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238216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters%20patent | Letters patent | Letters patent () (always in the plural) are a type of legal instrument in the form of a published written order issued by a monarch, president, or other head of state, generally granting an office, right, monopoly, title, or status to a person or corporation. Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for granting city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, as well as appointing a Royal Commission. In the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm.
A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern intellectual property patent (referred to as a utility patent or design patent in United States patent law) granting exclusive rights in an invention (or a design in the case of a design patent). In this case it is essential that the written grant should be in the form of a public document so other inventors can consult it both to avoid infringement and understand how to put it into practical use. In the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Empire, and Austria-Hungary, imperial patent was also the highest form of generally binding legal regulations, e.g. Patent of Toleration, Serfdom Patent etc.
The opposite of letters patent are letters close (), which are personal in nature and sealed so that only the recipient can read their contents. Letters patent are thus comparable to other kinds of open letter in that their audience is wide. It is not clear how the contents of letters patent became widely published before collection by the addressee, for example whether they were left after sealing by the king for inspection during a certain period by courtiers in a royal palace, who would disseminate the contents back to the gentry in the shires through normal conversation and social intercourse. Today, for example, it is a convention for the British prime minister to announce that they have left a document they wish to enter the public domain "in the library of the House of Commons", where it may be freely perused by all members of parliament.
Meaning
Letters patent are so named from the Latin verb , to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originator's seal was attached pendent from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read.
They are called "letters" (plural) from their Latin name , used by medieval and later scribes when the documents were written in Latin. This loanword preserves the collective plural "letters" (litterae) that the Latin language uses to denote a message as opposed to a single alphabet letter (littera).
Usage
Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and a vestigial exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his personal written orders, open or closed.
They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect a written order by Parliament involving assent by the monarch in conjunction with its members. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch.
Parliament today tolerates only a very narrow exercise of the royal prerogative by issuance of letters patent, and such documents are issued with prior informal government approval, or indeed are now generated by government itself with the monarch's seal affixed as a mere formality. In their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect.
For the sake of good governance, it is of little use if the sovereign appoints a person to a position of authority but does not at the same time inform those over whom such authority is to be exercised of the validity of the appointment.
According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of office copies of English (and later United Kingdom) royal letters patent, which run in an almost unbroken series from 1201 to the present day, with most of those to 1625 having been published.
United Kingdom
Commonwealth realms
In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the prerogative powers of the head of state, as an executive or royal prerogative. They are a rare, though significant, form of legislation which does not require the consent of parliament. Letters patent may also be used to grant royal assent to legislation.
In the United States
The primary source of letters patent in the United States are intellectual property patents and land patents, though letters patent are issued for a variety of other purposes. They function dually as public records and personal certificates.
In the United States, the forgery of letters patent granted by the President is a crime subject to fine, imprisonment up to ten years or both (). Without letters patent, a person is unable to assume an appointed office. Such an issue prompted the Marbury v. Madison suit, where William Marbury and three others petitioned the United States Supreme Court to order James Madison to deliver their letters for appointments made under the previous administration.
Form of United States letters patent
United States letters patent generally do not fit a specific form, except for the eschatocol, or formal ending:
See also
Commissioning scroll
Firman
Land patent, in the United States
Letter of marque
Letters close
Lettre de cachet
Exequatur
Papal bull, a type of letters patent issued by a Pope
Patent, granting rights for an invention
Patent of Toleration
Royal Charter
Statute of Monopolies 1623, an attempt to rein in the abuse of letters patent in England
References
External links
Research Guide on Letters Patent
Governance of the British Empire
Heraldry and law
Legal documents
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238220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulidae | Sulidae | The bird family Sulidae comprises the gannets and boobies. Collectively called sulids, they are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish and similar prey. The 10 species in this family are often considered congeneric in older sources, placing all in the genus Sula. However, Sula (true boobies) and Morus (gannets) can be readily distinguished by morphological, behavioral, and DNA sequence characters. Abbott's booby (Papasula) is given its own genus, as it stands apart from both in these respects. It appears to be a distinct and ancient lineage, maybe closer to the gannets than to the true boobies.
Description
Sulids measure about in length and have a wingspan around . They have long, narrow, and pointed wings, and a quite long, graduated, and rather lozenge-shaped tail whose outer feathers are shorter than the central ones. Their flight muscles are rather small to allow for the small cross-section required for plunge-diving, as an adaptive trade-off relative to some sacrifice in flight performance. Consequently, they are very streamlined, reducing drag, so their bodies are "torpedo-shaped" and somewhat flat.
They have stout legs and webbed feet, with the web connecting all four toes. In some species, the webs are brightly colored and used in courtship displays. The bill is usually conspicuously colored, long, deep at the base, and pointed, with saw-like edges. The upper mandible curves down slightly at the tip and can be moved upward to accept large prey. To keep water out during plunges, the nostrils enter into the bill rather than opening to the outside directly. The eyes are angled forward, and provide a wider field of binocular vision than in most other birds.
Their plumage is either all-white (or light brownish or greyish) with dark wingtips and (usually) tail, or at least some dark brown or black above with white underparts; gannets have a yellowish hue to their heads. The face usually has some sort of black markings, typically on the lores. Unlike their relatives (the darters and cormorants), sulids have a well-developed preen gland whose waxy secretions they spread on their feathers for waterproofing and pest control. They moult their tail feathers irregularly and the flight feathers of their wings in stages, so that starting at the first moult, they always have some old feathers, some new ones, and some partly grown ones. Moult as a response to periods of stress has been recorded.
Distribution and ecology
The sulids are distributed mainly in tropical and subtropical waters, but they, particularly gannets, are found in temperate regions, too. These birds are not truly pelagic seabirds like the related Procellariiformes, and usually stay rather close to the coasts, but the abundant colonies of sulids that exist on many Pacific islands suggest that they are not infrequently blown away from their home range by storms, and can wander for long distances in search of a safe place to land if need be.
All species feed entirely at sea, mostly on mid-sized fish and similarly sized marine invertebrates (e.g. cephalopods). Many species feed communally, and some species follow fishing boats to scavenge discarded bycatch and chum. The typical hunting behavior is a dive from midair, taking the bird a 1–2 m under water. If prey manages to escape the diving birds at first, they may give chase using their legs and wings for underwater swimming.
As noted above, the behavioral traits of gannets and boobies differ considerably, but the Sulidae as a whole are characterized by several behavioral synapomorphies: Before taking off, they point their bills upwards (gannets) or forward (boobies). After landing again, they point downwards with their bills. In response to a threat, they do not attack, but shake their heads and point their bills towards the intruders.
Reproduction
All sulids breed in colonies. Males examine the colony area in flight and then pick a nest site, which they defend by fighting and territorial displays. Males then advertise to females by a special display and call. Their display behavior is characteristic, though not as diverse as the numerous variations found among the cormorants; it typically includes the male shaking his head. Females search the colony in flight and on foot for a mate. Once they select males, pairs maintain their bonds by preening each other and by frequent copulation.
The clutch is typically two eggs. The eggs are unmarked (but may become stained by debris in the nest), whitish, pale blue, green, or pink, and have a coating that resembles lime. Egg weight ranges from 3.3 to 8.0% of the female's weight. Incubation lasts 42 to 55 days, depending on the species. Both sexes incubate; like their relatives, they do not have brood patches, but their feet become vascularized and hot, and the birds place the eggs under the webs. Eggs lost during the first half of incubation are replaced.
At hatching, parents move the eggs and then the hatchlings to the tops of their webs. The young hatch naked, but soon develop white down. They beg by touching the parent's bill and take regurgitated food straight from its gape. At first, at least one parent is always in attendance of the altricial young; after two weeks, both parents leave the nest unguarded at times while they go fishing. The times for the chicks to fledge and become independent of their parents depend greatly on the food supply. Rarely does more than one chick survive to maturity, except in the Peruvian booby (Sula variegata), which has the biggest clutch (two to four eggs), and less often in the blue-footed booby (S. nebouxii). Siblicide by the stronger of two chicks is frequent.
Systematics and evolution
Sulids are related to a number of other aquatic birds, which all lack external nostrils and a brood patch, but have all four toes webbed and a gular sac. The closest living relatives of the Sulidae are the Phalacrocoracidae (cormorants and shags) and the Anhingidae (darters). The latter are somewhat intermediate between sulids and cormorants, but (like many cormorants) they are freshwater birds in a clade containing otherwise seabirds, and also symplesiomorphic with sulids but synapomorphic with cormorants in some other respects. Thus, the Sulidae seem to be the oldest and most distinct lineage of those three, which are united in a suborder Sulae. Therein, the Sulidae are typically placed simply as a family; sometimes, a superfamily Suloidea is recognized, wherein some of the primitive prehistoric forms (e.g. Empheresula, Eostega, and Masillastega) are placed as basal lineages distinct from the living Sulidae. However, the proposed family Pseudosulidae (or Enkurosulidae) is almost certainly invalid.
The Sulae were traditionally included in the Pelecaniformes in its obsolete paraphyletic circumscription, but pelicans, the namesake family of the Pelecaniformes, are actually more closely related to herons, ibises and spoonbills, the hamerkop, and the shoebill than to the sulids and allies. In recognition of this, the Sulae have been proposed for separation in a new order Phalacrocoraciformes, which also includes the frigatebirds (Fregatidae), as well as one or more prehistoric lineages that are entirely extinct today. The IOC World Bird List uses Suliformes as the proposed order name.
Within the family itself, three living genera—Sula (boobies, six species), Papasula (Abbott's booby), and Morus (gannets, three species)—are recognized. A 2011 study of multiple genes found Abbott's booby to be basal to all other gannets and boobies, and likely to have diverged from them around 22 million years ago, and the ancestors of the gannets and remaining boobies split around 17 million years ago. The most recent common ancestor of all boobies lived in the late Miocene around 6 million years ago, after which time the boobies steadily diverged. The gannets split more recently, only around 2.5 million years ago.
The fossil record of sulids is quite extensive due to the many Miocene/Pliocene forms that have been recovered, but the lineage of sulids extends back to the Eocene, and all things (such as the Early Eocene frigatebird Limnofregata) considered, the sulids seem to have diverged from the lineage leading to cormorants and darters around 50 million years ago (Mya), perhaps a bit earlier. The initial evolutionary radiation formed a number of genera that are now completely extinct, such as the freshwater Masillastega (which, as noted above, might not have been a modern-type sulid) or the bizarre Rhamphastosula (which had a bill shaped like an aracari's). The modern genera evolved (like many other living genera of birds) around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary about 23 Mya. Microsula, which lived during that time, seems to have been a primitive booby that still had many symplesiomorphies with gannets. Like the other Phalacrocoraciformes, the sulids originated probably in the general region of the Atlantic or western Tethys Sea – probably the latter rather than the former, given that their earliest fossils are abundant in Europe, but absent from the well-studied contemporary American deposits.
Prehistoric sulids (or suloids) only known from fossils are:
Masillastega (Early Eocene of Messel, Germany) – may belong in Eostega
Eostega (Late Eocene of Cluj-Manastur, Romania) – may include Masillastega
Sulidae gen. et sp. indet. (Thalberg Late Oligocene of Germany) – Empheresula?
Sulidae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Oligocene of South Carolina, United States) – Microsula?
Empheresula (Late Oligocene of Gannat, France – Middle Miocene of Steinheimer Becken, Germany) – including "Sula" arvernensis, "Parasula"
Microsula (Late Oligocene of South Carolina, United States – Grund Middle Miocene of Austria) – may belong in Morus or Sula, includes "Sula" avita, "S." pygmaea, Enkurosula, "Pseudosula"
Sarmatosula (Middle Miocene of Credinţa, Romania)
Miosula (Late Miocene of California)
Palaeosula (Early Pliocene? of California)
Rhamphastosula (Pisco Early Pliocene of SC Peru)
Bimbisula (middle Pliocene of South Carolina)
Sulidae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Pliocene of Valle di Fine, Italy) – Morus?
For prehistoric species of the extant genera, see the genus articles.
The Early Oligocene Prophalacrocorax ronzoni of Ronzon, France, was variously placed in the seaduck genus Mergus, in Sula, and after a distinct genus was established for it, in the Phalacrocoracidae. While it is quite likely to belong in the Sulae and may have been an ancient sulid (or suloid), of the three placements explicitly proposed, none seems to be correct.
References
Further reading
Lambrecht, Kálmán (1933): Familia Sulidae. In: Handbuch der Palaeornithologie: 284-287 [German]. Gebrüder Bornträger, Berlin.
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2007): Taxonomic identity of Eostega lebedinskyi LAMBRECHT, 1929 (Aves) from the middle Eocene of Romania. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien A 109: 19-27 [English with German abstract]. PDF fulltext
External links
Live camera from Eldey Iceland
Sulidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
FAMILY SULIDAE
Bird families
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach
Extant Ypresian first appearances | [
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238231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prom | Prom | A promenade dance, commonly called a prom, is a dance party for high school students. It may be offered in semi-formal black tie or informal suit for boys, and evening gowns for girls. This event is typically held near the end of the school year. There may be individual junior (11th grade) and senior (12th grade) proms or they may be combined.
At a prom, a "prom king" and a "prom queen" may be revealed. These are honorary titles awarded to students elected in a school-wide vote prior to the prom. Other students may be honored with inclusion in a prom court. The selection method for a prom court is similar to that of homecoming queen/princess, king/prince, and court. Inclusion in a prom court may be a reflection of popularity of those students elected and their level of participation in school activities, such as clubs or sports.
The prom queen and prom king may be given crowns to wear. Members of the prom court may be given sashes to wear and photographed together.
Similar events, which may be locally inspired by debutante balls, take place in many other parts of the world. In Canada, the terms "formal" and "Grad" are often used, while in Australia and New Zealand, the terms school formal and ball are most commonly used for occasions equivalent to the American prom, and the event is usually held for students in Year 12, although the bestowing of the regal titles does not occur. Many schools hold a formal graduation ball for finishing students at the end of the year in place of or as well as a formal. In Ireland, a debutante ball or debs may also be held. In Poland, high schools organize a "studniówka". The term "prom" is becoming more common in the United Kingdom and Canada because of the influence of American films and television shows, such as Grease.In South Africa this event is widely known as a matric dance as students in their 12th year of school are called matric students.
Variation exists between different dialects with regard to whether prom is used with the definite article or not—e.g., whether one says "go to the prom" or "go to prom".
In the United States
History
In the early days of high school proms, the nighttime dance served a function similar to a debutante ball. Early proms were times of firsts: the first adult social event for teenagers; the first time taking the family car out after dark; the first real dress-up affair; and so forth. Proms also served as a heavily documented occasion, similar to a milestone event such as first communion or a wedding, in which the participants were taking an important step into a new stage in their lives. In earlier days, the prom may have also served as an announcement of engagement for the 'best couple' after the prom court had been crowned and recognized.
While high school yearbooks did not start covering proms and including prom pictures until the 1930s and 1940s, historians, including Meghan Bretz, believe proms may have existed at colleges as early as the late 19th century. The journal of a male student at Amherst College in 1894 recounts an invitation and trip to an early prom at neighboring Smith College for women. The word prom at that time may just have been a fancy description for an ordinary junior or senior class dance, but prom soon took on larger-than-life meaning for high school students.
Proms worked their way down incrementally from college gatherings to high school extravaganzas. In the early 20th century, prom was a simple tea dance where high school seniors wore their Sunday best. In the 1920s and 1930s, prom expanded into an annual class banquet where students wore party clothes and danced afterward. As Americans gained more money and leisure time in the 1950s, proms became more extravagant and elaborate, bearing similarity to today's proms. The high school gym may have been an acceptable setting for sophomore dances, but junior prom and senior balls gradually moved to hotel ballrooms and country clubs. Competition blossomed, as teens strove to have the best dress, the best mode of transportation, and the best looking date. Competition for the prom court also intensified, as the designation of prom queen became an important distinction of popularity. In a way, prom became the pinnacle event of a high school student's social life.
Today, prom continues to be a notable event in the social climate of high schools. Popular movies and novels attest to the importance of prom themes, prom dates, and prom queens. In some areas, the traditions of prom are not as rigid as they used to be, with many students attending as individuals or in groups instead of as couples. In 1975 U.S. First Daughter Susan Ford held her prom in the East Room of the White House.
Attire
Traditionally, boys dress in black or white formal wear, often tuxedos regardless of the time of the event, sometimes paired with ties or bow ties with vests, in some cases in colors matching their date's dress.
Traditionally, girls wear dresses or evening gowns and adorn themselves with ladies' jewelry such as earrings and a necklace. Traditionally, girls wear perfume, and make-up such as eyeshadow, lipstick, mascara, and blush. Girls also traditionally wear a corsage, given to them by their dates, and girls give boys matching boutonnières to be worn on their lapels.
Promposals
A "promposal" (a portmanteau of "prom" and "proposal") is a popular pre-prom tradition where a student asks another to go to the prom with them using some (usually elaborate) method and extra fanfare. A promposal is distinct from the normal prom ask, which typically includes the question, "Will you go to prom with me?" without additional spectacle. Promposals may include concepts and materials from posters, confetti, and balloons to the more viral, elaborate plans that give promposals their extravagant reputation. Examples include spelling "Prom?" with pepperoni on pizza, organizing a flash mob, wearing a fursuit, graffitiing national park land, and using a hot-air balloon. Promposals, due to their flashy nature, often include a social media aspect like livestreaming, taking and posting videos, and other forms of memorializing on social media platforms.
Logistics and traditions
Prom attendees may be limited by their schools to be juniors or seniors and guests under age 21. Before prom, girls typically get their hair styled, often in groups as a social activity at a salon. Prom couples then gather at a park, garden, or their own and their dates’ houses for single and group photographs. Prom attendees may rent limousines or party buses to transport groups of friends from their homes to the prom venue. Some schools host their proms at hotel ballrooms, banquet halls, or other venues where weddings typically take place. The dance itself may have a band or DJ. At prom, a meal may be served.
Some high schools allow only the graduating class (seniors) to have a prom. Some schools also allow grade 11 (juniors) to have a prom, and in some cases, there is a combined junior/senior prom. Some American high schools that do not allow school-sponsored dances will host a junior/senior prom as a banquet instead of a dance. Typically, students still dress in formal attire and attend as couples. In recent years, American teens have started asking celebrities or famous models to their proms.
Post-prom
After the prom, parents or a community may host a prom after-party, afterglow or post-prom at a restaurant, entertainment venue, or a student's home. Other traditions often include trips to nearby attractions, such as amusement parks, regional or local parks, or vacation houses. Some of these post-prom events are chaperoned and some are unsupervised. Many post-proms (after-prom events) are at the school, and involve bringing entertainment such as interactive games, artists, and other entertainers to the school, as a means to deter inappropriate behaviors.
In the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom prior to the 2000s, many secondary schools would hold events such as a summer ball to celebrate the end of term or a leavers ball to celebrate the end of schooling, but usually, these did not have the cultural or social significance of US-style proms.
In the 1970s, school discos had been another tradition of semi-formal events being held at various times of the year, in particular during the Christmas period, although not all secondary schools would allow such events.
During the 2000s, school proms became common at UK schools, apparently due to the influence of US TV shows. The Daily Telegraph reported in 2012 that:
Schools in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland predominantly hold their prom, or school formal, at the end of secondary education in year 11 (ages 15/16) and the end of sixth form (aged 18).
In Scotland, it is usually only held at the end of S6 (ages 17/18) because all high schools in Scotland have pupils up to age 18 years, whereas elsewhere in the UK, many students have to go to college to study for A-Levels. Proms are usually held in June, after the end of year exams, although in Northern Ireland, they are usually held in the wintertime near the start of the school year. At Scottish formal events, boys usually wear kilts (kilts are also often seen in the other Celtic regions) and Highland dress outfitters often sell out in an area around this time of year due to demand from school events. Also in Scotland, it is customary for traditional Scottish country dancing (part of the curriculum of all secondary schools) to be included.
Related social gatherings elsewhere
Africa
In Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania most private schools with expatriates have proms or "end of year socials".
Egypt
In Egypt, private schools have proms similar to ones held in the United States but with slight differences. The prom is held for a maximum of 3 hours, where teachers attend and enjoy some time with their students. Then there is the "after-prom", where no teachers or parents are allowed, during that time, the real party begins with all the students dancing and enjoying their time. The after-prom can continue to 4 am and 5 am. In some places, there is no mingling of males and females due to adherence to the Islamic codes.
South Africa
In South Africa, the equivalent of the American prom is the Matric Dance, taking place during the matriculation (i.e., final) year of high school (12th grade). It takes place towards the end of the third quarter, shortly before the spring break, after which the matriculation examinations commence. It usually takes the form of a formal dinner and dance. In most schools, the 11th-grade class is responsible for arranging the event. Sometimes teachers and parents also attend.
The Matric Dance has become one of the most popular occasions on the South African social calendar, but not without much controversy for its cost that, it is said, "could be as much as some people’s weddings". The magazine saying this elaborates: "Many parents will be torn between wanting to spoil their youngsters and wanting to resist the extravagance of handing over thousands of rands for a dress or suit that will probably only be worn once."
Zambia
In Zambia, private schools have a "leavers' dance/dinner" that is planned out by the grade 11 class and takes place on the Saturday after the Friday of their graduation ceremony. The dance is planned for the grade 12 class as well as the upper sixth form class and is normally done the 1st Friday after both of the classes are done writing their A-Level and IGCSE examinations. The dinner begins at 7 pm and the grade 11 class pose as the servers as well as the entertainment throughout the duration of the dinner. The dinner ends at midnight and is followed by the "after-party" which is celebrated at another venue (usually a club) with no parents and no teachers. Costs for renting out the venue are covered by selling tickets to outsiders and the party is usually planned by the graduating classes themselves.
Asia
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, prom culture is inherited from the western countries and is generally called a ball, such as Christmas Ball. This usually takes place during Christmas and summer break. This is more popular in the secondary education stage rather than in universities. Schools, excluding international schools, holding proms are usually single-sex schools where normally the student unions in the schools will cooperate with each other in organizing the event. In recent years, more and more individual unions got united and formed different student unions associations so as to organize large-scale events including large joint-school proms. Except for those proms within the academic field, there are also adult proms for charity yearly where celebrities and government officers always go to these functions.
South and Central Asia
In India, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, the equivalent to some extent is a farewell party or farewell gathering. The outgoing students are given a warm send-off by the junior students and staff. All the seniors are felicitated with souvenirs and superlatives are given awards. There are also a couple of dances due to the influence of American culture and movies in India.
In Pakistan, there is a prom or farewell function that takes place at the end of the college academic year. Students dress in formal attire. The event ends with a photography session with the graduating batch.
In Afghanistan, there is a lunch party organized by the graduating students and called "graduation party." This is mostly seen in the university level graduation after the 16th class with a bachelor's degree, this day all the university seniors, faculty members, and professors are invited as honors. There is no mingling of males and females due to strict adherence to the Islamic codes.
In Bangladesh, an event called class party is held after the end of the grade. In this event, students wear outfits and play music. In most cases, school gives foods as well as snacks. Many schools also decorate their classrooms with handworks, crafts, balloons, flowers etc. in order to make it seem more welcoming. This event is mostly practised to welcome the students for the next grade.
Western Asia
In Israel, high school graduation parties usually combine a play and a humble ceremony, followed by a dance party. In the past years, influenced by American culture, more and more graduates decide to hold a private graduation party similar to the American prom, with dress code, prom dates, limousines, and prom kings or queens, although usually not supported by the school.
In Lebanon, proms are held after the graduation ceremony at night. They are usually held at hotels with a formal dress code, prom dates, rented cars, and, occasionally, prom kings and queens. The interaction between males and females is not limited.
In Turkey, the equivalent is called Graduation Ball. The type of event and the rules applied are created by the student governments and school boards. It is a graduation tradition for seniors.
Southeast Asia
In the Philippines, proms are popular in high schools. Prom usually takes place in the junior and senior years of high school, normally around February or March. Proms are commonly known as JS prom, or, junior-senior prom. Conversely, if a high school has separate dances for juniors and seniors, the term "prom" is reserved for the juniors, and the dance for the seniors is called a "graduation ball" (often abbreviated as "grad ball" or simply "ball".) The associated student body generally organizes the event. Usually, a prom king and queen are chosen. The basis for the king and queen judgment is the beauty and the fashion of the nominee, not the popularity.
In Singapore, proms are held at the near end of a senior year for secondary schools or tertiary institutions. Proms are normally held after the final examinations of all senior students before graduating.
In Vietnam, the equivalent to the prom is called liên hoan cuối năm. Some schools hold their liên hoan cuối năm at restaurants, but the majority of schools prefer simple "tea parties" with snacks and soft drinks inside their classrooms. Unlike in other countries, students don't dress up in dresses or tuxedos; they simply wear school uniform to the tea parties.
Europe
Albania
In Albania, "mbrëmja e maturës", as graduation night, is the event held at the end of the senior year. Every school organizes it independently and the event usually takes place in June or July. Ceremonially, it is very similar to prom nights in the United States.
Benelux
In Belgium, as well as in some parts of the Netherlands, senior students celebrate their last 100 days of high school with a special day called Chrysostomos or 100-dagen feest (“100-days party”). Tradition states that on this winter day, seniors are allowed to pull pranks on their teachers and fellow students. Some schools handle a theme as dresscode, while others go for the traditional outfit: blue jeans, a black cotton jacket, a black hat (with a red or blue ribbon), and a whistle around the neck. Some even paint their faces and some seniors also carry a spray can (shaving cream or other fluids) to “attack” the non-seniors with. A noisy march through town is also part of the gig. Later during the day, students perform an act at school, usually a silly show involving school or a parody. In the evening, students head to a rented club to party. This involves dancing, singing, and plenty of beer to get a taste of fraternity life. Sometimes even teachers join the party to show that they too have a wild side. In the Netherlands, households where a child who has passed their high school exams often hang the student's backpack on a flagpole which is attached to the front of the house.
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the ball is called abiturientski bal and is held at the end of 12th grade, when you are aged 18/19. Preparations for the ball begin at the end of the 11th grade, because students are supposed to organize the whole event. It is celebrated in May, mainly on the 23rd, 24th, or 25th, after finishing exams. Students can bring a date to the event which is usually held in a restaurant or a club. Usually, before the main event there is a big gathering in front of the high school's building, where graduates count to 12 (as in 12 grades) and take photos with each other before going to the restaurant called izprashtane (“farewell send off”). At the main event in the restaurant/hotel, there is music, usually pop and retro. Students are free to dance with whomever they want, even if they have come with a date. The school director and the 12th-grade teachers are also sometimes invited. There is usually an afterparty at a dance club. Some people even organize a second afterparty. After the prom night, students usually go on an excursion together for 3 to 5 days. The popular destinations are the Black Sea coast and Turkey. The event is often associated with excess in drinking, drugs, sex, and lavish nouveau-riche style of dressing and parading (there are families that would spend as much as a year's salary on their son or daughter' s night). The media regularly criticize it, deploring the decadence of morals.
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, the last year in Gymnasium is celebrated with maturitní ples (“graduation ball”). This ball takes place before exams are taken, usually in January or February, the traditional season for balls during the Fasching (e.g., List of balls in Vienna). Normally, balls are formal but modern elements are included, too. The students invite their parents, other relatives, and friends to come to the ball with them. The balls usually have a theme and the classes perform choreographed dance routines at the beginning or during the evening. The students also receive a ribbon. It's common that various artists are invited to perform at the ball, ranging from fireshow performers to famous celebrities. At midnight, the classes perform a "midnight surprise performance" – typically some sort of funny act. Sometimes several schools organize a joint event. The income is often used to finance a collective voyage of the students after the exams.
Former Yugoslavia
In Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and North Macedonia, matursko veče (maturalna večer and maturska večer), as graduation night, is the event held at the end of the senior year. It is similar to prom night in the United States. In Croatia, it is sometimes held in January or February.
Denmark
In Denmark, the prom is called galla and takes place before the exams begin. The word galla refers to the dress code which is dresses for the women and suits for the men. The prom in Denmark is well known for keeping the traditional dance Les Lanciers, where the third graders of high school (the seniors) start the whole dance, then the 1st and 2nd graders join later on (the high school, called "gymnasium" in Denmark, is three years).
Estonia
In Estonia, the equivalent of the prom is often called Saja päeva ball. The event takes place 100 days prior to graduation and maybe organized with several schools altogether. Students can dance but other events may be involved, too, besides ballroom dancing. The clothes are much the same kind as in the proms of other countries.
Finland
In Finland, the equivalent of the prom is called vanhojen tanssit (senior ball). The event is held in February when third-year high school students (the abi) end regular classes in order to prepare for their final abitur exams, and the second year students become the oldest in the school. For the remainder of the school year, the second-year students are called vanhat ("the old", or " the seniors").
For the ball, the second-year students learn 10–15 formal dances, mostly old ballroom dances such as the mazurka or a polonaise. Lately, some schools have begun to allow students to perform their own choreographies with their chosen music, after or in between the old ballroom dances.
In the past, the style was to dress in Victorian gowns and in an old-fashioned way, but these days the attire is similar to U.S. proms. Usually, girls wear a long princess gown or a ball gown and the boys wear a black suit.
After the ball, the students sometimes attend a dinner in the evening, which is sometimes in a very formal restaurant. Sometimes students throw a party in the evening to celebrate further.
France
In France, high school students have only recently experienced prom. On June 27, 2013, more than 300 students in Paris, France held a prom. Event planning company White-Tie-Affair partnered up with multiple local companies to host the “Solidarity Prom Ball” charity gala. Food, drinks, venue, limousine, as well as gift bags were sponsored by the different companies and provided for the students for free. On top of that, famous French music groups Psy4 de la Rime and Alibi Montana were the guest performance of the evening. All proceeds from the students’ entrance fee were donated to Donnons Leur Une Chance, a French non-profit organization that will help realize educational projects.
Germany and Austria
In Germany (and Austria), students celebrate their graduation from high school, or Gymnasium, with an Abifeier (from the graduation certificate or Abitur) or Maturaball (in Austria, the graduation exam is called Matura). In Germany, the events are informal and usually contain a series of student-organized activities that tend to make fun of teachers, sometimes with an extended hagiography about the favorite teacher. In Austria, the Maturaball is formal and can be seen as a synergy of proms and cotillions and often are highlights of the regional ball season (between November and the end of Carnival) referencing the glamour of the great ball tradition of the former Austrian-Hungarian monarchy. More like the prom is the German Abiball, that follows the official graduation ceremony. Here the students usually wear suits and ball gowns. The Abiball often follows a certain order with a welcome, introductions, an award ceremony for students, and sometimes an extended demonstration of all of the artistic outpourings of the students and staff. This is followed by a band (sometimes the school's own band, if there is any) or a DJ playing music, usually starting with a waltz before moving on to other dancing. Alcohol is available at these events since the legal drinking age in Germany is 16 (for beer and wine), and most graduating students are 18 or older.
Hungary
In Hungary, students receive a ribbon to mark the beginning of the preparation for their graduation. Students receive this ribbon at a ball called "szalagavató", meaning the "inauguration of ribbons". Many of the students wear this ribbon on their jackets or shirts until graduation. This prom-like evening dance is traditionally held in the ball season of January–February, but November-December has gained popularity in recent years as well. At the beginning of the ball, after a short speech by the headteacher, each student gets the ribbon from their form teacher who pins it on their jacket or dress. Then a series of choreographed dances begin, which the students learned during the months leading up to the event. The first one is traditionally a dance called "palotás" (palace dance) performed by students from different classes, then each graduating class performs their own class dance, and finally, there's a waltz, which is also performed by students from different classes. Occasionally, the teachers of the school perform a dance as well. After the ball of the evening organized by the school, students usually go out at night to drink to bars and discos, even if some of them are below the drinking age (18 in Hungary).
After they graduate, each class has its own party (without choreographed dances) usually at a restaurant, where their teachers are also invited. This is called érettségi bankett (graduation banquet).
Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, a school leavers' dance is called a "Debs" or "Grads". In girls schools, it is commonly referred to as a Debs (short for "Debutante ball"), and in boys and coeducational schools, it may be referred to as a Grads or Grad (short for graduation). It is typically a formal dance for students who are graduating from secondary school (high school) in Ireland and is traditionally held between September and October. Alcohol is almost always served at these events, with a meal also being common.
Lithuania
In Lithuania, the prom is held after final exams, usually the same day when high school diplomas are presented. The event is called išleistuvės.
Norway
In Norway, this event varies from school to school. It is usually held during the winter months, and is often called "Nyttårsball" which means "the new years ball." The students are not allowed to bring people from outside the school. In Norway, it is the norm to have proms for 8th, 9th, and 10th graders at Norwegian middle school, and most of the time, there is no division between formal and grad – students can attend in whatever clothing they choose, such as traditional knee-long dresses.
Poland
The Polish equivalent of the prom (studniówka) is a very popular event held each year throughout the country; the word itself means "of or relating to 100 days". Most schools organize such an event about 100 days before the (matura) exam session. The first dance of the prom is the traditional Polish polonaise. In the past, the dress code for the studniówka was the same as for final exams, i.e. a white blouse or shirt with a dark skirt or trousers. As opposed to the studniówka, formal attire is required for the so-called Grand Ball ("bal maturalny"), held after graduation. Nowadays, as Grand Balls are rare, the studniówka has adopted a formal dress code.
Portugal
In Portugal, there was no prom tradition. However, during the last few years schools have adopted such a celebration. Usually, they happen before the end of the school year, in May or June, and are called "Baile de Finalistas" (Finalist's Ball). The students wear formal suits and dresses. It is usually organized by a student association, elected at the beginning of the school year by the students to organize school events.
Although it happens in the majority of the country, on Madeira Island the tradition is a bit different. Instead of having the prom at the end of the year, the seniors have a ceremony called "Benção das Capas" (Cape's Blessing), where they all use suits, including the girls, and a cape that is blessed by the city's cardinal. Afterward, the students have dinner with their friends and family and then go to the prom. However, this prom isn't formal, it ends up being similar to a club but in a different location, although sometimes it may happen at a club. Such a location is chosen by the student association. This ceremony ends up being very similar to one that the Portuguese students have when they finish college. The students only have a date to attend the first ceremony and they tend to go to the prom as groups.
Romania
In Romania, distinct proms are held each year in high schools and college for both the graduating students as well as the newly enrolled ones. They are called graduation balls and freshmen ("boboci", meaning "hatchlings" in Romanian) balls, respectively. They are usually not black tie (informal). The venue is chosen by the teaching staff and can be any place, including the school gym or auditorium, a club, or a restaurant. It is common to charge students an admission tax in order to offset the cost. One or more bands or singers are usually hired to provide entertainment. Often the event is sponsored by local businesses. Access is usually controlled and limited to students of that particular high school or university, but exceptions can be made for relatives and it is not uncommon for students from other institutions to try to crash a particular prom. Freshmen proms usually include a popularity contest of some sort, which designates 3 girls and 3 boys as places I, II and III "most popular" as chosen by student vote; the candidates have to undergo various entertaining challenges, which usually include pair dancing. Generally speaking, freshmen proms are the more popular, with college freshmen proms often being publicized as club events and promoted by radio stations, who take the opportunity to introduce bands and singers. Whereas graduation proms are more subdued and often not a public or even a school-wide event, many graduating classes choosing to restrict attendance just to the actual graduates and their teachers.
Belarus and Russia
In Belarus and Russia proms are called "Vypusknоi vechеr" (Выпускной вечер), which literally means "graduation evening". They take place from the 18th to the 20th or the 23rd to the 25th of June, after the state exams are completed. Proms are never held on the 21st/22nd because they took place on June 21 in 1941, but on the 22nd all graduates were drafted to fight the German invasion during World War II. First, all graduates receive their diplomas. Students with higher marks receive them first. Afterward, the prom continues as a school ball, traditionally with classic dances. Students may choose restaurants, cafes, or ships rather than school grounds to hold the events. Proms may be held in a discothèque, but it must start with the school waltz. At the conclusion of the prom evening, it is tradition to walk the whole night and watch the sunrise in the morning (on a hill, if applicable, in Moscow – Sparrow Hills).
Slovakia
In Slovakia, the closest thing to prom is Stužková, an occasion when the seniors get together with their parents, partners and teachers to celebrate their upcoming graduation. It takes place in November or December. Each of the students receives a green ribbon with their name on it (thus the name Stužková, the "Ribbon Ball"). The principal and the class teacher are given big green ribbons as well. Many of the students wear this ribbon on their jackets or shirts until graduation. Stužková typically includes a banquet, skits and songs prepared by students, as well as dancing. Men wear formal suits and women formal dresses. One week before Stužková is a ceremony of Pečatenie triednej knihy (Sealing of the grades book) so that teachers will not be able to give tests or do examinations of the students until Stužková. It is connected with some story and recorded on camera and then used as a part of the video of Stužková. It usually starts at 6 p.m. and ends in the early hours of the next morning (4a.m.).
Slovenia
In Slovenia, the equivalent is Maturantski ples. It is held before the final exams between January and May, depending on the region and school. Students can bring dates and/or close family to the ball. It is a custom that each student dances the last dance of the first sequence, a Vienna Walzer, with his mother/her father. There is also a dinner and live music.
Spain
In some places in Spain, proms are also celebrated as after-school parties. These parties are commonly called "fiestas de graduación", which can be translated as "graduation parties".
Sweden
In Sweden, this kind of event is usually known as "Studentbalen". The word "Studentbalen" is a proper noun meaning "The Student Ball," while the word studentbal is a common noun that can refer to any formal dinner and dance at a Swedish university. Studentbalen is usually held during the final weeks before graduating and can be formal.
Switzerland
The Swiss equivalent of a prom is the bal de printemps. Literally translated, this is a "Spring Ball." At some schools in the German-speaking cantons, it is called "Maturaball." This is not always organized by the schools, but sometimes by a student's committee. It takes the most part before the final exams.
Ukraine
In Ukraine, prom is called "Vypusknyi vechir" or simply "vypusknyi" (Випускний вечір or simply Випускний), which literally means "graduation evening". The date is defined by a school,; usually any date from late May to mid-June. Usually, "vypusknyi" consists of two parts. The first one called "urochysta chastyna" (урочиста частина, that means "solemn part"), during which graduates receive their diplomas and certificates of honor for exceptional achievements during studying. The first part is conducted in the first part of the day, while the second part usually starts in the evening. The time between the two parts is used to walk around a city and take some pictures. The second part, "ne ofitsiyna chastyna" (не офіційна частина, that means "informal part"), starts as a school ball, but after a round of waltz, it transforms into a conventional party. The venue of the second part is determined by graduates and their parents; usually, it takes place in school, cafe, restaurant, on a boat or at the country. Traditionally, the second part is attended by graduates, their parents, and teachers. However, school teachers and parents don't mix with graduates. The second part ends with sunrise. Usually, each city has one or a few locations that are the most popular for watching a sunrise. That is why schools try not to have proms on the same date.
Oceania
In Australia and New Zealand, the tradition is similar to schools in the United States. However, if the event is not described to the final year, it may be described as a Ball, School Formal, or simply Formal. If the event is in the final year of high school, it is sometimes called a Dinner-dance, Leavers' Dinner or Debutante Ball but is also commonly called a School Formal or "Formal." In Australia, some schools may also have a Valedictory Dinner, which is like the formal but has students, parents, and teachers instead of students and dates.
As the name suggests, attire for the occasion is generally formal. Boys will usually dress in a suit and tie. Girls traditionally wear formal gowns or dresses. In most cases a school formal is held at a local reception center or ballroom. A multicourse meal is generally provided. After the meal students generally dance to popular music played by a hired DJ or sometimes a band. Many students group together to go to the formal in a limousine. While parents do not attend a formal, teachers may act as chaperones for the formal and security guards are sometimes hired. The use of chaperones is intended to prevent the occurrence of violence and alcohol or drug use. Generally, after a formal, one or more after-parties are held.
In addition to the high school graduation "formal" that marks the end of Year 12, there is also an event that is sometimes held to celebrate completing the School Certificate at the end of Year 10 (or Year 11 in New Zealand), and always held after receiving Higher School Certificate at the end of Year 12 and includes a dinner and dance. The NSW Government announced the abolition of the School Certificate after 2011, with students in year 10 that year being the final cohort to sit the external examinations and receive the qualification. Subsequent Year 10 "Formals" have been deemed "unnecessary" due to the fact that the majority of Year 10 students now progress to Year 11. In previous years when 25–30% of students left high school in Year 10, the Formal was seen as a celebration for those departing, however, Year 10 Formals are still sometimes celebrated in the name of tradition. In year 11, students occasionally organize a "semi-formal" or "social" at the end of the school year, which is a more casual version of a formal. If a school has a sister school the social is typically organized in conjunction with them, as a "social event" for people to mingle and meet new people. The Valedictory Dinner (or Val as it is colloquially called) is an event that only occurs in Year 12. In New Zealand, most state school balls are held in the winter months, between June and August, while in Australia, a "formal" is held at the end of the year to mark the end of schooling, as is the Valedictory Dinner.
In American Samoa, the typical Junior/Senior prom is held in most of the schools, an exception would be one of the private schools, which lets even 8th graders, freshmen, and sophomores participate in prom.
Mexico
In Mexico, most high schools and junior high (middle) schools have proms only for the graduating class (seniors), which is sometimes, depending on whether the school is private or public, preceded by a church service. The students dress in formal wear and may attend in couples. Some colleges have an after-graduation dinner dance.
The formals, or as called in Mexico galas or graduaciones, are normally held in the school's gymnasium or in the schoolyard if the school is located in a low-income neighbourhood; normally, though, public schools located in high- or medium-income neighbourhoods and private schools rent a ballroom, usually in a hotel, and students and parents may chip in to cover the costs of the party.
A multicourse meal is often offered in private schools' proms; antojitos may be offered in low-budget proms instead.
Central America, South America and the Caribbean
Venezuelans also have a prom, commonly referred to as "graduación" or "fiesta de graduación." It can consist of dancing, dinner, and live music.
In Argentina, there are "fiestas de egresados" for students finishing their last year of high school. These consist of big parties hosted by the senior students in local discos or other venues, starting at 10 p.m. until about 5 or 6 in the morning. They have dinner with parents and other members of the family, which may be at another venue such as the school, and on a different night altogether. After midnight friends and other guests join the dance. The parties start in late September after most students come back from their senior trip, commonly to Bariloche, and last until early December, after the graduation. The students may dress formally or casually, and the seniors may wear themed costumes.
In Brazil, bailes de formatura are usual at the end of high school and at college graduation. There is no crowning of a "king" or a "queen," but evening gowns and suits are required. The family may or may not be included, and there may be a live band or DJ hired to command the music.
In Chile, proms, or "fiestas de graduación" (graduation parties), are usually held at convention centers or hotels after the "licenciatura," or graduation from high school. They can also be held after taking the PSU (Chilean University Entrance Exam) in December. Students are expected to dress formally. They are allowed to go with dates or friends. After the dinner, the dance continues through the night into the next day.
In Colombia, many private schools usually have prom balls as well, usually consisting of a dinner, dancing, live music, and contests. They are usually held at hotels or clubs.
In Costa Rica, like many other American countries, the "Baile de graduación" is celebrated after finishing high school, where grade 11 is also the last year. It usually takes place before graduation to celebrate the end of school. It's normally held in hotels or saloons with a dance floor, music and dinner. It starts with the students walking through the dance floor and dancing a waltz. The dinner comes after, and the rest of the night consists of dancing and celebration.
In Honduras, they are called "Cena de Graduacion", they are held in luxury hotels, also familiars of the graduating students are invited. This event is held only for private schools, the act consists on formal graduation and delivery of their diplomas, after that, a dinner is held between the graduating students and their familiars or friends in the same room which later will become in a dance floor for everyone.
In Peru, proms—"Fiestas de Promoción"—are usually held at hotels, convention centers, or big residences. The dress code is formal. Some parents and teachers are often invited, but they don't stay the whole night. Dinner is served as well as alcoholic drinks and delicatessen. Breakfast is often served the next day, at around 6–7 am. There is a growing tradition to hold a pre-prom for the students in the class below the graduating class, and even a pre-pre-prom for the students in the class below that.
In Trinidad and Tobago and most Caribbean countries, it is traditional for schools to hold a dance at the end of the CXC/GCE Advanced Level examination period. This is thrown simultaneously for fifth form and upper sixth form students during the months of June or July after the school's official graduation ceremony. It is colloquially referred to as grad or gradz. Most gradz are held in popular clubs, hotels, halls or simply on the school's grounds. Most schools allow students to bring dates, and a formal dress code is usually in effect.
In Uruguay, graduation parties are usually held after graduation. These parties can be organized by the school or by the students themselves. Usually, a place is rented, and formal parties are held. Students are allowed to take one guest, as a friend or as a partner.
Homeschool proms
The concept of extending prom to homeschool students has been realized in recent years. Although some school districts in the United States and Canada allow homeschool students to attend the prom in the school district where they reside, many homeschool groups also organize their own proms. Some states, such as Oregon, Ohio, Georgia, Tennessee, and Michigan, also host statewide homeschool proms, which any homeschool student in that state is welcome to attend.
Proms that are specifically geared toward homeschool students can sometimes be significantly different from traditional high school proms. It is not uncommon for a homeschool student to attend a homeschool prom solo, rather than taking a date. Often the music played is chosen by the parents rather than the students.
Adult proms
An adult prom is a social event that is almost perfectly similar to a high school prom in terms of themes and attire, except that some adult proms also serve alcoholic beverages, and therefore most adult proms (at least in the U.S.) require those attending to be at least 21 years of age. The origin of adult prom is unclear, though Drew Barrymore is often credited with inadvertently inventing the concept in the 1990s, when she stated in an interview on Late Night with Conan O'Brien that she threw a prom party for herself and a few friends who never got to go to prom.
A form of adult prom is the "second chance prom". It is a big gathering of people who either did not go to prom, wanted to relive prom, or whose high school prom did not work out the way they had hoped.
In the novel Nobody's Property, character Mallorie Walcott, an event planner, mentions that she helped put her younger daughter Cassandra through college, in part, from the revenue she made from planning adult proms in the 1990s either for people who missed their actual high school proms in the 1970s and 1980s or simply wanted to re-live their prom night.
A slightly different take on the adult prom is that of the disabilities prom, dedicated to providing a prom experience to disabled adults at no charge to the attendees. These events are most often organized by non-profit organizations focusing on the disabled, or large churches.
In 2010, Theatrical producers in New York produced an audience participation theatrical play, set in an actual dance hall, called The Awesome 80s Prom, where attendees were at a prom and got to vote on the king and queen from the cast of characters.
Anti-proms and alternative proms
Anti-proms can be private, unofficial proms that are privately created, outside the control of the school, usually by people who disagree with their school's prom policies. Some schools also include the anti-prom as an official event called MORP (Prom spelled backwards). MORP dances can be similar to a Sadie Hawkins dance where the girls ask a boy on a date, they can have informal attire, and the decor can be dark or less elegant.
Proms for gay and lesbian people who did not attend their proms with a date of the same sex are popular in some cities. These proms may also enable trans people who experienced prom before transitioning a chance to attend as the correct gender. A 1980 court decision, Fricke v. Lynch, required a public school in Rhode Island to allow same-sex dates, but discrimination against gay students continued for decades across the country.
Controversies
Proms have been the source of many controversies, many of which involve LGBT students.
According to Jackie Blount, during the McCarthy era "schools became implemented curricula intended to keep youth sexually straight. In effect, schools became fundamentally important agencies in the nationwide campaign to fight homosexuality." This attitude further promoted heteronormative practices such as naming a prom king and prom queen, requiring strict gender conformity in dress, etc.
In 2002, gay teenager Marc Hall was prohibited from taking his male date to his high school's dance; Hall sued the school board and won.
In 2009, Tyler Frost was suspended for attending his girlfriend's prom, because his Christian high school disallowed dancing. Although the principal at Frost's school signed a paper allowing Frost to attend the prom, he said Frost would be suspended if he went, but Frost did so anyway.
In a 2010 Itawamba County School District prom controversy, lesbian high school senior Constance McMillen requested to take her girlfriend to the prom at Itawamba Agricultural High School in Fulton, Mississippi, where they were both students. The principal denied her request and prohibited her from wearing a tuxedo. When McMillen challenged the school's policy, the prom was canceled, leading McMillen to sue the school. Following a court decision forcing the school to hold the prom, local parents organized a second prom in secret, leaving Constance, her girlfriend and only 5 other students at the official prom.
In 2014, student Katie Bialy from Holy Cross Catholic Secondary School, St. Catharines, Ontario, with the genetic condition Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (EDS) was not allowed to go to prom by her school principal Denice Robertson because her grades were not as good as required and she could not graduate. Her condition had impaired her ability to do schoolwork and she asked the principal if she could go as a guest, but the principal refused her the option. This incident has resulted in public support for Bialy in social media and also increased awareness of her condition.
In popular culture
In movies
On documentary films
On television
Music
See also
Charitable prom organizations
Gala (festivity)
grinding (dance)
Homecoming
Further reading
Mark, Mary Ellen, Prom, Getty Publications, Los Angeles, 2012. .
References
External links
1890s introductions
American culture
Canadian culture
School dances
High schools and secondary schools
Canadian youth culture
Youth in Canada
Youth culture in the United States
School terminology
Youth events | [
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238232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov%27s%20inequality | Markov's inequality | In probability theory, Markov's inequality gives an upper bound for the probability that a non-negative function of a random variable is greater than or equal to some positive constant. It is named after the Russian mathematician Andrey Markov, although it appeared earlier in the work of Pafnuty Chebyshev (Markov's teacher), and many sources, especially in analysis, refer to it as Chebyshev's inequality (sometimes, calling it the first Chebyshev inequality, while referring to Chebyshev's inequality as the second Chebyshev inequality) or Bienaymé's inequality.
Markov's inequality (and other similar inequalities) relate probabilities to expectations, and provide (frequently loose but still useful) bounds for the cumulative distribution function of a random variable.
Statement
If is a nonnegative random variable and , then the probability
that is at least is at most the expectation of divided by :
Let (where ); then we can rewrite the previous inequality as
In the language of measure theory, Markov's inequality states that if is a measure space, is a measurable extended real-valued function, and , then
This measure-theoretic definition is sometimes referred to as Chebyshev's inequality.
Extended version for monotonically increasing functions
If is a monotonically increasing nonnegative function for the nonnegative reals, is a random variable, , and , then
An immediate corollary, using higher moments of supported on values larger than 0, is
Proofs
We separate the case in which the measure space is a probability space from the more general case because the probability case is more accessible for the general reader.
Intuition
where is larger than 0 as r.v. is non-negative and is larger than because the conditional expectation only takes into account of values larger than which r.v. can take.
Hence intuitively , which directly leads to .
Probability-theoretic proof
Method 1:
From the definition of expectation:
However, X is a non-negative random variable thus,
From this we can derive,
From here, dividing through by allows us to see that
Method 2:
For any event , let be the indicator random variable of , that is, if occurs and otherwise.
Using this notation, we have if the event occurs, and if . Then, given ,
which is clear if we consider the two possible values of . If , then , and so . Otherwise, we have , for which and so .
Since is a monotonically increasing function, taking expectation of both sides of an inequality cannot reverse it. Therefore,
Now, using linearity of expectations, the left side of this inequality is the same as
Thus we have
and since a > 0, we can divide both sides by a.
Measure-theoretic proof
We may assume that the function is non-negative, since only its absolute value enters in the equation. Now, consider the real-valued function s on X given by
Then . By the definition of the Lebesgue integral
and since , both sides can be divided by , obtaining
Corollaries
Chebyshev's inequality
Chebyshev's inequality uses the variance to bound the probability that a random variable deviates far from the mean. Specifically,
for any . Here is the variance of X, defined as:
Chebyshev's inequality follows from Markov's inequality by considering the random variable
and the constant for which Markov's inequality reads
This argument can be summarized (where "MI" indicates use of Markov's inequality):
Other corollaries
The "monotonic" result can be demonstrated by:
The result that, for a nonnegative random variable , the quantile function of satisfies:
the proof using
Let be a self-adjoint matrix-valued random variable and . Then
can be shown in a similar manner.
Examples
Assuming no income is negative, Markov's inequality shows that no more than 1/5 of the population can have more than 5 times the average income.
See also
Paley–Zygmund inequality – a corresponding lower bound
Concentration inequality – a summary of tail-bounds on random variables.
References
External links
The formal proof of Markov's inequality in the Mizar system.
Probabilistic inequalities
Articles containing proofs | [
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] |
238240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20Board%20of%20Control | President of the Board of Control | The President of the Board of Control was a British government official in the late 18th and early 19th century responsible for overseeing the British East India Company and generally serving as the chief official in London responsible for Indian affairs. The position was frequently a cabinet level one. The position was abolished in 1858 with the abolition of the East India Company. It was succeeded by the new position of Secretary of State for India.
List of presidents of the Board of Control
Lord Stanley took up the new post of Secretary of State for India on 2 August 1858, upon the establishment of the British Raj.
References
Lists of government ministers of the United Kingdom
British East India Company
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
Government of British India | [
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238241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauro%20Nervi | Mauro Nervi | Mauro Nervi (born 1959) is an Italian poet in the Esperanto language.
Nervi was born in La Spezia, a port town in northern Italy. A student of medicine, he gained his M.D. as a general surgeon. Since 1984 he has worked in the department of surgery at the University of Pisa. Afterwards, he received a Ph.D. in 1994 in German and a Ph.D. in classical literature in 1999 from the same university. Since 1995 he has written critical material on Kafka, Goethe, Kleist and Holderlin in cooperation with the Department of German Studies.
Nervi married with Angela in 1992 and has two daughters, Serena (2002) and Dorabella (2005). He is now interested in philosophy and logic.
Works
Nervi first gained renown for his poems when he was only 18 years old, and 1978 saw the publication of his first collection La turoj de l' ĉefurbo ("The Towers of the Capital"). Although in retrospect some parts are immature, here the young Nervi already showed impressive skill. From his knowledge of classical literature came several poems from this volume, including a poetic drama based on the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra, and a cycle of seven poems, each for one of the Muses.
After the publication of his first book, Nervi continued to write poetry, which appeared in several literary reviews including Fonto and Literatura Foiro. In 1986 his translation in Esperanto of Il repertorio della memoria by Eugenio Montale was used as the introduction to Spomenka Štimec's novel Ombro sur interna pejzaĝo. 1996 saw the appearance of his translation of Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis.
Nervi's second collection, Havenoj ("Ports") was published in 2001. Leaving behind the classical themes of La turoj de l' ĉefurbo, Havenoj contains much sea imagery and was also inspired in part by his studies of German literature, for which he received his second doctorate.
For his poetry Nervi has gained several literary prizes.
List of works
La turoj de l’ ĉefurbo (1978)
Maurizio CAPRILE: La blinda ermito : poemkolekto (translation, 1979)
Franz KAFKA: La Metamorfozo (translation, 1996)
Havenoj (poems, 2001)
External links
Mauro Nervi's website about Franz Kafka
Writers of Esperanto literature
Italian poets
Italian male poets
1959 births
Living people
Italian Esperantists | [
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238244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical%20chart | Nautical chart | A nautical chart is a graphic representation of a sea area and adjacent coastal regions. Depending on the scale of the chart, it may show depths of water and heights of land (topographic map), natural features of the seabed, details of the coastline, navigational hazards, locations of natural and human-made aids to navigation, information on tides and currents, local details of the Earth's magnetic field, and human-made structures such as harbours, buildings, and bridges. Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation; many countries require vessels, especially commercial ships, to carry them. Nautical charting may take the form of charts printed on paper or computerized electronic navigational charts. Recent technologies have made available paper charts which are printed "on demand" with cartographic data that has been downloaded to the commercial printing company as recently as the night before printing. With each daily download, critical data such as Local Notices to Mariners are added to the on-demand chart files so that these charts are up to date at the time of printing.
Sources and publication of nautical charts
Nautical charts are based on hydrographic surveys. As surveying is laborious and time-consuming, hydrographic data for many areas of sea may be dated and not always reliable. Depths are measured in a variety of ways. Historically the sounding line was used. In modern times, echo sounding is used for measuring the seabed in the open sea. When measuring the safe depth of water over an entire obstruction, such as a shipwreck, the minimum depth is checked by sweeping the area with a length of horizontal wire. This ensures that difficult to find projections, such as masts, do not present a danger to vessels navigating over the obstruction.
Nautical charts are issued by power of the national hydrographic offices in many countries. These charts are considered "official" in contrast to those made by commercial publishers. Many hydrographic offices provide regular, sometimes weekly, manual updates of their charts through their sales agents. Individual hydrographic offices produce national chart series and international chart series. Coordinated by the International Hydrographic Organization, the international chart series is a worldwide system of charts ("INT" chart series), which is being developed with the goal of unifying as many chart systems as possible.
There are also commercially published charts, some of which may carry additional information of particular interest, e.g. for yacht skippers.
Chart correction
The nature of a waterway depicted by a chart may change, and artificial aids to navigation may be altered at short notice. Therefore, old or uncorrected charts should never be used for navigation. Every producer of nautical charts also provides a system to inform mariners of changes that affect the chart. In the United States, chart corrections and notifications of new editions are provided by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local Notice to Mariners, Summary of Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. In the U.S., NOAA also has a printing partner who prints the "POD" (print on demand) NOAA charts, and they contain the very latest corrections and notifications at the time of printing. To give notice to mariners, radio broadcasts provide advance notice of urgent corrections.
A good way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record Card system. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every chart in the portfolio when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a card for every chart and noting the correction on this card. When the time comes to use the chart, he pulls the chart and chart's card, and makes the indicated corrections on the chart. This system ensures that every chart is properly corrected prior to use. A prudent mariner should obtain a new chart if he has not kept track of corrections and his chart is more than several months old.
Various Digital Notices to Mariners systems are available on the market such as Digitrace, Voyager, or ChartCo, to correct British Admiralty charts as well as NOAA charts. These systems provide only vessel relevant corrections via e-mail or web downloads, reducing the time needed to sort out corrections for each chart. Tracings to assist corrections are provided at the same time.
The Canadian Coast Guard produces the Notice to Mariners publication which informs mariners of important navigational safety matters affecting Canadian Waters. This electronic publication is published on a monthly basis and can be downloaded from the Notices to Mariners (NOTMAR) Web site. The information in the Notice to Mariners is formatted to simplify the correction of paper charts and navigational publications.
Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic navigational charts.
Limitations
In 1973 the cargo ship MV Muirfield (a merchant vessel named after Muirfield, Scotland) struck an unknown object in the Indian Ocean in waters charted at a depth of greater than 5,000 metres (16,404 ft), resulting in extensive damage to her keel. In 1983, HMAS Moresby, a Royal Australian Navy survey ship, surveyed the area where Muirfield was damaged, and charted in detail a previously unsuspected hazard to navigation, the Muirfield Seamount. The dramatic accidental discovery of the Muirfield Seamount is often cited as an example of limitations in the vertical geodetic datum accuracy of some offshore areas as represented on nautical charts, especially on small-scale charts.
A similar incident involving a passenger ship occurred in 1992 when the Cunard liner Queen Elizabeth 2 struck a submerged rock off Block Island in the Atlantic Ocean. In November 1999, the semi-submersible, heavy-lift ship Mighty Servant 2 capsized and sank after hitting an uncharted single underwater isolated pinnacle of granite off Indonesia. Five crew members died and Mighty Servant 2 was declared a total loss. More recently, in 2005 the submarine USS San Francisco ran into an uncharted sea mount (sea mountain) about 560 kilometres (350 statute miles) south of Guam at a speed of , sustaining serious damage and killing one seaman. In September 2006 the jack-up barge Octopus ran aground on an uncharted sea mount within the Orkney Islands (United Kingdom) while being towed by the tug Harold. £1M worth of damage was caused to the barge and delayed work on the installation of a tidal energy generator prototype. As stated in the Mariners Handbook and subsequent accident report: "No chart is infallible. Every chart is liable to be incomplete".
Map projection, positions, and bearings
Historically the first projection, invented by Marinus of Tyre ca. AD 100 according to Ptolemy, was what is now called equirectangular projection (historically called plane chart, plate carrée, ). While it is very convenient for small seas like the Aegean, it's unsuitable for seas larger than Mediterranean or an open ocean, even though early explorers had to use it for want of a better.
The Mercator projection is now used on the vast majority of nautical charts. Since the Mercator projection is conformal, that is, bearings in the chart are identical to the corresponding angles in nature, courses plotted on the chart may be used directly as the course-to-steer at the helm.
The gnomonic projection is used for charts intended for plotting of great circle routes. NOAA uses the polyconic projection for some of its charts of the Great Lakes, at both large and small scales.
Positions of places shown on the chart can be measured from the longitude and latitude scales on the borders of the chart, relative to a geodetic datum such as WGS 84.
A bearing is the angle between the line joining the two points of interest and the line from one of the points to the north, such as a ship's course or a compass reading to a landmark. On nautical charts, the top of the chart is always true north, rather than magnetic north, towards which a compass points. Most charts include a compass rose depicting the variation between magnetic and true north.
However, the use of the Mercator projection has drawbacks. This projection shows the lines of longitude as parallel. On the real globe, the lines of longitude converge as they approach the north or south pole. This means that east–west distances are exaggerated at high latitudes. To keep the projection conformal, the projection increases the displayed distance between lines of latitude (north–south distances) in proportion; thus a square is shown as a square everywhere on the chart, but a square on the Arctic Circle appears much bigger than a square of the same size at the equator. In practical use, this is less of a problem than it sounds. One minute of latitude is, for practical purposes, a nautical mile. Distances in nautical miles can therefore be measured on the latitude gradations printed on the side of the chart.
Electronic and paper charts
Conventional nautical charts are printed on large sheets of paper at a variety of scales. Mariners will generally carry many charts to provide sufficient detail for the areas they might need to visit. Electronic navigational charts, which use computer software and electronic databases to provide navigation information, can augment or in some cases replace paper charts, though many mariners carry paper charts as a backup in case the electronic charting system fails.
Labeling nautical charts
Nautical charts must be labeled with navigational and depth information. There are a few commercial software packages that do automatic label placement for any kind of map or chart. Modern systems render electronic charts consistent with the IHO S-52 specification.
Details on a nautical chart
Many countries' hydrographic agencies publish a "Chart 1", which explains all of the symbols, terms and abbreviations used on charts that they produce for both domestic and international use. Each country starts with the base symbology specified in IHO standard INT 1, and is then permitted to add its own supplemental symbologies to its domestic charts, which are also explained in its version of Chart 1. Ships are typically required to carry copies of Chart 1 with their paper charts.
Pilotage information
The chart uses symbols to provide pilotage information about the nature and position of features useful to navigators, such as sea bed information, sea mark, and landmarks. Some symbols describe the sea bed with information such as its depth, materials as well as possible hazards such as shipwrecks. Other symbols show the position and characteristics of buoys, lights, lighthouses, coastal and land features and structures that are useful for position fixing. The abbreviation "ED" is commonly used to label geographic locations whose existence is doubtful.
Colours distinguish between man-made features, dry land, sea bed that dries with the tide, and seabed that is permanently underwater and indicate water depth.
Depths and heights
Depths which have been measured are indicated by the numbers shown on the chart. Depths on charts published in most parts of the world use metres. Older charts, as well as those published by the United States government, may use feet or fathoms. Depth contour lines show the shape of underwater relief. Coloured areas of the sea emphasise shallow water and dangerous underwater obstructions. Depths are measured from the chart datum, which is related to the local sea level. The chart datum varies according to the standard used by each national Hydrographic Office. In general, the move is towards using lowest astronomical tide (LAT), the lowest tide predicted in the full tidal cycle, but in non-tidal areas and some tidal areas Mean Sea Level (MSL) is used.
Heights, e.g. a lighthouse, are generally given relative to mean high water spring (MHWS). Vertical clearances, e.g. below a bridge or cable, are given relative to highest astronomical tide (HAT). The chart will indicate what datum is in use.
The use of HAT for heights and LAT for depths, means that the mariner can quickly look at the chart to ensure that they have sufficient clearance to pass any obstruction, though they may have to calculate height of tide to ensure their safety.
Tidal information
Tidal races and strong currents have special chart symbols. Tidal flow information may be shown on charts using tidal diamonds, indicating the speed and bearing of the tidal flow during each hour of the tidal cycle.
See also
Aeronautical chart
Automatic label placement
Admiralty chart
Bathymetric chart
European Atlas of the Seas
Navigation room
Portolan chart
Dutch maritime cartography in the Age of Discovery (First printed atlas of nautical charts, 1584)
Further reading
References
External links
Medea-Chart. The Medieval and Early Modern Nautical Chart: Birth, Evolution and Use, Lisbon-based ERC-funded academic project. They develop and maintain the MEDEA-CHART Database, a sophisticated search engine and aggregator of early nautical charts data.
Online version of Chart No.1 with "Symbols, Abbreviations and Terms" used in nautical charts
Portolan Chart of Gabriel de Vallseca, 1439
Nautical charts available online (Nautical Free) | [
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238245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge%20Camacho%20%28writer%29 | Jorge Camacho (writer) | Jorge Camacho Cordón (born 18 November 1966, Zafra) is a writer in Esperanto and Spanish.
Camacho was born in Zafra, Spain and learned Esperanto in 1980. He was a member of the Academy of Esperanto from 1992 until 2001. Since 1995 he has worked in Brussels as an interpreter for the European Union from English and Finnish into Spanish.
Camacho was elected to the Academy of Esperanto in 1992, but on 15 August 2001 he announced his resignation due to disappointment with the Esperanto movement. However, he remains active in Esperanto and continues to review literary works.
Works
Camacho became famous for his poems and short stories in the late 1980s, for which he received several prizes in the Belartaj Konkursoj de UEA. In 1992 he won the Grabowski Prize, a prize for young authors writing in Esperanto. The prize is named after Antoni Grabowski.
Camacho was in the early 1990s considered a member of the so-called Ibera Skolo ("Iberian School") of Esperanto writers along with three other inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula.
In the 1990s, Camacho began to publicly oppose Giorgio Silfer for his interpretation of the political view "Raumism". He wrote La Majstro kaj Martinelli ("The Master and Martinelli"), a biting satire of Silfer (inspired by the similarly titled novel of Mikhail Bulgakov), and criticised his ideology in La liturgio de la foiro ("The Liturgy of the Fair").
Poetry in Esperanto
Ibere libere (with Miguel Fernández, Gonçalo Neves and Liven Dek, pseudonym of Miguel Gutiérrez, 1993)
Celakantoj (Coelacanths; poems written in Esperanto c. 1989-1995, 2004)
Saturno (Saturn; bilingual collection of poems written both in Spanish and Esperanto c. 1995-2004, 2004)
Eklipsas ([It] eclipses; collection of poems written mainly in Esperanto 2004-2006, with translations into Spanish, 2007)
Koploj kaj filandroj (poems written in Esperanto, 2009)
Poetry in Spanish
Palestina estrangulada (Calúmnia, 2018)
Quemadura (Vitruvio, 2020)
Editorial work
Until December 2014 Jorge Camacho was editor-in-chief of the literary almanac Beletra Almanako, which was first issued in the autumn of 2007.
External links
Jorge Camacho blog in Spanish
Jorge Camacho blog in Esperanto
1966 births
Living people
People from Zafra
Writers of Esperanto literature
Spanish male writers
Writers from Extremadura
Spanish Esperantists | [
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238246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami | Megatsunami | A megatsunami is a very large wave created by a large, sudden displacement of material into a body of water.
Megatsunamis have quite different features from ordinary tsunamis. Ordinary tsunamis are caused by underwater tectonic activity (movement of the earth's plates) and therefore occur along plate boundaries and as a result of earthquakes and the subsequent rise or fall in the sea floor that displaces a volume of water. Ordinary tsunamis exhibit shallow waves in the deep waters of the open ocean that increase dramatically in height upon approaching land to a maximum run-up height of around in the cases of the most powerful earthquakes. By contrast, megatsunamis occur when a large amount of material suddenly falls into water or anywhere near water (such as via a meteor impact or volcanic activity). They can have extremely large initial wave heights ranging from hundreds and possibly up to thousands of metres, far beyond the height of any ordinary tsunami. These giant wave heights occur because the water is "splashed" upwards and outwards by the impact or displacement.
Examples of modern megatsunamis include the one associated with the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa (volcanic eruption), the 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami (landslide into a bay), and the wave resulting from the Vajont Dam landslide (caused by human activity destabilizing sides of valley). Prehistoric examples include the Storegga Slide (landslide), and the Chicxulub, Chesapeake Bay, and Eltanin meteor impacts.
Overview
A megatsunami is a tsunami with an initial wave amplitude (height) measured in many tens, hundreds, and possibly up to thousands of metres. A megatsunami is a separate class of event from an ordinary tsunami and is caused by different physical mechanisms.
Normal tsunamis result from displacement of the sea floor due to plate tectonics. Powerful earthquakes may cause the sea floor to displace vertically on the order of tens of metres, which in turn displaces the water column above and leads to the formation of a tsunami. Ordinary tsunamis have a small wave height offshore and generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell on the order of above the normal sea surface. In deep water it is possible that a tsunami could pass beneath a ship without the crew of the vessel noticing. As it approaches land, the wave height of an ordinary tsunami increases dramatically as the sea floor slopes upward and the base of the wave pushes the water column above it upwards. Ordinary tsunamis, even those associated with the most powerful strike-slip earthquakes, typically do not reach heights in excess of .
By contrast, megatsunamis are caused by landslides and other impact events that displace large volumes of water, resulting in waves that may exceed the height of an ordinary tsunami by tens or even hundreds of metres. Underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions do not normally generate megatsunamis, but landslides next to bodies of water resulting from earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can, since they cause a much larger amount of water displacement. If the landslide or impact occurs in a limited body of water, as happened at the Vajont Dam (1963) and in Lituya Bay (1958) then the water may be unable to disperse and one or more exceedingly large waves may result.
