are allowed to marry and have children. The UPCI considers homosexuality to be contrary to biblical teaching and consequently opposes homosexual acts and homosexual marriage. The UPCI has stated, however, that it affirms the worth and dignity of every human being and opposes bigotry and hatred.
Organization
The basic governmental structure of the UPCI is congregational at the local church level and presbyterian at higher organizational levels. Local churches are self-governing, electing their own pastors and other leaders, owning their own property, deciding their own budgets, establishing their membership, and conducting all necessary local business. The central organization embraces a modified presbyterian system: ministers meet in sectional, district, and general conferences to elect officers and to conduct the church's affairs. The annual General Conference is the highest authority in the UPCI, with power to determine articles of faith, elect officers, and determine policy. A General Superintendent is elected to preside over the church as a whole. On October 1, 2009, David K. Bernard was announced as the new General Superintendent.
According to their own statistics, the UPCI grew from 521 member churches in 1945 to 4,883 churches (including daughter works and preaching points) and 10,725 ministers in the United States and Canada in 2020, estimating a total constituancy of 800,000. Outside the U.S. and Canada, the UPCI has 34,779 churches and preaching points, 25,292 licensed ministers, 970 missionaries, and a constituency of 3.25 million in 195 nations and 35 territories. The international fellowship consists of national organizations that are united as the Global Council of the UPCI, which is chaired by the general superintendent of the UPCI, David K. Bernard. Total worldwide membership, including North America, is at more than 5.3 million.
General Conference
The General Conference of the United Pentecostal Church International is an annual conference occurring yearly since 1945. It is the highest governing body of the UPCI. Attendees of the conference conduct business, receive training, network with colleagues, participate in worship sessions, and raise funds for various ministries.
Educational institutions
The UPCI operates one seminary accredited by the Association of Theological Schools, Urshan Graduate School of Theology, which was granted the status of Accreditation by the Higher Learning Commission on June 25, 2020.
Urshan Graduate School of Theology in Wentzville, Missouri
The UPCI also operates one Christian liberal arts college accredited by the Association of Theological Schools, Urshan College, which was granted the status of Accreditation by the Higher Learning Commission on June 25, 2020. The college was established in October 2011, when the UPCI General Board approved a plan for Urshan Graduate School of Theology to acquire Gateway College (a college formerly run by the UPCI's Missouri District) to establish Urshan College as a new Christian liberal arts college. The transition was completed on July 1, 2012.
Urshan College in Wentzville, Missouri (formerly Gateway College of Evangelism)
In addition, the UPCI endorses several unaccredited bible colleges:
Apostolic Bible Institute in St. Paul, Minnesota
Centro Teológico Ministerial in Pasadena, Texas
Christian Service Training Institute in San Diego, California (also offering online distance learning, with satellite campuses in California, Georgia, and Florida)
Indiana Bible College in Indianapolis, Indiana
Northeast Christian College in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
North Texas Christian College in Euless, Texas
Texas Bible College in Lufkin, Texas
Purpose Institute based in Canton, Ohio (see Campus Directory)
Currently, there are only two accredited colleges endorsed by the UPCI:
Christian Life College, in Stockton, California
Urshan College, in St. Louis, Missouri
North American Youth Congress
North American Youth Congress (NAYC) is a church gathering primarily for the youth of the UPCI, held biennially since 1979 in various locations around North America. NAYC has been described as one of the largest, if not the largest, gathering of Christian Youth in the US. In 2019, NAYC was held at The Dome at America's Center in St. Louis, Missouri from July 31 to August 2, 2019. The event was one of the largest to date with over 36,000 youths attending. NAYC 2021 was scheduled to be held at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana from July 28 to July 30, 2021, but was canceled as an in-person event on March 29, 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Notes and references
Further reading
Bernard, David. The New Birth.
Bernard, David. The Oneness of God.
French, Talmadge. Our God is One.
Norris, David S. I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology.
External links
Official website of the United Pentecostal Church
Fundamentalist denominations
Nontrinitarian denominations
Oneness Pentecostal denominations
Pentecostal denominations established in the 20th century
Pentecostal denominations in North America
Pentecostalism in Missouri
Christian organizations established in 1945
Holiness denominations | [
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240564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobham | Cobham | Cobham may refer to:
Geography
Towns or districts
Cobham, Kent, England
Cobham, Surrey, England
Cobham, South Australia, a former town in Australia
Cobham, Albemarle County, Virginia, United States
Cobham, Surry County, Virginia, United States
Other place names
Cobham Intermediate School
Cobham Oval, a cricket pitch in Whangarei, New Zealand
People
Cobham (surname)
British titles
Baron Cobham
Viscount Cobham
Politics
Cobham's Cubs, a political faction in the eighteenth century
Aviation
Cobham (company), a British aerospace manufacturing company
Cobham Aviation Services Australia, an Australian airline
Cobham Advanced Electronic Solutions, an American aerospace and defense manufacturer
Music
Cobham, tune by William Billings
See also
Chobham (disambiguation) | [
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240565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Maserfield | Battle of Maserfield | The Battle of Maserfield () was fought on 5 August 641 or 642 (642 according to Ward) between the Anglo-Saxon kings Oswald of Northumbria and Penda of Mercia, ending in Oswald's defeat, death, and dismemberment. The location was also known as Cogwy in Welsh, with Welshmen from Pengwern participating in the battle (according to the probably ninth-century Canu Heledd), probably as allies of the Mercians. Bede reports the commonly accepted date given above; the Welsh Annales Cambriae is generally considered incorrect in giving the year of the battle as 644. The site of the battle is traditionally identified with Oswestry; arguments have been made for and against the accuracy of this identification.
Background
"Since the death of Oswald's uncle Edwin of Northumbria at Hatfield Chase in 633, the Mercians under Penda had presented an obstacle to the power of Northumbria over the lands of Britain south of the Humber. Oswald had defeated Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd, King of the Britons (Penda's ally at Hatfield) at Heavenfield in 634, and subsequently re-established Northumbrian hegemony across much of Britain; although it is thought that Penda recognized Oswald's authority in some form after Hatfield, he may nevertheless have been hostile to Northumbrian power or at least perceived by Oswald as a threat."
Location and place-names
The Battle of Maserfield was assumed for much of the twentieth century to have taken place at what is now Oswestry in Shropshire. The etymology of this name is "Oswald's Tree", while the traditional Welsh name for the same place is Croesoswald ("Oswald's Cross"); although an association with King Oswald of Northumbria is not certain, the name is popularly assumed to refer to him. In the mid -seventh century, Oswestry is thought to have probably still been in the territory of Powys. If this location is correct, it would mean Oswald was in the territory of his enemies, which would suggest he was on the offensive. However, neither the Welsh nor English names for the battle site have been securely identified with modern reflexes or localised, and site of the battle is still debated among scholars; in 2020, Andrew Breeze suggested Forden in Powys, particularly on the basis of place-names that seem to be associated with the battle in the Welsh Canu Heledd.
The site of the battle is named Maserfelth (with the variant spelling Maserfeld) in the principal source for the battle, Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. The second element of this name is the Old English word that became field in present-day English. The first element is debated: it has been taken as a possibly unique Old English attestation of the word mazer; a word having something to do with Welsh maes ('field'); or to be the Welsh female name Meiser (an argument supported by the place-name Dyffryn Meiser in Canu Heledd).
The Annales Cambriae record a battle for 644 at a site which they call by the Old Welsh name Cocboy; the same name is found in a later form as Cogwy in Canu Heledd; and the battle described in these Welsh texts is agreed to be identical with the Battle of Maserfield known from Bede (albeit that Canu Heledd'''s account may owe little to historical reality). Andrew Breeze has etymologised this name as a compound of the Brittonic word *kok- ('rock') and a personal name *Boia, thus meaning 'hill of Boia'.
Outbreak of war
The cause of the war that led to Maserfield is unknown. The historian Bede, writing in the next century, portrayed Oswald as a saintly figure in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; his desire to portray Oswald in a positive light may have led him to omit mention of Oswald's aggressive warfare. He says only that Oswald died fighting for his country at Maserfield, giving the impression that the battle was part of a "just war".
Penda's Welsh allies may have included Cynddylan ap Cyndrwyn of Powys: the awdl-poem Marwnad Cynddylan, thought to have been composed shortly after his death, says of him that "when the son of Pyd requested, how ready he was". This may be a reference to Penda, the son of Pybba, meaning that Cynddylan was eager to fight in battle alongside him. Cadwaladr ap Cadwallon is also thought to have donated reinforcements to Penda from the Kingdom of Gwynedd.
Battle
The outcome of the battle was defeat for the Northumbrians. Bede mentions the story that Oswald prayed for the souls of his soldiers when he saw that he was about to die. Oswald's body was cut into pieces, and his head and arms mounted on poles; the parts were retrieved in the next year by his brother and successor Oswiu. Since Penda was a pagan and Oswald was Christian, the latter was subsequently venerated as a martyr and saint. Bede reports a number of miracles attributed to Oswald's bones and to the spot where he died. (In the 12th century, Henry of Huntingdon wrote of the battle: "It is said the plain of Maserfeld was white with the bones of the Saints".) The Historia Brittonum accredits Penda's victory to "diabolical agency", but the characterization of the battle as a clash between Christians and pagans may be oversimplified if there were Welsh, who were Christian, fighting on Penda's side. The 20th-century historian, D. P. Kirby, wrote that the battle left Penda as "without question the most powerful Mercian ruler so far to have emerged in the midlands".
According to the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae, Penda's brother Eowa, also said to have been a king of the Mercians, was killed in the battle along with Oswald.Annales Cambriae, 644. The possibility exists that he was subject to Oswald and fighting in the battle as his ally. It has been suggested that Eowa was the dominant king among the Mercians for a period prior to the battle, and it has also been suggested that he had ruled the northern Mercians while Penda ruled the southern Mercians.Nicholas Brooks, "The Formation of the Mercian Kingdom", in S. Bassett, The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (1989), page 166. Since the Historia Brittonum says Penda ruled for only ten years (Bede says 22 years: 633–655), this may mean that it was dating Penda's reign from the time of his victory at Maserfield; this would make sense if Eowa's death removed an important rival to Penda, enabling him to claim or consolidate authority over all the Mercians.
Aftermath
Following the battle, Deira, in the southern part of Northumbria, chose a king of its own, Oswine, while Bernicia in the north (which had been dominant, with Oswald, a member of the Bernician royal line, ruling both Bernicia and Deira prior to Maserfield) was ruled by Oswald's brother Oswiu. Thus the battle led to the internal weakening and fracturing of the Northumbrian kingdom, a situation which lasted until after the battle of the Winwaed, despite Oswine's murder on the orders of Oswiu in 651.
According to Frank Stenton, Maserfield left Penda as "the most formidable king in England". He maintained this position until his death in battle against the Bernicians at the Battle of Winwaed in 655; at times in the years between the two battles, his power was sufficient that he could mount destructive raids into Bernicia itself, at one point besieging Bamburgh, prior to his final, doomed campaign.
Popular culture
Oswald is a major character in the earlier entries of The Bernicia Chronicles series of historical novels, by Matthew Harffy, in which he is depicted as the lord of the protagonist Beobrand.
Notes
References
Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, Book III, Chapters IX–XII.
Llywarch Hen (attribution) (c.9th century). Canu Heledd.
Remfry, P.M., Annales Cambriae. A Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E'' ()
Maserfield
Maserfield 642
Maserfield 642
Maserfield
Maserfield 642
Maserfield 642
641
642
7th century in England | [
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240568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93strain%20curve | Stress–strain curve | In engineering and materials science, a stress–strain curve for a material gives the relationship between stress and strain. It is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.
Definition
Generally speaking, curves representing the relationship between stress and strain in any form of deformation can be regarded as stress-strain curves. The stress and strain can be normal, shear, or mixture, also can be uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial, even change with time. The form of deformation can be compression, stretching, torsion, rotation, and so on. If not mentioned otherwise, stress–strain curve refers to the relationship between axial normal stress and axial normal strain of materials measured in a tension test.
Engineering stress and strain
Consider a bar of original cross sectional area being subjected to equal and opposite forces pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is experiencing a stress defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional area of the bar, as well as an axial elongation:
Subscript 0 denotes the original dimensions of the sample. The SI unit for stress is newton per square metre, or pascal (1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2), and strain is unitless. Stress-strain curve for this material is plotted by elongating the sample and recording the stress variation with strain until the sample fractures. By convention, the strain is set to the horizontal axis and stress is set to vertical axis. Note that for engineering purposes we often assume the cross-section area of the material does not change during the whole deformation process. This is not true since the actual area will decrease while deforming due to elastic and plastic deformation. The curve based on the original cross-section and gauge length is called the engineering stress-strain curve, while the curve based on the instantaneous cross-section area and length is called the true stress-strain curve. Unless stated otherwise, engineering stress-strain is generally used.
True stress and strain
Due to the shrinking of section area and the ignored effect of developed elongation to further elongation, true stress and strain are different from engineering stress and strain.
Here the dimensions are instantaneous values. Assuming volume of the sample conserves and deformation happens uniformly,
The true stress and strain can be expressed by engineering stress and strain. For true stress,
For the strain,
Integrate both sides and apply the boundary condition,
So in a tension test, true stress is larger than engineering stress and true strain is less than engineering strain. Thus, a point defining true stress-strain curve is displaced upwards and to the left to define the equivalent engineering stress-strain curve. The difference between the true and engineering stresses and strains will increase with plastic deformation. At low strains (such as elastic deformation), the differences between the two is negligible. As for the tensile strength point, it is the maximal point in engineering stress-strain curve but is not a special point in true stress-strain curve. Because engineering stress is proportional to the force applied along the sample, the criterion for necking formation can be set as .
This analysis suggests nature of the UTS point. The work strengthening effect is exactly balanced by the shrinking of section area at UTS point.
After the formation of necking, the sample undergoes heterogeneous deformation, so equations above are not valid. The stress and strain at the necking can be expressed as:
An empirical equation is commonly used to describe the relationship between true stress and true strain.
Here, is the strain-hardening coefficient and is the strength coefficient. is a measure of a material's work hardening behavior. Materials with a higher have a greater resistance to necking. Typically, metals at room temperature have ranging from 0.02 to 0.5.
Stages
A schematic diagram for the stress-strain curve of low carbon steel at room temperature is shown in figure 1. There are several stages showing different behaviors, which suggests different mechanical properties. To clarify, materials can miss one or more stages shown in figure 1, or have totally different stages.
The first stage is the linear elastic region. The stress is proportional to the strain, that is, obeys the general Hooke's law, and the slope is Young's modulus. In this region, the material undergoes only elastic deformation. The end of the stage is the initiation point of plastic deformation. The stress component of this point is defined as yield strength (or upper yield point, UYP for short).
The second stage is the strain hardening region. This region starts as the stress goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a maximum at the ultimate strength point, which is the maximal stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates, except that for some materials such as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. The stress of the flat region is defined as the lower yield point (LYP) and results from the formation and propagation of Lüders bands. Explicitly, heterogeneous plastic deformation forms bands at the upper yield strength and these bands carrying with deformation spread along the sample at the lower yield strength. After the sample is again uniformly deformed, the increase of stress with the progress of extension results from work strengthening, that is, dense dislocations induced by plastic deformation hampers the further motion of dislocations. To overcome these obstacles, a higher resolved shear stress should be applied. As the strain accumulates, work strengthening gets reinforced, until the stress reaches the ultimate tensile strength.
The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average. The necking deformation is heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick development of necking and leads to fracture. Note that though the pulling force is decreasing, the work strengthening is still progressing, that is, the true stress keeps growing but the engineering stress decreases because the shrinking section area is not considered. This region ends up with the fracture. After fracture, percent elongation and reduction in section area can be calculated.
Classification
It is possible to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.
Ductile materials
Ductile materials, which includes structural steel and many alloys of other metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures.
Low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stress–strain relationship up to a well defined yield point (Fig.1). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus .
Many ductile materials including some metals, polymers and ceramics exhibit a yield point. Plastic flow initiates at the upper yield point and continues at the lower one. At lower yield point, permanent deformation is heterogeneously distributed along the sample. The deformation band which formed at the upper yield point will propagate along the gauge length at the lower yield point. The band occupies the whole of the gauge at the luders strain. Beyond this point, work hardening commences. The appearance of the yield point is associated with pinning of dislocations in the system. For example, solid solution interacts with dislocations and acts as pin and prevent dislocation from moving. Therefore, the stress needed to initiate the movement will be large. As long as the dislocation escape from the pinning, stress needed to continue it is less.
After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the stress increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate tensile stress. Until this point, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly because of Poisson contractions. Then it starts necking and finally fractures.
The appearance of necking in ductile materials is associated with geometrical instability in the system. Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is common to find some regions with small inclusions or porosity within it or surface, where strain will concentrate, leading to a locally smaller area than other regions. For strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of work-hardening rate in this region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this region harder to be further deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the materials have abilities to weaken the inhomogeneity before reaching ultimate strain. However, as the strain become larger, the work hardening rate will decreases, so that for now the region with smaller area is weaker than other region, therefore reduction in area will concentrate in this region and the neck becomes more and more pronounced until fracture. After the neck has formed in the materials, further plastic deformation is concentrated in the neck while the remainder of the material undergoes elastic contraction owing to the decrease in tensile force.
The stress-strain curve for a ductile material can be approximated using the Ramberg-Osgood equation. This equation is straightforward to implement, and only requires the material's yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic modulus, and percent elongation.
Brittle materials
Brittle materials, which includes cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation, sometimes they fracture before yielding.
Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a well-defined yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the expected size of the largest defect also grows.
See also
Elastomers
Plane strain compression test
Strength of materials
Stress–strain index
Tensometer
Universal testing machine
References
External links
British Society for Strain Measurement
Stress–strain diagram
Engineering stress–strain curve
Elasticity (physics)
Structural analysis | [
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240569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunton%20Stop%20Line | Taunton Stop Line | The Taunton Stop Line was a World War II defensive line in southwest England. It was designed "to stop an enemy's advance from the west and in particular a rapid advance supported by armoured fighting vehicles (up to the size of a German medium tank) which may have broken through the forward defences."
History
The Taunton Stop Line was one of more than fifty similar defensive lines that were constructed around England in WWII, all designed to compartmentalise the country to contain any breakthrough until reinforcements could arrive. Stop Lines used a combination of geography and construction to make continuous defences. The innermost and longest was the GHQ Line. They were constructed as part of a package of field fortifications planned under the leadership of General Sir Edmund Ironside, the newly appointed Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces.
The Taunton Stop Line ran north–south for nearly through Somerset, Dorset and Devon, from Seaton to Axminster to Chard along the River Axe, then along the Great Western Railway to Ilminster, the railway and Chard Canal to Taunton, the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal to Bridgwater, and the River Parrett to the coast near Highbridge. Highbridge was also the starting point for the east–west GHQ Line.
Aside from the obstacles created by canals, rivers and railway embankments, by early 1942 the line was defended by 309 light machine gun pillboxes, (typically for the Bren gun), 61 medium machine gun emplacements (typically for the Vickers machine gun), 21 static anti-tank gun emplacements (equipped with ex-World War I naval six-pound guns), along with numerous anti-tank obstacles in the form of concrete posts, cubes and pyramids, while charge chambers were cut into bridges ready for demolition. Other armaments used included Boys Anti-tank Rifle and mobile QF 2 pounder guns.
To reinforce the line and deny access to the major east–west routes that passed through the line, in 1941 twelve "Defensive Islands" were added to the line under a plan devised by General Brooke, who succeeded General Sir Edmund Ironside. These included Bridgwater and Creech St Michael.
Two divisions from GHQ Home Forces Reserve were originally assigned to man the line, although from the autumn of 1940 the Home Guard were increasingly used.
Many pillboxes can still be seen along the length of the line.
Gallery
See also
British anti-invasion preparations of World War II
British hardened field defences of World War II
GHQ Line
Coquet Stop Line
Outer London Defence Ring
Bridgwater and Taunton Canal
Ringwood West Line
References
External links
UK Invasion Defence Remains
"The Stop Line Way Multi-user Path Seaton to Colyford and Cloakham Lawn to Weycroft East Devon" – An Archaeological Desk-based Assessment (part 1) and (part 2)
Taunton
British World War II defensive lines
Historic defensive lines
Military history of Somerset
Buildings and structures in Somerset
History of Taunton | [
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240574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Maxton | James Maxton | James Maxton (22 June 1885 – 23 July 1946) was a British left-wing politician, and leader of the Independent Labour Party. He was a pacifist who opposed both world wars. A prominent proponent of Home Rule for Scotland, he is remembered as one of the leading figures of the Red Clydeside era. He broke with Ramsay MacDonald and the second minority Labour government, and became one of its most bitter critics. As the leader of the Independent Labour Party (ILP), he disaffiliated the ILP from the mainstream party in 1932. Afterwards, he became an independent dissident outside front-line politics.
Biography
Early years
Born in the then burgh of Pollokshaws (now part of the city of Glasgow) in 1885, James Maxton was the son of two schoolteachers. He would himself later enter that profession after his education at Hutchesons' Boys' Grammar School and the University of Glasgow.