Determining a height range typical of megatsunamis is a complex and scientifically debated topic. This complexity is increased due to the fact that two different heights are often reported for tsunamis – the height of the wave itself in open water, and the height to which it surges when it encounters land. Depending upon the locale, this second or so-called "run-up height" can be several times larger than the wave's height just before reaching shore. While there is currently no minimum or average height classification for megatsunamis that is broadly accepted by the scientific community, the limited number of observed megatsunami events in recent history have all had run-up heights that exceeded . The megatsunami in Spirit Lake, Washington, USA that was caused by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens reached , while the tallest megatsunami ever recorded (Lituya Bay in 1958) reached a run-up height of . It is also possible that much larger megatsunamis occurred in prehistory; researchers analyzing the geological structures left behind by prehistoric asteroid impacts have suggested that these events could have resulted in megatsunamis that exceeded in height.
Recognition of the concept of megatsunami
Before the 1950s, scientists had theorized that tsunamis orders of magnitude larger than those observed with earthquakes could have occurred as a result of ancient geological processes, but no concrete evidence of the existence of these "monster waves" had yet been gathered. Geologists searching for oil in Alaska in 1953 observed that in Lituya Bay, mature tree growth did not extend to the shoreline as it did in many other bays in the region. Rather, there was a band of younger trees closer to the shore. Forestry workers, glaciologists, and geographers call the boundary between these bands a trim line. Trees just above the trim line showed severe scarring on their seaward side, while those from below the trim line did not. This indicated that a large force had impacted all of the elder trees above the trim line, and presumably had killed off all the trees below it. Based on this evidence, the scientists hypothesized that there had been an unusually large wave or waves in the deep inlet. Because this is a recently deglaciated fjord with steep slopes and crossed by a major fault (the Fairweather Fault), one possibility was that this wave was a landslide-generated tsunami.
On July 9, 1958, a 7.8 strike-slip earthquake in southeast Alaska caused of rock and ice to drop into the deep water at the head of Lituya Bay. The block fell almost vertically and hit the water with sufficient force to create a wave that surged up the opposite side of the head of the bay to a height of , and was still many tens of metres high further down the bay when it carried eyewitnesses Howard Ulrich and his son Howard Jr. over the trees in their fishing boat. They were washed back into the bay and both survived.
Analysis of mechanism
The mechanism giving rise to megatsunamis was analysed for the Lituya Bay event in a study presented at the Tsunami Society in 1999; this model was considerably developed and modified by a second study in 2010.
Although the earthquake which caused the megatsunami was considered very energetic, it was determined that it could not have been the sole contributor based on the measured height of the wave. Neither water drainage from a lake, nor a landslide, nor the force of the earthquake itself were sufficient to create a megatsunami of the size observed, although all of these may have been contributing factors.
Instead, the megatsunami was caused by a combination of events in quick succession. The primary event occurred in the form of a large and sudden impulsive impact when about 40 million cubic yards of rock several hundred metres above the bay was fractured by the earthquake, and fell "practically as a monolithic unit" down the almost-vertical slope and into the bay. The rockfall also caused air to be "dragged along" due to viscosity effects, which added to the volume of displacement, and further impacted the sediment on the floor of the bay, creating a large crater. The study concluded that:
A 2010 model examined the amount of infill on the floor of the bay, which was many times larger than that of the rockfall alone, and also the energy and height of the waves, and the accounts given by eyewitnesses, concluded that there had been a "dual slide" involving a rockfall, which also triggered a release of 5 to 10 times its volume of sediment trapped by the adjacent Lituya Glacier, as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide, a ratio comparable with other events where this "dual slide" effect is known to have happened.
List of megatsunamis
Prehistoric
The asteroid linked to the extinction of dinosaurs, which created the Chicxulub crater in Yucatán approximately 66 million years ago, would have caused a megatsunami over tall. The height of the tsunami was limited due to relatively shallow sea in the area of the impact; had the asteroid struck in the deep sea the megatsunami would have been tall. Among the mechanisms triggering megatsunamis, the direct impact, shockwaves, returning water in the crater with a new push outward and seismic waves with a magnitude up to ~11 A more recent simulation of the global effects of the Chicxulub megatsunami showed an initial wave height of , with later waves up to in height in the Gulf of Mexico, and up to in the North Atlantic and South Pacific; the discovery of mega-ripples in Louisiana via seismic imaging data, with average wavelengths of 600 meters and average wave heights of 16 meters, (the largest ones) looks like to confirm it. David Shonting and Cathy Ezrailson propose a "Edgerton effect" mechanism generating the megatsunami, similar to a milk drop falling on water that triggers a crown-shape water column, with a comparable height to the Chicxulub impactor's, that means over for the initial seawater forced outward by the explosion and blast waves; then, its collapse triggers megatsunamis changing their height according to the different water depth, raising up to .
A series of megatsunamis were generated by the bolide impact that created the Chesapeake Bay impact crater about 35.5 million years ago.
During the Messinian the coasts of northern Chile were likely struck by various megatsunamis.
A megatsunami affected the coast of south–central Chile in the Pliocene as evidenced by the sedimentary record of Ranquil Formation.
The Eltanin impact in the southeast Pacific Ocean 2.5 million years ago caused a megatsunami that was over high in southern Chile and the Antarctic Peninsula; the wave swept across much of the Pacific Ocean.
The northern half of the East Molokai Volcano on Molokai in Hawaii suffered a catastrophic collapse about 1.5 million years ago, generating a megatsunami, and now lies as a debris field scattered northward across the ocean bottom, while what remains on the island are the highest sea cliffs in the world. The megatsunami may have reached a height of near its origin and reached California and Mexico.
The existence of large scattered boulders in only one of the four marine terraces of Herradura Bay south of the Chilean city of Coquimbo has been interpreted by Roland Paskoff as the result of a mega-tsunami that occurred in the Middle Pleistocene.
The collapse of the ancestral Mount Amarelo in Fogo, Cape Verde, ~73.000 years ago, triggered a megatsunami with waves almost 300 m high.
A major collapse of the western edge of the Lake Tahoe basin, a landslide with a volume of which formed McKinney Bay between 21,000 and 12,000 years ago, generated megatsunamis/seiche waves with an initial height of probably about and caused the lake's water to slosh back and forth for days. Much of the water in the megatsunamis washed over the lake's outlet at what is now Tahoe City, California, and flooded down the Truckee River, carrying house-sized boulders as far downstream as the California-Nevada border at what is now Verdi, California.
In the North Sea, the Storegga Slide caused a megatsunami approximately 8,200 years ago. It is estimated to have completely flooded the remainder of Doggerland.
Approximately 8,000 years ago, a large volcanic landslide off Mount Etna, Sicily caused a megatsunami which devastated the eastern Mediterranean coastline on three continents. Wave heights on the coast of Calabria are estimated to have reached a maximum of .
Historic
c. 2000 BC: Réunion
A landslide on Réunion island, to the east of Madagascar, may have caused a megatsunami.
c. 1600 BC: Santorini
The Thera volcano erupted, the force of the eruption causing megatsunamis which affected the whole Aegean Sea and the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
Modern
1731: Storfjorden, Norway
At 10:00 p.m. on January 8, 1731, a landslide with a volume of possibly fell from the mountain Skafjell from a height of into the Storfjorden opposite Stranda, Norway. The slide generated a megatsunami in height that struck Stranda, flooding the area for inland and destroying the church and all but two boathouses, as well as many boats. Damaging waves struck as far as way as Ørskog. The waves killed 17 people.
1756: Langfjorden, Norway
Just before 8:00 p.m. on February 22, 1756, a landslide with a volume of travelled at high speed from a height of on the side of the mountain Tjellafjellet into the Langfjorden about west of Tjelle, Norway, between Tjelle and Gramsgrø. The slide generated three megatsunamis in the Langfjorden and the Eresfjorden with heights of . The waves flooded the shore for inland in some areas, destroying farms and other inhabited areas. Damaging waves struck as far away as Veøy, from the landslide — where they washed inland above normal flood levels — and Gjermundnes, from the slide. The waves killed 32 people and destroyed 168 buildings, 196 boats, large amounts of forest, and roads and boat landings.
1792: Mount Unzen, Japan
In 1792, Mount Unzen in Japan erupted, causing part of the volcano to collapse into the sea. The landslide caused a megatsunami that reached high and killed 15,000 people in the local fishing villages.
1853–1854: Lituya Bay, Alaska
Sometime between August 1853 and May 1854, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in what was then Russian America. Studies of Lituya Bay between 1948 and 1953 first identified the event, which probably occurred because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay near Mudslide Creek. The wave had a maximum run-up height of , flooding the coast of the bay up to inland.
Ca. 1874: Lituya Bay, Alaska
A study of Lituya Bay in 1953 concluded that sometime around 1874, perhaps in May 1874, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska. Probably occurring because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay in the Mudslide Creek Valley, the wave had a maximum run-up height of , flooding the coast of the bay up to inland.
1883: Krakatoa
The eruption of Krakatoa created pyroclastic flows which generated megatsunamis when they hit the waters of the Sunda Strait on 27 August 1883. The waves reached heights of up to 24 metres (79 feet) along the south coast of Sumatra and up to 42 metres (138 feet) along the west coast of Java.
1905: Lovatnet, Norway
On January 15, 1905, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of fell from a height of into the southern end of the lake Lovatnet in Norway, generating three megatsunamis of up to in height. The waves destroyed the villages of Bødal and Nesdal near the southern end of the lake, killing 61 people — half their combined population — and 261 farm animals and destroying 60 houses, all the local boathouses, and 70 to 80 boats, one of which — the tourist boat Lodalen — was thrown inland by the last wave and wrecked. At the northern end of the -long lake, a wave measured at almost destroyed a bridge.
1905: Disenchantment Bay, Alaska
On July 4, 1905, an overhanging glacier — since known as the Fallen Glacier — broke loose, slid out of its valley, and fell down a steep slope into Disenchantment Bay in Alaska, clearing vegetation along a path wide. When it entered the water, it generated a megatsunami which broke tree branches above ground level away. The wave killed vegetation to a height of at a distance of from the landslide, and it reached heights of from at different locations on the coast of Haenke Island. At a distance of from the slide, observers at Russell Fjord reported a series of large waves that caused the water level to rise and fall for a half-hour.
1934: Tafjorden, Norway
On April 7, 1934, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Langhamaren with a volume of fell from a height of about into the Tafjorden in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the last and largest of which reached a height of between on the opposite shore. Large waves struck Tafjord and Fjørå. The waves killed 23 people at Tafjord, where the last and largest wave was tall and struck at an estimated speed of , flooding the town for inland and killing 23 people. At Fjørå, waves reached , destroyed buildings, removed all soil, and killed 17 people. Damaging waves struck as far as away, and waves were detected at a distance of from the landslide. One survivor suffered serious injuries requiring hospitalization.
1936: Lovatnet, Norway
On September 13, 1936, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of fell from a height of into the southern end of the lake Lovatnet in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the largest of which reached a height of . The waves destroyed all farms at Bødal and most farms at Nesdal — completely washing away 16 farms — as well as 100 houses, bridges, a power station, a workshop, a sawmill, several grain mills, a restaurant, a schoolhouse, and all boats on the lake. A wave struck the southern end of the -long lake and caused damaging flooding in the Loelva River, the lake's northern outlet. The waves killed 74 people and severely injured 11.
1936: Lituya Bay, Alaska
On October 27, 1936, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska with a maximum run-up height of in Crillon Inlet at the head of the bay. The four eyewitnesses to the wave in Lituya Bay itself all survived and described it as between high. The maximum inundation distance was inland along the north shore of the bay. The cause of the megatsunami remains unclear, but may have been a submarine landslide.
1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, US
On July 9, 1958, a giant landslide at the head of Lituya Bay in Alaska, caused by an earthquake, generated a wave that washed out trees to a maximum elevation of at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet. The wave surged over the headland, stripping trees and soil down to bedrock, and surged along the fjord which forms Lituya Bay, destroying two fishing boats anchored there and killing two people. This was the highest wave of any kind ever recorded. The subsequent study of this event led to the establishment of the term "megatsunami," to distinguish it from ordinary tsunamis.
1963: Vajont Dam, Italy
On October 9, 1963, a landslide above Vajont Dam in Italy produced a surge that overtopped the dam and destroyed the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova, and Faè, killing nearly 2,000 people. This is currently the only known example of a megatsunami that was indirectly caused by human activities.
1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, US
On May 18, 1980, the upper 400 metres (1,300 feet) of Mount St. Helens collapsed, creating a landslide. This released the pressure on the magma trapped beneath the summit bulge which exploded as a lateral blast, which then released the pressure on the magma chamber and resulted in a plinian eruption.
One lobe of the avalanche surged onto Spirit Lake, causing a megatsunami which pushed the lake waters in a series of surges, which reached a maximum height of 260 metres (853 feet) above the pre-eruption water level (~975 m asl/3,199 ft). Above the upper limit of the tsunami, trees lie where they were knocked down by the pyroclastic surge; below the limit, the fallen trees and the surge deposits were removed by the megatsunami and deposited in Spirit Lake.
2015: Taan Fiord, Alaska, US
At 8:19 p.m. Alaska Daylight Time on October 17, 2015, the side of a mountain collapsed, at the head of Taan Fiord, a finger of Icy Bay in Alaska. Some of the resulting landslide came to rest on the toe of Tyndall Glacier, but about of rock with a volume of about fell into the fjord. The landslide generated a megatsunami with an initial height of about that struck the opposite shore of the fjord, with a run-up height there of .
Over the next 12 minutes, the wave travelled down the fjord at a speed of up to , with run-up heights of over in the upper fjord to between or more in its middle section, and or more at its mouth. Still probably tall when it entered Icy Bay, the tsunami inundated parts of Icy Bay's shoreline with run-ups of before dissipating into insignificance at distances of from the mouth of Taan Fiord, although the wave was detected away.
Occurring in an uninhabited area, the event was unwitnessed, and several hours passed before the signature of the landslide was noticed on seismographs at Columbia University in New York City.
Potential future megatsunamis
In a BBC television documentary broadcast in 2000, experts said that they thought that a landslide on a volcanic ocean island is the most likely future cause of a megatsunami. The size and power of a wave generated by such means could produce devastating effects, travelling across oceans and inundating up to inland from the coast. This research was later found to be flawed. The documentary was produced before the experts' scientific paper was published and before responses were given by other geologists. There have been megatsunamis in the past, and future megatsunamis are possible but current geological consensus is that these are only local. A megatsunami in the Canary Islands would diminish to a normal tsunami by the time it reached the continents. Also, the current consensus for La Palma is that the region conjectured to collapse is too small and too geologically stable to do so in the next 10,000 years, although there is evidence for past megatsunamis local to the Canary Islands thousands of years ago. Similar remarks apply to the suggestion of a megatsunami in Hawaii.
British Columbia
Some geologists consider an unstable rock face at Mount Breakenridge, above the north end of the giant fresh-water fjord of Harrison Lake in the Fraser Valley of southwestern British Columbia, Canada, to be unstable enough to collapse into the lake, generating a megatsunami that might destroy the town of Harrison Hot Springs (located at its south end).
Canary Islands
Geologists Dr. Simon Day and Dr. Steven Neal Ward consider that a megatsunami could be generated during an eruption of Cumbre Vieja on the volcanic ocean island of La Palma, in the Canary Islands, Spain. Day and Ward hypothesize that if such an eruption causes the western flank to fail, a megatsunami could be generated.
In 1949, an eruption occurred at three of the volcano's vents—Duraznero, Hoyo Negro, and Llano del Banco. A local geologist, Juan Bonelli-Rubio, witnessed the eruption and recorded details on various phenomenon related to the eruption. Bonelli-Rubio visited the summit area of the volcano and found that a fissure about long had opened on the east side of the summit. As a result, the western half of the volcano—which is the volcanically active arm of a triple-armed rift—had slipped approximately downwards and westwards towards the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1971, an eruption occurred at the Teneguía vent at the southern end of the sub-aerial section of the volcano without any movement. The section affected by the 1949 eruption is currently stationary and does not appear to have moved since the initial rupture.
Cumbre Vieja remained dormant until an eruption began on September 19, 2021.
It is likely that several eruptions would be required before failure would occur on Cumbre Vieja. The western half of the volcano has an approximate volume of and an estimated mass of . If it were to catastrophically slide into the ocean, it could generate a wave with an initial height of about at the island, and a likely height of around at the Caribbean and the Eastern North American seaboard when it runs ashore eight or more hours later. Tens of millions of lives could be lost in the cities and/or towns of St. John's, Halifax, Boston, New York, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Miami, Havana and the rest of the eastern coasts of the United States and Canada, as well as many other cities on the Atlantic coast in Europe, South America and Africa. The likelihood of this happening is a matter of vigorous debate.
Geologists and volcanologists are in general agreement that the initial study was flawed. The current geology does not suggest that a collapse is imminent. Indeed, it seems to be geologically impossible right now—the region conjectured as prone to collapse is too small and too stable to collapse within the next 10,000 years. A closer study of deposits left in the ocean from previous landslides suggests that a landslide would likely occur as a series of smaller collapses rather than a single landslide. A megatsunami does seem possible locally in the distant future as there is geological evidence from past deposits suggesting that a megatsunami occurred with marine material deposited above sea level between 32,000 and 1.75 million years ago. This seems to have been local to Gran Canaria.
Day and Ward have admitted that their original analysis of the danger was based on several worst case assumptions. A 2008 study examined this scenario and concluded that while it could cause a megatsunami, it would be local to the Canary Islands and would diminish in height, becoming a smaller tsunami by the time it reached the continents as the waves interfered and spread across the oceans.
For more details see Cumbre Vieja criticism.
Cape Verde Islands
Steep cliffs on the Cape Verde Islands have been caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanoes and more can be expected in the future.
Hawaii
Sharp cliffs and associated ocean debris at the Kohala Volcano, Lanai and Molokai indicate that landslides from the flank of the Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes in Hawaii may have triggered past megatsunamis, most recently at 120,000 BP. A tsunami event is also possible, with the tsunami potentially reaching up to about in height According to the documentary National Geographic's Ultimate Disaster: Tsunami, if a big landslide occurred at Mauna Loa or the Hilina Slump, a tsunami would take only thirty minutes to reach Honolulu. There, hundreds of thousands of people could be killed as the tsunami could level Honolulu and travel inland. Also, the West Coast of America and the entire Pacific Rim could potentially be affected.
Other research suggests that such a single large landslide is not likely. Instead, it would collapse as a series of smaller landslides.
In 2018, shortly after the beginning of the 2018 lower Puna eruption, a National Geographic article responded to such claims with "Will a monstrous landslide off the side of Kilauea trigger a monster tsunami bound for California? Short answer: No."
In the same article, geologist Mika McKinnon stated:
Another volcanologist, Janine Krippner, added:
Despite this, evidence suggests that catastrophic collapses do occur on Hawaiian volcanoes and generate local tsunamis.
Norway
Although known earlier to the local population, a crack wide and in length in the side of the mountain Åkerneset in Norway was rediscovered in 1983 and attracted scientific attention. It since has widened at a rate of per year. Geological analysis has revealed that a slab of rock thick and at an elevation stretching from is in motion. Geologists assess that an eventual catastrophic collapse of of rock into Sunnylvsfjorden is inevitable and could generate megatsunamis of in height on the fjord′s opposite shore. The waves are expected to strike Hellesylt with a height of , Geiranger with a height of , Tafjord with a height of , and many other communities in Norway's Sunnmøre district with a height of several metres, and to be noticeable even at Ålesund. The predicted disaster is depicted in the 2015 Norwegian film The Wave.
See also
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
List of tsunamis
Tsunamis in lakes
Volcanic tsunami
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Lander, James F. Tsunamis Affecting Alaska 1737-1996. Boulder, Colorado: NOAA National Geophysical Data Center, September 1996.
Further reading
BBC 2 TV; 2000. Transcript "Mega-tsunami; Wave of Destruction", Horizon. First screened 21.30 hrs, Thursday, 12 October 2000.
Rihm, R; Krastel, S. & CD109 Shipboard Scientific Party; 1998. Volcanoes and landslides in the Canaries. National Environment Research Council News. Summer, 16–17.
Sandom, J.G., 2010, The Wave — A John Decker Thriller, Cornucopia Press, 2010. A thriller in which a megatsunami is intentionally created when a terrorist detonates a nuclear bomb on La Palma in the Canary Islands.
Ortiz, J.R., Bonelli Rubio, J.M., 1951. La erupción del Nambroque (junio-agosto de 1949). Madrid: Talleres del Instituto Geográfico y Catastral, 100 p., 1h. pleg.;23 cm
External links
Mega Tsunami: history, causes, effects
World's Biggest Tsunami: The largest recorded tsunami with a wave 1720 feet tall in Lituya Bay, Alaska.
Benfield Hazard Research Centre
BBC — Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction BBC Two program broadcast 12 October 2000
La Palma threat "over-hyped" , BBC News, 29 October 2004
Mega-hyped Tsunami story A detailed of analysis demolishing the La Palma Tsunami speculation.
Water waves
Geological hazards
Tsunami
Oceanographical terminology
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238250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime%20nation | Maritime nation | A maritime nation is any nation which borders the sea and is dependent on its use for majority of the following state activities: commerce and transport, war, to define a territorial boundary, or for any maritime activity (activities using the sea to convey or produce an end result).
Historically, the term has been used to refer to a thalassocracy such as Carthage and Phoenicia but during the medieval period increasingly became associated with the Maritime Republics of Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Amalfi, Gaeta, Ancona and Ragusa
References
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238253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornographic%20film | Pornographic film | Pornographic films (pornos), erotic films, or sex films are films that present sexually explicit subject matter in order to arouse and satisfy the viewer. Pornographic films present sexual fantasies and usually include erotically stimulating material such as nudity (softcore) and sexual intercourse (hardcore). A distinction is sometimes made between "erotic" and "pornographic" films on the basis that the latter category contains more explicit sexuality, and focuses more on arousal than storytelling; the distinction is highly subjective.
Pornographic films are produced and distributed on a variety of media, depending on the demand and technology available, including traditional film stock in various formats, home video, DVDs, Internet download, cable TV, in addition to other media. Today, pornographic films are sold or rented on DVD; shown through Internet streaming, special channels and pay-per-view on cable and satellite; and viewed in rapidly disappearing adult theaters. By law, they are generally not permitted to be shown in mainstream cinemas, or on free-to-air television.
Films with risqué content have been produced since the invention of motion picture in the 1880s. Production of such films was profitable, and a number of producers began to specialize in their production. Various groups within society considered such depictions immoral, labeled them "pornographic", and attempted to have them suppressed under obscenity laws, with varying degrees of success. Such films continued to be produced, and could only be distributed by underground channels. Because the viewing of such films carried a social stigma, they were viewed at brothels, adult movie theaters, stag parties, at home, in private clubs, and also at night cinemas.
In the 1970s, during the Golden Age of Porn, pornographic films were semi-legitimized; by the 1980s, pornography on home video achieved wider distribution. The rise of the Internet in the late 1990s and early 2000s changed the way pornographic films are distributed, complicating censorship regimes around the world and legal prosecutions of "obscenity".
Classification
Pornographic films are typically categorized as either softcore or hardcore pornography. In general, softcore pornography is pornography that does not depict explicit sexual activity, sexual penetration or extreme fetishism. It generally contains nudity or partial nudity in sexually suggestive situations. Hardcore pornography is pornography that depicts penetration or extreme fetish acts, or both. It contains graphic sexual activity and visible penetration. A pornographic work is characterized as hardcore if it has any hardcore content.
Pornographic films are generally classified into subgenres which describe the sexual fantasy which the film and actors attempt to create. Subgenres can also be classified into the characteristics of the performers or the type of sexual activity on which it concentrates and not necessarily on the market to which each subgenre appeals. The subgenres usually conform to certain conventions, and each may appeal to a particular audience.
History
Early years: 20th century
Production of erotic films commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture. Two of the earliest pioneers were Frenchmen Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner (under the name "Léar") directed the earliest surviving erotic film for Pirou. The 7-minute 1896 film had Louise Willy performing a bathroom striptease. Other French filmmakers also considered that profits could be made from this type of risqué films, showing women disrobing.
Also in 1896 Fatima's Coochie-Coochie Dance was released as a short nickelodeon kinetoscope/film featuring a gyrating belly dancer named Fatima. Her gyrating and moving pelvis was censored, one of the earliest films to be censored. At the time, there were numerous risque films that featured exotic dancers. In the same year, The May Irwin Kiss contained the very first kiss on film. It was a 47-second film loop, with a close-up of a nuzzling couple followed by a short peck on the lips ("the mysteries of the kiss revealed"). The kissing scene was denounced as shocking and obscene to early moviegoers and caused the Roman Catholic Church to call for censorship and moral reform - because kissing in public at the time could lead to prosecution. Perhaps in defiance and "to spice up a film", this was followed by many kiss imitators, including The Kiss in the Tunnel (1899) and The Kiss (1900). A tableau vivant style was used in short film The Birth of the Pearl (1901) featuring an unnamed long-haired young model wearing a flesh-colored body stocking in a direct frontal pose that provides a provocative view of the female body. The pose is in the style of Botticelli's The Birth of Venus.
In Austria, cinemas organised men-only theatre nights (called ) at which adult films were shown. Johann Schwarzer formed his Saturn-Film production company which between 1906 and 1911 produced 52 erotic productions, each of which contained young local women fully nude, to be shown at those screenings. Before Schwarzer's productions, erotic films were provided by the Pathé brothers from French produced sources. In 1911, Saturn was dissolved by the censorship authorities which destroyed all the films they could find, though some have since resurfaced from private collections. There were a number of American films in the 1910s which contained female nudity in film.
Because Pirou is nearly unknown as a pornographic filmmaker, credit is often given to other films for being the first. In Black and White and Blue (2008), one of the most scholarly attempts to document the origins of the clandestine 'stag film' trade, Dave Thompson recounts ample evidence that such an industry first had sprung up in the brothels of Buenos Aires and other South American cities by the turn of the 20th century, and then quickly spread through Central Europe over the following few years. However, none of these earliest pornographic films are known to have survived. According to Patrick Robertson's Film Facts, "the earliest pornographic motion picture which can definitely be dated is " made in France in 1908. The plot depicts a weary soldier who has a tryst with a servant girl at an inn. The Argentinian , whose original title could have been (The Satyr), might be even older; it has been dated to somewhere between 1907 and 1912. He also notes that "the oldest surviving pornographic films are contained in America's Kinsey Collection. One film demonstrates how early pornographic conventions were established. The German film (1910) is a ten-minute film which begins with a woman masturbating alone in her bedroom, and progresses to scenes of her with a man performing straight sex, fellatio and anal penetration."
1920s–1940s suppression
Pornographic movies were widespread in the silent movie era of the 1920s, and were often shown in brothels. Soon illegal, stag films, or blue films, as they were called, were produced underground by amateurs for many years starting in the 1940s. Processing the film took considerable time and resources, with people using their bathtubs to wash the film when processing facilities (often tied to organized crime) were unavailable. The films were then circulated privately or by traveling salesmen, but anyone caught viewing or possessing them risked a prison sentence.
1950s: home movies
The post-war era saw technological developments that further stimulated the growth of a mass market and amateur film-making, particularly the introduction of the 8 mm and super-8 film gauges, popular for the home movie market.
Entrepreneurs emerged to meet the demand. In Britain, in the 1950s, Harrison Marks produced films which were considered risqué, and which today would be described as "soft core". In 1958, as an offshoot of his magazines, Marks began making short films for the 8mm market of his models undressing and posing topless, popularly known as "glamour home movies". To Marks, the term "glamour" was a euphemism for nude modeling/photography.
1960s: Europe and United States
On the European continent, sex films were more explicit. Starting in 1961, Lasse Braun was a pioneer in quality colour productions that were, in the early days, distributed by making use of his father's diplomatic privileges. Braun was able to accumulate funds for his lavish productions from the profit gained with so-called loops, ten-minute hardcore movies which he sold to Reuben Sturman, who distributed them to 60,000 American peep show booths. Braun was always on the move, and made his hardcore movies in a number of countries, including Spain, France, Sweden, Denmark and the Netherlands.
In December 1960, American female director Doris Wishman began producing a series of eight pornographic films, or nudist films without sex scenes, including Hideout in the Sun (1960), Nude on the Moon (1961) and Diary of a Nudist (1961). She also produced a series of sexploitation films.
In the 1960s, social and judicial attitudes towards the explicit depiction of sexuality began to change. For example, Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow) (1967) included numerous frank nude scenes and simulated sexual intercourse. In one particularly controversial scene, Lena kisses her lover's flaccid penis. The film was exhibited in mainstream cinemas, but in 1969 it was banned in Massachusetts allegedly for being pornographic. The ban was challenged in the courts, with the Supreme Court of the United States ultimately declaring that the film was not obscene, paving the way for other sexually explicit films. Another Swedish film Language of Love (1969) was also sexually explicit, but was framed as a quasi-documentary sex educational film, which made its legal status uncertain though controversial.
In 1969, Denmark became the first country to abolish all censorship laws, enabling pornography, including hardcore pornography. The example was followed by toleration in the Netherlands, also in 1969. There was an explosion of pornography commercially produced in those countries, including, at the very beginning, child pornography and bestiality porn. Now that being a pornographer was legal, there was no shortage of businessmen who invested in plant and equipment capable of turning out a mass-produced, cheap, but quality product. Vast amounts of this new pornography, both magazines and films, needed to be smuggled into other parts of Europe, where it was sold "under the counter" or (sometimes) shown in "members only" cinema clubs.
In the United States, producers of pornographic films formed the Adult Film Association of America in 1969, after the release of Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, to fight against censorship, and to defend the industry against obscenity charges.
1970s: adult theaters and movie booths in the United States
In the 1970s, there was a more tolerant judicial attitude to non-mainstream films. Mainstream theatres did normally not screen even softcore films, leading to a rise of adult theaters in the United States and many other countries. There was also a proliferation of coin-operated "movie booths" in sex shops that displayed pornographic "loops" (so called because they projected a movie from film arranged in a continuous loop).
Denmark started producing comparatively big-budget theatrical feature film sex comedies such as Bordellet (1972), the Bedside-films (1970–1976) and the Zodiac-films (1973–1978), starring mainstream actors (a few of whom even performed their own sex scenes) and usually not thought of as "porno films" though all except the early Bedside-films included hardcore pornographic scenes. Several of these films still rank among the most seen films in Danish film history and all remain favourites on home video.
In 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol was the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States. The film was a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn and, according to Warhol, a major influence in the making of Last Tango in Paris, an internationally controversial erotic drama film, starring Marlon Brando, and released a few years after Blue Movie was made.
The first explicitly pornographic film with a plot that received a general theatrical release in the U.S. is generally considered to be Mona the Virgin Nymph (also known as Mona), a 59-minute 1970 feature by Bill Osco, who created the relatively high-budget hardcore/softcore (depending on the release) 1974 cult film Flesh Gordon and later, in 1976, the X-rated musical-comedy film Alice in Wonderland.
The 1971 film Boys in the Sand represented a number of pornographic firsts. As the first generally available gay pornographic film, the film was the first to include on-screen credits for its cast and crew (albeit largely under pseudonyms), to parody the title of a mainstream film (in this case, The Boys in the Band), and, after the 1969 film Blue Movie, one of the first to be reviewed by The New York Times. Other notable American hardcore feature films of the 1970s include Deep Throat (1972), Behind the Green Door (1972), The Devil in Miss Jones (1973), Radley Metzger's The Opening of Misty Beethoven (1976) and Debbie Does Dallas (1978). These were shot on film and screened in mainstream movie theaters. The prediction that frank depictions of onscreen sex would soon become commonplace did not materialize. William Rotsler expressed this in 1973, "Erotic films are here to stay. Eventually they will simply merge into the mainstream of motion pictures and disappear as a labeled subdivision. Nothing can stop this." In Britain, Deep Throat was not approved in its uncut form until 2000 and not shown publicly until June 2005.
The U.S. was Miller v. California was an important court case in 1973. The case established that obscenity was not legally protected, but the case also established the Miller test, a three-pronged test to determine obscenity (which is not legal) as opposed to indecency (which may or may not be legal).
1980s: new technology and new legal cases
With the arrival of the home video cassette recorder in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the pornographic movie industry experienced massive growth and spawned adult stars like Traci Lords, Seka, Christy Canyon, Ginger Lynn, Nina Hartley, and directors such as Gregory Dark. By 1982, most pornographic films were being shot on the cheaper and more convenient medium of videotape. Many film directors resisted this shift at first because videotape produced a different image quality. Those who did change soon were collecting most of the industry's profits, since consumers overwhelmingly preferred the new format. The technology change happened quickly and completely when directors realized that continuing to shoot on film was no longer a profitable option. This change moved the films out of the theaters and into people's homes. This marked the end of the age of big-budget productions, and the beginning of the mainstreaming of pornography. It soon went back to its earthy roots and expanded to cover nearly every fetish possible, since the production of pornography was now inexpensive. Instead of hundreds of pornographic films being made each year, thousands were being made, including compilations of just the sex scenes from various videos. One could now not only watch pornography in the comfort and privacy of one's own home, but also find more choices available to satisfy specific fantasies and fetishes.
Similarly, the camcorder spurred changes in pornography in the 1980s, when people could make their own amateur sex movies, whether for private use, or for wider distribution.
The de facto result of the 1987 legal case California v. Freeman effectively legalized hardcore pornography in the U.S.. The prosecution of Harold Freeman was initially planned as the first in a series of legal cases to effectively outlaw the production of such movies.
1990s: DVD and the Internet age
In the late 1990s, pornographic films were distributed on DVD. These offered better quality picture and sound than the previous video format (videotape) and allowed innovations such as "interactive" videos that let users choose such variables as multiple camera angles, multiple endings and computer-only DVD content.
The introduction and widespread availability of the Internet further changed the way pornography was distributed. Previously, videos were ordered from an adult bookstore or through mail-order; with the Internet, people could watch pornographic movies on their computers, and instead of waiting weeks for an order to arrive, a movie could be downloaded within minutes (or, later, within a few seconds).
Pornography can be distributed over the Internet in a number of ways, including paysites, video hosting services and peer-to-peer file sharing. While pornography had been traded electronically since the 1980s, the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, as well as the opening of the Internet to the general public around the same time, led to an explosion in online pornography.
Viv Thomas, Paul Thomas, Andrew Blake, Antonio Adamo, and Rocco Siffredi were prominent directors of pornographic films in the 1990s. In 1998, the Danish, Oscar-nominated film production company Zentropa became the world's first mainstream film company to openly produce hardcore pornographic films, starting with Constance (1998). That same year, Zentropa also produced Idioterne (1998), directed by Lars von Trier, which won many international awards and was nominated for a Golden Palm in Cannes. The film includes a shower sequence with a male erection and an orgy scene with close-up penetration footage (the camera viewpoint is from the ankles of the participants, and the close-ups leave no doubt as to what is taking place). Idioterne started a wave of international mainstream arthouse films featuring explicit sexual images, such as Catherine Breillat's Romance, which starred pornstar Rocco Siffredi.
In 1999, the Danish TV channel Kanal København started broadcasting hardcore films at night, uncoded and freely available to any viewer in the Copenhagen area (as of 2009, this is still the case, courtesy of Innocent Pictures, a company started by Zentropa).
Once people could watch adult movies in the privacy of their own homes, a new adult market developed that far exceeded the scope of its theater-centric predecessor. The Internet served as catalyst for creating a still-larger market for porn, a market that is even less traditionally theatrical.
By the 2000s, there were hundreds of adult film companies, releasing tens of thousands of productions, recorded directly on video, with minimal sets. The market was further expanded by webcams and webcam recordings, in which thousands of pornographic actors work in front of the camera to satisfy pornography consumers' demand.
2000s: competition and contraction
By the 2000s, the fortunes of the pornography industry changed. With reliably profitable DVD sales being largely supplanted by streaming media delivery over the Internet, competition from bootleg, amateur and low-cost professional content on the Internet had made the industry substantially less profitable, leading to it shrinking in size. At the same time this gave rise to video sharing platforms such as Pornhub, YouPorn and XHamster.
Pornographic film industry
Economics
Globally, pornography is a large scale business with revenues of nearly $100 billion which includes the production of various media and associated products and services. The industry employs thousands of performers along with support and production staff. It is also followed by dedicated industry publications and trade groups as well as the mainstream press, private organizations (watchdog groups), government agencies, and political organizations. According to a 2005 Reuters article, "The multi-billion-dollar industry releases about 11,000 titles on DVD each year." Pornographic films can be sold or rented out on DVD, shown through Internet and special channels and pay-per-view on cable and satellite, and in adult theaters. However, by 2012, widespread availability of illegally copied content and other low-cost competition on the Internet had made the pornographic film industry smaller and reduced profitability.
The global pornographic film industry is dominated by the United States, with the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles being the heart of the industry.
In 1975, the total retail value of all the hardcore pornography in the United States was estimated at $5–10 million. The 1979, Revision of the Federal Criminal Code stated that "in Los Angeles alone, the porno business does $100 million a year in gross retain volume." According to the 1986 Attorney General's Commission on Pornography, American adult entertainment industry has grown considerably over the past thirty years by continually changing and expanding to appeal to new markets, though the production is considered to be low-profile and clandestine.
the total current income of the country's adult entertainment is often estimated at $10–13 billion, of which $4–6 billion are legal. The figure is often credited to a study by Forrester Research and was lowered in 1998. In 2007 The Observer newspaper also gave a figure of $13 billion. Other sources, quoted by Forbes (Adams Media Research, Veronis Suhler Communications Industry Report, and IVD), even taking into consideration all possible means (video networks and pay-per-view movies on cable and satellite, websites, in-room hotel movies, phone sex, sex toys, and magazines) mention the $2.6–3.9 billion figure (without the cellphone component). USA Today claimed in 2003 that websites such as Danni's Hard Drive and Cybererotica.com generated $2 billion in revenue in that year, which was allegedly about 10% of the overall domestic porn market at the time. The adult movies income (from sale and rent) was once estimated by AVN Publications at $4.3 billion but the figure obtaining is unclear. According to the 2001 Forbes data, the annual income distribution is the following:
The Online Journalism Review, published by the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Southern California, weighed in with an analysis that favored Forbes number. The financial extent of adult films, distributed in hotels, is hard to estimate—hotels keep statistics to themselves or do not keep them at all.
The world's largest adult movie studio Vivid Entertainment generates an estimated $100 million a year in revenue, distributing 60 films annually, and selling them in video stores, hotel rooms, on cable systems, and on the Internet. The Spanish-based studio Private Media Group was listed on the NASDAQ until November 2011. Video rentals soared from just under 80 million in 1985 to a half-billion by 1993. Some subsidiaries of major corporations are the largest pornography sellers, like News Corporation's DirecTV. Comcast, the nation's largest cable company, once pulled in $50 million from adult programming. Revenues of companies such as Playboy and Hustler were small by comparison.
Production
Pornographic films are produced and directed at the target audience, who buy and view the films. Traditionally, the audience of pornographic films has been predominantly the straight male. In this situation, the main male actor acted as proxy for the viewer enacting the sexual fantasy of the genre of the film. A typical pornographic film featured a female performer on whom the film focused. Her male partner traditionally had no distinctive features other than a large penis. However, there has been an increase in female viewers over time, and there have recently been efforts to increase the sexualization of male performers also. New features such as men with smaller penises, charming facial features and well-built bodies are becoming predominant in pornographic films, as well as the emergence of feminist pornography."'Artisanal, locally grown, free range porn for women" Nagy, Toni. Huffington Post, 4 March 2013. Accessed 11 October 2013 In recent times a gay audience has also developed, and the scenarios of the films have adjusted accordingly.
Pornographic films attempt to present a sexual fantasy and the actors selected for a particular role are primarily selected on their ability to create that fantasy. Depending on the genre of the film, the on-screen appearance and physical features of the main actors and their ability to create the sexual mood of the film is of critical importance. Most actors specialize in certain genres. In general, pornographic films follow a number of conventions. For example, irrespective of the genre, most actors are required to appear nude in pornographic films.
In films directed to a heterosexual male audience, the primary focus is on the female actors in them, who are mostly selected for their on-screen appearance. The female actors are commonly presented in erotic, provocative or suggestive clothing. If they are wearing shoes, they are usually high-heel. They do not normally wear jewellery or glasses. They are usually in the high range of physical attractiveness.
Most male performers in heterosexual pornography are selected less for their looks than for their sexual prowess. They are presented as being able to fulfill the desires of the male watching audience as their on-screen proxies.
Legal status
In the United States, the Supreme Court held in 1969 that State laws making mere private possession of obscene material a crime are invalid. Further attempts were made in the 1970s in the United States to close down the pornography industry, this time by prosecuting those in the industry on prostitution charges. The prosecution started in the courts in California in the case of People v. Freeman. The California Supreme Court acquitted Freeman and distinguished between someone who takes part in a sexual relationship for money (prostitution) versus someone whose role is merely portraying a sexual relationship on-screen as part of their acting performance. The State did not appeal to the United States Supreme Court making the decision binding in California, where most pornographic films are made today.But see news.com.au: Coffee shop girls face charges over sex shows February 08, 2010
At present, no other state in the United States has either implemented or accepted this legal distinction between commercial pornography performers versus prostitutes as shown in the Florida case where sex film maker Clinton Raymond McCowen, aka "Ray Guhn", was indicted on charges of "soliciting and engaging in prostitution" for his creation of pornography films which included "McCowen and his associates recruited up to 100 local men and women to participate in group sex scenes, the affidavit says." The distinction that California has in its legal determination in the Freeman decision is usually denied in most states' local prostitution laws, which do not specifically exclude performers from such inclusion.
In some cases, some states have ratified their local state laws for inclusion to prevent California's Freeman decision to be applied to actors who are paid a fee for sexual actions within their state borders. One example is the state of Texas whose prostitution law specifically states:
An offense is established under Subsection (a)(1) whether the actor is to receive or pay a fee. An offense is established under Subsection (a)(2) whether the actor solicits a person to hire him or offers to hire the person solicited.
In the United States, federal law prohibits the sale, distribution or dissemination of obscene materials through the mail, over the broadcast airwaves, on cable or satellite TV, on the Internet, over the telephone or by any other means that cross state lines. Most states also have specific laws banning the sale or distribution of obscene pornography within state borders. The only protection for obscene material recognized by the Supreme Court of the United States is personal possession in the home (Stanley v. Georgia).
The Supreme Court of the United States affirmed in Miller v. California that obscenity was not protected speech. Further, the court ruled that each community is responsible for setting its own standards about what is considered to be obscene material. If pornographic material is prosecuted and brought to trial, a jury can deem it obscene based on:
whether "the average person, applying contemporary community standards" would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest
whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by applicable state law and
whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value.
In many countries pornography is legal to distribute and to produce, but there are some restrictions. Pornography is also banned in some countries, in particular in the Muslim world and China, but can be accessed through the Internet in some of these nations.
Health issues
Sex acts in pornographic films have traditionally been performed without the use of condoms, with an accompanying risk of sexually transmitted disease among performers. In 1986, there was an outbreak of HIV infection which led to the deaths through AIDS of several actors and actresses. This led to the creation in 1998 of the Adult Industry Medical Health Care Foundation, which helped set up a monitoring system in the U.S. pornographic film industry, which required pornographic film actors to be tested for HIV every 30 days. , HIV infection of performers in the U.S. pornography industry has been rare, with only a few outbreaks being recorded over the subsequent three decades. The AIM closed its doors in May 2011 and filed for bankruptcy as a result of a court case arising from an inadvertent leak by it of confidential information on clients, including names and STD results.
Terminology
Compilation – a release based on highlights from other adult films or video, unused footage, or that feature a particular genre
Mature – used to refer to performers in or of the genre referred to as MILF porn
Raincoat – a term used to refer to a condom
Other terms synonymous with pornography:
Porn or porno
Adult film
Blue movie
Stag film
Skin flick
See also
List of pornographic film awards
Adult theater
Amateur pornography
Cartoon pornography
Cum shot
List of pornographic film studios
Pornography addiction
Porn groove
Porn parody
Pornography by region
STDs in the porn industry
Unsimulated sex
X-rated
ReferencesNotesBibliography'''
Patrick Robertson: Film Facts'', 2001, Billboard Books,
External links
Films
Film genres | [
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238256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiocephalic%20artery | Brachiocephalic artery | The brachiocephalic artery (or brachiocephalic trunk or innominate artery) is an artery of the mediastinum that supplies blood to the right arm and the head and neck.
It is the first branch of the aortic arch. Soon after it emerges, the brachiocephalic artery divides into the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery.
There is no brachiocephalic artery for the left side of the body. The left common carotid, and the left subclavian artery, come directly off the aortic arch. However, there are two brachiocephalic veins.
Structure
The brachiocephalic artery arises, on a level with the upper border of the second right costal cartilage, from the start of the aortic arch, on a plane anterior to the origin of the left carotid artery. It ascends obliquely upward, backward, and to the right to the level of the upper border of the right sternoclavicular articulation, where it divides into the right common carotid artery and right subclavian arteries. The artery then crosses the trachea in front of it obliquely from the left to the right, roughly at the middle of the trachea or the level of the ninth tracheal cartilage.
In infants, it often divides cephalad to the sternoclavicular articulation, within the anterior triangle of the neck.
Branches
The thyroid ima artery ascends in front of the trachea to the lower part of the thyroid, which it supplies.
Variation
The innominate artery usually gives off no branches, but occasionally a small branch, the thyroid ima artery, arises from it. Other times, it gives off a thymic or bronchial branch.
It varies greatly in size, and appears to compensate for deficiency or absence of one of the other thyroid vessels. It occasionally arises from the aorta, the right common carotid, the subclavian or the internal mammary.
Additional images
References
External links
Arteries of the thorax | [
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238258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overhang%20seat | Overhang seat | Overhang seats are constituency seats won in an election under the traditional mixed member proportional (MMP) system (as it originated in Germany), when a party's share of the nationwide votes would entitle it to fewer seats than the number of individual constituencies won.
How overhang seats arise
Under MMP, a party is entitled to a number of seats based on its share of the total vote. If a party's share entitles it to ten seats and its candidates win seven constituencies, it will be awarded three list seats, bringing it up to its required number. This only works, however, if the party's seat entitlement is not less than the number of constituencies it has won. If, for example, a party is entitled to five seats, but wins six constituencies, the sixth constituency seat is referred to as an overhang seat. Overhang can result from an unproportional distribution of constituencies.
Earning overhang seats
The two mechanisms that together increase the number of overhang seats are:
winning many constituencies;
decreasing the number of party votes and therefore the number of seats to which the party is proportionally entitled.
In many countries, overhang seats are rare – a party that is able to win constituency seats is generally able to win a significant portion of the party vote as well. There are, however, some circumstances in which overhang seats may arise relatively easily:
Few major parties, large number of minor parties – When there are only one or two major parties, but a relatively large number of minor parties that, combined, achieve a significant share of the total proportional vote, but fail to elect any constituency seats, the large parties often end up with overhang seats.
Similar lead across constituencies – If one party wins all or most constituencies of a relevant area with a rather low margin, it would be more prone to overhang mandates than if different parties lead in different constituencies, with the same overall share of each of the parties. As such, if there is less difference between constituencies, overhang seats are more probable.
A large number of constituencies compared with the total number of seats – If too many seats are used for constituencies, the remainder are less likely to ensure strict proportionality.
Unevenly sized constituencies – Candidates that win small constituencies by a narrow margin do not generate enough votes to justify their full seats under a proportional system.
Low turnout in some constituencies – This has the same effect as small constituencies. Furthermore, turnout and party preferences may be highly correlated, e.g. rural vs. urban areas.
Small number of seats to be allocated – The higher the absolute number of constituencies, the more likely it is that different reasons for overhang seats will balance out between parties. E.g., after the German federal Bundestag election in 2013, the main reason for overhang seats was that some compensation happens for party's state lists instead of at the federal level only.
Individual candidates with strong local followings – Sometimes, a particular politician will have strong support in their own constituency, but will belong to a party with very low support, even in their own area. The candidate will be elected based on their own qualities, but the party they belong to will not receive enough votes to justify the candidate's seat. In the case of independent candidates, this is usually guaranteed – they have no party at all, and so obviously cannot win votes under MMP's party-list proportional representation. However, some countries, such as New Zealand, have special rules dealing with independents – seats won by these candidates are exempted from the proportional system altogether.
Regional parties – Parties based in a particular region may win a substantial number of constituency seats in that region without necessarily gaining a large share of the national vote. Parties focused on particular ethnic or religions minorities may also come under this category, particularly if seats are reserved for these groups.
Tactical voting – Voters in countries such as Germany may cast two votes and they need not be for the same party. A voter might support one party in the list vote but vote for the candidate of another party in the local vote, perhaps because the former party lacks a candidate in his or her constituency or it has a candidate but he or she has little chance of winning. Parties that win many local seats but attract a reduced list vote may receive an overhang as a result.
Decoy parties – Party labels in the constituencies can be deliberately mismatched with those in the proportional vote in an attempt to induce tactical voting. In Italy in 2001, two lists won a significant majority of the total number of first-past-the post seats, despite winning almost none of the proportional vote. The system, nicknamed scorporo, was not a type of additional member system in which overhangs could occur, it resulted in a significant distortion to the desired compensatory nature.
Dealing with overhang seats
Overhang seats are dealt with in different ways by different systems.
Take the number of additional list seats off from the other parties' proportional entitlement
A party is allowed to keep any overhang seats it wins, and the corresponding number of list seats allocated to other parties is eliminated to maintain the number of assembly seats. This means that a party with overhang seats has more seats than its entitlement, and other parties have fewer. This approach is used in the Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia and the National Assembly of Lesotho. It was unsuccessfully recommended by the 2006 Ontario Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform for adoption by the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, and the proposed Dual-member proportional representation system uses this approach as well. While for the first additional list seats are simply denied to parties, in the latter three cases, a fairer procedure was proposed of subtracting the constituency seats won by parties with overhang seats from the total number of seats and recalculating the quota (the largest remainder method was also recommended) to proportionally redistribute the list seats to the other parties.
In the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Senedd and London Assembly, the effect is similar, but the mechanism different. In the allocation of second vote list seats using a highest averages method, the first vote constituency seats already won are taken into account when calculating party averages, with the aim of making the overall result proportional. If a party wins more seats in the first vote than its proportion of second votes would suggest it should win overall, or if an independent candidate wins a constituency seat, then the automatic effect is to reduce the overall number of seats won by other parties below what they might expect proportionally.
Allow the overhang
A party is allowed to keep any overhang seats it wins, but other parties are still awarded the same number of seats that they are entitled to. This means that a party with overhang seats has more seats than its entitlement. The New Zealand Parliament uses this system; one extra seat was added in the 2005 election and 2011 election, and two extra seats in the 2008 election. This system was also used in the German Bundestag until 2013, when Germany switched to a fully compensatory system.
Other parties may be given additional list seats (sometimes called "balance seats" or leveling seats) lest they be disadvantaged. This preserves the same ratio between parties as was established in the election. It also increases the size of the legislature, as overhang seats are added, and there may also be extra list seats added to counteract them. This system results is less proportional than full compensation, as the party with the overhang is still receiving a "bonus" above its proportional entitlement. After the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ruled in 2008 that the established implementation of Option 1 was unconstitutional (because in rare instances, it allowed votes to negatively affect the number of seats for a given party, contradicting the voter's will - see below), full compensation of overhang seats is applied as of 2013 in the German Bundestag by providing for the first time for the creation of balancing seats. However, as the implementation of the system to equalize overhang seats led to a drastic increase of the size of the Bundestag, there have been ongoing reform efforts ever since.
Non-awarding of overhang seats
A party is not allowed to keep any overhang seats it wins, with its number of seats actually being reduced until it fits the party's entitlement. This method raises the question of which constituency seats the party is not allowed to keep. After that is determined, it would then have to be decided who, if any, will represent these constituencies. This was used in the Landtag of Bavaria until 1966, with the candidates with the lowest number of votes not keeping the constituency seat. The Bavarian system allows for this more easily as both the first and second vote are "personalized" as they are both given to individual candidates who represent their party, the first vote going to a candidate standing in that District while the second is given to an individual candidate standing in the same region excluding those candidates standing in the same district. Unlike for federal and most other German state elections, in Bavarian state elections, the number of seats allocated in the Landtag is based on the combined share of both the first and second votes. Which individual candidates are entitled to the seats their party is allocated is again calculated based on the number of votes they received and not on their position on a predetermined closed list (as in federal elections). This is similar to panachage, a system used for local elections in Bavaria, that allows voters to alter the order of candidates on party lists with their general election vote. As a consequence of this system in the 1954 Bavarian state election two overhang seats were not awarded.
Constitutionality
Prior to German reunification overhang mandates - particularly at the federal level - were relatively rare and never amounted to more than five (out of over 400 total seats) in any given Bundestag and several federal elections resulted in no overhang at all. This was in part due to the relative strength of the two "Volksparteien" CDU/CSU and SPD which combined to over 60% and sometimes over 80% of the federal vote and as only half as many constituencies as seats exist, it was unlikely for a party to win more than a handful more constituencies in any given state than their vote-share would have given them in list seats.
However, this began to change as East Germany started participating in German federal elections starting with the 1990 German federal election. As the election results notably differ in East and West Particularly as the PDS (later fused and renamed to Die Linke) achieved far better election results in the East where it approached "Volkspartei" status. Thus constituencies which had previously been won by absolute majorities or at least a large plurality could now be won by slimmer pluralities than in previous elections. For example, the SPD while sweeping all 6 constituencies in Mecklenburg Vorpommern in the 2021 German federal elections achieved "only" 29,1% of the statewide :de:Zweitstimmen. In the 1994 German federal election the re-elected Kohl government supported by a "black-yellow" coalition (CDU/CSU and FDP) achieved a relatively slim majority of 341 out of 672 seats to the opposition's (SPD, Alliance 90/The Greens, PDS) 331 seats at the opening session. This majority would've been even narrower if not for twelve overhang mandates the CDU/CSU had achieved, which were however partially mitigated by the four overhang mandates for the opposition SPD. This led to much more public debate on the existence of overhang mandates and what to do about them. There was even a challenge of the validity of the election result based on the overhang seat issue raised by a private citizen after the 1994 election, which was however dismissed as "obviously without merit" (“offensichtlich unbegründet“)
The problem thus turning from a theoretical consideration to a real issue, the German Constitutional Court as early as 1997 ruled that a "substantial number" of overhang mandates which weren't equalized through leveling seats were unconstitutional. The issue became more pressing as negative vote weight was introduced as a phenomenon to a broader public due to the 2005 German federal election in the constituency Dresden I having to be held later than the election in the other 298 constituencies after a candidate in the constituency died days ahead of the election date. Der Spiegel published an article between the main election and the makeup election in Dresden I lining out how more votes for the CDU could lead to them losing a seat in the Bundestag overall. The anticipated tactical voting in Dresden I does indeed seem to have occurred as Andreas Lämmel (CDU) won the constituency with roughly 37% of the :de:Erststimme (~ constituency vote) while his party won only 24.4% of the :de:Zweitstimmen (~ list vote) in the constituency, with the center-right FDP receiving 16.6% - more than one and a half times their federal vote share of 9.8%
This led to another ruling by the German Constitutional Court in 2008 which ruled that the existing federal electoral law was unconstitutional in part as it violated the principle of one person one vote and produced an overly opaque relationship between the numbers of votes cast and seats in parliament. However, the Court also allowed for a three year deadline to change the electoral law, allowing for the 2009 German federal election to be held under the previous set of rules.
The electoral reform passed with the votes of the governing "black-yellow" coalition in late 2011 (a few weeks after the deadline set in 2008) - and without consulting the opposition parties - was again ruled unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court. Furthermore, the Court clarified that the federal electoral system was supposed to be primarily one of proportional representation and a number of non-compensated overhang mandates above 15 would "dilute" this proportional character.
As the Bundestag thus lacked a constitutional electoral mechanism and the 2013 German federal election was coming up, the government agreed to negotiations with the opposition parties, leading to a new electoral law being passed in early 2013 with broad support from all parties in the Bundestag except Die Linke who voted against the reform due to concerns regarding a possible massive increase in the size of the Bundestag due to overhang and leveling seats
On the state level an unclear wording in the state electoral law of Schleswig-Holstein led to different possible assignments of leveling seats to equalize the overhang seats ultimately resulting in the 2009 Schleswig-Holstein state election giving a majority of seats to the Peter Harry Carstensen led "black-yellow" coalition, despite them having won a lower share of the vote than the SPD, Greens, Left, SSW opposition. Following a suit before the State Constitutional Court brought by opposition parties, it was ruled that the electoral law in its then current interpretation did indeed violate the state constitution but that the Landtag was to keep its composition until a new electoral law could be passed (which happened in 2011) after which new elections would be scheduled with enough time for campaigns setting the next election for 2012, two years earlier than if the Landtag had served its full five year term.
Debates about yet another electoral reform soon resurfaced as the Bundestag did indeed grow in size due to the 2013 electoral reform - it had had 622 members after the 2009 election, 631 after the 2013 but swelled to 709 members after the 2017 election. As a result of the 2021 election producing yet more additional members of the Bundestag, 735 seats will have to be fit into the Reichstag building to accommodate all members of the 20th Bundestag. Measures to reduce the size of the Bundestag (caused, in no small part, by overhang mandates and the measures taken to equalize them) were debated during the 19th Bundestag but no electoral reform entered into force in time for the 2021 elections.
Examples
In New Zealand, the Māori Party won one overhang seat in 2005 and 2011, and two overhang seats in 2008. In 2005 their share of the party vote was under 2% on the initial election night count, but was 2.12% in the final count which included special votes cast outside the electorate. On election night it appeared that the party, whose candidates had won four electorate seats, would get two overhang seats in Parliament. However, with their party vote above 2% the party got an extra seat and hence needed only one overhang seat. National got one less list seat in the final count, so then conceded defeat (the result was close between the two largest parties, National and Labour).
In state and federal elections in Germany, every constituency seat is granted while the electoral system requires that a party needs 5% of the party-list vote to win list seats. Unless in federal elections a party wins at least three constituency seats, it is excluded by (i.e., due to) the election threshold. In 1994 the PDS fell below the 5% threshold but still got its share of list seats as it had won enough constituency seats, and the same happened in 2021 for Die Linke. But in 2002 the PDS won only two constituencies and was excluded from the list seats resulting in two overhang seats. The PDS had won four seats in Berlin at the 1998 election (in addition to surpassing the electoral threshold at 5.1% of the second vote) but - partly due to redistricting, which changed the boundaries of constituencies the PDS had won in 1998, lost two of their constituency seats, including placing third behind Hans-Christian Ströbele in the newly created Berlin Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg – Prenzlauer Berg East constituency.
See also
Underhang seat
Notes
References
Party-list proportional representation
Elections in Germany
Elections in New Zealand
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238265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundelfingen | Gundelfingen | Gundelfingen im Breisgau is a municipality directly north of the city Freiburg in Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany.
Gundelfingen is one of the larger municipalities in the Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald district. It consists of the old place Gundelfingen and the village Wildtal, which was included in the municipality in the 1970s.
History
Gundelfingen
Gundelfingen was founded in the 4th century, so at least the suffix "-ingen" suggests. The name means that some Alamannic chief by the name of Gundolf settled there with his folk. The first sure sign of Gundelfingen's existence is found in a 1008 treaty, where a place called Gondalvingen is named.
In 1327, Gundelfingen was sold by Counts Konrad and Friedrich of Freiburg to Schnewelin Bernlapp. In 1507, his successor Balthasar von Blumeneck sold Gundelfingen again, this time to Margrave Christopher I of Baden. Since then it was part of Baden.
In the 16th century, some 350 inhabitants lived in Gundelfingen. In 1825 it was 620, in 1950 1,817. Only in the 1960s and 1970s the numbers started to expand quickly to 5,016 inhabitants in 1970 and 11,000 inhabitants in 2002.
Wildtal
Wildtal was first named in a document in 1273 as Wülptal (whelp dale) or Wolfstal (wolf's dale).
The present name just translates as "wild dale".
Administration
In 1972, Wildtal was included into the municipality of Gundelfingen, after three quarters of its citizens voted for this inclusion.
The Mayor of Gundelfingen is at the same time the Mayor of the neighboring village Heuweiler which is associated for administrative purposes.
Environs
On the territory that belongs to the municipality of Gundelfingen you can, inter alia, find the following:
Protestant Church
Stork's nest
Since 1993 storks are nesting again in Gundelfingen. Their nest is on the steeple of the Protestant church at the corner of the streets Kirchstraße and Kirchenwinkel.
Luthereiche (Luther's oak)
The "Luthereiche" (Luther's oak) which was planted next to the protestant church in 1883 on the occasion of 400th birthday of the reformer Martin Luther was the first natural monument of Gundelfingen. A plaque commemorating it is on the outside wall of the church. The tree of a height of 50 ft was felled in 2011 because of dry rot. It is highly likely that a new oak will be planted in its place, perhaps in 2017 when the 500th anniversary of the protestant reformation will be celebrated. Such an oak has the function of a monument commemorating the reformation. The very first oak with that purpose was planted in Wittenberg on the same spot where Luther had publicly burned the papal bull.
East of the Railway
Pond
This pond is located in a small park in the middle of the residential area Am See (at the lake) to the east of the train station. Mallards as well as goldfish are living there.
Birding trail
Further to the East, in the forest just above the streets Sonnhalde and Jägerpfad, there is a very interesting birding trail with more than 40 nest boxes where numerous species of birds are breeding. Furthermore, a large number of birds which do not have their nests in cavities can be observed there as well.
Rebberg
The hill to the south of this area and the north of the street Am Rebberg, itself to the north of the road connecting Gundelfingen and Wildtal, is called "Rebberg" which is the German word for vineyard, because on its slope grapes are cultivated for winemaking. The varietals cultivated here are primarily for red and white Burgundy.
Leheneck
Further to the northeast there is a low saddle called "Leheneck", 1060 ft above sea level, which has views towards the north (Heuweiler) and the south (Wildtal).
Wildtal
Wildtal is the name of both the village pertaining to Gundelfingen and the valley. The most important stream of this valley and of Gundelfingen is the Schobbach.
Dorfbrunnen
In Wildtal, at the corner of the streets Heuweilerweg and Talstraße, you see the "Dorfbrunnen" (village well).
Talstraße
The "Talstraße" (dale street) leads you right through the whole "Wildtal" valley.
Wildtalereck
At the end of the valley you come to the "Wildtalereck", 1496 ft above sea level, from where there are views towards the west.
Waldbrunnerhof
From the Talstraße the Waldbrunnerweg branches off towards the south. From around the farm called Waldbrunnerhof, 482 ft above sea level, one has a good view. The Waldbrunnerweg leads you to the castle.
Zähringen castle
The shortest way is from the cemetery of Wildtal through the mountain forest to the spot where Zähringen castle stood. Its tower is still standing. There is a restaurant nearby where you can also drive by car from Freiburg's suburb Zähringen.
Reutebacher Höfe
Reute means clearing, Bach stream, and Höfe yards. The Reutebach is a stream having its source on the Roßkopf and the Reutebacher Höfe are remote farmhouses on this mountain which are connected by a road, the Pochgasse, to Freiburg's suburb Zähringen. The area where they are located has the same name as the stream and is also called Reutebach. It was an enclave of Gundelfingen until the expansion of its boundaries by the incorporation of Wildtal.
Once Reutebach was an independent village and even larger than either Gundelfingen, Wildtal or Zähringen. The reasons for the degradation were religious and political. Whereas Gundelfingen and Reutebach were Badish, Wildtal and Zähringen belonged to Further Austria. As a result of the reformation, Baden became protestant and hence Reutebach a religious enclave.
Most of the territory that once constituted Reutebach now belongs to Zähringen. Leftovers of the church of Reutebach were discovered under the parking lot in the Harbuckweg (which branches off from the Pochgasse) in the forest of Zähringen just across the bridge over the Reutebach. In the past the villages Zähringen, Wildtal, and Gundelfingen belonged to the former parish of Reutebach.
The aforementioned parking lot is also a trailhead for walks to the Reutebacher Höfe and other spots on the Roßkopf such as the Roßkopfturm.
Rottecksruhe
From Zähringen castle you walk through the mountain forest to a spot called "Rottecksruhe" (Rotteck's rest), 1935 ft above sea level. Once there stood a farmhouse owned by Karl von Rotteck. In its place there is now a small hut where you can rest.
Roßkopf
The mountain on which you are walking is called Roßkopf (horsehead). It rises to 2418 ft above sea level.
Roßkopfturm
Just north of the summit of this mountain and next to a small hut, the "Roßkopfturm", a 115 ft high lattice tower is standing that was built in 1889 and offers a panoramic view of Freiburg, the surrounding mountains and the Upper Rhine Valley with the Tuniberg and the Kaiserstuhl, and, on some days, when the visibility is particularly good, you can even see the Vosges on the opposite side of the Upper Rhine Valley beyond the Alsatian Plain in France.
Martinsfelsen
Walking towards the east you will reach the "Martinsfelsen" ( Martin's rock), 2250 ft above sea level, offering a good view of the northern Breisgau.
Wind turbine
In 2003, four wind turbines were built. One of these four wind turbines is standing on the section of the mountain which belongs to Gundelfingen. Due to these wind turbines the Roßkopf is now easily recognizable from a distance.
Protected area
A large part of the mountainous area in the east of Gundelfingen was classified as a protected area of Baden-Württemberg under the name "Landschaftsschutzgebiet Gundelfingen-Wildtal-Heuweiler". Heuweiler is a neighboring village which is associated with Gundelfingen for administrative purposes.
Religion
A church was mentioned in Gundelfingen for the first time in 1275. However, only since the implementation of the Reformation in the Margraviate of Baden in 1556 Gundelfingen had its own (from then on protestant) minister.
The Baptists established themselves in Gundelfingen in 1877.
The Catholic parish church Brother Klaus was built in 1975.
There is even a Russian orthodox chapel in an isolated location in the Roßwinkel which is cut off by Bundesstraße (federal highway) B 3 which is bypassing Gundelfingen in the West.
Road traffic
The region has a well-developed road network:
Bundesstraße (federal highway) B 3 (from Buxtehude in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region in Northern Germany to Weil am Rhein on the Swiss border) which once crossed Gundelfingen is now bypassing it so as to tackle traffic congestion. Nevertheless, on its former course through Gundelfingen it is still called Alte (old) Bundesstraße and remains its main street connecting it with Freiburg.
Bundesstraße B 294 (from Freudenstadt in the Northern Black Forest to Freiburg) is also closely bypassing Gundelfingen and connecting it with Autobahn (motorway) A 5 (from three-leg motorway interchange Hattenbacher Dreieck near Bad Hersfeld in northeastern Hesse to Basel in Switzerland).
Moreover, there are local roads to the neighboring villages Heuweiler and Vörstetten.
Public transport
Bus and tram
Gundelfingen is served by feeder buses to the tram network operated by Freiburger Verkehrs AG, OVS Schumacher, Rast Reisen and Binninger. Lines: 15 ( Wildtal, "Berggasse" in Freiburg), 16 (industrial area oft Gundelfingen, railway station), 13 ("Blumenstraße" and the industrial area of Gundelfingen) and 24 (to the West of Freiburg through the industrial area Industriegebiet Freiburg Nord)
Buses to the hinterland are operated by SüdbadenBus, but practically all are bypassing Gundelfingen and you have to change in Freiburg.
In addition, bus line 201 from Freiburg to Vörstetten and further on to Reute and Nimburg (Teningen-Nimburg) which is operated by Binninger.
Near the border to Freiburg is the new terminal Station oft the tramline 2. In the morning and in the afternoon, line 5 is driving to the station, which name is "Gundelfinger Straße" (Street of Gundelfingen), too.
The Station is also the terminal station of the buslines 13, 15, 16, 22 (Bissier Street), 24, 25 (Hugstetten railway station), 201, 7203 (Denzlingen) and 1076 (Colmar in France).
Rail
Gundelfingen is located on the Rhine Valley Railway Line Karlsruhe - Basel and the trains of two regional train operators are stopping at its train station: DB Regio and Breisgau S-Bahn (the latter operating the line branching off to Elzach).
Carnival
In Gundelfingen there are two official carnival clubs:
Gundelfinger Dorfhexen (village witches)
Fässlistemmer (guys raising small barrels)
Twinning
The first twinning arrangement was concluded in 1987 with the French town Meung-sur-Loire which has 6800 inhabitants and is located directly on the Loire approximately 19 miles from Orléans. Ten years later, in 1997, followed the Polish town Bieruń (German Berun) with approximately 20,000 inhabitants, 12 miles south of Katowice in Upper Silesia. Since 1997 a partnership has been maintained with the Saxon village Scheibenberg which has almost 2,400 residents.
References
External links
Web site of Gundelfingen, Breisgau (German). When you click on "Tourismus" and then on "Ortsplan" you will be able to download the map which shows all the details.
Gundelfingen: pictures & history
Gundelfingen-Wildtal
Article of the B.U.N.D.
Stork's nest
Website of the protestant church
Website of the protestant church
Wildtal, Leheneck, Rebberg, Waldbrunnertal, Michelbach, Schobbach
Leheneck
Rottecksruhe
Martinsfelsen
Rosskopf
Website of the Dorfhexen
Website of the Fässlistemmer
Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald
Baden | [
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238266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial%20Olympic%20Park%20bombing | Centennial Olympic Park bombing | The Centennial Olympic Park bombing was a domestic terrorist pipe bombing attack on Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, on July 27, 1996, during the Summer Olympics. The blast directly killed one person and injured 111 others; another person later died of a heart attack. It was the first of four bombings committed by Eric Rudolph. Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bomb before detonation and began clearing spectators out of the park.
After the bombing, Jewell was initially investigated as a suspect by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and news media aggressively focused on him as the presumed culprit when he was actually innocent. In October 1996, the FBI declared Jewell was no longer a person of interest. Following three more bombings in 1997, Rudolph was identified by the FBI as the suspect. In 2003, Rudolph was arrested, and in 2005 he agreed to plead guilty to avoid a potential death sentence. Rudolph was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole for his crimes.
Bombing
Centennial Olympic Park was designed as the "town square" of the Olympics, and thousands of spectators had gathered for a late concert by the band Jack Mack and the Heart Attack. Sometime after midnight, Rudolph planted a green U.S. military ALICE pack (field pack) containing three pipe bombs filled with smokeless powder surrounded by masonry nails, which caused most of the human injuries, underneath a bench near the base of a concert sound tower. He then left the area.
The pack had a directed charge and could have done more damage but it was slightly moved at some point. It used a steel plate as a directional device. Investigators later tied the Sandy Springs and Otherside Lounge bombs together with this first device because all were propelled by nitroglycerin dynamite, used an alarm clock and Rubbermaid containers, and contained steel plates.
FBI Agent David (Woody) Johnson received notice that a call to 911 was placed about 18 minutes before the bomb detonated warning that a bomb would go off at the park within 30 minutes by "a white male with an indistinguishable American accent".
Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bag underneath a bench and alerted Georgia Bureau of Investigation officers. Tom Davis, of the Georgia Bureau of Investigation, called in a bomb squad, including members of the ATF and FBI to investigate the suspicious bag, which was leaning against the 40-ft NBC sound tower. Jewell and other security guards began clearing the immediate area so that the bomb squad could investigate the suspicious package. The bomb detonated two to three minutes into the evacuation, before all spectators could leave the area.
The first one who gave the news live worldwide was the Italian reporter Ezio Luzzi, who was in Atlanta as a correspondent of Rai (Radio Televisione Italiana) for the Olympic Games that were taking place at that time.
Moreover, Luzzi has remembered many times in his books and interview, what happened that day: "I was there, coordinating the Rai expedition and the explosion happened while I was crossing the square. The blow threw me to the ground without injuring me. I got up thinking only of going back to the studio and telling the story: I arrived before CNN, before anyone else".
Video of the explosion from a short distance away was captured by Robert Gee, a tourist from California, and later aired by CNN. The sound of the explosion was also recorded by a news crew from the German public television network ARD, who were interviewing American swimmer Janet Evans at a nearby hotel.
Victims
Alice Hawthorne, 44, of Albany, Georgia, was killed in the explosion when a nail from the bomb penetrated her skull. A cameraman with Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, Melih Uzunyol, 40, who had "survived coverage of wars in Azerbaijan, Bosnia and the Persian Gulf," suffered a fatal heart attack while running to the scene. The bomb wounded 111 others.
Reaction
President Bill Clinton denounced the explosion as an "evil act of terror" and vowed to do everything possible to track down and punish those responsible.
Despite the event, officials and athletes agreed that the games should continue as planned.
Aftermath
Richard Jewell falsely implicated
Though Richard Jewell was hailed as a hero for his role in discovering the bomb and moving spectators to safety, news organizations later reported that Jewell was considered a potential suspect in the bombing, four days afterward, and shortly after a brief, mistaken detainment of two juvenile persons of interest at the Kensington MARTA station. Jewell, at the time, was unknown to authorities, and a lone wolf profile made sense to FBI investigators after they were contacted by his former employer at Piedmont College.
Jewell was named as a person of interest, although he was never arrested. Jewell's home was searched, his background exhaustively investigated, and he became the subject of intense media interest and surveillance, including a media siege of his home.
After Jewell was exonerated, he initiated defamation lawsuits against NBC News, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, and other media entities, and insisted on a formal apology from them. Jewell's lawsuit accused Piedmont College President Raymond Cleere of falsely describing Jewell as a "badge-wearing zealot" who "would write epic police reports for minor infractions". The cases were later settled after 15 years of litigation with the Georgia Court of Appeals decision in July 2012, that the newspapers accurately reported that Jewell was the key suspect in the bombing, and emphasized he was only a suspect and the potential issues in the law enforcement case against him. Richard Jewell died on August 29, 2007, at the age of 44 from serious medical problems related to diabetes.
Richard Jewell, a biographical drama film, was released in the United States on December 13, 2019. The film was directed and produced by Clint Eastwood. It was written by Billy Ray, based on the 1997 article "American Nightmare," and the book The Suspect: An Olympic Bombing, the FBI, the Media, and Richard Jewell, the Man Caught in the Middle (2019) by Kent Alexander and Kevin Salwen. Jewell is played by Paul Walter Hauser.
A TV series, Manhunt, also called ManHunt: Deadly Games, dedicated season 2 (2020) to the story of Richard Jewell. Jewell is played by Cameron Britton.
Conviction of Eric Robert Rudolph
After Jewell was cleared, the FBI admitted it had no other suspects, and the investigation made little progress until early 1997, when two more bombings took place, at an abortion clinic and a lesbian nightclub, both in the Atlanta area. Similarities in the bomb design allowed investigators to conclude that this was the work of the same perpetrator. One more bombing of an abortion clinic, this time in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed a policeman working as a security guard and seriously injured nurse Emily Lyons, gave the FBI crucial clues including a partial license plate.
The plate and other clues led the FBI to identify Eric Robert Rudolph, a carpenter and handyman, as a suspect. Rudolph eluded capture and became a fugitive; officials believed he had disappeared into the rugged southern Appalachian Mountains, familiar from his youth. On May 5, 1998, the FBI named him as one of its ten most wanted fugitives and offered a $1 million reward for information leading directly to his arrest. On October 14, 1998, the Department of Justice formally named Rudolph as its suspect in all four bombings.
After more than five years on the run, Rudolph was arrested on May 31, 2003, in Murphy, North Carolina, by a rookie police officer, Jeffrey Scott Postell of the Murphy Police Department behind a Save-A-Lot store at about 4 a.m.; Postell, on routine patrol, had originally suspected a burglary in progress. On April 8, 2005, the government announced Rudolph would plead guilty to all four bombings, including the Centennial Olympic Park attack. Rudolph is serving four life terms without the possibility of parole at ADX Florence supermax prison in Florence, Colorado.
Rudolph's justification for the bombings according to his April 13, 2005 statement, was political:
In the summer of 1996, the world converged upon Atlanta for the Olympic Games. Under the protection and auspices of the regime in Washington, millions of people came to celebrate the ideals of global socialism. Multinational corporations spent billions of dollars, and Washington organized an army of security to protect these best of all games. Even though the conception and purpose of the so-called Olympic movement is to promote the values of global socialism, as perfectly expressed in the song "Imagine" by John Lennon, which was the theme of the 1996 Games even though the purpose of the Olympics is to promote these ideals, the purpose of the attack on July 27 was to confound, anger and embarrass the Washington government in the eyes of the world for its abominable sanctioning of abortion on demand.
The plan was to force the cancellation of the Games, or at least create a state of insecurity to empty the streets around the venues and thereby eat into the vast amounts of money invested.
On August 22, 2005, Rudolph, who had previously received a life sentence for the Alabama bombing, was sentenced to three concurrent terms of life imprisonment without parole for the Georgia incidents. Rudolph read a statement at his sentencing in which he apologized to the victims and families only of the Centennial Park bombing, reiterating that he was angry at the government and hoped the Olympics would be canceled. At his sentencing, fourteen other victims or relatives gave statements, including the widower of Alice Hawthorne.
Rudolph's former sister-in-law, Deborah Rudolph, talked about the irony of Rudolph's plea deal putting him in custody of a government he hates. "Knowing that he's living under government control for the rest of his life, I think that's worse to him than death," she told the San Diego Union Tribune in 2005.
As reported in an April 8, 2013 Alabama blog post, in February 2013, LuLu.com published Rudolph's book, Between the Lines of Drift: The Memoirs of a Militant, and in April 2013 the U.S. Attorney General seized his $200 royalty to help pay off the $1 million that Rudolph owes in restitution to the State of Alabama.
See also
List of terrorist incidents, 1996
Munich massacre
Domestic terrorism in the United States
Boston Marathon bombing, another bombing at an American sporting event
References
External links
FBI Centennial Park Bombing page via the Wayback Machine, from December 2, 1998.
"FBI Sets Up Toll-Free Information Hot-line After Atlanta Blast."
1996 Summer Olympics
1996 murders in the United States
1996 in Georgia (U.S. state)
1996 in Atlanta
July 1996 crimes
July 1996 events in the United States
Attacks in the United States in 1996
Crime in Atlanta
Counter-terrorism in the United States
Religiously motivated violence in the United States
Christian terrorism in the United States
Improvised explosive device bombings in the United States
Filmed improvised explosive device bombings
Olympic deaths
Murder in Georgia (U.S. state)
Terrorist incidents in the United States in 1996
Crimes in Georgia (U.S. state)
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives | [
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238273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiphospholipid%20syndrome | Antiphospholipid syndrome | Antiphospholipid syndrome, or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS or APLS), is an autoimmune, hypercoagulable state caused by antiphospholipid antibodies. APS provokes blood clots (thrombosis) in both arteries and veins as well as pregnancy-related complications such as miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and severe preeclampsia. Although the exact etiology of APS is still not clear, genetics is believed to play a key role in the development of the disease. The diagnostic criteria require one clinical event (i.e. thrombosis or pregnancy complication) and two positive blood test results spaced at least three months apart that detect lupus anticoagulant, anti-apolipoprotein antibodies, or anti-cardiolipin antibodies.
Antiphospholipid syndrome can be primary or secondary. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome occurs in the absence of any other related disease. Secondary antiphospholipid syndrome occurs with other autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In rare cases, APS leads to rapid organ failure due to generalised thrombosis; this is termed "catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome" (CAPS or Asherson syndrome) and is associated with a high risk of death.
Antiphospholipid syndrome often requires treatment with anticoagulant medication such as heparin to reduce the risk of further episodes of thrombosis and improve the prognosis of pregnancy. Warfarin (brand name Coumadin) is not used during pregnancy because it can cross the placenta, unlike heparin, and is teratogenic.
Signs and symptoms
The presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) in the absence of blood clots or pregnancy-related complications does not indicate APS (see below for the diagnosis of APS).
Antiphospholipid syndrome can cause arterial or venous blood clots, in any organ system, or pregnancy-related complications. In APS patients, the most common venous event is deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremities, and the most common arterial event is stroke. In pregnant women affected by APS, there is an increased risk of recurrent miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction, and preterm birth. A frequent cause of such complications is placental infarctions.
In some cases, APS seems to be the leading cause of mental and/or development retardation in the newborn, due to an aPL-induced inhibition of trophoblast differentiation. The antiphospholipid syndrome responsible for most of the miscarriages in later trimesters seen in concomitant systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy.
Other common findings, although not part of the APS classification criteria, are low platelet count, heart valve disease, and livedo reticularis. There are also associations between antiphospholipid antibodies and different neurologic manifestations including headache, migraine, epilepsy, and dementia. Some studies have shown the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies in the blood and spinal fluid of patients with psychological symptoms. Cancer is also observed to comorbid in patients with APS.
Risk factors
Risk factors for developing antiphospholipid syndrome include:
Genetic Markers: HLA-DR4, HLA-DR7, and HLA-DRw53
Race: Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans
Pathogenesis
Antiphospholipid syndrome is an autoimmune disease, in which "antiphospholipid antibodies" (anticardiolipin antibodies and lupus anticoagulant) react against proteins that bind to anionic phospholipids on plasma membranes. Like many autoimmune diseases, it is more common in women than in men. The exact cause is not known, but activation of the system of coagulation is evident. Clinically important antiphospholipid antibodies (those that arise as a result of the autoimmune process) are associated with thrombosis and vascular disease. The syndrome can be divided into primary (no underlying disease state) and secondary (in association with an underlying disease state) forms.
Anti-ApoH and a subset of anti-cardiolipin antibodies bind to ApoH. ApoH inhibits protein C, a glycoprotein with important regulatory function of coagulation (inactivates Factor Va and Factor VIIIa). Lupus anticoagulant (LAC) antibodies bind to prothrombin, thus increasing its cleavage to thrombin, its active form.
In APS there are also antibodies binding to protein S, which is a co-factor of protein C. Thus, anti-protein S antibodies decrease protein C efficiency.
Annexin A5 forms a shield around negatively charged phospholipid molecules, thus reducing their availability for coagulation. Thus, anti-annexin A5 antibodies increase phospholipid-dependent coagulation steps.
The lupus anticoagulant antibodies are those that show the closest association with thrombosis; those that target β2glycoprotein 1 have a greater association with thrombosis than those that target prothrombin.
Anticardiolipin antibodies are associated with thrombosis at moderate to high titres (over 40 GPLU or MPLU).
Patients with both lupus anticoagulant antibodies and moderate or high titre anticardiolipin antibodies show a greater risk of thrombosis than with one alone.
The increased risks of recurrent miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction and preterm birth by antiphospholipid antibodies, as supported by in vitro studies, include decreased trophoblast viability, syncytialization and invasion, deranged production of hormones and signalling molecules by trophoblasts, as well as activation of coagulation and complement pathways.
Diagnosis
Antiphospholipid syndrome is diagnosed using either liquid-phase coagulation assays to detect lupus anticoagulant or solid phase ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) to detect anti-cardiolipin antibodies or anti-apolipoprotein antibodies.
Genetic thrombophilia is part of the differential diagnosis of APS and can coexist in some patients with APS. Presence of genetic thrombophilia may determine the need for anticoagulation therapy. Thus genetic thrombophilia screening can consist of:
Screening for factor V Leiden variant and the prothrombin G20210A and MTHFR mutations.
Measuring serum levels of protein C, free and total protein S, factor VIII, antithrombin, plasminogen, tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)
Antiphospholipid antibodies do not recognize isolated cardiolipin, but bind to a cardiolipin-β2GPI (apolipoprotein H) complex. The use of testing for antibodies specific for individual targets of aPL such as β2 glycoprotein 1 and phosphatidylserine is currently under debate.
Lupus anticoagulant
This is tested for by using a minimum of two coagulation tests that are phospholipid-sensitive, due to the heterogeneous nature of the lupus anticoagulant antibodies. The patient on initial screening will typically have been found to have a prolonged partial thromboplastin time (PTT) that does not correct in an 80:20 mixture with normal human plasma (50:50 mixes with normal plasma are insensitive to all but the highest antibody levels). The PTT (plus 80:20 mix), dilute Russell's viper venom time (DRVVT), kaolin clotting time (KCT), dilute thromboplastin time (TDT/DTT), silica clotting time (SCT) and prothrombin time (using a lupus-sensitive thromboplastin) are the principal tests used for the detection of lupus anticoagulant. These tests must be carried out on a minimum of two occasions at least 6 weeks apart and be positive on each occasion, demonstrating persistent positivity, to allow a diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome. This is to prevent patients with transient positive tests (due to infection etc.) being diagnosed as positive.
Distinguishing a lupus antibody from a specific coagulation factor inhibitor (e.g.: factor VIII) is normally achieved by differentiating the effects of a lupus anticoagulant on factor assays from the effects of a specific coagulation factor antibody.
The lupus anticoagulant will inhibit all the contact activation pathway factors (factor VIII, factor IX, factor XI and factor XII). Lupus anticoagulant will also rarely cause a factor assay to give a result lower than 35 iu/dl (35%) whereas a specific factor antibody will rarely give a result higher than 10 iu/dl (10%).
Monitoring IV anticoagulant therapy by the PTT ratio is compromised due to the effects of the lupus anticoagulant and in these situations is generally best performed using a chromogenic assay based on the inhibition of factor Xa by antithrombin in the presence of heparin.
Anticardiolipin antibodies
Anti-cardiolipin antibodies can be detected using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) immunological test, which screens for the presence of β2glycoprotein 1 dependent anticardiolipin antibodies (ACA). A low platelet count and positivity for antibodies against β2-glycoprotein 1 or phosphatidylserine may also be observed in a positive diagnosis.
Criteria
Classification with APS requires evidence of both one or more specific, documented clinical events (either a vascular thrombosis and/or adverse obstetric event) and the confirmed presence of a repeated aPL. The Sapporo APS classification criteria (1998, published in 1999) were replaced by the Sydney criteria in 2006. Based on the most recent criteria, classification with APS requires one clinical and one laboratory manifestation:
Clinical:
A documented episode of arterial, venous, or small vessel thrombosis — other than superficial venous thrombosis — in any tissue or organ by objective validated criteria with no significant evidence of inflammation in the vessel wall
1 or more unexplained deaths of a morphologically normal fetus (documented by ultrasound or direct examination of the fetus) at or beyond the 10th week of gestation and/or 3 or more unexplained consecutive spontaneous abortions before the 10th week of gestation, with maternal anatomic or hormonal abnormalities and paternal and maternal chromosomal causes excluded or at least 1 premature birth of a morphologically normal neonate before the 34th week of gestation due to eclampsia or severe pre-eclampsia according to standard definitions, or recognized features of placental insufficiency
Laboratory:
Anti-cardiolipin IgG and/or IgM measured by standardized, non-cofactor dependent ELISA on 2 or more occasions, not less than 12 weeks apart; medium or high titre (i.e., > 40 GPL or MPL, or > the 99th percentile)
Anti-β2 glycoprotein I IgG and/or IgM measured by standardized ELISA on 2 or more occasions, not less than 12 weeks apart; medium or high titre (> the 99th percentile)
Lupus anticoagulant detected on 2 occasions not less than 12 weeks apart according to the guidelines of the International Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis.
There are 3 distinct APS disease entities: primary (the absence of any comorbidity), secondary (when there is a pre-existing autoimmune condition, most frequently systemic lupus erythematosus, SLE), and catastrophic (when there is simultaneous multi-organ failure with small vessel occlusion).
According to a 2006 consensus statement, it is advisable to classify APS into one of the following categories for research purposes:
I: more than one laboratory criterion present in any combination;
IIa: lupus anticoagulant present alone
IIb: anti-cardiolipin IgG and/or IgM present alone in medium or high titers
IIc: anti-β2 glycoprotein I IgG and/or IgM present alone in a titer greater than 99th percentile
The International Consensus Statement is commonly used for Catastrophic APS diagnosis. Based on this statement, Definite CAPS diagnosis requires:
a) Vascular thrombosis in three or more organs or tissues and
b) Development of manifestations simultaneously or in less than a week and
c) Evidence of small vessel thrombosis in at least one organ or tissue and
d) Laboratory confirmation of the presence of aPL.
VDRL, which detects antibodies against syphilis, may have a false positive result in aPL-positive patients (aPL bind to the lipids in the test and make it come out positive), although the more specific test for syphilis, FTA-Abs, that use recombinant antigens will not have a false-positive result.
Treatment
In people without symptoms, no treatment is required. In people with antiphospholipid antibody-associated thrombosis, anticoagulants such as warfarin are used to prevent further thrombosis. If warfarin is used, the INR is kept between 2.0 and 3.0. direct-acting oral anticoagulants may be used as an alternative to warfarin, but not in people who are "triple positive" with all types of antiphospholipid antibody (lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibody and anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibody).
Anticoagulation appears to prevent miscarriage in pregnant women. In pregnancy, low molecular weight heparin and low-dose aspirin are used instead of warfarin because of warfarin's teratogenicity. Women with recurrent miscarriage are often advised to take aspirin and to start low molecular weight heparin treatment after missing a menstrual cycle. In refractory cases plasmapheresis may be used.
Prognosis
The long-term prognosis for APS is determined mainly by recurrent thrombosis, which may occur in up to 29% of patients, sometimes despite antithrombotic therapy.
History
Antiphospholipid syndrome was described in full in the 1980s, by E. Nigel Harris and Aziz Gharavi. They published the first papers in 1983. The syndrome was referred to as "Hughes syndrome" among colleagues after the rheumatologist Graham R.V. Hughes (St. Thomas' Hospital, London, UK), who brought together the team.
Research
APS ACTION (the AntiPhospholipid Syndrome Alliance for Clinical Trials and InternatiOnal Networking), is the first-ever international research network that has been created to design and conduct large-scale, multicenter clinical trials in persistently antiphospholipid antibody (aPL) positive patients. The network consists of a multidisciplinary group of physicians and investigators from around the world who are interested in antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) research. The primary mission of APS ACTION is to prevent, treat, and cure antiphospholipid antibody (aPL) associated clinical manifestations through high quality, multicenter, and multidisciplinary clinical research.
References
Bibliography
A personal account of dealing with the condition.
50 case studies to help you work out whether you have it.
External links
Antiphospholipid Syndrome Explained - Genome.gov
Coagulopathies
Rheumatology
Autoimmune diseases
Neurological disorders
Obstetrics
Syndromes affecting blood
Syndromes affecting the nervous system | [
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238274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charales | Charales | Charales is an order of freshwater green algae in the division Charophyta, class Charophyceae, commonly known as stoneworts. Depending on the treatment of the genus Nitellopsis, living (extant) species are placed into either one family (Characeae) or two (Characeae and Feistiellaceae). Further families are used for fossil members of the order. Linnaeus established the genus Chara in 1753.
Taxonomy
The higher level classification of green algae was unsettled . AlgaeBase places Charales within the class Charophyceae and its circumscription of the division Charophyta.
Families
The number of families and their division into genera varies. , AlgaeBase accepts two families containing some extant species and four families containing only fossil species:
Characeae S.F.Gray
Feistiellaceae Schudack
†Aclistocharaceae X.G.Zhou (may be included in Characeae)
†Atopocharaceae R.E.Peck (may be included in Clavatoraceae)
†Clavatoraceae Pia
†Porocharaceae Grambast
AlgaeBase places the genus Nitellopsis, which has both extant and extinct species, in the family Feistiellaceae. Other sources place Nitellopsis in the family Characeae, with Feistiellaceae containing only fossil species, so that all extant species are in the family Characeae. The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera accepts a further three extinct families:
†Eocharaceae Grambast
†Palaeocharaceae Pia
†Raskyellaceae Grambast
References
Further reading
Bryant, J. The stoneworts (Chlorophyta, Charales). In Guiry, M.D., John, D.M., Rindi, F. and McCarthy, T.K. 2007. New Survey of Clare Island. Royal Irish Academy. .
Schaible, R. and Schubert, H. 2008. The occurrence of sexual Chara canesces populations (Charophyceae) is not related to ecophysiological potentials with respect to salinity and irradiance. Eur. J. Phycol. 43: 309 - 316.
Desai, Udaysingh and Karande C.T. 2008. "Biodiversity of Charophytes from Kolhapur District, Maharashtra". Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
External links
Images of Charales
University California
Chara curta in Ireland
Charophyta
Green algae orders | [
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238277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murdrum | Murdrum | Murdrum was the crime of murdering someone in a secret manner. It was introduced into English law by the Danes. It is distinguished from simple homicide. In the Laws of Canute an unknown man who was killed was presumed to be a Dane, and the vill/tithing was compelled to pay 40 marks for his death. After the Norman conquest the law was revived in respect of the Norman aristocracy. It was abolished in the reign of Edward III. Richard I of England exempted the Knights Templar from being charged with murdrum and Latrocinium amongst other privileges.
When King Henry I granted tax liberties to London in 1133, he exempted the city from taxes such as scot, danegeld, and murdrum.
References
Further reading
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238280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucilius%20Junior | Lucilius Junior | Lucilius Junior (fl. 1st century), was the procurator of Sicily during the reign of Nero, a friend and correspondent of Seneca, and the possible author of Aetna, a poem that survives in a corrupt state.
Life
The information known about Lucilius comes from Seneca's writings, especially his Moral Letters, which are addressed to Lucilius. Seneca also dedicated his Naturales Quaestiones and his essay De Providentia to Lucilius. Lucilius seems to have been a native of Campania, and Seneca refers repeatedly to "your beloved Pompeii." At the time Seneca wrote his Letters (c. 65 AD), Lucilius was the procurator (and possibly governor) of Sicily. He was a Roman Knight, a status he had achieved through "persistent work," and he owned a country villa in Ardea, south of Rome. Seneca devotes one of his shorter letters to praising a book Lucilius had written, and elsewhere quotes a few lines of Lucilius' poetry.
Aetna
Aetna is a 644-line poem on the origin of volcanic activity, which has been variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius Severus, and Manilius.
Its composition has been placed as far back as 44 BC, on the ground that certain works of art, known to have been removed to Rome about that date, are referred to as being at a distance from the city. But as the author appears to have known and made use of the Quaestiones Naturales of Seneca (written c. 65 AD), and no mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (AD 79), the time of its composition seems to lie between these two dates. In favor of the authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was a friend of Seneca and acquainted with his writings; that he had for some time held the office of imperial procurator of Sicily, and was thus familiar with the locality; and that he was the author of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is objected that in the 79th letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority on the question, he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the hackneyed theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem, not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of the Aetna are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-Aristotelian De Mundo, while there are many reminiscences of Lucretius. It has come down in a very corrupt state, and its difficulties are increased by the unpoetical nature of the subject, the straining after conciseness, and the obtrusive use of metaphor.
Notes
Editions
J Scaliger (1595)
F Jacob (1826)
H A J Munro (1867)
Moritz Haupt in his edition of Virgil (1873)
E. Bährens in Poetae latini minores, ii.
Siegfried Sudhaus (1898)
Robinson Ellis (1901), containing a bibliography of the subject
References
External links
Robinson Ellis, (1901), Aetna; a critical recension of the text, Latin text with English translation and commentary, at the Internet Archive
Junior
1st-century Romans
1st-century Roman poets
Roman governors of Sicily
Ancient Roman scientists
Roman-era poets
Silver Age Latin writers | [
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238281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnetophyta | Gnetophyta | Gnetophyta () is a division of plants, grouped within the gymnosperms (which also includes conifers, cycads, and ginkgos), that consists of some 70 species across the three relict genera: Gnetum (family Gnetaceae), Welwitschia (family Welwitschiaceae), and Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). Fossilized pollen attributed to a close relative of Ephedra has been dated as far back as the Early Cretaceous. Though diverse in the Early Cretaceous, only three families, each containing a single genus, are still alive today. The primary difference between gnetophytes and other gymnosperms is the presence of vessel elements, a system of conduits that transport water within the plant, similar to those found in flowering plants. Because of this, gnetophytes were once thought to be the closest gymnosperm relatives to flowering plants, but more recent molecular studies have brought this hypothesis into question.
Though it is clear they are all related, the exact evolutionary inter-relationships between gnetophytes are unclear. Some classifications hold that all three genera should be placed in a single order (Gnetales), while other classifications say they should be distributed among three separate orders, each containing a single family and genus. Most morphological and molecular studies confirm that the genera Gnetum and Welwitschia diverged from each other more recently than they did from Ephedra.
Ecology and morphology
Unlike most biological groupings, it is difficult to find many common characteristics between all of the members of the gnetophytes. The two common characteristics most commonly used are the presence of enveloping bracts around both the ovules and microsporangia as well as a micropylar projection of the outer membrane of the ovule that produces a pollination droplet, though these are highly specific compared to the similarities between most other plant divisions. L. M. Bowe refers to the gnetophyte genera as a "bizarre and enigmatic" trio because, the gnetophytes' specialization to their respective environments is so complete that they hardly resemble each other at all. Gnetum species are mostly woody vines in tropical forests, though the best-known member of this group, Gnetum gnemon, is a tree native to western Malesia. The one remaining species of Welwitschia, Welwitschia mirabilis, native only to the dry deserts of Namibia and Angola, is a ground-hugging species with only two large strap-like leaves that grow continuously from the base throughout the plant's life. Ephedra species, known as "jointfirs" in the United States, have long slender branches which bear tiny scale-like leaves at their nodes. Infusions from these plants have been traditionally used as a stimulant, but ephedrine is a controlled substance today in many places because of the risk of harmful or even fatal overdosing.
Fossil Gnetophyta
Knowledge of gnetophyte history through fossil discovery has increased greatly since the 1980s. Gnetophyte fossils have been found that date from the Permian and the Triassic. Fossils dating back to the Jurassic have been found, though whether or not they belong to the gnetophytes is uncertain. Overall, the fossil record is richest in the early Cretaceous, with fossils of plants, seeds, and pollen have been found that can clearly be assigned to the gnetophytes.
Classification
With just three well-defined genera within an entire division, there still is understandable difficulty in establishing an unambiguous interrelationship among them; in earlier times matters were even more difficult and we find for example Pearson in the early 20th century speaking of the class Gnetales, rather than the order. G.H.M. Lawrence referred to them as an order, but remarked that the three families were distinct enough to deserve recognition as separate orders. Foster & Gifford accepted this principle, and placed the three orders together in a common class for convenience, which they called Gnetopsida. In general the evolutionary relationships among the seed plants still are unresolved, and the Gnetophyta have played an important role in the formation of phylogenetic hypotheses. Molecular phylogenies of extant gymnosperms have conflicted with morphological characters with regard to whether the gymnosperms as a whole (including gnetophytes) comprise a monophyletic group or a paraphyletic one that gave rise to angiosperms. At issue is whether the Gnetophyta are the sister group of angiosperms, or whether they are sister to, or nested within, other extant gymnosperms. Numerous fossil gymnosperm clades once existed that are morphologically at least as distinctive as the four living gymnosperm groups, such as Bennettitales, Caytonia and the glossopterids. When these gymnosperm fossils are considered, the question of gnetophyte relationships to other seed plants becomes even more complicated. Several hypotheses, illustrated below, have been presented to explain seed plant evolution. Morphological studies have supported a close relationship between Gnetophyta, Bennettitales and the Erdtmanithecales.
Recent research by Lee, Cibrian-Jaramillo, et al. (2011) suggests that the Gnetophyta are a sister group to the rest of the gymnosperms, contradicting the anthophyte hypothesis, which held that gnetophytes were sister to the flowering plants.
Gnetifer hypothesis
In the gnetifer hypothesis, the gnetophytes are sister to the conifers, and the gymnosperms are a monophyletic group, sister to the angiosperms.The gnetifer hypothesis first emerged formally in the mid-twentieth century, when vessel elements in the gnetophytes were interpreted as being derived from tracheids with circular bordered pits, as in conifers. It however only gained strong support with the emergence of molecular data in the late 1990s. Although the most salient morphological evidence still largely supports the anthophyte hypothesis,some more obscure morphological commonalities between the gnetophytes and conifers lend support to the gnetifer hypothesis.These shared traits include: tracheids with scalariform pits with tori interspersed with annular thickenings, absence of scalariform pitting in primary xylem, scale-like and strap-shaped leaves of Ephedra and Welwitschia; and reduced sporophylls.
Anthophyte hypothesis
From the early twentieth century, the anthophyte hypothesis was the prevailing explanation for seed plant evolution, based on shared morphological characters between the gnetophytes and angiosperms. In this hypothesis, the gnetophytes, along with the extinct order Bennettitales, are sister to the angiosperms, forming the "anthophytes". Some morphological characters that were suggested to unite the anthophytes include vessels in wood, net-veined leaves (in Gnetum only), lignin chemistry, the layering of cells in the apical meristem, pollen and megaspore features (including thin megaspore wall), short cambial initials, and lignin syringal groups. However, most genetic studies, as well as more recent morphological analyses, have rejected the anthophyte hypothesis.
Several of these studies have suggested that the gnetophytes and angiosperms have independently derived characters, including flower-like reproductive structures and tracheid vessel elements, that appear shared but are actually the result of parallel evolution.
Gnepine hypothesis
The gnepine hypothesis is a modification of the gnetifer hypothesis, and suggests that the gnetophytes belong within the conifers as a sister group to the Pinaceae. According to this hypothesis, the conifers as currently defined are not a monophyletic group, in contrast with molecular findings that support its monophyly. All existing evidence for this hypothesis comes from molecular studies since 1999. However, the morphological evidence remains difficult to reconcile with the gnepine hypothesis. If the gnetophytes are nested within conifers, they must have lost several shared derived characters of the conifers (or these characters must have evolved in parallel in the other two conifer lineages): narrowly triangular leaves (gnetophytes have diverse leaf shapes), resin canals, a tiered proembryo, and flat woody ovuliferous cone scales. These kinds of major morphological changes are not without precedent in the Pinales, however: the Taxaceae, for example, have lost the classical cone of the conifers in favor of a single-terminal ovule, surrounded by a fleshy aril.
Gnetophyte-sister hypothesis
Some partitions of the genetic data suggest that the gnetophytes are sister to all of the other extant seed plant groups. However, there is no morphological evidence nor examples from the fossil record to support the gnetophyte-sister hypotheses.
Fossil lineages
Ephedraceae
Leongathia V.A. Krassilov ,D.L. Dilcher & J.G. Douglas 1998 Koonwarra fossil bed, Australia, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Jianchangia Yang, Wang and Ferguson, 2020 Jiufotang Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Eamesia Yang, Lin and Ferguson, 2018 Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Prognetella Krassilov et Bugdaeva, 1999 Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian) (initially interpreted as an angiosperm)
Chengia Yang, Lin & Wang, 2013, Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Gnetaceae
Khitania Guo et al. 2009 Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Welwitschiaceae
Priscowelwitschia Dilcher et al., 2005 Crato Formation, Brazil, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Cratonia Rydin et al., 2003 Crato Formation, Brazil, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Welwitschiostrobus Dilcher et al., 2005 Crato Formation, Brazil, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Incertae sedis:
Drewria Crane & Upchurch, 1987 Potomac Group, USA, Albian (possible affinities to Welwitschiaceae)
Bicatia Friis, Pedersen and Crane, 2014 Figueira da Foz Formation, Portugal, Early Cretaceous (late Aptian early Albian), Potomac Group, USA, Albian (possible affinities to Welwitschiaceae)
Liaoningia Yang et al, 2017 Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Protognetum Y. Yang, L. Xie et D.K. Ferguson, 2017 Daohugou, China, Middle Jurassic (Callovian)
Itajuba Ricardi-Branco et al, 2013, Crato Formation, Brazil, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Protoephedrites Rothwell et Stockey, 2013 Canada, Valanginian (possible ephedroid affinities)
Siphonospermum Rydin et Friis, 2010 Yixian Formation, China, Early Cretaceous (Aptian)
Welwitschiophyllum Dilcher et al., 2005 Crato Formation, Brazil, Early Cretaceous (Aptian), Akrabou Formation, Morocco, Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) (Initially interpreted as a member of Welwitschiaceae, later considered uncertain).
Dayvaultia Manchester et al. 2021 Morrison Formation, USA, Late Jurassic (Tithonian)
References
Other Sources:
Plant divisions
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238283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Philippe%20Brunck | Richard François Philippe Brunck | Richard François Philippe Brunck (30 December 1729 – 12 June 1803) was a French classical scholar.
Biography
Brunck was born in Strasbourg, France, educated at the Jesuits' College in Paris, and took part in the Seven Years' War as military commissary. At the age of thirty he returned to Strasbourg to resume his studies, especially Greek. He spent considerable sums of money in publishing editions of the Greek classics.
The first work he edited was the Anthologia Graeca or Analecta veterum Poetarum Graecorum (1772–1776), in which his innovations on the established mode of criticism startled European scholars. As an editor, he made no commentaries, but occupied himself only with the text. Persuaded that all faults in the language of the Greek poets came from the carelessness of copyists, wherever it seemed to him that an obscure or difficult passage might be made intelligible and easy by a change of text, he did not scruple to make the necessary alterations, whether the new reading were supported by manuscript authority or not.
He became a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1777.
Other editions
Other works by him are editions of Anacreon (1778), several plays of the Greek tragedians, Apollonius Rhodius (1780), Aristophanes, with an excellent Latin translation (1781–1783), Gnomici poetae Graeci (1784), Sophocles (1786), with Latin translation, a work for which he received a pension of 2,000 francs from the king. He also published editions of Virgil (1785), Plautus (1788) and Terence (1797).
French Revolution
At the outbreak of the French Revolution, in which he took an active part, Brunck was imprisoned at Besançon, and lost his pension, being reduced to such extremes of penury that he was obliged to sell a portion of his library. In 1802 his pension was restored to him, but it came too late to prevent the sale of his remaining books.
Notes
References
1729 births
1803 deaths
People from Strasbourg
French classical scholars
French hellenists
People of the French Revolution
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres | [
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238285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Ramsey%20%28mathematician%29 | Frank Ramsey (mathematician) | Frank Plumpton Ramsey (; 22 February 1903 – 19 January 1930) was a British philosopher, mathematician, and economist who made major contributions to all three fields before his death at the age of 26. He was a close friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein and, as an undergraduate, translated Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus into English. He was also influential in persuading Wittgenstein to return to philosophy and Cambridge. Like Wittgenstein, he was a member of the Cambridge Apostles, the secret intellectual society, from 1921.
Life
Ramsey was born on 22 February 1903 in Cambridge where his father Arthur Stanley Ramsey (1867–1954), also a mathematician, was President of Magdalene College. His mother was Mary Agnes Stanley (1875–1927). He was the eldest of two brothers and two sisters, and his brother Michael Ramsey, the only one of the four siblings who was to remain Christian, later became Archbishop of Canterbury. He entered Winchester College in 1915 and later returned to Cambridge to study mathematics at Trinity College. There he became a student of John Maynard Keynes, and an active member in the Apostles. In 1923, he received his bachelor's degree in mathematics, passing his examinations with the result of first class with distinction, and was named Senior Wrangler (top of his class). Easy-going, simple and modest, Ramsey had many interests besides his mathematical and scientific studies. Even as a teenager Ramsey exhibited both a profound ability and, as attested by his brother, an extremely diverse range of interests:
In 1923, Ramsey was befriended by Geoffrey and Margaret Pyke, then on the point of founding the Malting House School in Cambridge; the Pykes took Ramsey into their family, taking him on holiday and asking him to be the godfather of their young son. Margaret found herself to be the object of his affection, Ramsey recording in his diary:
One afternoon I went out alone with her on Lake Orta and became filled with desire and we came back and lay on two beds side by side she reading, I pretending to, but with an awful conflict in my mind. After about an hour I said (she was wearing her horn spectacles and looking superlatively beautiful in the Burne Jones style) ‘Margaret will you fuck with me?’
Margaret wanted time to consider his proposition and thus began an uncomfortable dance between them, which contributed to Ramsey's depressive moods in early 1924; as a result, he travelled to Vienna for psychoanalysis. Like many of his contemporaries, including his Viennese flatmate and fellow Apostle Lionel Penrose (also in analysis with Siegfried Bernfeld), Ramsey was intellectually interested in psychoanalysis. Ramsey's analyst was Theodor Reik, a disciple of Freud. As one of the justifications for undertaking the therapy, he asserted in a letter to his mother that unconscious impulses might affect even a mathematician's work. While in Vienna, he made a trip to Puchberg in order to visit Wittgenstein, was befriended by the Wittgenstein family and visited A.S. Neill's experimental school four hours from Vienna at Sonntagsberg. In the summer of 1924, he continued his analysis by joining Reik at Dobbiaco (in South Tyrol), where a fellow analysand was Lewis Namier. Ramsey returned to England in October 1924; with John Maynard Keynes's support he became a fellow of King's College, Cambridge. He joined a Psychoanalysis Group in Cambridge with fellow members Arthur Tansley, Lionel Penrose, Harold Jeffreys, John Rickman and James Strachey, the qualification for membership of which was a completed psychoanalysis.
Ramsey married Lettice Baker in September 1925, the wedding taking place in a Register Office since Ramsey was, as his wife described him, a ‘militant atheist'. The marriage produced two daughters. After Ramsey's death, Lettice Ramsey opened a photography studio in Cambridge with photographer Helen Muspratt. Despite his atheism, Ramsey was "quite tolerant" towards his brother when the latter decided to become a priest in the Church of England.
In 1926 he became a university lecturer in mathematics and later a Director of Studies in Mathematics at King's College.
The Vienna Circle manifesto (1929) lists three of his publications in a bibliography of closely related authors.
Ramsey and Wittgenstein
When I. A. Richards and C. K. Ogden, both Fellows of Magdalene, first met Ramsey, he expressed his interest in learning German. According to Richards, he mastered the language "in almost hardly over a week", although other sources show he had taken one year of German in school. Ramsey was then able, at the age of 19, to make the first draft of the translation of the German text of Ludwig Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Ramsey was impressed by Wittgenstein's work and after graduating as Senior Wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos of 1923 he made a journey to Austria to visit Wittgenstein, at that time teaching in a primary school in the small community of Puchberg am Schneeberg. For two weeks Ramsey discussed the difficulties he was facing in understanding the Tractatus. Wittgenstein made some corrections to the English translation in Ramsey's copy and some annotations and changes to the German text that subsequently appeared in the second edition in 1933.
Ramsey and John Maynard Keynes cooperated to try to bring Wittgenstein back to Cambridge (he had been a student there before World War I). Once Wittgenstein had returned to Cambridge, Ramsey became his nominal supervisor. Wittgenstein submitted the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus as his doctoral thesis. G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell acted as examiners. Later, the three of them arranged financial aid for Wittgenstein to help him continue his research work.
In 1929 Ramsey and Wittgenstein regularly discussed issues in mathematics and philosophy with Piero Sraffa, an Italian economist who had been brought to Cambridge by Keynes after Sraffa had aroused Benito Mussolini's ire by publishing an article critical of the Fascist regime in the Manchester Guardian. The contributions of Ramsey to these conversations were acknowledged by both Sraffa and Wittgenstein in their later work, the latter mentioning him in the introduction to his Philosophical Investigations as an influence.
Early death
Suffering from chronic liver problems, Ramsey developed jaundice after an abdominal operation and died on 19 January 1930 at Guy's Hospital in London at the age of 26. There is a suspicion that the cause of his death might be an undiagnosed leptospirosis with which Ramsey, an avid swimmer, could have become infected while swimming in the Cam.
He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge; his parents are buried in the same plot.
Ramsey's notes and manuscripts were acquired by Nicholas Rescher for the Archives of Scientific Philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh. This collection contains only a few letters but a great many drafts of papers and book chapters, some still unpublished. Other papers, including his diary and letters and memoirs by his widow Lettice Ramsey and his father, are held in the Modern Archives, King's College, Cambridge.
Work
Mathematical logic
One of the theorems proved by Ramsey in his 1928 paper On a Problem of Formal Logic now bears his name (Ramsey's theorem). While this theorem is the work Ramsey is probably best remembered for, he proved it only in passing, as a minor lemma along the way to his true goal in the paper, solving a special case of the decision problem for first-order logic, namely the decidability of what is now called the Bernays–Schönfinkel–Ramsey class of first-order logic, as well as a characterisation of the spectrum of sentences in this fragment of logic. Alonzo Church would go on to show that the general case of the decision problem for first-order logic is unsolvable and that first-order logic is undecidable (see Church's theorem). A great amount of later work in mathematics was fruitfully developed out of the ostensibly minor lemma used by Ramsey in his decidability proof: this lemma turned out to be an important early result in combinatorics, supporting the idea that within some sufficiently large systems, however disordered, there must be some order. So fruitful, in fact, was Ramsey's theorem that today there is an entire branch of mathematics, known as Ramsey theory, which is dedicated to studying similar results.
In 1926, Ramsey proposed a simplification of the Theory of Types developed by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead in their Principia Mathematica. The resulting theory is known today as Theory of Simple Type (TST) or Simple Type Theory. Ramsey observed that a hierarchy of types was sufficient to deal with mathematical paradoxes, so removed Russell's and Whitehead's ramified hierarchy, which was meant to elude semantic paradoxes. Ramsey's version of the theory is the one considered by Kurt Gödel in the original proof of his First incompleteness theorem. Ramsey's Theory of Simple Types was further simplified by Willard van Orman Quine in his New Foundations set theory, in which any explicit reference to types is eliminated from the language of the theory.
Philosophy
His main philosophical works included Universals (1925), Facts and propositions (1927) (which proposed a redundancy theory of truth), Universals of law and of fact (1928), Knowledge (1929), Theories (1929), On Truth (1929), Causal Qualities (1929), and General propositions and causality (1929). Ramsey was perhaps the first to propose a reliablist theory of knowledge. He also produced what philosopher Alan Hájek has described as an "enormously influential version of the subjective interpretation of probability." His thought in this area was outlined in the paper Truth and Probability (discussed below) which was written in 1926 but first published posthumously in 1931.
Economics
Keynes and Pigou encouraged Ramsey to work on economics as "From a very early age, about sixteen I think, his precocious mind was intensely interested in economic problems" (Keynes, 1933). Ramsey responded to Keynes's urging by writing three papers in economic theory all of which were of fundamental importance, though it was many years before they received their proper recognition by the community of economists.
Ramsey's three papers, described below in detail, were on subjective probability and utility (1926), optimal taxation (1927) and optimal growth with one-sector economic growth (1928). The economist Paul Samuelson described them in 1970 as "three great legacies – legacies that were for the most part mere by-products of his major interest in the foundations of mathematics and knowledge."
A Mathematical Theory of Saving
Described by Partha Dasgupta, in a Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry devoted to it, as "one of the dozen or so most influential papers of the 20th century" in the field of academic economics, "A Mathematical Theory of Saving" was originally published in The Economic Journal in 1928. It employed, as Paul Samuelson described it, "a strategically beautiful application of the calculus of variations" to determine the optimal amount an economy should invest rather than consume so as to maximise future utility, or as Ramsey put it, "how much of its income should a nation save?"
Keynes described the article as "one of the most remarkable contributions to mathematical economics ever made, both in respect of the intrinsic importance and difficulty of its subject, the power and elegance of the technical methods employed, and the clear purity of illumination with which the writer's mind is felt by the reader to play about its subject. The article is terribly difficult reading for an economist, but it is not difficult to appreciate how scientific and aesthetic qualities are combined in it together." The Ramsey model is today acknowledged as the starting point for optimal accumulation theory although its importance was not recognised until many years after its first publication.
The main contributions of the model were firstly the initial question Ramsey posed on how much savings should be and secondly the method of analysis, the intertemporal maximisation (optimisation) of collective or individual utility by applying techniques of dynamic optimisation. Tjalling C. Koopmans and David Cass modified the Ramsey model incorporating the dynamic features of population growth at a steady rate and of Harrod-neutral technical progress again at a steady rate, giving birth to a model named the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model where the objective now is to maximise household's utility function.
A Contribution to the Theory of Taxation
This paper, first published in 1927 has been described by Joseph E. Stiglitz as "a landmark in the economics of public finance" In the same, Ramsey contributed to economic theory the elegant concept of Ramsey pricing. This is applicable in situations where a (regulated) monopolist wants to maximise consumer surplus whilst at the same time ensuring that its costs are adequately covered. This is achieved by setting the price such that the markup over marginal cost is inversely proportional to the price elasticity of demand for that good. Ramsey poses the question that is to be solved at the beginning of the article: "a given revenue is to be raised by proportionate taxes on some or all uses of income, the taxes on different uses being possibly at different rates; how much should these rates be adjusted in order that the decrement of utility may be a minimum?" The problem was suggested to him by the economist Arthur Pigou and the paper was Ramsey's answer to the problem.
Truth and Probability
In A Treatise on Probability (1921), Keynes had argued against the subjective approach in epistemic probabilities. For Keynes, subjectivity of probabilities does not matter as much, as for him there is an objective relationship between knowledge and probabilities, as knowledge is disembodied and not personal.
Ramsey disagreed with this approach. In his article "Truth and Probability" (1926), he argued that there is a difference between the notions of probability in physics and in logic. For Ramsey, probability is not related to a disembodied body of knowledge but is related to the knowledge that each individual possesses alone. Thus personal beliefs that are formulated by this individual knowledge govern probabilities, leading to the notions of subjective probability and Bayesian probability. Consequently, subjective probabilities can be inferred by observing actions that reflect individuals' personal beliefs. Ramsey argued that the degree of probability that an individual attaches to a particular outcome can be measured by finding what odds the individual would accept when betting on that outcome. After Ramsey's death, an approach to probability similar to his was developed independently by the Italian mathematician Bruno de Finetti.
Ramsey suggested a way of deriving a consistent theory of choice under uncertainty that could isolate beliefs from preferences while still maintaining subjective probabilities.
Despite the fact that Ramsey's work on probabilities was of great importance, no one paid any attention to it until the publication of Theory of Games and Economic Behavior of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern in 1944 (1947 2nd ed.).
Legacy
Frank P. Ramsey Medal
The Decision Analysis Society annually awards the Frank P. Ramsey Medal to recognise substantial contributions to decision theory and its application to important classes of real decision problems.
Frank Ramsey Professorships
Howard Raiffa was made the first Frank P. Ramsey Professor (of Managerial Economics) at Harvard University. Richard Zeckhauser was made the Frank P. Ramsey Professor of Political Economy at Harvard University in 1971. Raiffa's chair was joint between the Harvard Business and Kennedy Schools. Zeckhauser's chair is in the Kennedy School. Partha Dasgupta was made the Frank Ramsey Professor of Economics in 1994 and Frank Ramsey Professor Emeritus of Economics in 2010 at the University of Cambridge.
Ramsey Effect
In 1999, the philosopher Donald Davidson gave the name "the Ramsey Effect" to anyone's realization that their splendid new philosophical discovery already existed within Frank Ramsey's body of work.
See also
Clique game
Expected utility hypothesis
Money pump
Ramsey cardinal
Structural Ramsey theory
Quantum Bayesianism
Theorem on friends and strangers
Type theory
History of type theory
Frederick Rowbottom
Bayesian epistemology
Notes
References
Galavotti, M. C. (Ed.) (2006), Cambridge and Vienna: Frank P. Ramsey and the Vienna Circle, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (2000), The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Keynes, John Maynard (1933), "F. P. Ramsey", in Essays in Biography, New York, NY.
Ramsey, F.P. (1931), The Foundations of Mathematics, and other Essays, (ed.) R. B. Braithwaite
Ramsey, F.P. (1978) Foundations – Essays in Philosophy, Logic, Mathematics and Economics, (ed.) D.H. Mellor, Humanities Press,
Rescher, Nicholas and Ulrich Majer (eds.) (1991). F. P. Ramsey: On Truth , Dordrecht, Kluwer
Sahlin, N.-E. (1990), The Philosophy of F. P. Ramsey, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Sahlin, N.-E. (1996), “He is no good for my work”: On the philosophical relations between Ramsey and Wittgenstein, in Knowledge and Inquiry: Essays on Jaakko Hintikkas Epistemology and Philosophy of Science, ed by M. Sintonen, Poznan Studies in the Philosophy of Sciences and the Humanities, Amsterdam, 61–84
Sahlin, N.-E. (2005), Ramsey’s Ontology, a special issue of Metaphysica, No. 3
Further reading
External links
Frank Ramsey, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Frank Plumpton Ramsey Papers
Better than the Stars/Frank Ramsey: a biography a 1978 BBC radio portrait of Ramsey and a 1995 article derived from it, both by David Hugh Mellor.
Maths and philosophy puzzles BBC Radio 3 programme discussing the legacy of Ramsey.
A photo of Ramsey's grave at Findagrave
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238286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial | Terrestrial | Terrestrial refers to things related to land or the planet Earth.
Terrestrial may also refer to:
Terrestrial animal, an animal that lives on land opposed to living in water, or sometimes an animal that lives on or near the ground, as opposed to arboreal life (in trees)
A fishing fly that simulates the appearance of a land insect is referred to as a terrestrial fly.
Terrestrial ecoregion, land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater ecoregions and marine ecoregions
Terrestrial ecosystem, an ecosystem found only on landforms
Terrestrial gamma-ray flash, a burst of gamma rays produced in Earth's atmosphere
Terrestrial locomotion, evolutionary adaptation from aquatic types of locomotion
Terrestrial plant, a plant that grows on land rather than in water or on rocks or trees
Terrestrial planet, a planet that is primarily composed of silicate rocks, and thus "Earth-like"
Terrestrial radio, radio signals received through a conventional aerial, as opposed to satellite radio
Terrestrial radiation, due to the insolation of heat by the earth surface, earth re-radiates the heat to the atmosphere in the form of long waves
Terrestrial reconnaissance, a type of reconnaissance that is employed along the elements of ground warfare
Terrestrial reference frame, the reference frame as one views from earth
Terrestrial television, television signals received through a conventional aerial, as opposed to satellite television or cable television
Terrestrial Time, an astronomical time standard
Terrestrial Trunked Radio, a specialist walkie talkie standard used by police departments, fire departments, ambulance services and the military
Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution, the intense diversification of land animals
See also
Extraterrestrial (disambiguation)
Terrestre (disambiguation)
Terrestris (disambiguation) | [
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238288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic | Aquatic | Aquatic means relating to water; living in or near water or taking place in water; does not include groundwater, as "aquatic" implies an environment where plants and animals live.
Aquatic(s) may also refer to:
Aquatic animal, either vertebrate or invertebrate, which lives in water for most or all of its life
Aquatic ecosystem, environmental system located in a body of water
Aquatic plants, also called hydrophytic plants or hydrophytes, are plants that have adapted to living in or on aquatic environments
Aquatic (album), 1994 album by the Australian experimental jazz trio, The Necks
Aquatics, another name for water sports
See also
Aquatics (disambiguation)
Freshwater ecosystem, an earth aquatic ecosystems
Limnology, the study of inland waters
Marine biology, the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
Oceanography, the study of marine environments
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238289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petiole | Petiole | Petiole may refer to:
Petiole (botany), the stalk of a leaf, attaching the blade to the stem
Petiole (insect anatomy), the narrow waist of some hymenopteran insects | [
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238291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCM | TCM | TCM may refer to:
Arts and music
Film
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (franchise), a horror film franchise
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, the original 1974 film
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003 film), the 2003 remake
Games
The Corporate Machine, a 2001 personal computer game from Stardock
Total Club Manager, football (soccer) management series of video games from Bright Future (in older releases EA sports)
Music
The Color Morale, a post-hardcore band from Rockford, Illinois
The Crystal Method, an electronic music group
Tianjin Conservatory of Music
Tokyo College of Music
Trinity College of Music, a leading music conservatory, based in Greenwich, London, United Kingdom
Automotive
Transmission control module, an electronic device to manage an automobile's transmission
Companies
Teledyne Continental Motors, an American engine manufacturing company
Times Community Media, an American newspaper company
Toshiba Consumer Marketing Corporation, a division of Toshiba
TCM (Macau) (), a bus company in Macau
Turner Classic Movies, a U.S. cable TV and satellite network:
Turner Classic Movies (UK and Ireland)
Turner Classic Movies Germany, renamed TNT Film in 2009, now WarnerTV Film
Turner Classic Movies (Nordic)
Turner Classic Movies (Middle East and Africa)
Turner Classic Movies (Asia)
Computing and telecommunications
Thermal Conduction Module, by IBM
Tightly-coupled memory, memory which resides directly on the processor of a computer - see multiprocessing
Time Compression Multiplex, a time-division duplex scheme
Toolkit for Conceptual Modeling, a collection of software tools to present specifications of software systems
Trellis coded modulation, a signal modulation scheme for telecommunications
Places
McChord Field, Washington state, United States (IATA airport code: TCM)
The Computer Museum, Boston
The Contemporary Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, an art museum now called the Honolulu Museum of Art Spalding House
The Children's Museum of Indianapolis, shortened TCM in its inventory numbers (for example, the museum's most famous Triceratops specimen has been named TCM 2001.93.1)
Science and medicine
TCM, central memory T cell, in medicine
Theory of Condensed Matter group, a theoretical physics research group in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge
Tetrachloromethane, an organic compound also known as carbon tetrachloride
Traditional Chinese medicine, a range of traditional medicine practices used in China.
Trajectory correction maneuver, in space travel; see, for example, Voyager 1
Trichloromethane or chloroform, a solvent, and former anaesthetic
Models and processes
Three-component model of organizational commitment in organizational behavior and industrial and organizational psychology
Total cost management, a process using principles of cost engineering for portfolio, program, and project management
Sports
Toronto Canada Moose, a tier II junior A ice hockey team based out of Thornhill, Ontario, Canada
Twin Cities Marathon, an annual marathon in Minneapolis-Saint Paul
Other
tcm, ISO 639-3 code for the Sumeri language of West Papua, New Guinea
The Creativity Movement, an arm of Creativity (religion), a white supremacist organisation
TRADOC Capability Manager, personnel responsible for US Army user requirements | [
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238292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Musgrave | Samuel Musgrave | Samuel Musgrave, FRS (29 September 1732 – 5 July 1780) was an English classical scholar and physician.
He was born at Washfield, Devon, the son of Richard Musgrave. He matriculated at Queen's College, Oxford in 1749; and graduated B.A. from Corpus Christi College in 1754. He was elected to a Radcliffe travelling fellowship, at University College.
Musgrave spent about a decade abroad. At the period when the Treaty of Paris (1763) was signed, Musgrave was resident in Paris. He formed a theory that British representatives had sold out to the French, allowing a treaty unfavourable to British interests. He brought his theory to the attention of Lord Halifax, and the Speaker of the House of Commons, when he returned to England in 1765. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but moved to Plymouth to improve his career prospects.
In an attempt to gain traction for his theory on the treaty, Musgrave published in 1769 a pamphlet in the form of an address to the people of Devon, accusing certain members of the British government of having been bribed by the French government. A further pamphlet involved Charles d'Eon de Beaumont, the French minister plenipotentiary to England. A controversy followed, and the House of Commons in 1770 decided that Musgrave's charges were unsubstantiated.
Musgrave then earned a living in London by writing until his death, in reduced circumstances. He wrote several medical works and his edition of Euripides (1778) was considered an advance on that of Joshua Barnes.
Bibliography
See William Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, ii (1878)
References
Notes
1732 births
1780 deaths
Medical doctors from Devon
English classical scholars
Fellows of the Royal Society
People from Tiverton, Devon | [
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238293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piciformes | Piciformes | Nine families of largely arboreal birds make up the order Piciformes , the best-known of them being the Picidae, which includes the woodpeckers and close relatives. The Piciformes contain about 71 living genera with a little over 450 species, of which the Picidae (woodpeckers and relatives) make up about half.
In general, the Piciformes are insectivorous, although the barbets and toucans mostly eat fruit and the honeyguides are unique among birds in being able to digest beeswax (although insects make up the bulk of their diet). Nearly all Piciformes have parrot-like zygodactyl feet—two toes forward and two back, an arrangement that has obvious advantages for birds that spend much of their time on tree trunks. An exception are a few species of three-toed woodpeckers. The jacamars aside, Piciformes do not have down feathers at any age, only true feathers. They range in size from the rufous piculet at 8 centimetres in length, and weighing 7 grams, to the toco toucan, at 63 centimetres long, and weighing 680 grams. All nest in cavities and have altricial young.
Systematics
The Galbulidae and Bucconidae are often separated into a distinct Galbuliformes order. Analysis of nuclear genes confirms that they form a lineage of their own, but suggests that they are better treated as a suborder. The other families form another monophyletic group of suborder rank, but the barbets were determined to be paraphyletic with regard to the toucans and hence, the formerly all-encompassing Capitonidae have been split up. The woodpeckers and honeyguides are each other's closest relatives. According to some researchers, the entire order Piciformes should be included as a subgroup in Coraciiformes.
Evolution
Reconstruction of the evolutionary history of the Piciformes has been hampered by poor understanding of the evolution of the zygodactyl foot. A number of prehistoric families and genera, from the Early Eocene Neanis and Hassiavis, the Zygodactylidae/Primoscenidae, Gracilitarsidae, Sylphornithidae, and "Homalopus", to the Miocene "Picus" gaudryi and the Pliocene Bathoceleus are sometimes tentatively assigned to this order. There are some extinct ancestral Piciformes known from fossils which have been difficult to place but at least in part probably belong to the Pici. The modern families are known to exist since the mid-late Oligocene to early Miocene; consequently, the older forms appear to be more basal. A large part of Piciform evolution seems to have occurred in Europe where only Picidae occur today; perhaps even some now exclusively Neotropical families have their origin in the Old World.
Classification
Order: PICIFORMES
Unassigned (all fossil)
Piciformes gen. et sp. indet. IRScNB Av 65 (Early Oligocene of Boutersem, Belgium)
Piciformes gen. et sp. indet. SMF Av 429 (Late Oligocene of Herrlingen, Germany)
Suborder Galbuli
Family Galbulidae – jacamars (18 species)
Family Bucconidae – puffbirds, nunbirds and nunlets (some 38 species)
Suborder Pici
Unresolved and basal taxa (all fossil)
Genus Rupelramphastoides (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany)
Pici gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of Grive-Saint-Alban, France)
Family Miopiconidae (fossil)
Family Picavidae (fossil)
Infraorder Ramphastides
Family Megalaimidae – Asian barbets (about 25 species)
Family Lybiidae – African barbets (about 40 species)
Family Capitonidae – New World barbets (about 15 species)
Family Semnornithidae – toucan barbets (2 species)
Family Ramphastidae – toucans (about 40 species)
Infraorder Picides
Family Indicatoridae – honeyguides (17 species)
Family Picidae – woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks (over 200 species)
See also
List of Piciformes by population
References
Further reading
Gorman, Gerard (2004): Woodpeckers of Europe: A Study of the European Picidae. Bruce Coleman, UK. .
External links
Tree of Life Piciformes
Bird orders
Neognathae
Extant Eocene first appearances
Eocene taxonomic orders
Oligocene taxonomic orders
Miocene taxonomic orders
Pliocene taxonomic orders
Pleistocene taxonomic orders
Holocene taxonomic orders | [
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238294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hutchinson%20%28writer%29 | John Hutchinson (writer) | John Hutchinson (1674 – 28 August 1737) was an English theologian and natural philosopher.
He was born at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, and served as steward in several families of position, latterly in that of the Duke of Somerset, who ultimately obtained for him the post of riding purveyor to the master of the horse, a sinecure worth about £200 a year. In 1700 he became acquainted with Dr. John Woodward (1665–1728), physician to the duke and author of a work entitled The Natural History of the Earth, to whom he entrusted a large number of fossils of his own collecting, along with a mass of manuscript notes, for arrangement and publication.
A misunderstanding as to the manner in which these should be dealt with was the immediate occasion of the publication by Hutchinson in 1724 of Moses's Principia, part i., in which Woodward's Natural History was bitterly ridiculed, his conduct with regard to the mineralogical specimens not obscurely characterized, and a refutation of the Newtonian doctrine of gravitation seriously attempted. It was followed by part ii. in 1727, and by various other works, including Moses's Sine Principio, 1730; The Confusion of Tongues and Trinity of the Gentiles, 1731; Power Essential and Mechanical, or what power belongs to God and what to his creatures, in which the design of Sir Isaac Newton and Dr Samuel Clarke is laid open, 1732; Glory or Gravity, 1733; The Religion of Satan, or Antichrist Delineated, 1736.
He taught that the Bible contained the elements not only of true religion but also of all rational philosophy. He held that the Hebrew must be read without points, and his interpretation rested largely on fanciful symbolism. Bishop George Horne of Norwich was during some of his earlier years an avowed Hutchinsonian; and William Jones of Nayland continued to be so to the end of his life.
A complete edition of his publications, edited by Robert Spearman and Julius Bate, appeared in 1748 (12 vols.); an Abstract of these followed in 1753; and a Supplement, with Life by Spearman prefixed, in 1765.
Notes
References
John C. English, "John Hutchinson's Critique of Newtonian Heterodoxy", Church History 68 (1999) pp. 581–597
1674 births
1737 deaths
English theologians
English male non-fiction writers | [
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238297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Gruter | Jan Gruter | Jan Gruter or Gruytère, Latinized as Janus Gruterus (3 December 1560 – 20 September 1627), was a Flemish-born philologist, scholar, and librarian.
Life
Jan Gruter was born in Antwerp. His father was Wouter Gruter, who was a merchant and city administrator of Antwerp, and his mother was Catharina Tishem from Norwich in England. To avoid religious persecution in the early stages of the Eighty Years' War, his parents emigrated to England while he was a child. For some years he studied at Caius College, Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden. In 1584 he obtained the degree of doctor iuris. He then left the Netherlands and commenced a period of travel that brought him to France, Switzerland, Italy and finally to North and East Germany. His neo-Latin poems are published in Heidelberg at this time.
In 1590, Gruter was appointed professor of history at the University of Wittenberg. As a Calvinist, he refused to subscribe to the formula concordiae, the authoritative Lutheran statement of faith, and lost his position as a result in 1592. From 1589 to 1592, he taught at Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was appointed librarian to the university. He died at Bierhelderhof, Heidelberg.
Works
Gruter's chief works were:
Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis Romani (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603)
Lampas, sive fax artium liberalium (7 vols., Frankfort-am-Main, 1602–1634).
Notes
References
Bibliography
Attribution:
1560 births
1627 deaths
Flemish academics
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Writers from Antwerp
University of Wittenberg faculty | [
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238299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaes%20Heinsius | Nikolaes Heinsius | Nikolaes Heinsius may refer to:
Nikolaes Heinsius the Elder (1620–1681), scholar and poet
Nikolaes Heinsius the Younger (1655–1718), his son, novelist | [
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238300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor%20V%20Leiden | Factor V Leiden | Factor V Leiden (rs6025 or F5 p.R506Q) is a variant (mutated form) of human factor V (one of several substances that helps blood clot), which causes an increase in blood clotting (hypercoagulability). Due to this mutation, protein C, an anticoagulant protein that normally inhibits the pro-clotting activity of factor V, is not able to bind normally to factor V, leading to a hypercoagulable state, i.e., an increased tendency for the patient to form abnormal and potentially harmful blood clots. Factor V Leiden is the most common hereditary hypercoagulability (prone to clotting) disorder amongst ethnic Europeans. It is named after the Dutch city of Leiden, where it was first identified in 1994 by Rogier Maria Bertina under the direction of (and in the laboratory of) Pieter Hendrick Reitsma. Despite the increased risk of venous thromboembolisms, people with one copy of this gene have not been found to have shorter lives than the general population.
Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of factor V Leiden vary among individuals. There are some individuals who have the F5 gene and who never develop thrombosis, while others have recurring thrombosis before the age of 30 years. This variability is influenced by the number of F5 gene mutations a person has, the presence of other gene alterations related to blood clotting, and circumstantial risk factors, such as surgery, use of oral contraceptives and pregnancy.
Symptoms of factor V Leiden include:
Having a first DVT or PE before 50 years of age.
Having recurring DVT or PE.
Having venous thrombosis in unusual sites in the body such as the brain or the liver.
Having a DVT or PE during or right after pregnancy.
Having a history of unexplained pregnancy loss in the second or third trimester.
Having a DVT or PE and a strong family history of venous thromboembolism.
The use of hormones, such as oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) and hormone replacement therapy (HRT), including estrogen and estrogen-like drugs) taken after menopause, increases the risk of developing DVT and PE. Healthy women taking OCPs have a three- to four-fold increased risk of developing a DVT or PE compared with women who do not take OCP. Women with factor V Leiden who take OCPs have about a 35-fold increased risk of developing a DVT or PE compared with women without factor V Leiden and those who do not take OCPs. Likewise, postmenopausal women taking HRT have a two- to three-fold higher risk of developing a DVT or PE than women who do not take HRT, and women with factor V Leiden who take HRT have a 15-fold higher risk. Women with heterozygous factor V Leiden who are making decisions about OCP or HRT use should take these statistics into consideration when weighing the risks and benefits of treatment.
Pathophysiology
In the normal pathway, factor V functions as a cofactor to allow factor Xa to activate prothrombin, resulting in the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin in turn cleaves fibrinogen to form fibrin, which polymerizes to form the dense meshwork that makes up the majority of a clot. Activated protein C is a natural anticoagulant that acts to limit the extent of clotting by cleaving and degrading factor V.
Factor V Leiden is an autosomal dominant genetic condition that exhibits incomplete penetrance, i.e. not every person who has the mutation develops the disease. The condition results in a factor V variant that cannot be as easily degraded by activated protein C. The gene that codes the protein is referred to as F5. Mutation of this gene—a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is located in exon 10. As a missense substitution of amino acid R to amino acid Q, it changes the protein's amino acid from arginine to glutamine. Depending on the chosen start the position of the nucleotide variant is either at position 1691 or 1746. It also affects the amino acid position for the variant, which is either 506 or 534. (Together with the general lack of nomenclature standard, this variance means that the SNP can be referred to in several ways, such as G1691A, c.1691G>A, 1691G>A, c.1746G>A, p.Arg534Gln, Arg506Gln, R506Q or rs6025.) Since this amino acid is normally the cleavage site for activated protein C, the mutation prevents efficient inactivation of factor V. When factor V remains active, it facilitates overproduction of thrombin leading to generation of excess fibrin and excess clotting.
The excessive clotting that occurs in this disorder is almost always restricted to the veins, where the clotting may cause a deep vein thrombosis (DVT). If the venous clots break off, these clots can travel through the right side of the heart to the lung where they block a pulmonary blood vessel and cause a pulmonary embolism. It is extremely rare for this disorder to cause the formation of clots in arteries that can lead to stroke or heart attack, though a "mini-stroke", known as a transient ischemic attack, is more common. Given that this disease displays incomplete dominance, those who are homozygous for the mutated allele are at a heightened risk for the events detailed above versus those who are heterozygous for the mutation.
Diagnosis
Suspicion of factor V Leiden being the cause for any thrombotic event should be considered in any Caucasian patient below the age of 45, or in any person with a family history of venous thrombosis. There are a few different methods by which this condition can be diagnosed. Most laboratories screen 'at risk' patients with either a snake venom (e.g. dilute Russell's viper venom time) based test or an aPTT based test. In both methods, the time it takes for blood to clot is decreased in the presence of the factor V Leiden mutation. This is done by running two tests simultaneously; one test is run in the presence of activated protein C and the other, in the absence. A ratio is determined based on the two tests and the results signify to the laboratory whether activated protein C is working or not. There is also a genetic test that can be done for this disorder. The mutation (a 1691G→A substitution) removes a cleavage site of the restriction endonuclease MnlI, so PCR, treatment with MnlI, and then DNA electrophoresis will give a diagnosis. Other PCR based assays such as iPLEX can also identify zygosity and frequency of the variant.
Management
As there is no cure yet, treatment is focused on prevention of thrombotic complications. Anticoagulants are not routinely recommended for people with factor V Leiden, unless there are additional risk factors present, but are given when such an event occurs. A single occurrence of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism in people with factor V Leiden warrants temporary anticoagulant treatment, but generally not lifelong treatment. In addition, temporary treatment with an anticoagulant such as Heparin may be required during periods of particularly high risk of thrombosis, such as major surgery.
Epidemiology
Studies have found that about 5 percent of Caucasians in North America have factor V Leiden. Data have indicated that prevalence of factor V Leiden is greater among Caucasians than minority Americans. One study also suggested "that the factor V‐Leiden mutation segregates in populations with significant Caucasian admixture and is rare in genetically distant non‐European groups."