Whilst studying at the University of Glasgow, Maxton had described his political loyalties as lying with the Conservatives. He soon came to socialism, however, and in 1904 he joined the Barrhead branch of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). Maxton's move to socialism was heavily influenced by John Maclean, a fellow student at Glasgow University. In addition to Maclean's influence, Maxton was moved towards socialism by a meeting which he attended in Paisley which was addressed by party leader Philip Snowden. He was also influenced by the written word, including books by Robert Blatchford and Peter Kropotkin.
Later in life, Maxton claimed that the biggest influence in his decision to become a socialist was the grinding poverty experienced by many of the children he taught. He subsequently convinced all his siblings to join the ILP, with his sister Annie becoming a prominent figure in the organisation.
From 1906 to 1910 Maxton was active in the Schoolmasters' Union, where he refined his talents as a propagandist and orator."
Political career
Maxton was known as an effective public speaker. Historian Robert Keith Middlemas offers this vivid description:
He was well-known as a platform orator with a thin hatchet face and mane of long black hair which fell across his face giving it a saturnine and piratical appearance, but although he was an established speaker and propagandist for the ILP, his considerable intellect had been somewhat masked by the showman's facility. The genuine hero-worship which grew around him was restricted to his native Barrhead where the ILP branch was his private preserve.
Maxton was a vociferous opponent of World War I. He was a conscientious objector, refusing conscription into the military, and instead being given work on barges. During this time he was involved in organizing strikes in the shipyards as part of the Clyde Workers' Committee. Maxton was arrested in 1916, and charged with sedition. He was subsequently found guilty and imprisoned for a year.
In 1918, Maxton was elected to the National Council of the Labour Party. He and Ramsay MacDonald were responsible for moving the motion at the Labour Party's National Executive Committee which dictated that Labour members of the wartime coalition government resign from it in preparation for the 1918 general election. He was also a keen supporter of Scottish Home Rule and was for a while the President of The Scottish Home Rule Association when Ramsay MacDonald was the Secretary of the London Branch.
Maxton stood for parliament in the 1918 general election as a Labour Party candidate but was defeated in this first effort.
In his next electoral attempt, Maxton was successful, winning a seat as Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Bridgeton in the 1922 general election. Once in parliament, however, Maxton's forthright views often caused controversy. In 1923, his parliamentary privileges were temporarily removed when he called the Conservative MP Sir Frederick Banbury a "murderer", following the government's decision to withdraw school milk. In 1933, when then-Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made a particularly meandering and incoherent speech to Parliament, it was interrupted by Maxton calling out: "Sit down, man, you're a bloody tragedy."
Maxton was chairman of the ILP from 1926 to 1931, and from 1934 to 1939; he was generally seen as the symbol of the ILP after its break from Labour in 1932. A militant socialist, he was horrified by the perceived class collaborationism of the Trades Union Congress after the defeat of the 1926 General Strike, and was co-author with the left-wing Miners leader, Arthur Cook, of the "Cook-Maxton Manifesto" of 1928 calling for class warfare in the overthrow of capitalism.
In 1927, Maxton was elected International Chairman of the League against Imperialism at its General Council meeting in Brussels; he was re-elected to the same post at the League's 1929 Conference in Frankfurt
In 1932, Maxton published a popular biography of Bolshevik leader V. I. Lenin. Maxton wrote of him: "We are still too near to [Lenin] in time, too close to the happenings incidental to his work, too much under the influence of partisan antipathies or sympathies to venture final assessments. It is not yet possible to say that Russia has in practice realised the Utopian state of plenty, of liberty and of happiness, nor is it possible to say that other countries may not reach a better state in speedier and less harsh ways. It is possible to say that this man, quiet, unassuming, unimposing, set himself a task of immense size when still a boy, and stuck to it tenaciously to the end of his life."
In 1936, following the abdication of Edward VIII, Maxton proposed a "republican amendment" to the Abdication Bill, which would have turned the UK from a monarchy into a republic. Maxton argued that while the Monarchy had benefited Britain in the past, it had now "outlived its usefulness". The amendment was defeated by 403 votes to five.
In his diary for 3 September 1939, Sir Ralph Glyn reported that "James Maxton, the pacifist, rose, gaunt, a Horseman from the Apocalypse, doom written across his face," and declared, "Don't let's talk of national honour: what do such phrases mean? The plain fact is that war means the slaughter of millions. If the Prime Minister can still maintain the peace, he will have saved those lives, he mustn't be rushed."
During the Second World War, Maxton visited Brixton Prison to see Oswald Mosley, the leader of the British Union of Fascists, who was then being detained under the Defence Regulations.
On 29 January 1942, Maxton was the only one out of 465 members of the House of Commons to vote against a Motion of Confidence in Winston Churchill's wartime government.
Death and legacy
Maxton died in 1946, still sitting as MP for Bridgeton. After his death, the ILP stagnated until it ceased to be a viable independent political party.
Maxton was considered one of the greatest orators of the time, both within and outside the House of Commons. Churchill, whilst holding political opinions wholly inconsistent with those of Maxton, described him as "the greatest parliamentarian of his day". His biographer Graham Walker concludes:
Maxton was one of the most charismatic figures in twentieth-century British public life. He was essentially a Scottish radical whose propagandist skills for the wider British labour movement have earned him folk hero status in socialist circles.
Maxton heavily influenced his family's political opinions, and his mother and all his siblings also joined the ILP. His brother John was also a conscientious objector in the First World War. His son James and his nephew John Maxton were conscientious objectors to National Service after the Second World War. John went on to become Labour MP for the Cathcart division of Glasgow from 1979 to 2001 and was made a life peer in 2004.
Gordon Brown, former British Prime Minister, has published a biography, Maxton, based on his PhD thesis at the University of Edinburgh.
Footnotes
Publications by James Maxton
A Living Wage for All: Dr. Salter's Speech in the House of Commons on Wednesday, March 7, 1923. London: Bermondsey Independent Labour Party, 1923.
The Left Wing: Its Programme and Activities. London: National Left Wing Provisional Committee, n.d. [c. 1926].
Twenty Points for Socialism. London: ILP Publication Department, n.d. [c. 1927].
Our Case for a Socialist Revival. With A.J. Cook. London : Workers' Publications, n.d. [c. 1928].
The Roads to Socialism: Chairman's Address at the ILP Conference. London: ILP Publication Department, 1929.
The Case of Benn v. Maxton: Being a Correspondence on Capitalism and Socialism, to which is Appended the Report of a Broadcast Debate. With Ernest John Pickstone Benn. London: E. Benn, 1929.
Speech on the Government's Unemployment Proposals in the House of Commons 4 November 1929. London: ILP Publication Department, n.d. [1929].
Where the ILP Stands: Presidential Address of J. Maxton to the ILP Conference, together with the Declaration on the Relation of the ILP to the Labour Party. London: ILP Publication Department, 1930.
Lenin. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1932.
Widespread Poverty: "The Existing Social Order Must Go." London: Independent Labour Party, 1933.
A Clear Lead. With Fenner Brockway. London: Independent Labour Party, 1933.
Keir Hardie: Prophet and Pioneer. London: F. Johnson, n.d. [c. 1933].
Dictators and Dictatorship. London: Independent Labour Party, n.d. [c. 1934].
If I Were Dictator. London: Methuen, 1935.
The Unity Campaign. With Stafford Cripps and Harry Pollitt. London : National Unity Campaign Committee, 1937.
Maxton's Great Anti-War Speech. Glasgow : Civic Press, n.d. [1939].
Why We Oppose Conscription. London: Independent Labour Party, n.d. [1939].
Break Truce with Tories and Build Labour Unity! A Statement for Consideration by Men and Women of the Labour Movement. With Fenner Brockway. n.c. [London]: Independent Labour Party, n.d. [1943].
Further reading
Brown, Gordon. Maxton: A Biography. Mainstream Publishing Co., 1986.
Cohen, Gidon. "Myth, History and the Independent Labour Party." in The Foundations of the British Labour Party (Routledge, 2016) pp. 109–126.
Dawson, Alan. "Red Clydeside: a digital history of the labour movement in Glasgow 1910-1932." Dunaskin News 5 (2004) online.
Dowse, Robert E. Left in the Centre: The Independent Labour Party 1893–1940. London: Longman's, 1966.
Griffin, Paul. "Diverse political identities within a working class presence: Revisiting Red Clydeside." Political Geography 65 (2018): 123-133.
Kenefick, William. Red Scotland! The Rise and Fall of the Radical Left, c. 1872 to 1932 (Edinburgh University Press, 2007). Pp. 230.
Middlemas, Robert Keith. The Clydesiders: A Left Wing Struggle for Parliamentary Power. London: Hutchinson & Co., 1965.
Walker, Graham. "Maxton, James (1885–1946)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 2 Aug 2016
External links
Strathclyde University Digital Library entry on James Maxton
Biography of Maxton from Spartacus Educational
1885 births
1946 deaths
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
British anti–World War I activists
Politicians from Glasgow
Scottish conscientious objectors
Scottish socialists
Scottish republicans
Independent Labour Party MPs
Independent Labour Party National Administrative Committee members
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Glasgow constituencies
UK MPs 1922–1923
UK MPs 1923–1924
UK MPs 1924–1929
UK MPs 1929–1931
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
UK MPs 1945–1950
Red Clydeside
People educated at Hutchesons' Grammar School
People from Barrhead
Scottish Labour MPs
People from Pollokshaws | [
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240577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesham | Chesham | Chesham (, , or ) is a market town and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. It is south-east of the county town of Aylesbury and north-west of Charing Cross, central London, and is part of the London commuter belt. It is in the Chess Valley and surrounded by farmland. The earliest records of Chesham as a settlement are from the second half of the 10th century, although there is archaeological evidence of people in this area from around 8000 BC. Henry III granted the town a royal charter for a weekly market in 1257.
Chesham is known for its four Bs boots, beer, brushes and Baptists. In the face of fierce competition from both home and abroad during the later 19th and early 20th centuries, the three traditional industries rapidly declined. The ready availability of skilled labour encouraged new industries to the town both before and after the Second World War. Today, employment in the town is provided mainly by small businesses engaged in light industry, technology and professional services.
From the early part of the 20th century, Chesham has experienced a considerable expansion, with new housing developments and civic infrastructure. Chesham has become a commuter town with improved connection to London via the London Underground and road networks. The town centre has been progressively redeveloped since the 1960s and has been pedestrianised since the 1990s. The population at the 2011 Census was 30,910.
History
There is archaeological evidence of the earliest settlement during the Late Mesolithic period around 5000 BC in East Street, Chesham where a large quantity of flint tools were found. The earliest farming evidence from the Neolithic era around 2500 BC. Bronze Age tribes settled in the valley around 1800 BC and they were succeeded by Iron Age Belgic people of the Catuvellauni tribe around 500 BC. Between 150 and 400 AD, there is evidence of Romano-British farming, and nearby at Latimer, there is archaeological evidence of a Roman villa and the planting of grapevines. However, the area was then deserted until the Saxon period around the 7th century.
Contrary to popular belief, the town is not named after the river; rather, the river is named after the town. The first recorded reference to Chesham is under the Old English name , meaning "the river-meadow at the pile of stones" around 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu, who has been identified with the former wife of King Eadwig. She held an estate here which she bequeathed to Abingdon Abbey.
Prior to 1066 there were three adjacent estates which comprised Caestreham which are briefly recorded in the Domesday Book as being of , 4 and hides, having four mills. The most important of these manors was held by Queen Edith, the widow of Edward the Confessor. Other land having been returned to the Crown it was in the hands of Harold Godwinson and his brother Leofwine Godwinson. Part of these later became Chesham Bois parish. After 1066 Edith kept her lands and William the Conqueror divided royal lands between his half brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and Hugh de Bolbec.
The land owners of Chesham
The Domesday Book records that there were three manors in Cestreham and one at nearby Latimer. William the Conqueror shared out the estates between four of his dependants. The vast majority of land was granted to Hugh de Bolebec and smaller parcels to Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, Toustain Mantel and Alsi.
Before the 13th century, the three Cestreham manors were known as Chesham Higham, Chesham Bury and Chesham Bois. In the 14th century they were first recorded as 'the manors of Great Chesham'. Collectively they extended beyond the current Chesham town boundary. Together with the manor at Latimer they were held by the Earls of Oxford and Surrey. During the 16th century Greater Chesham was owned by the Seymour family who disposed of it to the Cavendish family who were the Earls and later Dukes of Devonshire. It is from the 15th century that the earliest surviving properties survive and are to be found close by the church in an area called the Nap, and along part of the present-day Church Street. Though gradually disposing of land the Cavendishes maintained an influence in the town until the 19th century. The Lowndes family started purchasing land from the 16th century. William Lowndes was an influential politician and Secretary to the Treasury during the reigns of Mary II, William III and Queen Anne. He rebuilt the original Bury and manor house of Great Chesham in 1712. The Lowndes family settled in Chesham and over the next 200 years became equally influential both nationally through politics and the law and locally within the town as its principal benefactors.
Ecclesiastical history
No evidence remains of any church prior to the Norman Conquest. However, the siting of puddingstones beneath the present-day church suggests a wooden church was constructed on the site during the Anglo-Saxon period. During the 12th century two families of Norman descent, the de Bolebecs and the Sifrewasts, each held a share of the advowson assigned to the adjacent manors of Chesham Higham and Chesham Bury respectively for the Church at Chesham which it is evidenced from about 1154 was dedicated to St Mary. These moieties were subsequently given by the families to two monasteries. In 1194 the de Bolbecs bestowed their advowson to the abbot and monks of Woburn Abbey and henceforth the parish of Chesham Higham was renamed 'Chesham Woburn'. Meanwhile, and sometime before 1199, the Sifrewast family granted their advowson to the convent of St Mary's de Pré Leicester. As a consequence the advowson for the parish of Chesham Bury became known as 'Chesham Leicester'. In 1536 Henry VIII seized control of church property as part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Subsequently, during Edward VI and Elizabeth I's reigns, first Chesham Woburn and then Chesham Leicester advowsons became part of the estates of the Dukes of Bedford. Though there were originally two vicars appointed to the parish church of St Mary's, from the 17th century a single incumbent was appointed. Jurisdiction was still shared between both advowsons and two parsonages, an 'upper' and 'lower', continued to be maintained until the 18th century when both were superseded by a single new parsonage. The Duke of Bedford subsequently consolidated the moieties by Act of Parliament in 1767. To accommodate the increasing population during the 19th century, a new parish church was built in 1867; Christ Church at Waterside, and further churches were built at Ashley Green and Bellingdon, which were at the time both within the civil parish of Chesham.
Religious dissent and nonconformity
Chesham is noted for the religious dissent which dominated the town from the 15th century. In 1532 Thomas Harding was burnt at the stake in the town for being a Lollard and heretic. From the 17th century, Chesham was a focus for those dissenting from mainstream religion. Quakers met in the late 17th century in Chesham and in 1798 they built the current meeting house. The first Baptists' meeting dates back to about 1640 and a place was registered for services in 1706. The first chapel was opened in 1712, one of many to be built for the various Baptist groups during the 18th and 19th centuries. John Wesley preached in Chesham in the 1760s and a Wesleyan Methodist society existed in the town. In more recent time a Wesleyan Methodist chapel was opened in 1897. The Christian Brethren which date back in Chesham to 1876, opened their Gospel Hall in 1895, which closed in December 2008. Broadway Baptist church had branches at the Vale, Hawridge, Ashley Green and Chartridge; only the one at Chartridge survives. Trinity Baptist church had branches at Hyde Heath, Ley Hill and Whelpley Hill; only the one at Hyde Heath survives. The Congregational Church had branches at Asheridge and Pond Park.
Emigration to the American colonies
In 1630 Aquila Chase left Chesham to join the colony, settling first at Hampton (now New Hampshire), then Newbury, Massachusetts. Descendants of Aquila became influential in shaping political, legislative and commercial matters from the colonial period until after the Declaration of Independence. For example, Salmon P. Chase was the United States Treasury Secretary and Chief Justice in the 1870s. The Chase Manhattan Bank is named after him (although Chase did not have any connection with the bank).
Industrial development
The primary industries of the town in medieval times were flour production, woodworking and weaving of wool. There were four mills built along the Chess which was diverted to generate sufficient power. Surplus flour was supplied to London. The number of clothworkers, including spinners and those associated with dying (fullers), grew rapidly between 1530 and 1730 and became the major industry in the town prior to a period of rapid decline. Between 1740 and 1798, mills were converted to produce paper (pulp), responding to London's insatiable demand for paper. However, technological developments in paper-making elsewhere rendered the mills unprofitable and they reverted to flour production in the 1850s.
New industries emerged from the 16th century onwards. The woodlands had been a source of firewood for London during the mediaeval period. A small-scale woodenware industry making shovels, brooms, spoons and chairs, began around 1538 and its expansion was accompanied by the planting of beechwoods between the 17th and 19th centuries. Straw plaiting was seen as home-based work for the wives and daughters of labourers from the 18th century. Straw was also imported from Italy to produce the superior 'Tuscan plait' traded at a Saturday market for the Luton and Dunstable hat trade and remained the major cottage industry until around 1860, providing employment for women and girls, some of whom attended a 'plait-school' in Waterside. Lace making developed in the 16th century as a cottage industry and was valued for its quality. Chesham specialised in black lace. The industry declined in the 1850s due to mechanisation in Nottingham. Between 1838 and 1864 silk-spinning, powered by a steam-driven mill in Waterside, was started to make use of unemployed lace workers. This trend was relatively short-lived as changes in fashion and the growth of the railways resulted in competition from elsewhere for the valuable London markets. However one exception was the firm of George Tutill which specialised in high-quality banners and was responsible for three-quarters of those made for trade unions. The firm is still a going concern, specialising in flags and banners.
Three of the four Bs that have shaped Chesham's history relate to its industries. Brush making was introduced around 1829 to make use of the off-cuts from woodworking. Boot and shoe making which started as a cottage industry later expanding through small workshops, thrived following the opening of tanneries around 1792 which also supplied leather for saddle making and gloves. By the mid-19th century both brushmaking and footwear manufacture became major industries in the town with production concentrated in large factories. The industry declined in the early-20th century as the market for heavy boots declined. Beer brewing grew rapidly around the town centre in the 19th century again declining at the start of the 20th century. These traditional industries were succeeded by smaller but more commercial enterprises which took advantage of the available skilled labour. For example, in 1908 the Chiltern Toy Works was opened by Joseph Eisenmann on Bellingdon Road, later moving to the 'new' industrial estate in Waterside, making high quality teddy bears. The works finally closed in 1960. Post Second World War industry has ranged from the manufacture of glue (Industrial Adhesives) to aluminium-based packaging (Alcan), Aluminium Castings & Bronze Castings (Draycast Foundries Limited) and balloons (B-Loony).
The town in times of war
Henry VIII imposed a tax on the town to pay for his wars against Scotland and France.
In common with the majority of communities in Buckinghamshire, Chesham's Lollard heritage and puritan traditions ensured it would vehemently resist King Charles I's demand for Ship Money; a tax on tradesmen and landowners. In 1635 the townsfolk of Chesham protested to the Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, Sir Peter Temple, who was reluctantly enforcing a writ requiring payment of a levy to the King. Not surprisingly given the local allegiances to John Hampden, the towns' people largely sided with the Parliamentarians at the outbreak of the English Civil War. During 1642 the influential Parliamentarians John Pym and Earl of Warwick were headquartered in the town along with large numbers of troops. There are records of skirmishes in the area during 1643 when Prince Rupert was stationed near Aylesbury and dispatched Robert Dormer, 1st Earl of Carnarvon to pillage nearby towns, such as Wendover. Heading toward Chesham a company of horse of the Parliamentary Army from the town met them outside Great Missenden where a skirmish took place ending with the Parliamentary force being driven back.
The records of the Posse Comitatus for Chesham in 1798 recorded over 800 men between the ages of 16–60 enrolled in a militia to defend the town in the event of invasion by Napoleon I or to deal with civil unrest. Less than 50 years later, in 1846, a similar register of 22 able-bodied men had been assembled to form the Chesham troop of the Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry which coincided with the billeting of troops from the Queen's Own 7th Hussars passing through the town on their way to Ireland.
During the First World War, 188 servicemen from Chesham lost their lives (see Landmarks). Alfred Burt, a corporal in the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment from Chesham, received the Victoria Cross for his actions in September 1915. The town provided temporary quarters for several regiments including the Kings Royal Rifles and the Royal Engineers honed their bridge building skills in local parks. In 1919, two 'Victory Oaks' were planted in the town: one was planted by Margot Cavendish, Lady Chesham of Latimer House, Latimer, Buckinghamshire, and Major Lionel de Rothschild; the other by Mr. and Mrs. Lowndes (former owners of Lowndes Park), and Mr. and Mrs. Byrne (the chairman of Chesham Urban District Council and his wife).
Over the duration of the Second World War, 80 servicemen lost their lives. Air raid shelters were built by the Council in 1940, although the official view was that its not being a strategic location the town was unlikely to be targeted. In fact at the end of the war it was estimated that 45 bombs fell in the Chesham area and it is known that nine people were killed.
Social history
A Chesham workhouse for 90 paupers was operating in Germain Street as early as 1777. New legislation transferred the control of the Chesham institution to Amersham Poor Law Union in 1835. However, there were long-standing rivalries between the locals of both towns and in July that year violence broke out when an order was given to remove the paupers to Amersham. The Riot Act was read out to an angry crowd of 500 and arrests followed.