Up to 30 percent of patients who present with deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism have this condition. The risk of developing a clot in a blood vessel depends on whether a person inherits one or two copies of the factor V Leiden mutation. Inheriting one copy of the mutation from a parent (heterozygous) increases by fourfold to eightfold the chance of developing a clot. People who inherit two copies of the mutation (homozygous), one from each parent, may have up to 80 times the usual risk of developing this type of blood clot. Considering that the risk of developing an abnormal blood clot averages about 1 in 1,000 per year in the general population, the presence of one copy of the factor V Leiden mutation increases that risk to between 4 in 1,000 to 8 in 1,000. Having two copies of the mutation may raise the risk as high as 80 in 1,000. It is unclear whether these individuals are at increased risk for recurrent venous thrombosis. While only 1 percent of people with factor V Leiden have two copies of the defective gene, these homozygous individuals have a more severe clinical condition. The presence of acquired risk factors for venous thrombosis—including smoking, use of estrogen-containing (combined) forms of hormonal contraception, and recent surgery—further increase the chance that an individual with the factor V Leiden mutation will develop DVT.
Women with factor V Leiden have a substantially increased risk of clotting in pregnancy (and on estrogen-containing birth control pills or hormone replacement) in the form of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. They also may have a small increased risk of preeclampsia, may have a small increased risk of low birth weight babies, may have a small increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth due to either clotting in the placenta, umbilical cord, or the fetus (fetal clotting may depend on whether the baby has inherited the gene) or influences the clotting system may have on placental development. Note that many of these women go through one or more pregnancies with no difficulties, while others may repeatedly have pregnancy complications, and still others may develop clots within weeks of becoming pregnant.
See also
Prothrombin G20210A
References
Further reading
Factor V Leiden Thrombophilia Explained - Genome.gov
External links
Blood proteins
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238301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel%20electrophoresis%20of%20nucleic%20acids | Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids | Nucleic acid electrophoresis is an analytical technique used to separate DNA or RNA fragments by size and reactivity. Nucleic acid molecules which are to be analyzed are set upon a viscous medium, the gel, where an electric field induces the nucleic acids (which are negatively charged due to their sugar-phosphate backbone) to migrate toward the anode (which is positively charged because this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell). The separation of these fragments is accomplished by exploiting the mobilities with which different sized molecules are able to pass through the gel. Longer molecules migrate more slowly because they experience more resistance within the gel. Because the size of the molecule affects its mobility, smaller fragments end up nearer to the anode than longer ones in a given period. After some time, the voltage is removed and the fragmentation gradient is analyzed. For larger separations between similar sized fragments, either the voltage or run time can be increased. Extended runs across a low voltage gel yield the most accurate resolution. Voltage is, however, not the sole factor in determining electrophoresis of nucleic acids.
The nucleic acid to be separated can be prepared in several ways before separation by electrophoresis. In the case of large DNA molecules, the DNA is frequently cut into smaller fragments using a DNA restriction endonuclease (or restriction enzyme). In other instances, such as PCR amplified samples, enzymes present in the sample that might affect the separation of the molecules are removed through various means before analysis. Once the nucleic acid is properly prepared, the samples of the nucleic acid solution are placed in the wells of the gel and a voltage is applied across the gel for a specified amount of time.
The DNA fragments of different lengths are visualized using a fluorescent dye specific for DNA, such as ethidium bromide. The gel shows bands corresponding to different nucleic acid molecules populations with different molecular weight. Fragment size is usually reported in "nucleotides", "base pairs" or "kb" (for thousands of base pairs) depending upon whether single- or double-stranded nucleic acid has been separated. Fragment size determination is typically done by comparison to commercially available DNA markers containing linear DNA fragments of known length.
The types of gel most commonly used for nucleic acid electrophoresis are agarose (for relatively long DNA molecules) and polyacrylamide (for high resolution of short DNA molecules, for example in DNA sequencing). Gels have conventionally been run in a "slab" format such as that shown in the figure, but capillary electrophoresis has become important for applications such as high-throughput DNA sequencing. Electrophoresis techniques used in the assessment of DNA damage include alkaline gel electrophoresis and pulsed field gel electrophoresis.
For short DNA segments such as 20 to 60 bp double stranded DNA, running them in polyacrylamide gel (PAGE) will give better resolution (native condition). Similarly, RNA and single-stranded DNA can be run and visualised by PAGE gels containing denaturing agents such as urea. PAGE gels are widely used in techniques such as DNA foot printing, EMSA and other DNA-protein interaction techniques.
The measurement and analysis are mostly done with a specialized gel analysis software. Capillary electrophoresis results are typically displayed in a trace view called an electropherogram.
Factors affecting migration of nucleic acids
A number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis.
Size of DNA
The gel sieves the DNA by the size of the DNA molecule whereby smaller molecules travel faster. Double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments and it is not possible to separate them using standard agarose gel electrophoresis. The limit of resolution depends on gel composition and field strength. and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Separation of very large DNA fragments requires pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE, a kind of PFGE), it is possible to have "band inversion" - where large molecules may move faster than small molecules.
Conformation of DNA
The conformation of the DNA molecule can significantly affect the movement of the DNA, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present, and gel from the electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show a main band which would be the negatively supercoiled form, while other forms of DNA may appear as minor fainter bands. These minor bands may be nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form which normally run slower than supercoiled DNA, and the single-stranded form (which can sometimes appear depending on the preparation methods) may move ahead of the supercoiled DNA. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, for example linear DNA may run faster or slower than supercoiled DNA depending on conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Unless supercoiled DNA markers are used, the size of a circular DNA like plasmid therefore may be more accurately gauged after it has been linearized by restriction digest.
DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way.
Concentration of ethidium bromide
Circular DNA are more strongly affected by ethidium bromide concentration than linear DNA if ethidium bromide is present in the gel during electrophoresis. All naturally occurring DNA circles are underwound, but ethidium bromide which intercalates into circular DNA can change the charge, length, as well as the superhelicity of the DNA molecule, therefore its presence during electrophoresis can affect its movement in gel. Increasing ethidium bromide intercalated into the DNA can change it from a negatively supercoiled molecule into a fully relaxed form, then to positively coiled superhelix at maximum intercalation. Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to resolve circular DNA with different supercoiling topology.
Gel concentration
The concentration of the gel determines the pore size of the gel which affect the migration of DNA. The resolution of the DNA changes with the percentage concentration of the gel. Increasing the agarose concentration of a gel reduces the migration speed and improves separation of smaller DNA molecules, while lowering gel concentration permits large DNA molecules to be separated. For a standard agarose gel electrophoresis, a 0.7% gives good separation or resolution of large 5–10kb DNA fragments, while 2% gel gives good resolution for small 0.2–1kb fragments. Up to 3% can be used for separating very tiny fragments but a vertical polyacrylamide gel would be more appropriate for resolving small fragments. High concentrations gel however requires longer run times (sometimes days) and high percentage gels are often brittle and may not set evenly. High percentage agarose gels should be run with PFGE or FIGE. Low percentage gels (0.1−0.2%) are fragile and may break. 1% gels are common for many applications.
Applied field
At low voltages, the rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. However, in increasing electric field strength, the mobility of high-molecular-weight DNA fragments increases differentially, and the effective range of separation decreases and resolution therefore is lower at high voltage. For optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V/cm is recommended. Voltage is also limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if a gel is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, particularly for low-melting point agarose gel.
The mobility of DNA however may change in an unsteady field. In a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones in PFGE.
Mechanism of migration and separation
The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis, i.e. there is no separation by size without a gel matrix. Hydrodynamic interaction between different parts of the DNA are cut off by streaming counterions moving in the opposite direction, so no mechanism exists to generate a dependence of velocity on length on a scale larger than screening length of about 10 nm. This makes it different from other processes such as sedimentation or diffusion where long-ranged hydrodynamic interaction are important.
The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, however the precise mechanism responsible the separation is not entirely clear. A number of models exists for the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix, a widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve consisting of randomly distributed network of inter-connected pores. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the connected pores large enough to accommodate its passage, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this process of sieving.
The Ogston model however breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a "snake-like" fashion (hence "reptation") through the pores as an elongated molecule. At higher electric field strength, this turned into a biased reptation model, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction, and this leading edge pulls the rest of the molecule along. In the fully biased mode, the mobility reached a saturation point and DNA beyond a certain size cannot be separated. Perfect parallel alignment of the chain with the field however is not observed in practice as that would mean the same mobility for long and short molecules. Further refinement of the biased reptation model takes into account of the internal fluctuations of the chain.
The biased reptation model has also been used to explain the mobility of DNA in PFGE. The orientation of the DNA is progressively built up by reptation after the onset of a field, and the time it reached the steady state velocity is dependent on the size of the molecule. When the field is changed, larger molecules take longer to reorientate, it is therefore possible to discriminate between the long chains that cannot reach its steady state velocity from the short ones that travel most of the time in steady velocity. Other models, however, also exist.
Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres. This observation may be termed the "caterpillar" model. Other model proposes that the DNA gets entangled with the polymer matrix, and the larger the molecule, the more likely it is to become entangled and its movement impeded.
Visualization
The most common dye used to make DNA or RNA bands visible for agarose gel electrophoresis is ethidium bromide, usually abbreviated as EtBr. It fluoresces under UV light when intercalated into the major groove of DNA (or RNA). By running DNA through an EtBr-treated gel and visualizing it with UV light, any band containing more than ~20 ng DNA becomes distinctly visible. EtBr is a known mutagen, and safer alternatives are available, such as GelRed, produced by Biotium, which binds to the minor groove.
SYBR Green I is another dsDNA stain, produced by Invitrogen. It is more expensive, but 25 times more sensitive, and possibly safer than EtBr, though there is no data addressing its mutagenicity or toxicity in humans.
SYBR Safe is a variant of SYBR Green that has been shown to have low enough levels of mutagenicity and toxicity to be deemed nonhazardous waste under U.S. Federal regulations. It has similar sensitivity levels to EtBr, but, like SYBR Green, is significantly more expensive. In countries where safe disposal of hazardous waste is mandatory, the costs of EtBr disposal can easily outstrip the initial price difference, however.
Since EtBr stained DNA is not visible in natural light, scientists mix DNA with negatively charged loading buffers before adding the mixture to the gel. Loading buffers are useful because they are visible in natural light (as opposed to UV light for EtBr stained DNA), and they co-sediment with DNA (meaning they move at the same speed as DNA of a certain length). Xylene cyanol and Bromophenol blue are common dyes found in loading buffers; they run about the same speed as DNA fragments that are 5000 bp and 300 bp in length respectively, but the precise position varies with percentage of the gel. Other less frequently used progress markers are Cresol Red and Orange G which run at about 125 bp and 50 bp, respectively.
Visualization can also be achieved by transferring DNA after SDS-PAGE to a nitrocellulose membrane followed by exposure to a hybridization probe. This process is termed Southern blotting.
For fluorescent dyes, after electrophoresis the gel is illuminated with an ultraviolet lamp (usually by placing it on a light box, while using protective gear to limit exposure to ultraviolet radiation). The illuminator apparatus mostly also contains imaging apparatus that takes an image of the gel, after illumination with UV radiation. The ethidium bromide fluoresces reddish-orange in the presence of DNA, since it has intercalated with the DNA. The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA.
The gel can then be photographed usually with a digital or polaroid camera. Although the stained nucleic acid fluoresces reddish-orange, images are usually shown in black and white (see figures). UV damage to the DNA sample can reduce the efficiency of subsequent manipulation of the sample, such as ligation and cloning. Shorter wavelength UV radiations (302 or 312 nm) cause greater damage, for example exposure for as little as 45 seconds can significantly reduce transformation efficiency. Therefore if the DNA is to be use for downstream procedures, exposure to a shorter wavelength UV radiations should be limited, instead higher-wavelength UV radiation (365 nm) which cause less damage should be used. Higher wavelength radiations however produces weaker fluorescence, therefore if it is necessary to capture the gel image, a shorter wavelength UV light can be used a short time. Addition of Cytidine or guanosine to the electrophoresis buffer at 1 mM concentration may protect the DNA from damage. Alternatively, a blue light excitation source with a blue-excitable stain such as SYBR Green or GelGreen may be used.
Gel electrophoresis research often takes advantage of software-based image analysis tools, such as ImageJ.
References
Molecular biology
Electrophoresis
DNA | [
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238304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerius%20Flaccus%20%28poet%29 | Valerius Flaccus (poet) | Gaius Valerius Flaccus (; died ) was a 1st-century Roman poet who flourished during the "Silver Age" under the Flavian dynasty, and wrote a Latin Argonautica that owes a great deal to Apollonius of Rhodes' more famous epic.
Life
The only widely accepted mention of Valerius Flaccus by his contemporaries is by Quintilian (10.1.90), who laments the recent death of "Valerius Flaccus" as a great loss; as Quintilian's work was finished about 90 AD, this traditionally gives a limit for the death of Valerius Flaccus. Recent scholarship, however, puts forward an alternative date of about 95 AD, and definitely before the death of Domitian in 96 AD.
It has been claimed that he was a member of the College of Fifteen, who had charge of the Sibylline books, based on a reference in his work to the presence of a tripod in a "pure home" (1.5). The assumption that this indicates he himself was a member, however, has also been contested.
A contested mention of a poet of the name "Valerius Flaccus" is by Martial (1.76), who refers to a native of Padua. A subscription in the Vatican manuscript adds the name Setinus Balbus, a name which suggests that its holder was a native of Setia in Latium, however it is not clear if this inscription refers to "Valerius Flaccus" or someone else. The connection of this "Valerius Flaccus" to Gaius Valerius Flaccus has been contested under the assumption that Martial was referring to the friend's financial strife, and that Gaius Valerius Flaccus was a member of the College of Fifteen, and therefore likely to have been wealthy.
Argonautica
Valerius Flaccus' only surviving work, the Argonautica, was dedicated to Vespasian on his setting out for Britain. It was written during the siege, or shortly after the capture, of Jerusalem by Titus in 70 AD. As the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD is alluded to, its composition must have occupied him a long time. The Argonautica is an epic poem probably intended to be in eight books (though intended totals of ten and twelve books, the latter corresponding to Virgil's Aeneid, an important poetic model, have also been proposed) written in traditional dactylic hexameters, which recounts Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece.
The Argonautica was lost until 1411, when the first 4½ volumes were found at St Gall in 1417 and published at Bologna in 1474.
The poem's text, as it has survived, is in a very corrupt state; it ends so abruptly with the request of Medea to accompany Jason on his homeward voyage, that it is assumed by most modern scholars that it was never finished. It is a free imitation and in parts a translation of the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes, "to whom he is superior in arrangement, vividness, and description of character" (Loeb Classical Library). The familiar subject had already been treated in Latin verse in the popular version of Varro Atacinus. The object of the work has been described as the glorification of Vespasian's achievements in securing Roman rule in Britain and opening up the ocean to navigation (as the Euxine was opened up by the Argo).
In 1911, the compilers of the Encyclopædia Britannica remarked,
More modern analysis has been more accepting of Valerius Flaccus' style, noting how it fits in the "long and energetic Roman tradition of appropriation of the golden age and iron age myths" and commenting on his narrative technique:
Editions
Older editions
Editio princeps, Bologna 1474
Giovanni Battista Pio, Bologna 1519 (with commentary and continuation of the poem: remainder of book 8, book 9, book 10])
Aldine edition, Venice 1523
Louis Carrion, Antwerp 1565 (2nd ed. 1566) (Plantin edition)
Nicolaas Heinius, Leiden 1680 (2nd ed. Utrecht 1702 [by Pieter Burman], 3rd ed. Padua 1720 [by Giuseppe Comino]
Pieter Burman, Leiden 1724 (variorum edition)
Bipontine edition, Zweibrücken 1786
J.A. Wagner, Göttingen 1805 (with commentary)
Modern editions
G. Thilo, Halle 1863
C. Schenkl, Berlin 1871
E. Baehrens, Leipzig 1875 (Bibliotheca Teubneriana)
P. Langen, Berlin 1896-7
J.B. Bury, London 1900 (in Postgate's Corpus Poetarum Latinorum)
C. Giarratano, Palermo 1904
O. Kramer, Leipzig 1913 (Bibliotheca Teubneriana)
J.H. Mozley, London & Cambridge, MA, 1934 (Loeb Classical Library)
E. Courtney, Leipzig 1970 (Bibliotheca Teubneriana)
W.W. Ehlers, Stuttgart 1980 (Bibliotheca Teubneriana)
G. Liberman, Paris 1997 (Collection Budé) – Books 1–4
F. Caviglia, Milan 1999 (Biblioteca Universale Rizzoli [BUR])
G. Liberman, Paris 2002 (Collection Budé) – Books 5–8
English translations
J.H. Mozley, London & Cambridge, MA, 1934 (Loeb Classical Library)
D.R. Slavitt, Baltimore 1999
Michael Barich, Gambier, OH 2009
In popular culture
Valerius Flaccus appears as a recurring character in Caroline Lawrence's Roman Mysteries series of children's novels. He is the husband of the main character, Flavia Gemina. In the television adaptations, the character is played by British actor Ben Lloyd-Hughes.
References
Sources
Further reading
Recent scholarship
Increased interest in the last decades has resulted in a full-length general introduction (Debra Hershkowitz, Valerius Flaccus' Argonautica: Abbreviated Voyages in Silver Latin Epic, Oxford University Press, 1999), two new editions, in 1997 (Liberman) and 2003, a commentary on the whole poem by F. Spaltenstein (Brussels: Latomus, 2002: Books 1–2; 2004: Books 3–5; 2005: Books 6–8) and a fair amount of commentaries on individual books:
Book 1: Aad J. Kleywegt (Leiden: Brill, 2005); Daniela Galli (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2007); Andrew Zissos (Oxford: OUP, 2008)
Book 2: Alison Harper Smith (Diss. Oxford, 1987); Harm M. Poortvliet (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1991)
Book 4: (lines 1–343) Matthias Korn (Hildesheim: Olms, 1989); Paul Murgatroyd (Leiden: Brill, 2009)
Book 5: Henri J.W. Wijsman (Leiden: Brill, 1996)
Book 6: Henri J.W. Wijsman (Leiden: Brill, 2000); Thomas Baier (Munich: Beck, 2001); (lines 427–760) Marco Fucecchi (Pisa: ETS, 1997); (lines 1–426) Marco Fucecchi (Pisa: ETS, 2006)
Book 7: A. Taliercio (Rome: Gruppo Ed. Int., 1992); Hubert Stadler (Hildesheim: Olms, 1993); Alessandro Perutelli (Florence: Le Monnier, 1997)
Book 8: Cristiano Castelletti (forthcoming)
The most recent translation of the poem into English is a version in blank verse by Kenyon College Classics Professor Michael Barich (XOXOX Press, 2009).
External links
Works by Valerius Flaccus at Perseus Digital Library
Online text: Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica translated by J. H. Mozley
Online text: Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica (Latin)
Extensive bibliography
Silver Muse project: reading guides, essays, commentaries etc.
Roman-era poets
Epic poets
Silver Age Latin writers
1st-century Roman poets
90 deaths
Year of birth unknown
1st-century Romans
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238308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaniello | Masaniello | Masaniello (, ; an abbreviation of Tommaso Aniello; 29 June 1620 – 16 July 1647) was an Italian fisherman who became leader of the revolt against the rule of Habsburg Spain in Naples in 1647.
Name and place of birth
Until recently it was believed that Masaniello was a native of Amalfi, when in fact he was born in Vico Rotto al Mercato, one of the many lanes around the market square in Naples. The source of this misunderstanding is that Amalfi was simply part of his name, but has been traditionally interpreted as a reference to his place of origin. Some sources do argue that Tommaso Aniello was born in Amalfi, where he was a friend of another unique character, Abbot Pirone, so named because he improperly used his habit to escape justice but who was in reality a bandit who would kill for a fee, and who would have been Tommaso's collaborator during the Neapolitan uprising. In 1896, the poet Salvatore Di Giacomo resolved the confusion around Masaniello and Amalfi by transcribing the act of baptism found in the Church of Santa Caterina which cites:
"On June 29, 1620 Tommaso Aniello son of Cicco d'Amalfi and Antonia Gargano was baptized by me Don Giovanni Matteo Peta, and lifted from the sacred font by Agostino Monaco and Giovanna de Lieto in Vico Rotto."
The celebration took place on the day of birth, and in the same church where in 1641 Tommaso Aniello would later marry the sixteen-year-old Bernardina Pisa. The historian Giuseppe Galasso suggested that the misunderstanding "was fostered and encouraged by a conscious attitude of power and official culture in Spanish Naples. The faithful city [...] was not to be and could not admit the presence of an infidel, a rebel and one who had questioned Spanish government in Naples." On 7 July 1997, at the 350th anniversary of the popular uprising, the City of Naples placed an inscription in honor of Masaniello in Vico Rotto al Mercato.
From birth to 1647
Masaniello's family was humble but not poor. His father, Francesco (Ciccio) d'Amalfi was a fisherman and shopkeeper. His mother, Antonia Gargano was a housekeeper who became pregnant with Masaniello before her marriage. He had two younger brothers and one sister: Giovanni, who was another leader of the rebellion; Francesco, who died in infancy; and Grazia. The house where he lived was in the Pendino quarter, where the tax on fish was collected, and close to Porta Nolana which dealt with the duty on flour.
At the time, Naples had about 250,000 inhabitants, and was one of the most populous metropolises in Europe. Market Square, where Masaniello spent his whole life, was the nerve center. It housed stalls selling all manner of goods, it was where acrobats performed for the common people and, in the days of Conrad of Swabia, had been the place for public executions.
During the 1640s, Habsburg Spain was faced with a long series of disastrous conflicts: the revolt of the Netherlands (1568–1648), the Thirty Years War (1618–1648), the Revolt of Catalonia (1640–1659), and the secession of Portugal (1640–1668). To support the war effort, the Iberian Crown imposed a heavy tax burden on the Viceroy of Naples in order to restore the coffers of its vast empire, whose Golden Age was inevitably coming to an end.
Masaniello, fisherman and fishmonger like his father, was described by his contemporaries as:
...a young man of twenty-seven, beautiful and graceful in appearance, his face was brown and somewhat burned by the sun: black eyes, blond hair, with locks that ran down his neck.
Often, to escape taxation, he brought the fish directly to the homes of nobles, but was almost always caught in the act by the tax collectors and imprisoned. His main activity was, however, smuggling, so much so that in 1646 his reputation as a skilled smuggler was already well established in the Market. He worked mainly for the feudal nobility, including the marchesa di Brienza and don Diomede Carafa, Duke of Maddaloni, who treated him almost like a slave. His wife Bernardina, arrested for bringing to town a sock full of flour, evading duty, was imprisoned for eight days. To obtain her freedom, Masaniello was forced to pay a ransom of one hundred crowns, which brought him into debt. According to tradition, it was this episode that provoked in him a desire to avenge the people against their oppressors.
During a stay in prison he met the "Grand Admiral" and Doctor of Law Marco Vitale, the illegitimate son of a famous lawyer, who brought him into contact with some members of the middle class tired of the continuing abuses of the tax collector and privileges of the nobility. Masaniello also became a pupil of the writer Don Giulio Genoino, an octogenarian priest with a past as a defender of the people.
In 1619, during the term of office of Viceroy Don Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna, Genoino had been called twice to represent the interests of the people against the nobility, essentially playing the role of an ancient tribune. In 1620, however, he had been dismissed by the Consiglio Collaterale and imprisoned far from Naples.
Returning to the city in 1639, he immediately began to fight for the rights of the people around him and formed a large group of agitators, including: Francesco Antonio Arpaja, his old and trusted employee, the Carmelite friar Savino Boccardo, the aforementioned Marco Vitale and the various captains of the city districts, and a great number of "Lazzarini".
The revolt
Misgovernment and fiscal oppression during the Thirty Years' War aroused much discontent throughout the Kingdom of Naples. A revolt broke out at Palermo in May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the Sicilians. The immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on fruit and the other ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the movement was Masaniello, who took command of the malcontents. The outbreak began on 7 July 1647 with a riot at the city gates between the fruit-vendors of the environs and the customs officers; the latter were forced to flee, and the customs office was burnt. The rioters then poured into Naples and forced their way into the palace of the viceroy, Rodrigo Ponce de León, the hated Duke of Arcos, who had to take refuge first in a neighbouring convent, then in Castel Sant'Elmo, and finally in Castel Nuovo.
Masaniello attempted to discipline the mob and restrain its vandalic instincts, and to some extent he succeeded; attired in his fisherman's garb, he gave audiences and administered justice from a wooden scaffolding outside his house. Several rioters, including the Duke of Maddaloni, an opponent of the viceroy, and his brother Giuseppe Caraffa, who had come to Naples to make trouble, were condemned to death by him and executed. The mob, which every day obtained more arms and was becoming more intractable, terrorized the city, drove off the troops summoned from outside, and elected Masaniello "captain-general"; the revolt was even spreading to the provinces. Genoino and Masaniello demanded parity between people and nobility on the city council and a new charter for Naples. Their purpose was not to tear down the state, but to work with the viceroy in order to dislodge aristocratic control.
Masaniello led a mob of nearly a thousand which ransacked the armouries and opened the prisons, leaving him in charge of the city. Eventually, the viceroy, whose negotiations with Masaniello had been frequently interrupted by fresh tumults, ended by granting all the concessions demanded. On 13 July 1647, through the mediation of Cardinal Ascanio Filomarino, archbishop of Naples, a convention was signed between the Duke of Arcos and Masaniello as "leader of the most faithful people of Naples," by which the rebels were pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and the citizens granted certain rights, including that of remaining in arms until the treaty should have been ratified by the King.
The astute Duke of Arcos then invited Masaniello to the palace, confirmed his title of "captain-general of the Neapolitan people," gave him a gold chain of office, and offered him a pension. Masaniello refused the pension and laid down his dignities, saying that he wished to return to his old life as a fisherman; but he was entertained by the viceroy and, partly owing to the strain and excitement of the past days, partly because he was made dizzy by his astonishing change of fortune, or perhaps, as it was believed, because he was poisoned, he lost his head and behaved like a frenzied maniac.
The Viceroy gave way, but the nobles of Naples were resistant: there was an attempt to assassinate Masaniello, but then on 13 July, dressed in finery and a golden chair, he was confirmed Captain-General in a solemn ceremony in the cathedral.
Masaniello rapidly and uncannily echoed the irrational behavior of his populist Roman predecessor, Cola di Rienzo, 300 years before. After escaping from house arrest on 16 July, Masaniello went to the Church of the Carmine where the Archbishop was celebrating mass for the Feast of Our Lady of Carmel. Blaspheming, Masaniello denounced his fellow-citizens. He was again arrested and taken to a nearby monastery, where he was assassinated by a group of grain merchants. His head was cut off and brought by a band of roughs to the viceroy and the body buried outside the city. But the next day the populace, angered by the alteration of the measures for weighing bread, repented of its insane fury; the body of Masaniello was dug up and given a splendid funeral, at which the viceroy himself was represented.
The Viceroy, desperately, tried to leave the city's governance in the hands of Genoino, who proved unable to resist demands from the streets. Extremists took over. A second revolution took place in August, which culminated in Genoino's exile and the proclamation of a Neapolitan republic under French protection. The Spanish eventually recovered Naples in April 1648 .
Masaniello in art and political theory
Masaniello was portrayed many times in Neapolitan pictures of the centuries following his death.
The philosopher Spinoza reportedly sketched a portrait of Masaniello with a face very similar to his own; an apparent self-portrait of the philosopher as a fisherman in a shirt, with a net thrown over his shoulder, a pose made familiar by portraits of Masaniello.
Christian Weise, the political scientist and educator of the German political elite, portrayed Masaniello in a school drama that warned the German princes against abusing the prerogatives they had gained at the end of the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia
Masaniello was the subject of an English play written by T.B, called The Rebellion of Naples (1649). Despite the claims of the author that it was not intended to reflect on British affairs, it clearly spoke to the English Civil War.'''Masaniello's insurrection appealed to the imagination of poets and composers, and formed the subject of several operas, including Reinhard Keiser's Masaniello furioso (1706), Daniel Auber's La Muette de Portici (1828), and Jacopo Napoli's (1953) Mas' Aniello.
Of these, La muette de Portici - loosely based on the actual events of Masaniello's revolt - had an important role in setting off the Belgian Revolution of 1830. Masaniello appearing on stage and calling the Neapolitan fishermen to arms had the effect of making the audience leave the hall and pour into the streets of Brussels to start a real-life revolution.
Masaniello was used in John Locke's reductio ad absurdum of Robert Filmer's position in the former's First Treatise of Government. Taking Filmer to believe that might is right, Locke stated "had [Filmer] had the happiness to live under Massanello's [sic] government, he could not by this his own rule have forborn to have done homage to him, with O king live for ever, since the manner of his government by supreme power, made him properly king, who was but the day before properly a fisherman."
Advocating "a government of our own" in Common Sense'', Thomas Paine evoked the spectre of a rabble-rouser like Masaniello: "it is infinitely wiser and safer, to form a constitution of our own in a cool deliberate manner, while we have it in our power, than to trust such an interesting event to time and chance. If we omit it now, some Massanello may hereafter arise, who laying hold of popular disquietudes, may collect together the desperate and discontented, and by assuming to themselves the powers of government, may sweep away the liberties of the continent like a deluge."
See also
History of Naples
Neapolitan Republic (1647)
Giulio Genoino
Gennaro Annese
References
1622 births
1647 deaths
17th-century Neapolitan people
Italian revolutionaries
Italian tax resisters
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238314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hunt%20Morgan | John Hunt Morgan | John Hunt Morgan (June 1, 1825 – September 4, 1864) was an American soldier who served as a Confederate general in the American Civil War of 1861–1865.
In April 1862, Morgan raised the 2nd Kentucky Cavalry Regiment (CSA) and fought in the Battle of Shiloh (April 6 to 7, 1862) in Tennessee. He then launched a costly raid in Kentucky, which encouraged Confederate General Braxton Bragg's invasion of that state in August 1862. He also attacked the supply lines of Union General William Rosecrans. In July 1863, he set out on a raid into Indiana and Ohio, taking hundreds of prisoners. But after Union gunboats intercepted most of his men, Morgan surrendered at Salineville, Ohio, following the Battle of Salineville. His point of surrender is the northernmost point ever reached by uniformed Confederates. The notorious "Morgan's Raid", carried out against orders, gained no tactical advantage for the Confederacy, while the loss of his regiment proved a serious setback. However, some historians, such as Shelby Foote, argue that the raid and the subsequent distraction of Union forces allowed Bragg's Army to escape middle Tennessee un-harassed.
Morgan escaped from his Union prison but his credibility remained low, and he was restricted to minor operations. He was killed at Greeneville, Tennessee, in September 1864. Morgan was the brother-in-law of Confederate general A. P. Hill.
Early life and career
John Hunt Morgan was born in Huntsville, Alabama, the eldest of ten children of Calvin and Henrietta (Hunt) Morgan. He was an uncle of geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan (b. 1866) and a maternal grandson of John Wesley Hunt, an early founder of Lexington, Kentucky, and one of the first millionaires west of the Allegheny Mountains. He was also the brother-in-law of A. P. Hill and of Basil W. Duke. He was said to be a direct descendant of Revolutionary War general and hero Daniel Morgan., Morgan never used his middle name of Hunt during the war — it is a post war appellation.
John Wesley Hunt, Morgan's grandfather, was a leading landowner and businessman in Kentucky. "His business empire included interest in banking, horse breeding, agriculture and hemp manufacturing. Among his business associates were Henry Clay and John Jacob Astor."
Morgan's paternal grandparents were Luther and Anna (Cameron) Morgan. Luther Morgan had settled in Huntsville, Alabama but a downturn in the cotton economy forced him to mortgage his holdings. His father, Calvin Morgan, lost his Huntsville home in 1831 when he was unable to pay the property taxes following the failure of his pharmacy. The family then moved to Lexington, where he would manage one of his father-in-law's sprawling farms.
Morgan grew up on the farm outside of Lexington and attended Transylvania College for two years, but was suspended in 1844 for dueling with a fraternity brother. In 1846, Morgan became a Freemason, at Daviess Lodge #22, Lexington. Morgan desired a military career, but the small size of the US military severely limited opportunities for officer's commissions.
In 1846 Morgan enlisted with his brother Calvin and uncle Alexander in the U.S. Army as a cavalry private during the Mexican–American War. He was elected second lieutenant and was promoted to first lieutenant before arriving in Mexico, where he saw combat in the Battle of Buena Vista. On his return to Kentucky, he became a hemp manufacturer and in 1848, he married Rebecca Gratz Bruce, the 18-year-old sister of one of his business partners. After the death of John Wesley Hunt in 1849, his fortunes greatly improved as his mother, Henrietta, began financing his business ventures.
In 1853, his wife Rebecca delivered a stillborn son. She contracted septic thrombophlebitis, popularly known as "milk leg", an infection of a blood clot in a vein, which eventually led to an amputation. They became increasingly emotionally distant from one another. Known as a gambler and womanizer, Morgan was also known for his generosity. He had at least one slave son, Sidney Morgan, by a slave woman, and was the biological grandfather of African American inventor Garrett Morgan (1877-1963).
Morgan remained interested in the military. He raised a militia artillery company in 1852, but it was disbanded by the state legislature two years later. In 1857, with the rise of sectional tensions, Morgan raised an independent infantry company known as the "Lexington Rifles" and spent much of his free time drilling his men.
Civil War service
Like most other Kentuckians, Morgan did not initially support secession. Immediately after Abraham Lincoln's election in November 1860, he wrote to his brother, Thomas Hunt Morgan, who was a student at Kenyon College in northern Ohio, "Our State will not I hope secede I have no doubt but Lincoln will make a good President, at least we ought to give him a fair trial & then if he commits some overt act all the South will be a unit." By the following spring, Tom Morgan, who also had opposed Kentucky's secession, had transferred home to the Kentucky Military Institute, where he began to support the Confederacy. Just before the Fourth of July, by way of a steamer from Louisville, Kentucky, he quietly left for Camp Boone, just across the Tennessee border to enlist in the Kentucky State Guard. John stayed at home in Lexington to tend to his troubled business and his ailing wife Becky, who died on July 21, 1861.
In September, Captain Morgan and his militia company went to Tennessee and joined the Confederate States Army. Morgan soon raised the 2nd Kentucky Cavalry Regiment and became its colonel on April 4, 1862.
Morgan and his cavalrymen fought at the Battle of Shiloh at Shiloh in southern Tennessee on April 6–7, 1862, and he soon became a symbol to secessionists in their hopes for obtaining Kentucky for the Confederacy. A Louisiana writer, Robert D. Patrick, compared Morgan to Revolutionary War officer Francis Marion and wrote that "a few thousands of such men as his would regain us Kentucky and Tennessee."
In his first Kentucky raid, Morgan left Knoxville, Tennessee on July 4, 1862, with almost 900 men and in three weeks swept through Kentucky, deep in the rear of Major General Don Carlos Buell's army. He reported the capture of 1,200 federal soldiers, whom he paroled, acquired several hundred horses, and destroyed massive quantities of supplies. He unnerved Kentucky's Union military government, and President Lincoln received so many frantic appeals for help that he complained "they are having a stampede in Kentucky." Historian Kenneth W. Noe wrote that Morgan's feat "in many ways surpassed Major General J. E. B. Stuart's celebrated 'Ride around (Union Major General George B.) McClellan' and the Union Army of the Potomac the previous spring." The success of Morgan's raid was one of the key reasons that the Confederate Heartland Offensive of Gen. Bragg and Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith was launched later that fall, assuming that tens of thousands of Kentuckians would enlist in the Confederate Army if they invaded the state.
As a colonel, he was presented with a Palmetto Armory pistol by the widow of Brigadier General Barnard Elliott Bee Jr. That pistol is now owned by the Museum of the American Civil War.
Morgan was promoted to brigadier general (his highest rank) on December 11, 1862, though the Promotion Orders were not signed by President Davis until December 14, 1862. He received the thanks of the Confederate Congress on May 1, 1863, for his raids on the supply lines of Union Major General William S. Rosecrans in December and January, most notably his victory at the Battle of Hartsville on December 7.
On December 14, 1862, Morgan married Martha "Mattie" Ready, the daughter of Tennessee United States Representative Charles Ready and a cousin of William T. Haskell, another former U.S. representative from Tennessee.
Morgan's Raid
Hoping to divert Union troops and resources in conjunction with the twin Confederate operations of Vicksburg and Gettysburg in the summer of 1863, Morgan set off on the campaign that would become known as "Morgan's Raid". Morgan crossed the Ohio River, and raided across southern Indiana and Ohio. At Corydon, Indiana, the raiders met 450 local Home Guard in the Battle of Corydon that resulted in eleven Confederates killed and five Home Guard killed.
In July, at Versailles, Indiana, while soldiers raided nearby militia and looted county and city treasuries, the jewels of the local masonic lodge were stolen. When Morgan, a Freemason, learned of the theft he recovered the jewels and returned them to the lodge the following day.
After several more skirmishes, during which he captured and paroled thousands of Union soldiers, Morgan's raid almost ended on July 19, 1863, at Buffington Island, Ohio, when approximately 700 of his men were captured while trying to cross the Ohio River into West Virginia. Intercepted by Union gunboats, over 300 of his men succeeded in crossing. Most of Morgan's men captured that day spent the rest of the war in the infamous Camp Douglas Prisoner of War camp in Chicago, which had a very high death rate. On July 26, near Salineville, Ohio, Morgan and his exhausted, hungry and saddlesore soldiers were finally forced to surrender. It was the farthest north that any uniformed Confederate troops would penetrate during the war.
On November 27, Morgan and six of his officers, most notably Thomas Hines, escaped from their cells in the Ohio Penitentiary by digging a tunnel from Hines' cell into the inner yard and then ascending a wall with a rope made from bunk coverlets and a bent poker iron. Morgan and three of his officers, shortly after midnight, boarded a train from the nearby Columbus train station and arrived in Cincinnati that morning. Morgan and Hines jumped from the train before reaching the depot, and escaped into Kentucky by hiring a skiff to take them across the Ohio River. Through the assistance of sympathizers, they eventually made it to safety in the South. Coincidentally, the same day Morgan escaped, his wife gave birth to a daughter, who died shortly afterwards before Morgan returned home.
Though Morgan's Raid was breathlessly followed by the Northern and Southern press and caused the Union leadership considerable concern, it is now regarded as little more than a showy but ultimately futile sidelight to the war. Furthermore, it was done in direct violation of his orders from General Braxton Bragg not to cross the river. Despite the raiders' best efforts, Union forces had amassed nearly 110,000 militia in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio; dozens of United States Navy gunboats along the Ohio; and strong Federal cavalry forces, which doomed the raid from the beginning. The cost of the raid to the Federals was extensive, with claims for compensation still being filed against the U.S. government well into the early 20th century. However, the Confederacy's loss of Morgan's light cavalry far outweighed the benefits.
Late career and death
After his return from Ohio, Morgan returned to active duty. However, the men he was assigned were in no way comparable to those he had lost. Morgan once again began raiding into Kentucky. However his men lacked discipline, and he was unwilling or unable to control them, leading to open pillaging along with high casualties. The raids of this season were in risky defiance of a strategic situation in the border states that had changed radically from the year before. Union military occupation of this region, long denied to major Confederate armies, had progressed to the point that even highly mobile raiders could no longer count on easily evading them. Northern public outrage at Morgan's raid across the Ohio River may well have contributed to this state of affairs.
His "Last Kentucky Raid" was carried out in June 1864, the high-water mark of which was the Second Battle of Cynthiana. After winning a minor victory on June 11 against an inferior infantry unit in the engagement known as the Battle of Keller's Bridge on the Licking River, near Cynthiana, Kentucky, Morgan decided to take a chance the following day on another contest against superior Union mounted forces that were known to be approaching. The result was a disaster for the Confederates, resulting in the destruction of Morgan's force as a cohesive unit, only a small fraction of whom escaped with their lives and liberty as fugitives, including the General and some of his officers.
After the flashy but unauthorized 1863 Ohio raid, Morgan was never again trusted by General Bragg. Nevertheless, on August 22, 1864, Morgan was placed in command of the Trans-Allegheny Department, embracing at the time the Confederate forces in eastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia. Yet around this time some Confederate authorities were quietly investigating Morgan for charges of criminal banditry, likely leading to his removal from command. He began to organize a raid aimed at Knoxville, Tennessee.
On September 4, 1864, he was surprised by a Union raid on Greeneville, Tennessee. While attempting to retreat, he was shot in the back and killed by Union cavalrymen.
Morgan was buried in Lexington Cemetery. The burial was shortly before the birth of his second child, another daughter.
Legacy
Hart County High School, in Munfordville, Kentucky, the site of the Battle for the Bridge, named its mascot the Raiders, in honor of Morgan's men. Also, a large mural in the town depicts Morgan.
Trimble County High School, in Bedford, Kentucky, named its mascot the Raiders, in honor of Morgan's men.
The John Hunt Morgan Memorial statue in Lexington is a tribute to him. The statue was relocated from the courthouse lawn in July 2018, the same location that slave auctions were held. It was placed in the Confederate section of the Lexington Cemetery.
The Hunt-Morgan House, once his home, is a contributing property in a historic district in Lexington.
The John Hunt Morgan Bridge on East Main Street/U.S. Route 11 in Abingdon, Virginia, is named after him.
The John Hunt Morgan Bridge on South Main Street/U.S. Route 27 in Cynthiana, Kentucky, is named after him.
The General Morgan Inn, the location that he was killed in Greeneville, Tennessee, is named after him.
A Kentucky Army National Guard Field Artillery battalion, the 1st BN 623d FA (HIMARS) with headquarters in Glasgow, Kentucky, are known as Morgan's Men.
Morgan House Gift Shop and Restaurant Dublin, Ohio. The original log cabin that was moved to this site.
A stone monument was erected in Pomeroy, Ohio in 1909 to commemorate General Rue's defeat and capture of Morgan. It states:
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)
List of Notable Freemasons
Alvan Cullem Gillem
Battle of Buffington Island
Battle of Corydon
Battle of Salineville
Guerrilla warfare
Kentucky in the American Civil War
Garrett Augustus Morgan
Thomas Hunt Morgan – nephew of John Hunt Morgan who won the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine
William P. Sanders
Notes
Sources
Brown, Dee A., The Bold Cavaliers: Morgan's Second Kentucky Cavalry Raiders. 1959. Republished as Morgan's Raiders, Smithmark, 1995. .
Dupuy, Trevor N., Johnson, Curt, and Bongard, David L., Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, Castle Books, 1992, 1st Ed., .
Evans, Harold. Who Made America: From the Steam Engine to the Search Engine. Little Brown, 2004.
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 3, Red River to Appomattox. New York: Random House, 1974. .
Horwitz, Lester V., The Longest Raid of the Civil War, Farmcourt Publishing, 1999, .
Mackey, Robert E. The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865. Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. .
Noe, Kenneth W. Perryville: This Grand Havoc of Battle. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001. .
Ramage, James A. Rebel Raider: The Life of General John Hunt Morgan. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986. .
Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. .
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. .
Further reading
Duke, Basil W., Morgan's Cavalry New York, 1906.
Gorin-Smith, Betty Jane, 'Morgan Is Coming!': Confederate Raiders in the Heartland of Kentucky. Louisville, Kentucky: Harmony House Publishers, 2006, 452 pp., .
Johnson, Robert Underwood, and Buel, Clarence C. (eds.), Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Century Co., 1884-1888.
Mowery, David L., Morgan's Great Raid: The Remarkable Expedition from Kentucky to Ohio. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2013. .
Rue, George Washington, Maj. (1828-1911): Celebration of the Surrender of General John H. Morgan, Ohio Archæological and Historical Society Publications: Volume 20 [1911], pp. 368–377.
Penn, William A., Kentucky Rebel Town: Civil War Battles of Cynthiana and Harrison County, (Lexington: U. Press of Kentucky, 2016)
External links
The History of the Thunderbolt Raiders by journalists Lee Bailey and John Hambrick
John Hunt Morgan Heritage Trail
"The Battle of Corydon, Indiana" – Article by Civil War historian/author Bryan S. Bush, which contains rare images of Morgan shown courtesy of the Civil War Museum of the Western Theater in Bardstown, Kentucky.
"Morgan's Christmas Raid" – Article by Civil War historian/author Bryan S. Bush
1825 births
1864 deaths
Military personnel from Huntsville, Alabama
American people of Welsh descent
American slave owners
Confederate States Army brigadier generals
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Confederate States military personnel killed in the American Civil War
American Civil War prisoners of war
American Freemasons
Lexington in the American Civil War
Orphan Brigade
People of Kentucky in the American Civil War
Transylvania University alumni
Deaths by firearm in Tennessee | [
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238315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20von%20Reumont | Alfred von Reumont | Alfred von Reumont (15 August 1808 – 27 April 1887) was a German scholar and diplomatist.
Biography
He was the son of Gerhard Reumont (1765-1829), and named Alfred after the English king Alfred the Great. Educated at the universities of Bonn and Heidelberg, he obtained a position in Florence through the influence of an Englishman, William Craufurd, but soon he entered the Prussian diplomatic service and was employed in Florence, in Constantinople and in Rome. He also spent some time in the Foreign Office in Berlin. From 1851 to 1860 he represented his country in Florence. Reumont was the friend and adviser of Frederick William IV. In 1879 he founded the Aachener Geschichtsverein, and having spent his concluding years at Bonn and at Aix-la-Chapelle, he died in the latter city on 27 April 1887.
Works
Reumont's numerous writings deal mainly with Italy, in which country he passed many years of his life. On the history of Florence and of Tuscany he wrote Tavole cronologiche e sincrone della storia fiorentina (1841; Supplement, 1875); Geschichte Toscanas seit dem Ende des florentinischen Freistaats (History of Toscany since the end of the Florentine freestate, Gotha, 1876–77); and a work on Lorenzo de' Medici (Leipzig, 1874, and again 1883). This last book has been translated into English by R Harrison (1876). He remembered his connection with Florence when he wrote Römische Briefe von einem Florentiner (Roman letters from a Florentine, Leipzig, 1840–44), and his residence in Rome was also responsible for his Geschichte der Stadt Rom (3 vols., 1867–70).
Turning his attention to the history of Naples, he wrote Die Carafa von Maddaloni Neapel unter spanischer Herrschaft (1851; Eng. trans., 1854), and more general works on Italian history are: Beiträge zur italienischen Geschichte (6 vols., Berlin, 1853–57), and Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens (1886).
More strictly biographical in their nature are: Die Jugend Caterinas de' Medici (Youth of Catherine de' Medici, 1854), which has been translated into French by A. Baschet (1866); Die Gräfin von Albany (1860) and a life of his close friend Capponi, Gino Capponi, ein Zeit- und Lebensbild (Life and Times of Gino Capponi, Gotha, 1880). His Ganganelli: Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit (Ganganelli: Pope Clement XIV, his letters and times, Berlin, 1847) is valuable for the relations between this pope and the Jesuits.
Other works which may be mentioned are Zeitgenossen, Biografien und Charakteristichen (Berlin, 1862); Bibliografia dei lavori pubblicati in Germania sulla storia d'Italia (Berlin, 1863); Biographische Denkblätter nach personlichen Erinnerungen (Biographical memorials from personal memories, Leipzig, 1878); and Saggi di storia e letteratura (Florence, 1880). Reumont's other important work, one which he was peculiarly fitted to write, was his Aus Friedrich Wilhelms IV. gesunden und kranken Tagen (From Frederick William IV's healthy and sick days, Leipzig, 1885).
Notes
References
This work in turn cites:
H. Hüffer, Alfred von Reumont (Cologne, 1904)
External links
1808 births
1887 deaths
University of Bonn alumni
German scholars
German diplomats | [
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238317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Morgan | Daniel Morgan | Daniel Morgan (1735–1736July 6, 1802) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician from Virginia. One of the most respected battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783, he later commanded troops during the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791–1794.
Born in New Jersey to Welsh immigrants, Morgan settled in Winchester, Virginia. He became an officer of the Virginia militia and recruited a company of riflemen at the start of the Revolutionary War. Early in the war, Morgan served in Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec and in the Saratoga campaign. He also served in the Philadelphia campaign before resigning from the army in 1779.
Morgan returned to the army after the Battle of Camden, and led the Continental Army to victory in the Battle of Cowpens. After the war, Morgan retired from the army again and developed a large estate. He was recalled to duty in 1794 to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, and commanded a portion of the army that remained in Western Pennsylvania after the rebellion. A member of the Federalist Party, Morgan twice ran for the United States House of Representatives, winning election to the House in 1796. He retired from Congress in 1799 and died in 1802.
Early years
Daniel Morgan is believed to have been born in the village of Hunterdon County, New Jersey in Lebanon Township. All four of his grandparents were Welsh immigrants who lived in Pennsylvania. Both of Morgan's parents were born in Pennsylvania and then later moved to New Jersey together. Morgan was the fifth of seven children of James Morgan (1702–1782) and Eleanor Lloyd (1706–1748). When Morgan was 17, he left home following a fight with his father. After working at odd jobs in Pennsylvania, he moved to the Shenandoah Valley. He finally settled on the Virginia frontier, near what is now Winchester, Virginia.
He worked clearing land, running a sawmill, and as a teamster. In a little more than two years, he saved enough to buy his own team. With multiple extra wagons, this operation quickly expanded into a thriving business. Morgan served as a civilian teamster during the French and Indian War, with Daniel Boone, sometimes said to be his cousin. During the retreat from Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh), he was punished with 500 lashes (a usually fatal sentence) for attacking an officer. Morgan thus acquired a disdain for British authorities and their treatment of provincials. Later, when he led troops, he banned flogging. He then met Abigail Curry; they married and had two daughters, Nancy and Betsy. Abigail would teach him how to read and write.
Morgan later served as a rifleman in the provincial forces assigned to protect the western settlements from French-backed Indian raids. He led a force that relieved Fort Edwards during its siege and successfully directed the defence afterward. Sometime after the war, he purchased a farm between Winchester and Battletown. By 1774, he was so prosperous that he owned ten slaves. That year, he served in Dunmore's War, taking part in raids on Shawnee villages in the Ohio Country.
American Revolution
After the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the Continental Congress created the Continental Army in June 1775. They called for the formation of 10 rifle companies from the middle colonies to support the Siege of Boston, and late in June 1775, Virginia agreed to send two. Morgan was chosen by a unanimous vote by the Committee of Frederick County to form one of these companies and become its commander.
Morgan recruited 96 men in 10 days and assembled them at Winchester on July 14. This was even larger than authorized strength. His company of marksmen was nicknamed "Morgan's Riflemen". Another company was raised from Shepherdstown by his rival, Hugh Stephenson. Stephenson's company initially planned to meet Morgan's company in Winchester but found them gone. Morgan marched his men to Boston, Massachusetts in 21 days, arriving on August 6, 1775. Locals called it the "Bee-Line March", noting that Stephenson somehow marched his men 600 miles from their meeting point at Morgan's Spring, in 24 days, so they arrived at Cambridge on Friday, August 11, 1775. The long rifles used were more accurate and had a longer range than other firearms at that time (300 yards as compared to 80 for standard smooth-bore muskets), but took much longer to load. As they were handmade, calibres varied, requiring differently sized bullets. When his men were done training Morgan used them as snipers, shooting mostly British officers who thought they were out of range, sometimes they killed 10 British in a day. This caused great outrage within and without the British army; amongst others, Washington disapproved of this way of war, and when gunpowder began to run out he forbade Morgan to fight in such a manner.
Invasion of Canada
In June that year, the Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Canada. Colonel Benedict Arnold convinced General Washington to start an eastern offensive in support of Montgomery's invasion. Washington agreed to dispatch three companies from his forces at Boston, provided they agreed. Every company at Boston volunteered, and a lottery was used to choose who should go. Morgan's company was one of them. Benedict Arnold selected Captain Morgan to lead the three companies as a battalion. Arnold's expedition set out from Fort Western on September 25, with Morgan leading the advance party.
The Arnold Expedition started with about 1,050 men; by the time they reached Quebec on November 9, that had been reduced to 675. When Montgomery's men arrived, they launched a joint assault. The Battle of Quebec began in a blizzard on the morning of December 31. The Patriots attacked in two pincers, commanded by Montgomery and Arnold.
Arnold attacked against the lower city from the north, but he suffered a leg wound early in the battle. Morgan took command of the force, and he successfully overcame the first rampart and entered the city. Montgomery's force initiated their attack as the blizzard became severe, and Montgomery and many of his troops, except for Aaron Burr, were killed or wounded in the first British volley. With Montgomery down, his attack faltered. British General Carleton consequently was able to lead hundreds of the Quebec militia in the encirclement of the second attack. Carleton was also able to move his cannons and men to the first barricade, behind Morgan's force. Divided and subject to fire from all sides, Morgan's troops gradually surrendered. Morgan handed his sword to a French-Canadian priest, refusing to give it to Carleton in formal surrender. Morgan thus became one of the 372 men captured, and he remained a prisoner of war until he was exchanged in January 1777.
11th Virginia Regiment
When he rejoined Washington early in 1777, Morgan was surprised to learn he had been promoted to colonel for his bravery at Quebec. He was ordered to raise and command a new infantry regiment, the 11th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Line.
On June 13, 1777, Morgan was given command of the Provisional Rifle Corps, a light infantry force of 500 riflemen chosen from Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia regiments of the Continental Army. Many were from his own 11th Regiment. Washington sent them to harass General William Howe's rearguard, and Morgan did so during their entire withdrawal across New Jersey.
Saratoga
A detachment of Morgan's regiment, commanded by Morgan, was reassigned to the army's Northern Department and on Aug 30 he joined General Horatio Gates to aid in resisting Burgoyne's offensive. He is prominently depicted in the painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull.
Freeman's Farm
Morgan led his regiment, with the added support of Henry Dearborn's 300-man New Hampshire infantry, as the advance to the main forces. On September 19, at Freeman's Farm, they ran into the advance of General Simon Fraser's wing of Burgoyne's force. Every officer in the British advance party died in the first exchange, and the advance guard retreated.
Morgan's men charged without orders, but the charge fell apart when they ran into the main column led by General Hamilton. Benedict Arnold arrived, and he and Morgan managed to reform the unit. As the British began to form on the fields at Freeman's farm, Morgan's men continued to break these formations with accurate rifle fire from the woods on the far side of the field. They were joined by another seven regiments from Bemis Heights.
For the rest of the afternoon, American fire held the British in check, but repeated American charges were repelled by British bayonets.
Bemis Heights
Burgoyne's next offensive resulted in the Battle of Bemis Heights on Oct. 7. Morgan was assigned command of the left (or western) flank of the American position. The British plan was to turn that flank, using an advance by 1,500 men. This brought Morgan's brigade once again up against General Fraser's forces.
Passing through the Canadian loyalists, Morgan's Virginia sharpshooters got the British light infantry trapped in a crossfire between themselves and Dearborn's regiment. Although the light infantry broke, General Fraser was trying to rally them, encouraging his men to hold their positions when Benedict Arnold arrived. Arnold spotted him and called to Morgan: "That man on the grey horse is a host unto himself and must be disposed of — direct the attention of some of the sharpshooters amongst your riflemen to him!" Morgan reluctantly ordered Fraser shot by a sniper, and Timothy Murphy obliged him.
With Fraser mortally wounded, the British light infantry fell back into and through the redoubts occupied by Burgoyne's main force. Morgan was one of those who then followed Arnold's lead to turn a counter-attack from the British middle. Burgoyne retired to his starting positions, but about 500 men poorer for the effort. That night, he withdrew to the village of Saratoga, New York (renamed Schuylerville in honor of Philip Schuyler) about eight miles to the northwest.
During the next week, as Burgoyne dug in, Morgan and his men moved to his north. Their ability to cut up any patrols sent in their direction convinced the British that retreat was not possible.
New Jersey and retirement
After Saratoga, Morgan's unit rejoined Washington's main army, near Philadelphia. Throughout 1778 he hit British columns and supply lines in New Jersey but was not involved in any major battles. He was not involved in the Battle of Monmouth but actively pursued the withdrawing British forces and captured many prisoners and supplies. When the Virginia Line was reorganized on September 14, 1778, Morgan became the colonel of the 7th Virginia Regiment.
Throughout this period, Morgan became increasingly dissatisfied with the army and the Congress. He had never been politically active or cultivated a relationship with the Congress. As a result, he was repeatedly passed over for promotion to brigadier, favor going to men with less combat experience but better political connections. While still a colonel with Washington, he had temporarily commanded Weedon's brigade and felt himself ready for the position. Besides this frustration, his legs and back aggravated him from the abuse taken during the Quebec Expedition. He was finally allowed to resign on June 30, 1779, and returned home to Winchester.
In June 1780, he was urged to re-enter the service by General Gates but declined. Gates was taking command in the Southern Department, and Morgan felt that being outranked by so many militia officers would limit his usefulness. After Gates' disaster at the Battle of Camden, Morgan thrust all other considerations aside, and went to join the Southern command at Hillsborough, North Carolina.
Southern Campaign
He met Gates at Hillsborough, and was given command of the light infantry corps on Oct. 2. At last, on October 13, 1780, Morgan received his promotion to brigadier general.
Morgan met his new Department Commander, Nathanael Greene, on December 3, 1780, at Charlotte, North Carolina. Greene did not change his command assignment, but did give him new orders. Greene had decided to split his army and annoy the enemy in order to buy time to rebuild his force. He gave Morgan's command of about 600 men the job of foraging and enemy harassment in the backcountry of South Carolina, while avoiding direct battle.
When this strategy became apparent, the British General Cornwallis sent Colonel Banastre Tarleton's British Legion to track him down. Morgan talked with many of the militia who had fought Tarleton before, and decided to disobey his order, by setting up a direct confrontation.
Battle of Cowpens
Morgan chose to make his stand at Cowpens, South Carolina. On the morning of January 17, 1781, they met Tarleton in the Battle of Cowpens. Morgan had been joined by militia forces under Andrew Pickens and William Washington's dragoons. Tarleton's legion was supplemented with the light infantry from several regiments of regulars.
Morgan's plan took advantage of Tarleton's tendency for quick action and his disdain for the militia, as well as the longer range and accuracy of his Virginia riflemen. The marksmen were positioned to the front, followed by the militia, with the regulars at the hilltop. The first two units were to withdraw as soon as they were seriously threatened, but after inflicting damage. This would invite a premature charge from the British.
The tactic resulted in a double envelopment. As the British forces approached, the Americans, with their backs turned to the British, reloaded their muskets. When the British got close to the Americans, they turned and fired at point-blank range in their faces. In less than an hour, Tarleton's 1,076 men suffered 110 killed and 830 captured; 200 British prisoners of war were wounded. The British Legion, among the best units in Cornwallis' army, was effectively disbanded. The captured commander of a battalion of the 71st Regiment of Foot, Fraser's Highlanders, Archibald McArthur, said after the battle that "he was an officer before Tarleton was born; that the best troops in the service were put under 'that boy' to be sacrificed".
Cornwallis had lost not only Tarleton's legion but also his light infantry, which limited his speed of reaction for the rest of the campaign. For his actions, Virginia gave Morgan land and an estate that had been abandoned by a Tory. The damp and chill of the campaign had aggravated his sciatica to the point where he was in constant pain; on February 10, he returned to his Virginia farm. In July 1781, Morgan briefly joined Lafayette to pursue Banastre Tarleton once more, this time in Virginia, but they were unsuccessful.
Later life
Morgan resigned his commission after serving six-and-a-half years, and at 46 returned home to Frederick County. He was admitted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Virginia. He turned his attention to investing in land rather than clearing it, and eventually built an estate of more than . As part of his settling down in 1782, he joined the Presbyterian Church and, using Hessian prisoners of war, built a new house near Winchester, Virginia. He named the home Saratoga after his victory in New York. The Congress awarded him a gold medal in 1790 to commemorate his victory at Cowpens.
In 1794, he was briefly recalled to national service to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, and the same year, he was promoted to major general. Serving under General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania. The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis.
Morgan ran for election to the US House of Representatives twice as a Federalist. He lost in 1794, but won in 1796 with 70% of the vote by defeating Democratic-Republican Robert Rutherford. Morgan served a single term from 1797 to 1799.
He died at his daughter's home in Winchester on July 6, 1802. He was buried in Old Stone Presbyterian Church graveyard. The body was moved to the Mt. Hebron Cemetery in Winchester, Virginia, after the American Civil War. His wife, Abigail, died in 1816 and was buried in Logan County, Kentucky.
Legacy
Daniel Morgan Parkinson, militia officer, official and entrepreneur of frontier Wisconsin, was the son of Morgan's sister Mary, and was named after his famous uncle. Confederate General John Hunt Morgan claimed to be one of his descendants.
In 1820 Virginia named a new county—Morgan County—in his honor. (It is now in West Virginia.) The states of Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee followed their example. The North Carolina city of Morganton is also named after Morgan, as well as the Kentucky city of Morganfield (originally Morgan's Field) which was founded in 1811 on land which was part of a Revolutionary War land grant to Daniel Morgan. Morgan actually never saw the land, but his daughter's cousin-in-law, Presley O'Bannon, the "Hero of Derna" in the Barbary War, acquired the land, drew up a plan for the town and donated the land for the streets and public square.
In 1881 (on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of the Battle of Cowpens), a statue of Morgan was placed in the central town square of Spartanburg, South Carolina. It is located in Morgan Square and remains in place today.
In late 1951, an attempt was made to reinter Morgan's body in Cowpens, SC, but the Frederick-Winchester Historical Society blocked the move by securing an injunction in circuit court. The event was pictured by a staged photo that appeared in Life magazine.
In 1973, the home Saratoga was declared a National Historic Landmark.
Fort Morgan is a historic masonry pentagonal bastion fort at the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama, United States.
Morgan and his actions served as one of the key sources for the fictional character of Benjamin Martin in The Patriot, a motion picture released in 2000.
There is a street named after him in Lebanon Township, Hunterdon County, New Jersey.
A statue of Morgan was erected at the McConnelsville library, in Morgan County, Ohio in 2017.
In Winchester, Virginia, a middle school is named in his honor.
The Daniel Morgan House at Winchester was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2013.
In the early 1780s, Morgan joined efforts with Col. Nathaniel Burwell to build a water-powered mill in Millwood, Virginia. The Burwell-Morgan Mill is open as a museum and is one of the oldest, most original operational grist mills in the country.
A statue of Morgan is on the west face of the Saratoga Monument in Schuylerville NY.
References
Further reading
Babits, Lawrence E. A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens. University of North Carolina Press, 1998. .
Bodie, Idella. The Old Waggoner (Juvenile nonfiction). Sandlapper Publishing, 2000.
Calahan, North. Daniel Morgan: Ranger of the Revolution. AMS Press, 1961;
Graham, James, The Life of General Daniel Morgan of the Virginia Line of the Army of the United States: with portions of his correspondence. Zebrowski Historical Publishing, 1859;
Higginbotham, Don. Daniel Morgan: Revolutionary Rifleman. University of North Carolina Press, 1961.
Ketcham, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. John Macrae/Holt Paperbacks, 1999. .
LaCrosse, Jr., Richard B. Revolutionary Rangers: Daniel Morgan's Riflemen and Their Role on the Northern Frontier, 1778-1783. Heritage Books, 2002. .
Zambone, Albert Louis, Daniel Morgan: A Revolutionary Life. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2018.
External links
Nomination form for Saratoga to the National Historic Register
Burwell-Morgan Mill Web site
Daniel Morgan Graduate School
The Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
Bryce Metcalf, Bryce Original Members and Other Officers Eligible to the Society of the Cincinnati, 1783-1938: With the Institution, Rules of Admission, and Lists of the Officers of the General and State Societies (Strasburg, Va.: Shenandoah Publishing House, Inc., 1938), page 108.
1730s births
1802 deaths
American people of Welsh descent
American Presbyterians
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from Virginia
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia
People from Bethlehem Township, New Jersey
Politicians from Winchester, Virginia
People of Virginia in the French and Indian War
Virginia colonial people
Virginia Federalists
Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People from Boyce, Virginia
American slave owners
Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (Winchester, Virginia)
Military personnel from New Jersey | [
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238319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gino%20Capponi | Gino Capponi | Marquis Gino Capponi (Florence, 13 September 1792 – Florence, 3 February 1876) was an Italian statesman and historian of a Liberal Catholic bent.
Biography
The Capponi was an illustrious Florentine aristocratic family, and is mentioned as early as 1250; it acquired great wealth as a mercantile and banking firm, and many of its members distinguished themselves in the service of the republic and the Medicis (see Piero Capponi), and later in that of the house of Lorraine.
Gino was the son of the Marquis Pier Roberto Capponi, a nobleman greatly attached to the reigning grand duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III and also son of , foundress of the Passionist Sister. When that prince was deposed by the French in 1799 the Capponi family followed him into exile at Vienna, where they remained until he exchanged his rights to the grand duchy for a German principality (1803). The Capponi then returned to Florence, and in 1811 Gino married the marchesina Giulia Vernaccia. Although the family were very anti-French, Gino was chosen with other notables to pay homage to Napoleon in Paris in 1813. On the fall of Napoleon, Ferdinand returned to Tuscany (September 1814), but the restoration proved less reactionary there than in any other part of Italy.[]
Young Capponi was well received at court, but not satisfied with the life of a mere man of fashion, he devoted himself to serious study and foreign travel. After sundry journeys in Italy he again visited Paris in 1818, and then went to England. He became deeply interested in English institutions, and carefully studied the constitution, the electoral system, university life, and industrial organization. At Edinburgh he met Francis Jeffrey, the editor of the Edinburgh Review, and conceived a desire to found a similar review in Italy. Besides knowing Jeffrey he made the acquaintance of many prominent statesmen and men of letters, including Lord John Russell, the duke of Bedford, Dugald Stewart, and Ugo Foscolo. This visit had a great effect in forming his character, and while it made him an ardent Anglophile, he realized more and more the distressing conditions of his own country.
He returned to Italy in 1820, and on reaching Florence he helped found a review journal on the lines of the Edinburgh Review, which should attract the best literary talent. This he achieved with the help of the Swiss GP Vieusseux, and the result was the journal, Antologia. He contributed largely to its columns, as well as to those of the Archivio Storico, another of Vieusseux's ventures. Capponi began to take a more active interest in politics, and entered into communication with the Liberals of all parts of Italy. He had discussed the possibility of liberating Italy with Prince Charles Albert of Savoy-Carignano, to whom he had introduced the Milanese revolutionist Count Confalonieri. But the collapse of the rising of 1821 and the imprisonment of Confalonieri made Capponi despair of achieving anything by revolution, and he devoted himself to the economic development of Tuscany and to study. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1842.
At his beautiful villa of Varramista he collected materials for a history of the Church; his work was interrupted by family troubles and by progressive vision loss. By 1844 he had become blind, although he continued to work by means of amanuenses. In 1847 he again plunged into politics and discussed plans for an Italian alliance against Austria. When the grand duke Leopold II decided in 1848 to grant his people a constitution, Capponi was made a member of the commission to draw it up, and he eventually became prime minister. During his short tenure of office he conducted foreign affairs with great skill, and made every effort to save the Italian situation after the defeat of Charles Albert on the Mincio. In October 1848 he resigned; soon afterwards the grand duke fled, creating disordered government in Florence. In 1849 t Grand Duke was able to return with an escort of Austrian soldiery. The blind statesman thanked God that he could not see the hated white Austrian uniforms in Florence.
He returned to his studies and commenced his great Storia della Repubblica di Firenze; but he followed political affairs with great interest, and helped to convince Lord John Russell, who stayed with him in 1859, of the hopelessness of the grand duke's position. After Leopold's second flight (27 April 1859) a Tuscan assembly was summoned, and Capponi elected member of it. He voted for the grand duke's deposition and for the union of Tuscany with Piedmont. King Victor Emmanuel made him senator in 1860. His last years were devoted almost exclusively to his Florentine history, which was published in 1875 and achieved an immediate success. This was Capponi's last work, for on 3 February 1876 he died at the age of eighty-four.
Capponi was one of the best specimens of the Tuscan landlord class. "He represents," wrote his biographer Tabarrini, "one of the most striking personalities of a generation, all by now deceased, which did not resign itself to the beatitudes of 1815, but wished to raise Italy from the humble state to which the European peace of that year had condemned her; and he succeeded by first raising the character of the Italians in the opinion of foreigners, so as to deserve their esteem and respect." He knew nearly all the most interesting people in Italy, besides many distinguished foreigners: Giuseppe Giusti, the poet, Alessandro Manzoni, the novelist, Niccolò Tommaseo, Richard Cobden, A von Reumont, the historian, were among those whom he entertained at his palace or his villas, and many were the struggling students and revolutionists to whom he gave assistance.
As a historian his reputation rests on his Storia della Repubblica di Firenze (Florence, 1875); it was the first comprehensive Italian book on the subject based on documents and written in a modern critical spirit, and if the chapters on the early history of the city are now obsolete in view of recent discoveries, yet, as a whole, it remains a standard work. Besides his history a large number of essays and pamphlets have been published in his Scritti inediti.
References
This source in turn cites:
M. Tabarrini, Gino Capponi (Florence, 1879)
A. von Reumont, Gino Capponi (Gotha, 1880)
External links
1792 births
1876 deaths
Writers from Florence
Italian historians
Liberal Catholicism
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Knights of the Order of Saint Joseph
Members of the Senate of the Kingdom of Sardinia | [
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238322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Domenico%20Guerrazzi | Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi | Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi (12 August 1804 – 25 September 1873) was an Italian writer and politician involved in the Italian Risorgimento.
Biography
Guerrazzi was born in the seaport of Livorno, then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. He studied law at the university of Pisa, graduating in 1824. He began to practice in Livorno, but soon gave up law in favour of politics and literature, being particularly influenced by Byron, to whom he dedicated his "Stanze" (1825). His first novel, La Battaglia di Benevento was published in 1827.
Giuseppe Mazzini made his acquaintance, and in 1829, together with Carlo Bini, they started a newspaper, L'Indicatore Livornese, at Livorno. The authorities of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany suppressed the periodical in February 1830 after 48 issues.