Publicly funded education started with the opening of a British School in 1825 followed by a National School in 1845, an Infants' School in 1851 and the first Elementary School for girls in 1864. Chesham Building Society opened for business in 1845 and continued to operate until June 2010, when it was taken over by the Skipton Building Society. Other public institutions also started at this time, with a Fire Brigade being established in 1846, the first cemetery in 1858 and a police station built in 1861.
Chesham cottage hospital, built for £865 17s 11d on land provided by Lord Chesham, opened in October 1869, just ahead of an outbreak of typhoid in 1871. Despite a local campaign to save the hospital it closed in 2005. In September 2010 the derelict hospital building was severely damaged by a fire caused by arsonists, according to police reports. The Council commissioned a waterworks to be built in 1875 in Alma Road and mains drainage in the town and a sewage works was opened adjacent to the Chess, downstream in 1887. A gasworks was constructed on the southern part of the town in 1847. Bathing in the Chess at Waterside was an old tradition which became increasingly popular in the 19th century. Complaints that it had become a nuisance led to the Urban District Council surrounding the site with a concrete wall. This further increased its popularity and an open-air pool was built by the council in 1912.
Transport connections have always come late to the town. The Metropolitan Railway eventually reached Chesham in July 1889. Electrification was not to come until the 1960s. Between the two world wars and in the 1950s and 60s there was much expansion in the town with new public housing developments along the Missenden Road, at Pond Park and at Botley.
The first public viewings of cinema films in Chesham were provided by travelling showmen around 1900 and attracted large crowds. The first purpose-built cinema, The Empire Picture Hall, opened in Station Road in 1912 and in 1914 The Chesham Palace started up in The Broadway. Both showed silent films. By 1920 the Empire had closed. In 1930 the Chesham Palace was refurbished to show the new 'talkies' and reopened as The Astoria which remained in business until 1959 when the arrival of television forced it to close. The Embassy in Germain Street opened in 1935 and survived until 1982, closing due to competition from cinemas in nearby towns. The Elgiva Theatre, completed in 1976 beside St Mary's Way, was equipped to show films and on moving to a new site just across the road in 1998 state of the art projection equipment was installed in the new theatre (see image below).
Geography
The town is in the Chess Valley 13 miles south-east of the county town Aylesbury and is 25 miles (40 km) north west of central London. It is the fourth largest town in the ceremonial county of Buckinghamshire and the largest in Chiltern District, with a population of some 20,343 people behind Milton Keynes with 184,500, High Wycombe with 118,200 and Aylesbury with 69,200. Nearby Amersham has 17,719.
Topography and geology
Chesham is in the Chiltern Hills and from its lowest point of above sea level rises up valley sides. It lies at the confluence of four dry valleys formed by the meltwater at the end of the last ice age which deposited onto the bed rock of chalk, alluvial gravels, silts, on which the town now sits. Subsequent periods of subsidence and submergence deposited clays and flints. The River Chess is a chalk-stream which rises from three springs; to the north-west along the Pednor Vale at Frogmoor, at Higham Mead to the north of the town, and to the west near the Amersham Road which converge in the town near to East Street. The river was known as the Isen from at least the 12th century when it is found contributing to the name of the nearby hamlet of Isenhampstead, later to divide and become the manors of Isenhampstead Chenies and Isenhampstead Latimer and persisting until the 19th century. It has been suggested, but not established, that the old name 'Isen', which derives from the Anglo-Saxon word for iron, refers to the chalybeate or iron-charged spring waters which feed the river Today the streams are culverted and conducted below street level before emerging at Waterside and flowing in a south easterly direction towards Latimer. From there it flows to the north of Chenies and on towards Rickmansworth after which it joins the River Colne.
Built environment and social geography
Chesham developed as a market town which prospered through its manufacturing industries fuelled by a series of mills which sprung up along the River Chess. Until the 19th century the town was centred to the south-eastern end of the present High Street. Most of the present-day town centre's development took place during Victorian times. The 'old town', particularly Church and Germain Street, has been well preserved and now designated a conservation area. It includes a number of impressive residential, institutional and commercial buildings that largely survived Victorian 'improvement'. The 12th century St Mary's Church, which underwent refurbishment and redesign by George Gilbert Scott in the 19th century. 'The Bury', a Queen Anne town house was built in 1712 for William Lowndes Secretary to the Treasury. Chesham had two workhouses, both buildings survived and are located in Germain Street. In June 2009 the Chesham town centre and old town conservation area was placed on the English Heritage Conservation Areas at Risk register which the District Council commented was due to the misinterpretation of its responses to the conservation body's questionnaire. Due to the pattern of the town's expansion there are several centres of employment which are interspersed with residential housing. Industrial buildings on the north side of the town have been redeveloped into offices in recent years.
The town had a population of 2,425 by 1841. This had increased to more to 9,000 by the end of the 19th century. As a consequence the centre of the town shifted to the east as shops, workshops and cottages sprung up along the High Street and Berkhampstead Road. In the period after the Second World War the town centre was progressively redeveloped. In the 1960s St Mary's Way was constructed, rerouting the A416 around the congested High Street which avoided the need to widen the street, conserved its character and allowed for its pedestrianisation during the 1990s. Industrial development became centred on two areas. At the southern end of the town at Waterside which was the site of the first mills and factories in the 18th and 19th centuries there is a mixture of original and newly constructed industrial units and at the northern end along the Asheridge Vale there is a further development of generally small commercial business units.
Compared to other towns in south Buckinghamshire, there are fewer detached and owner-occupied houses and a higher proportion of social rental accommodation. Expansion in housing has occurred in several phases mainly to the east of the old town where artisan's housing sprung up along Berkhamsted Road and subsequently along the many steep valley sides. Initially this development was as a consequence of the extension of the railway to the town in the 1880s, subsequently the promotion of Metroland during the 1920s and the electrification of the Metropolitan line in the 1960s. Pond Park estate was built in the 1930s. The population grew fast after the Second World War as workers followed employers who moved out from London. The population in 1951 was 11,500 leading to the building of the Chessmount and Hilltop estates by speculative developers in the 1950s and '60s. By 1971 the population had reached 20,000 since when it has only increased slightly. The growing popularity of the Chilterns as a place to live from the latter part of the 20th century onwards led to restrictions on housing and industrial development in the Chilterns Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and has sustained the demand for further house building in the town. Today an increasing number of those in employment find work outside the town, commuting by car or train as well as an increasing number who are home or office-based using technology to make a living.
Climate
Chesham experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to almost all of the United Kingdom, although the lower parts of the valley have significant frost hollow characteristics – being several degrees colder than surrounding areas on clear, calm nights and so have much lower average minimum temperatures than shown in the table. The lowest recorded temperature in Chesham was on 20 December 2010 at a private weather station, which was also the coldest place in the UK on that date. On 12 February 2012, the coldest day in Britain since December 2010, temperatures in Chesham fell to again the lowest in the country on that date.
Neighbourhoods and wards
The town comprises the following communities:
Asheridge Vale, stretches along Asheridge Road on the north-west edge of the town. The large housing development was built during the mid 20th century along with an industrial estate comprising manufacturing and light industrial units which has since undergone diversification into offices and small businesses. Also a town council ward.
Botley, a hamlet located to the east of the town of Chesham between Lye Green and Ley Hill (the latter in Latimer parish). Part of Townsend ward.
Chesham Vale, area on the northern edge of the town on the road to the villages of Hawridge and Cholesbury. Also a town council ward called Vale.
Chessmount, area to the east of the town centre. Part of Waterside ward.
Codmore, ancient hamlet located to the north-east of the town centre, at the junction between the roads to Lye Green and Botley. Part of Hilltop ward.
Great Hivings, an area to the north of Chesham on the road to Bellingdon (the latter in Chartridge parish). Part of the ward called Ridgeway.
Hilltop, residential area to the north-east of the town built on steeply sloping ground. Consists primarily of steel framed bungalows. Also the name of a town council ward.
Lye Green, hamlet located to the north east of the main town. Part of Newtown ward.
Lowndes, residential area which includes the Chiltern Hills Academy School, close to the centre of the town, adjacent to Lowndes Park. Also a town council ward.
Newtown, late Victorian housing development to the north of the town, now incorporated into the enlarged townscape. Also a town council ward.
Old Town, until the arrival of the Metropolitan Railway in the 19th century was the town's centre. Today, St Mary's Church, the historic houses and streetscape are part of a designated Conservation Area lying to the south of the present town centre with which it comprises St. Mary's ward.
Pednormead End, an area to the west of the main town, along Missenden Road. Part of St. Mary's ward.
Pond Park, an area comprising post Second World War housing to the north of the town. Part of the Ridgeway Ward.
Townsend, Victorian extension to the town comprising commercial premises, later 20th century residential developments and Chesham Grammar School. Also a town council ward.
Waterside, once a hamlet located just south of the town centre. Several mills sprung up along the River Chess which flows through the area as well as factories. It still retains a distinct character with a large open space known as the Moor. Also a town council ward.
Landmarks
Clock tower
A clock tower constructed in 1992 stands in Market Square on the site of Chesham's 18th-century town hall demolished in 1965. The turret is a reconstruction of the one built onto the original town hall in the 19th century and features the original glass-dialled clock face and clock mechanism from the mid 19th century.
War memorial
Chesham war memorial stands in a landscaped garden in the Broadway. It depicts an infantryman with his rifle inverted and commemorates those who fell during the First and Second World Wars. It was designed by the sculptor Arthur George Walker and unveiled in 1921. The inscription reads:- To The Glorious Memory Of The Men Of The Town Who Gave Their Lives And To Honour: All Who Served Or Suffered In Cause Of God King And Country Their Deeds Live After Them Faithful Unto Death.
Economy
Agriculture
There is evidence during the pre-Norman period of common fields being divided into parcels and strips of land. The Domesday Book records Chesham with sufficient arable land to support four water-powered corn mills on the River Chess producing a surplus of flour exported to London. There was woodland to feed over 1600 pigs and supply timber for local manufacturing of farm tools (ploughshares). Field enclosure started in the early 16th century and although almost completed by the mid 19th century the productivity of Chesham farms provided work for over 450 agricultural labourers. Sheep that grazed on the hillside fields around Chesham provided wool for the cloth making and dying cottage industry which, due to the town's proximity to London, thrived until the 18th century when Yorkshire mills out-competed them.
Industrial Revolution
Until the 18th century, the economic activity of Chesham had remained largely unchanged since the granting of its town charter in 1257. The commercial planting of beechwoods established Chesham as one of a number of local centres in the Chilterns for the production of turned furniture components and other wooden items often called bodging, produced in local workshops. Mills along the Chess concerned with papermaking and silk weaving continued to operate until the middle of the 19th century, as did 'outworkers' engaged in lace making and straw plaiting, whose employment was impacted on by changes in fashion and due to mechanisation and from cheaper imports from the continent. The mineral-laden, unpolluted water of the Chess made it ideal for growing watercress and this industry flourished in Chesham in the Victorian era, with beds extending along the Chess towards Latimer, which continued in operation until after the Second World War.
Manufacturing and brewing
In the 18th century, home-based leather trade workers moved to the newly opened Barnes Boot factory, and to the Britannia Boot and Shoe Works towards the end of the 19th century. By this time, there were eight major manufacturers and many small workshops. In 1829 Beechwoods brushmaking factory was opened. At its height there were around 12 factories specialising in brushes made from locally grown beech, with bristles imported mainly from across Asia. The adoption of nylon for brushes was the cause of the downturn with only one manufacturer remaining today, Russell's Brushes.
Nash's Chesham Brewery opened in the High Street in 1841. Two other notable rivals were Darvell's Brewery and Sarah Howe and Sons. Competition led to amalgamations around the start of the 20th century although brewing continued at Chesham Brewery until the 1950s.
Commerce today
Today Chesham has a diverse economic base comprising many typically small-medium-sized enterprises representing all business sectors. Within the two industrial parks light engineering and fabrication industry is to be found alongside printers and graphic designers or other technology-based firms, wholesalers, distribution and courier businesses. As elsewhere, there has been an expansion of professional business services and consultancies. The pedestrianised High Street retains some of the character of the old market town with some long-established traditional family retailers and also features a street market on Wednesdays and Saturdays. This individuality was recognised in a survey of town 'high streets' which gave Chesham good marks for its distinctiveness. There are two of the 'big five' supermarkets present which have impacted on the town's independent stores and all retail outlets have also to compete with other nearby town centres, at Amersham, Berkhamsted and Tring as well as the large shopping centres in High Wycombe, Watford and Milton Keynes.
Governance
Parliamentary representation
The town was part of the Aylesbury constituency from 1885 to 1974. Since the boundary changes that were made ahead of the February 1974 general election, Chesham has been in the Chesham & Amersham constituency. The constituency was traditionally solidly Conservative; it never returned a non-Tory candidate until a by-election in June 2021 following the death of previous MP Cheryl Gillan returned the present Liberal Democrat MP, Sarah Green. The Conservative Party had won the constituency at the 2015 General Election with a 59.1% share of the vote; the next most popular party was UKIP, represented by Alan Stevens, with 13.75% of the vote, Labour's Ben Davies with 12.7%, for the Liberal Democrats, Kirsten Johnson with 9.0%, and Gill Walker of the Green Party on 5.5%. Local turnout at the last election was 71.8%.
Coat of arms
The various colours of the Chesham Coat of Arms, created in 1974, are the same as those of Buckinghamshire County arms. The Chiltern woodlands are denoted by two beech trees. The river Chess is recognised in the black and white chequers and rooks. The swan is inherited from the Dukes of Buckingham. The lilies relate to St Mary, patron saint of the parish church.
The buck's head is borrowed from the arms of The Cavendish family, which owned most of the parish lands. The motto is from the Epistle to the Galatians, Chapter V, Verse 13.
Public services
Emergency services
Thames Valley Police headquartered in Kidlington, Oxfordshire is accountable for the delivery of policing through the town's three Neighbourhood Policing Teams. Buckinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service based in Aylesbury oversees the town's fire and rescue services. There is a fire station located in Bellingdon Road which is supplemented by services from the station at Amersham and other nearby towns. Ambulance services are managed by South Central Ambulance Service NHS Trust based in Bicester, Oxford. The nearest ambulance station is located in Amersham.
Health services
Buckinghamshire NHS Primary Care Trust has overall responsibility for the provision of health services to the local community. Since the closure of the town's cottage hospital in 2004, the nearest hospitals are Amersham Hospital, Wycombe Hospital and Stoke Mandeville Hospital. After several years of uncertainty, in 2008 the PCT confirmed it was proceeding with the Chesham Healthzone Project. Planning approval was granted by the district council in June 2009 for the purpose-built health facility comprising, two GP practices, a pharmacy, consulting, clinical and treatment rooms. Originally scheduled to open in 2010, phase 1 of the Chess Medical Centre opened in December 2011.
Utilities
Veolia Water Central supplies drinking water to the town extracted from the River Chess and Misbourne and from aquifers in the Chiltern Hills. Thames Water undertakes waste water treatment and has a sewage treatment works beside the River Chess on Latimer Road to the south of the town. Chiltern District Council is responsible for waste management and collection and disposal is currently carried out on its behalf by Serco. EDF Energy provides electricity supply for the town.
Religion
The oldest church building in Chesham is St. Mary's Church which dates from at least the 12th century. Chesham has a long history of religious dissent, such as the persecuted Lollards, followers of the John Wycliffe tradition. One of them, Thomas Harding, was martyred on White Hill, near Dungrove Farm, in 1532. The Amersham Martyrs Memorial commemorates the execution of local Lollards in Amersham, and there are memorials to Thomas Harding in the churchyard and on White Hill. The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the rapid growth of non-conformism especially Baptists. During the English civil war there were groups of Quakers, Baptists and Presbyterians. Broadway Baptist Church dates back to at least 1706 and had its 300th anniversary celebrations in Chesham in 2006. Its roots are in the Chesham and Berkhamsted Baptist Church which dates back to 1640.
In the present day, Chesham has four Baptist churches (Broadway Baptist, Trinity Baptist and Newtown Baptist) and four Anglican churches (St Mary's, Christ Church in Waterside, Hope Church, formerly called Hiving's Free Church, in Upper Belmont Road and Emmanuel in Newtown). There is a United Reformed Church, formerly called the Congregational Church, in The Broadway, there was a Gospel Hall in Station Road (which closed at the end of 2008), a Roman Catholic church (St Columba's) in Berkhampstead Road (built in 1960), a Methodist chapel in Bellingdon Road, a Salvation Army Citadel in Broad St (closed in 2015), an historic Quaker Friends Meeting House in Bellingdon Road, The King's Church charismatic fellowship which meets at Chesham Park Community College. Almost all of the Christian churches of Chesham work collectively as part of the Churches Together for Chesham (CTfC) group, which has 16 churches in membership. Other religious groups include Chesham Spiritualist Church in Higham Road and the Jehovah's Witnesses off Bellingdon Road.
During the Second World War, the first recorded Jewish congregation was founded by families evacuated from London who used to meet at the cricket pavilion. After the war, they combined with the Jewish community in Amersham which met at the synagogue in Amersham-on-the-Hill until 1968. This was succeeded by a Liberal Jewish community formed in 1990 which now meets at Chesham Grammar School.
During the second half of the 20th century, a sizeable Muslim community became established in the town. Chesham Mosque, the first purpose-built mosque, was completed in 2005 and is located in Bellingdon Road.
Demography
Demographics based on 2011 census for the population of Chesham
Population of Chesham parish in 2011 was 21,483 comprising 10,600 male and 10,883 female
Status = 51.2% Married, 0.2% Civil p,ship, 34.5% Single (incl widowed, divorced etc.)
Housing = 67.6% owner occ'd, 0.9% shared ownership, 20.6% rented (pub) 10.1% rented (private)
Car ownership = 83% of households in the town own a car.
Work/studying = 54% employed, 13.2% self-employed, 2.4% Studying,
Not working = 12.9% retired, 5.9% unemployed, 5.0% caring for family, 2.8% = unable to work
Travel to work = 66.0% car, 11.5% train, 2.4% bus, 1.8% motor/bi cycle, 10.0% on foot, 6.8% at home.
† prior to boundary changes in 1974 reducing size of Chesham Town area
Transport
Rail
Chesham tube station, close to the town centre, is the terminus for the Chesham branch, a single-track spur off the London Underground Metropolitan line connecting to Chalfont & Latimer station. The station was opened on 8 July 1889 by the Metropolitan Railway (MR). The line had been intended to extend to Tring with connections to the London and North Western Railways West Coast Main Line. However, the MR chose an alternative route across the Chilterns and so the idea was abandoned and the Metropolitan line continued to Aylesbury via Amersham. There were some sizeable goods yards beyond the station, which were closed and now function as Waitrose's car park except for one portion occupied by coal merchants.
In 1959 electrification of the Metropolitan line to Chesham provided a more reliable connection to London. Following the cessation of London Underground services to Aylesbury in 1961 and the closure of Ongar in 1994, Chesham has become the furthest location served from central London, in terms of both distance and travelling time. Prior to December 2010, apart from a few direct trains to London at peak times, a shuttle service operated to and from Chalfont & Latimer. Since then the town has benefited from direct trains to London all day.
The nearest National Rail connections are at Amersham, although the LU line also connects directly to Chalfont & Latimer station, from where the Metropolitan line and Chiltern Railways provide a joint service with Metropolitan line trains travelling to Baker Street and Aldgate and Chiltern Railways trains travelling to Marylebone. There is also access to London via Berkhamsted railway station on the West Coast Main Line.
Roads
In contrast to other towns in south Buckinghamshire, Chesham historically was not well served by road transport links. The stage coach bypassed the town and, unlike Amersham, there were no turnpikes and consequently roads were poorly maintained. Significant change occurred in the post Second World War period with the opening of the M1 motorway. The A416 now runs through the town, from Amersham to Berkhamsted, and connects the town to the more recently upgraded A41. The A416 was diverted around the High Street and later upgraded to be dual-lane. Although these improvements enable more through traffic, traffic congestion has increased. Chesham's High Street was pedestrianised in 1990 and the benefits to the High Street have been felt ever since. Whilst some of the previous bustle has been lost, the impact of pedestrianisation has generally been positive.
Bus services
Bus companies running local services include Arriva, Carousel Buses, Red Rose, Redline and Red Eagle.
Residential areas of the town are connected with the central shopping-area. Chesham is also connected by services to nearby Amersham, and further afield to High Wycombe, Hemel Hempstead, and Uxbridge.
Less frequent services run to Aylesbury and to surrounding villages.
Car usage and parking
There are six pay and display car parks in the town, managed by Chiltern District Council. This demand for parking reflects the relatively high car usage, a result of both affluence and the limited public transport provision in rural areas. As a consequence
Chiltern District has the 4th highest carbon footprint of all local authorities.
Cycling
There is limited provision for cycle use within the town. The town is one setting off point for exploring the Chilterns and cycling heritage trails have been developed by the district authority, two of which are centred on countryside around Chesham.
Air transport
Luton airport is 15 miles away and Heathrow airport 22 miles away. The Bovingdon stack is directly above the town.
Education
Primary education
Between the 1960s and the mid-1990s Primary education provision in Chesham was organised into First (ages 4–8) and Middle (ages 8 – 12) with some Combined Schools taking pupils across the whole age range (4 -12). In 1996 the arrangements were modified and the age of transfer to Secondary education was changed to age 11. The schools still retain some elements of the previous arrangement reflected in their names. There are six Primary Schools within Chesham with catchment areas based on post codes: – Elmtree First School, Newtown Infant School, Brushwood Junior School, Thomas Harding Junior School, Ivingswood Academy (previously Little Spring Primary School), Waterside Combined School. Attendance by Chesham children at some of the village schools close to the town is popular.
Secondary education
At secondary level, Buckinghamshire continues to operate a system of selective education with pupils sitting the eleven plus exam to determine entry to either a Grammar school or Secondary Modern School (also known locally as an Upper School). Two Secondary Schools are located in the town: – Chiltern Hills Academy, a co-educational Church of England Academy, previously known as Chesham Park Community College which was formed from the merger of Lowndes School and Cestreham School) and Chesham Grammar School, a co-educational grammar school, which until May 2010 was called Chesham High School. Chesham also falls within the catchment areas of two further grammar schools, Dr Challoner's Grammar School for boys' in Amersham and Dr Challoner's High School for girls in Little Chalfont.
In the Chiltern and South Bucks area around Chesham and over the county border in Hertfordshire there are also a number of independent fee-paying schools providing education between ages 4–13 and up to age 18. Chesham Preparatory School is an independent school which opened in 1938 in the town and shortly after relocated to the outskirts of Chesham at Orchard Leigh, providing fee-paying and scholarship-supported education.
Special, further and adult education provision
Chesham is the location of a nationally renowned Special school, Heritage House School which first opened in April 1968 and caters for pupils between the ages of 2 to 19 with severe learning difficulties.
A Further education college Amersham & Wycombe College was founded in 1973 and has one of its four campuses in the town on the former Cestreham Senior Boys School at Lycrome Road. The college caters for a range of student cohorts with 2000 students on full-time courses and 5000 on a part-time bases.
Adult learning comprising a range of provision including academic, vocational and leisure courses, is provided a four sites in the town. Chesham Adult Learning Centre in Charteridge Lane, ElmTree School, ElmTree Hill, The Douglas McMinn Centre in East Street and The White Hill Centre White Hill.
The Chess Valley section of the Chiltern University of the Third Age (U3A) was formed in October 2008 in response to increasing demand for activities in the area and meets at St Mary's Church.
Culture and recreation
Community facilities
The Elgiva Hall opened on its original location in 1976. In 1998, having made way for an enlarged supermarket development the Elgiva was rebuilt as a purpose-built theatre on its current site and reopened as the New Elgiva. Now rebranded The Elgiva it is a 300 seated/400 standing capacity theatre, with a Dolby Digital 35mm cinema and is owned and managed by Chesham Town Council. The Elgiva presents a wide-ranging programme of professional and amateur theatre productions, musicals, comedy, dance, one night shows and concerts, pantomimes, films, exhibitions and other public and private events by both professional and community organisations. The Little Theatre by the Park is a facility owned by the Town Council and leased to the Little Theatre Trustees. It is the home to the Chesham Bois Catholic Players and used by other local theatre companies and is used for dance and exercise groups.
Chesham Museum is a newly established museum for the town and surrounding area which opened in 2004 having first been conceived in 1981. Initially it was housed in temporary premises at The Stables behind the Gamekeeper's Lodge Pub in Bellingdon Road. Since October 2009 it has been located at 15 Market Square. There is also an annual Schools of Chesham carnival, Beer festival and bi-annual Chesham festival.
Chesham Library opened in Chesham in 1923 in a room at Cemetery Lodge on Berkhamsted Road. In 1927, it moved into new premises at 33 High Street on the Broadway which it shared with Chesham Urban District Council. After the war it expanded. A children's section was added in 1952. In 1971 the library moved to Elgiva Lane, a site it shared with the Elgive Theatre prior to the latter's relocation to new premises. Since then it has been updated to provide better access and improved internal facilities including the evolution of the reference library into a Study Centre. It also houses a special collection of Victorian era children's books including some previously owned by Florence Nightingale.
The White Hill Centre, the site of an old school, is run by Chesham and District Community Association and since 1976 has provided educational, recreational social activities and facilities for societies and the local community to meet.
Opposite the town centre is Lowndes Park, a large park with playgrounds and formerly an open air paddling pool. There is a large pond in the park, known as Skottowe's Pond. Lowndes Park was donated to the town of Chesham in 1953. Prior to this it was part of the garden that belonged to the Lowndes family. The Moor, originally an island created by the diversion of the Chess to power mills is today an open space used for recreation and the location for travelling fairs which moved from their traditional location in the town centre in 1938. There are two public swimming pools in the town. An outdoor pool at the Moor in Waterside and a roofed pool (and leisure centre), next to Chesham Grammar School at the top of White Hill. The Town Council manages 227 allotments spread across three sites. There are 135 footpaths in the Chesham area and in May 2010 the town became the first in the Chilterns to be recognised as a "Walkers are Welcome Town".
Sport
Chesham United F.C. is the local football club which plays in the Southern League. At the end of the 2009–2010 season it was promoted to the Premier Division. It was formed in 1917 through the merger of Chesham Generals (the team of the Chesham General Baptist church now called Broadway Baptist Church), which was founded in 1887, and Chesham Town FC (started as the football team of Christ Church, Waterside), a founding member of the Southern League which started out in 1894 as Chesham FC. The club's most successful period was during the 1967–68 season when it reached the final of the FA Amateur Cup at Wembley but lost out to Leytonstone F.C. 1–0 in front of a crowd of 54,000. The club has struggled financially and performance-wise over recent years but has recently had a cash injection from a new financial backer.
Chesham cricket club was founded in 1848 and is one of the oldest clubs in the Thames Valley Cricket League. Its home ground is at Amy Lane. In addition to four senior Saturday XIs it also runs two Sunday XIs and a women's side. Chesham also has a Junior section, which competes in Buckinghamshire and national competitions.
Chesham Rugby union Club ('The Stags'), was founded in 1980 and play rugby for boys, girls and adult men and women at Chiltern Hills Academy. The Stags also run netball teams playing in local leagues for girls and women.
Town twinning and cultural exchanges
Chesham has twinned with three towns in other countries. It is organised by the Chesham Town Twinning Association. The first link-up was in 1980 with Friedrichsdorf, at the foot of the Taunus Hills near Frankfurt, Germany. Next followed the association with Houilles, a commune of Paris, France, in 1986 and thirdly, in 1995 a tie-up with Archena, in the Murcia region of Spain.
Some organisations also have international links. Emmanuel Church is linked with a church in Prague, Czech Republic. Chesham British Legion is linked with its Canadian equivalent in Buckingham, Quebec. Ley Hill Methodist Church is linked with Skopje Methodist Church in Macedonia.
Media, communications and filmography
Local news media
The local newspaper covering Chesham and the surrounding area, although it no longer has an office based in the town, is the Buckinghamshire Examiner founded in 1889. Another Buckinghamshire newspaper with a circulation area covering Chesham is the Bucks Free Press. The non-commercial community news blog dedicated to Chesham and nearby villages is Chiltern Voice, which is also the name of the community radio station.
There is also a community website where residents can discuss local issues.
TV and mobile phone signals
Due to its position in a fold in the hill, TV and radio reception in Chesham can be poor and the town now has its own TV mast. In the 1970s, Chesham was one of the last towns in the south east to receive BBC2, and parts of it still cannot receive Channel 5. Houses taking their TV reception from the Chesham transmitter have vertically polarised aerials, whilst those in a good enough position receive their signal from the Crystal Palace Transmitter in London with horizontally polarised aerials – they always could receive BBC2 (and indeed Channel 4 & Channel 5). Digital terrestrial television coverage is patchy for much the same reason. Mobile phone reception can be poor in the steeper parts of Chesham and outlying villages.
Filmography
The following TV series and episodes included filming in Chesham's Old Town and pedestrianised High Street:
The Professionals Close Quarters (1978) – Hundridge Manor
Hammer House of Horror: Carpathian Eagle (1980) – Lowndes Park: The Silent Scream (1980) – 68 Broad Street
Inspector Morse The Day of the Devil (1993) – High Street
Midsomer Murders: The Axeman Cometh (2007) – Market Sq; Written in Blood (1997) – High St and Old Town; Sins of Commission – High St; Things that Go Bump in the Night (2004) – Market Sq; The Black Book – 15 Market Sq (2009); The Sword of Guillaume (2010) High St, Broadway War Memorial
Nuzzle and Scratch (2009) – CBeebies programme, Toy Shop episode filmed on the high street outside Harvey Johns
Scoop (2009) – High Street and Town
Chucklevision Well Suited (2000) – High Street (opening scene)
Black Mirror: "The National Anthem" (2011) – desolate shots of the High Street and of an area near The Vale are shown near the end
The Imitation Game – 73 Church Street appears as Alan Turing's lodging house in Bletchley, and also appears briefly in Dirk Bogarde vehicle The Password Is Courage (1962)
Doctor Foster – The Chess Medical Centre
Notable people
Aneurin "Nye" Bevan, Labour politician and father of the National Health Service, moved to Asheridge Farm near Chesham, where he died on 6 July 1960.
Val Biro children's author of the Gumdrop books lived in Chesham from 1955 to 1969. He died in 2014 aged 92.
Alfred Alexander Burt served in the Great War and 'for most conspicuous bravery at Cuinchy, France on 27 September 1915 was a recipient of the Victoria Cross. He lived in the town until his death, in 1962, aged 67.
Thomas Pownall Boultbee d.1884 was a clergyman who on his death was buried in the town where he and his son both preached.
Alice Connor, actress, attended Chartridge Combined School in Chesham.
Roger Crab, who lived in what is now The Drawingroom Art Gallery and Restaurant, in Francis Yard was an eccentric who Lewis Carroll is supposed to have based his "Mad Hatter" character from Alice in Wonderland on.
Andrew Davis b.1944 is a British conductor who was born in nearby Asheridge and grew up in the town.
Edward Field b.1828 in Chesham was a Rear Admiral in the Royal Navy and later a member of parliament.
Stephen Fry spent part of his childhood in Chesham, attending Chesham Prep School as detailed in his autobiography Moab is my Washpot. He lived in Stanley Avenue.
Joan Gardner b.1911 in Chesham became an actress of stage and screen.
Thomas Harding, 16th-century English religious dissident. He was from Chesham and was executed as a Lollard in 1532. He fought for the right to read the scriptures in English. He was accused of heresy and interrogated in Chesham parish church. He was found guilty and was burnt at the stake in 1532, at Chesham in the Pell, near Botley.
Charles Townsend Harrison art historian and critic was born in Chesham in 1942.
Rob Hoey, comedian, actor and musician, lives in Chesham.
Eddie Howe, the manager of Newcastle United F.C. was born in neighbouring Amersham but grew up in Chesham.
Alex Horne, standup comedian currently lives in Chesham.
Arthur Lasenby Liberty, founder of the famous Liberty store in London, lived in a house next to the George & Dragon in the High Street.
William Lowndes (1652–1724) British Politician and Secretary to the Treasury who built and lived at Bury House as did many of his relatives and descendants
Harold Mattingly d.1964 was a historian and numismatist who lived and is buried in the town.
Margaret Mee, (1909–1988) was born in the town and attended Dr Challoner's Grammar School, Amersham. Studied art, and with her husband, Greville Mee moved to Brazil where she taught art and became a renowned botanical artist, particularly the flora of the Amazon rainforest.
Arthur T. F. Reynolds (1909–2001) was born in the town and later became a Protestant missionary in China and Japan. He was the author or translator of a number of books.
Milton Rosmer, film actor, director and screenwriter was living in the town at the time of his death in 1971.
Irene Rooke, theatre and film actress, married to Milton Rosmer, lived the latter period of her life until her death in 1958 in the town.
Ghayasuddin Siddiqui, leading Islamic intellectual and community leader. Founder and director of the Muslim Institute and of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain. Lives in Chesham.
Guy Siner, who starred in 'Allo 'Allo! currently resides in Chesham.
Francis Wilson, TV weatherman. Used to live in Chesham.
Freedom of the Town
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Chesham.
Individuals
Vincent Crompton: 14 May 2015.
Katherine Merchant: 9 May 2019.
Rocky Clarke MBE: 9 May 2019.
Mora Walker: 9 May 2019.
Rod Culverhouse: 9 May 2019.
Philip Folly.
Military Units
See also
Nearby towns, villages and hamlets
Amersham
Asheridge
Ashley Green
Ballinger
Bellingdon
Buckland Common
Chartridge
Chesham Bois
Cholesbury
Flaunden
Hawridge
Hyde Heath
Latimer
Ley Hill
Lye Green
Pednor
St Leonards
Whelpley Hill
Other articles
Lord Chesham
Further reading
Baines, Arnold & Foxell, Shirley. "The Life & Times of Thomas Harding, Chesham's Lollard Martyr" Clive Foxell 2010
Foxell, Clive "The Lowndes Chesham Estate- the early photographs" Clive Foxell 2011
Foxell, Clive "The Ten Cinemas of Chesham" Clive Foxell 2010
References
External links
Chesham Town Council
Chesham Museum
The Chesham Society
Towns in Buckinghamshire
Market towns in Buckinghamshire
Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire | [
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240578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20parties%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | List of political parties in the United Kingdom | The Electoral Commission's Register of Political Parties lists the details of political parties registered to fight elections in the United Kingdom, including their registered name. Under current electoral law, including the Registration of Political Parties Act 1998, the Electoral Administration Act 2006, and the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, only registered party names can be used on ballot papers by those wishing to fight elections. Candidates who do not belong to a registered party can use "independent" or no label at all. , the Electoral Commission showed the number of registered political parties in Great Britain and Northern Ireland as 408.
Before the middle of the 19th century, politics in the United Kingdom was dominated by the Whigs and the Tories. These were not political parties in the modern sense but somewhat loose alliances of interests and individuals. The Whigs included many of the leading aristocratic dynasties committed to the Protestant succession, and later drew support from elements of the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories were associated with the landed gentry, the Church of England and the Church of Scotland.
By the mid 19th century, the Tories had evolved into the Conservative Party, and the Whigs had evolved into the Liberal Party. The concept of right and left came originally from France, where the supporters of a monarchy (constitutional or absolute) sat on the right wing of the National Assembly, and republicans on the left. In the late 19th century, the Liberal Party began to lean towards the left. Liberal Unionists split off from the Liberals over Irish Home Rule and moved closer to the Conservatives over time.
The Liberals and Conservatives dominated the political scene until the 1920s, when the Liberal Party declined in popularity and suffered a long stream of resignations. It was replaced as the main anti-Tory opposition party by the newly emerging Labour Party, which represented an alliance between the labour movement, organised trades unions and various socialist societies.
Since then, the Conservative and Labour parties have dominated British politics, and have alternated in government ever since. However, the UK is not quite a two-party system as other parties have significant support. The Liberal Democrats were the third largest party until the 2015 general election when they were overtaken by the Scottish National Party in terms of seats and UK political party membership, and by the UK Independence Party in terms of votes.
The UK's first-past-the-post electoral system leaves small parties disadvantaged on a UK-wide scale. It can, however, allow parties with concentrations of supporters in the constituent countries to flourish. In the 2015 election, there was widespread controversy when the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the Green Party of England and Wales received 4.9 million votes (12.6% of the total vote for UKIP and 3.8% for the Greens) yet only gained one seat each in the House of Commons. After that election, UKIP, the Liberal Democrats, and the Green Party of England and Wales, together with its Scottish and Northern Ireland affiliated parties, the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru, delivered a petition signed by 477,000 people to Downing Street demanding electoral reform.
Since 1997, proportional representation-based voting systems have been adopted for elections to the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd (Welsh Parliament), the Northern Ireland Assembly, the London Assembly and (until Brexit in 2020) the UK's seats in the European Parliament. In these bodies, other parties have had success.
Traditionally political parties have been private organisations with no official recognition by the state. The Registration of Political Parties Act 1998 changed that by creating a register of parties.
Membership of political parties has been in decline in the UK since the 1950s, falling by over 65% from 1983 (4% of the electorate) to 2005 (1.3%).
House of Commons Parliamentary parties
Parties without representation in the House of Commons, but with representation in other UK legislatures
There are a number of political parties in the United Kingdom that do not have representation in the House of Commons, but have elected representatives in the Northern Ireland Assembly and Scottish Parliament These are:
Party descriptions
Local government
Principal authorities
Civil parishes and community councils
No elected UK representation
This is a table of notable minor parties. Many parties are registered with the Electoral Commission but do not qualify for this list as they have not received significant independent coverage. Parties active across Ireland may have representation in the Republic of Ireland but not Northern Ireland.
Defunct parties
Historical parties
See also
Timeline of political parties in the United Kingdom
List of political parties in the United Kingdom by representation
List of political parties in the United Kingdom opposed to austerity
Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom
List of political parties by country
Politics of the United Kingdom
Political party affiliation in the United Kingdom
Elections in the United Kingdom
List of political parties in Northern Ireland
List of political parties in Scotland
List of political parties in Wales
List of political parties in the Isle of Man (a British Crown dependency)
List of political parties in Gibraltar (a British overseas territory)
List of political parties in British overseas territories and Crown dependencies
Index of UK party meta attributes
Notes
References
External links
Electoral Commission: Database of Registers, includes Register of Political Parties
Links to UK political websites from the BBC
NSD: European Election Database – UK descriptions of main parties
United Kingdom
Political parties | [
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240582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser%20Wilhelm%20Institute%20of%20Anthropology%2C%20Human%20Heredity%2C%20and%20Eugenics | Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics | The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics was founded in 1927 in Berlin, Germany. The Rockefeller Foundation partially funded the actual building of the Institute and helped keep the Institute afloat during the Great Depression.
Eugenics
In its early years, and during the Nazi era, it was strongly associated with theories of Nazi eugenics and racial hygiene advocated by its leading theorists Fritz Lenz, (first director) Eugen Fischer, and by its second director Otmar von Verschuer.
In the years of 1937–1938, Fischer and his colleagues analysed 600 children in Nazi Germany descending from French-African soldiers who occupied western areas of Germany after First World War; the children, the so-called Rhineland Bastards, were subsequently subjected to sterilization.
Fischer did not officially join the Nazi Party until 1940. However, he was influential with National Socialists early on. Adolf Hitler read his two-volume work, Principles of Human Heredity and Race Hygiene (first published in 1921 and co-written by Erwin Baur and Fritz Lenz) while incarcerated in 1923 and used its ideas in Mein Kampf. He also authored The Rehoboth Bastards and the Problem of Miscegenation among Humans (1913) (), a field study which provided context for later racial debates, influenced German colonial legislation and provided scientific support for the Nuremberg laws.
Under the Nazi regime, Fischer developed the physiological specifications used to determine racial origins and developed the so-called Fischer–Saller scale. He and his team experimented on Romani people and African-Germans, especially those from Namibia, taking blood and measuring skulls to find scientific validation for his theories.
During World War II, the Institute regularly received human body parts, including eyes and skulls, from Nazi party member Karin Magnussen who studied eye colors, and Josef Mengele (at Auschwitz concentration camp) to use in studies intended to prove Nazi racial theories and justify race-related social policies. After the German capitulation in May 1945, most of the thousands of files and lab material of the Institute were moved to an unknown location or destroyed, and never obtained by the Allies to use as evidence in war crimes trials and to prove or disprove the Nazi racial ideology which had motivated mass genocide in Europe. Most of the staff of the Institute were able to escape trial, most notably Mengele who escaped to Brazil, where he died of a stroke while swimming in 1979.
Efforts to return the Namibian skulls taken by Fischer were started with an investigation by the University of Freiburg in 2011 and completed with the return of the skulls in March 2014 to Namibia.
Funding
When confronted with financial demands, the Rockefeller Foundation supported both the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Psychiatry and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics.
See also
Eugenics
References
Further reading
Eugenics organizations
Research institutes established in 1927
Nazi eugenics | [
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240583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market%20research | Market research | Market research is an organized effort to gather information about target markets and customers: know about them, starting with who they are. It is an important component of business strategy and a major factor in maintaining competitiveness. Market research helps to identify and analyze the needs of the market, the market size and the competition. Its techniques encompass both qualitative techniques such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, and ethnography, as well as quantitative techniques such as customer surveys, and analysis of secondary data.
It includes social and opinion research, and is the systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals or organizations using statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied social sciences to gain insight or support decision making.
Market research, marketing research, and marketing are a sequence of business activities; sometimes these are handled informally.
The field of marketing research is much older than that of market research. Although both involve consumers, Marketing research is concerned specifically about marketing processes, such as advertising effectiveness and salesforce effectiveness, while market research is concerned specifically with markets and distribution. Two explanations given for confusing Market research with Marketing research are the similarity of the terms and also that Market Research is a subset of Marketing Research. Further confusion exists because of major companies with expertise and practices in both areas.
History
Although market research started to be conceptualized and put into formal practice during the 1930s as an offshoot of the advertising boom of the Golden Age of radio in the United States, this was based on 1920s work by Daniel Starch. Starch "developed a theory that advertising had to be seen, read, believed, remembered, and most importantly, acted upon, in order to be considered effective." Advertisers realized the significance of demographics by the patterns in which they sponsored of different radio programs.
The Gallup Organization helped invent the public opinion poll; today, "Market research is a way of paying for it."
Market research for business/planning
Market research is a way of getting an overview of consumers' wants, needs and beliefs. It can also involve discovering how they act. The research can be used to determine how a product could be marketed. Peter Drucker believed market research to be the quintessence of marketing.
Market research is a way that producers and the marketplace study the consumer and gather information about the consumers' needs.