In the same year Guerrazzi was banished to Montepulciano for six months after writing an oration to the memory of Cosimo Del Fante — a native of Livorno who had embraced the ideals of the French Revolution and whom Guerrazzi held up as an example for the idealists of the risorgimento. While confined to Montepulciano he began work on his most famous novel, L'Assedio di Firenze - based on and greatly glorifying the life of the 16th Century Florentine soldier Francesco Ferruccio.
Guerrazzi was to be imprisoned several times for his activity in the cause of "Young Italy"; in 1833 he was locked up for three months in the Forte Stella at Portoferraio.
Subsequently, he became the most powerful Liberal leader at Livorno. In 1848 Guerrazzi was appointed a minister, with some idea of mediating between the reformers and the grand duke of Tuscany, Leopold II. On 8 February 1849, following Leopold's flight, Guerrazzi formed a governing triumvirate with Giuseppe Mazzoni and Giuseppe Montanelli and a republic was proclaimed; on 27 March Guerrazzi was nominated dictator.
On Leopold's restoration, Guerrazzi refused to flee and he was sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment. In these years he worked on his Apologia, which was published in 1852. After three years in prison his sentence was commuted to exile in Corsica; in 1857 he escaped from the island and lived for some time in Genoa. From 1862 to 1870, he served as a deputy in the Italian parliament at Turin.
Guerrazzi died of a stroke in Cecina some 30 km from his birthplace, Livorno.
His other major works include Isabella Orsini (1845) and Beatrice Cenci (1854). Moreover, two historic novels placed in Corsica during the 18th century: La torre di Nonza (1857) and Pasquale Paoli ossia la Rotta di Pontenuovo. Racconto Corso del Secolo XVIII (1860). His collected Opere appeared in 1868.
When in 1854 Beatrice Cenci was lambasted by Francesco de Sanctis (who now favored the House of Savoy leadership for Italy), he wrote to a friend: "Honoured Alessandro Manzoni, I am put down... to think that as far back as '40 Britons and Germans saw us as leaders of two different schools, and his they labelled sleep-inducing".
References
External links
1804 births
1873 deaths
People from Livorno
Italian politicians
Italian people of the Italian unification
People of the Revolutions of 1848
19th-century Italian novelists
19th-century male writers | [
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238326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Frankenthaler | Helen Frankenthaler | Helen Frankenthaler (December 12, 1928 – December 27, 2011) was an American abstract expressionist painter. She was a major contributor to the history of postwar American painting. Having exhibited her work for over six decades (early 1950s until 2011), she spanned several generations of abstract painters while continuing to produce vital and ever-changing new work. Frankenthaler began exhibiting her large-scale abstract expressionist paintings in contemporary museums and galleries in the early 1950s. She was included in the 1964 Post-Painterly Abstraction exhibition curated by Clement Greenberg that introduced a newer generation of abstract painting that came to be known as color field. Born in Manhattan, she was influenced by Greenberg, Hans Hofmann, and Jackson Pollock's paintings. Her work has been the subject of several retrospective exhibitions, including a 1989 retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and been exhibited worldwide since the 1950s. In 2001, she was awarded the National Medal of Arts.
Frankenthaler had a home and studio in Darien, Connecticut.
Early life and education
Helen Frankenthaler was born on December 12, 1928 in New York City. Her father was Alfred Frankenthaler, a New York State Supreme Court judge. Her mother, Martha (Lowenstein), had emigrated with her family from Germany to the United States shortly after she was born. Her two sisters, Marjorie and Gloria, were six and five years older, respectively. Growing up on Manhattan's Upper East Side, Frankenthaler absorbed the privileged background of a cultured and progressive Jewish intellectual family that encouraged all three daughters to prepare themselves for professional careers. Her nephew is the artist/photographer Clifford Ross.
Frankenthaler studied at the Dalton School under muralist Rufino Tamayo and also at Bennington College in Vermont. While at Bennington College, Frankenthaler studied under the direction of Paul Feeley, who is credited with helping her understand pictorial composition, as well as influencing her early cubist-derived style. Upon her graduation in 1949, she studied privately with Australian-born painter Wallace Harrison, and with Hans Hofmann in 1950. She met Clement Greenberg in 1950 and had a five-year relationship with him. She later married Robert Motherwell, another painter, in 1958; the couple divorced in 1971. Both born of wealthy parents, they was known as "the golden couple" and known for their lavish entertaining. She gained from him two stepdaughters, Jeannie Motherwell and Lise Motherwell. Jeannie Motherwell studied painting at Bard College and the Art Students League in New York. Continuing with her art after college, she became active in arts education at the Bruce Museum in Greenwich, CT, until relocating to Cambridge, MA, where she worked at Boston University for the graduate program in Arts Administration until 2015. She served on the Cambridge Arts Council Public Art Commission from 2004 - 2007 and is a member of the Advisory Board of Provincetown Arts magazine (since 2019). Jeannie Motherwell had a show at Rafius Fane Gallery, Boston, Mass. titled Pour, Push, Layer. She is currently represented by M Fine Arts Galerie in Boston, MA and The Schoolhouse Gallery in Provincetown, MA.
In 1994, Frankenthaler married Stephen M. DuBrul, Jr., an investment banker who served the Gerald Ford administration. Frankenthaler had been on the faculty of Hunter College.
Style and technique
Active as a painter for nearly six decades, Frankenthaler passed through many phases and stylistic shifts. Initially associated with abstract expressionism because of her focus on forms latent in nature, Frankenthaler is identified with the use of fluid shapes, abstract masses, and lyrical gestures. She made use of large formats on which she painted, generally, simplified abstract compositions. Her style is notable in its emphasis on spontaneity, as Frankenthaler herself stated, "A really good picture looks as if it's happened at once."
Frankenthaler's official artistic career was launched in 1952 with the exhibition of Mountains and Sea. Throughout the 1950s, her works tended to be centered compositions, meaning the majority of the pictorial incident took place in the middle of the canvas itself, while the edges were of little consequence to the compositional whole. In 1957, Frankenthaler began to experiment with linear shapes and more organic, sun-like, rounded forms in her works. In the 1960s, her style shifted towards the exploration of symmetrical paintings, as she began to place strips of colors near the edges of her paintings, thus involving the edges as a part of the compositional whole. With this shift in composition came a general simplification of Frankenthaler's style. She began to make use of single stains and blots of solid color against white backgrounds, often in the form of geometric shapes. Beginning in 1963, Frankenthaler began to use acrylic paints rather than oil paints because they allowed for both opacity and sharpness when put on the canvas. By the 1970s, she had done away with the soak stain technique entirely, preferring thicker paint that allowed her to employ bright colors almost reminiscent of Fauvism. Throughout the 1970s, Frankenthaler explored the joining of areas of the canvas through the use of modulated hues, and experimented with large, abstract forms. Her work in the 1980s was characterized as much calmer, with its use of muted colors and relaxed brushwork. "Once one's true talent begins to emerge, one is freer in a way but less free in another way, since one is a captive of this necessity and deep urge".
Color field painting
In 1960, the term color field painting was used to describe the work of Frankenthaler. In general, this term refers to the application of large areas, or fields, of color to the canvas. This style was characterized by the use of hues that were similar in tone or intensity, as well as large formats and simplified compositions, all of which are qualities descriptive of Frankenthaler's work from the 1960s onward. The color field artists differed from abstract expressionists in their attempted erasure of emotional, mythic and religious content.
Technique
Frankenthaler often painted onto unprimed canvas with oil paints that she heavily diluted with turpentine, a technique that she named "soak stain." This allowed for the colors to soak directly into the canvas, creating a liquefied, translucent effect that strongly resembled watercolor. Soak stain was also said to be the ultimate fusing of image and canvas, drawing attention to the flatness of the painting itself. The major disadvantage of this method, however, is that the oil in the paints will eventually cause the canvas to discolor and rot away. The technique was adopted by other artists, notably Morris Louis (1912–1962), and Kenneth Noland (1924–2010), and launched the second generation of the color field school of painting. Frankenthaler often worked by laying her canvas out on the floor, a technique inspired by Jackson Pollock.
Frankenthaler preferred to paint in privacy. If assistants were present, she preferred them to be inconspicuous when not needed.
Influences
One of her most important influences was Clement Greenberg (1909–1994), an art and literary critic with whom she had a personal friendship and who included her in the Post-Painterly Abstraction exhibition that he curated in 1964. Through Greenberg she was introduced to the New York art scene. Under his guidance she spent the summer of 1950 studying with Hans Hofmann (1880–1966), catalyst of the Abstract Expressionist movement.
The first Jackson Pollock show Frankenthaler saw was at the Betty Parsons Gallery in 1950. She had this to say about seeing Pollock's paintings Autumn Rhythm, Number 30, 1950 (1950), Number One,1950 (Lavender Mist) (1950):
It was all there. I wanted to live in this land. I had to live there, and master the language.
Some of her thoughts on painting:
John Elderfield wrote that the watercolors of Paul Cézanne and John Marin were important early influences:
Major works
Paintings
In Mountains and Sea, her first professionally exhibited work, Frankenthaler made use of the soak stain technique. The work itself was painted after a trip to Nova Scotia, which partly questions the extant of its non-representational status. Although Mountains and Sea is not a direct depiction of the Nova Scotia coastline, elements of the work suggest a kind of seascape or landscape, like the strokes of blue that join with areas of green. Much like Mountains and Sea, Frankenthaler's Basque Landscape (1958) seems to refer to a very specific, external environment, but it is also abstract. The same can be said for Lorelei (1956), a work based on a boat ride Frankenthaler took down the Rhine.
In Swan Lake #2 (1961), Frankenthaler begins to explore a more illustrative handling of paint. The work depicts a large area of blue paint on the canvas, with breaks in the color that are left white. These negative spaces resemble birds, perhaps swans, sitting on a body of water. There is a very rectilinear brown square that encompasses the blue, balancing both the cool tones of the blue with the warmth of the brown, and the gestural handling of the paint with the strong linearity of the square.
Eden, from 1956, is an interior landscape, meaning it depicts the images of the artist's imagination. Eden tells the story of an abstract, interior world, idealized in ways that a landscape never could be. The work is almost entirely gestural, save for the incorporation of the number "100" two times in the center of the image. When asked about the process of creating this work, Frankenthaler stated that she began by painting the numbers, and that a sort of symbolic, idealized garden grew out of that.
Prints and woodcuts
Frankenthaler recognized a need to continually challenge herself to develop as an artist. For this reason, in 1961, she began to experiment with printmaking at the Universal Limited Art Editions (ULAE), a lithographic workshop in West Islip, Long Island. Frankenthaler collaborated with Tatyana Grosman in 1961 to create her first prints.
In 1976, Frankenthaler began to work within the medium of woodcuts. She collaborated with Kenneth E. Tyler. The first piece they created together was Essence of Mulberry (1977), a woodcut that used eight different colors. Essence of Mulberry was inspired by two sources: the first was an exhibition of fifteenth century woodcuts that Frankenthaler saw on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the second being a mulberry tree that grew outside of Tyler's studio. In 1995, the pair collaborated again, creating The Tales of Genji, a series of six woodcut prints. To create woodcuts with a resonance similar to Frankenthaler's painterly style, she painted her plans onto the wood itself, making maquettes. The Tales of Genji took nearly three years to complete. Frankenthaler then went on to create Madame Butterfly, a print that employed one hundred and two different colors and forty-six woodblocks. Madame Butterfly is seen as the ultimate translation of Frankenthaler's style into the medium of woodcuts, as it embodies her idea of creating an image that looks as if it happened all at once.
Awards and legacy
Frankenthaler received the National Medal of Arts in 2001. She served on the National Council on the Arts of the National Endowment for the Arts from 1985 to 1992. Her other awards include First Prize for Painting at the first Paris Biennial (1959); Temple Gold Medal, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia (1968); New York City Mayor's Award of Honor for Arts and Culture (1986); and Distinguished Artist Award for Lifetime Achievement, College Art Association (1994). In 1990, she was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1994.
Frankenthaler did not consider herself a feminist: "For me, being a 'lady painter' was never an issue. I don't resent being a female painter. I don't exploit it. I paint." "Art was an extremely macho business," Anne Temkin, chief curator at the Museum of Modern Art, told NPR. "For me, there's a great deal of admiration just in the courage and the vision that she brought to what she did." However, Mary Beth Edelson's feminist piece Some Living American Women Artists / Last Supper (1972) appropriated Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, with the heads of notable women artists including Frankenthaler collaged over the heads of Christ and his apostles. This image, addressing the role of religious and art historical iconography in the subordination of women, became "one of the most iconic images of the feminist art movement."
In 1953, Kenneth Noland and Morris Louis saw her Mountains and Sea which, Louis said later, was a "bridge between Pollock and what was possible." On the other hand, some critics called her work "merely beautiful." Grace Glueck's obituary in The New York Times summed up Frankenthaler's career:
Critics have not unanimously praised Ms. Frankenthaler's art. Some have seen it as thin in substance, uncontrolled in method, too sweet in color and too "poetic." But it has been far more apt to garner admirers like the critic Barbara Rose, who wrote in 1972 of Ms. Frankenthaler's gift for "the freedom, spontaneity, openness and complexity of an image, not exclusively of the studio or the mind, but explicitly and intimately tied to nature and human emotions.
Helen Frankenthaler Foundation
The New York-based Helen Frankenthaler Foundation, established and endowed by the artist during her lifetime, is dedicated to promoting greater public interest in and understanding of the visual arts. In 2021 the foundation created Frankenthaler Climate Initiative. In July 2021, the foundation award the first round of grants totaling $5.1 million dollars. The recipients included the Museo de Arte de Ponce, the Santa Rosa Indian Museum and Cultural Center, the Studio Museum in Harlem, and the Yale University Arts Center.
Exhibitions
Frankenthaler's first solo exhibition took place at the Tibor de Nagy Gallery, New York, in the fall of 1951. Her first major museum show, a retrospective of her 1950s work with a catalog by the critic and poet Frank O'Hara, a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, was at the Jewish Museum in 1960. Subsequent solo exhibitions include "Helen Frankenthaler," Whitney Museum of American Art, New York (1969; traveled to Whitechapel Gallery, London; Orangerie Herrenhausen, Hanover; and Kongresshalle, Berlin), and "Helen Frankenthaler: a Painting Retrospective," The Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (1989–90; traveled to the Museum of Modern Art, New York; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; and Detroit Institute of Arts). Miles McEnery Gallery, a New York-based contemporary art gallery which exhibited Color-Field and Abstract Expressionist paintings, showcased a range of her work in 2009 ["Helen Frankenthaler," December 10, 2019 – January 23, 2010). In October 6, 2019, Frankenthaler was included in Sparkling Amazons: Abstract Expressionist Women of the 9th St. Show at the Katonah Museum of Art in Westchester County, NY. which ran until January 26, 2020; *2019: "Postwar Women:alumnae of the Art Students League of New York 1945-1965", Phyllis Harriman Gallery, Art Students League of NY; curated by Will Corwin.; 2020: "9th Street Club", Gazelli Art House, London; curated by Will Corwin
In 2021, a decade after her death the New Britain Museum of American Art mounted an exhibition of her works on paper from the final stages of her opus titled "Helen Frankenthaler; Late Works 1990 - 2003". The exhibition is on from February 11 until May 23, 2021.
Collections
Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto
Art Institute of Chicago
Centre Pompidou, Paris
The Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection
Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, Kalamazoo, MI
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Museum of Modern Art, New York
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
National Gallery of Australia
San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Utah Museum of Fine Arts, Salt Lake City, UT
University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor, MI
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
National Endowment for the Arts
She was a presidential appointee to the National Council on the Arts, which advises the NEA's chairman. In The New York Times in 1989, she argued government funding for the arts was "not part of the democratic process" and was "beginning to spawn an art monster". According to the Los Angeles Times, "Frankenthaler did take a highly public stance during the late 1980s "culture wars" that eventually led to deep budget cuts for the National Endowment for the Arts and a ban on grants to individual artists that still persists. In a 1989 commentary for The New York Times, she wrote that, while "censorship and government interference in the directions and standards of art are dangerous and not part of the democratic process," controversial grants to Andres Serrano, Robert Mapplethorpe and others reflected a trend in which the NEA was supporting work "of increasingly dubious quality. Is the council, once a helping hand, now beginning to spawn an art monster? Do we lose art ... in the guise of endorsing experimentation?"
Death
Frankenthaler died on December 27, 2011 at the age of 83 in Darien, Connecticut, following a long and undisclosed illness.
See also
Lyrical abstraction
Wash (visual arts)
Sunset Corner
Notes
Further reading
Alexander Nemerov. 2021. Fierce Poise: Helen Frankenthaler and 1950s New York. Penguin.
Elderfield, John. Helen Frankenthaler, 1989, Harry N. Abrams
Gabriel, Mary. Ninth Street Women: Lee Krasner, Elaine de Kooning, Grace Hartigan, Joan Mitchell, and Helen Frankenthaler: five painters and the movement that changed modern art. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2018
Helen Frankenthaler, After Mountains and Sea: Frankenthaler 1956-1959 (New York : Guggenheim Museum, ©1998.) ,
Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.) . p. 16; p. 37; pp. 142–145, York 1986.
Pollock, Griselda, "Killing Men and Dying Women". In: Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (eds), Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed. London: Redwood Books, 1996.
Wilkin, Karen. Frankenthaler: Works on Paper 1949-1984, George Braziller (February 1985),
Bibliography
Alison Rowley, Helen Frankenthaler: Painting History, Writing painting. I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2007.
Helen Frankenthaler in Interview with Henry Geldzahler, in Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art, edited by Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 28–30.
Helen Frankenthaler in 'Oral history Interview with Barbara Rose, 1968, for the Archives of American Art - Smithsonian Institution
External links
Helen Frankenthaler Foundation
Archives or American Art, Smithsonian Institute: Oral History Interview
Video: Helen Frankenthaler at Turner Contemporary, Margate by Laura Bushell on Artinfo 4 March 2014
Roberta Smith, "Two Artists Who Embraced Freedom" New York Times, 12/29/11
Helen Frankenthaler Artwork Examples on AskART.
"Frankenthaler's New Way of Making Art", The Wall Street Journal, November 8, 2008
Helen Frankenthaler in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection
Helen Frankenthaler "Contemporary Experience Lecture" The Baltimore Museum of Art: Baltimore, Maryland, 1970 Accessed June 26, 2012
Helen Frankenthaler in the Utah Museum of Fine Arts Collection
1928 births
2011 deaths
20th-century American painters
20th-century American printmakers
20th-century American women artists
Abstract expressionist artists
Abstract painters
American abstract artists
American people of German-Jewish descent
American women painters
American women printmakers
Artists from New York City
Art Students League of New York alumni
Bennington College alumni
Dalton School alumni
Hunter College faculty
Jewish American artists
Jewish painters
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Painters from New York (state)
People from the Upper East Side
People from Provincetown, Massachusetts
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy
21st-century American Jews
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American painters
21st-century American printmakers
21st-century American women artists | [
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238327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Montanelli | Giuseppe Montanelli | Giuseppe Montanelli (21 January 1813 – 17 June 1862) was an Italian statesman and author.
Biography
Montanelli was born at Fucecchio, then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. As a boy he was an organist and composer. In 1840 was appointed law professor at Pisa after graduating law school when he was 18.
He contributed to the Antologia, a celebrated Florentine review, and in 1847 founded a newspaper called L'Italia, the programme of which was "Reform and Nationality." In 1848 Montanelli served with the Tuscan student volunteers at the battle of Curtatone, where he was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians.
On being liberated he returned to Tuscany, and the grand duke Leopold II, knowing that he was popular with the masses, sent him to Livorno to quell the disturbances. In October, Leopold, much against his inclinations, asked him to form a ministry. He accepted, and on January 10, 1849, induced the grand duke to establish a national constituent assembly. But Leopold, alarmed at the turn affairs were taking, fled from Florence, and Montanelli, Guerrazzi and Mazzini were elected "triumvirs" of Tuscany. Like Mazzini, Montanelli advocated the union of Tuscany with Rome.
After the restoration of the grand duke, Montanelli, who was in exile in Paris, was tried and condemned by default; he remained some years in France, where he became a partizan of Napoleon III. It was during this time that he was recruited to assist Giuseppe Verdi with the libretto of his 1857 opera which became Simon Boccanegra, and this collaboration continued after Verdi left Paris to return to Italy.
On the formation of the Kingdom of Italy he returned to Tuscany and was elected member of parliament.
Montanelli died at Fucecchio in 1862.
Although it has been reported that Indro Montanelli, the 20th century Italian journalist, is the grandson of Giuseppe Montanelli, there is in fact no relation between the two. Giuseppe had no children, and the family name of "Montanelli" was passed down through his sister as "Gori-Montanelli."
Works
Memorie sui l'Italia e specialmente sulla Toscana dat 1814 at 1850 (Turin, 1853–55; translated into French, 2 vols., Paris, 1857)
Il Partito nazionale italiano (1856)
L'Impero, il papato, e la democrazia in Italia (1859)
Dell' ordinamento nazionale in Italia (1862)
La Tentazione (poem)
Camma (tragedy written for Adelaide Ristori while she was acting in Paris)
He translated Ernest Legouvé's Médée, also on behalf of Ristori.
References
Notes
Sources
Budden, Julian, The Operas of Verdi, Volume 2: From Il Trovatore to La Forza del destino. London: Cassell, 1984. (hardcover) (paperback).
1813 births
1862 deaths
People from Fucecchio
Italian dramatists and playwrights
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Italian political writers
Italian politicians
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Italian male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century Italian poets
19th-century Italian dramatists and playwrights
19th-century Italian male writers
Italian male non-fiction writers | [
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238328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico%20Confalonieri | Federico Confalonieri | Count Federico Confalonieri (1785 – 10 December 1846) was an Italian revolutionist.
Biography
Confalonieri was born at Milan, descended from a noble Lombard family.
In 1806 he married Teresa Casati. During the Napoleonic period Confalonieri was among the opponents of the French régime, and was regarded as one of the leaders of the Italian national party (Italiani puri). At the time of the Milan riots of 1814, when the minister Giuseppe Prina was assassinated, Confalonieri was unjustly accused of complicity in the deed. After the fall of Napoleon he went to Paris with the other Lombard delegates to plead his country's cause, advocating the formation of a separate Lombard state under an independent prince. But he received no encouragement, for Lombardy was destined for Austria, and Lord Castlereagh consoled him by saying that "the Austrian government was the most beneficent in the world." Confalonieri went on to London, in the hope of winning the favour of the British government, but failed in his object. He then joined the freemasons and some of the various other secret societies with which all Europe was swarming, being initiated by Philippe Buonarroti (1761–1837), an old Tuscan Jacobin living in Paris. On returning to Milan, where he found the Austrians in possession, he at first devoted himself to promoting the material progress of his country, but he was ever watching for an opportunity to liberate it from the foreigner.
Early in 1821, when the atmosphere was thick with rumours of revolt, he visited various parts of Italy to sound the liberal leaders, and also corresponded with the Piedmontese officers who, believing that they had the approval of Prince Charles Albert of Carignano, the heir to the throne, were planning a military revolt. There was talk of a rising at Milan combined with a Piedmontese invasion to expel the Austrians, but the plans were very vague and unpractical, for the military conspirators could count only on a few hundred men, and Confalonieri warned them that Lombardy was not ready. On the outbreak of the Piedmontese revolt (March–April 1821) the Austrian authorities made some arrests, and, through the treachery of one conspirator and the foolishness of others, discovered the plot, if it could so be called, and arrested Silvio Pellico and Maroncelli and afterwards Confalonieri.
A long trial now began, conducted with all the rigour and secrecy of the Austrian procedure, and Confalonieri, outwitted by the astute examining magistrate, Antonio Salvotti (d. 1866), contradicted himself, made fatal admissions, even compromised others, and together with several companions was condemned to death for high treason, but through the intercession of his wife and father, who went to Vienna to plead his cause in person, the emperor Francis commuted the penalty to perpetual imprisonment in the fortress of Spielberg (January 1824). Confalonieri was taken to Vienna and had a long interview with Prince Metternich, who tried to extract further confessions incriminating other persons, especially Charles Albert, but although Confalonieri seemed at one time inclined to prepare a report on the revolutionary movement for the emperor, he did not do so, and once he was in prison he refused to say or write another word, and was treated with exceptional severity in consequence.
His wife died in 1830, and in 1836, on the death of the emperor Francis, he was pardoned and exiled to America. He came back to Europe after a year's absence, and in 1840 obtained permission to return to Milan to see his dying father. He himself, broken in health and spirits, died on 10 December 1846, too soon to see the accomplishment of Italian freedom. He had undoubtedly played a considerable role in the conspiracy of 1821, being the most influential and richest of the Milanese Liberals; when first arrested his conduct may have been open to criticism, but he more than expiated any temporary weakness due to ill-health and to the barbarous methods of examination by his heroic attitude during his long imprisonment, and his persistent refusal to accept offers of pardon accompanied by dishonouring conditions.
His Memorie e Lettere have been edited by Gabrio Casati (2 vols., Milan, 1890). Alessandro D’Ancona’s Federico Confalonieri (Milan, 1898) is based on the memoirs and on a large number of secret documents from the archives of Vienna and Milan. Alessandro Luzio’s Antonio Salvotti e i processi del Ventuno (Rome, 1901) contains many fresh documents which to some extent exonerate Salvotti from the charge of cruelty; among other papers Metternich’s account of his interview with Confalonieri is given in full. See also Alessandro Luzio, Nuovi documenti sul processo Confalonieri (Rome, 1908).
References
1785 births
1846 deaths
Nobility from Milan
Carbonari
Italian exiles
Italian revolutionaries | [
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238329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DotGNU | DotGNU | DotGNU is a decommissioned part of the GNU Project that aims to provide a free software replacement for Microsoft's .NET Framework by Free Software Foundation. Other goals of the project are better support for non-Windows platforms and support for more processors.
The main goal of the DotGNU project code base was to provide a class library that is 100% Common Language Specification (CLS) compliant.
Main development projects
Portable.NET
DotGNU Portable.NET, an implementation of the ECMA-335 Common Language Infrastructure (CLI), includes software to compile and run Visual Basic .NET, C#, and C applications that use the .NET base class libraries, XML, and Windows Forms. Portable.NET claims to support various instruction set architectures including x86, PPC, ARM, and SPARC.
DGEE
DotGNU Execution Environment (DGEE) is a web service server.
libJIT
The libJIT just-in-time compilation library is a library for development of advanced just-in-time compilation in virtual machine implementations, dynamic programming languages, and scripting languages. It implements an intermediate representation based on three-address code, in which variables are kept in static single assignment form.
libJIT has also seen some use in other open source projects, including GNU Emacs ILDJIT and HornetsEye .
Framework architecture
The Portable .NET class library seeks to provide facilities for application development. These are primarily written in C#, but because of the Common Language Specification they can be used by any .NET language. Like .NET, the class library is structured into Namespaces and Assemblies. It has additional top-level namespaces including Accessibility and DotGNU. In a typical operation, the Portable .NET compiler generates a Common Language Specification (CLS) image, as specified in chapter 6 of ECMA-335, and the Portable .NET runtime takes this image and runs it.
Free software
DotGNU points out that it is Free Software, and it sets out to ensure that all aspects of DotGNU minimize dependence on proprietary components, such as calls to Microsoft Windows' GUI code. DotGNU was one of the High Priority Free Software Projects from till .
DotGNU and Microsoft's patents
DotGNU's implementation of those components of the .NET stack not submitted to the ECMA for standardization has been the source of patent violation concerns for much of the life of the project. In particular, discussion has taken place about whether Microsoft could destroy the DotGNU project through patent suits.
The base technologies submitted to the ECMA may be non-problematic. The concerns primarily relate to technologies developed by Microsoft on top of the .NET Framework, such as ASP.NET, ADO.NET, and Windows Forms (see Non standardized namespaces), i.e. parts composing DotGNU's Windows compatibility stack. These technologies are today not fully implemented in DotGNU and are not required for developing DotGNU-applications.
In 2009, Microsoft released .NET Micro Framework under Apache License, Version 2.0, which includes a patent grant. However, the .NET Micro Framework is a reimplementation of the CLR and limited subset of the base class libraries meant for use on embedded devices. Additionally, the patent grant in the Apache License would have protected only contributors and users of the .NET Micro Framework—not users and developers of alternative implementations such as DotGNU or Mono.
In 2014, Microsoft released Roslyn, the next generation official Microsoft C# compiler, under the Apache License. Later that year, Microsoft announced a "reboot" of the official .NET Framework. The framework would be based on .NET Core, including the official runtime and standard libraries released under the MIT License and a patent grant explicitly protecting recipients from Microsoft-owned patents regarding .NET Core.
See also
Comparison of application virtual machines
Portable.NET – A portable version of DotGNU toolchain and runtime
Mono – A popular free software implementation of Microsoft's .NET
Common Language Runtime
Shared Source Common Language Infrastructure – Microsoft's shared source implementation of .NET, previously codenamed Rotor
References
External links
Project homepage
Article '2001 – The Year When DotGNU Was Born'
A 2003 interview with Norbert Bollow of DotGNU
.NET implementations
Computing platforms
GNU Project software | [
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238338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse%20Electric%20Corporation | Westinghouse Electric Corporation | The Westinghouse Electric Corporation was an American manufacturing company founded in 1886 by George Westinghouse. It was originally named "Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company", and was renamed "Westinghouse Electric Corporation" in 1945. The company acquired the CBS television network in 1995, and was renamed as the first incarnation of "CBS Corporation", until being acquired by Viacom in 1999. That merger was completed on April 26, 2000.
The Westinghouse brand is managed by the Westinghouse Licensing Corporation, established in 1998 and currently a subsidiary of Paramount Global. The nuclear power business, Westinghouse Electric Company, was spun off from the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1999.
History
Westinghouse Electric was founded by George Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on January 8, 1886. The firm became active in developing electric infrastructure throughout the United States. The company's largest factories were located in East Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, and Lester, Pennsylvania and in Hamilton, Ontario, where they made turbines, generators, motors, and switch gear for generation, transmission, and use of electricity. In addition to George Westinghouse, early engineers working for the company included Frank Conrad, Benjamin Garver Lamme, Bertha Lamme (first woman mechanical engineer in the United States), Oliver B. Shallenberger, William Stanley, Nikola Tesla, Stephen Timoshenko and Vladimir Zworykin.
Early on, Westinghouse was a rival to Thomas Edison's electric company. In 1892, Edison was merged with Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, making an even bigger competitor, General Electric. Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company changed its name to Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1945.
Financial catastrophe and corporate reinvention
CBS Corporation
In 1990, Westinghouse experienced a financial catastrophe when the Corporation lost over one billion dollars due to bad high-risk, high-fee, high-interest loans made by its Westinghouse Credit Corporation lending arm.
Westinghouse purchased CBS Inc. in 1995, for $5.4 billion. Westinghouse Electric Corporation changed its name to and became the original "CBS Corporation" in 1997. Also in 1997, the Power Generation Business Unit, headquartered in Orlando, Florida, was sold to Siemens AG, of Germany. A year later, CBS sold all of its commercial nuclear power businesses to British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL). In connection with that sale, certain rights to use the Westinghouse trademarks were granted to the newly formed BNFL subsidiary, Westinghouse Electric Company. That company was sold to Toshiba in 2006.
In an attempt to revitalize the corporation, the Board of Directors appointed outside management in the form of CEO Michael H. Jordan, who brought in numerous consultants to help re-engineer the company in order to realize the potential that they saw in the broadcasting industry. Westinghouse reduced the workforce in many of its traditional industrial operations and made further acquisitions in broadcasting to add to its already substantial Group W network, purchasing CBS in 1995. Shortly after, Westinghouse purchased Infinity Broadcasting, TNN, CMT, American Radio Systems, and rights to NFL broadcasting. These investments cost the company over fifteen billion dollars. To recoup its costs, Westinghouse sold many other operations. Siemens purchased non-nuclear power generation, while other firms bought the defense electronics, office furniture company Knoll, Thermo King, its metering and load control division (to ABB), and residential security. With little remaining of the company other than its broadcasting division, Westinghouse renamed itself CBS Corporation in 1997.
Patents
During the 20th century, Westinghouse engineers and scientists were granted more than 28,000 U.S. government patents, the third most of any company.
Products and sponsorships
Power generation: The company pioneered the power generation industry and in the fields of long-distance power transmission and high-voltage alternating-current transmission, unveiling the technology for lighting in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.
Steam turbine generator: The first commercial Westinghouse steam turbine driven generator, a 1,500 kW unit, began operation at Hartford Electric Light Co. in 1901. The machine, nicknamed Mary-Ann, was the first steam turbine generator to be installed by an electric utility to generate electricity in the US. George Westinghouse had based his original steam turbine design on designs licensed from the English inventor Charles Parsons. Today a large proportion of steam turbine generators operating around the world, ranging to units as large as 1,500 MW (or 1,000 times the original 1901 unit) were supplied by Westinghouse from its factories in Lester, Pennsylvania; Charlotte, North Carolina; or Hamilton, Ont. or were built overseas under Westinghouse license. Major Westinghouse licensees or joint venture partners included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan and Harbin Turbine Co. and Shanghai Electric Co. of China.
Research: Westinghouse had 50,000 employees by 1900, and established a formal research and development department in 1906. While the company was expanding, it would experience internal financial difficulties. During the Panic of 1907, the Board of Directors forced George Westinghouse to take a six-month leave of absence. Westinghouse officially retired in 1909 and died several years later in 1914.
Electrical technology: Under new leadership, Westinghouse Electric diversified its business activities in electrical technology. It acquired the Copeman Electric Stove Company in 1914 and Pittsburgh High Voltage Insulator Company in 1921. Westinghouse also moved into radio broadcasting by establishing Pittsburgh's KDKA, the first commercial radio station, and WBZ in Springfield, Massachusetts in 1921. Westinghouse expanded into the elevator business, establishing the Westinghouse Elevator Company in 1928; it sold its elevator business to Schindler Group (forming the Schindler Elevator Corporation) in 1989. Throughout the decade, diversification engendered considerable growth; sales went from $43 million in 1914 to $216 million in 1929.
Aviation: Westinghouse produced the first operational American turbojet for the US Navy program in 1943. After many successes, the ill-fated J40 project, started soon after World War Two, was abandoned in 1955 and led to Westinghouse exiting the aircraft engine business with closure of the Westinghouse Aviation Gas Turbine Division (Kansas City) in 1960.
Gas turbines: During the late 1940s Westinghouse applied its aviation gas turbine technology and experience to develop its first industrial gas turbine. A 2,000–horsepower model W21 was installed in 1948 at the Mississippi River Fuel Corp gas compression station in Wilmar, Arkansas. This was the beginning of a 50-year history of Westinghouse industrial and utility gas turbine development, prior to the sale by Westinghouse of the power generation business to Siemens, AG in 1998. Evolving from the Small Steam and Gas Turbine Division formed in the early 1950s, the Westinghouse Combustion Turbine Systems Division was located in Concordville, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia and the old Lester, Pennsylvania plant, until it was relocated to Power Generation headquarters in Orlando, Florida in 1987.
Nuclear power: As a result of its participation in the US government's military program for nuclear energy applications (e.g. The Nuclear Navy) Westinghouse was instrumental in the development and commercialization of nuclear energy systems for electric power generation. This business currently operates as the Westinghouse Electric Company, and is owned by Brookfield Business Partners of Canada. Electricite de France (EDF) a major global player in the nuclear power business, was a long-time licensee of the Westinghouse nuclear technology.
Industrial motors: Additional major industrial products in the widespread Westinghouse portfolio included electric motors of all sizes, elevators and escalators, controls and lighting. The Large Motor Division, once headquartered in Buffalo, NY, entered a joint venture with Taiwan Electric Co. (TECO) in the 1970s and today operates as TECO-Westinghouse. Much of Westinghouse's higher voltage power equipment was sold to ABB in 1989 and renamed the ABB Power T&D Company.
Rail transit: The Westinghouse Transportation Division (est. 1894) supplied equipment and controls for many North American interurban and streetcar lines, the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART), Washington DC METRO (WMATA), New York City Subway (NYCT) equipment from the 1890s elevated era to the R68A in 1988, among many other heavy rail and rail transit systems and built locomotives, often in partnership with Baldwin, Lima-Hamilton as well as supplying electrical and traction equipment for Fairbanks-Morse diesel locomotives. The division designed and built Automated People Movers (APMs) at several major U.S. airports, including Sea-Tac. Tampa, Dallas-Ft. Worth and Orlando. The Transportation Division was sold to AEG of Germany (1988), which merged into a joint venture of ABB and Daimler Benz named AdTranz in 1996. Ultimately, the unit was acquired by Bombardier of Canada in 2001 and is still headquartered in Pittsburgh.
Consumer electrics: Westinghouse was also a leader in the design and manufacturing of household electrical products including radios, televisions, and other audio/video equipment, and both small and large electric appliances of all kinds, from hair dryers and electric irons to clothes washers and dryers, refrigerators and air conditioning units. For many years Westinghouse was a familiar household name and favored brand. After more than 50 years, and after playing a strong No. 2 to rival General Electric for most of that time, Westinghouse decided to exit the appliance business in the mid- 1970s. White-Westinghouse was formed when White Consolidated acquired the Westinghouse appliance unit in 1975.
World's Fair time capsules: The company is also known for its time capsule contributions during the 1939 New York World's Fair and 1964 New York World's Fair. They also participated in the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. They sponsored the Westinghouse Auditorium at the fair, where they showed films documenting Westinghouse products and company plants. Westinghouse was one of the original corporate sponsors and exhibitors at Walt Disney World's EPCOT attraction in Orlando, Florida.
Environmental incidents
There have been a number of Westinghouse-related environmental incidents in the US. Below is a short list of these. All of these are chemical pollution incidents; none of them involve nuclear reactors or nuclear pollution.
Sharon plant: The Westinghouse Sharon Plant was a 58-acre Westinghouse transformer production facility in Mercer County, Pennsylvania. The EPA's recent Five Year Review Report (2016) of this Superfund site determined that the Shenango River has been polluted due to Westinghouse operations in this area. Because of the findings, the state of Pennsylvania has issued a "Do Not Eat" advisory for fish around the Westinghouse site. This plant was no longer operational after 1984. Westinghouse submitted their final cleanup plan in 1998, and further action beyond their dissolution has been liable to CBS. The transformer business unit was sold to ABB in 1989. This site now houses a product design company.
Adams County plant: Westinghouse was fined $5.5 million in 1996 for polluting groundwater in over 100 wells, as well as other water sources, while operating its Westinghouse Elevator Company plant in Adams County, Pennsylvania. Degreasers and other toxic chemicals were released over a 5-year period in the 1980s. This business unit was sold to Schindler in 1988. Future liability for cleanup has been directed to CBS following the dissolution of Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1999.
Horseheads site: Westinghouse operates a cathode-ray tube plant in Horseheads, New York. They were deemed responsible for pollution at the Kentucky Avenue Wellfield Superfund site in Horseheads, New York. Westinghouse polluted nearby soil, affecting the safety of a nearby aquifer and wells used by residents. One phase of the cleanup effort describes Westinghouse Electric Corporation's facility, designated "Disposal Area F" and the "Former Runoff Basin Area," which are contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and arsenic, will be cleaned up using a combination of soil excavation and soil vapor extraction. At Disposal Area F, the area of contamination is about 0.3 acres. At the Former Runoff Basin Area, the contaminated soils cover approximately 0.7 acres. Disposal of the excavated soils occurred at appropriate off-site facilities. The removal of the PAHs and arsenic contamination will protect site workers and employees at the Westinghouse facility and the cleanup of the VOCs will help restore the quality of the Newtown Creek Aquifer. In 1986, Westinghouse entered a joint venture at this plant with Toshiba to produce CRTs. In 1989, Toshiba become part owner of this plant and the Westinghouse CRT business unit. Future liability has been shifted to CBS.
Sunnyvale plant: Westinghouse operated a plant which manufactured electronics for military systems in Sunnyvale, California. Groundwater and soil near this plant are contaminated with PCBs, fuels, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Potential health threats to area residents include accidentally ingesting or coming into direct contact with site contaminants in soil or groundwater. There are municipal drinking water wells within -mile from this site, and 300,000 people get their drinking water from within three miles of the site. This business unit was sold to Northrop Grumman in 1996. Future liability for this action has been passed on to CBS.
Timeline of company evolution
1880s
1884 – George Westinghouse begins developing a DC electric lighting system
1885 – Westinghouse becomes aware of the new European transformer based alternating current systems when he reads about them in the UK technical journal Engineering
1885 – William Stanley, Jr., working for Westinghouse, develops the first practical AC transformer
1886 – Westinghouse Electric Company founded
1886 – William Stanley, Jr. installs the world's first operational transformer based multiple voltage transmission system, a demonstration lighting system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts
1888 – development of an induction ampere-hour meter for alternating current developed by Oliver B. Shallenberger
1888 – licensing of Nikola Tesla's AC and Induction motor patents (Tesla hired as a consultant for one year but quits after a few months).
1889 – renames itself the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company
1890s
1891 – built world's first industrial AC system (Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant)
1893 – supplied electric lights and power for World's Columbian Exposition and generators for Gettysburg Electric Railway
1893 – Hired Bertha Lamme Feicht, the company's first female engineer.
1894 – Transportation Division (rail equipment) founded
1895 – installed hydropower AC generators at Adams Power Plant, Niagara Falls which supplied power to Buffalo, New York, completed 1896
1898 – Purchases Walker Mfg. Co of Cleveland, establishing main facility and plant in Cleveland which produces power-transmitting machinery, cable railway networks, castings and lighting
1899 – founded British Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company
1900s to 1920s
1901 – acquires Bryant Electric Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut, which continues operation as a subsidiary
1901 – operation of first Westinghouse steam turbine generator installed at Hartford Electric Light Company
1904 – with Baldwin, markets Baldwin-Westinghouse electric locomotives and A.C. electrification of railroads, particularly to the New Haven Railroad
1909 – introduces continuous-filament tungsten light bulb; ousts George Westinghouse as chairman during bankruptcy reorganization
1914 – acquires Copeman Electric Stove Company in Flint, Michigan from Lloyd Groff Copeman, moves it to Mansfield, Ohio and enters the home appliance market (sold in 1974 to White Consolidated Industries)
1914 – George Westinghouse dies, with a legacy including 361 patents and the founding of 60 companies.
1915 – New England Westinghouse Company opens for business. First product is Mosin–Nagant rifles for the Russian Czar's army. Within two years, the Bolsheviks overthrow the Russian Provisional Government and cancel a previous order of over 1 million rifles. Facing bankruptcy, Westinghouse is rescued by the American Government when it purchases the rifles for use by the military.
1916 – share of British Westinghouse purchased by a British holding company, which becomes Metropolitan-Vickers
1917 – builds steam turbine manufacturing plant in Lester, PA (Tinicum Township) near the Philadelphia airport
1919 – 8XE Pittsburgh experimental station goes on the air.
1919 – Creates RCA with GE, AT&T and United Fruit, buys the American division of Marconi.
1920 – Acquires International Radio Telegraph Company (formerly known as the National Electric Signaling Company)
1921 – acquires the Pittsburg High Voltage Insulator Company
1920s – enters the broadcasting industry, with stations like KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and WBZ in Massachusetts
1926 – In partnership with GE and RCA founds NBC Broadcasting.
1930s and 1940s
1932 – announces Ignitron mercury-arc rectifier
1934 – opens its Home of Tomorrow in Mansfield, Ohio, to demonstrate Westinghouse home appliances
1935 – completes longest continuous electric steel annealing furnace in the world at Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan
1930s – funds invention of the magnetohydrodynamic generator
1937 – builds first "industrial atom smasher", a 5 MeV Van de Graaff electrostatic nuclear accelerator
1940s – enters aviation with airborne radar (defense electronics sold 1996), jet engine propulsion, and ground-based airport lighting, gets defense contract from U.S. military to produce plastic helmet liners for the M1 Helmet
1941 – after years of resistance to the unionization efforts of its employees and to the National Labor Relations Act, signs a national labor agreement with the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America after a United States Supreme Court decision that upheld the Act.
1943 – purchased the lamp division of Kentucky-Radio Corporation (Ken-Rad) in Owensboro, Kentucky from Roy Burlew in exchange for 35,000 shares of Westinghouse stock valued at $1.6 million ($ million todaywhen?)
1945 – renames itself the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, and makes first automatic elevator.
1945 – Westinghouse Aviation Gas Turbine Division (AGT) started
1948 – "You Can Be Sure... If It's Westinghouse" in Time magazine ad
1950s to 1970s
1951 – conducts first live network TV in U.S.
1952 – opens Cathode Ray Tube facility in Horseheads, New York; facility housed three divisions: Cathode Ray Tube, Electronic Tube, and Industrial and Government Tube.
1954 – enters finance as Westinghouse Credit Corporation
1955 – buys KDKA-TV (then WDTV) and KYW (originally, and currently WTAM) radio Cleveland.
1955 – Westinghouse J40 engine failure causes all F3H fighters using the engine to be grounded, and all other jets using it to switch to other engines. Westinghouse forced out of aircraft engine business.
1957 - introduces first successful "cobra head" roadway luminaire, the OV-25, integrating both ballast and optics in a more streamlined modern design.
1961 – acquires Thermo King (sold in 1997 to Ingersoll Rand)
1964 – begins Skybus project; beginning of automated mass transit
1965 – invention of the first MEMS device, buys Marketeer Electronic Vehicles
1966 – founds Cinema Center Films
1966 – starts housing and real estate development divisions
1966 – buys a toy manufacturer
1967 – lights America's first computer-controlled outdoor electric sign
1967 – makes the lowest bid for the BART project
1969 – buys 7-Up bottling
1973 – develops world's first AMLCD displays
1974 – sells well-known home appliance division to White Consolidated Industries which becomes White-Westinghouse
1979 – withdraws from all oil related projects in the Middle East after Iranian Revolution
1980s
1981 – acquires both cable television operator TelePrompter (sold 1985), Muzak (sold September 1986) and 50% of Showtime for $576 million.
1982 – acquires robot maker Unimation
1982 – sells street light division to Cooper Lighting
1983 – sells electric lamp division to Philips
1984 – buys Unimation robotics for $105 million.
1986 – buys Los Angeles TV station.
1986 – Enters into joint venture with Airship Industries, Ltd. (London) to develop advanced lighter-then-air radar platforms and early warning surveillance airship for U.S. Navy in cooperation with its subsidiary TCOM Corp. located on the former Naval Air Station Weeksville in Elizabeth City, North Carolina
1987 – buys radio stations in Sacramento and Chicago.
1987 – buys electrical equipment, engineering and waste disposal divisions.
1988 – sells elevator/escalator division to Schindler Group, now known as Schindler Elevator Corporation.
1988 – Enters into joint venture with Taiwan Electric to build Electric motors; Taiwan Electric eventually becomes sole owner of business as TECO Motor Company
1988 – spins Industrial and Government Tube Division off as Imaging and Sensing Technologies Corporation.
1988 – closes the East Pittsburgh generator and Lester, PA turbine plants, which had once been the primary Westinghouse manufacturing facilities.
1988 – Bryant Electric subsidiary closed, assets sold to Hubbell in 1991
1988 – Transportation Division, including railroad (locomotive and mass transit) equipment business sold to AEG, later merged into Adtranz in 1996, Bombardier Transportation in 2001 and Alstom in 2021.
1989 – sells transmission and distribution business to Asea Brown Boveri Group (ABB)
1989 – buys Shaw-Walker Furniture and Reff Furniture.
1989 – buys Legacy Broadcasting.
1990s to 2020s
1990 – buys Knoll International Furniture.
1994 – buys United Technologies' Norden electronic systems.
1994 – Cleveland operations and facilities purchased by Eaton Corporation for $1.6 billion. Cleveland Westinghouse facilities, as well as manufacturing plants converted into other commercial enterprises
1994-95 – separates IT and phone service sales into Westinghouse Communications division
1995 – under the leadership of Michael H. Jordan buys CBS for $5.4 billion ($ billion today)
1996 – buys Infinity Broadcasting for $4.7 billion.
1996 – sells Westinghouse Electronic Systems defense business to Northrop Grumman for $3 billion ($ billion today), becoming Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems
1997 – sells Thermo King division to Ingersoll Rand
1997 – buys American Radio Systems for $2.6 billion, increasing station network to 175.
1997 – sells most non-broadcast operations; renames itself CBS Corporation as of December 1
1998 – sells its non-nuclear power generation and energy units to Siemens AG, which operated under the name Siemens Westinghouse until 2003.
1998 – CBS Corporation creates Westinghouse Licensing Corporation (Westinghouse Electric Corporation) subsidiary to manage the Westinghouse brand
1999 – sells remaining manufacturing asset, its nuclear energy business, to BNFL.
1999 – buys Outdoor Systems for $8.7 billion and King World Productions for $2.5 billion.
1999 – CBS acquired by Viacom
2006 – Viacom is split into two companies in January, with a new Viacom being spun off of the old Viacom company, and the old Viacom being renamed as CBS Corporation thus reviving Westinghouse's last name prior to sale and reversing the 1999 Viacom-CBS merger.
2019 – Viacom and CBS Corporation remerge to form ViacomCBS.
2022 – ViacomCBS renamed into Paramount Global.
Employees
CEOs
George Westinghouse, 1886–1909
Edwin M. Herr, 1911–1929
F.A. Merrick, 1929 – February 1938
George H. Bucher, February 1938 – 1946
Gwilym A. Price, 1946–1957
Mark W. Cresap, Jr. 1957–1963
Don Burnham, 1963–1975
Robert Kirby, 1975–1983
Douglas Danforth, December 1983 – December 1987
John Marous, 1988 – June 29, 1990
Paul Lego, June 30, 1990 – January 1993
Gary Clark, January 1993 – July 1993
Michael Jordan, July 1993 – 1997
Other
Guy Tripp, former Thomson-Houston employee who joined Westinghouse and became chairman of its board of directors in 1912.
Overseas subsidiaries
Westinghouse established subsidiary companies in several countries including British Westinghouse and Società Italiana Westinghouse in Vado Ligure, Italy. British Westinghouse became a subsidiary of Metropolitan-Vickers in 1919 and the Italian Westinghouse factory was taken over by Tecnomasio in 1921.
See also
List of Westinghouse locomotives
Mary-Ann (turbine generator)
Siemens Westinghouse, also known as Siemens Power Generation, Inc.
War of the currents
Westinghouse Electric Company
Westinghouse Works, 1904
Westinghouse Broadcasting, also known as Group W
Westinghouse Lamp Plant
Westinghouse Combustion Turbine Systems Division
Westinghouse Aviation Gas Turbine Division
White-Westinghouse
Notes
References
External links
Timeline of Westinghouse historical events
"Who Killed Westinghouse?" – March 1998 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette series detailing Westinghouse's history and break-up
The Westinghouse Legacy Pittsburgh Technology Council
Assembling a Generator, Westinghouse Works, 1904
Westinghouse Electric Corporation Steam Division photograph collection (1898–1964) at Hagley Museum and Library
A Fact History of Westinghouse (for the Golden Jubilee)
Westinghouse Power Generation Business Unit, A booklet prepared in 1993 as a statement of commitment of the Power Generation Business Unit (PGBU) to the future of Westinghouse's leading position in the industry
01
Defunct mass media companies of the United States
Electrical engineering companies of the United States
Marine engine manufacturers
Military communications
Defunct locomotive manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies established in 1886
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 2000
1886 establishments in Pennsylvania
1999 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
ViacomCBS subsidiaries
Nikola Tesla
Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Superfund sites in California
Pittsburgh Labor History
Engine manufacturers of the United States
American companies established in 1886
American companies disestablished in 2000
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Pennsylvania | [
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238339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse%20Electric%20Company | Westinghouse Electric Company | Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is an American nuclear power company formed in 1999 from the nuclear power division of the original Westinghouse Electric Corporation. It offers nuclear products and services to utilities internationally, including nuclear fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation, control and design of nuclear power plants. Westinghouse's world headquarters are located in the Pittsburgh suburb of Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania. Brookfield Business Partners is the majority owner of Westinghouse.
On March 24, 2017, parent company Toshiba announced that Westinghouse Electric Company would file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy because of US$9 billion of losses from nuclear reactor construction projects. The projects responsible for this loss are mostly the construction of four AP1000 reactors at Vogtle in Georgia and the Virgil C. Summer plant in South Carolina. Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on March 29, 2017. In 2018, Westinghouse was acquired by Brookfield Business Partners and some partners.
History
Westinghouse Electric Company was formed in 1999 after the original company with that name,
George Westinghouse's Westinghouse Electric, founded in 1886, ceased to exist due to a series of divestitures and mergers through the mid-to-late 1990s. These included Westinghouse Electric's purchase of CBS in 1995, expansion into communications and broadcasting, and the selling off of most non-broadcast operations by 1998; renaming itself CBS Corporation. That same year, the Westinghouse Power Generation Business unit was sold to Siemens of Germany. In 1999, CBS Corporation sold its nuclear business (Westinghouse Electric Company) to British Nuclear Fuels Limited (BNFL). and a year later CBS Corporation was merged into Viacom (1971-2005), thus putting an end to the original Westinghouse. (Legally, Westinghouse Electric Corporation still exists, mainly for the purpose of licensing, as a subsidiary of CBS Corp.)
Sale to Toshiba
In July 2005, BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse, then estimated to be worth $2 billion. This attracted interest from several companies, including Toshiba, General Electric and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. When the Financial Times reported on January 23, 2006 that Toshiba had won the bid, it valued the company's offer at $5bn (£2.8bn). On February 6, 2006 Toshiba confirmed it was buying Westinghouse Electric Company for $5.4bn and announced it would sell a minority stake to investors.
The sale surprised many industry experts who questioned the wisdom of BNFL selling one of the world's largest producers of nuclear reactors shortly before the market for nuclear power was expected to grow substantially; China, the United States and the United Kingdom were all expected to invest heavily in nuclear power. After the 2005 Indo-US nuclear deal, there was also hope that India's plan of massive investment in nuclear plants would help to revive the U.S. nuclear power industry. Reasons in favor of a sale were: The commercial risk of the company's business in Asia may have been too high for a company then owned by taxpayers; if Westinghouse won the bid for any new nuclear stations in a UK competition, questions may be raised of favoritism, but if it lost, it might have been seen as a lack of faith in its own technology. Finally, the record of UK governments building nuclear plants had been a commercial disaster.
On October 16, 2006 the acquisition of Westinghouse Electric Company for $5.4 billion was completed, with Toshiba obtaining a 77% share, partners The Shaw Group a 20% share and Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co. Ltd. a 3% share. On 13 August 2007 Toshiba sold 10% to Kazatomprom, the national uranium company for the Republic of Kazakhstan, for US$540 million, leaving Toshiba with 67%. Kazatomprom's ownership is entirely passive, with no voting or veto rights or presence on the board of directors.
In September, 2011, Toshiba was reported to be in talks to acquire the Shaw stake and both companies confirmed the story soon thereafter. Shaw CEO James Bernhard said, that Toshiba was paying US$1.6 Bn for the Shaw-owned 20% stake, and that it was the 50% rise in the yen on its yen-denominated debt over five years, which had led it to exercise its sale option. Toshiba said in late 2012 it was open to, and considering, having other partners invest in the business. The purchase closed in January 2013, and brought Toshiba's share in the company to 87% as a result of Shaw exercised its option.
Move to Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania
After several years of doing business there, Westinghouse decided to move its world headquarters from the Energy Center in Monroeville, Pennsylvania, to Cranberry Woods in Cranberry Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania, as reported in a 2007 memo to its employees that stated the main reason was the rapid expansion of the global nuclear industry. Construction began in July 2007, the move lasted from June 2009 to December 2010. The Repair, Replacement and Automation Services (RRAS) business segment moved to Cranberry Township earlier than other business segments to help alleviate space issues at the headquarters in Monroeville and was completed in spring of 2008. As part of this move, Westinghouse piloted the first commuter shuttle running an all-day loop between Monroeville and Cranberry Township. The shuttle ceased operation after Westinghouse formally closed, and sold their Monroeville facility in 2012.
2015 accounting difficulties
In 2015, concerns were expressed that the value of assets and goodwill in Westinghouse were overstated. Following an accounting scandal in which profits were overstated at Toshiba, leading to the CEO resigning, Toshiba stated that the Westinghouse nuclear business was more profitable than at acquisition in 2006.
In December 2016, Toshiba said it expected to write down its investment in Westinghouse by US$2.5 billion, adding that it was possible that their investment in Westinghouse could ultimately have a negative worth, due to cost overruns at U.S. nuclear reactors it was building.
In February 2017, Toshiba revealed unaudited details of a 390 billion yen ($3.4 billion) loss, mainly in its US nuclear business which was written down by 712 billion yen ($6.3 billion). On 14 February 2017, Toshiba delayed filing financial results, and Toshiba chairman Shigenori Shiga, formerly chairman of Westinghouse, resigned. Toshiba considered selling the Westinghouse nuclear business.
2017 Chapter 11 bankruptcy
On 29 March 2017, Toshiba's Westinghouse filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, citing a yearly loss for Toshiba that could exceed $9 billion, almost three times its previous estimate. The Wall Street Journal reported that four nuclear reactors being built in the southeastern U.S. would be left to an unknown fate. In July, 2017, the co-owners of the V.C. Summer plant announced that the project was terminated. On September 24, 2017, the Post & Courier reported that Westinghouse had hired unlicensed workers to create mechanical and electrical blueprints for the V.C. Summer expansion without having a professional engineer sign off on them which was in violation of state law. The blueprints were often faulty and led to significant delays. The U.S. government had given $8.3 billion of loan guarantees on the financing of the four nuclear reactors being built in the U.S.
Besides the issues with the AP1000 design, the fuel manufacturing division has been profitable, but not enough to cover corporate overheads and support the other divisions. Research and development investment in fuel manufacturing has been low, which has impacted the quality and comparative performance of its fuel compared to competitors.
2018 sale to Brookfield Business Partners
On 6 April 2018, Toshiba announced the completion of the sale of Westinghouse's holding company to Brookfield Business Partners and some partners for $4.6bn.
Timeline
1999: Westinghouse Electric Company officially began operations as BNFL's nuclear power business.
2000: BNFL bought ABB Group's nuclear power business, and merged into Westinghouse.
2004: Westinghouse bids for two Chinese reactor sites; the US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees
2006: Westinghouse acquired PaR Nuclear/Ederer Nuclear Cranes, providing fuel and cask handling equipment systems. Westinghouse Electric Company was sold by BNFL to Toshiba,
2007: Westinghouse won China National Nuclear Corporation's bid for 4 AP1000 reactors including Technology Transfer agreement; acquired IST Nuclear of IST Holdings (South Africa); Carolina Energy Solutions (CES) and its affiliates Aggressive Equipment (AE), now WEC Machining; Construction Institute of America (CIA), now WEC Welding Institute; and Carolina United Services, now Carolina Union Services; Astare, a French nuclear engineering company headquartered near Paris.
2009: Westinghouse acquired Nuclear Fuel Industries LTD, Japan's sole producer of nuclear fuel for boiling-water reactor and pressurized water reactors for $100 million and CS Innovations, LLC, an Instrumentation and Control (I&C) nuclear product supplier to the digital I&C safety system upgrade market.
2010: Westinghouse announced involvement in a new, ultra-large forging press in the UK to be built at Sheffield Forgemasters in Yorkshire; took a major stake in Springfields Fuel Limited in the UK. Westinghouse moved world headquarters from Monroeville, Pennsylvania, to Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania.
2012: Westinghouse cut 200 jobs citing the Fukushima disaster, Germany's Energiewende and low natural gas prices.
2014: Westinghouse acquires Mangiarotti.
2015 Westinghouse acquires CB&I Stone & Webster; Toshiba profits overstated leading to accounting scandal.
2017: Westinghouse files Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
2018: Acquisition by Brookfield Business Partners and partners.
2019: Westinghouse acquires Canadian NA Engineering Associates.
2020: Westinghouse acquires U.K. Inspection Consultants Limited and Rolls-Royce’s nuclear services division.
2021: Westinghouse acquires Canadian firm Laveer Engineering; Westinghouse acquires 50% of Tecnatom.
CEOs
Charles W. Pryor Jr., 1997 - July 1, 2002.
Steve Tritch, July 1, 2002 - July 1, 2008
Aris Candris, July 1, 2008 - March 31, 2012
Jim Ferland, April 1, 2012- April 3, 2012 (2 days)
Shigenori Shiga, April 3, 2012 - September 2012 (interim)
Danny Roderick, September 2012 - June 2016
José Emeterio Gutiérrez, June 2016 - July 31, 2019
Patrick Fragman, August 19, 2019 – present
Association with Paramount Global
Although no longer associated with CBS Corporation (now Paramount Global), Westinghouse Electric Company LLC, as of 2011, still uses the trademarks owned by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Paramount's brand management subsidiary, under license, as is the case with other Westinghouse licensees.
New generation of reactors
A revived interest in the nuclear power generation field in the late 1980s led to Westinghouse's development of the AP600 reactor which received NRC approval. Interest in the Westinghouse design, but with larger power output led to the change of the project to the AP1000 in 1999 and shortly after became the first Generation III+ reactor to receive final design approval from the NRC in 2004. As of 2014, four of these units are under construction in China, though the first was due to come on-line in November 2013. and has been delayed until December 2014. The delay due to the constantly changing, and consequently untested, design prompted Li Yulun, former vice-president of China National Nuclear Corporation, in 2013 to raise concerns over the safety standards of the plant. Citing a lack of operating history, he questioned the manufacturer's assertion that the AP1000 reactor's "primary system canned motor pumps" were "maintenance-free" over 60 years, the assumed life of the reactor, and noted that Westinghouse had yet to receive approval from British authorities on an improved version of AP1000. As of 2019 all four AP1000 reactors in China are operating.
As of January 2009, six AP1000 plants had been ordered in the US, and several other customers had chosen the AP1000, if they were to build new nuclear plants, for a combined total of at least 14 new plants, announced by the NuStart Consortium, Duke Power, Progress Energy, Southern Nuclear and SCE&G. In May 2011 after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, US government regulators found problems with the design of the shield building of the new reactors. Gregory Jaczko, chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission since 2005 said that computations submitted by Westinghouse about the building's design appeared to be wrong and "had led to more questions." He said the company had not used a range of possible temperatures for calculating potential seismic stresses on the shield building in the event of an earthquake, for example. The NRC asked Westinghouse not only to fix its calculations, but also to explain why it submitted flawed information in the first place. Westinghouse countered that the "confirmatory items" that the commission was asking for were not "safety significant."
In November 2011, the AP1000 Oversight Group published a report highlighting six areas of major concern and un-reviewed safety questions requiring immediate technical review by the NRC. The report concluded that certification of the AP1000 should be delayed until the original and current "unanswered safety questions" raised by the AP1000 Oversight Group are resolved.
In December 2011, the UK's Office for Nuclear Regulation published a design assessment report on the AP1000 reactor which highlighted 51 'Generic Design Assessment' issues remaining that must be addressed before the assessment would be completed.
In October 2013, US energy secretary Ernest Moniz announced that China was to supply components to the US nuclear power plants under construction as part of a bilateral co-operation agreement between the two countries. Since China's State Nuclear Power Technology Co (SNPTC) acquired Westinghouses's AP1000 technology in 2006, it has developed a manufacturing supply chain capable of supplying international power projects. Industry analysts have pointed out that there are gaps in the Chinese supply chain.
International business
Europe
Westinghouse Electric Company fully owns several subsidiaries in Europe, such as the European Service Center, also called Westinghouse Electric Belgium located in Nivelles, Belgium, where equipment is prepared for projects throughout Europe. After Westinghouse's 1990 takeover of ABB Reaktor in Germany, it transferred radiological storage activities located in Ladenburg, Germany, to consolidate in Nivelles, which had to be extended. Soon afterwards another expansion was necessary as employees in the Brussels office were transferred to Nivelles. It was estimated that 200 people were working in Nivelles at the end of 2011.
In 2001, Westinghouse took over Logitest in Les Ulis, France, one of 3 companies qualified to inspect nuclear steam generator plants for Électricité de France. After the French nuclear market partially opened in 2004 to suppliers from outside the country to fulfill European Commission directives regarding international competition, Westinghouse started to expand its business in France with a
Westinghouse team located in Metz in charge of repair, replacement and automation services. By 2005, Westinghouse had 160 employees in France and two-thirds of Westinghouse's business in France was fuel supply. Westinghouse Electrique France is located in Orsay and Manosque near Marseille (engineering development). As of 2014, about 400 employees are part of Westinghouse in France.
Westinghouse owns a nuclear fuel fabrication plant at Västerås, Sweden which has provided nuclear fuel for Russian VVER-1000 nuclear reactors. In 2000 Westinghouse started development of fuel for customers in Finland and Hungary, supported by cheap Export–Import Bank of the United States loans, but the business remained small-scale in competition from cheaper Russian suppliers. A 2008 contract was agreed to supply VVER-1000 fuel; however, in trial use the fuel became deformed. In 2015, the European Union awarded $2 million in funding to a Westinghouse-led consortium to support the development of a more competitive fuel for the Russian built reactors. In 2018, the contract to supply VVER fuel was extended to 2025. In 2018, Westinghouse, under a further EU-funded project, became able to also supply VVER-440 fuel.
Westinghouse also has business locations in Italy, Germany, Spain, the UK, Russia, and Bulgaria.
Asia
In South Korea, Westinghouse has been involved in the construction of new nuclear plants since 1972, with the first plant Kori Nuclear Power Plant starting up in 1977 and in commercial operation in 1978, followed by eight reactors under construction in the early 1980s. Combustion Engineering (now Westinghouse) entered into a ten-year technology transfer program with the Korean nuclear industry aiming at self-reliance, which was extended in 1997.
In December, 2006, China's State Nuclear Power Technology Company (SNPTC) selected Westinghouse to provide four new AP1000 nuclear power plants. The first was due to come on line in 2013, but has been delayed until the end of 2014.
On 7 June 2016, Nuclear Power corporation of India have agreed to begin engineering and site design work for six nuclear power reactors in India and to conclude contractual agreements by June 2017.
Africa
Westinghouse has been involved in South Africa through support of the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station since the 1990s, both reactors are Westinghouse-licensed. In 2007, Westinghouse acquired IST Nuclear (Pty) Ltd, and won the final bidding process for new nuclear plants in South Africa, for which it signed an MOU in 2013. IST Nuclear provides services and systems for the pebble-bed reactor.
See also
References
External links
1999 establishments in Pennsylvania
Companies based in Butler County, Pennsylvania
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2017
Electrical engineering companies of the United States
Former CBS Corporation subsidiaries
Manufacturing companies based in Pennsylvania
Electronics companies established in 1999
Nuclear technology companies of the United States
Toshiba brands
Toshiba
2006 mergers and acquisitions
2018 mergers and acquisitions
Private equity portfolio companies
Brookfield Asset Management
American companies established in 1999 | [
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238341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Hockney | David Hockney | David Hockney (born 9 July 1937) is an English painter, draftsman, printmaker, stage designer, and photographer. As an important contributor to the pop art movement of the 1960s, he is considered one of the most influential British artists of the 20th century.
Hockney has owned residences and studios in Bridlington, London and Normandy, as well as two residences in California, where he has lived intermittently since 1964: one in the Hollywood Hills, one in Malibu, and an office and archives on Santa Monica Boulevard in West Hollywood, California.
On 15 November 2018, Hockney's 1972 work Portrait of an Artist (Pool with Two Figures) sold at Christie's auction house in New York City for $90 million (£70 million), becoming the most expensive artwork by a living artist sold at auction. This broke the previous record, set by the 2013 sale of Jeff Koons' Balloon Dog (Orange) for $58.4 million. Hockney held this record until 15 May 2019 when Koons reclaimed the honour selling his Rabbit for more than $91 million at Christie's in New York.
Biography
David Hockney was born in Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, to Laura and Kenneth Hockney (a conscientious objector in the Second World War), the fourth of five children. He was educated at Wellington Primary School, Bradford Grammar School, Bradford College of Art (where his teachers included Frank Lisle and his fellow students included Derek Boshier, Pauline Boty, Norman Stevens, David Oxtoby and John Loker) and the Royal College of Art in London, where he met R. B. Kitaj. While there, Hockney said he felt at home and took pride in his work.
At the Royal College of Art, Hockney featured in the exhibition Young Contemporaries – alongside Peter Blake – that announced the arrival of British Pop art. He was associated with the movement, but his early works display expressionist elements, similar to some works by Francis Bacon. When the RCA said it would not let him graduate if he did not complete an assignment of a life drawing of a female model in 1962, Hockney painted Life Painting for a Diploma in protest. He had refused to write an essay required for the final examination, saying he should be assessed solely on his artworks. Recognising his talent and growing reputation, the RCA changed its regulations and awarded the diploma. After leaving the RCA, he taught at Maidstone College of Art for a short time. He taught at the University of Iowa in 1964.
Hockney moved to Los Angeles in 1964, where he was inspired to make a series of paintings of swimming pools in the comparatively new acrylic medium using vibrant colours. The artist lived back and forth among Los Angeles, London, and Paris in the late 1960s to 1970s. In 1974 he began a decade-long personal relationship with Gregory Evans who moved with him to the US in 1976 and as of 2019 remains a business partner. In 1978 he rented a house in the Hollywood Hills, and later bought and expanded it to include his studio. He also owned a 1,643-square-foot beach house at 21039 Pacific Coast Highway in Malibu, which he sold in 1999 for around $1.5 million.
In Spring 2019 Hockney settled at La Grande Cour, a farmhouse and studio in Normandy, where he was resident during the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Work
Hockney has experimented with painting, drawing, printmaking, watercolours, photography, and many other media including a fax machine, paper pulp, computer applications and iPad drawing programs. The subject matter of interest ranges from still lifes to landscapes, portraits of friends, his dogs, and stage designs for the Royal Court Theatre, Glyndebourne, and the Metropolitan Opera in New York City.