There are two major types of market research: primary research, which is sub-divided into quantitative and qualitative research, and secondary research.
Factors that can be investigated through market research include:
Market information: Through market information one can know the prices of different commodities in the market, as well as the supply and demand situation. Market researchers have a wider role than previously recognized by helping their clients to understand social, technical, and even legal aspects of markets.
Market segmentation: Market segmentation is the division of the market or population into subgroups with similar motivations. It is widely used for segmenting on geographic differences, demographic differences (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.), technographic differences, psychographic differences, and differences in product use. For B2B segmentation firmographics is commonly used.
Market trends: Market trends are the upward or downward movement of a market, during a period of time. Determining the market size may be more difficult if one is starting with a new innovation. In this case, you will have to derive the figures from the number of potential customers, or customer segments.
SWOT analysis: SWOT is a written analysis of the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats to a business entity. A SWOT may also be written up for the competition to understand how to develop the marketing and product mixes. The SWOT method helps to determine and also reassess strategies and analyze a business' processes.
PEST analysis: PEST is an analysis about external environment . It includes a complete examine of a firm's Political, Economical, Social and Technological external factors, which may impact firms' objectives or profitability. They may become a benefit for the firm or harm its productivity.
Brand health tracker: Brand tracking is way of continuously measuring the health of a brand, both in terms of consumers’ usage of it (i.e. Brand Funnel) and what they think about it. Brand health can be measured in a number of ways, such as brand awareness, brand equity, brand usage and brand loyalty.
Another factor that can be measured is marketing effectiveness. This includes:
Data collection
"Rigorous sampling methodologies combined with high-quality data collection" is what the magazine Advertising Age considers the backbone of market research. Data collection can be done by observing customer behavior through in-situ studies or by processing e.g. log files, by interviewing customers, potential customers, stakeholders, or a sample of the general population. The data can be quantitative in nature (counting sales, clicks, eye-tracking) or qualitative (surveys, questionnaires, interviews, feedback). Aggregating, visualizing, and turning data into actionable insights is one of the major challenges of market research and today, text analytics affords market researches methods to process large amounts of qualitative information and turn it into quantitative data, which is easier to visualize and use for formalized decision making. Data collection can use larger audience samples than the few hundred or thousand typically used in market research. Also required is the (at least passive) cooperation of those being surveyed; trust is also helpful.
Some data collection is incentivized: a simple form is when those on the road contribute to traffic reporting of which they are consumers. More complex is the relationship of consumer-to-business (C2B), which sometimes introduces reliability problems. Other data collection is to know more about the market, which is the purpose of market research.
International influence from the Internet
The international growth of available research both from and via the Internet has influenced a vast number of consumers and those from whom they make purchases. Although emerging global markets, such as China, Indonesia and Russia are still smaller than the US in B2B e-commerce, their internet-fueled growth factor is stimulated by product-enhancing websites, graphics, and content designed to attract corporate and consumer/B2C shoppers. Estimates for 2010 show between US$400 billion and $600 billion in revenue was generated by this medium.
A report titled "Global B2C E-Commerce and Online Payment Market 2014" indicated a decrease in overall growth rates in North America and Western Europe, even as absolute growth numbers rose.
The UK Market Research Society (MRS) listed the top social media platforms primarily used by millennials are LinkedIn, Facebook, YouTube and Instagram.
Research and market sectors
Regarding details for worldwide corporate market research, "most of them are never written about because they are the consumer research done by the country's manufacturers."
Market research data has loss prevention aspects; that less than 60 percent of all proposed modifications and new products are deemed failures. When information about the market is difficult to acquire, and the cost of "going ahead with the decision" to offer the product or service is affordable, the research cost may be more profitably used "to ensure that the new line got the advertising send-off it needed to have the best chances of succeeding."
As measured in revenue, USA based Amazon is the worldwide E-Commerce leader.
Market research for the film industry
The film industry is an example where the importance of testing film content and marketing material involves:
Concept testing, which evaluates reactions to a film idea and is fairly rare;
Positioning studios, which analyze a script for marketing opportunities;
Focus groups, which probe viewers' opinions about a film in small groups prior to release;
Test screenings, which involve the previewing of films prior to theatrical release;
Tracking studies, which gauge (often by telephone polling) an audience's awareness of a film on a weekly basis prior to and during theatrical release;
Advertising testing, which measures responses to marketing materials such as trailers and television advertisements;
Exit surveys, that measure audience reactions after seeing the film in the cinema.
Small businesses and nonprofits
Small organizations and non-profits can derive needed information by observing the environment of their location. Small scale surveys and focus groups are low cost ways to gather information from potential and existing customers and donors. While secondary data (statistics, demographics, etc.) is available to the public in libraries or on the internet, primary sources, done well, can be quite valuable: talking for an hour each, to twelve people, two apiece from six potential clients, can "get inside their minds.. get a feel for their needs, wants and pain. You can’t get that from a questionnaire."
See also
Marketing research
Marketing Research Institute International (MRII)
Mystery shopping
Nielsen ratings
References
External links
Small Business Administration: Market research and competitive analysis
Business process
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240584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument%20landing%20system | Instrument landing system | In aviation, the instrument landing system (ILS) is a radio navigation system that provides short-range guidance to aircraft to allow them to approach a runway at night or in bad weather. In its original form, it allows an aircraft to approach until it is over the ground, within a of the runway. At that point the runway should be visible to the pilot; if it is not, they perform a missed approach. Bringing the aircraft this close to the runway dramatically improves the weather conditions in which a safe landing can be made. Later versions of the system, or "categories", have further reduced the minimum altitudes.
ILS uses two directional radio signals, the localizer (108 to 112 MHz frequency), which provides horizontal guidance, and the glideslope (329.15 to 335 MHz frequency) for vertical. The relationship between the aircraft's position and these signals is displayed on an aircraft instrument, often additional pointers in the attitude indicator. The pilot attempts to maneuver the aircraft to keep these indicators centered while they approach the runway to the decision height. Optional markers provide distance information as the approach proceeds, including the middle marker placed close to the position of the decision height. ILS may also include high-intensity lighting at the end of the runways.
A number of radio-based landing systems were developed between the 1920s and 1940s, notably the Lorenz beam which saw relatively wide use in Europe prior to the war. The US-developed SCS-51 system was more accurate while also adding vertical guidance. Many sets were installed at airbases in the United Kingdom during World War II, which led to it being selected as the international standard after the formation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in 1947. Several competing landing systems have been developed, including the radar-based ground-controlled approach (GCA) and the more recent microwave landing system (MLS), but few of these systems have been deployed. ILS remains a widespread standard to this day.
The introduction of precision approaches using low-cost GNSS systems is leading to the replacement of ILS. Providing the required accuracy with GNSS normally requires only a low-power omnidirectional augmentation signal to be broadcast from the airport, which is dramatically less expensive than the multiple, large and powerful transmitters required for a full ILS implementation. By 2015, the number of US airports supporting ILS-like LPV approaches exceeded the number of ILS systems, and this is expected to lead to the eventual removal of ILS at most airports.
Principle of operation
An instrument landing system operates as a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision lateral and vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.
Beam systems
Previous blind landing radio aids typically took the form of beam systems of various types. These normally consisted of a radio transmitter that was connected to a motorized switch to produce a pattern of Morse code dots and dashes. The switch also controlled which of two directional antennae the signal was sent to. The resulting signal sent into the air consists of dots sent to one side of the runway and dashes to the other. The beams were wide enough so they overlapped in the center.
To use the system an aircraft only needed a conventional radio receiver. As they approached the airport they would tune in the signal and listen to it in their headphones. They would hear dots or dashes if they were to the side of the runway, or if they were properly aligned, the two mixed together to produce a steady tone, the equisignal. The accuracy of this measurement was highly dependant on the skill of the operator, listening to the signal on earphones in a noisy aircraft whilst often communicating with the tower at the same time.
Accuracy of the system was normally on the order of 3 degrees. While this was useful for bringing the aircraft onto the direction of the runway, it was not accurate enough to safely bring the aircraft to visual range in bad weather; an aircraft normally descends at a rate of about 3 to 5 degrees, and if they were 3 degrees below that they would crash. Beams were used only for lateral guidance, and the system was not enough on its own to perform landings in heavy rain or fog. Nevertheless, the final decision to land was made at only from the airport.
ILS concept
The ILS system, developed just prior to the start of World War II, used a more complex system of signals and an antenna array to achieve higher accuracy. This requires significantly more complexity in the ground station and transmitters, with the advantage that the signals can be accurately decoded in the aircraft using simple electronics and displayed directly on analog instruments. The instruments can be placed in front of the pilot, eliminating the need for a radio operator to continually monitor the signals and relay the results to the pilot over the intercom.
Key to its operation is a concept known as the amplitude modulation index, a measure of how strongly the amplitude modulation is applied to the underlying carrier frequency. In the earlier beam systems, the signal was turned on and off entirely, corresponding to a modulation index of 100%. The determination of angle within the beam is based on the comparison of the audible strength of the two signals.
In ILS, a more complex system of signals and antennas varies the modulation of two signals across the entire width of the beam pattern. The system relies on the use of sidebands, secondary frequencies that are created when two different signals are mixed. For instance, if one takes a radio frequency signal at 10 MHz and mixes that with an audible tone at 2500 Hz, four signals will be produced, at the original signals at 2500 and 10000000, as well as sidebands 9997500 and 10002500. The original 2500 Hz modulating signal is too low frequency to travel far from an antenna, but the other three signals are all radio frequency and can be effectively broadcast.
ILS starts by mixing two modulating signals to the carrier, one at 90 Hz and another at 150. This creates a signal with five radio frequencies in total, the carrier and four sidebands. This combined signal, known as the CSB for "carrier and sidebands", is sent out evenly from an antenna array. The CSB is also sent into a circuit that suppresses the original carrier, leaving only the four sideband signals. This signal, known as SBO for "sidebands only", is also sent to the antenna array.
For lateral guidance, known as the localizer, the antenna is normally placed off the far end of the runway and consists of multiple antennas in an array normally about the same width of the runway. Each individual antenna has a phase shifter that is applied only to the SBO such that the signal is retarded 90 degrees on the left side of the runway and advanced 90 on the right. Additionally, the 150 Hz signal is inverted on one side of the pattern, another 180 degree shift. Due to the way the signals mix in space, the SBO signals destructively interfere and eliminate each other along the centerline, leaving just the CSB. At any other location, on either side of the centerline, the SBO will not completely cancel out.
A receiver in front of the array will receive both of these signals mixed together. Using simple electronic filters, the original carrier and two sidebands can be separated and demodulated to extract the original amplitude modulated 90 and 150 Hz signals. These are then averaged to produce two direct current (DC) signals. Each of these signals represents not the strength of the original signal, but the strength of the modulation relative to the carrier, which varies across the broadcast pattern. This has the great advantage that the measurement of angle is independent of range.
The two DC signals are then sent to a conventional voltmeter, with the 90 Hz output pulling the needle right and the other left. Along the centreline the two sidebands will be cancelled out and both voltages will be zero, leaving the needle centered in the display. If the aircraft is far to the left, the 90 Hz signal will produce a strong DC voltage and the 150 Hz signal none at all, pulling the needle all the way to the right. This means the voltmeter directly displays both the direction and magnitude of the turn needed to bring the aircraft back to the runway centreline. As the measurement compares different parts of a single signal entirely in electronics, it provides angular resolution of less than a degree, and allows the construction of a precision approach.
Although the encoding scheme is complex, and requires a considerable amount of ground equipment, the resulting signal is both far more accurate than the older beam-based systems and is far more resistant to common forms of interference. For instance, static in the signal will affect both sub-signals equally, so it will have no effect on the result. Similarly, changes in overall signal strength as the aircraft approaches the runway, or changes due to fading, will have little effect on the resulting measurement because they would normally affect both channels equally. The system is subject to multipath distortion effects due to the use of multiple frequencies, but because those effects are dependant on the terrain, they are generally fixed in location and can be accounted for through adjustments in the antenna or phase shifters.
Additionally, because it is the encoding of the signal within the beam that contains the angle information, not the strength of the beam, the signal does not have to be tightly focussed in space. In the older beam systems, the accuracy of the equisignal area was a function of the pattern of the two directional signals, which demanded that they be relatively narrow. The ILS pattern can be much wider. ILS systems are normally required to be usable within 10 degrees on either side of the runway centerline at , and 35 degrees on either side at . This allows for a wide variety of approach paths.
The glideslope works in the same general fashion as the localizer and uses the same encoding, but is normally broadcast to produce a centerline at an angle of 3 degrees above the horizon from a point beside the runway instead of the end. The only difference between the signals is that the localizer is broadcast using lower carrier frequencies, using 40 selected channels between 108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz, whereas the glideslope has a corresponding set of 40 channels between 328.6 and 335.4 MHz. The higher frequencies generally result in the glideslope broadcast antennas being smaller. The channel pairs are not linear; localizer channel 1 is at 108.10 and paired with glideslope at 334.70, whereas channel two is 108.15 and 334.55. There are gaps and jumps through both bands.
Many illustrations of the ILS concept often show the system operating more similar to beam systems with the 90 Hz signal on one side and the 150 on the other. These illustrations are inaccurate; both signals are broadcast across the entire beam pattern, it is their relative depth of modulation that is changing.
Using ILS
An instrument approach procedure chart (or 'approach plate') is published for each ILS approach to provide the information needed to fly an ILS approach during instrument flight rules (IFR) operations. A chart includes the radio frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids and the prescribed minimum visibility requirements.
An aircraft approaching a runway is guided by the ILS receivers in the aircraft by performing modulation depth comparisons. Many aircraft can route signals into the autopilot to fly the approach automatically. An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems. The localizer provides lateral guidance; the glide slope provides vertical guidance.
Localizer
A localizer (LOC, or LLZ until ICAO standardisation) is an antenna array normally located beyond the departure end of the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas.
The localizer will allow the aircraft to turn and match the aircraft with the runway. After that, the pilots will activate approach phase (APP).
Glide slope (G/S)
The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered on the display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path of approximately 3° above horizontal (ground level) to remain above obstructions and reach the runway at the proper touchdown point (i.e. it provides vertical guidance).
Limitations
Due to the complexity of ILS localizer and glide slope systems, there are some limitations. Localizer systems are sensitive to obstructions in the signal broadcast area, such as large buildings or hangars. Glide slope systems are also limited by the terrain in front of the glide slope antennas. If terrain is sloping or uneven, reflections can create an uneven glidepath, causing unwanted needle deflections. Additionally, since the ILS signals are pointed in one direction by the positioning of the arrays, glide slope supports only straight-line approaches with a constant angle of descent. Installation of an ILS can be costly because of siting criteria and the complexity of the antenna system.
ILS critical areas and ILS sensitive areas are established to avoid hazardous reflections that would affect the radiated signal. The location of these critical areas can prevent aircraft from using certain taxiways leading to delays in takeoffs, increased hold times, and increased separation between aircraft.
Variant
Instrument guidance system (IGS) (localizer type directional aid (LDA) in the United States) – a modified ILS to accommodate a non-straight approach; the most famous example was for the approach to runway 13 at Kai Tak Airport, Hong Kong.
Instrument carrier landing system (ICLS) – a modified ILS for carrier landing.
Identification
In addition to the previously mentioned navigational signals, the localizer provides for ILS facility identification by periodically transmitting a 1,020 Hz Morse code identification signal. For example, the ILS for runway 4R at John F. Kennedy International Airport transmits IJFK to identify itself, while runway 4L is known as IHIQ. This lets users know the facility is operating normally and that they are tuned to the correct ILS. The glide slope station transmits no identification signal, so ILS equipment relies on the localizer for identification.
Monitoring
It is essential that any failure of the ILS to provide safe guidance be detected immediately by the pilot. To achieve this, monitors continually assess the vital characteristics of the transmissions. If any significant deviation beyond strict limits is detected, either the ILS is automatically switched off or the navigation and identification components are removed from the carrier. Either of these actions will activate an indication ('failure flag') on the instruments of an aircraft using the ILS.
Localizer back course
Modern localizer antennas are highly directional. However, usage of older, less directional antennas allows a runway to have a non-precision approach called a localizer back course. This lets aircraft land using the signal transmitted from the back of the localizer array. Highly directional antennas do not provide a sufficient signal to support a back course. In the United States, back course approaches are typically associated with Category I systems at smaller airports that do not have an ILS on both ends of the primary runway. Pilots flying a back course should disregard any glide slope indication.
Marker beacons
On some installations, marker beacons operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz are provided. When the transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the pilot's instrument panel and the tone of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The distance from the runway at which this indication should be received is published in the documentation for that approach, together with the height at which the aircraft should be if correctly established on the ILS. This provides a check on the correct function of the glide slope. In modern ILS installations, a DME is installed, co-located with the ILS, to augment or replace marker beacons. A DME continuously displays the aircraft's distance to the runway.
DME substitution
Distance measuring equipment (DME) provides pilots with a slant range measurement of distance to the runway. DMEs are augmenting or replacing markers in many installations. The DME provides more accurate and continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS glide slope to the pilot, and does not require an installation outside the airport boundary. When used in conjunction with an ILS, the DME is often sited midway between the reciprocal runway thresholds with the internal delay modified so that one unit can provide distance information to either runway threshold. For approaches where a DME is specified in lieu of marker beacons, DME required is noted on the instrument approach procedure and the aircraft must have at least one operating DME unit, or an IFR approved GNSS system (an RNAV system meeting TSO-C129/ -C145/-C146), to begin the approach.
Approach lighting
Some installations include medium- or high-intensity approach light systems (abbreviated ALS). Most often, these are at larger airports but many small general aviation airports in the U.S. have approach lights to support their ILS installations and obtain low-visibility minimums. The ALS assists the pilot in transitioning from instrument to visual flight, and to align the aircraft visually with the runway centerline. Pilot observation of the approach lighting system at the Decision Altitude allows the pilot to continue descending towards the runway, even if the runway or runway lights cannot be seen, since the ALS counts as runway end environment. In the U.S., an ILS without approach lights may have CAT I ILS visibility minimums as low as (runway visual range of ) if the required obstacle clearance surfaces are clear of obstructions. Visibility minimums of (runway visual range of ) are possible with a CAT I ILS approach supported by a ALS, and visibility visual range is possible if the runway has high-intensity edge lights, touchdown zone and centerline lights, and an ALS that is at least long (see Table 3-3-1 "Minimum visibility values" in FAA Order 8260.3C). In effect, ALS extends the runway environment out towards the landing aircraft and allows low-visibility operations. CAT II and III ILS approaches generally require complex high-intensity approach light systems, while medium-intensity systems are usually paired with CAT I ILS approaches. At many non-towered airports, the pilot controls the lighting system; for example, the pilot can key the microphone seven times to turn on the lights on the high intensity, five times to medium intensity or three times for low intensity.
Decision altitude/height
Once established on an approach, the pilot follows the ILS approach path indicated by the localizer and descends along the glide path to the decision height. This is the height at which the pilot must have adequate visual reference to the landing environment (e.g. approach or runway lighting) to decide whether to continue the descent to a landing; otherwise, the pilot must execute a missed approach procedure, then try the same approach again, try a different approach, or divert to another airport.
ILS categories
Smaller aircraft generally are equipped to fly only a CAT I ILS. On larger aircraft, these approaches typically are controlled by the flight control system with the flight crew providing supervision. CAT I relies only on altimeter indications for decision height, whereas CAT II and CAT III approaches use radio altimeter (RA) to determine decision height.
An ILS must shut down upon internal detection of a fault condition. Higher categories require shorter response times; therefore, ILS equipment is required to shut down more quickly. For example, a CAT I localizer must shut down within 10 seconds of detecting a fault, but a CAT III localizer must shut down in less than 2 seconds.
Special CAT II and CAT III operations
In contrast to other operations, CAT III weather minima do not provide sufficient visual references to allow a manual landing to be made. CAT IIIb minima depend on roll-out control and redundancy of the autopilot, because they give only enough time for the pilot to decide whether the aircraft will land in the touchdown zone (basically CAT IIIa) and to ensure safety during rollout (basically CAT IIIb). Therefore, an automatic landing system is mandatory to perform Category III operations. Its reliability must be sufficient to control the aircraft to touchdown in CAT IIIa operations and through rollout to a safe taxi speed in CAT IIIb (and CAT IIIc when authorized). However, special approval has been granted to some operators for hand-flown CAT III approaches using a head-up display (HUD) guidance that provides the pilot with an image viewed through the windshield with eyes focused at infinity, of necessary electronic guidance to land the airplane with no true outside visual references.
In the United States, airports with CAT III approaches have listings for CAT IIIa and IIIb or just CAT III on the instrument approach plate (U.S. Terminal Procedures). CAT IIIb RVR minimums are limited by the runway/taxiway lighting and support facilities, and are consistent with the airport surface movement guidance control system (SMGCS) plan. Operations below 600 ft RVR require taxiway centerline lights and taxiway red stop bar lights. If the CAT IIIb RVR minimums on a runway end are , which is a common figure in the U.S., ILS approaches to that runway end with RVR below qualify as CAT IIIc and require special taxi procedures, lighting, and approval conditions to permit the landings. FAA Order 8400.13D limits CAT III to 300 ft RVR or better. Order 8400.13D (2009) allows special authorization CAT II approaches to runways without ALSF-2 approach lights and/or touchdown zone/centerline lights, which has expanded the number of potential CAT II runways.