Portraits
Hockney has always returned to painting portraits throughout his career. From 1968, and for the next few years, he painted portraits and double portraits of friends, lovers, and relatives just under life-size in a realistic style that adroitly captured the likenesses of his subjects. Hockney has repeatedly been drawn to the same subjects – his family, employees, artists Mo McDermott and Maurice Payne, various writers he has known, fashion designers Celia Birtwell and Ossie Clark (Mr. and Mrs. Clark and Percy, 1970–71), curator Henry Geldzahler, art dealer Nicholas Wilder, George Lawson and his ballet dancer lover, Wayne Sleep, and also his romantic interests throughout the years including Peter Schlesinger and Gregory Evans. Perhaps more than all of these, Hockney has turned to his own figure year after year, creating over 300 self-portraits.
From 1999 to 2001 Hockney used a camera lucida for his research into art history as well as his own work in the studio. He created over 200 drawings of friends, family, and himself using this antique lens-based device.
In 2016, the Royal Academy exhibited Hockney's series entitled 82 Portraits and 1 Still-life which traveled to Ca' Pesaro in Venice, Italy, and the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, in 2017 and to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 2018. Hockney calls the paintings started in 2013 "twenty-hour exposures" because each sitting took six to seven hours on three consecutive days.
Printmaking
Hockney experimented with printmaking as early as a lithograph Self-Portrait in 1954 and worked in etchings during his time at RCA. In 1965, the print workshop Gemini G.E.L. approached him to create a series of lithographs with a Los Angeles theme. Hockney responded by creating The Hollywood Collection, a series of lithographs recreating the art collection of a Hollywood star, each piece depicting an imagined work of art within a frame. Hockney went on to produce many other portfolios with Gemini G.E.L. including Friends, The Weather Series, and Some New Prints. During the 1960s he produced several series of prints he thought of as 'graphic tales', including A Rake’s Progress (1961–63) after Hogarth, Illustrations for Fourteen Poems from C.P. Cavafy (1966) and Illustrations for Six Fairy Tales from the Brothers Grimm (1969).
In 1973 Hockney began a fruitful collaboration with Aldo Crommelynck, Picasso's preferred printer. In his atelier, he adopted Crommelynck's trademark sugar lift, as well as a system of the master's own devising of imposing a wooden frame onto the plate to ensure color separation. Their early work together included Artist and Model (1973–74) and Contrejour in the French Style (1974). In 1976 Hockney created a portfolio of 20 etchings at Crommelynck's atelier, The Blue Guitar: Etchings By David Hockney Who Was Inspired By Wallace Stevens Who Was Inspired By Pablo Picasso. The etchings refer to themes in a poem by Wallace Stevens, "The Man with the Blue Guitar". It was published by Petersburg Press in October 1977. That year, Petersburg also published a book, in which the images were accompanied by the poem's text.
In the summer of 1978, David Hockney stayed 6 weeks with his friend the printer Ken Tyler. Tyler invited Hockney to try a new technique with liquid paper. The process is painting with the paper itself, so the artist had to do it himself by hand. Each image becomes a unique work between printmaking and painting. In 6 weeks, Hockney created a total of 29 artworks with a series of 17 sunflowers and swimming pools.
Some of Hockney's other print portfolios include Home Made Prints (1986), Recent Etchings (1998) and Moving Focus (1984–1986), which contains lithographs related to A Walk Around the Hotel Courtyard, Acatlan. A retrospective of his prints, including 'computer drawings' printed on fax machines and inkjet printers, was exhibited at Dulwich Picture Gallery in London 5 February – 11 May 2014 and Bowes Museum, County Durham 7 June – 28 September 2014, with an accompanying publication Hockney, Printmaker by Richard Lloyd.
Photocollages
In the early 1980s, Hockney began to produce photo collages—which in his early explorations within his personal photo albums he referred to as "joiners"—first using Polaroid prints and subsequently 35mm, commercially processed colour prints. Using Polaroid snaps or photolab-prints of a single subject, Hockney arranged a patchwork to make a composite image. Because the photographs are taken from different perspectives and at slightly different times, the result is work that has an affinity with Cubism, one of Hockney's major aims—discussing the way human vision works. Some pieces are landscapes, such as Pearblossom Highway #2, others portraits, such as Kasmin 1982, and My Mother, Bolton Abbey, 1982.
Creation of the "joiners" occurred accidentally. He noticed in the late sixties that photographers were using cameras with wide-angle lenses. He did not like these photographs because they looked somewhat distorted. While working on a painting of a living room and terrace in Los Angeles, he took Polaroid shots of the living room and glued them together, not intending for them to be a composition on their own. On looking at the final composition, he realised it created a narrative, as if the viewer moved through the room. He began to work more with photography after this discovery and stopped painting for a while to exclusively pursue this new technique.
Over time, however, he discovered what he could not capture with a lens, saying: "Photography seems to be rather good at portraiture, or can be. But, it can't tell you about space, which is the essence of landscape. For me anyway. Even Ansel Adams can't quite prepare you for what Yosemite looks like when you go through that tunnel and you come out the other side." Frustrated with the limitations of photography and its 'one-eyed' approach, he returned to painting.
Other technology
In December 1985 Hockney used the Quantel Paintbox, a computer program that allowed the artist to sketch directly onto the screen. The resulting work was featured in a BBC series that profiled several artists. In 1999–2001, David's sister, Margaret, began experimenting with digital photography, scanning and computer printing, particularly making images of flowers scanning a small Japanese vase and fresh flowers. In 2003, she was experimenting with Photoshop, scanning summer flowers and building up images in layers which Margaret printed out on an A3 printer. In 2004, David went to stay with Margaret and she helped him scan his sketchbook of Yorkshire landscape and David soon began using a Wacom pad and pen directly into Photoshop.
Since 2009, Hockney has painted hundreds of portraits, still lifes and landscapes using the Brushes iPhone and iPad application, often sending them to his friends. In 2010 and 2011, Hockney visited Yosemite National Park to draw its landscape on his iPad. He used an iPad in designing a stained glass window at Westminster Abbey which celebrated the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. Unveiled in September 2018, the Queen's Window is located in the north transept of the Abbey and features a hawthorn blossom scene which is set in Yorkshire.
From 2010 to 2014, Hockney created multi-camera movies using three to eighteen cameras to record a single scene. He filmed the landscape of Yorkshire in various seasons, jugglers and dancers, and his own exhibitions within the de Young Museum and the Royal Academy of Arts.
Hockney's earlier photocollages influenced his shift to another medium, digital photography. He combined hundreds of photographs to create multi-viewpoint "photographic drawings" of groups of his friends in 2014. Hockney picked the process back up in 2017, this time using the more advanced Agisoft PhotoScan photogrammetric software which allowed him to stitch together and rearrange thousands of photos. The resulting images were printed out as massive photomurals and were exhibited at Pace Gallery and LACMA in 2018.
Plein air landscapes
Hockney returned more frequently to Yorkshire in the 1990s, usually every three months, to visit his mother who died in 1999. He rarely stayed for more than two weeks until 1997, when his friend Jonathan Silver who was terminally ill encouraged him to capture the local surroundings. He did this at first with paintings based on memory, some from his boyhood. In 1998, he completed the painting of the Yorkshire landmark, Garrowby Hill. Hockney returned to Yorkshire for longer and longer stays, and by 2003 was painting the countryside en plein air in both oils and watercolor. He set up residence and studio in a converted bed and breakfast, in the seaside town of Bridlington, about from where he was born. The oil paintings he produced after 2005 were influenced by his intensive studies in watercolour, a series titled Midsummer: East Yorkshire (2003–2004). He created paintings made of multiple smaller canvases—two to fifty—placed together. To help him visualize work at that scale, he used digital photographic reproductions to study the day's work.
In June 2007, Hockney's largest painting, Bigger Trees Near Warter or/ou Peinture sur le Motif pour le Nouvel Age Post-Photographique, which measures , was hung in the Royal Academy's largest gallery in its annual Summer Exhibition. This work "is a monumental-scale view of a coppice in Hockney's native Yorkshire, between Bridlington and York. It was painted on 50 individual canvases, mostly working in situ, over five weeks last winter." In 2008, he donated it to Tate in London, saying: "I thought if I'm going to give something to the Tate I want to give them something really good. It's going to be here for a while. I don't want to give things I'm not too proud of... I thought this was a good painting because it's of England... it seems like a good thing to do." The painting was the subject of a BBC1 Imagine film documentary by Bruno Wollheim called David Hockney: A Bigger Picture (2009) which followed Hockney as he worked outdoors over the preceding two years.
His residence in Normandy from 2019 was intended for him to paint the local landscape, which he has done prolifically using both paint and iPad.
Theatre works
Hockney's first stage designs were for Ubu Roi at London's Royal Court Theatre in 1966, Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress at the Glyndebourne Festival Opera in England in 1975, and The Magic Flute for Glyndebourne in 1978. In 1980, he agreed to design sets and costumes for a 20th-century French triple bill at the Metropolitan Opera House with the title Parade. The works were Parade, a ballet with music by Erik Satie; Les mamelles de Tirésias, an opera with libretto by Guillaume Apollinaire and music by Francis Poulenc, and L'enfant et les sortilèges, an opera with libretto by Colette and music by Maurice Ravel. The reimagined set of L'enfant et les sortilèges from the 1983 exhibition Hockney Paints the Stage is a permanent installation at the Spalding House branch of the Honolulu Museum of Art. He designed sets for another triple bill of Stravinsky's Le sacre du printemps, Le rossignol, and Oedipus Rex for the Metropolitan Opera in 1981 as well as Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde for the Los Angeles Music Center Opera in 1987, Puccini's Turandot in 1991 at the Chicago Lyric Opera, and Richard Strauss's Die Frau ohne Schatten in 1992 at the Royal Opera House in London. In 1994, he designed costumes and scenery for twelve opera arias for the TV broadcast of Plácido Domingo's Operalia in Mexico City. Technical advances allowed him to become increasingly complex in model-making. At his studio he had a proscenium opening by in which he built sets in 1:8 scale. He also used a computerised setup that let him punch in and program lighting cues at will and synchronise them to a soundtrack of the music.
In 2017, Hockney was awarded the San Francisco Opera Medal on the occasion of the revival and restoration of his production for Turandot.
The majority of Hockney's theater works and stage design studies are found in the collection of The David Hockney Foundation.
Exhibitions
David Hockney has been featured in over 400 solo exhibitions and over 500 group exhibitions. He had his first one-man show at Kasmin Limited when he was 26 in 1963, and by 1970 the Whitechapel Gallery in London had organised the first of several major retrospectives, which subsequently travelled to three European institutions. LACMA also hosted a retrospective exhibition in 1988 which travelled to The Met, New York, and Tate, London. In 2004, he was included in the cross-generational Whitney Biennial, where his portraits appeared in a gallery with those of a younger artist he had inspired, Elizabeth Peyton.
In October 2006, the National Portrait Gallery in London organised one of the largest ever displays of Hockney's portraiture work, including 150 paintings, drawings, prints, sketchbooks, and photocollages from over five decades. The collection ranged from his earliest self-portraits to work he completed in 2005. Hockney assisted in displaying the works and the exhibition, which ran until January 2007, was one of the gallery's most successful. In 2009, "David Hockney: Just Nature" attracted some 100,000 visitors at the Kunsthalle Würth in Schwäbisch Hall, Germany.
From 21 January 2012 to 9 April 2012, the Royal Academy presented A Bigger Picture, which included more than 150 works, many of which take entire walls in the gallery's brightly lit rooms. The exhibition is dedicated to landscapes, especially trees and tree tunnels of his native Yorkshire. Works included oil paintings, watercolours, and drawings created on an iPad and printed on paper. Hockney said, in a 2012 interview, "It's about big things. You can make paintings bigger. We're also making photographs bigger, videos bigger, all to do with drawing." The exhibition drew more than 600,000 visitors in under 3 months. The exhibition moved to the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain from 15 May to 30 September, and from there to the Ludwig Museum in Cologne, Germany, between 27 October 2012 and 3 February 2013.
From 26 October 2013 to 30 January 2014 David Hockney: A Bigger Exhibition was presented at the de Young Museum, one of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. The largest solo exhibition Hockney has had, with 397 works of art in more than 18,000 square feet, was curated by Gregory Evans and included the only public showing of The Great Wall, developed during research for Secret Knowledge, and works from 1999 to 2013 in a variety of media from camera lucida drawings to watercolors, oil paintings, and digital works.
From 9 February to 29 May 2017 David Hockney was presented at the Tate Britain, becoming the gallery's most visited exhibition ever. The exhibition marked Hockney's 80th year and gathered together "an extensive selection of David Hockney’s most famous works celebrating his achievements in painting, drawing, print, photography and video across six decades". The show then traveled to Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris and The Metropolitan Museum of Art. The wildly popular retrospective landed among the top ten ticketed exhibitions in London and Paris for 2017 with over 4,000 visitors per day at the Tate and over 5,000 visitors per day in Paris.
After the blockbuster exhibitions in 2017 of the works of decades past, Hockney moved right along to show his newest paintings on hexagonal canvases and mural-size 3D photographic drawings at Pace Gallery in 2018. He revisited paintings of Garrowby Hill, the Grand Canyon, and Nichols Canyon Road, this time painting them on hexagonal canvases to enhance aspects of reverse perspective. In 2019, his early work featured in his native Yorkshire at The Hepworth Wakefield.
Personal life
Hockney is gay and has explored the nature of gay love in his portraiture. Sometimes, as in We Two Boys Together Clinging (1961), named after a poem by Walt Whitman, the works refer to his love for men. In 1963, he painted two men together in the painting Domestic Scene, Los Angeles, one showering while the other washes his back. In summer 1966, while teaching at UCLA he met Peter Schlesinger, an art student who posed for paintings and drawings, and with whom he became romantically involved.
On the morning of 18 March 2013, Hockney's 23-year-old assistant, Dominic Elliott, died as a result of drinking drain cleaner at Hockney's Bridlington studio; he had also earlier drunk alcohol and taken cocaine, ecstasy and temazepam. Elliott was a first- and second-team player for Bridlington Rugby Club. It was reported that Hockney's partner drove Elliott to Scarborough General Hospital where he later died. The inquest returned a verdict of death by misadventure and Hockney was never implicated. In November 2015 Hockney sold his house in Bridlington, a five-bedroomed former guest house, for £625,000, cutting all his remaining ties with the town.
He holds a California Medical Marijuana Verification Card, which enables him to buy cannabis for medical purposes. He has used hearing aids since 1979, but realised he was going deaf long before that. He keeps fit by spending half an hour in the swimming pool each morning, and can stand for six hours at the easel.
Hockney has synaesthetic associations between sound, colour and shape.
Collections
Many of Hockney's works are housed in the 1853 Gallery at Salts Mill in Saltaire, near his hometown of Bradford. Another large group of works are held by The David Hockney Foundation. His work is in numerous public and private collections worldwide, including:
Honolulu Museum of Art
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
Art Institute of Chicago
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk, Denmark
National Portrait Gallery, London
Tate, U.K.
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo
Aboa Vetus & Ars Nova, Turku, Finland
Mumok, Ludwig Foundation, Vienna
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.
Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.
Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA
Recognition
In 1967, Hockney's painting, Peter Getting Out of Nick's Pool, won the John Moores Painting Prize at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool. Hockney was offered a knighthood in 1990 but declined, before accepting an Order of Merit in January 2012. He was awarded The Royal Photographic Society's Progress medal in 1988 and the Special 150th Anniversary Medal and Honorary Fellowship in recognition of a sustained, significant contribution to the art of photography in 2003. He was made a Companion of Honour in 1997 and awarded The Cultural Award from the German Society for Photography (DGPh). He is a Royal Academician. In 2012, he was appointed to the Order of Merit, an honour restricted to 24 members at any one time for their contributions to the arts and sciences.
He was a Distinguished Honoree of the National Arts Association, Los Angeles, in 1991 and received the First Annual Award of Achievement from the Archives of American Art, Los Angeles, in 1993. He was appointed to the Board of Trustees of the American Associates of the Royal Academy Trust, New York in 1992 and was given a Foreign Honorary Membership to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1997. In 2003, Hockney was awarded the Lorenzo de' Medici Lifetime Career Award of the Florence Biennale, Italy.
Commissioned by The Other Art Fair, a November 2011 poll of 1,000 British painters and sculptors declared him Britain's most influential artist of all time. In 2012, Hockney was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires.
He is an Honorary Member of the Printmakers Council.
Art market
On 21 June 2006, Hockney's painting The Splash sold for £2.6 million. It was offered for auction again on 11 February 2020, with an estimate of £20–30 million and sold, to an unknown buyer, for £23.1 million.
His A Bigger Grand Canyon, a series of 60 canvases that combined to produce one enormous picture, was bought by the National Gallery of Australia for $4.6 million.
Beverly Hills Housewife (1966–67), a 12-foot-long acrylic that depicts the collector Betty Freeman standing by her pool in a long hot-pink dress, sold for $7.9 million at Christie's in New York in 2008, the top lot of the sale and a record price for a Hockney. This was topped in 2016 when his Woldgate Woods landscape made £9.4 million at auction.
The record was broken again in 2018 with the sale of Piscine de Medianoche (Paper Pool 30) for $11.74 million and then doubled in the same Sotheby's auction when Pacific Coast Highway and Santa Monica sold for $28.5 million.
On 15 November 2018, David Hockney's 1972 painting Portrait of an Artist (Pool with Two Figures) sold at Christie's for $90.3 million with fees, surpassing the previous auction record for a living artist of $58.4 million, held by Jeff Koons for one of his Balloon Dog sculptures. He had originally sold this painting for $20,000 in 1972.
The Hockney–Falco thesis
In the 2001 television programme and book Secret Knowledge, Hockney posited that the Old Masters used camera obscura as well as camera lucida and lens techniques that projected the image of the subject onto the surface of the painting. Hockney argues that this technique migrated gradually from Northern Europe to Italy, and is the reason for the photographic style of painting we see in the Renaissance and later periods of art. He published his conclusions in the 2001 book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, which was revised in 2006.
Public life
Like his father, Hockney was a conscientious objector, and worked as a medical orderly in hospitals during his National Service, 1957–1959.
Hockney was a founder of the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, in 1979. He serves on the advisory board of the political magazine Standpoint, and contributed original sketches for its launch edition, in June 2008, as well as agreeing to allow Standpoint to publish his previous views and pictures over the years.
He is a staunch pro-tobacco campaigner and was invited to guest-edit BBC Radio's Today programme on 29 December 2009 in which he aired his views on the subject.
In October 2010, he and a hundred other artists signed an open letter to the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Jeremy Hunt, protesting against cutbacks in the arts.
In popular culture
In 1966, while working on a series of etchings based on love poems by the Greek poet Constantine P. Cavafy, Hockney starred in a documentary by filmmaker James Scott, entitled Love's Presentation. He was the subject of Jack Hazan's 1974 biopic, A Bigger Splash, named after Hockney's 1967 pool painting of the same name. Hockney was also the inspiration of artist Billy Pappas in the documentary film Waiting for Hockney (2008), which debuted at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2008.
Hockney was inducted into Vanity Fairs International Best-Dressed Hall of Fame in 1986. In 2005 Burberry creative director Christopher Bailey centred his entire spring/summer menswear collection around the artist and in 2012 fashion designer Vivienne Westwood, a close friend, named a checked jacket after Hockney. In 2011 British GQ named him one of the 50 Most Stylish Men in Britain and in March 2013 he was listed as one of the Fifty Best-dressed Over-50s by The Guardian.
Hockney was commissioned to design the cover and pages for the December 1985 issue of the French edition of Vogue. Consistent with his interest in cubism and admiration for Pablo Picasso, Hockney chose to paint Celia Birtwell (who appears in several of his works) from different views for the cover, as if the eye had scanned her face diagonally.
David Hockney: A Rake's Progress (2012) is a biography of Hockney covering the years 1937–1975, by writer/photographer Christopher Simon Sykes.
In 2012, Hockney featured in BBC Radio 4's list of The New Elizabethans to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. A panel of seven academics, journalists and historians named Hockney among the group of people in the UK "whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character".
The 2015 Luca Guadagnino's film A Bigger Splash was named after Hockney's painting.
In Peter Hyams' 1990 movie thriller Narrow Margin the villain tells a man who stole money from him, "If you have to sell your David Hockneys [to pay me back], then you will do that."
David Hockney Foundation
The David Hockney Foundation—both the UK registered charity 1127262 and the US 501(c)(3) private operating foundation—was created by the artist in 2008. In 2012, Hockney, worth an estimated $55.2 million (approx. £36.1 m), transferred paintings valued at $124.2 million (approx. £81.5 m) to the David Hockney Foundation, and gave an additional $1.2 million (approx. £0.79 m) in cash to help fund the foundation's operations.
The foundation's mission is to advance appreciation and understanding of visual art and culture through the exhibition, preservation, and publication of David Hockney's work. Richard Benefield, who organized David Hockney: A Bigger Exhibition in 2013–2014 at the de Young Museum in San Francisco, became the first executive director in January 2017.
The foundation owns over 8,000 works – paintings, drawings, watercolours, complete editioned prints, stage design, multi-camera movies, and other media. They also hold 203 sketchbooks and Hockney's personal photo albums from 1961 to 1990. The foundation manages various loans to museums and exhibitions around the world, including Happy Birthday, Mr. Hockney! at the Getty celebrating his 80th birthday, and the retrospective exhibitions of 2017–2018 at the Metropolitan Museum, Centre Georges Pompidou, and Tate Britain.
Books
By Hockney
In October 2016 Taschen published David Hockney: A Bigger Book, costing £1,750 (£3,500 with an added loose print). The artist curated the selection of more than 60 years of his work reproduced within 498 pages. The book, weighing 78 lbs, had gone through 19 proof stages. The book came with an (optional) substantial wooden lectern. He unveiled the book at the Frankfurt Book Fair where he was the keynote speaker at the opening press conference.
Contributions by Hockney
References
Further reading
Weschler, L. Cameraworks (with David Hockney – photographer) (1984) Alfred A. Knopf, (portions of the essay by Weschler appeared in the New Yorker in a slightly different form),
Geldzahler, H., Knight, C., Kitaj, R. B., Schiff, G., Hoy, A., Silver, K. E. and Weschler, L. David Hockney: A Retrospective (Painters & sculptors) (1988), Thames and Hudson, London,
Shanes, E. Hockney Posters (with David Hockney), (1988), Crown Publishing Group,
Luckhardt, U. and Melia, P. David Hockney: A Drawing Retrospective (1995), Thames and Hudson, London,
Livingstone, M. David Hockney: Space and Line (1999), Annely Juda Fine Art, London,
Livingstone, M. David Hockney: Painting on Paper (2002), Annely Juda Fine Art, London,
Livingstone, M. David Hockney: Egyptian Journeys (2002), American University in Cairo Press, Cairo,
Frémon, J David Hockney, Close and far (2001)
Howgate, S. David Hockney Portraits (2006), National Portrait Gallery,
Melia, P. and Luckhardt, U. David Hockney: Paintings (2007), Prestel, Munich,
Becker, C. and Livingstone, M. David Hockney (2009), Swiridoff Verlag, Künzelsau,
Sykes, C. S. Hockney: The Biography (2011), Century,
Seckiner, S. South (Güney), published July 2013, consists of 12 article and essays. One of them, American Collectors, re-focus on David Hockney's importance in the philosophy of art. .
Dagen, P. David Hockney, The Arrival of Spring in Woldgate (2015)
Didier Ottinger, Pictures of Daily Life, Galerie Lelong & Co. (2018)
Frémon, J, David Hockney en pays d'Auge, L'Echoppe, (2020)
External links
The David Hockney Foundation
David Hockney's Long Road From Los Angeles to Yorkshire, The New York Times, 15 October 2009
Hockney Yorkshire Wolds Art Locations
1937 births
Living people
20th-century English painters
21st-century English painters
20th-century British photographers
21st-century British photographers
20th-century British painters
21st-century male artists
Academics of the University for the Creative Arts
Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Artist authors
Artists from Bradford
Artists from California
British conscientious objectors
British pop artists
Deaf artists
English contemporary artists
English expatriates in the United States
English male painters
English printmakers
Gay artists
LGBT artists from the United Kingdom
LGBT people from England
Members of the Order of Merit
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Opera designers
People educated at Bradford Grammar School
Photographers from Yorkshire
Postmodern artists
Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale
Royal Academicians | [
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238342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Auber | Daniel Auber | Daniel-François-Esprit Auber (; 29 January 178212 May 1871) was a French composer and director of the Paris Conservatoire.
Born into an artistic family, Auber was at first an amateur composer before he took up writing operas professionally when the family's fortunes failed in 1820. He soon established a professional partnership with the librettist Eugène Scribe that lasted for 41 years and produced 39 operas, most of them commercial and critical successes. He is mostly associated with opéra-comique and composed 35 works in that genre. With Scribe he wrote the first French grand opera, La Muette de Portici (The Dumb Woman of Portici) in 1828, which paved the way for the large-scale works of Giacomo Meyerbeer.
Auber held two important official musical posts. From 1842 to 1871 he was director of France's premier music academy, the Paris Conservatoire, which he expanded and modernised. From 1852 until the fall of the Second Empire in 1870 he was director of the imperial chapel in the Louvre, for which he wrote a substantial number of liturgical works and other religious music.
A devotee of Paris, Auber refused to leave the city when the Franco Prussian War led to the siege of Paris and the subsequent rise of the Paris Commune. He died in his house in Paris, aged 89, shortly before the French government regained control of the capital.
Life and career
Early years
Auber was born on 29 January 1782 in Caen in Normandy, where his mother was visiting. The family was of Norman extraction but was based in Paris. Auber's grandfather had been "peintre du Roi" – the king's painter – responsible for sculpting and gilding the royal coaches, and Auber's father, Jean-Baptiste Daniel, was an officer of the royal hunt, based at the "petites écuries du Roi" – the king's small stables – in the Faubourg Saint-Denis in Paris. He and his wife, Françoise Adelaïde Esprit, née Vincent, had three sons and a daughter. When Auber was seven the French Revolution began, and his father had to find another occupation to allow him to go on providing for his family. He set up as a publisher, and opened a print shop in the rue Saint-Lazare, where he survived the Reign of Terror and prospered under the Directory and the Consulate. He had a salon, attended by artists of all kinds, where the young Auber sometimes performed: he was, by his teens, an accomplished violinist, pianist and singer.
Although his father encouraged his musical talent, Auber expected to go into the family's print-selling business, and after the Treaty of Amiens (1802) ended the war between France and Britain he went to London to study commerce and learn English. In Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Charles Schneider writes that Auber evidently had some success in London as a performer and as a composer. An earlier biographer, Charles Malherbe, writes that although Auber did not gain any great insight into trade and finance during his sixteen months in London, he admired and emulated British reserve and understatement, which suited his own innate modesty. His shyness became well known. He never appeared before the public as a conductor, and throughout his career he was too nervous to attend his own first nights. He never married.
Return to Paris
In 1803 the fragile peace between France and Britain ended; the Napoleonic Wars began, and Auber left London for Paris, where he remained for the rest of his life. There, he was admitted to the Société académique des Enfants d'Apollon, a prestigious association of musicians and music-loving painters, of which his father had been a member since 1784. Among Auber's compositions from this period were five cello concertos premiered by the soloist Lamare, in whose name at least three of them were originally published, although their real authorship soon emerged. The praise given to Auber's violin concerto (1808) encouraged him to undertake a new setting of an old comic opera, Julie, for an amateur society in 1811. The orchestra consisted of two violins, two violas, cello, and double-bass, but Auber made effective use of the small forces, and the piece was well received. Luigi Cherubini, the dominant figure in Parisian operatic circles, was in the audience, and recognising the powerful though untrained talent of the young composer, he took him as a private pupil.
Accounts differ about Auber's first professionally-staged opera, Le Séjour militaire (1813). Some older sources state that it had an "unfavourable reception", and was "a failure". Schneider (2001) writes that it had "a satisfactory 16 performances, and was revived in 1826 and staged in the provinces". Schneider adds that for the next seven years, Auber lived a carefree life, until a sharp decline in the Aubers' financial circumstances and the death of his father in 1820 obliged him to secure an income to support the family. He devoted himself to composition, particularly of operas. La bergère châtelaine (1820) and Emma (1821), to librettos by Eugène de Planard, did well both in France and in Germany.
Operatic success
In 1822 Auber began a collaboration with the librettist Eugène Scribe that lasted for 41 years and produced 39 operas. Auber's biographer Robert Letellier writes that the names of Scribe and Auber became as linked in French minds as those of Gilbert and Sullivan later were in British ones. The partners' first collaboration was Leicester, ou Le château de Kenilworth, a three-act opéra comique, with a plot derived by Scribe, in collaboration with Mélesville, from Walter Scott's historical romance Kenilworth. It was given by the Opéra-Comique company at the Salle Feydeau in January 1823 with Antoine Ponchard and Antoinette Lemonnier in the leading roles, and received 60 performances over the next five seasons. Schneider writes of the collaboration:
During the rest of the 1820s Auber's collaborations with Scribe were mostly successful, with long runs by the standards of the day. By contrast, his only opera without Scribe from this period ran for seven performances. By 1825 Auber was eminent enough in his profession to be made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour by the government of Charles X.
Although most of Auber's operas from this period were in the established genre of opéra comique – works with spoken dialogue, usually in three acts – in 1825 he wrote the first French grand opera, La Muette de Portici, a five-act piece, with extensive ballet numbers, and recitative instead of spoken dialogue. The original libretto was by Germain Delavigne, adapted and revised by Scribe. After the premiere at the Paris Opéra in February 1828, productions opened in London in May 1829 and New York in November of the same year. By 1882 the piece had been given more than 500 times in Paris, and was performed in translated versions throughout Europe. A spectacular ballet, Masaniello, with the same story, using Auber's music, was popular in London in the later 1820s. Schneider writes that Auber consolidated his international reputation with La Fiancée (1829) and Fra Diavolo (1830), both with Scribe.
Institut and Conservatoire
In 1829 Auber was elected as one of the six members of the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de France in succession to François-Joseph Gossec, joining the joint doyens, Cherubini and Jean-François Le Sueur, and their colleagues Henri Berton, François-Adrien Boieldieu and Charles Catel. During his 42 years as a member he was joined by composers including Adolphe Adam, Hector Berlioz, Charles Gounod and Ambroise Thomas. Under the government of King Louis-Philippe, Auber was appointed director of court concerts in 1839, and, when Cherubini retired in 1842, director of the Conservatoire. Schneider writes that in the latter post Auber's term of office was marked by:
In the 1830s Auber wrote twelve operas with Scribe, half of them opéras comiques, and half more serious works for the Opéra: Le Dieu et la bayadère (1830), Le Philtre (1831), Le Serment ou les Faux monnayeurs (1832), Gustave III ou le Bal masqué (1833), Le Cheval de bronze (1835) and Le Lac des fées (1839).
Later years
Auber was a much-loved and conscientious director of the Conservatoire; he ran a less conservative regime than his predecessor, and introduced changes such as permitting applause at Conservatoire concerts, and giving members of the faculty more freedom in what they taught their students. He enlarged the composition, piano and orchestral instrument departments. His customary modesty extended to banning any of his works from being performed at the Conservatoire during the whole of his directorship. Several winners of the Prix de Rome – France's premier music prize – trained under him, including Georges Bizet,
Ernest Guiraud, Théodore Dubois and Jules Massenet.
Auber's productivity as an opera composer slowed somewhat in the years after his appointment to the Conservatoire, but he completed 13 new operas between 1843 and 1869, including La part du diable (The Devil's Share, 1943), Haydée, ou Le secret (1847), L'enfant prodigue (The Prodigal Son. 1850), Manon Lescaut (1856 – 28 years before Massenet's version and 37 years before Puccini's), and his last collaboration with Scribe, La Circassienne (The Circassian Woman, 1861). After Scribe's death in 1861, Auber composed only two more operas, both with librettos by Adolphe d'Ennery and Eugène Cormon: Le premier jour de bonheur (The First Day of Happiness, 1868) and Rêve d'amour (Dream of Love, 1869).
Le premier jour de bonheur was a considerable success, and reviewers remarked on the freshness of the octogenarian composer's score: "Its music is, for the greater part, as fresh and sparkling as the best gems of Masaniello or The Crown Diamonds". It was an exceptional box-office success, given 167 times in Paris over the next few seasons and staged in Vienna, Berlin, Budapest and other European cities.
Under the Second Empire Auber was appointed director of the chapelle impériale by Napoleon III in 1852, and composed a considerable amount of music for the emperor's chapel in the Louvre. The musical forces there were substantial, the choir and orchestra comprising 40 musicians each. They performed under the direction of conductors from the Opéra, rather than the composer.
By the time of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Auber was old and ailing. He refused to leave Paris, and remained there during the siege of Paris and the subsequent rise of the Paris Commune. He resigned as director of the Conservatoire so that the building could be used as a hospital. He was briefly succeeded as director by Francisco Salvador-Daniel – appointed by the Communards and shot by the French government eleven days later – and more permanently by Ambroise Thomas, who held the post from 1871 to 1896.
Auber's health deteriorated and in May 1871 he took to his bed. Two friends – Thomas and his fellow composer Jean-Baptiste Weckerlin – took turns watching over him. In the early hours of 12 May he died at his house in the Rue Saint-Georges, aged 89. He was buried at the Père Lachaise cemetery.
Music
Opera
The total number of operas or other stage works by Auber given by various sources differs slightly, depending on whether collaborations with other composers are included. Grove gives the total as 51, beginning with Julie in 1805 and ending with Rêve d'amour in 1869. Of these, 35 are opéras-comiques, with spoken dialogue. The genre includes some serious or even tragic plots, and some of Auber's such as Manon Lescaut are far from comic, but the majority of his opéras comiques are lighthearted.
The musicologist Hugh Macdonald writes of Auber, "With Adolphe Adam, he took on the mantle of Adrien Boieldieu and Ferdinand Hérold, and passed it on in turn to Ambroise Thomas and Jacques Offenbach". Macdonald judges the finest of the Auber-Scribe collaborations to be La Muette de Portici, "a grand opera that served as a model for the Meyerbeerian genre". He comments that despite the success of that work, Auber rarely essayed serious opera thereafter, confining himself in general to lighter operatic forms. The same writer concludes:
Macdonald considers Fra Diavolo the most successful of Auber's opéras-comiques: "the music has a lively spring, with Auber's abundant melodic gift always in evidence". He adds that although the influence of Rossini is detectable, there are also chromatic touches that anticipate Smetana, who was composing 30 years after Auber. Letellier comments on Auber's sensitivity to the French language "celebrating with wit and piquancy the natural inflections and nuances of the text that Scribe could so effortlessly provide". In his later works, beginning with La Part du diable (1843), Auber developed a more lyrical manner and became less conservative harmonically. Letellier writes that within the confines of the opèra-comique genre Auber "deepened the scope of dramatic expressiveness".
The composer's operatic music is noted for the brilliance of coloratura passages for chorus as well as soloists, and the quantity of ensemble writing, particularly in the finales to acts. Letellier lists the vocal genres the Auber introduced into his scores: the ballad, the barcarolle, the bolero, the canon, the Bourbonnaise (laughing song), the chanson, the couplet, the galop, the nocturne, the round, the Tyrolienne and the waltz song. Auber's orchestration, which reflects the influence of his friend Rossini, became the model for French operatic compositions throughout the 19th century, including those of Bizet and Massenet. In the opéras-comiques Auber's orchestra generally consists of piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets or cornets à pistons, trombones, timpani, snare drum, triangle, bass drum, cymbals, harp and strings.
Church music
Although Auber was and is best known for his operas, he wrote a substantial quantity of religious music, beginning with a Messe solennelle, for three solo voices and orchestra in 1812. Among his better-known religious pieces is a Dona nobis pacem (1828) which the composer reused in La Muette de Portici. Most of his liturgical pieces were written after his appointment as director of the chapelle impériale in 1852. The biographer Charles Malherbe notes that Auber's most productive years for religious music were 1854, 1858, 1859. 1860, 1863 and 1865 – years in which he composed no operas. Church works for the imperial chapel include a Pie Jesu, a Stabat mater and numerous settings of sections of the Mass, including Kyries, Glorias, Benedictuses and Agnus Deis. Other religious works include 12 settings of O salutaris hostia, written between 1854 and 1870.
Most of the pieces Auber wrote for the imperial chapel are, in Schneider's words, "plain in style, homophonic and melody-led". Few have been published, but most survive in manuscript, often in two versions: one with orchestral accompaniment, and one with organ.
Other music
From the 1790s, Auber composed chamber and orchestral works, including a piano sonata, two string quartets, a piano trio, a piano quartet, a violin concerto, the five cello concertos written for Jacques-Michel Hurel de Lamare, and variations on a theme by Handel.
In addition to his liturgical music, Auber wrote a substantial number of secular choral or other vocal works, including cantatas to commemorate the wedding of Napoleon III and other events of imperial or national importance.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
1782 births
1871 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century French composers
19th-century French male musicians
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Directors of the Conservatoire de Paris
French ballet composers
French male classical composers
French opera composers
French Romantic composers
Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society
Male opera composers
Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium
People from Caen
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) | [
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238345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus | Morus | Morus may refer to:
People
Alexander Morus (1616–1670), Franco-Scottish Protestant preacher
Henryk Moruś (1943–2013), Polish serial killer
Huw Morus (1622–1709), Welsh poet
Thomas More or Morus (1478–1535), English philosopher
Morus Clynnog (c. 1525–1581), Welsh Roman Catholic priest and recusant exile
Morus Dwyfach (fl. c. 1523–1590), Welsh-language poet
Morus Hasratyan (1902–1979), Armenian historian and philologist
Moors, Mōrus in late Latin, people of the Maghreb region
Other uses
Morus (plant), a genus of trees in the family Moraceae commonly known as mulberries
Morus (bird), a genus of seabirds in the family Sulidae commonly known as gannets
Latin for morula, an early-stage embryo consisting of 16 cells
Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space
See also
Moris (disambiguation)
Genus disambiguation pages
Masculine given names | [
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238346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarring%20and%20feathering | Tarring and feathering | Tarring and feathering is a form of public torture and punishment used to enforce unofficial justice or revenge. It was used in feudal Europe and its colonies in the early modern period, as well as the early American frontier, mostly as a type of mob vengeance.
The victim would be stripped naked, or stripped to the waist. Wood tar (sometimes hot) was then either poured or painted onto the person while they were immobilized. Then the victim either had feathers thrown on them or was rolled around on a pile of feathers so that they stuck to the tar.
The image of a tarred-and-feathered outlaw remains a metaphor for severe public criticism.
Early History
The earliest mention of the punishment appears in orders that Richard I of England issued to his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1189. "Concerning the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his navie the forme thereof was this ... item, a thiefe or felon that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, shal have his head shorne, and boyling pitch poured upon his head, and feathers or downe strawed upon the same whereby he may be knowen, and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to be cast up" (transcript of original statute in Hakluyt's Voyages, ii. 21).
A later instance of this penalty appears in Notes and Queries (series 4, vol. v), which quotes James Howell writing in Madrid in 1623 of the "boisterous Bishop of Halberstadt, a German Protestant military leader... having taken a place where there were two monasteries of nuns and friars, he caused divers feather beds to be ripped, and all the feathers thrown into a great hall, whither the nuns and friars were thrust naked with their bodies oiled and pitched and to tumble among these feathers, which makes them here (Madrid) presage him an ill-death." (The Bishop was apparently Christian the Younger of Brunswick.)
In 1696, a London bailiff attempted to serve process on a debtor who had taken refuge within the precincts of the Savoy. The bailiff was tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbarrow to the Strand, where he was tied to a maypole that stood by what is now Somerset House as an improvised pillory.
18th Century America
The practice of tarring and feathering was exported to the Americas, gaining popularity in the mid-18th century. Throughout the 1760s it saw increased usage as a means of protesting the Townshend Revenue Act and those who sought to enforce it. After a period of few tarrings and featherings between 1770 and 1773, the passage of the Tea Act in May 1773 led to a resurgence of incidents.
During the Stamp Act 1765 crisis, Archibald McCall (1734–1814) sided against patriots in Westmoreland and Essex County, Virginia. He insisted on collecting the British tax that was placed on stamps and other documents. In reaction, a mob formed and stormed his house in Tappahannock, Virginia. They threw rocks through the windows and McCall was captured, tarred and feathered. The act was an example of "taxation without representation" and a leading event to the war against the British.
In 1766, Captain William Smith was tarred, feathered, and dumped into the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia by a mob that included the town's mayor. A vessel picked him out of the water just as his strength was giving out. He survived and was later quoted as saying that they "dawbed my body and face all over with tar and afterwards threw feathers on me." Smith was suspected of informing on smugglers to the British customs agents, as was the case with most other tar-and-feathers victims in the following decade.
The practice appeared in Salem, Massachusetts in 1768, when mobs attacked low-level employees of the customs service with tar and feathers. In October 1769, a mob in Boston attacked a customs service sailor the same way, and a few similar attacks followed through 1774. Customs Commissioner John Malcolm was tarred and feathered on two occasions. Firstly, in November 1773 he was targeted by sailors in Portsmouth, New Hampshire before undergoing a similar, albeit arguably more violent, ordeal in Boston in January 1774. Malcolm was stripped, whipped, beaten, tarred, and feathered for several hours. He was then taken to the Liberty Tree and forced to drink tea until he vomited.
In February 1775, Dr. Abner Bebee, a Loyalist of East Haddam, Connecticut, was tarred and feathered before being taken to a hog sty and covered in dung. Hog dung was then smeared in his eyes and forced down his throat. Dr. Bebee was subjected to this as a perceived punishment for expressing pro-British sentiment by his local Committee of Safety.
A particularly violent act of tarring and feathering took place in August 1775 northeast of Augusta, Georgia. Landowner and loyalist Thomas Brown was confronted on his property by members of the Sons of Liberty. After putting up some resistance, Brown was beaten with a rifle, fracturing his skull. He was then stripped and tied to a tree. Hot pitch was poured over him before being set alight, charring two of his toes to stubs. Brown was then feathered by the Sons of Liberty, who then took a knife to his head and began scalping him.
Such acts associated the punishment with the Patriot side of the American Revolution.
An exception occurred in March 1775, when a number of soldiers and officers from the 47th Regiment of Foot inflicted the same treatment on Thomas Ditson, a Billerica, Massachusetts man who attempted to buy a musket from one of the regiment's soldiers. Ditson was tarred and feathered before having a placard reading "American Liberty: A Speciment [sic] of Democracy" hung around his neck whilst fife and drummers played "Yankee Doodle".
During the Whiskey Rebellion, local farmers inflicted the punishment on federal tax agents. Beginning on September 11, 1791, western Pennsylvania farmers rebelled against the federal government's taxation on western Pennsylvania whiskey distillers. Their first victim was reportedly a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson. He was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. Other officials who attempted to serve court warrants on Johnson's attackers were whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution.
There is no known case of a person dying from being tarred and feathered during this period.
19th century
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was dragged from his home during the night of March 24, 1832, by a group of men who stripped and beat him before tarring and feathering him. His wife and infant child were knocked from their bed by the attackers and were forced from the home and threatened. (The infant died several days later from exposure.) Smith was left for dead, but limped back to the home of friends. They spent much of the night scraping the tar from his body, leaving his skin raw and bloody. The following day, Smith spoke at a church devotional meeting and was reported to have been covered with raw wounds and still weak from the attack.
In 1851, Thomas Paul Smith, a 24 year old African-American from Boston outspoken in his opposition to school desegregation, was tarred and feathered by a group of pro-desegregationists.
Also in 1851, a Know-Nothing mob in Ellsworth, Maine, tarred and feathered Swiss-born Jesuit priest Father John Bapst in the midst of a local controversy over religious education in grammar schools. Bapst fled Ellsworth to settle in nearby Bangor, Maine, where there was a large Irish-Catholic community, and a local high school there is named for him.
20th century
Tarring and feathering was not restricted to men. The November 27, 1906 Ada, Oklahoma Evening News reports that a vigilance committee consisting of four young married women from East Sandy, Pennsylvania corrected the alleged evil conduct of their neighbor Mrs. Hattie Lowry in whitecap style. One of the women was a sister-in-law of the victim. The women appeared at Mrs. Lowry's home in open day and announced that she had not heeded the spokeswoman and leader. Two women held Mrs. Lowry to the floor while the other two smeared her face with stove polish until it was completely covered. They then poured thick molasses upon her head and emptied the contents of a feather pillow over the molasses. The women then marched the victim to a railroad camp, tied by the wrists, where two hundred workmen stopped work to watch the spectacle. After parading Mrs. Lowry through the camp, the women tied her to a large box where she remained until a man released her. Three of the women involved were arrested, pleaded guilty and each paid a $10.00 fine.
There were several examples of tarring and feathering of African Americans in the lead-up to World War I in Vicksburg, Mississippi. According to William Harris, this was a relatively rare form of mob punishment to Republican African-Americans in the post-bellum U.S. South, as its goal was typically pain and humiliation rather than death.
During World War I, anti-German sentiment was widespread in the United States and many German-Americans were attacked. For example, in August 1918 a German-American farmer, John Meints (pictured in lead) of Luverne, Minnesota, was captured by a group of men, taken to the nearby South Dakota border and tarred and feathered – for allegedly not supporting war bonds. Meints sued his assailants and lost, but on appeal to a federal court he won, and in 1922 settled out of court for $6,000. In March 1922, a German-born Catholic priest in Slaton, Texas, Joseph M. Keller, who had been harassed by local residents during World War I due to his ethnicity, was accused of breaking the seal of confession and tarred and feathered. Thereafter Keller served a Catholic parish in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Future Australian senator Fred Katz – a socialist and anti-conscriptionist of German parentage – was publicly tarred and feathered outside his office in Melbourne in December 1915. A week before the 1919 Australian federal election, former Labor MP John McDougall was kidnapped by a group of about 20 ex-soldiers in Ararat, Victoria, and subsequently tarred and feathered before being dumped in the town's streets. He had earlier been revealed as the author of an anti-war poem that was perceived as insulting Australia's soldiers. Six men were charged with inflicting grievous bodily harm, but pleaded down to common assault and were fined £5 each. Many newspapers supported their actions.
A group of black-robed Knights of Liberty (a faction of the KKK) tarred and feathered seventeen members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in Oklahoma in 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage. In the 1920s, vigilantes were opposed to IWW organizers at California's harbor of San Pedro. They kidnapped at least one organizer, subjected him to tarring and feathering, and left him in a remote location.
The Wednesday, May 28, 1930 edition of the Miami Daily News-Record (Miami, Oklahoma) contains on its front page the arrests of five brothers (Isaac, Newton, Henry, Gordon and Charles Starns) from Louisiana accused of tarring and feathering Dr. S. L. Newsome, who was a prominent dentist. This was in retaliation for the dentist having an affair with one of the brother's wives.
Similar tactics were also used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) during the early years of the Troubles. Many of the victims were women accused of being in romantic relationships with policemen or British soldiers.
21st century
In August 2007, loyalist groups in Northern Ireland were linked to the tarring and feathering of an individual accused of drug-dealing.
In June 2020, multiple graves and memorials to Confederate soldiers at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana were tarred and feathered.
See also
Riding the rail
Tarring and feathering in popular culture
Tarring and feathering in the United States
References
Attribution
External links
Text of law of Richard I
"Has anyone actually ever been tarred and feathered?" at Straight Dope
Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling., Alfred Knopf, 2005,
Corporal punishments
Feathers
Vigilantism
Vigilantism in the United States
Physical torture techniques
Whiskey Rebellion
Tarring and feathering in the United States
American frontier | [
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238347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mousebird | Mousebird | The mousebirds are birds in the order Coliiformes. They are the sister group to the clade Eucavitaves, which includes the Leptosomiformes (the cuckoo roller), Trogoniformes (trogons), Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes), Piciformes (woodpeckers, toucans, and barbets) and Coraciformes (kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers, motmots, and todies). This group is now confined to sub-Saharan Africa, and it is the only bird order confined entirely to that continent, with the possible exception of turacos which are considered by some as the distinct order Musophagiformes, and the cuckoo roller, which is the only member of the order Leptosomiformes. Mousebirds had a wider range in the Paleogene, with a widespread distribution in Europe and North America during the Paleocene.
Description
Mousebirds are slender greyish or brown birds with soft, hairlike body feathers. They are typically about 10 cm in body length, with a long, thin tail a further 20–24 cm in length, and weigh 45–55 grams. They are arboreal and scurry through the leaves like rodents, in search of berries, fruit and buds. This habit, and their legs, gives rise to the group's English name. They are acrobatic, and can feed upside down. All species have strong claws and reversible outer toes (pamprodactyl feet). They also have crests and stubby bills.
Behaviour and ecology
Mousebirds are gregarious, again reinforcing the analogy with mice, and are found in bands of about 20 in lightly wooded country. These birds build cup-shaped twig nests in trees, which are lined with grasses. Two to three eggs are typically laid.
Systematics and evolution
The mousebirds could be considered "living fossils" as the 6 species extant today are merely the survivors of a lineage that was massively more diverse in the early Paleogene and Miocene. There are comparatively abundant fossils of Coliiformes, but it has not been easy to assemble a robust phylogeny. The family is documented to exist from the Early Paleocene onwards; by at least the Late Eocene, two families are known to have existed, the extant Coliidae and the longer-billed prehistorically extinct Sandcoleidae.
The latter were previously a separate order, but eventually it was realized that they had come to group ancestral Coraciiformes, the actual sandcoleids and forms like Neanis together in a paraphyletic assemblage. Even though the sandcoleids are now assumed to be monophyletic following the removal of these taxa, many forms cannot be conclusively assigned to one family or the other. The genus Selmes, for example, is probably a coliid, but only distantly related to the modern genera.
Extinct coliiforms occupied a wide range of ecologies. Sandcoleids in particular often preserve uncrushed seeds on their stomachs, while bearing talons similar to those of modern birds of prey.
Taxonomy
Order COLIIFORMES
Genus †Botauroides Shufeldt 1915 (Eocene of Wyoming, US)
†B. parvus Shufeldt 1915
Genus †Eobucco Feduccia & Martin 1976 - sandcoleid?
†E. brodkorbi Feduccia & Martin 1976
Genus †Eocolius Dyke & Waterhouse 2001 (London Clay Early Eocene of Walton-on-the-Naze, England) - sandcoleid or coliid
†E. walkeri Dyke & Waterhouse 2001
Genus †Limnatornis Milne-Edwards 1871 [Palaeopicus Lambrecht 1933 ex Brodkorb 1952] (Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France) - coliid? (Urocolius?)
†L. consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871) [Picus consobrinus Milne-Edwards 1871; Palaeopicus consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871) Lambrecht 1933 nomen nudum; Urocolius consobrinus (Milne-Edwards 1871)]
†L. paludicola Milne-Edwards 1871 [Colius paludicola (Milne-Edwards 1871) Ballmann 1969a; Urocolius paludicola (Milne-Edwards 1871)]
†L. archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) [Picus archiaci Milne-Edwards 1871; Colius archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) Ballmann 1969a; Urocolius archiaci (Milne-Edwards 1871) Mlíkovský 2002] (Early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France)
Coliiformes gen. et sp. indet. (Late Miocene of Kohfidisch, Austria)
Genus †Uintornis Marsh 1872 - sandcoleid?
†U. lucaris Brodkorb 1971
†U. marionae Feduccia & Martin 1976
Family †Chascacocoliidae Zelenkov & Dyke 2008
Genus †Chascacocolius Houde & Olson 1992 (Late Paleocene ?- Early Eocene) - basal? sandcoleid?
†C. oscitans Houde & Olson 1992
†C. cacicirostris Mayr 2005
Family †Selmeidae Zelenkov & Dyke 2008
Genus †Selmes Mayr 1998 ex Peters 1999 (Middle Eocene ?-Late Oligocene of C Europe) - coliid? (synonym of Primocolius?)
†S. absurdipes Mayr 1998 ex Peters 1999
Family †Sandcoleidae Houde & Olson 1992 sensu Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2004
Genus †Sandcoleus Houde & Olson 1992 (Paleocene)
†S. copiosus Houde & Olson 1992
Genus †Anneavis Houde & Olson 1992
†A. anneae Houde & Olson 1992
Genus †Eoglaucidium Fischer 1987
†E. pallas Fischer 1987
Genus †Tsidiiyazhi Ksepka, Stidham & Williamson 2017 (Paleocene of New Mexico)
†T. abini Ksepka, Stidham & Williamson 2017
Family Coliidae Swainson 1837 sensu Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2004
Genus †Celericolius Ksepka & Clarke 2010
†C. acriala Ksepka & Clarke 2010
Genus †Masillacolius Mayr & Peters 1998 (middle Eocene of Messel, Germany)
†M. brevidactylus Mayr & Peters 1998
Genus †Oligocolius Mayr 2000 (Early Oligocene of Frauenweiler, Germany)
†O. brevitarsus Mayr 2000
†O. psittacocephalon Mayr 2013
Genus †Palaeospiza Allen 1878
†Palaeospiza bella Allen 1878
Genus †Primocolius Mourer-Chauviré 1988 (Late Eocene/Oligocene of Quercy, France)
†P. sigei Mourer-Chauviré 1988
†P. minor Mourer-Chauviré 1988
Subfamily Coliinae
Genus Urocolius (2 species)
U. indicus (Latham 1790) (Red-faced mousebird)
U. macrourus (Linnaeus 1766) (Blue-naped mousebird)
Genus Colius [Necrornis Milne-Edwards 1871] (4 species)
†C. hendeyi Vickers-Rich & Haarhoff 1985
†C. palustris (Milne-Edwards 1871) Ballmann 1969 [Necrornis palustris Milne-Edwards 1871]
C. castanotus Verreaux & Verreaux 1855 (Red-backed mousebird)
C. colius (Linnaeus 1766) (White-backed mousebird)
C. leucocephalus Reichenow 1879 (White-headed mousebird)
C. striatus Gmelin 1789 (Speckled mousebird)
Footnotes
References
McCormack, J.E. et al. (2012) A phylogeny of birds based on over 1,500 loci collected by target enrichment and high-throughput sequencing.
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. Ninox Press, Prague. PDF fulltext
External links
Mousebird videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Picture of a mousebird atop a tree
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Afrotropics
Extant Danian first appearances | [
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238349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Giusti | Giuseppe Giusti | Giuseppe Giusti (; 12 May 1809 – 31 May 1850) was an Italian poet and satirist.
Biography
Giusti was born at Monsummano Terme, now in the province of Pistoia.
His father, a cultivated and rich man, accustomed his son from childhood to study, and himself taught him, among other subjects, the first rudiments of music. Afterwards, in order to curb his too vivacious disposition, he placed the boy under the charge of a priest near the village, whose severity did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve Giusti was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to Lucca; and during those years he wrote his first verses.
In 1826, Giusti went to study law at the University of Pisa. He disliked the subject. Partly because of a political satire he wrote that displeased authorities, it took him eight years, instead of the customary four, before he eventually earned a law degree in 1834. On graduating, Giusti proceeded to establish himself in Florence, Italy, claiming to his parents it was to practice law, but he instead pursued his literary interests. Despite earning a degree, he would never practice law.
He lived gaily, though his father kept him short of money, and learned to know the world, seeing the vices of society, and the folly of certain laws and customs from which his country was suffering. The experience thus gained he turned to good account in the use he made of it in his satire.
His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode to Pescia; but Giuseppe did worse there, and in November 1832, his father having paid his debts, he returned to study at Pisa, seriously enamoured of a woman whom he could not marry, but now commencing to write in real' earnest in. behalf of his country. With the poem called La Ghigliottina (the guillotine), Giusti began to strike out a path for himself, and thus revealed his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian Béranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of language, refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception. In Béranger there is more feeling for what is needed for popular poetry. His poetry is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more boisterous, more spontaneous; but Giusti, in both manner and conception, is perhaps more elegant, more refined, more penetrating.
In 1834, Giusti, having at last earned a degree legal profession, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practice with the advocate Capoquadri, but once there, he set out to enjoy life in the then-capital of Italy, Tuscany, where he devoted himself to literary interests.
He fell seriously in love a second time. As before, he was abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest verses. Although his poetry was not yet collected in a volume, for some years it passed from hand to hand, as was often the custom, and his name gradually became famous. The greater part of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at no little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian rule in Italy.
After the publication of a volume of verses at Bastia, Giusti thoroughly established his fame by his Gingillino, the best in moral tone as well as the most vigorous and effective of his poems. The poet sets himself to represent the vileness of the treasury officials, and the base means they used to conceal the necessities of the state. The Gingillino has all the character of a classic satire. When first issued in Tuscany, it struck all as too impassioned and personal. Giusti entered heart and soul into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, served in the national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but finding that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he began to fear, and to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than good had resulted. He fell, in consequence, from the high position. he had held in public estimation, and in 1848 was regarded as a reactionary. His friendship for the marquis Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during the last years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a volume of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the eyes of people such as Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, Giuseppe Montanelli and Giovanni Battista Niccolini. On 31 May 1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his friend.
A life of Giusti was written in English and published not long after his death by Susan Horner, The Tuscan Poet Giuseppe Giusti, and his times [Macmillan and Co, 1864].
Works
Satire
Giusti became known for witty satires written during the period of the Italian Risorgimento. His commentary during the early years of Italy’s nationalistic movement against Austrian rule outlived their political period, and are enjoyed for their Tuscan lively style and preservation of the classic Tuscan tongue.
His satires defended Italy or lamented the social conditions from its political state.
At first, Giusti’s satirical poems were circulated from hand to hand only in manuscript form. To circumvent political repercussions, the first collections had to be printed outside Italy, without the author’s name. His first notable satire, written in 1833, was La guigliottina a vapore (“The Steam Guillotine”). The satire announced that the Chinese had invented a steam guillotine, making the decapitation of dictators much more efficient.
Poetry
Giusti's early compositions were distributed among people in manuscript form. He called them his "scherzi" ("jokes," or "light, playful verse"), and they were short lyrics of varied themes, some about love, others political or social commentaries. These early verses, a literary style obviously influenced by Petrarch, were finally published with his agreement in 1844, in Leghorn. In university texts of 1874. the poetry of Giusti was described as "nothing extreme, nothing exaggerated, nothing forcefully lyrical or impudently vulgar."
Giusti's poetic style eventually departed from what had been a Tuscan tradition of jocose, playful verse. He developed his own voice and style of an elaborate simplicity, with themes of aspiration to a life that shuns social niceties and untruth. Poetically, it aspires to wisdom, honesty, frankness, and to clarity. His work held literary romanticism in contempt.
The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely original, and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment, of wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy that "castigat ridendo mores." Hence his verse, apparently jovial, was received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in all seriousness. Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed a hearty admiration of the genius of Giusti; and the weak Austrian and Bourbon governments regarded them as of the gravest importance.
English translations
A selection of Giuseppe Giusti's poetic works were translated by William Dean Howells in Modern Italian Poets (1887). Other parts were translated by Theodosia Trollope.
References
Further reading (sources)
Adami, Stefano, 'Giuseppe Giusti', in Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies, ed. Gaetana Marrone e
Puppa P., Routledge, New York-London, 2006.
Sabbatucci, Nunzio [Ed.]: Opere di Giuseppe Giusti. Torino: Unione Tip.-Ed. Torinese, 1976. (Classici italiani; [89]).
Zeni, Marilena: L'uomo poeta Giuseppe Giusti. Illustr. da Alberto Fremura. Pisa: Pacini, 1979.
External links
1809 births
1850 deaths
People from the Province of Pistoia
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Italian satirists
19th-century poets
19th-century Italian male writers
Italian male non-fiction writers | [
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238353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onsen | Onsen | In Japan, onsen are the country's hot springs and the bathing facilities and traditional inns around them. As a volcanically active country, Japan has many onsens scattered throughout all of its major islands.
Onsens come in many types and shapes, including and . Baths may be either publicly run by a municipality or privately, often as part of a hotel, ryokan, or .
The presence of an onsen is often indicated on signs and maps by the symbol ♨ or the kanji (yu, meaning "hot water"). Sometimes the simpler hiragana character ゆ (yu), understandable to younger children, is used.
Traditionally, onsens were located outdoors, although many inns have now built indoor bathing facilities as well. Nowadays, as most households have their own bath, the number of traditional public baths has decreased, but the number of sightseeing hot spring towns has increased (most notable ones including Kinosaki Onsen, , and ). Onsens by definition use naturally hot water from geothermally heated springs.
Definition
According to the , onsen is defined as 'hot water, mineral water, and water vapor or other gas (excluding natural gas of which principal component is hydrocarbon) gushing from underground' and its temperature is more than 25 °C or contains specific substance with specific concentration. Therefore, cold onsens do exist.
Mixed bathing
Traditionally, men and women bathed together at both onsens and sentōs, but gender separation has been enforced since the opening of Japan to the West during the Meiji Restoration. The practice had contributed at the time to Western ideas of the Japanese as an inferior race. persists at some special onsen in rural areas of Japan, which usually also provide the option of separate "women-only" baths or different hours for the two sexes. Men may cover their genitals with a small towel while out of the water, while women usually wrap their bodies in full-size towels. Children of either sex may be seen in both the men's and the women's baths. In some prefectures of Japan, including Tokyo, where nude mixed bathing is banned, people are required to wear swimsuits or , or yuami-gi, which are specifically designed for bathing.
Etiquette
Ensuring cleanliness
As at a sentō, at an onsen, all guests are expected to wash and rinse themselves thoroughly before entering the hot water. Bathing stations are equipped with stools, faucets, wooden buckets, and toiletries such as soap and shampoo; nearly all onsen also provide removable shower heads for bathing convenience. Entering the onsen while still dirty or with traces of soap on the body is socially unacceptable.
Swimsuits
Guests are not normally allowed to wear swimsuits in the baths. However, some modern onsen with a water park atmosphere require their guests to wear a swimming suit in their mixed baths.
Towel
Onsen guests generally bring a small towel with them to use as a wash cloth. The towel can also provide a modicum of modesty when walking between the washing area and the baths. Some onsen allow one to wear the towel into the baths, while others have posted signs prohibiting this, saying that it makes it harder to clean the bath. It is against the rules to immerse or dip towels in the onsen bath water, since this can be considered unclean. People normally set their towels off to the side of the water when enjoying the baths, or place their folded towels on top of their heads.
Noise
Onsen vary from quiet to noisy; some play piped music and often feature gushing fountains. Bathers will engage in conversation in this relaxed situation. There are usually prohibitions against rowdiness in the washing and bathing areas; however, a small amount of excess energy and splashing around is usually tolerated from children.
Tattoos
By 2015, around half (56%) of onsen operators had banned bathers with tattoos from using their facilities. The original reason for the tattoo ban was to keep out Yakuza and members of other crime gangs who traditionally have elaborate full-body decoration.
However, tattoo-friendly onsen do exist. A 2015 study by the Japan National Tourism Organisation found that more than 30% of onsen operators at hotels and inns across the country will not turn someone with a tattoo away; another 13% said they would grant access to a tattooed guest under certain conditions, such as having the tattoo covered up. Some towns have many tattoo-friendly onsen that do not require guests to cover them up. Two such towns are Kinosaki Onsen in Hyōgo and Beppu Onsen in Ōita.
With the increase in foreign customers due to growing tourism, some onsen that previously banned tattoos are loosening their rules to allow guests with small tattoos to enter, provided they cover their tattoos with a patch or sticking plaster.
Health
The volcanic nature of Japan provides plenty of springs. When the onsen water contains distinctive minerals or chemicals, the onsen establishments typically display what type of water it is. For many years people have believed that soaking in hot mineral spring water has health benefits.
Some examples of types of onsen include:
Risks
Although millions of Japanese bathe in onsens every year with few noticeable side effects, there are still potential side effects to onsen usage, such as aggravating high blood pressure or heart disease.
Legionella bacteria have been found in some onsens with poor sanitation. Revelations of poor sanitary practices at some onsens have led to improved regulation by hot-spring communities to maintain their reputation.
There have been reports of infectious disease found in hot bodies of water worldwide, such as various Naegleria species. While studies have found the presence of Naegleria in hot spring waters, Naegleria fowleri, responsible for numerous fatal cases of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis around the world, has not been found to be present in the water at onsens. Nevertheless, fewer than five cases have been seen historically in Japan, although not conclusively linked to onsen exposure.
Many onsens display notices reminding anyone with open cuts, sores, or lesions not to bathe. Additionally, in recent years onsens are increasingly adding chlorine to their waters to prevent infection, although many onsen purists seek natural, unchlorinated onsens that do not recycle their water but instead clean the baths daily. These precautions as well as proper onsen usage (i.e. not placing the head underwater, washing thoroughly before entering the bath) greatly reduce any overall risk to bathers.
Selected onsen
Japan
Akagi, Gunma
Akayu, Yamagata
Arima Onsen, Kobe, Hyōgo
Asamushi Onsen, Aomori Prefecture
Aso, Kumamoto, a famous onsen area alongside Mount Aso, an active volcano
, Atami, Shizuoka, major onsen resort town near Tokyo
Awara Onsen, Awara, Fukui Prefecture
Awazu Onsen, Komatsu, Ishikawa
Beppu Onsen, Beppu, Ōita Prefecture, famous for its multi-coloured baths
, Nihonmatsu, Fukushima
Dōgo Onsen, Ehime Prefecture
Funaoka Onsen, Kyoto
, Gero, Gifu, famous for its free open bath on riverbank of Hida River
Geto Onsen, Iwate Prefecture
Ginzan Onsen, Obanazawa, Yamagata
Hakone, Kanagawa, famous onsen resort town near Tokyo
Hanamaki, Iwate
, Takayama, Gifu
, Shizuoka
Ibusuki Onsen, Kagoshima Prefecture
Iizaka Onsen, Fukushima
, Ikaho, Gunma
Itō, Shizuoka
Iwaki Yumoto Onsen, Fukushima Prefecture
Iwamuro, Niigata, famous for onsen since the Edo period
Jigokudani, Nagano Prefecture
, Hokkaido
, Yonago, Tottori
, Nagano
, Shizuoka
, Kaga, Ishikawa
, Tanabe, Wakayama
Kindaichi Onsen, Iwate
Kinosaki, Hyōgo
Kinugawa Onsen, Tochigi
Kusatsu Onsen, Gunma Prefecture
, Misasa, Tottori Prefecture
Nagaragawa Onsen, Gifu, Gifu
Nanki-Katsuura Onsen, Nachikatsuura, Wakayama
Nanki-Shirahama Onsen, Shirahama, Wakayama Prefecture
Naoshima, Kagawa Prefecture
Naruko, Miyagi
Noboribetsu, Hokkaido
Nuruyu Onsen, Kumamoto Prefecture
Nyūtō Onsen, Akita Prefecture
Obama Onsen, Nagasaki Prefecture, the hottest Japanese hot spring ()
, Hokkaido
Ōfuka Onsen, Akita
Ryujin Onsen, Tanabe, Wakayama, one of Japan's famous three beautifying onsen
Sabakoyu Onsen, Fukushima Prefecture, the oldest community onsen in Japan
Sakunami Onsen, Miyagi
Sawatari, Gunma Prefecture
, Niigata Prefecture
Shima Onsen, Gunma Prefecture
Shimabara, Nagasaki
, Yamanashi Prefecture
, Tochigi Prefecture
Shuzenji Onsen, Shizuoka Prefecture
, Hokkaido
Sukayu Onsen, Aomori Prefecture
, Shizuoka Prefecture
Suwa, Nagano Prefecture
Takanoyu Onsen, Akita Prefecture
Takaragawa, Gunma, one of the largest outdoor mixed baths in Japan
Takarazuka, Hyōgo
Tara, Saga
Tōyako, Hokkaidō
, Niigata - famous for its free open mixed onsen
Tsuchiyu Onsen, Fukushima Prefecture
, Niigata Prefecture
, Kanagawa
Unazuki Onsen, Kurobe, Toyama Prefecture
Wakura Onsen, Nanao, Ishikawa Prefecture
Yamanaka Onsen, Kaga, Ishikawa
Yamashiro Onsen, Kaga, Ishikawa
, Okayama Prefecture, one of the largest mixed baths at the foot of Yubara dam
, Nagano Prefecture
Yufuin, Ōita Prefecture
Yugawara, Kanagawa Prefecture
Yumura Onsen, (Shin'onsen, Hyōgo)
Yunogo Onsen, Okayama Prefecture
Yunokawa Onsen, Hokkaido
, Tanabe, Wakayama, site of the UNESCO World Heritage Tsuboyu bath
Yuzawa, Niigata
Zaō Onsen, Yamagata Prefecture
Taiwan
Antong hot spring, Hualien County
Beitou hot spring, Taipei City
Hongye hot spring, Hualien County
Guanziling hot spring, Chiayi County
See also
Ashiyu
Balneotherapy
Furo
List of hot springs in Japan
Public bathing
Sauna
Taiwanese hot springs
Three Ancient Springs
Turkish bath
Onsen portal at the Japanese Wikipedia
Notes
References
Further reading
Hotta, Anne, and Yoko Ishiguro. A Guide to Japanese Hot Springs. New York: Kodansha America, 1986. .
Fujinami, Kōichi. Hot Springs in Japan. Tokyo: Board of Tourist Industry, Japanese Government Railways; Maruzen Company, Ltd., 1936.
Neff, Robert. Japan's Hidden Hot Springs. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle, 1995. .
Seki, Akihiko, and Elizabeth Heilman Brooke. The Japanese Spa: A Guide to Japan's Finest Ryokan and Onsen. Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 2005. . Reprinted as Ryokan: Japan's Finest Spas and Inns, 2007. .
External links
Onsen Tipster A database of genuine onsen in Japan
Sento Guide Guide to public baths in Japan
OnsenJapan.net Interactive Google map with easy-to-read icons, pictures, and reviews
Secret Onsen a database with more than 125 onsen all around Japan
Japan Onsen A mountain onsen guide of the Japan Alps
Japanbased Onsen guide A guide on how to onsen in Japan
Bathing in Japan
Public baths in Japan
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238357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus%20Roscius%20Gallus | Quintus Roscius Gallus | Quintus Roscius (ca. 126 BC – 62 BC) was a Roman actor. The cognomen Gallus is dubious, as it appears only once as a scholia in a manuscript of Cicero's Pro Archia.