In each case, a suitably equipped aircraft and appropriately qualified crew are required. For example, CAT IIIb requires a fail-operational system, along with a crew who are qualified and current, while CAT I does not. A HUD that allows the pilot to perform aircraft maneuvers rather than an automatic system is considered as fail-operational. A HUD allows the flight crew to fly the aircraft using the guidance cues from the ILS sensors such that if a safe landing is in doubt, the crew can respond in an appropriate and timely manner. HUD is becoming increasingly popular with "feeder" airlines and most manufacturers of regional jets are now offering HUDs as either standard or optional equipment. A HUD can provide capability to take off in low visibility.
Some commercial aircraft are equipped with automatic landing systems that allow the aircraft to land without transitioning from instruments to visual conditions for a normal landing. Such autoland operations require specialized equipment, procedures and training, and involve the aircraft, airport, and the crew. Autoland is the only way some major airports such as Charles de Gaulle Airport remain operational every day of the year. Some modern aircraft are equipped with enhanced flight vision systems based on infrared sensors, that provide a day-like visual environment and allow operations in conditions and at airports that would otherwise not be suitable for a landing. Commercial aircraft also frequently use such equipment for takeoffs when takeoff minima are not met.
For both automatic and HUD landing systems, the equipment requires special approval for its design and also for each individual installation. The design takes into consideration additional safety requirements for operating an aircraft close to the ground and the ability of the flight crew to react to a system anomaly. The equipment also has additional maintenance requirements to ensure that it is capable of supporting reduced visibility operations.
Of course nearly all of this pilot training and qualification work is done in simulators with various degrees of fidelity.
Use
At a controlled airport, air traffic control will direct aircraft to the localizer course via assigned headings, making sure aircraft do not get too close to each other (maintain separation), but also avoiding delay as much as possible. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has turned onto the inbound heading and is within two and a half degrees of the localizer course (half scale deflection or less shown by the course deviation indicator) is said to be established on the approach. Typically, an aircraft is established by at least prior to the final approach fix (glideslope intercept at the specified altitude).
Aircraft deviation from the optimal path is indicated to the flight crew by means of a display dial (a carryover from when an analog meter movement indicated deviation from the course line via voltages sent from the ILS receiver).
The output from the ILS receiver goes to the display system (head-down display and head-up display if installed) and may go to a Flight Control Computer. An aircraft landing procedure can be either coupled where the autopilot or Flight Control Computer directly flies the aircraft and the flight crew monitor the operation, or uncoupled where the flight crew flies the aircraft manually to keep the localizer and glideslope indicators centered.
History
Tests of the ILS system began in 1929 in the United States. A basic system, fully operative, was introduced in 1932 at Berlin-Tempelhof Central Airport (Germany) named LFF or "Lorenz beam" due its inventor, the C. Lorenz AG company. The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) of the United States authorized installation of the system in 1941 at six locations. The first landing of a scheduled U.S. passenger airliner using ILS was on January 26, 1938, when a Pennsylvania Central Airlines Boeing 247D flew from Washington, D.C., to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and landed in a snowstorm using only the Instrument Landing System. The first fully automatic landing using ILS occurred in March 1964 at Bedford Airport in the UK.
Market
The instrument landing systems market revenue was 1,215 Million USD in 2019, and is expected to reach 1,667 Million USD in 2025, with a CAGR of 5.41% during 2020-2025 even with the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Suppliers
Top manufacturers in the instrument landing systems market are:
Airport Lighting Specialists
Saab Sensis
Advanced Navigation and Positioning
ADB Airfield Solutions
Universal Avionics
Honeywell
Astronics
Liberty Airport Systems
Thales
Rockwell Collins
Other manufacturers include:
Indra (Normarc ILS)
Alternatives
The Microwave Landing System (MLS) allowed for curved approaches. It was introduced in the 1970s to replace ILS but fell out of favor because of the introduction of satellite based systems. In the 1980s, there was a major US and European effort to establish MLS. But a combination of airline reluctance to invest and the rise of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) resulted in its not being adopted in civil aviation. At the time ILS and MLS were the only standardized systems in Civil Aviation that meet requirements for Category III automated landings. The first Category III MLS for civil aviation was commissioned at Heathrow airport in March 2009 and removed from service in 2017.
Transponder Landing System (TLS) can be used where a conventional ILS cannot work or is not cost-effective.
Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) is based on the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), LPV has similar minima to ILS for appropriately equipped aircraft. , the FAA has published more LPV approaches than Category I ILS procedures.
Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) (Local Area Augmentation System in the United States) is a safety-critical system that augments the GNSS Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and provides enhanced levels of service. It supports all phases of approach, landing, departure, and surface operations within the VHF coverage volume. GBAS is expected to play a key role in modernization and in all-weather operations capability at CATI/II and III airports, terminal area navigation, missed approach guidance and surface operations. GBAS provides the capability to service the entire airport with a single frequency (VHF transmission) whereas ILS requires a separate frequency for each runway end. GBAS CAT-I is seen as a necessary step towards the more stringent operations of CAT-II/III precision approach and landing. The technical risk of implementing GBAS delayed widespread acceptance of the technology. The FAA, along with industry, have fielded Provably Safe Prototype GBAS stations that mitigate the impact of satellite signal deformation, ionosphere differential error, ephemeris error, and multipath.
Future
The advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS) provides an alternative source of approach guidance for aircraft. In the US, the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) has been available in many regions to provide precision guidance to Category I standards since 2007. The equivalent European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) was certified for use in safety of life applications in March 2011. As such, the number of Cat I ILS systems may be reduced, however there are no plans in the United States to phase out any Cat II or Cat III systems.
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is under development to provide for Category III minimums or lower. The FAA Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) office is currently working with the industry in anticipation of the certification of the first GBAS ground stations in Memphis, TN; Sydney, Australia; Bremen, Germany; Spain; and Newark, NJ. All four countries have installed GBAS systems and are involved in technical and operational evaluation activities.
The Honeywell and FAA team obtained System Design Approval of the world's first non-federal U.S. approval for LAAS Category I at Newark Liberty International Airport, operations on September 2009 and Operational Approval on September 28, 2012.
In Norway, a D-GPS based landing system, called SCAT-I, is in operation on some short runway airports.
See also
Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
Airspeed
AN/CRN-2
Autoland
Blind approach beacon system (BABS)
CFIT
Distance measuring equipment (DME)
EGPWS
Flight director, FD
Fog
George Vernon Holloman – the pilot who made first automated landing
Global Positioning System (GPS)
HUD
Instrument flight rules (IFR)
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
Localizer performance with vertical guidance (LPV)
Lorenz beam
Microwave landing system (MLS)
Non-directional beacon (NDB)
Precision approach radar (PAR)
Space modulation
Transponder landing system (TLS)
Visual flight rules (VFR)
VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
Notes
References
ICAO Annex 10 Volume 1, Radio Navigation Aids, Fifth Edition — July 1996
Aeronautical Information Manual, FAA – February 11, 2010
Digital Terminal Procedures, FAA – May 2010
External links
History of Aircraft Landing Aids – U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission
"Happy Landings In Fog", June 1933, Popular Mechanics article on the early system setup in the USA.
ILS Basics
ILS Tutorial Animations
Website dedicated to the description of ILS
ILS Tutorial Animation - Illustrates and describes how ILS navigation signals are displayed on board of an aircraft in various positions, which may occur during a safe approach for landing.
Categories of the ILS
1929 in aviation
Navigational aids
Aircraft landing systems
Avionics
Radio navigation
Radio stations and systems ITU
Runway safety
Types of final approach (aviation) | [
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240588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awkward%20squad | Awkward squad | An awkward squad is a group of individuals, normally within an existing organisation or structure, who resist or obstruct change, either through incompetence or by deliberate association.
Origin
It is commonly accepted that shortly before his death in 1796 Robert Burns uttered the words "Don't let the awkward squad fire over me". At this time the phrase was in use in military slang for a group of recruits who seemed incapable of understanding discipline or not yet sufficiently trained or disciplined to properly carry out their duties.
Literary use
John Clare, an English peasant poet, wrote with his own spelling and no punctuation. He complained in the 1820s to his editors that people could understand him, and he refused to use "that awkward squad of colon, semi-colon, comma, and full stop", according to the display in the John Clare Cottage, in Helpston.
In Canto 7, stanza 52 of Byron's Don Juan, the Russian general Suvorov (or "Suwarrow" as Byron anglicizes it) is described training the 'awkward squad' prior to the battle of Ismail.
Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his 1842 essay on Frederic the Great, used the phrase to describe the army of Frederic's father.
In her 1853 novel Villette, Charlotte Brontë writes of M. Paul Emanuel: "Irritable he was; one heard that, as he apostrophized with vehemence the awkward squad under his orders." Brontë had also used the phrase four years earlier, in Shirley.
In Chapter 16 of Our Mutual Friend (1864–65), Charles Dickens described the character Sloppy as a "Full-Private Number One in the Awkward Squad of the rank and file of life".
Norman Cameron used the words to end his 1950 poem Forgive me, sire.
Trade unionism
The tag of 'awkward squad' has been applied to a group of left-wing trade unionists in the United Kingdom, marked out by their opposition to the Labour Party's economic policies. The group includes Bob Crow, Mark Serwotka, and Tony Woodley. In a Parliamentary sense, however, it can also apply to the left-wing of the Labour Party, which perennially occupies a bench of the House of Commons which allows its members to heckle and unnerve the Prime Minister regularly.
References
External links
"Tackling the awkward squad: monadic input/output, concurrency, exceptions, and foreign-language calls in Haskell" - a paper by Simon Peyton Jones
Slang
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240589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allaire%20%28surname%29 | Allaire (surname) | Allaire is a surname of French origin, mainly found in Northern France (Brittany), Jersey, and Quebec.
Etymology
The Breton toponymic origin of the surname Allaire is described by Francis Gourvil in his publication Noms de famille bretons d'origine toponymique. This would point to Allaire, a commune located in the Morbihan department.
Other Breton toponymic connections include lieux-dits "Ville-Allaire" in the communes of Langouet (Ille-et-Vilaine) and Illifaut (Côtes-d'Armor).
Two other possible etymologies can be traced:
Variant form of Hilaire, French form of Latin Hilarius, derived from Latin hilaris meaning "joyful".
In Brittany can be given after saint Aloire (), bishop of Quimper, Brittany.
Some variations
Alair, Aler, Alere, Allair, Allayre, Allere, Alarius
Dallaire (e.g. Roméo Dallaire), Delair, Deller
Halair, Haler
People
Anthony Allaire (1829–1903), American firefighter and police officer
François Allaire (born 1959), ice hockey coach
Gaston Allaire (1916–2011), Canadian musicologist, organist, pianist and composer
James P. Allaire (1785–1858), American mechanic and steam engine builder
Jean Allaire (born 1930), Quebecer politician and lawyer
Jeremy Allaire (born 1971), American technologist and Internet entrepreneur
Joseph J. Allaire (born 1969), American software engineer and Internet entrepreneur
Paul Allaire (1938-2019), businessman, CEO of Xerox Corporation
References
External links
"Les Familles Allaire et Dallaire" by Violette Allaire (1962) (English & French)
French-language surnames
de:Allaire (Begriffsklärung)
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240593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieges%20of%20Taunton | Sieges of Taunton | The sieges of Taunton were a series of three blockades during the First English Civil War. The town of Taunton, in Somerset, was considered to be of strategic importance because it controlled the main road from Bristol to Devon and Cornwall. Robert Blake commanded the town's Parliamentarian defences during all three sieges, from September 1644 to July 1645.
The first siege was laid by Edmund Wyndham on 23 September, and was primarily composed of Royalist troops from local Somerset garrisons. After initial assaults drove Blake and his troops back into Taunton Castle, the blockade was conducted from away, and concentrated more on starving the garrison than continued attacks. The town was relieved by a force under James Holborne on 14 December.
Over the next three months, Blake was able to establish a network of earthen defences in Taunton, including a basic perimeter and several forts. The Royalists began the second, and bloodiest, siege in late March 1645, initially under Sir Richard Grenville. A series of disputes between the Royalist commanders allowed Taunton some respite at the start of the siege, but in May the attacks were fierce under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton. After five days of intense fighting, which had once again driven the defending army back to a small central perimeter including the castle, the Royalists retreated in the face of a Parliamentarian relief army commanded by Ralph Weldon.
Lord Goring, who had proposed the second siege, renewed the blockade for a third time in mid-May, after engaging Weldon's departing army and forcing it back into Taunton. Goring's siege was lax and allowed provisions into the town, diminishing its effectiveness. The Parliamentarian defence tied up Goring and his 10–15,000 troops, who would have otherwise been available to fight for King Charles at Naseby, where historians believe they could have tipped the battle in favour of the Royalists. Instead, after securing a Parliamentarian victory at Naseby, Thomas Fairfax marched his army to relieve Taunton on 9 July 1645.
Background
Loyalties in Somerset were divided at the start of the First English Civil War; many of the prominent landowners and those living in the countryside favoured King Charles I, but most of the towns, including Taunton, were Parliamentarian, predominantly due to their Puritan beliefs. By August 1642, the town was held by a small Parliamentarian force. In June the following year, Sir Ralph Hopton led his Royalist army, consisting of eighteen regiments equally split between foot and cavalry, out of Cornwall and into Somerset. He forced the surrender of Taunton to the King without engaging in battle, and established a garrison in Taunton Castle.
In mid-1644, Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, the Chief Commander of the Parliamentary army, decided to reclaim the West Country. He moved through Dorset, retaking Dorchester and Weymouth, and then left the coast and headed towards Chard. At the time, Taunton was held by a garrison of 800 men commanded by Colonel John Stawell, but the proximity of the Earl of Essex's army led the town to be abandoned, leaving only 80 men to defend the castle. The historian Robert Morris, in The Sieges of Taunton 1644–1645, suggests that Stawell and his men retreated to Bridgwater, but in The History of the Rebellion, the 17th-century historian Edward Hyde claims that the troops were requisitioned by Prince Maurice during his retreat from Lyme Regis to Plymouth.
On 8 July 1644, the Earl of Essex sent a Parliamentarian force, led by Colonel Sir Robert Pye with Lieutenant Colonel Robert Blake as his second in command, to reclaim Taunton. They took the town without a fight, and surrounded the castle. The Royalist forces under Major William Reeve that were garrisoned at Taunton Castle surrendered and retreated to Bridgwater. Pye left Taunton shortly after the capture, leaving Blake to hold the town. Blake had an army of about 1,000 men, and was charged with trying to blockade the roads to support the Earl of Essex's campaign in Devon and Cornwall.
Sieges
First siege
The Earl of Essex's campaign failed, suffering a total defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in early September 1644. His remaining forces retreated back to Dorset, leaving only Plymouth, Lyme Regis and Taunton under Parliamentarian control in the South West. Blake was aware of the vulnerability of Taunton, which, unlike many towns and cities of the time, did not have any town walls. On the eastern side of the town, which was the most vulnerable, he dug trenches outside the Eastern gate and erected a barricade across the street within it. At least three earthen forts were also built in that end of town. King Charles I held council in Chard, and shortly after ordered a Royalist force numbering 3,000 troops to set up the first siege of Taunton. Initially, Sir Francis Dodington was going to command the attack, but the only available men were those in Bridgwater under the command of Colonel Edmund Wyndham.
The siege began on 23 September 1644. Wyndham was assisted in the attack by his brother, Francis Wyndham, who brought his garrison from Dunster Castle, and Edward Rodney, who commanded an infantry regiment. The Royalist forces initially set themselves up around the town, where they were able to use their artillery to bombard the castle from the west and the town from the east. In his record of the siege, Morris claims that the besieging forces were unable to establish a presence in the town, and set up a wide perimeter roughly away. However, almost all other sources agree that after initial skirmishes, the Royalists broke through the eastern defences and forced Blake's troops back into the castle itself.
During the siege, Edmund Wyndham and Blake exchanged letters; Wyndham initially wrote to explain that he felt the siege was a gentle method of attack, rather than using "fire and sword". He offered generous terms for surrender, and signed the letter "Your well-wishing Neighbour and Country-man"; the pair had served as members of parliament together for Bridgwater in 1640. Blake was unmoved, and wrote back to unequivocally reject the offer. Blake sent skirmishing parties out against the attackers with some success, though food and ammunition began to run out for the defending troops. To further this, Wyndham heavily rationed the town's population to prevent them smuggling food to the garrison. A petition to Parliament for help was answered when Sir William Waller, who commanded the Parliamentarian army in Wiltshire, sent a force of 3,000 men under the command of his deputy, Major General James Holborne, in support of the town.
Wyndham had initially planned to attack Holborne's forces at Chard, but instead retreated back to his garrison at Bridgwater on 14 December. He recorded that during his retreat, "the enemy sallied upon me but they were so hungry that they could not follow me." The day after the arrival of Holborne, a supply caravan containing food, 2,000 muskets and 40 barrels of gunpowder restocked the town. Fearing further Royalist assaults, Holborne provided 1,000 of his own men as reinforcements for the town's defence.
Second siege
In early 1645, Blake sent raiding parties out from Taunton that, according to Hyde, controlled a large area and disrupted activities throughout Somerset. Around that time, Lord Goring, the lieutenant-general of the south-eastern counties in the Royalist army, requested troops from the King so that he could mount a "large-scale southeastern campaign". His request was rejected, and he was despatched to the South West instead. He duly changed his focus, electing to target first Weymouth, and then Taunton, both Parliamentarian strongholds in the area. He took Weymouth, but was unable to hold it in the face of Parliamentarian reinforcements. In a letter he received from the King shortly after that loss, he was ordered to gather the Royalist forces of the area together in order to "[clear] those parts of the rebels' forces."
The King sent orders for Sir Richard Grenville and John Berkeley to support Goring in the attack on Taunton. Goring arrived outside Taunton on 11 March, and a sizeable part of Berkeley's garrison from Exeter arrived soon after. Grenville did not leave his siege of Plymouth and, coupled with the threat from a Parliamentarian force formed by Waller and Oliver Cromwell combining their armies in Hampshire, the attack on Taunton was postponed. After further urging from the King and the Prince of Wales, Grenville did eventually travel up towards Taunton and was ordered to follow Goring to support the King in the north, as Grenville's force of 3,000 men was considered too small to assault Taunton. He refused, claiming that "he had promised the commissioners of Devon and Cornwall, that he would not advance beyond Taunton", while also boasting that he could claim the town in ten days. He was delegated command of the siege, and arrived outside Taunton on 2 April. Only a day after his arrival, Grenville was injured while attacking Wellington House, and as the wound was serious, he was carried to Exeter.
The blockade set by Grenville was initially some distance from the town, and did not prevent Blake from sending and receiving messages. The besieging army was reinforced soon after with Goring's infantry and artillery units, and so, with a large force, the attackers closed in on the town, establishing entrenchments within musket-shot of Taunton's defences. Command of the siege passed to Berkeley, though Grenville's troops often failed to follow the new commander's orders, and some of them deserted. Despite Grenville's retirement from the battle due to injury, he and Berkeley clashed; Grenville complained to the Prince of Wales that Berkeley was conducting the siege badly, while Berkeley claimed that Grenville had given his men orders to desert. These disagreements led Hopton, by now the commander of the Royalist forces in the West Country, to be given command of the siege.
As the siege continued, supplies once again began to run out for the defending army, and Parliament identified the relief of Taunton as being a priority. On 28 April, they ordered Thomas Fairfax, the Commander in Chief of the recently established New Model Army, to relieve the town. Fairfax marched with the whole of his army towards Taunton; the Royalists considered sending their own army to meet him before he could reach London, but Prince Rupert convinced them instead to focus on conquering the north of England. In response to the Royalist movement north, Fairfax split his own army in two, sending a force of between 6,000 and 7,000 on to Taunton under Colonel Ralph Weldon, while Fairfax led the rest north.
Aware that the Parliamentarians under Fairfax were on their way, Hopton increased the attacks on the town on 6 May. Further attacks the following day focused on the east side of the town, first bombarding it with cannon shot, and then storming the earthen redoubt that Blake had established. After some early success in which they captured one of the earthen forts, the attackers were forced back by a combination of musket shot, stones and boiling water. The next day, after yet more attacks made little impact, Hopton staged a battle on the south side of the town between two parties of his own army in an attempt to make Blake believe the Parliamentarian army had arrived. Hopton hoped that Blake would send out some of his own men to support the relieving force, but the feint failed. That evening, at around 7 pm, the Royalist force, which consisted of around 4,200 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, launched an all-out assault against the town. In heavy fighting, the attackers captured two of the earthen forts on the eastern side of town, and broke through the defences. Once inside Blake's outer perimeter, the besieging army discovered that there were Parliamentarian musketeers within every house, which prevented them advancing any further, though they did set fire to buildings, hoping to force the defenders to retreat. The tactic failed when the wind blew the flames back towards the Royalists, halting their attack.
The attack was renewed around 11 am on 9 May, and over the next seven hours, Hopton's army advanced slowly through the town. His forces pushed the Parliamentarian troops back one building at a time, until they were left with only a small area of land in the middle of the town. Within the perimeter was the castle, an entrenchment in the market square, St Mary Magdalene Church and an earthen defence known as "Maiden's fort". By this time, a combination of artillery and arson attacks had set most of the east side of town on fire. An attempt by three people—two men and a woman—to set fires inside the remaining defences was quashed, and the culprits lynched.
Further assaults were made on 10 May, along with a demand for Blake and his men to surrender, to which Blake responded that he "had four pairs of boots left and would eat three of them before he yielded." Weldon's relieving force had met with small parties of the Royalist army around Chard and Pitminster, and they sent an advance party ahead of them, which reached Orchard Portman, roughly south of Taunton, on 10 May. Fearing that they were facing the entirety of Fairfax's army, Hopton ordered his forces to abandon their attacks and retreat to Bridgwater. As they left, they felled trees across roads to slow the Parliamentarian advance. Weldon's army arrived in Taunton on 11 May, relieving and restocking the town. Accounts of Taunton's losses vary between 50 and 200 killed, with 200 or more casualties on top of that, while two thirds of the houses in the town had been razed. Having relieved Taunton, Weldon and his army left the following day and marched eastwards.
Third siege
Over the course of the siege, Lord Goring had been with the King in Oxford, and on 10 May he returned to Bristol with a royal warrant pronouncing him the Commander of the Royalist Army in the West Country, replacing Hopton. Goring began his operations by harrying Weldon's army, and forcing them to retreat back to Taunton. Goring, commanding about 10,000 men, established a third siege of the town in under a year. He ignored orders from the King for him to support the Royalist efforts in the Midlands, claiming that "Taunton would be taken in a few days." Despite his promises, he soon discovered that his army was too small to enact a rapid takeover of the town, and he established a loose blockade. Hyde, who is frequently scathing of Goring in his description of the Civil War, recalls that "Goring was so far from making any advance upon Taunton, that he grew much more negligent in it than he had been; suffered provisions, in great quantities, to be carried into the town." As well as being lax in his siege, Goring was often drunk and—reminiscent of the earlier siege—was deserted by many of his troops.
The regional commander of the Parliamentarian forces, Colonel Edward Massey, was ordered to relieve Taunton in June, but he could only raise 3,000 men; far less than was needed to dispel Goring's army. The New Model Army, with Fairfax at their head, were busy in the Midlands defeating the bulk of the Royalist army at the Battle of Naseby, described by modern sources as "the decisive clash of the English Civil War". Goring had been ordered by the King to abandon his siege and join the Royalist forces at Naseby, and it has been suggested by modern historians that with his forces, and his leadership, the Royalists might have won the battle. Immediately after securing that victory, Fairfax led his army down towards Taunton once again. Aware of the approaching army, Lord Goring mounted a final assault on the town, hoping to catch Blake unaware by sending his cavalry towards the town on 9 July. The attack was neutralised by a section of Fairfax's army in Ilminster, and Goring withdrew from Taunton to meet Fairfax at the Battle of Langport, relieving the third and final siege of Taunton during the English Civil War.
Aftermath
In his history of Taunton, H. J. Wickenden suggests that over half of the town was burned or destroyed during the three sieges, while Diane Purkiss claims that it was as high as two thirds of the town. Several compensation payouts were made to the town and some of its residents, funded by fines against those who had fought for the Royalists, such as Sir William Portman, who had been the Member of Parliament for Taunton at the outbreak of the war and was fined £7,000. Although the Parliamentarians destroyed many of the castles that had featured in the Civil War, Taunton Castle was considered a Parliamentarian stronghold, and remained intact. In 1647, only two years after the end of the sieges, the castle was sold as part of the estate of Taunton Manor. In 1660, shortly after taking the throne, Charles II stripped Taunton of its town charter for its part in the Civil War, and had the castle's outer walls removed.
After commanding the defence of Taunton, Blake was ordered to capture Dunster Castle, which he achieved after a nine-month siege. After the war, he was honoured by Parliament for his efforts and rewarded with £500, while a further £2,000 was split amongst his men. He took no side during the Second Civil War and, three years later, under the Commonwealth of England, he became a general at sea, as one of the three commissioners of the navy, and spent the rest of his life as a naval commander, for which he remains best known.
Notes
References
Bibliography
1644 in England
1645 in England
17th century in Somerset
Conflicts in 1644
Conflicts in 1645
History of Taunton
Military history of Somerset
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240595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunton%20%28disambiguation%29 | Taunton (disambiguation) | Taunton is the county town of Somerset, England.
Taunton may also refer to:
Places
Australia
Taunton, Queensland, a locality
Taunton National Park, a scientific national park in Queensland
County of Taunton, a cadastral division in South Australia
Taunton, South Australia, a locality
United Kingdom
Taunton (UK Parliament constituency), a former parliamentary constituency in Somerset
Taunton Deane, a local government district with borough status in Somerset
Taunton Stop Line, a World War II defensive line in south west England
Taunton Racecourse, located near the town from which it takes its name
Taunton, Greater Manchester, a suburb of Ashton-under-Lyne
United States
Taunton, Massachusetts
Taunton, Minnesota
Taunton, New York
Taunton, Washington
Taunton River, historically called the Taunton Great River, a river in southern Massachusetts
People
Baron Taunton, defunct British peerage title
Ethelred Taunton, English Roman Catholic priest
Kristen Taunton, Canadian field hockey player
Larry Taunton, American author
Mack Taunton, vocalist
Peter Taunton, CEO of Snap Fitness
Scott Taunton, media executive
Sussan Taunton, Chilean actress
William de Taunton, medieval Bishop of Winchester
Other
Taunton train fire, a fire in an English sleeping car train on 6 July 1978
Taunton Period, a British Bronze Age metalworking period, see Penard Period
Taunton Press
The Siege of Taunton, during the English Civil War
Taunton's Grammar School Southampton, see Highfield, Hampshire
See also
Tauntaun, a fictional creature in the Star Wars universe
Saunton, a village in north Devon, England
Tawstock, a village in north Devon, England | [
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240596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strays%20%28Jane%27s%20Addiction%20album%29 | Strays (Jane's Addiction album) | Strays is the third studio album by American rock band Jane's Addiction, released on July 22, 2003 on Capitol Records. Released 13 years after Ritual de lo Habitual (1990), the album marks the band's longest gap between full studio albums, although the group had recorded and released two new songs six years prior on the compilation album Kettle Whistle (1997). Strays is the first album to feature bassist Chris Chaney. Regarding the decision to record a new studio album after such a long hiatus, drummer Stephen Perkins stated that the band had already completed two reunion tours performing old material, and that Jane's was ready for "a new challenge."
Upon its first week of release, the album sold 110,500 copies in the United States, debuting at number four on the Billboard 200, and was eventually certified Gold. The single, "Just Because", was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2004.
Background and recording
"I keep kind of asking, 'Hey, want to work on something fresh? Let's just see where we end up,'" remarked singer Perry Farrell in 2001. "I don't want it to be premeditated, but my wish is that we do kick into it and do a full, new Jane's Addiction album… I made the best music with these guys."
According to drummer Stephen Perkins, "It all started around March or April 2002 with Bob Ezrin producing a Porno for Pyros track for the movie Dark Blue: an incredible song called "Streets of Fire" which was just epic. That segued into the Strays project."
The band entered Henson Recording Studio in 2002, with producers Ezrin and Brian Virtue. Of the former, Farrell said: "He raises the bar for all of us. It's like training for the Olympics - something you're aspiring towards in creating art. You're trying to make the most beautiful music, you try to break new ground creating sound that no one's ever heard before. When working with Bob, doing that becomes a very real possibility."
Bassist Martyn LeNoble was fired halfway through the recording. "I recorded pretty much the whole Strays record," he said. "And Perry erased it. He suddenly fired me on the spot in Japan when we still had a whole flight back to the U.S. That's the last time I talked to him. Perry and Bob (Ezrin) replaced all my bass parts on Strays. Perry was saying everything I played sounded like shit, but then they had the new guy pretty much play exactly my parts, maybe a couple of little changes, so I guess they couldn't have been that shitty."
LeNoble was replaced by Chris Chaney, whom Dave Navarro described as "perhaps the most intense musician I've ever worked with." "Dave and Stephen have been playing together since they were 13 years old," Chaney noted. "They have quite a synergy or chemistry – and for me as a bass player to be able to come into that is really remarkable. It gives me a great opportunity to shine. I did a record with Tommy Lee and we needed a drummer to go tour with, and what better drummer than Stephen Perkins. I was only able to do it for about six weeks because I was playing with Alanis Morissette and I had to go back to that. But, in that short time, Stephen and I had a great relationship and last August he called me and asked me to do some shows."
Artwork
Original cover artwork created for the album by Storm Thorgerson was rejected by the band, and used instead on The Bottom Half by Umphrey's McGee.
Musical style and inspirations
Vocalist Perry Farrell states that the band "went into the studio thinking fast, hard, modern and to the point." Strays was labeled by critics as "nu metal", a genre which the band was a precursor to.
DualDisc version
This album was included among a group of 15 DualDisc releases that were test-marketed in two cities: Boston and Seattle. The DualDisc version of the album was not reissued after the test-market run. It has the standard album on the CD side and bonus material on the DVD side, including a 5.1 surround mix of the entire album.
The surround mix is encoded in Dolby Digital and lossless MLP (DVD Audio), and is only available on the DualDisc. All other bonus material is identical with the album's regular CD/DVD version.
Reception
The album received generally positive reviews, with a Metacritic score of 75, based on 19 reviews. Playlouder noted, "Their glee and enthusiasm can be heard coursing through every bar." NME cited it as "one of the best rock albums of 2003". Alternative Press called it "better than anyone could have predicted." The Boston Globe said, "The new Jane's sounds a lot like the old Jane's. It is hard rock, with none of the trippiness that defined singer Perry Farrell's post- Addiction band, Porno for Pyros, or the electronic maundering that marred his lone solo album, 2001's Song Yet to Be Sung." IGN awarded Strays 7.5 out of 10 and stated, "Basically the band has not ventured too far from the sounds they exhibited on 1990's Ritual De La Habitual [sic], making Strays sound like the follow-up that could/should have happened 13 years ago. All of which makes me wonder what this album would have sounded like if they'd been making music together during the past decade. Yet despite these shortcomings, Strays is a valiant effort by a band that not only changed the face of Los Angeles rock, but still knows how to (rock, that is)."
"There's much of the old aggression and quirkiness," noted Classic Rock, "with early Farrell influence The Cure poking their way to the surface… but it's cleaner, tighter, more direct. Often, such as with 'Strays' itself, this approach works extremely well: the band power on as Navarro peels off double-tracked and imaginative solos. Farrell's vocal is more conventional, but now and then returns reassuringly to the yelp of old – although now sparingly deployed for greater effect."
Giving the album a C+, Stylus Magazine noted that it is "good in its own right, but perhaps you're better off listening to it in isolation from the rest of their canon". Pitchfork Media claimed, "Strays lacks what made the band great in the first place: believable songs and lyrics."
In 2005, Strays was ranked number 404 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. In 2009, Navarro stated that he "really liked [Strays]. I had a great time working with Bob Ezrin, who produced it. That’s what makes doing stuff like this really amazing for me." In 2011, Perkins stated that the album was "an interesting point in our sound."
Track listing
Bonus DVD contents
30 minutes of never-before seen live, studio and interview footage. Live cuts: "Just Because", "Strays" (2 versions), "Price I Pay"
DualDisc exclusive contents
In addition to the contents available on the regular DVD: entire album in 5.1 surround sound in Dolby Digital (DVD-Video) or lossless MLP (DVD-Audio)
Personnel
Jane's Addiction
Perry Farrell – lead vocals, programming
Dave Navarro – guitars, piano
Stephen Perkins – drums, percussion
Chris Chaney – bass guitar
Additional musicians
Aaron Embry – keyboards, kalimba
Zac Rae – keyboards
Scott Page – saxophones
John Shanks – mandolin
Mike Finnegan – organ
Kim Hill – backing vocals
Dionna Brooks-Jackson – backing vocals
Leanna Sterios – orchestral arrangements
Recording personnel
Bob Ezrin – producer, mixing, additional keyboards, percussion, orchestral arrangements
Brian Virtue – producer, engineer, mixing, programming
James Murray – additional engineering
Alex Gibson – additional engineering
Brian Humphrey – assistant engineer
Alex Uychocde – assistant engineer
Joe Bishara – programming
Brenden Hawkins – additional programming
James Murray – additional programming
Brian Gardner – mastering
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
Selected quotes
Perry Farrell: Working with Bob Ezrin on Strays meant a lot because I knew that Dave loved Pink Floyd's The Wall, which Ezrin produced. Dave learned The Wall (as a kid). He can play the whole album note for note. I knew he'd instantly have a lot of respect for him.
Bob Ezrin: My job on Strays was to bring a sort of commonality to the process and make everyone think it was a group effort again and not just a bunch of solo projects trying to be strung together.
Martyn LeNoble: Bob Ezrin didn't really understand Jane's Addiction musically. I remember arguing with him, "Have you listened to Ritual?" He goes, "Frankly, I can't get through it. I think it sounds horrible. I'm going to make this a real rock band instead of an art rock band." Well, he succeeded. He took all the magic out of it. He made a rock record. The most magical moments on the Jane's Addiction records are the quiet little adventures to the left, and, of course Eric Avery's magic bass.
In popular culture
"Just Because" appeared in the film S.W.A.T.
"Just Because" was used on the soundtrack of the video game SSX 3.
"Just Because" was used on an open world racing video game Forza Horizon 2 on radio station "Horizon XS".
"Suffer Some" was used on the soundtrack for the video game Tony Hawk's Underground.
The most popular and known track "Superhero" served as the main theme of the HBO megahit series Entourage. It was also used during Lenny and Carl's parody of the show in The Simpsons''' episode "The Homer of Seville".
"True Nature" was used on the soundtrack for the video game MLB 2005.
"Hypersonic" was used on the soundtrack for the video game SSX 3.
References
Bibliography
Whores: An Oral Biography of Perry Farrell and Jane's Addiction, Brendan Mullen, Da Capo Press (March 13, 2006),
External links
janesaddiction.com
Strays'' at Discogs
Jane's Addiction albums
2003 albums
Capitol Records albums
Albums produced by Bob Ezrin
Nu metal albums by American artists | [
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240597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Inglis%20Hamilton | James Inglis Hamilton | General James Inglis Hamilton (1728 – 27 July 1803) was a Scottish soldier. He enlisted in the British Army in 1755 and commanded several regiments. He was the only colonel of the 113th Regiment of Foot. During the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Hamilton fought in the Siege of Fort St Philip, the Raid on St Malo, and the Capture of Belle Île.
In the American War of Independence (1775–1783), Hamilton fought in the Invasion of Canada and the Battle of Freeman's Farm, commanding the middle column during the latter. He was in the Convention Army, imprisoned in Cambridge, Massachusetts after its surrender following the Battles of Saratoga. While a prisoner of war, he adopted James Hamilton, the son of a non-commissioned officer in the British Army.
After his brother's death, Hamilton took over Murdostoun, where he renovated the castle extensively. Under the 15th Regiment of Foot, Hamilton participated in Battle of Martinique as well as the Invasion of Guadeloupe in the French Revolutionary Wars. He died on 27 July 1803 at Murdostoun and is buried at Kirk O' Shotts graveyard. His adopted son took over Murdostoun before dying at the Battle of Waterloo.
Early life
Very little is known of Hamilton's early life. He was the third son of Alexander (died 1768) and Margaret Hamilton (died 1742). His two older brothers were Alexander (died 1783) and Gavin Hamilton (1723–1798), the latter a painter and archeologist in Rome. Inglis was added to the family name in 1719 as a condition of the will by which Alexander Inglis bequeathed Murdostoun to his nephew Alexander Hamilton, James's father.
Seven Years' War
Hamilton enlisted in the British Army on 28 February 1755 and was stationed at Portsmouth. He first saw action in June 1756 at the Siege of Fort St Philip, part of the Seven Years' War. Assigned to the 34th Regiment of Foot, he was one of the 2,800 British soldiers fighting under the command of William Blakeney against 15,000 Frenchmen under the Duke de Richelieu and Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière. The French sailed to Fort St. Philip and forced the British to surrender. During the siege, Admiral John Byng sailed there with a relief group, hoping to save the island for the British, but was unsuccessful. The French killed or wounded 400 British in the French victory.
Hamilton fought in the Raid on St Malo in June 1758. The British landed near St Malo, at first planning to attack the town. However, they decided to destroy shipping first and attack the town later. Finding that to occupy the town would require a full siege, for which they had insufficient troops, they occupied St Servan, where they burned over one hundred vessels including thirty privateers. British ships retreated after seeing a large French force, but sailed around the coast for a few weeks seeking another place to attack. Even though the Raid on St Malo was small and little damage was done, it is considered a British victory.
In 1761, Hamilton took part in the Capture of Belle Île as one of the 5,000 British troops led by Studholme Hodgson. The first attempt by the British was unsuccessful and lost approximately 500 troops. With reinforcements, a second attempt succeeded on 7 June 1761.
On 17 October 1761, while holding the rank of major, Hamilton became major commandant (colonel) of the 113th Regiment of Foot. It was formed from independent companies and served as a depot for sending drafts to Highland regiments serving overseas. The regiment disbanded in 1763, and Hamilton retired on half pay. He became a lieutenant-colonel on 25 May 1772.
American War of Independence
In 1774, Hamilton commanded the 21st Regiment of Foot in the American War of Independence; General John Burgoyne said that he "was the whole time engaged and acquitted himself with great honor, activity, and good conduct." Early in 1776, while in the 21st Regiment, Hamilton accompanied General Guy Carleton in the British response to the Continental Army's 1775 invasion of Quebec. On 15 September 1776 he was appointed temporary commander of the 1st Brigade when Brigadier General Nesbit fell ill. Upon Nesbit's death, Hamilton was promoted to brigadier. He was assigned to the 2nd Brigade, which consisted of the 34th, 53rd, 62nd, and 20th Regiments of Foot. It was originally intended to include Hamilton's 21st Regiment of Foot in the brigade, but it was replaced by the 53rd.
Saratoga campaign
Hamilton helped General Burgoyne organize troops for his campaign to divide the rebellious provinces. He was assigned to the 1st Brigade, comprising the 9th, 47th, and 53rd Regiments of Foot. Later, when Henry Watson Powell transported the 62nd Regiment to Fort Ticonderoga, the 1st and 2nd Brigades were amalgamated.
On 19 September 1777, in Stillwater, New York, Hamilton commanded 1,100 men of the centre column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd Regiments of Foot, which attacked the heights at the Battle of Freeman's Farm. His column was arrayed with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, the 62nd in the middle, and the 9th in reserve. To his left, Friedrich Adolf Riedesel commanded the 47th Regiment of Foot and some German troops. To Hamilton's right, Simon Fraser commanded the 24th Regiment of Foot along with light infantry and grenadiers. Even though Hamilton was considered the commander, Burgoyne led the attack.
The centre column migrated toward the southwest to meet up with the right column. During the battle, Colonel Daniel Morgan of the United States led a charge, but Hamilton's men turned it back and the British won the battle. Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties, mostly in Hamilton's centre column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company and three-quarters of the artillery men were killed or wounded. American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.
In the next battle, the Battle of Bemis Heights, Hamilton was not as engaged as he was at Freeman's Farm. He was the guard of the camp near the heights. He was in the Convention Army that surrendered after the battle, among about 5,900 troops that surrendered at Saratoga. The prisoners arrived at Cambridge, Massachusetts on 8 November 1777. William Phillips commanded the Convention Army until he was exchanged for American General Benjamin Lincoln in 1780; then Hamilton became the commander. While a prisoner of war, Hamilton adopted a boy named Jamie Anderson (1777–1815), the son of Sergeant Major William Anderson of the 21st Foot. Hamilton name was "signed to the parole given by the officers ... in December". The Convention Army had to move to Charlottesville, Virginia and arrived around January 1779. Hamilton was released on 3 September 1781, subject to the condition that he could not travel to America until the war was over.
Later life
After his exchange, Hamilton returned to Britain, where he funded his adopted son's education at Glasgow University. Because of his high rank, Hamilton was able to obtain a commission for his son, who became a cornet in 1792. The boy changed his name to James Hamilton when he enlisted in the British Army.
Around 1790, Hamilton made various renovations to Murdostoun: filling the turret staircase and the old dungeons, adding a parapet running round the roof-line, and changing the original courtyard. On his brother Galvin's death in 1798, Hamilton took over Murdostoun. He came to be considered as one of the most influential freeholders in Lanarkshire.
Hamilton was the colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot from 22 August 1792 to 1794, during which he took part in the 1790s West Indies Campaign. The 15th Foot was awarded the battle honour Martinique 1794 (5 February – 25 March). During the battle, the 15th Foot was a part of the First Brigade, which consisted of the 39th and 43rd Regiment of Foot and was led by Sir C. Gordon.
The regiment also saw service at Guadeloupe (12 April) the same year. He was colonel of his old regiment, the 21st Foot, from 1794 to 1803. While with them he was promoted to lieutenant-general on 26 January 1797 and to full general on 29 April 1802. Hamilton died on his estate in Scotland on 27 July 1803. On 18 August 1803, his son, who was his only heir, took over Murdostoun. James was killed while commanding the Royal Scots Greys at the Battle of Waterloo.