Life
Constiteram exorientem Auroram forte salutans cum subito a laeva Roscius exoritur. Pace mihi liceat, caelestes, dicere vestra mortalis visus pulchrior esse deo.
I stood by chance to greet the uprising Aurora, when suddenly, on the left, Roscius rose up. Please, o heavenly gods, give me leave to say that a mortal seemed to me more handsome than a god.—Quintus Lutatius Catulus
Roscius was born a slave in Lanuvium, about 3 miles (4.8 km) from Rome. Later he would encourage the legend that his nursemaid once found a snake coiled around him in his crib, a very auspicious omen, but Cicero scoffed at the veracity of this story. His master sent him to be trained as an actor after observing his penchant for mimicry. For many years he received no remuneration as it was the custom for slave-owners to take most or all of their slaves' salaries but eventually his master permitted him to keep part of his earnings and in time he bought his freedom.
The name Roscius was his former master's, a legacy of his servitude. Provided this cognomen is correct, Gallus might have been his slave name but might also have signified that his father was a Gallic slave. No other Roman actor obtained comparable popularity and esteem. So highly was he regarded that even his pupils were assured of success on the boards. The refined Greek method of acting was currently out of vogue in favor of coarser fodder, but Roscius overturned this view, demonstrating that the highest art lies in moderation, not clown-like antics. With an ostensibly handsome face and manly figure, his looks were immortalized in verse by Quintus Lutatius Catulus. He studied the delivery and gestures of the most distinguished advocates in the Forum, especially Quintus Hortensius, and won universal praise for his grace and elegance on the stage. He especially excelled in comedy. Cicero took lessons from him. The two often engaged in friendly rivalry to try whether the orator or the actor could express a thought or emotion with the greater effect, and Roscius wrote a treatise in which he compared acting and oratory. Catulus composed a quatrain in his honour, and the dictator Sulla presented him with a gold ring, the badge of the equestrian order, a remarkable distinction for an actor in Rome, where the profession was held in contempt.
Like his contemporary Aesopus, Roscius amassed a large fortune, being paid 1000 denarii per performance at his peak, equal to about US$21,000 in 2005. He appears to have retired from the stage some time before his death. In 76 BC he was sued by C. Fannius Chaerea for 50,000 sesterces.
Reputation
By the Renaissance, Roscius formed the paradigm for dramatic excellence. When Thomas Nashe wanted to praise Edward Alleyn as the best actor of his generation, he called Alleyn a Roscius (Pierce Penniless, 1592); John Downes titled his history of Restoration drama Roscius Anglicanus (1708). The African American actor Ira Aldridge, who was born in New York in 1807 and died in Lodz, Poland in 1867, and one of the finest Shakespearean actors of his age, was known as 'The African Roscius'.
In Literature
In the 1850 novel David Copperfield by Charles Dickens, the character Mr. Barkis calls the title character 'a young Roeshus', the misspelling apparently meant to reflect Barkis' rustic background.
Roscius is mentioned by Hamlet in Act II, Scene II of Shakespeare's tragedy, and in Henry VI, Part 3.
References
H.H. Pfluger, Cicero's Rede pro Q. Roscio Comoedo (1904).
120s BC births
62 BC deaths
Republican era slaves and freedmen
Ancient Roman actors
2nd-century BC Romans
1st-century BC Romans
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238359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clodius%20Aesopus | Clodius Aesopus | Clodius (or Claudius) Aesopus was the most celebrated tragic actor of Ancient Rome in time of Cicero, that is, the 1st century BC, but the dates of his birth and death are not known. His name seems to show that he was a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens.
Cicero was on friendly terms with both Aesopus and Roscius, the equally distinguished comic actor, and did not disdain to profit by their instruction. Plutarch mentions it as reported of Aesopus, that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed one of the servants crossing the stage.
Horace and other authors put Aesopus on a level with Roscius. Each was preeminent in his own field; Roscius in comedy, being, with respect to action and delivery (pronuntiatio), more rapid; Aesopus in tragedy, being more weighty. Aesopus took great pains to perfect himself in his art by various methods. He diligently studied the exhibition of character in real life; and when any important trial was going on, especially, for example, when Hortensius was to plead, he was constantly in attendance, that he might watch and be able to represent the more truthfully the feelings which were actually displayed on such occasions. He never, it is said, put on the mask for the character he had to perform in, without first looking at it attentively from a distance for some time, that so in performing he might preserve his voice and action in perfect keeping with the appearance he would have. Perhaps this anecdote may confirm the opinion that masks had only lately been introduced in the regular drama at Rome, and were not always used even for leading characters; for, according to Cicero, Aesopus excelled in power of face and fire of expression, which of course would not have been visible if he had performed only with a mask.
From the whole passage in Cicero and from the anecdotes recorded of Aesopus, his acting would seem to have been characterised chiefly by strong emphasis and vehemence. On the whole, Cicero calls him summus artifex, and says he was fitted to act a leading part no less in real life than on the stage. It does not appear that he ever performed in comedy. Valerius Maximus calls Aesopus and Roscius both "ludicrae artis peritissimos viros," but this may merely denote the theatrical art in general, including tragedy as well as comedy. Fronto calls him Tragicus Aesopus. From Cicero's remark, however, it would seem that the character of Ajax was rather too tragic for him.
Like Roscius, Aesopus enjoyed the intimacy of the great actor, who calls him noster Aesopus, noster familiaris; and they seem to have sought, from one another's society, improvement, each in his respective art. During his exile, Cicero received many valuable marks of Aesopus's friendship. On one occasion, in particular, having to perform the part of Telamon, banished from his country, in one of Lucius Accius's plays, the tragedian, by his manner and skillful emphasis and an occasional change of a word, added to the evident reality of his feelings, and succeeded in leading the audience to apply the whole to the case of Cicero, and so did him more essential service than any direct defense of himself could have done. The whole house applauded. On another occasion, instead of "Brutus qui libertatem civium stabiliverat," he substituted Tullius, and the audience gave utterance to their enthusiasm by encoring the passage "a thousand times".
The time of Aesopus' death or his age can not be fixed with certainty; but at the dedication of the Theatre of Pompey in 55 BC, he would seem to have been elderly, for he was understood previously to have retired from the stage, and we do not hear of his being particularly delicate: yet, from the passage, ill-health or age would appear to have been the reason of his retiring. On that occasion, however, in honor of the festival, he appeared again; but just as he was coming to one of the most emphatic parts, the beginning of an oath, his voice failed him, and he could not go through with the speech. He was evidently unable to proceed, so that any one would readily have excused him: a thing which, as the passage in Cicero implies, a Roman audience would not do for ordinary performers. Aesopus, though far from frugal, realized, like Roscius, an immense fortune by his profession. He left about 200,000 sesterces to his son Clodius, who proved a foolish spendthrift.
It is said, for instance, that he took a valuable pearl from the earring of Caecilia Metella, dissolved it in vinegar and drank it, a favorite feat of the extravagant monomania in Rome. The connection of Cicero's son-in-law Publius Cornelius Dolabella with the same lady no doubt increased the distress which Cicero felt at the dissolute proceedings of the son of his old friend.
References
Attributions
1st-century BC actors
1st-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman actors
Aesopus
Republican era slaves and freedmen | [
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238361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinorhyncha | Kinorhyncha | Kinorhyncha (, "snout") is a phylum of small marine invertebrates that are widespread in mud or sand at all depths as part of the meiobenthos. They are also called mud dragons. Modern species are or less, but Cambrian forms could reach .
Anatomy
Kinorhynchs are segmented, limbless animals, with a body consisting of a head, neck, and a trunk of eleven segments. Unlike some similar invertebrates, they do not have external cilia, but instead have a number of spines along the body, plus up to seven circles of spines around the head. These spines are used for locomotion, withdrawing the head and pushing forward, then gripping the substrate with the spines while drawing up the body.
The body wall consists of a thin syncitial layer, which secretes a tough cuticle; this is molted several times while growing to adulthood. The spines are essentially moveable extensions of the body wall, and are hollow and covered by cuticle. The head is completely retractable, and is covered by a set of neck plates called placids when retracted.
Kinorhynchs eat either diatoms or organic material found in the mud, depending on species. The mouth is located in a conical structure at the apex of the head, and opens into a pharynx and then an oesophagus, both of which are lined by cuticle. Two pairs of salivary glands and one or more pairs of "pancreatic glands" connect to the oesophagus and presumably secrete digestive enzymes. Beyond the oesophagus lies a midgut that combines the functions of a stomach and intestine, and lacks a cuticle, enabling it to absorb nutrients. The short hind-gut is lined by cuticle, and empties into an anus at the posterior end of the trunk.
There is no circulatory system, although the body cavity (or pseudocoel) is well developed, and includes amoebocytes. The excretory system consists of two protonephridia emptying through pores in the final segment.
The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord, with one ganglion in each segment, and an anterior nerve ring surrounding the pharynx. Smaller ganglia are also located in the lateral and dorsal portions of each segment, but do not form distinct cords. Some species have simple ocelli on the head, and all species have tiny bristles on the body to provide a sense of touch.
Reproduction
There are two sexes that look alike, although some sexual dimorphism in allometry has been reported. A pair of gonads are located in the mid-region of the trunk, and open to pores in the final segment. In most species, the sperm duct includes two or three spiny structures that presumably aid in copulation, although the details are unknown. Individual spermatozoa can reach a quarter of the total body length. The larvae are free-living, but little else is known of their reproductive process. After having laid an egg, the female packs it into a protective envelope of mud and organic material.
Classification
Their closest relatives are thought to be the phyla Loricifera and Priapulida. Together they constitute the Scalidophora.
Taxonomy
The two groups of Kinorhynchs are generally characterized as classes in Sørensen et al. (2015). 270 species have been described and this number is expected to increase substantially. Morphological data has been collected for systematic phylogeny from dozens, and the integration of this with molecular data has led to a new systematic paradigm featuring the order Allomalorhagida (with Homalorhagida being retired). The oldest known species is Eokinorhynchus from the Fortunian of China.
Phylum Kinorhyncha
Class Cyclorhagida (Zelinka, 1896) Chitwood, 1951
Order Echinorhagata Sørensen et al., 2015
Echinoderidae Zelinka, 1894
Order Kentrorhagata Sørensen et al., 2015
Antygomonidae Adrianov & Malakhov, 1994
Cateriidae Gerlach, 1956
Centroderidae Zelinka, 1896
Semnoderidae Remane, 1929
Zelinkaderidae Higgins, 1990
Order Xenosomata Zelinka, 1907
Campyloderidae Remane, 1929
Class Allomalorhagida Sørensen et al., 2015
no order assigned
Dracoderidae Higgins & Shirayama, 1990
Franciscideridae Sørensen et al., 2015
Neocentrophyidae Higgins, 1969
Pycnophyidae Zelinka, 1986
References
External links
Introduction to the Cephalorhyncha
Drawings of Kinorhyncha
Animal phyla | [
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238363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Whately | Kevin Whately | Kevin Whately (born 6 February 1951) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles as Neville "Nev" Hope in the British comedy-drama Auf Wiedersehen, Pet, Robert "Robbie" Lewis in the crime dramas Inspector Morse 1987–2000 and Lewis 2006–2015, and his role as Jack Kerruish in the drama series Peak Practice, although he has appeared in numerous other roles.
Early life
Whately is from Humshaugh, near Hexham, Northumberland. His mother, Mary (née Pickering), was a teacher and his father, Richard, was a Commander in the Royal Navy. His maternal grandmother, Doris Phillips, was a professional concert singer and his great-great-grandfather, Richard Whately, was Anglican Archbishop of Dublin. The BBC documentary Who Do You Think You Are?, broadcast on 2 March 2009, also revealed that Whately is a descendant, on his paternal side, of Thomas Whately of Nonsuch Park (father of Thomas Whately), a leading London merchant, English politician and writer who became a director of the Bank of England, and of Major Robert Thompson, a staunch supporter of the Parliamentarian cause at the time of the English Commonwealth who later settled in Virginia, where he became a pioneer tobacco plantation owner.
Whately was educated at Barnard Castle School, and went on to study accounting and finance at Newcastle Polytechnic, graduating in 1969. He then trained as an actor at the Central School of Speech and Drama, graduating in 1975 having partly supported himself by working for the National Theatre at The Old Vic. Before going professional, Whately was an amateur actor at the People's Theatre in Newcastle upon Tyne during the 1970s. His brother, Frank, is a lecturer at Kingston University in London.
Career
Before turning to professional acting, Whately began his working life as a folk singer, and still plays the guitar, performing for charity concerts. Along with other Auf Wiedersehen, Pet stars, he makes an appearance at the biennial benefit concert Sunday for Sammy in Newcastle. Before becoming an actor, he started training as an accountant.
His acting career includes several stage plays, among them an adaptation of Twelve Angry Men, and film appearances in The Return of the Soldier, The English Patient, Paranoid and Purely Belter.
Whately's television appearances include episodes of Shoestring, Geordie Racer, Angels, Juliet Bravo, Strangers, Coronation Street, Auf Wiedersehen Pet, Alas Smith and Jones, Look and Read, You Must Be The Husband, B&B, Peak Practice, Skallagrigg, The Broker's Man, Murder in Mind, Inspector Morse, 2003 Comic Relief Auf Wiedersehen Pet, Lewis, New Tricks, Who Gets the Dog?, The Children and Silent Cry. Whately provided one of the voices for the English-language version of the 1999 claymation Children's television series Hilltop Hospital. He has also done voiceovers for a WaterAid advertisement.
In 1985, Whately appeared in a 3-part Miss Marple adaptation ("A Murder Is Announced") for the BBC. His part, Detective Sergeant Fletcher, opposite John Castle as Inspector Craddock, was very similar to what became the career-defining role he took two years later, when he was cast as Detective Sergeant Lewis, the down-to-earth complement to the eponymous Inspector Morse played by John Thaw. Whately starred opposite Thaw in 32 episodes over 13 years in the hugely successful series that established him as a household name in the UK.
He reprised the role in the spin-off series Lewis, in which Lewis returns to Oxford as a full Inspector. With his new partner, the Cambridge-educated Detective Sergeant James Hathaway (Laurence Fox), Inspector Lewis solves murder mysteries while trying to rebuild his life after his wife's sudden death in a hit-and-run accident and to gain recognition from his initially sceptical new boss.
Richard Marson's book celebrating fifty years of Blue Peter comments that Whately auditioned as a presenter for the show in 1980 but lost out to Peter Duncan.
In 2010 Whately played the lead in the television film Joe Maddison's War about strained family and social relations in wartime. Directed by Patrick Collerton, it presented a view of World War II through the eyes of shipyard worker and World War I veteran Joe Maddison (Kevin Whately) who serves in the Home Guard during the Blitz.
Upon the conclusion of filming the seventh series of Lewis, at the end of 2012, both Whately and Laurence Fox announced that they would take a break of at least a year before appearing in any more episodes. ITV indicated a continuing commitment to the series and that they wished to produce additional episodes of the programme. On 4 November 2012, Whately performed in a radio drama on BBC3 called The Torchbearers, which chronicles the circumstances of several UK citizens whose lives are changed through contact with the Olympic Torch. In 2013, the Live Theatre of Newcastle upon Tyne produced a series of performances of the unique, acclaimed one-person play, White Rabbit, Red Rabbit, which is enacted as a cold reading with no sets or costumes by a different performer each night. Whately was the actor for the sold-out performance of 10 March 2013. Following the end of the ninth and final series of Lewis, Whately announced his retirement from acting. He had played the character Lewis over a span of 28 years.
Whately was the patron of the Central School of Speech and Drama Full House Theatre Company for 2011.
Personal life
Whately lives in Woburn Sands near Milton Keynes with his wife actress Madelaine Newton, who starred in the 1970s BBC drama When the Boat Comes In. Madelaine starred as Morse's love interest in the Inspector Morse episode entitled Masonic Mysteries (1990; series 4, episode 4).
Whately enjoys rock music and plays the guitar; he has cited Pink Floyd and Dire Straits as bands he has particularly enjoyed. He is a fan of Newcastle United on the football field, but says that he prefers rugby league, and as a cricketer admitted to Inspector Morse writer Colin Dexter that he would like to have played cricket professionally for England. Dexter devised the storyline for the Inspector Morse episode "Deceived by Flight" (1989; series 3, episode 3) in which Sergeant Lewis had to go undercover in a cricket team to investigate drug smuggling.
In August 2014, Whately was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's independence referendum.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
References
External links
1951 births
Living people
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of Northumbria University
Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama
English male film actors
English male radio actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male voice actors
Inspector Morse
People educated at Barnard Castle School
People from Hexham
People from Milton Keynes | [
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238364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlossberg%20%28Graz%29 | Schlossberg (Graz) | The Schlossberg (), at above sea level, is a tree-clad hill, and the site of a fortress, in the centre of the city of Graz, Austria. The hill is now a public park and enjoys extensive views of the city. It is the site of several entertainment venues, cafés and restaurants, and is managed by Holding Graz, the city owned utility company.
History
The fortification of the Schlossberg goes back to at least the 10th century. In the mid-16th century, a long fortress was constructed by architects from the north of Italy. There are records of a cable-hauled lift being in use between 1528 and 1595 to move construction materials for the fortifications. The castle was never conquered, but it was largely demolished by Napoleonic forces under the Treaty of Schönbrunn of 1809. The clock tower (the Uhrturm) and bell tower (the Glockenturm) were spared after the people of Graz paid a ransom for their preservation.
The remains of the castle were turned into a public park by Ludwig von Welden in 1839. The park contains the Uhrturm, the Glockenturm, a cistern (the Türkenbrunnen) and two bastions from the old castle. The Uhrturm is a recognisable icon for the city, and is unusual in that the clock's hands have opposite roles to the common notion, with the larger one marking hours while the smaller is for minutes. The Glockenturm contains Liesl, the heaviest bell in Graz.
Near the Uhrturm a café with views over the old town can be found. Additionally, on the western side of the Schlossberg, there are two small cafés, one with table service and another with self-service. Next to the terminus of the funicular railway there is a hilltop restaurant with views of western Graz. In what was once the cellar of one of the ruined bastions is the Kasemattenbühne, an open-air stage for concerts and performances.
Below the Schlossberg hill is an extensive system of tunnels, which were created during the second world war to protect the civilian population of Graz from aerial bombing. Some of these tunnels are still accessible, including a passage from Schlossbergplatz to Karmeliterplatz, but many are closed to the public.
Location and accessibility
The Schlossberg lies in the center of Graz. The mountain is easily accessible by the Schlossberg funicular that carries the passengers from the foot of the mountain (accessible via city-tram line 5) all the way to the top. It is also easily possible to reach the top by walking. A series of steep staircases lead directly to the large clocktower, and a serpentine path on the opposite side of the mountain also leads to the top and ends up in nearly the same place as the stairs.
The summit is also accessible by an elevator. The elevator is accessible through a large cave-tunnel under the mountain located under the steep stairs on Schlossbergplatz.
A tunnel also goes through the Schlossberg parallel to the tunnel connecting the elevator to the outside. This tunnel connects the Schlossbergplatz to Karmeliterplatz.
Entertainment
Each year the Elevate Festival, a festival for contemporary music, art and political discourse, is held in various venues in and around the Schlossberg.
In the large tunnel connecting the elevator to the Schlossbergplatz, the Fairytale Express Graz can be found. This is a popular grotto railway ride for children.
In February 2017, construction on the largest indoor slide "Sclossbergrutsche Graz" ended. The slide is constructed out of large tubular metal pieces and winds around the elevator. The slide covers a height difference of 64 meters and is 170 metres long. A ride takes approximately 40 seconds and costs up to €7,80.
On the top of the mountain is the Kasemattenbühne, a free air concert venue. It is one of the most popular venue locations in Graz and has a retractable roof so that it can be used when the weather is not good. 1310 people fit in the venue at the same time.
References
External links
Schlossberg page on Graz Tourism web site
Schlossberg page on Holding Graz web site
Schlossberg
Castles in Styria
Landforms of Styria
Clock towers
Hills of Austria
Schlossberg
Schlossberg
Graz Highlands | [
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238365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey%20McLaughlin | Audrey McLaughlin | Audrey Marlene McLaughlin (née Brown; born November 8, 1936) is a Canadian politician and former leader of the New Democratic Party from 1989 to 1995. She was the first female leader of a political party with representation in the House of Commons of Canada, as well as the first federal political party leader to represent an electoral district in a Canadian territory.
Life and career
McLaughlin was born Audrey Marlene Brown in Dutton, Ontario, the daughter of Margaret Clark and William Brown, of Scottish and English descent. She worked as a social worker in Toronto, Ontario, and in Ghana. In 1955, she graduated with a Diploma in Home Science from the MacDonald Institute, later a founding college of the University of Guelph. In 1979, McLaughlin moved to Yukon and set up a consultancy business. In 1987, she ran in a by-election and won, the first federal NDP candidate to win in Yukon. In 1988, she was appointed caucus chair, and in 1989, she won the NDP 1989 leadership convention, replacing the retiring Ed Broadbent.
McLaughlin had taken over the NDP during the height of its popularity. However, the party began a steady decline in the polls for several reasons. One was the NDP's provincial affiliates in British Columbia and Ontario, whose unpopularity in government reflected badly on the federal party. The rise of the Reform Party also sapped much NDP support in Western Canada. In the 1993 election, the NDP lost badly and went from 44 seats to only 9 in Parliament. More than half of its losses came in Ontario, where it lost all 10 of its MPs, and British Columbia, where it lost 17 of its 19 MPs.
McLaughlin won her seat in the Yukon but resigned as leader and was succeeded by Alexa McDonough in 1995. McLaughlin did not run for re-election in the 1997 election.
McLaughlin was an overseas volunteer in Barbados in 1986 with Canadian Crossroads International. Today, she is an honorary patron with Crossroads.
In 1991, she was sworn in as a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada so that she could access classified documents during the Gulf War. In August 2003, she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.
She published an autobiography, A Woman's Place: My Life and Politics, in 1992.
Post-political career
In 2000, she joined the National Democratic Institute, an organization that promotes democracy and peace in developing nations, and travelled to Kosovo to help women run in that country's first democratic election. McLaughlin has also served as the President of the Socialist International Women and as special representative for the Government of the Yukon on Circumpolar Affairs. She was an honorary pallbearer at the state funeral of Jack Layton in 2011.
Archives
There is an Audrey McLauglin fonds at Library and Archives Canada. Archival reference number is R11545.
References
External links
1936 births
Canadian autobiographers
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian people of English descent
Women members of the House of Commons of Canada
Canadian women non-fiction writers
Female Canadian political party leaders
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Yukon
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
NDP and CCF leaders
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Elgin County
Politicians from Whitehorse
University of Guelph alumni
Women in Yukon politics
Writers from Yukon
New Democratic Party MPs
Women autobiographers | [
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238368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%20Like%20Us%20%28mockumentary%29 | People Like Us (mockumentary) | People Like Us is a British radio and TV comedy programme, a spoof on-location documentary (or mockumentary) written by John Morton, and starring Chris Langham as Roy Mallard, an inept interviewer. Originally a radio show for BBC Radio 4 in three series from 1995 to 1997, it was made into two television series for BBC Two broadcast between September 1999 and June 2001.
Radio version
Each episode features the affable, bumbling BBC journalist Roy Mallard following a day in the lives of representatives of a particular career or lifestyle. A comedy of wordplay and misunderstanding, People Like Us builds on an inept protagonist helpless as forced to relate to the absurdity incarnated in the "professionals" he meets, where his relatively sensible inquiry fails in front of the disproportionate facts.
A regularly recurring joke is that of the shocked reactions Mallard gets as he reveals he is married – ranging from disbelief to exaggerated congratulations, from invitations to be more realistic to database systems refusals to accept such a piece of data. These bewilderments may root in the frequent hints throughout the episodes that Mallard is not just oddly looking (e.g. the patient at the doctor's recognizing walls and windows but giving up deciding what Mallard was), but terribly dishevelled – as it is even seen in one extremely rare shot including him in the video recording (as he is helping fixing presentation equipment). Another recurring theme is Mallard's quest for a coffee, or a meal, or even a room fit for a good night's sleep.
The character of Roy Mallard was based on an exaggeration of the writer John Morton himself. Morton had been a fan of Chris Langham's performances since seeing him on Smith and Jones, and had Langham's voice in mind when he was writing the scripts.
At the end of each episode, as Dave Brubeck's "Unsquare Dance" is played, the mockumentary cast is credited as a list of people to which Roy Mallard is grateful («Roy Mallard would like to give a special "thank you" to Chris Langham...»).
The radio show was named Best Radio Comedy at the British Comedy Awards in both 1996 and 1997 as well as winning a gold Sony Radio Award for best comedy.
Television version
Eleven of the radio episodes were adapted for TV, with one original episode – "The Actor". The TV version featured an array of acclaimed guest stars including Bill Nighy, David Tennant, Geoffrey Whitehead and Tamsin Greig.
Mallard is hardly visible in the TV episodes. He is usually just out of sight, but viewers can spot him, or part of him, in every episode; on one occasion he is reflected with the camera in a shop window. Much of the humour is verbal as characters take a literal interpretation of what others say, use redundant expressions and non-sequiturs. Alongside this verbal aspect there was more conventional humour. Mallard encountered bizarre behaviour from his featured characters and their counterparts. For all his own mediocrity and haplessness he could appear sane and competent compared to those alongside him. The lack of laugh track and the dead-pan approach led some viewers to believe they were encountering a "straight" documentary.
A third series was planned but was cancelled in favour of The Office.
The TV version was well received, with the first series winning the 1999 Silver Rose d'Or for comedy.
Home video release
The first TV series was released on VHS and DVD on 16 September 2002. The second was due to be released in 2003 but was cancelled, eventually being released (in Australia only) in November 2007. In September 2009 the complete two series were released in the United States on region 1 NTSC DVD. The second series was finally released on DVD in the UK on 24 May 2010.
List of episodes
Radio series
Television series
See also
The Sunday Format
Delve Special
References
External links
Comedy Guide
People Like Us (TV) and People Like Us (radio) series from Epguides
People Like Us (radio Show) from an Angelfire website
1995 radio programme debuts
1999 British television series debuts
2001 British television series endings
1990s British comedy television series
2000s British comedy television series
BBC television comedy
BBC Radio comedy programmes
British mockumentary television series
Television series about television
British parody television series
Radio programs adapted into television shows
Television series based on radio series
Television articles with incorrect naming style
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238376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-finned%20eel | Short-finned eel | The short-finned eel (Anguilla australis), also known as the shortfin eel, is one of the 15 species of eel in the family Anguillidae. It is native to the lakes, dams and coastal rivers of south-eastern Australia, New Zealand, and much of the South Pacific, including New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, Tahiti, and Fiji.
Description
The body of the adult short-finned eel is long and snakelike, roughly tubular and the head is small, with the jaws reaching back to below the eye or further. The dorsal (top) and anal (bottom) fins are of roughly equal length. The colour varies considerably from one individual to another; a deep olive-green is typical but it can be much lighter; golden or even (rarely) yellowish. There are no markings of note, but the underside is pale, often silvery, and the fins greenish. When full grown, they reach about 90 cm. The short-finned eel has a typical regeneration time of 15 to 30 years for females and it reaches a maximum size of about 1.1 m and 3 kg. Males tend to be slower growing and reach a smaller adult size.
Anguillid eels are undifferentiated gonochoristic fish. This means that the sex of the animal is determined from an undifferentiated gonad. Differentiation then occurs and an eel becomes male or female, and this is generally correlated to the size () of the animal, not its age.
Distribution and habitat
They are common throughout the lowlands of New Zealand, including both Chatham and Stewart Island/Rakiura, but tend not to ascend as far inland as New Zealand longfin eels.
In Australia, they are restricted to the area on the seaward side of the Great Dividing Range, from about Mount Gambier in the south-eastern corner of South Australia, through Victoria, Tasmania, the Bass Strait islands, and up the eastern seaboard to the Richmond River in northern New South Wales. Unable to scale the Great Dividing Range, and not extending as far west as the outlet of the Murray River, they are excluded from the thousands of kilometres of waterways that drain inland eastern Australia.
A. Australis is the most widely distributed longitudinally of the Anguillid eels, where its larvae can be found just south of Fiji to the north-west of Australia in the SEC region (14.5–21°S, 154–179.5°E)
During their life cycle however, eels migrate over huge distances to spawn.
Feeding
They are carnivorous, and ferocious predators, eating crustaceans, fish, frogs, birds, snakes, and native water rats (rakali).
Life cycle
Like the other anguillids, short-finned eels are catadromous: when they reach maturity, they stop feeding and migrate downstream to the sea, then anything up to three or four thousand kilometres to a spawning ground in deep water somewhere in the Coral Sea off New Caledonia. The larvae recruit from the sea as small adults when they lack colour and are transparent-giving them the name "glass eel". Tropical species have year-round recruitment, whereas temperate species such as the short-finned eel have strong seasonal recruitment. Recent evidence that has utilised analytical microchemical techniques in eel otoliths has suggested that eels are facultatively catadromous rather than obligatory. Discrete populations of ocean and estuarine residents exist, that very rarely enter freshwater.
The leptocephalus ("narrow head" larvae), drift on the ocean currents (off Australia, the South Equatorial Current and eventually reach coastal waters, where they metamorphose into "glass eels" (tiny, semi-transparent eels). At this stage they are unable to eat, and can only eat after reaching an estuary or river mouth, where they metamorphose again into elvers, which are darker in colour. From there, they migrate upstream, traversing numerous obstacles — if necessary, leaving the water and travelling short distances over moist ground. They are well-suited to this task, being able to absorb some of the oxygen they need through the skin.
It is only when they reach about in length that they hit puberty and it is only then that their sex, which depends on population density, is determined. In an area with many eels, they tend to turn into males, whereas further upstream, where there are fewer eels, they are more likely to become female. Eventually, they take up residence in a lake, swamp, dam or river, typically occupying a home range of about in length, where they remain until they reach maturity at about 14 years for males and 18 to 24 years for females.
At some point, the eels start changing their shape again, to prepare for a trip back into the ocean for spawning. Their digestive system shrinks and their gonads become larger, to make room for the eggs and sperm that they will be making, and they stop eating. Their eyes get bigger, and their heads pointier, possibly an adaptation for better ocean swimming. In the case of the south-east Australian eels, they head north up the east coast, heading for the Coral Sea. A 2021 study by the Arthur Rylah Institute tracked short-finned eels that travelled from western Victoria up the east coast to the Coral Sea. The study did not establish where the eels spawned, but the researchers thought that it was somewhere near New Caledonia.
Reproductive biology
, the reproductive biology of these eels has remained elusive during the marine phase. Much is known about the longer freshwater phase from the juvenile to pubertal stage, but much less is known about the marine stage Research done in 2008 identified that tropical species such as A. reinhardtii (Australian long-finned eels) have a shorter larval migration and faster corresponding growth, suggesting a water temperature effect on growth.
Like other anguillids, short-finned eels are remarkably hardy: they can tolerate high water temperatures and low oxygen concentrations, endure long periods without food, and bury themselves in mud or sand and enter an energy-saving torpor when the water temperature drops below 10°C. They are one of the few Australian freshwater fish to have coped well with the wholesale introduction of European and American species.
As food
Short-finned eels make excellent eating and have long been esteemed as an important food. The consumption of short-finned eels is a longstanding tradition in many Pacific nations, including Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
Prior to European settlement at least two Aboriginal Australian nations, the Gunditjmara and the Djab wurrung from Western Victoria, farmed eels on a large scale, trading smoked eel with distant communities in return for other goods.
For the Māori people of New Zealand, starved of protein after the extinction of New Zealand megafauna, the short-finned eel was a significant food resource. They had a highly developed fishery for freshwater eels before the arrival of Europeans. Māori people had an extensive knowledge of the ecology of eels and harvested them through a variety of techniques. Present-day recreational anglers catch and eat them regularly, and New Zealand has a well-established commercial eel fishery. Māori are now concerned that the commercial fishery is compromising their ability to harvest short-finned eels for ceremonial purposes.
Decline of wild seed
The main reason that the aquaculture of Anguillid eels has become more popular in recent times is that the wild seed supply cannot support the demand of the consumer. Because of declining catches of both the European and Japanese glass eels, seed from the short-finned eels is at a commercial premium. The increasing pressure on eels has led to reduced recruitment of juveniles of anguilid species which limits the industry and potentially leads to ecological impacts. Supply of seed to aquaculture operations of these eels relies solely on wild stocks of glass eels. These stocks are declining and there is now pressure being placed on the development of intensive eel culture technology. Anguillid eels cannot be reared from eggs in a culture setting, it is the glass eels caught from wild stock that are reared.
Aquaculture of the short-finned eel
History
Extensive systems of aquaculture to farm the short-finned eel were developed by the Gunditjmara people of western Victoria, Australia, dating to at least 7,000 years ago in the wetlands created by the Tyrendarra lava flow of the Budj Bim volcano. Today, the areas are protected by three Budj Bim heritage areas. The eel was known as kooyang in the Gunditjmara language.
Current industry
Since short-finned eels make excellent eating, there is global demand for them. The major market is Japan with smaller markets in other parts of Asia and in Europe. Aquaculture is the single fastest growing animal food producing sector in the world, having an annual growth rate of 6.9%. The worldwide production of Anguillid eels from aquaculture is estimated to be 242 000 t per annum with a value of $US 1 billion. Chinese eel aquaculture production has increased dramatically over the last 10 years, now accounting for 75% of the total annual world production, and relies on the demand of the Japanese market.
Techniques for artificial breeding of the Japanese eel "A. japonica" have been studied intensively since the 1960s. It is difficult to rear these animals in captivity, the main problem being incomplete techniques for inducing sexual maturation and incomplete rearing techniques of larvae.
However the main way that full growth of oocytes is achieved is by repeated injections of salmon pituitary extracts, and also additions of other hormones.
Development of the industry
The important factors for developing and growing this industry are having viable and reliable seed sources, as well as understanding the basic biology of the animal. This includes an understanding of the times at which spawning in freshwater occurs as well as maintaining a sustainable catch of any given population.
Eel farming was trialled in New Zealand in the 1970s but had limited success. However, the implementation of new technology has made farming a viable option once more, with greater production efficiency. NIWA (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research) has begun developing culture and husbandry techniques in freshwater, and will also be investigating trials in saltwater.
New Zealand is in a unique position where the shortfin eel stock, despite heavy exploitation, show little evidence of decline nationally. New Zealand is therefore in a position to enhance global production of shortfin eels and relieve pressure on other stocks around the world in countries such as China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan where aquaculture potential has been limited.
Most eel culture facilities utilise freshwater. However a saltwater eel farm operated in Bristol in the United Kingdom for 15 years, using warm seawater growing eels to a marketable size in 18–24 months (it was shut down for economic reasons.)
Water temperature has a notable effect on the metabolic activity of fish species. Anguillids can withstand a wide variety of temperatures but the optimum temperature in cultured species is between 22 °C and 28 °C- at this temperature growth is maximised Recent work has determined that the optimal water temperature is for maximal growth of short-finned eels is 26.5 °C, and salinity is optimum at 17.5%. These parameters were shown to give the highest mean specific growth rate of these eels. It has been shown in the European eel that they achieve higher growth when in saline. Much research continues in this area.
Sustainability of aquaculture operations
A major problem in the sustainability of aquaculture of these eels is controlling reproduction and larval development. Culture conditions have a skewed male sex ratio from a small body size. This size difference between sexes is seen in eels housed within a tank. Males are smaller than females and some size difference extends 3g-270g. Many fisheries therefore concentrate on females, except for the Lake Ellesmere (New Zealand) fishery which consists of a two-thirds male catch. The goal of many aquaculture operations is to favour female development, the most common way is by the addition of hormones however this is not favoured in all areas of the world.
References
Further reading
Allen, Midgley & Allen, Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of Australia, Western Australian Museum, 2002. .
National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Atlas of New Zealand Freshwater Fishes.
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, "Encouraging results from freshwater eel culture"
Beumer, J P Feeding and movement of Anguilla australis and A.reinhardtii in Macleods Morass, Victoria, Australia. Journal of Fish Biology, 1979,14:573–592
External links
Native Fish Australia: short-finned eel
Anguillidae
Freshwater fish of Australia
Freshwater fish of New Zealand
Taxa named by John Richardson (naturalist)
Fish described in 1841
New Zealand seafood
Māori cuisine | [
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238377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimney | Chimney | A chimney is an architectural ventilation structure made of masonry, clay or metal that isolates hot toxic exhaust gases or smoke produced by a boiler, stove, furnace, incinerator or fireplace from human living areas. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney effect. The space inside a chimney is called the flue. Chimneys are adjacent to large industrial refineries, fossil fuel combustion facilities or part of buildings, steam locomotives and ships.
In the United States, the term smokestack industry refers to the environmental impacts of burning fossil fuels by industrial society including the electric industry during its earliest history. The term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used.
The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings. The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits.
History
Industrial chimney use dates to the Romans, who drew smoke from their bakeries with tubes embedded in the walls. However, domestic chimneys first appeared in large dwellings in northern Europe in the 12th century. The earliest extant example of an English chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, which dates from 1185 AD. However, they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. Smoke hoods were an early method of collecting the smoke into a chimney (see image). Another step in the development of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home. Industrial chimneys became common in the late 18th century.
Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud. Since then chimneys have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys were of simple brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around tile liners. To control downdrafts, venting caps (often called chimney pots) with a variety of designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the methods used to extract lead from its ore produced large amounts of toxic fumes. In the north of England, long near-horizontal chimneys were built, often more than 3 km (2 mi) long, which typically terminated in a short vertical chimney in a remote location where the fumes would cause less harm. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of these long chimneys, and periodically workers would be sent along the chimneys to scrape off these valuable deposits.
Construction
As a result of the limited ability to handle transverse loads with brick, chimneys in houses were often built in a "stack", with a fireplace on each floor of the house sharing a single chimney, often with such a stack at the front and back of the house. Today's central heating systems have made chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls.
In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe to run directly through the external wall.
On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints. The down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.
Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external structures, as opposed to those built into the wall of a building. They are generally located adjacent to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork. Today the use of reinforced concrete has almost entirely replaced brick as a structural component in the construction of industrial chimneys. Refractory bricks are often used as a lining, particularly if the type of fuel being burned generates flue gases containing acids. Modern industrial chimneys sometimes consist of a concrete windshield with a number of flues on the inside.
The high steam plant chimney at the 'Secunda CTL' synthetic fuel plant in Secunda, South Africa consists of a 26 m (85 ft) diameter windshield with four 4.6 metre diameter concrete flues which are lined with refractory bricks built on rings of corbels spaced at 10 metre intervals. The reinforced concrete can be cast by conventional formwork or sliding formwork. The height is to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider area to meet legal or other safety requirements.
Residential flue liners
A flue liner is a secondary barrier in a chimney that protects the masonry from the acidic products of combustion, helps prevent flue gas from entering the house, and reduces the size of an oversized flue. Since the 1950s, building codes in many locations require newly built chimneys to have a flue liner. Chimneys built without a liner can usually have a liner added, but the type of liner needs to match the type of appliance it services. Flue liners may be clay or concrete tile, metal, or poured in place concrete.
Clay tile flue liners are very common in the United States, although it is the only liner that does not meet Underwriters Laboratories 1777 approval and frequently they have problems such as cracked tiles and improper installation. Clay tiles are usually about long, available in various sizes and shapes, and are installed in new construction as the chimney is built. A refractory cement is used between each tile.
Metal liners may be stainless steel, aluminum, or galvanized iron and may be flexible or rigid pipes. Stainless steel is made in several types and thicknesses. Type 304 is used with firewood, wood pellet fuel, and non-condensing oil appliances, types 316 and 321 with coal, and type AL 29-4C is used with high efficiency condensing gas appliances. Stainless steel liners must have a cap and be insulated if they service solid fuel appliances, but following the manufacturer's instructions carefully. Aluminum and galvanized steel chimneys are known as class A and class B chimneys. Class A are either an insulated, double wall stainless steel pipe or triple wall, air-insulated pipe often known by its genericized trade name Metalbestos. Class B are uninsulated double wall pipes often called B-vent, and are only used to vent non-condensing gas appliances. These may have an aluminum inside layer and galvanized steel outside layer.
Concrete flue liners are like clay liners but are made of a refractory cement and are more durable than the clay liners.
Poured in place concrete liners are made by pouring special concrete into the existing chimney with a form. These liners are highly durable, work with any heating appliance, and can reinforce a weak chimney, but they are irreversible.
Chimney pots, caps and tops
A chimney pot is placed on top of the chimney to expand the length of the chimney inexpensively, and to improve the chimney's draft. A chimney with more than one pot on it indicates that multiple fireplaces on different floors share the chimney.
A cowl is placed on top of the chimney to prevent birds and other animals from nesting in the chimney. They often feature a rain guard to prevent rain or snow from going down the chimney. A metal wire mesh is often used as a spark arrestor to minimize burning debris from rising out of the chimney and making it onto the roof. Although the masonry inside the chimney can absorb a large amount of moisture which later evaporates, rainwater can collect at the base of the chimney. Sometimes weep holes are placed at the bottom of the chimney to drain out collected water.
A chimney cowl or wind directional cap is a helmet-shaped chimney cap that rotates to align with the wind and prevent a backdraft of smoke and wind down the chimney.
An H-style cap is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H. It is an age-old method of regulating draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulences cause downdraft and backpuffing. Although the H cap has a distinct advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of favor because of its bulky design. It is found mostly in marine use but has been regaining popularity due to its energy-saving functionality. The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it. Other downdraft caps are based on the Venturi effect, solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption.
A chimney damper is a metal plate that can be positioned to close off the chimney when not in use and prevent outside air from entering the interior space, and can be opened to permit hot gases to exhaust when a fire is burning. A top damper or cap damper is a metal spring door placed at the top of the chimney with a long metal chain that allows one to open and close the damper from the fireplace. A throat damper is a metal plate at the base of the chimney, just above the firebox, that can be opened and closed by a lever, gear, or chain to seal off the fireplace from the chimney. The advantage of a top damper is the tight weatherproof seal that it provides when closed, which prevents cold outside air from flowing down the chimney and into the living space—a feature that can rarely be matched by the metal-on-metal seal afforded by a throat damper. Additionally, because the throat damper is subjected to intense heat from the fire directly below, it is common for the metal to become warped over time, thus further degrading the ability of the throat damper to seal. However, the advantage of a throat damper is that it seals off the living space from the air mass in the chimney, which, especially for chimneys positioned on an outside of wall of the home, is generally very cold. It is possible in practice to use both a top damper and a throat damper to obtain the benefits of both. The two top damper designs currently on the market are the Lyemance (pivoting door) and the Lock Top (translating door).
In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and great manor houses.
Chimney draught or draft
When coal, oil, natural gas, wood, or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot water boiler, or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks).
The combustion flue gases inside the chimneys or stacks are much hotter than the ambient outside air and therefore less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom of the vertical column of hot flue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding column of outside air. That higher pressure outside the chimney is the driving force that moves the required combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the flue gas up and out of the chimney. That movement or flow of combustion air and flue gas is called "natural draught/draft", "natural ventilation", "chimney effect", or "stack effect". The taller the stack, the more draught or draft is created. There can be cases of diminishing returns: if a stack is overly tall in relation to the heat being sent out of the stack, the flue gases may cool before reaching the top of the chimney. This condition can result in poor drafting, and in the case of wood burning appliances, the cooling of the gases before emission can cause creosote to condense near the top of the chimney. The creosote can restrict the exit of flue gases and may pose a fire hazard.
Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct amount of natural draft involves a number of design factors, many of which require iterative trial-and-error methods.
As a "first guess" approximation, the following equation can be used to estimate the natural draught/draft flow rate by assuming that the molecular mass (i.e., molecular weight) of the flue gas and the external air are equal and that the frictional pressure and heat losses are negligible:
where:
Q = chimney draught/draft flow rate, m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of chimney, m2 (assuming it has a constant cross-section)
C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70)
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.807 m/s2
H = height of chimney, m
Ti = average temperature inside the chimney, K
Te = external air temperature, K.
Combining two flows into chimney: At+Af<A, where At=7.1 inch2 is the minimum required flow area from water heater tank and Af=19.6 inch2 is the minimum flow area from a furnace of a central heating system.
Draft hood
Gas fired appliances must have a draft hood to cool combustion products entering the chimney and prevent updrafts or downdrafts.
Maintenance and problems
A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the airflow and more importantly, they are combustible and can cause dangerous chimney fires if the deposits ignite in the chimney.
Heaters that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases there is no need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney fittings caused by corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide into the home. Thus, it is recommended—and in some countries even mandatory—that chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps or steeplejacks. This work used to be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide access to chimneys without use of ladders.
Masonry (brick) chimneys have also proven to be particularly prone to crumbling during an earthquake. Government housing authorities in cities prone to earthquakes such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego now recommend building new homes with stud-framed chimneys around a metal flue. Bracing or strapping old masonry chimneys has not proven to be very effective in preventing damage or injury from earthquakes. It is now possible to buy "faux-brick" facades to cover these modern chimney structures.
Other potential problems include:
"spalling" brick, in which moisture seeps into the brick and then freezes, cracking and flaking the brick and loosening mortar seals.
shifting foundations, which may degrade integrity of chimney masonry
nesting or infestation by unwanted animals such as squirrels, racoons, or chimney swifts
chimney leaks
drafting issues, which may allow smoke inside building
issues with fireplace or heating appliance may cause unwanted degradation or hazards to chimney
Dual-use chimneys
Some very high chimneys are used for carrying antennas of mobile phone services and low power FM/TV-transmitters. Special attention must be paid to possible corrosion problems if these antennas are near the exhaust of the chimney.
In some cases the chimneys of power stations are used also as pylons. However this type of construction, which is used at several power stations in the former Soviet Union, is not very common, because of corrosion problems of conductor cables.
The Dům Dětí a Mládeže v Modřanech in Prague, Czech Republic is equipped with an observation deck.
The chimney of Pei Tou Incinerator carries a revolving restaurant.
Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney
At some power stations, which are equipped with plants for the removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, it is possible to use the cooling tower as a chimney. Such cooling towers can be seen in Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at the Power Station Rostock. At power stations that are not equipped for removing sulfur dioxide, such usage of cooling towers could result in serious corrosion problems which are not easy to prevent.
See also
Chimenea
Chimney (locomotive)
Cowl (chimney) - Includes image of referenced H-style cap/cowl
Flue-gas stack
Funnel (ship)
List of tallest chimneys in the world
Silos & Smokestacks National Heritage Area
Solar chimney
References
External links
CICIND - International Committee on Industrial Chimneys
Chimney Safety Institute of America
Power Station Konakovskaya GRES, at which chimneys serve as electricity pylons
Article about chimney breast removal
Chimney Maintenance Information
European Chimney Association ECA; to find further information on chimneys
National Association of Chimney Engineers; UK trade association for the chimney engineering industry
Architectural elements
Industrial processes
Industrial furnaces
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238381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLU | PLU | PLU can stand for:
Aviation
Pierce County Airport, Washington, US, FAA LID
Belo Horizonte/Pampulha – Carlos Drummond de Andrade Airport, IATA callsign
Organizations and people
Pacific Lutheran University
People Like Us (musician), Briton Vicki Bennett
People Like Us (Singapore), gay equality lobby group in Singapore
Other
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238388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust2 | Thrust2 | Thrust2 is a British designed and built jet propelled car, which held the world land speed record from 4 October 1983 to 25 September 1997.
The Thrust2 is powered by a single Rolls-Royce Avon jet engine sourced from an English Electric Lightning, and has a configuration somewhat resembling that of the mid-1960s-era J79 turbojet-powered land speed record cars of Art Arfons, collectively known as the "Green Monster" cars.
History
Conception
The “Land Speed Record” (LSR), which was valid for 12 years, 11 months and 11 days at that time, was 622.407 mph (1001.667kph) over one mile (with a flying start). The record was set on October 23, 1970 by the American Gary Gabelich with Blue Flame, a rocket car on the Bonneville Salt Flats. Richard Noble stepped up to "bring back this record for Britain".
The time it took Richard Noble from the idea to the first concept to the successful record attempt was nine years. In 1977 the Thrust2 project was officially presented at the Motorfair 1977 at London's Earls Court. In 1978, the design and construction of Thrust2 began. The hired designer John Ackroyd retired to an abandoned cottage on the Isle of Wight for the design studies.
Early stages and Thrust1
Noble's plan was to build three vehicles: The first vehicle (Thrust1) was intended as a pure "test platform" for parts development and turbine tests, and was not intended for the record attempt.
Then a "demonstration car" should be built with the second vehicle (Thrust2), with which the interest of potential sponsors should be aroused. As a special highlight, this car was designed as a two-seater with an additional cabin on the left-hand side of the vehicle. Noble wanted to impress passengers / sponsors with runs up to 200 miles per hour (approx. 320 km / h) and win them over to his project. The last thing that was planned was the actual record-breaking vehicle (Thrust3).
Thrust1 completed its first high-speed run on March 7, 1977. The first run was performed with a standing start at idle thrust and gradual acceleration and had an estimated top speed of about 180 mph (about 290 km / h). The second run was a so-called drag start, in which the thrust against the brakes is built up and then released. At approximately 140 mph, a rear wheel bearing stuck, the vehicle slewed sideways and overturned several times. Since this "triple roll" mostly took place in the air and the car landed on its side, the damage to the vehicle itself was relatively minor and Noble was also uninjured. The Rolls-Royce Derwent engine with its protruding combustion chambers had sustained the large portion of the damage. The jet pipe was torn off and at least one combustion chamber was destroyed.
Thrust1 was never used again and the wreck was sold to a scrap dealer for £175. Despite this setback, Noble was not discouraged and saw this as completing the first step in his original plan. After a new calculation of the financial situation, Noble came to the decision to streamline the project. The levels Thrust2 (as a marketing tool) and Thrust3 (as an emergency vehicle) were merged, and the further development work was placed in the hands of John Ackroyd.
Overview of the results achieved with Thrust2
On 4 October 1983 the car reached a top speed of and broke the record at (average speed of two runs within one hour).
KTVN TV (Reno, Nevada) reporter/photographers Michael Hagerty and Gary Martin covered the record setting attempt in the days leading up to the record. The car was unceremoniously stored under a tarpaulin in the only automotive garage at Black Rock desert when it wasn't being worked on by the team. A propane torch was used to burn the line straight down the hard cracked dirt of the desert for the driver to follow. No other cars were allowed to approach the race track except on the perpendicular lest the driver accidentally follow those car tracks as a different path through the measured mile.
In the record attempt on October 3, the following results were achieved in detail:
Technical data and vehicle information
Thrust2 is powered by a Rolls-Royce RB.146 (Avon302C) jet turbine that delivers 72 kN of thrust. At this corresponds to an output of .
Thrust2 is long and wide and high including the tail fins. The vehicle alone has a height of .
The wheelbase is , the front axle track is and that of the rear axle is . The turning circle of Thrust2 is .
The vehicle has a ground clearance of .
The car's two tanks can hold a maximum of of “Jet A 1” kerosene fuel.
The total weight is .
Thrust2 is designed as a two-seater with a second cabin on the left side of the vehicle in order to offer paying passengers or sponsors a "ride-along" opportunity up to 200 mph.
Data and information on the record attempts
It took Thrust2 about 59 seconds to accelerate from standstill to 650 mph (1046.07 km / h): in about 9 seconds, to 200 mph (321.8 km / h), after about 20 seconds 400 mph (643.7 km / h), and 40 seconds to reach 600 mph (965.606 km / h).
The rubber tires visible in some pictures and film recordings were only put on to protect the highly sensitive aluminum disc wheels from damage during towing.
At around 300 mph (483 km / h) the tail fins began to stabilize the vehicle, which was previously difficult to control (“all over the place”), so that it could run smoothly in a straight line.
At a speed of about 600 miles per hour, a shock wave began to build up in front of the vehicle, which appeared as “fog” around the car and was later described by Noble as “something really worth seeing”.
The total fuel consumption for each record run was approximately 60 UK gallons per minute (272.7 liters).
After the overrun cut-off when crossing the finish line, Thrust2 still had to coast up to a speed of 375 mph (604 km / h) before the three braking parachutes (each 2.30 meters in diameter) could be used.
The screens decelerate the vehicle to about 130 mph (209 km / h) before deploying the 15-inch rotors at about 100 mph (161 km / h).
After breaking the record
When the car was offered for sale at £90,000 in 1991, an extensive fundraising campaign was organised without government assistance to keep the car in Britain. The bid was successful, and today Thrust2 and its successor, ThrustSSC, are displayed at the Coventry Transport Museum in Coventry, England.
In 1997 Thrust2's record was broken by Richard Noble's follow up car, ThrustSSC, with a top speed of .
Notes
References
External links
Coventry Transport Museum where Thrust2 is on display
Jet land speed record cars
Black Rock Desert
Collection of the Coventry Transport Museum | [
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238391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Singleton%20Copley | John Singleton Copley | John Singleton Copley (July 3, 1738 – September 9, 1815) was an Anglo-American painter, active in both colonial America and England. He was probably born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Richard and Mary Singleton Copley, both Anglo-Irish. After becoming well-established as a portrait painter of the wealthy in colonial New England, he moved to London in 1774, never returning to America. In London, he met considerable success as a portraitist for the next two decades, and also painted a number of large history paintings, which were innovative in their readiness to depict modern subjects and modern dress. His later years were less successful, and he died heavily in debt.
Biography
Early life
Copley's mother owned a tobacco shop on Long Wharf. The parents, who, according to the artist's granddaughter Martha Babcock Amory, had come to Boston in 1736, were "engaged in trade, like almost all the inhabitants of the North American colonies at that time". His father was from Limerick; his mother, of the Singletons of County Clare, a family of Lancashire origin. Letters from John Singleton, Mrs. Copley's father, are in the Copley-Pelham collection. Richard Copley, described as a tobacconist, is said by several biographers to have arrived in Boston in ill health and to have gone, about the time of John's birth, to the West Indies, where he died. William H. Whitmore gives his death as of 1748, the year of Mrs. Copley's remarriage. James Bernard Cullen says: "Richard Copley was in poor health on his arrival in America and went to the West Indies to improve his failing strength. He died there in 1737." No contemporary evidence has been located for either year.
Except for a family tradition that speaks of his precocity in drawing, nothing is known of Copley's schooling or of the other activities of his boyhood. His letters, the earliest of which is dated September 30, 1762, reveal a fairly well-educated man. He may have been taught various subjects, it is reasonably conjectured, by his future stepfather, who, besides painting portraits and cutting engravings, eked out a living in Boston by teaching dancing and, beginning September 12, 1743, by conducting an "Evening Writing and Arithmetic School", duly advertised. It is certain that the widow Copley was married to Peter Pelham on May 22, 1748, and that at about that time she transferred her tobacco business to his house in Lindall Street (a quieter, more respectable part of town), at which the evening school also continued its sessions. In such a household young Copley may have learned to use the paintbrush and the engraver's tools. Whitmore says plausibly: "Copley at the age of fifteen was able to engrave in mezzotint; his stepfather Pelham, with whom he lived three years, was an excellent engraver and skillful also with the brush." The family lived next to the house occupied by japanner Thomas Johnston and his family, and Copley became friends with Thomas's son William, later to become a painter himself.
The artistic opportunities of the home and town in which Copley grew to manhood should be emphasized because he himself, as well as some of his biographers taking him too literally, have made much of the bleakness of his early surroundings. His son, Lord Lyndhurst, wrote that "he (Copley) was entirely self taught, and never saw a decent picture, with the exception of his own, until he was nearly thirty years of age." Copley himself complained, in a letter to Benjamin West, written November 12, 1766: "In this Country as You rightly observe there is no examples of Art, except what is to [be] met with in a few prints indifferently exicuted, from which it is not possable to learn much." Variants of this thesis are found almost everywhere in his earlier letters. They suggest that, while Copley was industrious and an able executant, he was physically unadventurous and temperamentally inclined toward brooding and self-pity. He could have seen at least a few good paintings and many good prints in the Boston of his youth. The excellence of his own portraits was not accidental or miraculous; it had an academic foundation. A book of Copley's studies of the figure, now at the British Museum, proves that before he was twenty, whether with or without help from a teacher, he was making anatomical drawings with much care and precision. It is likely that through the fortunate associations of a home and workshop in a town which had many craftsmen, he had already learned his trade at an age when the average art student of a later era was only beginning to draw.
Rising reputation
Copley was about fourteen and his stepfather had recently died, when he made the earliest of his portraits now preserved, a likeness of his half-brother Charles Pelham, good in color and characterization though it has in its background accessories which are somewhat out of drawing. It is a remarkable work to have come from so young a hand. The artist was only fifteen when (it is believed) he painted the portrait of the Rev. William Welsteed, minister of the Brick Church in Long Lane, a work which, following Peter Pelham's practise, Copley personally engraved to get the benefit from the sale of prints. No other engraving has been attributed to Copley. A self-portrait, undated, depicting a boy of about seventeen in broken straw hat, and a painting of Mars, Venus and Vulcan, signed and dated 1754, disclose crudities of execution which do not obscure the decorative intent and documentary value of the works. Such painting would obviously advertise itself anywhere. Without going after business, for his letters do not indicate that he was ever aggressive or pushy, Copley was started as a professional portrait-painter long before he was of age. In October 1757, Capt. Thomas Ainslie, collector of the Port of Quebec, acknowledged from Halifax the receipt of his portrait, which "gives me great Satisfaction", and advised the artist to visit Nova Scotia "where there are several people who would be glad to employ You." This request to paint in Canada was later repeated from Quebec, Copley replying: "I should receive a singular pleasure in excepting, if my Business was anyways slack, but it is so far otherwise that I have a large Room full of Pictures unfinished, which would me these twelve months if I did not begin any others."
Besides painting portraits in oil, doubtless after a formula learned from Peter Pelham, Copley was a pioneer American pastellist. He wrote, on September 30, 1762, to the Swiss painter Jean-Étienne Liotard, asking him for "a sett of the best Swiss Crayons for drawing of Portraits." The young American anticipated Liotard's surprise "that so remote a corner of the Globe as New England should have any demand for the necessary eutensils for practiceing the fine Arts" by assuring him that "America which has been the seat of war and desolation, I would fain hope will one Day become the School of fine Arts." The requested pastels were duly received and used by Copley in making many portraits in a medium suited to his talent. By this time he had begun to demonstrate his genius for rendering surface textures and capturing emotional immediacy.
Copley's fame was established in England by the exhibition, in 1766, of A Boy with a Flying Squirrel, which depicted his half-brother, Henry Pelham, seated at a table and playing with a pet squirrel. This picture, which made the young Boston painter a Fellow of the Society of Artists of Great Britain, by vote of September 3, 1766, had been painted the preceding year. Copley's letter of September 3, 1765, to Capt. R. G. Bruce, of the John and Sukey, reveals that it was taken to England as a personal favor in the luggage of Roger Hale, surveyor of the port of London. An anecdote relates that the painting, unaccompanied by name or letter of instructions, was delivered to Benjamin West (whom Mrs. Amory describes as then "a member of the Royal Academy," though the academy was not yet in existence). West is said to have "exclaimed with a warmth and enthusiasm of which those who knew him best could scarcely believe him capable, 'What delicious coloring worthy of Titian himself!'" The American squirrel, it is said, disclosed the colonial origin of the picture to the Pennsylvania-born Quaker artist. A letter from Copley was subsequently delivered to him. West got the canvas into the Exhibition of the year and wrote, on August 4, 1766, a letter to Copley in which he referred to Sir Joshua Reynolds's interest in the work and advised the artist to follow his example by making "a viset to Europe for this porpase (of self-improvement) for three or four years."
West's subsequent letters were considerably responsible for making Copley discontented with his situation and prospects in a colonial town. Copley in his letters to West of October 13 and November 12, 1766, gleefully accepted the invitation to send other pictures to the Exhibition and mournfully referred to himself as "peculiarly unlucky in Liveing in a place into which there has not been one portrait brought that is worthy to be call'd a Picture within my memory." In a later letter to West, of June 17, 1768, he displayed a cautious person's reasons for not rashly giving up the good living which his art gave him. He wrote: "I should be glad to go to Europe, but cannot think of it without a very good prospect of doing as well there as I can here. You are sensable that 300 Guineas a Year, which is my present income, is a pretty living in America. ... And what ever my ambition may be to excel in our noble Art, I cannot think of doing it at the expence of not only my own happyness, but that of a tender Mother and a Young Brother whose dependence is intirely upon me". West replied on September 20, 1768, saying that he had talked over Copley's prospects with other artists of London "and find that by their Candid approbation you have nothing to Hazard in Comeing to this Place."
The income which Copley earned by painting in the 1760s was extraordinary for his town and time. It had promoted the son of a needy tobacconist into the local aristocracy. The foremost personages of New England came to his painting-room as sitters. He married, on November 16, 1769, Susanna Farnham Clarke, daughter of Richard and Elizabeth (Winslow) Clarke, the former being the very wealthy agent of the Honourable East India Company in Boston; the latter, a New England woman of Mayflower ancestry. The union was a happy one, and socially notable. Mrs. Copley was a beautiful woman of poise and serenity whose features are familiar through several of her husband's paintings. Copley had already bought land on the west side of Beacon Hill extending down to the Charles River. The newly married Copleys, who would have six children, moved into "a solitary house in Boston, on Beacon Hill, chosen with his keen perception of picturesque beauty". It was approximately on the site of the present Boston Women's City Club. Here were painted the portraits of dignitaries of state and church, graceful women and charming children, in the mode of faithful and painstaking verisimilitude which Copley had made his own. The family's style of living at this period was that of people of wealth. John Trumbull told Dunlap that in 1771, being then a student at Harvard College, he called on Copley, who "was dressed on the occasion in a suit of crimson velvet with gold buttons, and the elegance displayed by Copley in his style of living, added to his high repute as an artist, made a permanent impression on Trumbull in favor of the life of a painter."
In town and church affairs Copley took almost no part. He referred to himself as "desireous of avoideing every imputation of party spirit. Political contests being neighther pleasing to an artist or advantageous to the Art itself." His name appeared on January 29, 1771, on a petition of freeholders and inhabitants to have the powder house removed from the town whose existence it imperiled. Records of the Church in Brattle Square disclose that in 1772 Copley was asked to submit plans for a rebuilt meeting-house, and that he proposed an ambitious plan and elevation "which was much admired for its Elegance and Grandure," but which on account of probable expensiveness was not accepted by the society. Copley's sympathy with the politicians who were working toward American independence appears to have been genuine but not so vigorous as to lead him to participate in any of their plans.
It was known to earlier biographers that Copley at one time painted portraits in New York City. The circumstances of this visit, which was supplemented by a few days in Philadelphia, were first disclosed through Prof. Guernsey Jones's discovery of many previously unpublished Copley and Pelham documents in the Public Record Office, London. From these letters and papers, published by the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1914, it appears that in 1768 Copley painted in Boston a portrait of Myles Cooper, president of King's College, who then urged his visiting New York. Accepting the invitation later, Copley, between June 1771 and January 1772, painted thirty-seven portraits in New York, setting up his easel "in Broadway, on the west side, in a house which was burned in the great conflagration on the night the British army entered the city as enemies." Copley's letters to Henry Pelham, whom he left in charge of his affairs in Boston, describe minutely the journey across New England, his first impressions of New York, which "has more Grand Buildings than Boston, the streets much cleaner and some much broader," and the successful search for suitable lodgings and a painting-room; thereafter they give detailed accounts of sitters and social happenings. The correspondence also contains Copley's careful instructions to Pelham concerning the features of a new house then being built on his Beacon Hill "farm," giving elevations and specifications of the addition of "peazas" which the artist saw for the first time in New York. Copley at the time had a lawsuit respecting title to some of his lands. His letters reveal a man who allowed such disputes to worry him considerably.
In September 1771, Mr. and Mrs. Copley visited Philadelphia, where, at the home of Chief Justice William Allen, they "saw a fine Coppy of the Titian Venus and Holy Family at whole length as large as life from Coregio". On their return journey they viewed at New Brunswick, New Jersey several pictures attributed to van Dyck. "The date is 1628 on one of them," wrote Copley; "it is without dout I think Vandyck did them before he came to England." Back in New York Copley wrote, on October 17, requesting that a certain black dress of Mrs. Copley's be sent over at once. "As we are much in company," he said, "we think it necessary Sukey [his wife] should have it, as her other Cloaths are mostly improper for her to wear". On December 15 Copley informed Pelham that "this Week finishes all my Business, no less than 37 Busts; so the weather permitting by Christmas we hope to be on the road." Thus ended Copley's only American tour away from Boston. Accounts of his having painted in the South are without foundation. Most of the Southern portraits that have been popularly attributed to him were made by Henry Benbridge.
His correspondents in England continued to urge Copley to undertake European studies. He saved an undated and unsigned letter from some one who wrote: "Our people here are enrapture'd with him, he is compared to Vandyck, Reubens and all the great painters of Old." His brother-in-law Jonathan Clarke, already in London, advised his "comeing this way." West wrote, on January 6, 1773: "My Advice is, Mrs. Copley to remain in Boston till you have made this Tour [to Italy], After which, if you fix your place of reasidanc in London, Mrs. Copley to come over."
Political and economic conditions in Boston were increasingly turbulent. Copley's father-in-law, Mr. Clarke, was the merchant to whom was consigned the tea that provoked the Boston Tea Party. Copley's family connections were all Loyalists. He defended his wife's relatives at a meeting described in his letter of December 1, 1773. He wrote on April 26, 1774, of an unpleasant experience when a mob visited his house demanding the person of Col. George Watson, a Loyalist mandamus counselor who had gone elsewhere. The patriots having threatened to have his blood if he "entertained any such Villain for the future," Copley exclaimed: "What a spirit! What if Mr. Watson had stayed (as I pressed him to) to spend the night. I must either have given up a friend to the insult of a Mob or had my house pulled down and perhaps my family murthered."
Move to London and the European tour
With many letters of introduction, all of which are published in the Copley-Pelham correspondence, Copley sailed from Boston in June 1774, leaving his mother, wife, and children in Henry Pelham's charge. He wrote on July 11 from London "after a most easy and safe passage." An early call was upon West, to "find in him those amiable that makes his friendship as an artist and as a Gentleman." "In England, what [Benjamin] West and Copley did together was to create a new kind of history painting, one with modern, topical subjects, chiefly death scenes of heroes, in a historic manner, but with scrupulous attention to contemporary detail" (Johnson 441). The American was duly introduced to Sir Joshua Reynolds and was taken to "the Royal where the Students had a naked model from which they were Drawing". In London Copley took no sitters at this time though urged to do so. Shortly before leaving for Italy he "dined with Gov'r Hutchinson, and I think there was 12 of us altogether, and all Bostonians, and we had Choice Salt Fish for Dinner."
On September 2, 1774, Copley chronicled his arrival at Paris (the beginning of a nine-month European tour), where he saw and painstakingly described many paintings and sculptures. His journey toward Rome was made in company of an artist named Carter, described as "a captious, cross-grained and self conceited person who kept a regular journal of his tour in which he set down the smallest trifle that could bear a construction unfavorable to the American's character." Carter was undoubtedly an uncongenial companion. Copley, however, may at times have been both depressing and bumptious. He found fault, according to Carter, with the French firewood because it gave out less heat than American wood, and he bragged of the art which America would produce when "they shall have an independent government." Copley's personal appearance was thus described by his uncharitable comrade: "Very thin, a little pock-marked [presumably a souvenir of the Boston smallpox epidemic described by Copley in a letter of January 24, 1764], prominent eyebrows, small eyes, which after fatigue seemed a day's march in his head." Copley afterward wrote of Carter: "He was a sort of snail which crawled over a man in his sleep and left its slime, and no more." Mrs. Amory relates that "both parties were undoubtedly glad to separate on their arrival at their destination." October 8, 1774, found Copley at Genoa, where he wrote to his wife describing, among other things, the inexpensiveness of the silks: "The velvet and satin for which I gave seven guineas would have cost fourteen in London." He reached Rome on October 26. "I am very fortunate," he wrote, "in my time of being here, as I shall see the magnificance of the rejoicing on the election of the Pope; it is also the year of jubilee, or Holy Year."
Copley's plan of study and mode of living at Rome are described in several letters. He found time for excursions. He visited Naples in January 1775, writing to his wife: "The city is very large and delightfully situated but you have no idea of the dirt … and the people are as dirty as the streets—indeed, they are offensive to such a degree as to make me ill". The excavations at Pompeii greatly interested him and in company with Ralph Izard of South Carolina (whose family portrait he later painted) he extended his journey to Paestum. At Rome early in 1775 he copied Correggio's St. Jerome on commission from Lord Grosvenor, and other works for Mr. and Mrs. Izard. About May 20 he started on a tour northward through Florence, Parma, Mantua, Venice, Trieste, Stuttgart, Mainz, Cologne, and the Low Countries. From Parma he wrote to Henry Pelham urging that the whole family leave America at once since, "if the Frost should be severe and the Harbour frozen, the Town of Boston will be exposed to an attack; and if it should be taken all that have remained in the town will be considered as enimys to the Country and ill treated or exposed to great distress." This anxiety was groundless, for Mrs. Copley and the children had already sailed on May 27, 1775, from Marblehead in a ship crowded with refugees. She arrived in London some weeks before Copley returned from the Continent, making her home with her brother-in-law, Henry Bromfield. Her father, Richard Clarke, and her brothers came soon after. Copley happily rejoined his family and set up his easel, at first in Leicester Fields and later at 25 George St., Hanover Square, in a house built by a wealthy Italian and admirably adapted to an artist's requirements. Here Mr. and Mrs. Copley and their son Lord Lyndhurst lived and died.
As an English painter Copley began in 1775 a career promising at the outset and destined from personal and political causes to end in gloom and adversity. His technique was so well established, his habits of industry so well confirmed, and the reputation that had preceded him from America was so extraordinary, that he could hardly fail to make a place for himself among British artists. He himself, however, "often said, after his arrival in England, that he could not surpass some of his early works". The deterioration of his talent was gradual, however, so some of the "English Copleys" are superb paintings.