See also
List of British generals
|-
Notes
References
External links
Murdostoun Castle
The Inglis of Murdostoun
1803 deaths
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by the United States
British Army generals
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
British Army personnel of the Seven Years' War
East Yorkshire Regiment officers
Royal Scots Fusiliers officers
Year of birth uncertain
British prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War
1728 births | [
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240599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hamilton%20%28British%20Army%20officer%2C%20born%201777%29 | James Hamilton (British Army officer, born 1777) | Lieutenant colonel James Inglis Hamilton (born Jamie Anderson, 4 July 1777 – 18 June 1815) was a Colonel in the British Army killed at the Battle of Waterloo.
Early life
He was born as Jamie Anderson on 4 July 1777 at a camp of the Saratoga Campaign in New York. He was the second son of William Anderson, a Sergeant-Major of the 21st Foot. Hamilton was baptized on 28 August 1777. General James Inglis Hamilton adopted him following the Battle of Bemis Heights, and funded his education at Glasgow Grammar School and the University of Glasgow .
Military career
Hamilton's adopted father opened a spot in the British Army and Hamilton became a cornet in the Royal Scots Greys in 1792. This is when he changed his name to James Hamilton. Hamilton was promoted to lieutenant on 4October 1793. On 15April 1794, he was promoted to captain. Hamilton became a major on 17February 1803. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 16June 1807, and he commanded the Royal Scots Greys. On 4 June 1814, Hamilton was promoted to Colonel.
Battle of Waterloo
By the time of the Battle of Waterloo he was a Lt. Colonel, commanding the Royal Scots Greys. While leading a charge on horseback, he lost his left arm. He put the reins in his mouth and continued the charge, even after his right arm was severed by a French lancer. Moments later he was shot and killed. He was found with a bullet wound through his heart, as well as other injuries; Hamilton's scabbard and silken sash were sent to his brother, Lieutenant Jno. Anderson, who died in Glasgow on 3December 1816 from wounds received at the Battle of Salamanca.
Personal life
Hamilton married Mary Inglis Payne. Upon Hamilton's death, Payne was compensated £200.
He inherited Murdostoun Castle from his father on 18 August 1803.
Notes
References
1777 births
1815 deaths
Royal Scots Greys officers
British military personnel killed in action in the Napoleonic Wars
British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
British adoptees | [
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240600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play%20%28Swedish%20group%29 | Play (Swedish group) | Play was a Swedish pop girl group. Faye Hamlin, Anna Sundstrand, Anaïs Lameche, and Rosie Munter formed Play's original lineup from the band's formation from 2000 until late 2003. After founding member Faye left the group, fifth member Janet Leon joined Play to fill Hamlin's position as lead singer. In 2005, the group officially announced an "indefinite break" and split up. At that time, Play had sold almost one million albums. Four years later, in 2009, the group reformed with a new lineup of three members consisting of Anaïs, Faye, and the sixth and oldest member of Play, Sanne Karlsson. In February 2011, an official statement was made that Faye had once again left the group in 2010 and would be replaced by Emelie Norenberg. It was announced in May 2011 that the band had separated for the second time.
History
2000–02: Formation and Us Against the World
Play was formed in late 2000 as a result of a nationwide talent search led by Laila Bagge, a recording artist and dance studio owner. Her original lineup for Play consisted of four girls. Two girls were discovered at her dance studio: eleven-year-old Anna Sundstrand and thirteen-year-old Anaïs Lameche, younger sister of recording artist Amanda Lameche. The other two girls were found in the audition process: thirteen-year-olds Faye Hamlin and Rosie Munter, the latter of which had also starred in a popular Swedish film called Eva och Adam. Faye and Rosie had also been best friends before being selected to be in Play. Play's career was launched both in Sweden and in the United States in 2001 and 2002. Their first single and video, "Us Against the World", was released in Sweden in September 2001. The song hit number 14 on the Sverigetopplistan chart, and was later certified Gold. The single was released in the United States in January of 2002, it charted at number 10 on Billboard's Hot Singles Sales chart and stayed on the chart for 65 weeks. The song also charted in France, and Germany. In Sweden, Play's first full-length English-language album, Us Against the World, was released on December 12, 2001. In the United States the album was released on June 25, 2002 and named as Play. In 2002 the group released the second single, "Cinderella".
Play toured in the United States in the coming months, opening for Aaron Carter and Destiny's Child. While touring in the USA, the group often partnered with the girls clothing chain Limited Too. Play's song "M.A.S.T.E.R. part 2", which features Lil' Fizz of B2K and lead vocals by Faye, was also featured in the 2002 film The Master of Disguise, for which they filmed a video with numerous well-known soundtrack contributing artists including Lil' Fizz, J-Boog, Jhené Aiko and Solange Knowles. Their hit song "Us Against the World" was featured in the film Holiday in the Sun, and also on the Lizzie McGuire series soundtrack. The girls of Play concluded 2002 with an appearance on the nationally televised Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in which they stood atop the Build-a-Bear float. They performed a rendition of "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me" which they had previously recorded with Chris Trousdale of Dream Street. The album peaked at number seventy-four on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold on March 24, 2003 for sales of 500,000 copies.
2003–04: Replay and second lineup
Play returned to the studio to begin recording their second album, Replay. Prior to the release of their second album, a DVD titled Playin' Around was released and featured several Play music videos, special "Making of" segments, footage from a live concert, and clips of the members from Play recording and preparing for their second album. Replay, a more mature and R&B-influenced effort, was released on June 10, 2003. On the day of release, Play made several appearances to promote the album, including a guest spot on popular daytime talk show Live with Regis and Kelly. During the Replay era, Faye emerged as the group's lead singer. The album debuted at number sixty-seven and managed to stay in the top 200 albums for seven weeks. The first single was "I Must Not Chase the Boys" and the music video made was aired on MTV's TRL and made the top 10 requested videos countdown. It also managed to be featured on Carson Daly's radio show as one of his picks of the week. The song was also used for a promo for the Nickelodeon cartoon My Life As A Teenage Robot. Play continued to tour in 2003 and they also appeared on several Nickelodeon television specials as featured guests and performers. The group also released the second and final single from Replay, a cover of Atomic Kitten's "Whole Again".
In October 2003, Play's lead singer, sixteen-year-old Faye Hamlin, decided to leave Play to pursue a college education. Faye continued to make appearances with Play until December 2003, and appeared in Play's video "It's a Hard Knock Life" which was featured on a DVD re-release of the hit musical film Annie. On December 15, a formal press release on the group's official site informed fans of the lineup change and introduced new member, Janet Leon, who would become Play's new lead singer along with Anaïs.
2004–05: Don't Stop the Music, Play Around the Christmas Tree and split
In 2004, Play became affiliated with everGirl, a doll and fashion brand from Nickelodeon. The group recorded the everGirl theme song as well as a music video.
Play's third US album, Don't Stop the Music, was released on March 9, 2004. The first single, "Every Little Step", featured Aaron Carter and the second single was the everGirl theme song. This album was aimed more at a younger audience. The title track from the album Don't Stop the Music was originally written and recorded by Swedish singer Robyn. The album is one of Play's least successful albums, failing to chart on Billboard.
In November 2004, Play released their fourth US album, a Christmas collection entitled Play Around the Christmas Tree. The album also failed to chart on the Billboard 200, and is their other worst selling album. Little news of Play was heard until the release of their compilation album entitled Girl's Mind which was released in April 2005. The album features ten of Play's best-known songs, and all feature Faye's vocals. Play never came to the US to promote Girl's Mind, and it was not widely released in stores across the country. It was their third consecutive album also failing to chart on Billboard 200. After a long period of no activity, in September 2005 an official statement from the members of Play confirmed that they were on an indefinite break as a group. At that time, Play had sold almost one million albums.
2009–11: Reunion, Under My Skin and second split
On November 26, 2009, Faye and Anaïs appeared on the Swedish radio stations NRJ and RIXFM, along with another singer named Sanne Karlsson. They then announced as a trio, they would return as "Play" and were to partake in the filming of reality show Made in Sweden just like former member Janet was. Anna was not included in the reunion due to living in the United States. Rosie was originally to be in the reunion, but dropped out three weeks before filming Made in Sweden in order to pursue a solo career as a singer/songwriter. This meant that Play had to find another member, which resulted in Sanne joining the group. With the new lineup in place, Play recorded a full album in four weeks and on November 27, 2009, Play made their first public appearance in over 4 years since disbanding in 2005. Made In Sweden aired in December 2009, and followed the girls searching for a new member, training, choosing and recording songs, recording the music video for "Famous" and following them on their journey to re-enter the music scene along with the Made In Sweden team: Andreas Carlsson, Anders Bagge and their old manager, Laila Bagge. The reality programme consisted of four episodes. In 2009, Play was also a judge for the 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.
The lead single of their first studio album in six years was titled "Famous". It was the original theme tune for Made in Sweden the previous year, sung by Andreas Carlsson. There was some debate on whether to release "Famous" or "Girls" as the comeback single, but in the end "Famous" was chosen as the single. "Famous" debuted at number five, and in its next week peaked at number one. It became Play's only number one single of all time. It was later remade by Big Time Rush for their TV show on Nickelodeon. The group's new album, Under My Skin, was released on April 21, 2010. It debuted and peaked at number seven on the Swedish Albums Chart, making it their first album to chart in Sweden. In October, Play recorded a song called "Destiny" for the Disney Channel Original Movie Avalon High. However, just before the girls were about to enter the studio to record the song, Faye called Laila Bagge and told her that she had once again decided to leave the group. Faye's vocals are therefore not present in the song. It was also announced that Faye would not be joining Anais and Sanne for the promotion of the song. The song premiered on October 26 on Radio Disney. Faye had not been mentioned in the group's blog, nor seen with the others since late September, and some were doubting her place in the band. Multiple sources stated that Faye was writing and recording a solo album, and more pictures cropped of Faye on her own. Due to the search of a new member, Faye's decision to leave the group was not revealed to the fans until February 2011, when Play announced that Emelie Norenberg, Sanne's best friend, who knew many of the other former members, would become the newest member of Play. This left Anais as the only original member of the group, and the only member to be in every incarnation of the group.
Anaïs, Sanne and Emelie were planning a return to the United States and release an EP. However, on 23 May 2011, it was announced after a lack of news, that the plans that were made for the group would not happen and that the group had broken up for a second and final time. The band split up in early 2011. Moreover, it was later revealed through an official statement that the members were no longer on speaking terms for a variety of reasons. The reason was apparently due to the girls not meeting after their trip to L.A. and some things were said about the commitment of some of the girls. They have each since gone their separate ways both professionally and personally.
Members
Discography
Studio albums
2001: Us Against the World
2003: Replay
2004: Don't Stop the Music
2004: Play Around the Christmas Tree
2010: Under My Skin
EPs
2002: Play
Compilation albums
2003: Playin' Around
2005: Girl's Mind
References
External links
Official website as of 2004 on Wayback Machine
Bonnier Amigo Music Group artists
Swedish dance music groups
Swedish girl groups
Musical groups established in 2000
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Play (Swedish group)
Musical quartets
Swedish child singers
Teen pop groups
English-language singers from Sweden | [
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240601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Option%20style | Option style | In finance, the style or family of an option is the class into which the option falls, usually defined by the dates on which the option may be exercised. The vast majority of options are either European or American (style) options. These options—as well as others where the payoff is calculated similarly—are referred to as "vanilla options". Options where the payoff is calculated differently are categorized as "exotic options". Exotic options can pose challenging problems in valuation and hedging.
American and European options
The key difference between American and European options relates to when the options can be exercised:
A European option may be exercised only at the expiration date of the option, i.e. at a single pre-defined point in time.
An American option on the other hand may be exercised at any time before the expiration date.
For both, the payoff—when it occurs—is given by
, for a call option
, for a put option
where is the strike price and is the spot price of the underlying asset.
Option contracts traded on futures exchanges are mainly American-style, whereas those traded over-the-counter are mainly European.
Nearly all stock and equity options are American options, while indexes are generally represented by European options. Commodity options can be either style.
Expiration date
Traditional monthly American options expire the third Saturday of every month. They are closed for trading the Friday prior. *Expire the third Friday if the first of the month begins on a Saturday.
European options expire the Friday prior to the third Saturday of every month. Therefore, they are closed for trading the Thursday prior to the third Saturday of every month.
Difference in value
Assuming an arbitrage-free market, a partial differential equation known as the Black-Scholes equation can be derived to describe the prices of derivative securities as a function of few parameters. Under simplifying assumptions of the widely adopted Black model, the Black-Scholes equation for European options has a closed-form solution known as the Black-Scholes formula. In general, no corresponding formula exist for American options, but a choice of methods to approximate the price are available (for example Roll-Geske-Whaley, Barone-Adesi and Whaley, Bjerksund and Stensland, binomial options model by Cox-Ross-Rubinstein, Black's approximation and others; there is no consensus on which is preferable). Obtaining a general formula for American options is one of finance's unsolved problems.
An investor holding an American-style option and seeking optimal value will only exercise it before maturity under certain circumstances. Owners who wish to realise the full value of their option will mostly prefer to sell it on, rather than exercise it immediately, sacrificing the time value.
Where an American and a European option are otherwise identical (having the same strike price, etc.), the American option will be worth at least as much as the European (which it entails). If it is worth more, then the difference is a guide to the likelihood of early exercise. In practice, one can calculate the Black–Scholes price of a European option that is equivalent to the American option (except for the exercise dates of course). The difference between the two prices can then be used to calibrate the more complex American option model.
To account for the American's higher value there must be some situations in which it is optimal to exercise the American option before the expiration date. This can arise in several ways, such as:
An in the money (ITM) call option on a stock is often exercised just before the stock pays a dividend that would lower its value by more than the option's remaining time value.
A put option will usually be exercised early if the underlying asset files for bankruptcy.
A deep ITM currency option (FX option) where the strike currency has a lower interest rate than the currency to be received will often be exercised early because the time value sacrificed is less valuable than the expected depreciation of the received currency against the strike.
An American bond option on the dirty price of a bond (such as some convertible bonds) may be exercised immediately if ITM and a coupon is due.
A put option on gold will be exercised early when deep ITM, because gold tends to hold its value whereas the currency used as the strike is often expected to lose value through inflation if the holder waits until final maturity to exercise the option (they will almost certainly exercise a contract deep ITM, minimizing its time value).
Less common exercise rights
There are other, more unusual exercise styles in which the payoff value remains the same as a standard option (as in the classic American and European options above) but where early exercise occurs differently:
Bermudan option
A Bermudan option is an option where the buyer has the right to exercise at a set (always discretely spaced) number of times. This is intermediate between a European option—which allows exercise at a single time, namely expiry—and an American option, which allows exercise at any time (the name is jocular: Bermuda, a British overseas territory, is somewhat American and somewhat European—in terms of both option style and physical location—but is nearer to American in terms of both). For example, a typical Bermudian swaption might confer the opportunity to enter into an interest rate swap. The option holder might decide to enter into the swap at the first exercise date (and so enter into, say, a ten-year swap) or defer and have the opportunity to enter in six months time (and so enter a nine-year and six-month swap); see Swaption: Valuation. Most exotic interest rate options are of Bermudan style.
Canary option
A Canary option is an option whose exercise style lies somewhere between European options and Bermudian options. (The name refers to the relative geography of the Canary Islands.) Typically, the holder can exercise the option at quarterly dates, but not before a set time period (typically one year) has elapsed. The ability to exercise the option ends prior to the maturity date of the product. The term was coined by Keith Kline, who at the time was an agency fixed income trader at the Bank of New York.
Capped-style option
A capped-style option is not an interest rate cap but a conventional option with a pre-defined profit cap written into the contract. A capped-style option is automatically exercised when the underlying security closes at a price making the option's mark to market match the specified amount.
Compound option
A compound option is an option on another option, and as such presents the holder with two separate exercise dates and decisions. If the first exercise date arrives and the 'inner' option's market price is below the agreed strike the first option will be exercised (European style), giving the holder a further option at final maturity.
Shout option
A shout option allows the holder effectively two exercise dates: during the life of the option they can (at any time) "shout" to the seller that they are locking-in the current price, and if this gives them a better deal than the payoff at maturity they'll use the underlying price on the shout date rather than the price at maturity to calculate their final payoff.
Double option
A double option gives the purchaser a composite call-and-put option (an option to either buy or sell) in a single contract. This has only ever been available in commodities markets and has never been traded on exchange.
Swing option
A swing option gives the purchaser the right to exercise one and only one call or put on any one of a number of specified exercise dates (this latter aspect is Bermudan). Penalties are imposed on the buyer if the net volume purchased exceeds or falls below specified upper and lower limits. Allows the buyer to "swing" the price of the underlying asset. Primarily used in energy trading.
Evergreen option
An evergreen option is an option where the buyer has the right to exercise by providing a pre-determined period of notice. This option could be either American or European in nature or alternatively it could be combined with option styles that have non-vanilla exercise rights. For example, an ‘Evergreen-Bermudan’ option provides the buyer of the option with the right to exercise at set specific points in time after providing the other counterparty with a pre-determined period of notice of their intent to exercise the option. Evergreen options provide sellers with a period of time to prepare for settlement once the buyer has exercised their rights under the option. Embedding evergreen optionality within on and off-balance sheet products can enable counterparties (such as banks that must adhere to Basel III) to lengthen their inflow or outflow obligations.
"Exotic" options with standard exercise styles
These options can be exercised either European style or American style; they differ from the plain vanilla option only in the calculation of their payoff value:
Composite option
A cross option (or composite option) is an option on some underlying asset in one currency with a strike denominated in another currency. For example, a standard call option on IBM, which is denominated in dollars pays $MAX(S−K,0) (where S is the stock price at maturity and K is the strike). A composite stock option might pay JPYMAX(S/Q−K,0), where Q is the prevailing FX rate. The pricing of such options naturally needs to take into account FX volatility and the correlation between the exchange rate of the two currencies involved and the underlying stock price.
Quanto option
A quanto option is a cross option in which the exchange rate is fixed at the outset of the trade, typically at 1. The payoff of an IBM quanto call option would then be JPYmax(S−K,0).
Exchange option
An exchange option is the right to exchange one asset for another (such as a sugar future for a corporate bond).
Basket option
A basket option is an option on the weighted average of several underlyings.
Rainbow option
A rainbow option is a basket option where the weightings depend on the final performances of the components. A common special case is an option on the worst-performing of several stocks.
Low Exercise Price Option
A Low Exercise Price Option (LEPO) is a European style call option with a low exercise price of $0.01.
Boston option
A Boston option is an American option but with premium deferred until the option expiration date.
Non-vanilla path-dependent "exotic" options
The following "exotic options" are still options, but have payoffs calculated quite differently from those above. Although these instruments are far more unusual they can also vary in exercise style (at least theoretically) between European and American:
Lookback option
A lookback option is a path dependent option where the option owner has the right to buy (sell) the underlying instrument at its lowest (highest) price over some preceding period.
Asian option
An Asian option (or average option) is an option where the payoff is not determined by the underlying price at maturity but by the average underlying price over some pre-set period of time. For example, an Asian call option might pay MAX(DAILY_AVERAGE_OVER_LAST_THREE_MONTHS(S) − K, 0). Asian options were originated in commodity markets to prevent option traders from attempting to manipulate the price of the underlying security on the exercise date. They were named 'Asian' because their creators were in Tokyo when they created the first pricing model
A Russian option is a lookback option that runs for perpetuity. That is, there is no end to the period into which the owner can look back.
Game option
A game option or Israeli option is an option where the writer has the opportunity to cancel the option she has offered, but must pay the payoff at that point plus a penalty fee.
Cumulative Parisian option
The payoff of a cumulative Parisian option is dependent on the total amount of time the underlying asset value has spent above or below a strike price.
Standard Parisian option
The payoff of a standard Parisian option is dependent on the maximum amount of time the underlying asset value has spent consecutively above or below a strike price.
Barrier option
A barrier option involves a mechanism where if a 'limit price' is crossed by the underlying, the option either can be exercised or can no longer be exercised.
Double barrier option
A double barrier option involves a mechanism where if either of two 'limit prices' is crossed by the underlying, the option either can be exercised or can no longer be exercised.
Cumulative Parisian barrier option
A cumulative Parisian barrier option involves a mechanism, in which if the total amount of time the underlying asset value has spent above or below a 'limit price' exceeds a certain threshold, then the option can be exercised or can no longer be exercised.
Standard Parisian barrier option
A standard Parisian barrier option involves a mechanism, in which if the maximum amount of time the underlying asset value has spent consecutively above or below a 'limit price' exceeds a certain threshold, the option can be exercised or can no longer be exercised.
Reoption
A reoption occurs when a contract has expired without having been exercised. The owner of the underlying security may then reoption the security.
Binary option
A binary option (also known as a digital option) pays a fixed amount, or nothing at all, depending on the price of the underlying instrument at maturity.
Chooser option
A chooser option gives the purchaser a fixed period of time to decide whether the derivative will be a vanilla call or put.
Forward start option
A forward start option is an option whose strike price is determined in the future.
Cliquet option
A cliquet option is a sequence of forward start options.
See also
CBOE
Derivative (finance)
Derivatives markets
Financial economics
Financial instrument
Finance
Futures contracts
Monte Carlo methods in finance
Option screeners
Options
Binary option
Bond option
Credit default option
Exotic interest rate option
Foreign exchange option
Interest rate cap and floor
Options on futures
Rainbow option
Real option
Stock option
Swaption
Warrant
Related
Covered call
Moneyness
Naked put
Option (finance)
Option time value
Put option
Put–call parity
Smooth pasting
References
External links
option types data base, global-derivatives.com
Varieties of programming codes on option valuation
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