Following a fashion set by West and others, Copley began to paint historical pieces as well as portraits. His first foray into this genre was Watson and the Shark, its subject based on an incident related to the artist by Brook Watson, who had been attacked by a shark while swimming in Havana harbour as a 14-year-old boy. It is likely that Watson, who went on to a successful career despite the attack and the loss of his leg below the knee, commissioned the painting as a lesson for other unfortunates, including orphans like himself, in the fact that even the severest adversity can be overcome. Engravings from this work achieved an enduring popularity.
For a place over the fireplace of the George St. dining room was painted the great family picture now at Boston, which, when first publicly shown by Lord Lyndhurst at the Manchester exhibition, 1862, was "pronounced by competent critics to be equal to any, in the same style, by Vandyck". But the artist's fame as a historical painter was made by The Death of the Earl of Chatham showing the collapse in the House of Lords of the former Prime Minister William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The painting, however, brought him denunciation from Sir William Chambers, president of the Royal Academy, who objected to its being exhibited privately in advance of the academy's exhibition. In an open letter Chambers accused Copley of purveying his picture like a "raree-show" and of aiming for "either the sale of prints or the raffle of the picture." To this censure, obviously unfair to one newly arrived in London and uninformed as to the professional ethics of exhibiting, Copley one morning wrote a caustic reply, and in the evening wisely threw it into the fire. Engravings from the Chatham picture later sold well in England and America.
Copley's adventures in historical painting were the more successful because of his painstaking efforts to obtain good likenesses of personages and correct accessories of their periods. He traveled much in England to make studies of old portraits and actual localities. At intervals came from his studio such pieces as The Red Cross Knight, Abraham Offering up Isaac, Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness, The Death of Major Peirson, The Arrest of Five Members of the Commons by Charles the First, The Siege of Gibraltar, The Surrender of Admiral DeWindt to Lord Camperdown, The Offer of the Crown to Lady Jane Grey by the Dukes of Northumberland and Suffolk, The Resurrection, and others. He continued to paint portraits, among them those of several members of the royal family and numerous British and American celebrities. Between 1776 and 1815 he sent forty-three paintings to exhibitions of the Royal Academy, of which he was elected an associate member in the former year. His election to full membership occurred in 1783.
The effort with which Copley labored over his compositions was exemplary, but at times it may have injured his health and disposition. "He has been represented to me by some," wrote Cunningham, "as a peevish and peremptory man while others describe him as mild and unassuming." Both descriptions probably fitted Copley depending on his mood: he might be nervous from overwork and worry or in a normal condition. His granddaughter, Mrs. Amory, recalls that he usually painted continuously from early morning until twilight. In the evening his wife or a daughter read English literature for his benefit. He took but little exercise–probably not enough for health.
He would have liked to return to America but his professional routine prevented this. He was politically more liberal than were his relatives. He painted the Stars and Stripes over a ship in the background of Elkanah Watson's portrait on December 5, 1782, after listening to George III's speech formally acknowledging American independence. "He invited me into the studio," wrote Watson in his Journal, "and there, with a bold hand, a master's touch, and I believe an American heart, attached to the ship the Stars and Stripes; this was, I imagine, the first American flag hoisted in Old England." Copley's contacts with New England people continued to be many. He painted portraits of John Adams, John Quincy Adams, and other Bostonians who visited England. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1791. His daughter Elizabeth was married in August 1800 to Gardiner Greene of Boston, a wealthy gentleman whose descendants preserved much of the correspondence of the Copley family.
Prior to this marriage of his daughter, Copley had sold his Beacon Hill estate to a syndicate of speculators headed by Dr. Benjamin Joy. He felt himself victimized when he learned that the purchasers knew of a project of building the Massachusetts State House at the top of the hill, and he sent his son John Singleton Copley, Jr., then at the beginning of his brilliant legal career, to Boston in 1796 seeking to annul the arrangement. The letters which the future Lord Chancellor wrote during his visit to the United States are interesting reading but his quest was unsuccessful. "I do not believe," he wrote to his father, "that any person could have obtained from them one shilling more." Despite this report the artist made further efforts to recover his "farm". The subject of his grievance frequently recurs in the family correspondence, but it is not certain that Copley had any reason to feel himself defrauded. A memorandum prepared for him by Gardiner Greene stated that long after the land "had passed out of Copley's possession it, or a part of it, was offered at no higher price than was paid to his son." Allen Chamberlain, whose Beacon Hill gives a detailed summary of the complicated negotiations surrounding this purchase, holds that Copley was fairly compensated at a price three times what he had paid for property from which he had had rents of considerable amount.
Decline
In his last fifteen years, though painting persistently, Copley experienced much depression and disappointment. The Napoleonic Wars brought hard times. The household at 25 George St. was expensive to maintain. The education of a talented son was costly. It grieved the father that after the young barrister began to earn his way it became necessary to accept his help in supporting the home. Lord Campbell quotes the jurist as saying that "his father, having lived rather expensively, accumulated little for him." Mrs. Amory makes out a case for Mrs. Copley's admirable management, but it appears that a standard of living difficult to maintain in the changed circumstances made much borrowing inevitable. Copley was chagrined by the failure of his Equestrian Portrait of the Prince Regent to "bring a financial return." Cunningham says, "No customer made his appearance for Charles and the impeached members." Other canvases involving years of labor were unsold. Troubles with engravers were many, whether the fault was theirs or the painter's. Copley's letters to his son-in-law in Boston usually concerned loans made to him and frequently extended.
The aging artist's physical and mental health produced anxiety. In 1810 he had a bad fall which kept him from painting for a month. He incessantly bewailed the loss of his Boston property. Mrs. Copley wrote on December 11, 1810: "Your father has been led to feel this affair [his unsuccessful litigation to recover the "farm"] more sensibly from the present state of things in this country where every difficulty of living is increasing and the advantages arising from his profession are decreasing". In October 1811, Copley wrote to Greene in distress, craving an additional loan of £600. And on March 4, 1812, he wrote: "I am still pursuing my profession in the hope that, at a future time, a proper amount will be realized from my works, either to myself or family, but at this moment all pursuits which are not among the essentials of life are at a stand". In August 1813, Mrs. Copley wrote that, although her husband was still painting, "he cannot apply himself as closely as he used to do." She reported in April 1814: "Your father enjoys his health but grows rather feeble, dislikes more and more to walk; but it is still pleasant for him to go on with his painting."
In June 1815, the Copleys entertained as visitor John Quincy Adams, with whom they jubilantly discussed the new terms of peace between the United States and the United Kingdom. In the letter describing this visit the painter's infirmities are said to have been increased by "his cares and disappointments." A note of August 18, 1815, informed the Greenes that Copley while at dinner had had a paralytic stroke. He seemed at first to recover. Late in August his prognosis was favorable to his painting again. A second shock occurred, however, and he died on September 9, 1815. "He was perfectly resigned," wrote his daughter Mary, "and willing to die, and expressed his firm trust in God, through the merits of our Redeemer." He was buried in Croydon Minster in Croydon, Surrey.
How deep into debt Copley had fallen in his latest years was hinted at in Mrs. Copley's letter of February 1, 1816, to Gardiner Greene in which she gave details of his assets and borrowings and predicted: "When the whole property is disposed of and applied toward the discharge of the debts a large deficiency must, it is feared, remain."
The estate was settled by Copley's son, later Lord Lyndhurst, who maintained the establishment in George St., supported his mother down to her death in 1836, and kept the ownership of many of the artist's unsold pictures until March 5, 1864, when they were sold at auction in London. Several of the works then dispersed are now in American collections.
Legacy
According to art historian Paul Staiti, Copley was the greatest and most influential painter in colonial America, producing about 350 works of art. With his startling likenesses of persons and things, he came to define a realist art tradition in America. His visual legacy extended throughout the nineteenth century in the American taste for the work of artists as diverse as Fitz Henry Lane and William Harnett. In Britain, while he continued to paint portraits for the élite, his great achievement was the development of contemporary history painting, which was a combination of reportage, idealism, and theatre. He was also one of the pioneers of the private exhibition, orchestrating shows and marketing prints of his own work to mass audiences that might otherwise attend exhibitions only at the Royal Academy, or who previously had not gone to exhibitions at all.
Boston's Copley Square, Copley Square Hotel and Copley Plaza bear his name, as do Copley Township, Summit County, Ohio and Copley crater on Mercury. A 5-cent stamp commemorating John Singleton Copley was issued by the U.S. Postal Service in 1965—the 150th anniversary of his death—featuring his daughter, Elizabeth Clark Copley, in his painting Portrait of the Copley family (1776).
Selected works
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
John Singleton Copley at the Royal Academy of Arts Collections
Works
John Singleton Copley at the National Gallery of Art
John Singleton Copley's Works of Art at the Museum Syndicate
John Spooner (1763) at the Reynolda House Museum of American Art
Mrs Humphrey Devereux (1771) at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
1738 births
1815 deaths
People from colonial Boston
18th century in Boston
18th-century American painters
American male painters
19th-century American painters
American people of Anglo-Irish descent
Artists from Boston
American Loyalists from Massachusetts
Royal Academicians
American portrait painters
People of colonial Massachusetts
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
History painters | [
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238394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business%20Operating%20System%20%28software%29 | Business Operating System (software) | The Business Operating System, or BOS, was initially developed as an early cross-platform operating system, originally produced for Intel 8080 and Motorola 6800 computers, then redeveloped for actual businesses and business models. The technology began subsequently for Zilog Z80-based computers, and then later for most microcomputers of the 1980s, then developed into a premium automated software solution for Investors and Asset Managers alike. CAP Ltd, a British company and at the time one of the world's largest Information Technology consulting firms, developed BOS. CAP designed BOS and BOS applications for platform-independence.
Via a management buyout (MBO) in 1981, BOS was spun off to three interlinked companies, MPSL (MicroProducts Software Ltd) which looked after the sales and marketing of BOS, MPPL (MicroProducts Programming Ltd) which looked after both the development of BOS and various horizontal software packages, and MicroProducts Training Ltd. BOS was distributed on a global basis, mainly to the United States and British Commonwealth, by a variety of independent and MPSL-owned companies.
A popular version was implemented on the Sage/Stride 68000 family based computers, and sold well in Australia. The Sage itself was initially developed using UCSD Pascal and p-code, so it fitted well with the basic BOS design.
The small BOS dealer/distributor network and its command-line interface structure met its demise when graphical user interface operating systems became prevalent. The redevelopment of which, in 2013, was integrated with a graphical user interface, GUI, in order to provide a "simple to use" solution, which "learned" from its user's input.
MPSL developed numerous products for BOS, generally targeting the horizontal markets, leaving the vertical markets (i.e. niche) to independent software vendors ISV. Examples of MPSL developed software include BOS/Finder (database), BOS/Planner (spreadsheet), BOS/Writer (word processor) and BOS/AutoClerk (report generation). Companies sold various BOS accounting software suites in the UK and United States. In the UK, BOS accounting packages were considered to be the industry standard by some accountants.
The accounts software was split into four sections: Sales Ledger, Invoices, Purchase Ledger, Daybook and Journal Entries. Data entry and ledger reports were compatible with the Autoclerk report generator software. This feature was especially favoured by accountants and tax officials as it meant that a consultant could sit down with a programmer/operator of the BOS system to plan out and ensure that accounting information was presented in exactly the right way for official acceptance. In the early adoptation of business microcomputers not having accounts correctly laid out was one of the biggest complaints by tax officials.
An interesting feature of the command line input was the use of the ESCape key for line entry. This freed up the ENTER key (it was still called RETURN, pre. IBM keyboard layout) to allow the inputting of long lines of code and long spans of data entry.
BOS also had its own job control language, simply called BOS/JCL. It made it much easier to delegate otherwise complex operator tasks to non-technical office and shop floor staff, especially given the intricacies of working with multiple floppy disks.
BOS applications were initially compiled to a p-code and interpreted as they ran. BOS had a p-code interpreter so efficient that programs, even the BOS/Writer word processor, ran sufficiently fast to satisfy users. A technical subsystem of the system programming software was made available to programmers wanting to write their own p-code microcobol instruction extensions. Apart from a 2-kilobyte (Kb) server (computing)/host kernel, BOS is written in BOS/MicroCobol, a language based on COBOL but with system-level programming constructs added and elements of structured programming, which bore a vague similarity to Pascal. In recent computing, programming languages such as Java have re-introduced the concept of p-code "virtual machines". As the BOS system evolved, the need for programming in ASP.net developed for quicker accessibility and cloud computing. Harrell & Son took the next steps to bring BOS back into the picture on a larger scale.
BOS initially required 48 Kb of RAM and two 176 Kb 5.25" double-sided floppies, though it was more commonly deployed on machines equipped with 64 kilobytes of RAM and a hard drive. A computer with 128 KB RAM and a 10-megabyte (Mb) hard drive could run as many as five concurrent users. When the IBM PC XT came out in 1983, BOS served over eight concurrent dumb terminals on it. At the time, this made BOS very attractive. Now, BOS runs on the same required RAM and serves up to 800,000 concurrent users as it is paired with cloud computing.
In the early 1980s, a minimal hardware BOS setup might have comprised: North Star Horizon Z80 cpu 48Kbyte ram & 2x 5.25" SA-400 single-density double-sided minifloppy drive (each side used 35/40 tracks to give 176 Kb formatted, ie. BOS used the North Star NSDOS file system), Lynx 24x80 green vdu, DEC LA120 lineprinter/typewriter. Frequent diskette swapping was required during a program run, a good programmer/operator could minimise these essential changes by detailed logical planning. Not every business could quickly afford the newly available hard drives and many company managers were just reluctant to spend more and more upon what they already thought was expensive enough in the first place. Getting an accounts system up and running often involved countless hours poring over thousands of pages of illegible and inaccurate hand-written accounts in traditional ledger books. This is where the journal entry features came in really useful in order to bypass having to enter thousands of useless historical records, it was possible to reach an agreement with the accountants as to what figures should be given an initial fudge factor in order to artificially balance the software ledgers prior to going live with the new accounts system. The software was flexible enough to allow internal adjustments to data. The genius of CAP, or CAP-CPP as it was more correctly called, was to anticipate these technical problems and the initial reservations of a suspicious middle-management, and this was essentially the success of BOS.
With user-management tools in the 80's, and application programming interfaces in the mid-80's, BOS was considered an alternative even to the platform-specific operating systems on machines such as the PDP-11 and the VAX. The reemergence of BOS has escalated the number of users requested to be entered into the PMM system, and may require consistent server updating.
Despite, or because of its command-line interface, BOS remains popular with medium to large organizations in the UK and US.
References
STart Magazine: Business Operating System on Atari ST
BOS History. Last update January 2020
Proprietary operating systems
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238397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowers%20and%20Trees | Flowers and Trees | Flowers and Trees is a 1932 Silly Symphonies cartoon produced by Walt Disney, directed by Burt Gillett, and released to theatres by United Artists on July 30, 1932. It was the first commercially released film to be produced in the full-color three-strip Technicolor process after several years of two-color Technicolor films. The film was a commercial and critical success, winning the first Academy Award for Best Cartoon Short Subject.
In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
During spring the flowers, mushrooms, and trees do their calisthenics. Some trees play a tune, using vines for harp strings and a chorus of robins. A fight breaks out between a waspish-looking hollow tree and a younger, healthier tree for the attention of a female tree. The young tree emerges victorious, but the hollow tree retaliates by starting a fire. The plants and animals try to extinguish or evade the blaze. By poking holes in clouds and making it rain, the birds manage to put out the fire, although the hollow tree perishes in the flames after getting caught up in them himself. The young tree then proposes to the female tree, with a caterpillar serving as a ring, and they embrace as a 12-color rainbow forms behind them.
Production
In May 1932, the first three-strip Technicolor camera was completed. Herbert Kalmus wanted to test it in the animation field, giving the company time to build enough cameras to offer the whole movie industry, but could not find any interested animators. finally Walt Disney agreed to try it as an experiment on Flowers and Trees, which was already in production in black-and-white, and ordered the cartoon redone in color. The color animation caused the production to run over budget, potentially ruining Disney financially, but the cartoon proved so popular that the profits made up for the budget overage.
Impact
As a result of the success of Flowers and Trees, all future Silly Symphonies cartoons were produced in three-strip Technicolor. The added novelty of color helped to boost the series' previously disappointing returns. Disney's other cartoon series, the Mickey Mouse shorts, were deemed successful enough not to need the extra boost of color, remaining in black-and-white until The Band Concert (1935).
Disney's exclusive contract with Technicolor, in effect until the end of 1935, forced other animation producers such as Ub Iwerks and Max Fleischer to use Technicolor's inferior two-color process or a competing two-color system such as Cinecolor.
Accolades
Flowers and Trees was the first animated film to win an Academy award at the fifth Academy Awards in 1932. It won best "Short Subjects, Cartoons", a category first introduced that year.
Home media
The short was released on December 4, 2001 on Walt Disney Treasures: Silly Symphonies - The Historic Musical Animated Classics.
References
External links
''Flowers and Trees in The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts
1932 films
1932 short films
1930s color films
1932 comedy films
American films
Best Animated Short Academy Award winners
1930s Disney animated short films
English-language films
Silly Symphonies
1932 animated films
Films directed by Burt Gillett
Films produced by Walt Disney
Films about trees
Animated films without speech
United States National Film Registry films | [
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238398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Kerr | Bill Kerr | William Henry Kerr (10 June 1922 – 28 August 2014) was a British and Australian actor, comedian, and vaudevillian.
Born in South Africa, he started his career as a child actor in Australia, before emigrating to Britain after the Second World War, where he developed a career as a performer in comedy, especially gaining notice in the radio version of Hancock's Half Hour. In 1979 Kerr returned to Australia and developed a second career as a character actor.
Biography
Kerr was born in Cape Town, South Africa, on 10 June 1922<ref name="Telegraph">Obituary: Bill Kerr, Daily Telegraph, 29 August 2014</ref> to an Australian performing arts family, growing up in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia. His career in show business began when he was very young. Wilton, his son, recalled: "His mum used him instead of using a prop, a baby prop, she actually used her son, her newborn son, so he was literally kind of born to do it."
Kerr began to work in radio for ABC in 1932, and continued performing child parts for about eight years. His first screen appearance was in Harmony Row (1933), where he gives a feisty performance as a juvenile delinquent alongside the great Australian vaudeville comedian George Wallace. Kerr's first dramatic role on screen was a high-profile one in the Cinesound film The Silence of Dean Maitland (1934), where he displays striking presence as a blind child. Kerr is one of the most important child performers in early Australian film. He saw service in the Australian army during the Second World War, and performed in theatrical shows at home and abroad and toured with his friend, the actor Peter Finch.
Career in Britain
After the war, Kerr moved to Britain in 1947. During the next few years he was regularly featured in the BBC radio series Variety Bandbox, part of the BBC Light Programme. Retaining his accent, an unusual choice for performers moving to Britain at this time, he was billed as "the boy from Wagga Wagga." A spokesman for the Australian town's museum said that this "struck an instant chord with the post-war British audience, who thought of 'Wagga Wagga' as a comically surreal, end of the earth, magical place somewhere left of Narnia." Harry Secombe described Kerr as having a "very laconic act" on the show, beginning his spots with the catchphrase "I'm only here for four minutes."
From 1954 to 1959, he had a regular role as an Australian lodger in the BBC radio comedy series Hancock's Half Hour. The series, with comedian Tony Hancock as the eponymous lead and also featuring Sid James, ran for six series. Initially sharper than Hancock's characterisation, Kerr's portrayal eventually developed into a more dim-witted character who became the butt of Hancock's jokes. Unlike James, Kerr did not feature in the television version of the Hancock series. Kerr also starred in the highly entertaining radio drama series "The Flying Doctor" (1958–63) regularly flying in and out of the fictitious Wollumboola base as he and his "doctor" colleague brought reprobates to justice in the outback. Later, after Sid James had ended his professional partnership with Hancock, Kerr briefly resumed working with him in the first series of the television comedy Citizen James (1960). Kerr's other television appearances in Britain include a Doctor Who serial called The Enemy of the World (1968), with Patrick Troughton, and a long-running part in the early 1960s BBC-TV soap, Compact.
Kerr had much theatrical success in Britain, playing the Devil disguised as Mr Applegate in the first West End production of Damn Yankees, directed by Bob Fosse and first performed in March 1957. He appeared in a touring production of the play The Teahouse of the August Moon in 1956. He also worked with Spike Milligan and appeared in Milligan and John Antrobus's stage play The Bed-Sitting Room, which opened at the Mermaid Theatre on 31 January 1963. (a)pp.203–204, (b)pp.242–243 A subsequent production opened on 3 May 1967 at the Saville Theatre, and "a cast containing an unusually high proportion of Australian actors including Bill Kerr and David Nettheim." In the 1969 London production of Play It Again, Sam at the Globe Theatre, Kerr played Humphrey Bogart.
In 1972 he co-starred with Anthony Newley in the Newley/Bricusse musical, The Good Old Bad Old Days, which enjoyed a run lasting 309 performances. Later he had a role (with Julia McKenzie and Una Stubbs) in the musical play Cole, dedicated to the work of Cole Porter and first staged at the Mermaid Theatre, London in July 1974. Kerr took the part of Bluey Notts, described as "an Australian bookie's clerk, a crude racialist", in The Melting Pot (1975). This was a sitcom written by Spike Milligan and Neil Shand, which was cancelled by the BBC after just one episode had been broadcast. He also appeared in several British films, such as The Dam Busters (1955) and The Wrong Arm of the Law (1963).
Return to Australia and later life
In 1979, Kerr returned to Australia and settled in Perth, Western Australia. Now concentrating on character roles, he played serious roles in Australian films, including Peter Weir's films Gallipoli (1981) and The Year of Living Dangerously (1982). In 1982 Kerr acted in the film The Pirate Movie.
He worked on the Australian stage during the 1980s, in musicals such as My Fair Lady, where he received excellent reviews as Alfred Doolittle. Kerr played real-life Australian military personalities on three occasions, appearing as bomber pilot Micky Martin in The Dam Busters (1955), as General John Monash in the TV mini-series Anzacs (1985) and as General Harry Chauvel in the film The Lighthorsemen (1986). In addition to his serious roles, he also continued to appear in comedies including the film The Coca-Cola Kid (1985) and Let's Get Skase (2001).
Kerr also appeared in Glenview High (1978–79) and the television comedy series Minty (1998) and played the part of Douglas Kennedy in the soap opera The Young Doctors (1980). He was seen as Dave Welles in the Australian mini-series Return To Eden (1983) where he helped Stephanie Harper after she had been attacked by a crocodile. He reprised his role of Dave Welles in the 1985 series of Return To Eden by giving Stephanie a deed to a worthless section of land in the Northern Territory.
Kerr provided the narration for the documentaries No Survivor - The Mysterious Loss of HMAS Sydney (1995) for the Nine Network, Malice or Mutiny (2003) for the ABC), and a series for Discovery, released in the US as Animal X (originally Animal X Natural Mystery Unit).
On 26 January 2011, Kerr received the 2011 Walk of Honour in Wagga Wagga, which was unveiled on 17 May 2011. Kerr died in his family home in Perth, Western Australia, on 28 August 2014 at the age of 92. He was married three times.
Filmography
Harmony Row (1933) - Leonard aka Sonny
The Silence of Dean Maitland (1934) - Cyril Maitland Jr.
Penny Points to Paradise (1951) - Digger Graves
My Death Is a Mockery (1952) - Hansen
Appointment in London (1952) - Bill Brown
You Know What Sailors Are (1954) - Lt. Smart
The Night My Number Came Up (1955) - The Soldier
The Dam Busters (1955) - Flight Lieutenant H. B. Martin, D.S.O., D.F.C., A.F.C.
Port of Escape (1956) - Dinty Missouri
The Shiralee (1957) - (uncredited)
The Captain's Table (1959) - Bill Coke
A Pair of Briefs (1962) - Victor - Club Owner
The Wrong Arm of the Law (1963) - Jack Coombes
Doctor in Distress (1963) - Australian Sailor
Doctor in Clover (1966) - Digger
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966) - Gladiator-in-Training
Doctor Who serial The Enemy of the World (1967-1968, TV Series) - Giles Kent
Tiffany Jones (1973) - Morton
Ghost in the Noonday Sun (1973) - Giacomo
Girls Come First (1975, Short) - Hugh Jampton
House of Mortal Sin (1976) - Mr. Davey
The Young Doctors (1980, TV Series) - Douglas Kennedy
Gallipoli (1981) - Jack
Save the Lady (1982) - MacDuff
The Pirate Movie (1982) - Major General
The Year of Living Dangerously (1982) - Colonel Henderson
Platypus Cove (1983) - Mr. Anderson
Dusty (1983) - Tom Lincoln
Return to Eden (1983, TV Mini-Series) - Dave Welles
Razorback (1984) - Jake Cullen
Vigil (1984) - Birdie
The Settlement (1984) - Kearney
White Man's Legend (1984) (TV Movie)
A Fortunate Life (1985, TV Mini-Series) - Narrator
The Coca-Cola Kid (1985) - T. George McDowell
Anzacs (1985, TV Mini-Series) - Gen. Monash / General Monash
Relatives (1985) - Grandpa
Return to Eden (1986, TV Series) - Dave Welles
The Lighthorsemen (1987) - Gen. Sir Harry Chauvel
Running from the Guns (1987) - Gilman
Bushfire Moon (1987) - Trevor Watson
Kokoda Crescent (1989) - Russ
The New Adventures of Black Beauty (1990) - Samuel Burton (in this role he atypically spoke in an impeccable Received Pronunciation accent)
Sweet Talker (1991) - 'Uncle' Cec
The River Kings (1991, TV Mini-Series) - Captain Elijah
Over the Hill (1992) - Maurice
No Survivors - The Mysterious Loss of HMAS Sydney (1995, TV)
Let's Get Skase (2001) - Mitchell Vendieks
Changi (2001, TV Mini-Series) - Older Eddie
Peter Pan (2003) - Fairy Guide
Malice or Mutiny (2003, TV Series)
Southern Cross (2004) - Tom Casely
Animal X Natural Mystery Unit'' (2004–2006, TV Series)
References
External links
1922 births
2014 deaths
Australian male film actors
Australian male radio actors
Australian male television actors
South African emigrants to Australia
Male actors from Cape Town
People from Wagga Wagga
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Australian expatriates in the United Kingdom | [
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238411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bran%20Flakes | The Bran Flakes | The Bran Flakes are a Canadian-American indie pop group formed in Seattle in 1992. The group, whose line-up comprises Otis Fodder from Montreal, Quebec, and Mildred Pitt from Seattle, Washington, specializes in creating sound collages from pre-existing sources. Until 1997, they recorded on 4-track in bedrooms and did not play any shows, putting out hand dubbed cassette tapes and distributing tapes through direct mail-order, zines and indie catalogs.
Career
The Bran Flakes make extensive use of sampling, recontextualizing the samples into new works, often resulting in ironic statements about modern pop and media culture. The group scours thrift shops for obscure and quirky LPs; some of their songs also make use of recognizably famous basslines, television shows, and soundtracks from video games. The unauthorized nature of such sampling has prevented much of the band's work from official commercial release. However, they did contribute six tracks to the fully authorized Raymond Scott Rewired, an album of Scott remixes (including tracks by The Evolution Control Committee and Go Home Productions) which was released in February 2014 on the Basta label.
Following the 1998 release of I Remember When I Break Down on Ovenguard Music, on which Otis Fodder was sole writer, the group's first album as a duo (Otis Fodder and Mildred Pitt) was in 1999, with Hey Won't Somebody Come and Play on Ovenguard Music. I Don't Have a Friend was released in 2001 on Lomo Records. Their 2002 album Bounces! was released on the band's own Happi Tyme Records, and contained one of their most popular songs; "Good Times a Goo Goo", which sampled extensively from Kermit the Frog and Fozzie Bear's performance of "Moving Right Along" from The Muppet Movie.
In 2008 the band signed with the label Illegal Art, known for such acts as Girl Talk and Steinski.
Personnel
Principal members
Otis Fodder (1992–present)
Mildred Pitt (1999–present)
Live show members
Courtney Barnebey (1998–2012)
Peter Lynch (1998–2012)
Julie Alpert (1998–2012)
Joanna Barnebey (1998–2012)
Pam Landinez (1998–2012)
Discography
The Bran Flakes have a discography consisting of seven studio albums, one remix album, one compilation album and two singles.
Studio albums
Remix albums
Compilation albums
Singles
Live performances
1998
Omnimedia V0.3 (January 24)
Church of the Subgenius Devival (March 14–15)
Coffee Messiah (May 2)
Omnimedia V0.5 (October 17–18)
1999
Meet the Sonicabal (February 20)
Electromuse2 Festival (May 14–21)
Art's Edge Festival (June 27)
2000
Sonicabal 2 Showcase (September 23)
Halloween Fright Night (October 31)
2001
I Don't Have a Friend Release Party (May 24)
7th Annual Olympia Experimental Music Festival (June 16)
Nova Nights Freak Out Party (October 25)
2002
Bounces! Release Party (November 6)
Sonarchy (November 16)
2003
Nerd Rock (February 3)
2004
I.D.E.A.L. Festival (March 6)
2005
Brides of Frankenstein (August 6)
2009
Sepomana Festival (April 18)
2011
Convergence Festival (September 4)
2012
ONN/OF Festival (January 28)
References
External links
The Bran Flakes
The Bran Flakes website
Illegal Art
Band members
Otis Fodder's website
Mildred Pitt's band Library Science
Interviews
Radio Feature, The Some Assembly Required Interview with The Bran Flakes.
Bran Flakes, The | [
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238417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%20Tourmente%20National%20Wildlife%20Area | Cap Tourmente National Wildlife Area | The Cap Tourmente National Wildlife Area is a National Wildlife Area located on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River in the National Provincial Capital Region of Quebec, established on 28 April 1978. It is one of the critical habitats for the greater snow goose during migration. Flocks of tens of thousands of these birds stop over to feed on the bullrushes in the spring and fall. The tidal marsh was recognized as a wetland of international significance per the Ramsar Convention in 1981, the first North American site to receive that distinction.
Within the wildlife refuge is a historic farm site, La Petite-Ferme du cap Tourmente, which was begun by Samuel de Champlain in 1626, as a food source for the fledgling Habitation at Quebec City. Later, the farm was purchased and run for nearly 300 years by and for the Seminary of Quebec. A farm house built around 1667 still stands, and is at the core of La Petite-Ferme du cap Tourmente National Historic Site, designated in 2018.
References
External links
Cap Tourmente National Wildlife Area at Environment Canada
Ramsar sites in Canada
Protected areas of Capitale-Nationale
Nature centres in Canada
National Wildlife Areas of Canada
Canada geography articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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238418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rana%2C%20Norway | Rana, Norway | Rana is a municipality in Nordland county, Norway. It is part of the Helgeland traditional region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Mo i Rana, which houses the National Library of Norway. Other population centers in Rana include Båsmoen, Dunderland, Eiteråga, Flostrand, Hauknes, Mæla, Myklebustad, Nevernes, Røssvoll, Selfors, Skonseng, Storforshei, Utskarpen, and Ytteren.
The municipality is the 4th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway (the largest municipality outside Troms og Finnmark county). Rana is the 44th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 26,184. This makes it the second largest municipality in Nordland county—and the third largest in North Norway. The municipality's population density is and its population has increased by 3.6% over the previous 10-year period. Rana was a part of the Terra Securities scandal in 2007 relating to some investments that were made by the municipality.
General information
Municipal history
The municipality of Rana was originally established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). However, it was divided into Nord-Rana and Sør-Rana in 1839. In 1844, Nord-Rana was renamed Mo and Sør-Rana was renamed Hemnes. The village of Mo was separated from the rural district of Mo and became a town and municipality of its own on 1 January 1923. At that time, the rural district changed its name back to Nord-Rana. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the town of Mo (population: 9,616), the municipality of Nord-Rana (population: 11,636), the northern part of the municipality of Sør-Rana (population: 697), and the Sjona area of the municipality of Nesna (population: 543) were all merged. The united municipality was named simply Rana.
Name
The municipality is named after the river Ranelva (Old Norse: Raðund). The name of the river is probably derived from the word raðr which means "quick", "fast", or "rapid". Another possibility is that the name comes from the old Sami god Rana Niejta.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 5 March 1965. The arms symbolize the forests (upper part/green) and the minerals (lower part/gold), as there many minerals can be found in the area, especially iron ore. The arms were originally granted to the municipality of Mo on 29 April 1960.
Churches
The Church of Norway has six parishes () within the municipality of Rana. It is part of the Indre Helgeland prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Sør-Hålogaland.
Geography
The municipality is located just south of the Arctic circle, on the southern side of the Saltfjellet mountains with the Svartisen glacier, Norway's second largest glacier. Some of the large mountains in Rana include Bolna and Nasa. Mo is so close to the Arctic Circle that parts of the sun is continuously over the horizon (Midnight sun) from early June to early July, and there is no darkness from mid-May to the beginning of August. But there is no true polar night in December. The Saltfjellet–Svartisen National Park is partly located in Rana. There are many valleys such as the Dunderland Valley and Grønnfjelldal.
The majority of the population in the municipality lives in Mo i Rana, where the Ranelva (river) meets the Ranfjorden. North of Mo i Rana, the European route E6 highway passes through the suburb of Selfors. In western Rana, the population centers around the Sjona fjord.
Rana and Saltfjellet are famous for their numerous caves due to the limestone rock. There are several nature reserves in the municipality, such as Alterhaug with several warmer-climate plants grow including the elm. Engasjyen, the estuary of the Rana river, has a rich bird life in the spring. Blakkådalen has old growth spruce forests. Fisktjørna, has a largely undisturbed mixed old growth forest with unusually rich plant life due to the extremely lime-rich soil.
Climate
Rana is situated near the innermost part of the long Ranafjord, and the winters can be cold, especially away from the fjord. There is often a lot of snow in winter. Summer days in Rana are among the warmest in North Norway.
Lakes and rivers
There are many lakes and rivers in the municipality, both in the lowlands and in the mountains.
Government
All municipalities in Norway, including Rana, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Rana District Court and the Hålogaland Court of Appeal.
Municipal council
The municipal council () of Rana is made up of 37 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:
Notable people
Ole Tobias Olsen (1830 in the Dunderland Valley – 1924) a Norwegian teacher and minister and father of the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Bodø
Nils Hansteen (1855 in Mo i Rana – 1912) a painter of landscapes and marine art
Per Karstensen (1915–2010) went to school in Ytteren, an educator and politician, Mayor of Nord-Rana & Rana 1963-1965
Sverre Bratland (1917 in Utskarpen – 2002) a Norwegian military leader
Egil Øyjord (born 1928 in Mo i Rana) an academic and founder of the International Association on Mechanization of Field Experiments (IAMFE)
Bjørn Alterhaug (born 1945 in Mo i Rana) a jazz bassist, composer and professor of music
Inge Myrvoll (born 1948 in Rana) a politician, Mayor of Rana & deputy since 2003
Laila Stien (born 1946) a novelist, poet and author of children's literature, grew up in Rana
Guttorm Guttormsen (born 1950 in Mo i Rana) a jazz musician, arranger and composer
Anne Grete Hollup (born 1957 in Mo i Rana) a novelist, playwright and children's writer
Geir Bjørklund (born 1969 in Mo i Rana) researcher and medical science writer and editor
Hans Olav Lahlum (born 1973 in Mo i Rana) historian, crime author, chess player and politician
Sport
Tom Sandberg (born 1955 in Mo i Rana) a former nordic combined skier, gold medallist at the 1984 Winter Olympics
Trond Sollied (born 1959 in Mo i Rana) a football manager and former player with 262 club caps and 15 for Norway
Elin Nilsen (born 1968 in Mo i Rana) a Norwegian former cross-country skier, three time team silver medallist at the 1992, 1994 and 1998 Winter Olympics
Kenneth Braaten (born 1974) a nordic combined skier, team gold medallist at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Jan Egil Andresen (born 1978 in Mo i Rana) a cross-country skier, competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Marius Erlandsen (born 1979 in Mo i Rana) a Norwegian auto racing driver
Kristin Størmer Steira (born 1981 in Mo i Rana) a retired Norwegian cross-country skier
Karianne Bjellånes (born 1986 in Mo i Rana) a Norwegian cross-country skier
Joar Leifseth Ulsom (born 1987 in Mo i Rana) a Norwegian dog musher
Martin Bjørnbak (born 1992 in Mo i Rana) a footballer with over 250 club caps
Lisa-Marie Karlseng Utland (born 1992 in Mo i Rana) a footballer with over 200 club caps and 51 for Norway
Emilie Kalkenberg (born 1997 in Mo i Rana) Norwegian biathlete
Transportation
Rana has an airport, Mo i Rana Airport, Røssvoll in the village of Røssvoll, not far from the town of Mo i Rana. There are several large highways in Rana: European route E6, Norwegian County Road 17, and Norwegian County Road 12. The Illhollia Tunnel is part of the E6 highway. The Nordland Line passes through Rana, with several stations including Mo i Rana Station, Dunderland Station, and Bolna Station.
Media gallery
Culture
Havmannen, sculpture made by Antony Gormley (1995), part of Artscape Nordland.
Havmanndagene, annual multi-cultural festival, first weekend of May.
Nordland Teater, regional drama theatre for Nordland County.
Vikafestivalen, annual pop and rock music festival.
Nordland County library.
National Library of Norway.
International relations
Twin towns—Sister cities
The sister cities of Rana are:
Løgstør, Nordjylland, Denmark
Petrozavodsk, Karelia, Russia
Raahe, Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland
Skellefteå, Västerbotten, Sweden
References
External links
Municipal fact sheet from Statistics Norway
Official tourist information about the Arctic Circle area
DNT Rana
Rana municipality
moirana.com - Local portal for Mo i Rana
Municipalities of Nordland
1838 establishments in Norway
1839 disestablishments in Norway
1964 establishments in Norway | [
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238420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-line%20communication | Power-line communication | Power-line communication (also known as power-line carrier or PLC) carries data on a conductor that is also used simultaneously for AC electric power transmission or electric power distribution to consumers.
A wide range of power-line communication technologies are needed for different applications, ranging from home automation to Internet access which is often called broadband over power lines (BPL). Most PLC technologies limit themselves to one type of wires (such as premises wiring within a single building), but some can cross between two levels (for example, both the distribution network and premises wiring). Typically transformers prevent propagating the signal, which requires multiple technologies to form very large networks. Various data rates and frequencies are used in different situations.
A number of difficult technical problems are common between wireless and power-line communication, notably those of spread spectrum radio signals operating in a crowded environment. Radio interference, for example, has long been a concern of amateur radio groups.
Basics
Power-line communications systems operate by adding a modulated carrier signal to the wiring system. Different types of power-line communications use different frequency bands. Since the power distribution system was originally intended for transmission of AC power at typical frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz, power wire circuits have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies. The propagation problem is a limiting factor for each type of power-line communications.
The main issue determining the frequencies of power-line communication is laws to limit interference with radio services. Many nations regulate unshielded wired emissions as if they were radio transmitters. These jurisdictions usually require unlicensed uses to be below 500 kHz or in unlicensed radio bands. Some jurisdictions (such as the EU), regulate wire-line transmissions further. The U.S. is a notable exception, permitting limited-power wide-band signals to be injected into unshielded wiring, as long as the wiring is not designed to propagate radio waves in free space.
Data rates and distance limits vary widely over many power-line communication standards. Low-frequency (about 100–200 kHz) carriers impressed on high-voltage transmission lines may carry one or two analog voice circuits, or telemetry and control circuits with an equivalent data rate of a few hundred bits per second; however, these circuits may be many miles long. Higher data rates generally imply shorter ranges; a local area network operating at millions of bits per second may only cover one floor of an office building, but eliminates the need for installation of dedicated network cabling.
Ripple Control
Ripple control adds an audio-frequency tone to an AC line. Typical frequencies are from 100Hz to 2400Hz. Each district usually has its own frequency, so that adjacent areas are unaffected. Codes are sent by slowly turning the tone on and off. Equipment at a customer site receives the codes, and turns customer equipment off and on. Often the decoder is part of a standard electricity meter, and controls relays. There are also utility codes, e.g. to set the clocks of the power meters at midnight.
In this way, the utility can avoid up to 20% of capital expenses for generating equipment. This lowers costs for electricity and fuel usage. Brownouts and rolling blackouts are more easily prevented. Grids that use cogeneration can enable auxiliary customer equipment when the generators are being run to generate heat rather than electricity.
An annoyance for customers is that sometimes the code to turn equipment on is lost, or load shedding is inconvenient or dangerous. For example, during a party, a dangerous heat wave or when life-preserving medical equipment is on-site. To handle these cases, some equipment includes switches to circumvent load shedding. Some meters switch into a higher billing rate when the "party switch" is flipped.
Long haul, low frequency
Utility companies use special coupling capacitors to connect radio transmitters and receivers to the AC power carrying conductors. Power meters often use small transformers with linear amplifiers in the range of tens of watts. Most of the expense of any PLC system is the power electronics. By comparison, the electronics to encode and decode is usually small, in a special purpose integrated circuit. Thus even the complicated OFDM standards can still be economical.
Frequencies used are in the range of 24 to 500 kHz, with transmitter power levels up to hundreds of watts. These signals may be impressed on one conductor, on two conductors or on all three conductors of a high-voltage AC transmission line. Several PLC channels may be coupled onto one HV line. Filtering devices are applied at substations to prevent the carrier frequency current from being bypassed through the station apparatus and to ensure that distant faults do not affect the isolated segments of the PLC system. These circuits are used for control of switchgear, and for protection of transmission lines. For example, a protective relay can use a PLC channel to trip a line if a fault is detected between its two terminals, but to leave the line in operation if the fault is elsewhere on the system.
While utility companies use microwave and now, increasingly, fiber optic cables for their primary system communication needs, the power-line carrier apparatus may still be useful as a backup channel or for very simple low-cost installations that do not warrant installing fiber optic lines, or which are inaccessible to radio or other communication.
Power-line carrier communication (PLCC) is mainly used for telecommunication, tele-protection and tele-monitoring between electrical substations through power lines at high voltages, such as 110 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV.
The modulation generally used in these system is amplitude modulation. The carrier frequency range is used for audio signals, protection and a pilot frequency. The pilot frequency is a signal in the audio range that is transmitted continuously for failure detection.
The voice signal is compressed and filtered into the 300 Hz to 4000 Hz range, and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency. The carrier frequency is again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The transmission power of these HF carrier frequencies will be in the range of 0 to +32 dbW. This range is set according to the distance between substations.
PLCC can be used for interconnecting private branch exchanges (PBXs).
To sectionalize the transmission network and protect against failures, a "wave trap" is connected in series with the power (transmission) line. They consist of one or more sections of resonant circuits, which block the high frequency carrier waves (24 kHz to 500 kHz) and let power frequency current (50 Hz – 60 Hz) pass through. Wave traps are used in switchyard of most power stations to prevent carrier from entering the station equipment. Each wave trap has a lightning arrester to protect it from surge voltages.
A coupling capacitor is used to connect the transmitters and receivers to the high voltage line. This provides low impedance path for carrier energy to HV line but blocks the power frequency circuit by being a high impedance path. The coupling capacitor may be part of a capacitor voltage transformer used for voltage measurement.
Power-line carrier systems have long been a favorite at many utilities because it allows them to reliably move data over an infrastructure that they control.
A PLC carrier repeating station is a facility, at which a power-line communication (PLC) signal on a powerline is refreshed. Therefore
the signal is filtered out from the powerline, demodulated and modulated on a new carrier frequency, and then reinjected onto the powerline again. As PLC signals can carry long distances (several hundred kilometres), such facilities only exist on very long power lines using PLC equipment.
PLC is one of the technologies used for automatic meter reading. Both one-way and two-way systems have been successfully used for decades. Interest in this application has grown substantially in recent history—not so much because there is an interest in automating a manual process, but because there is an interest in obtaining fresh data from all metered points in order to better control and operate the system. PLC is one of the technologies being used in Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) systems.
In a one-way (inbound only) system, readings "bubble up" from end devices (such as meters), through the communication infrastructure, to a "master station" which publishes the readings. A one-way system might be lower-cost than a two-way system, but also is difficult to reconfigure should the operating environment change.
In a two-way system (supporting both outbound and inbound), commands can be broadcast out from the master station to end devices (meters) – allowing for reconfiguration of the network, or to obtain readings, or to convey messages, etc. The device at the end of the network may then respond (inbound) with a message that carries the desired value. Outbound messages injected at a utility substation will propagate to all points downstream. This type of broadcast allows the communication system to simultaneously reach many thousands of devices—all of which are known to have power, and have been previously identified as candidates for load shed. PLC also may be a component of a smart grid.
Medium frequency (100 kHz)
These systems are often used in countries in which it is illegal to transmit signals that interfere with normal radio. The frequencies are so low that they are unable to start radio waves when sent over the utility wiring.
Home control (narrowband)
Power-line communications technology can use the electrical power wiring within a home for home automation: for example, remote control of lighting and appliances without installation of additional control wiring.
Typically home-control power-line communication devices operate by modulating in a carrier wave of between 20 and 200 kHz into the household wiring at the transmitter. The carrier is modulated by digital signals. Each receiver in the system has an address and can be individually commanded by the signals transmitted over the household wiring and decoded at the receiver. These devices may be either plugged into regular power outlets, or permanently wired in place. Since the carrier signal may propagate to nearby homes (or apartments) on the same distribution system, these control schemes have a "house address" that designates the owner. A popular technology known as X10 has been used since the 1970s.
The "universal powerline bus", introduced in 1999, uses pulse-position modulation (PPM). The physical layer method is a very different scheme than the X10. LonTalk, part of the LonWorks home automation product line, was accepted as part of some automation standards.
Low-speed narrow-band
Narrowband power-line communications began soon after electrical power supply became widespread. Around the year 1922 the first carrier frequency systems began to operate over high-tension lines with frequencies of 15 to 500 kHz for telemetry purposes, and this continues. Consumer products such as baby alarms have been available at least since 1940.
In the 1930s, ripple carrier signaling was introduced on the medium (10–20 kV) and low voltage (240/415 V) distribution systems.
For many years the search continued for a cheap bi-directional technology suitable for applications such as remote meter reading. French electric power Électricité de France (EDF) prototyped and standardized a system called "spread frequency shift keying" or S-FSK. (See IEC 61334) It is now a simple, low cost system with a long history, however it has a very slow transmission rate. In the 1970s, the Tokyo Electric Power Co ran experiments which reported successful bi-directional operation with several hundred units. The system is now (2012) widely used in Italy and some other parts of the EU.
S-FSK sends a burst of 2, 4 or 8 tones centered around the time when the AC line passes through zero voltage. In this way, the tones avoid most radio-frequency noise from arcing. (It is common for dirty insulators to arc at the highest point of the voltage, and thus generate a wide-band burst of noise.) To avoid other interference, receivers can improve their signal-to-noise ratio by measuring the power of only the "1" tones, only the "0" tones or the differential power of both. Different districts use different tone pairs to avoid interference. The bit timing is typically recovered from the boundaries between tones, in a way similar to a UART. Timing is roughly centered on the zero crossing with a timer from the previous zero crossing. Typical speeds are 200 to 1200 bits per second, with one bit per tone slot. Speeds also depend on the AC line frequency. The speed is limited by noise, and the jitter of the AC line's zero crossing, which is affected by local loads. These systems are usually bidirectional, with both meters and central stations sending data and commands. Higher levels of the protocols can have stations (usually smart meters) retransmit messages. (See IEC 61334)
Since the mid-1980s, there has been a surge of interest in using the potential of digital communications techniques and digital signal processing. The drive is to produce a reliable system which is cheap enough to be widely installed and able to compete cost effectively with wireless solutions. But the narrowband powerline communications channel presents many technical challenges, a mathematical channel model and a survey of work is available.
Applications of mains communications vary enormously, as would be expected of such a widely available medium. One natural application of narrow band power-line communication is the control and telemetry of electrical equipment such as meters, switches, heaters and domestic appliances. A number of active developments are considering such applications from a systems point of view, such as demand side management. In this, domestic appliances would intelligently co-ordinate their use of resources, for example limiting peak loads.
Control and telemetry applications include both 'utility side' applications, which involves equipment belonging to the utility company up to the domestic meter, and 'consumer-side' applications which involves equipment in the consumer's premises. Possible utility-side applications include automatic meter reading (AMR), dynamic tariff control, load management, load profile recording, credit control, pre-payment, remote connection, fraud detection and network management, and could be extended to include gas and water.
Open Smart Grid Protocol (OSGP) is one of the most proven narrowband PLC technologies and protocols for smart metering. There are more than five million smart meters, based on OSGP and using BPSK PLC, installed and operating around the World. The OSGP Alliance, a non-profit association originally established as ESNA in 2006, led an effort to establish a family of specifications published by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) used in conjunction with the ISO/IEC 14908 control networking standard for smart grid applications. OSGP is optimized to provide reliable and efficient delivery of command and control information for smart meters, direct load control modules, solar panels, gateways, and other smart grid devices. OSGP follows a modern, structured approach based on the OSI protocol model to meet the evolving challenges of the smart grid.
At the physical layer, OSGP currently uses ETSI 103 908 as its technology standard. This uses binary phase shift keying at 3592.98 BAUD, using a carrier tone of 86.232KHz +/- 200ppm. (Note: The bit clock is almost exactly 1/24 of the carrier.) At the OSGP application layer, ETSI TS 104 001 provides a table-oriented data storage based, in part, on the ANSI C12.19 / MC12.19 / 2012 / IEEE Std 1377 standards for Utility Industry End Device Data Tables and ANSI C12.18 / MC12.18 / IEEE Std 1701, for its services and payload encapsulation. This standard and command system provides not only for smart meters and related data but also for general purpose extension to other smart grid devices.
A project of EDF, France includes demand management, street lighting control, remote metering and billing, customer specific tariff optimisation, contract management, expense estimation and gas applications safety.
There are also many specialised niche applications which use the mains supply within the home as a convenient data link for telemetry. For example, in the UK and Europe a TV audience monitoring system uses powerline communications as a convenient data path between devices that monitor TV viewing activity in different rooms in a home and a data concentrator which is connected to a telephone modem.
Medium-speed narrow-band
The Distribution Line Carrier (DLC) System technology used a frequency range of 9 to 500 kHz with data rate up to 576 kbit/s.
A project called Real-time Energy Management via Powerlines and Internet (REMPLI) was funded from 2003 to 2006 by the European Commission.
More modern systems use OFDM to send data at faster bit rates without causing radio frequency interference. These utilize hundreds of slowly-sending data channels. Usually they can adapt to noise by turning off channels with interference. The extra expense of the encoding devices is minor compared to the cost of the electronics to transmit. The transmission electronics is usually a high power operational amplifier, a coupling transformer and a power supply. Similar transmission electronics is required on older, slower systems, so with improved technology, improved performance can be very affordable.
In 2009, a group of vendors formed the PoweRline Intelligent Metering Evolution (PRIME) alliance. As delivered, the physical layer is OFDM, sampled at 250 kHz, with 512 differential phase shift keying channels from 42–89 kHz. Its fastest transmission rate is 128.6 kilobits/second, while its most robust is 21.4 kbit/s. It uses a convolutional code for error detection and correction. The upper layer is usually IPv4.
In 2011, several companies including distribution network operators (ERDF, Enexis), meter vendors (Sagemcom, Landis&Gyr) and chip vendors (Maxim Integrated, Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics, Renesas) founded the G3-PLC Alliance to promote G3-PLC technology. G3-PLC is the low layer protocol to enable large scale infrastructure on the electrical grid. G3-PLC may operate on CENELEC A band (35 to 91 kHz) or CENELEC B band (98 kHz to 122 kHz) in Europe , on ARIB band (155 kHz to 403 kHz) in Japan and on FCC (155 kHz to 487 kHz) for the US and the rest of the world. The technology used is OFDM sampled at 400 kHz with adaptative modulation and tone mapping. Error detection and correction is made by both a convolutional code and Reed-Solomon error correction. The required media access control is taken from IEEE 802.15.4, a radio standard. In the protocol, 6loWPAN has been chosen to adapt IPv6 an internet network layer to constrained environments which is Power line communications. 6loWPAN integrates routing, based on the mesh network LOADng, header compression, fragmentation and security. G3-PLC has been designed for extremely robust communication based on reliable and highly secured connections between devices, including crossing Medium Voltage to Low Voltage transformers. With the use of IPv6, G3-PLC enables communication between meters, grid actuators as well as smart objects. In December 2011, G3 PLC technology was recognised as an international standard at ITU in Geneva where it is referenced as G.9903, Narrowband orthogonal frequency division multiplexing power line communication transceivers for G3-PLC networks.
Transmitting radio programs
Sometimes PLC was used for transmitting radio programs over powerlines. When operated in the AM radio band, it is known as a carrier current system.
High-frequency (≥ 1 MHz)
High frequency communication may (re)use large portions of the radio spectrum for communication, or may use select (narrow) band(s), depending on the technology.
Home networking (LAN)
Power line communications can also be used in a home to interconnect home computers and peripherals, and home entertainment devices that have an Ethernet port. Powerline adapter sets plug into power outlets to establish an Ethernet connection using the existing electrical wiring in the home (power strips with filtering may absorb the power line signal). This allows devices to share data without the inconvenience of running dedicated network cables.
The most widely deployed powerline networking standard is from the HomePlug Powerline Alliance. HomePlug AV is the most current of the HomePlug specifications and was adopted by the IEEE 1901 group as a baseline technology for their standard, published 30 December 2010. HomePlug estimates that over 45 million HomePlug devices have been deployed worldwide. Other companies and organizations back different specifications for power line home networking and these include the Universal Powerline Association, SiConnect, the HD-PLC Alliance, Xsilon and the ITU-T's G.hn specification.
Broadband over power line
Broadband over power line (BPL) is a system to transmit two-way data over existing AC MV (medium voltage) electrical distribution wiring, between transformers, and AC LV (low voltage) wiring between transformer and customer outlets (typically 110 to 240 V). This avoids the expense of a dedicated network of wires for data communication, and the expense of maintaining a dedicated network of antennas, radios and routers in wireless network.
BPL uses some of the same radio frequencies used for over-the-air radio systems. Modern BPL employs frequency-hopping spread spectrum to avoid using those frequencies actually in use, though early pre-2010 BPL standards did not. The criticisms of BPL from this perspective are of pre-OPERA, pre-1905 standards.
The BPL OPERA standard is used primarily in Europe by ISPs. In North America it is used in some places (Washington Island, WI, for instance) but is more generally used by electric distribution utilities for smart meters and load management.
Since the ratification of the IEEE 1901 (HomePlug) LAN standard and its widespread implementation in mainstream router chipsets, the older BPL standards are not competitive for communication between AC outlets within a building, nor between the building and the transformer where MV meets LV lines.
Ultra-High-frequency (≥100 MHz)
Even higher information rate transmissions over power line use RF through microwave frequencies transmitted via a transverse mode surface wave propagation mechanism that requires only a single conductor. An implementation of this technology is marketed as E-Line. These use microwaves instead of the lower frequency bands, up to 2–20 GHz. While these may interfere with radio astronomy when used outdoors, the advantages of speeds competitive with fibre optic cables without new wiring are likely to outweigh that.
These systems claim symmetric and full duplex communication in excess of 1 Gbit/s in each direction. Multiple Wi-Fi channels with simultaneous analog television in the 2.4 and 5.0 GHz unlicensed bands have been demonstrated operating over a single medium voltage line conductor. Because the underlying propagation mode is extremely broadband (in the technical sense), it can operate anywhere in the 20 MHz20 GHz region. Also since it is not restricted to below 80 MHz, as is the case for high-frequency BPL, these systems can avoid the interference issues associated with use of shared spectrum with other licensed or unlicensed services.
Standards
Two distinctly different sets of standards apply to powerline networking as of early 2010.
Within homes, the HomePlug AV and IEEE 1901 standards specify how, globally, existing AC wires should be employed for data purposes. The IEEE 1901 includes HomePlug AV as a baseline technology, so any IEEE 1901 products are fully interoperable with HomePlug AV, HomePlug GreenPHY, and HomePlug AV2. On the other hand, medium-frequency home control devices remain divided, although X10 tends to be dominant. For power grid use, IEEE has approved a low-frequency (≤ 500 kHz) standard called IEEE 1901.2 in 2013.
Standards organizations
Several competing organizations have developed specifications, including the HomePlug Powerline Alliance, Universal Powerline Association (defunct) and HD-PLC Alliance. On December 2008, the ITU-T adopted Recommendation G.hn/G.9960 as a standard for mobile networks high-speed powerline, coax and phoneline communications. The National Energy Marketers Association (a US trade body) was also involved in advocating for standards.
In July 2009, the IEEE Power line Communication Standards Committee approved its draft standard for broadband over power lines. The IEEE 1901 final standard was published on 1 February 2011, and included features from HomePlug and HD-PLC. Power line communication via IEEE 1901 and IEEE 1905 compliant devices is indicated by the nVoy certification all major vendors of such devices committed to in 2013. NIST has included IEEE 1901, HomePlug AV and ITU-T G.hn as "Additional Standards Identified by NIST Subject to Further Review" for the Smart grid in the United States. IEEE also came up with a low-frequency standard for long-distance smart grids called IEEE 1901.2 in 2013.
See also
HomePlug Powerline Alliance
HomePNA
IEEE 1901
IEEE 1675-2008
KNX (standard)
List of broadband over power line deployments
LonWorks
Open Smart Grid Protocol
Multimedia over Coax Alliance
National Emergency Alarm Repeater
Residential gateway
Universal Powerline Association
IEC 61334
HD-PLC
References
Further reading
Powerline Communication: Potential and Critical System, Existing Technologies and Prospects for Future Development http://www.tesionline.it/default/tesi.asp?idt=34078
External links
OSGP Alliance
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
Computer networking
Internet access
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238421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake%20Songs | Fake Songs | Fake Songs is the third studio album by American musician Liam Lynch, released on April 1, 2003 through S-Curve Records and distributed worldwide by Capitol Records. The album is known for featuring his best-known song "United States of Whatever", which was released as a single in 2002. The album features a bonus DVD that compiles two-hours of various shorts and skits created by Lynch in his home studio.
An early version of the album, containing an alternative track list with songs unique to that version, was released in 2000 through Lynch's 111 Productions imprint.
Background and recording
During the first two seasons of Liam Lynch's show The Sifl and Olly Show, Lynch wrote and recorded comedic tracks, some of which not only appearing on Fake Songs but even being featured on the show itself, such as "United States of Whatever". The track was featured on a sampler album, where fans ripped the song and burned CD-R copies of it. One burned disc eventually got into the hands of the Los Angeles radio station KROQ, in which the track grew in popularity through repeated requests. Lynch would soon give Global Warming Records the right to release the track as a single in the UK in 2002.The sudden popularity of the single resulted in Lynch getting a one-album deal with S-Curve Records.
Song information
As the title suggests, some songs on this record are parodies of specific artists. Liam describes these songs as being "musical caricatures". The tracks "Try Me" and "Cuz You Do" (previously released on Liam's 2002 album We're All Nighters) were re-recorded for this album, featuring Ringo Starr, of The Beatles fame, on drums. The track "Rock and Roll Whore" is a duet song between Lynch and Jack Black of Tenacious D, a band with whom Lynch is friends. Lynch also directed the music video for the band's music video for their song "Tribute" as well as their 2006 feature-length film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny. "Electrician's Day" was taken from Lynch's 2000 comedy album History of America? with Matt Crocco, creator of The Sifl and Olly Show
Other "Fake Songs"
Four other post-Fake Songs parodies by Liam Lynch are known to exist. They are as follows:
"Fake White Stripes Song" - 2:49
"Fake Beatles Song" - 1:41
"Fake Dylan Melody" - 2:13
"Fake Dylan - Gears of Wear" - 1:13
Both of the fake Bob Dylan songs have been featured on his Podcast, Lynchland, along with appearing on the corresponding album, More Songs From Lynchland.
"Fake Beatles Song" was never actually meant to be part of the collection of fake songs. Liam had made the song with intent of showing it to Beatles cover band, The Fab Four so that when they played it live, the audience would think it was a never before heard song by The Beatles.
Marketing
A music video was produced for the album's lead single "United States of Whatever". Lynch was invited to perform the track on the British TV show Top of the Pops, however was unable to attend the show, so instead he produced a music video for the show to use instead in a single day. A second single, released as a promo, was made of the track "Still Wasted from the Party Last Night" in 2003. The single was released with little to no airplay and did not initially had a video produced for it. A video was eventually produced years later for Lynch's online podcast Lynchland.
With the exception of a few live TV show performances, Lynch did not tour to support the album. According to Lynch, S-Curve did offer him a budget to use for touring, however he instead ask them to use the budget to produce short television commercials for the album as well as package the album with the Fake Movies bonus DVD.
Reception
Fake Songs has received mixed reviews. On the review aggregate site Metacritic, the album has a score of 52 out of 100, indicating "Mixed or average reviews." Some critics praised the album's humor, while others criticized it. MacKenzie Wilson of Allmusic stated that the album "is a hilarious effort loaded with satirical song parodies and rock n' roll spoofs" and gave the record a 4 out of 5 rating. Ink19 writer Aaron Shaul on the other hand found the humor to be flat and also criticized the use of non-comedic songs (such as "Try Me") and the Fake Movies bonus DVD.
Track listing
Personnel
Liam Lynch - performance, recording, production, mixing, design
Jennifer Robbins - design
Bruce Sugar - engineering
Brian Hardin - mixing
Allen Scott - photography
Jack Black - vocals on "Rock and Roll Whore"
Ringo Starr - drums on "Try Me" and "Cuz You Do"
References
External links
2000 edition of Fake Songs official website (Archive)
2003 albums
Liam Lynch (musician) albums
S-Curve Records albums
2000s comedy albums | [
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238422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam%20Lynch | Liam Lynch | Liam Lynch may refer to:
Liam Lynch (Irish republican) (1893–1923), general in the Irish Republican Army
Liam Lynch (musician) (born 1970), American musician, writer, and movie director | [
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238428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doolittle%20%28album%29 | Doolittle (album) | Doolittle is the second studio album by the American alternative rock band Pixies, released in April 1989 on 4AD. Doolittle was the Pixies' first international release, with Elektra Records as the album's distributor in the United States and PolyGram in Canada.
Pixies released two singles from Doolittle: "Here Comes Your Man" and "Monkey Gone to Heaven", both of which were chart successes on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart in the US, while tracks such as "Debaser" and "Hey" have also received praise. The album itself reached number eight on the UK Albums Chart, an unexpected success for the band.
Although it is considered the most accessible Pixies album, Doolittle is often regarded as the band's strongest and greatest work, and has continued to sell consistently well in the years since its release, being certified Gold in 1995 and Platinum in 2018 by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album has been cited as inspirational by many alternative artists, while numerous music publications have ranked it as one of the most influential albums ever. A 2003 poll of NME writers ranked Doolittle as the second-greatest album of all time, Rolling Stone placed the album at 141 on its 2020 list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" and Pitchfork ranked it as the fourth best album of the 1980s.
The album's offbeat and dark subject matter features references to surrealism, Biblical violence, torture and death.
Background
Following their highly regarded but commercially unsuccessful 1988 album Surfer Rosa, the band embarked on a European tour with fellow Bostonians Throwing Muses, before beginning a tour of North American states. During this time, Black Francis, the group's frontman and principal songwriter, began to write new material for a future album, with songs such as "Dead", "Hey", "Tame", and "There Goes My Gun" emerging through the course of the year. Versions of the newly composed songs were recorded during several sessions for John Peel's radio show in 1988, while a live recording of "Hey" appeared on a free EP circulated with a 1988 edition of Sounds.
In mid-1988, the Pixies began to record demo sessions while on breaks from touring. The band headed to the Boston recording studio Eden Sound, which at the time comprised a small room in the basement of a hair salon. They recorded at the studio for a week, in circumstances similar to the previous year's Purple Tape sessions. Francis gave the demo tape and upcoming album the provisional title of Whore, though he later claimed his natural father had originally suggested the name. Francis has clarified that he was thinking of the word "in the more traditional sense ... the operatic, biblical sense, ... as in the great whore of Babylon". After completing the demo tape, band manager Ken Goes suggested two producers for the album: Liverpudlian Gil Norton and American Ed Stasium. The band had previously worked with Norton while recording the single version of "Gigantic" in May 1988. Francis had no preference, although Ivo Watts-Russell, head of the band's label 4AD, wanted Norton to produce the next album. Norton was hired as producer, with Stasium not even approached for the position.
Norton arrived in Boston on October 31, 1988, and first visited Francis' apartment to review the album's demos. The two talked about arrangements, and spent two days intensively analyzing the album's songs. Norton learned to gauge Francis' reaction to changing arrangements, and later observed that the frontman "doesn't like to do anything twice". Norton spent a further two weeks in pre-production to familiarize himself with the Pixies' sound.
Recording and production
Recording sessions for the album began on October 31, 1988, at Downtown Recorders in Boston, Massachusetts, which was at the time a professional 24-track studio. 4AD allotted the Pixies a budget of $40,000, excluding producer's fees. This was a modest sum for a 1980s major label album; however, it quadrupled the amount spent on the band's previous album, Surfer Rosa. Along with Norton, two assistant recording engineers and two second assistants were assigned to the project. The sessions lasted three weeks, concluding on November 23, with "nearly a song a day" being recorded.
Production and mixing began on November 28. The band relocated to Carriage House Studios, a residential studio in Stamford, Connecticut, to oversee production and record further tracks. Norton recruited Steven Haigler as mixing engineer, whom he had worked with at Fort Apache Studios. During production, Haigler and Norton added layers of guitars and vocals to songs, including overdubbed guitars on "Debaser" and double tracked vocals on "Wave of Mutilation". During the recordings, Norton advised Francis to alter several songs; a noted example being "There Goes My Gun", which was originally intended as a much faster, Hüsker Dü-style song. However, at Norton's advice, Francis slowed down the tempo.
Norton's suggestions were not always welcome, and several instances of advice to add verses and increase track length contributed to the frontman's building frustration. Eventually, Francis took Norton to a record store, where he handed him a copy of Buddy Holly's Greatest Hits, in which most of the songs are around two minutes long. He told Norton, "If it's good enough for Buddy Holly ..." In a Rolling Stone interview, Francis later recalled that "this record is him trying to make us, shall I say, commercial, and us trying to remain somewhat grungy". Production continued until December 12, 1988, with Norton and Haigler adding extra effects, including gated reverb to the mix. The master tapes were then sent for final post-production later that month.
During the recording of Doolittle, tensions between Francis and Deal became visible to band members and the production team. Bickering and standoffs between the two marred the recording sessions and led to increased stress among the band members. John Murphy, Deal's husband at the time, later recalled that, with Doolittle, the band dynamic "went from just all fun to work". Exhaustion from touring and from releasing three records in two years contributed to the friction. This culminated at the end of the US post-Doolittle "Fuck or Fight" tour, where they were too tired to attend the end-of-tour party. Soon afterwards, the band announced that they were taking a break.
Composition
Music
Doolittle features an eclectic mix of musical styles. While tracks such as "Tame" and "Crackity Jones" are fast and aggressive, and incorporate the band's trademark loud–quiet dynamic, other songs such as "Silver", "I Bleed", and "Here Comes Your Man" reveal a quieter, slower and more melodic temperament. With Doolittle, the band began to incorporate further instruments into their sound; for instance, "Monkey Gone to Heaven" features two violins and two cellos.
"Tame" is based on a three chord formula, including Joey Santiago playing a "Hendrix chord" over the main bass progression. "I Bleed" is melodically simple, and is formed around a single rhythmical repetition. Some songs are influenced by other genres of music; while "Crackity Jones" has a distinctly Spanish sound, and incorporates G and A triads over a C pedal, the song's rhythm guitar, played by Francis, starts with an eighth-note downstroke typical of punk rock music.
Lyrics
The lyrical themes explored on Doolittle range from the surrealism of "Debaser", to the environmental catastrophe of "Monkey Gone to Heaven". The prostitutes of "Mr. Grieves", "Tame", and "Hey" share space with the Biblical analogies of "Dead" and "Gouge Away". Black Francis often claimed that Doolittle'''s lyrics were words which just "fit together nicely", and that "the point [of the album] is to experience it, to enjoy it, to be entertained by it". Francis wrote all the material for the album with the exception of "Silver", which he co-wrote with Kim Deal.
The album's opening track, "Debaser", references surrealism, a theme that runs throughout the album. "Debaser" alludes to Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's 1929 surrealist film Un Chien Andalou, and the lyric "slicing up eyeballs" refers to an early scene in the film. Surrealism heavily influenced Francis in his college years and throughout his career with the Pixies. In 1989, Francis expressed his interest in surrealism and its influence on his songwriting method to The New York Times by stating "I got into avant-garde movies and Surrealism as an escape from reality. ... To me, Surrealism is totally artificial. I recently read an interview with the director David Lynch who said he had ideas and images but that he didn't know exactly what they meant. That's how I write."
Another of the album's main themes is environmental catastrophe. "Monkey Gone to Heaven" deals with man's destruction of the ocean and "confusion of man's place in the universe". As Francis put it: "On one hand, it's this big organic toilet. Things get flushed and repurified or decomposed and it's this big, dark, mysterious place. It's also a very mythological place where there are octopus's gardens, the Bermuda Triangle, Atlantis, and mermaids." "Monkey Gone to Heaven" is concerned with man's relationship to the divine, a theme shared with "Mr. Grieves".
Two songs on Doolittle are fashioned after Biblical stories: the story of David and Bathsheba in "Dead", and Samson and Delilah in "Gouge Away". Francis' fascination with Biblical themes can be traced back to his teenage years; when he was twelve, he and his parents joined an evangelical church linked to the Assemblies of God. This background was to be an influence on Doolittle, where he referred to the Devil being "six" and God being "seven" in "Monkey Gone to Heaven".
Other songs explored eccentric subjects, such as "Wave of Mutilation", which Francis described as being about "Japanese businessmen doing murder-suicides with their families because they'd failed in business, and they're driving off a pier into the ocean."
The sea and underwater themes of "Wave of Mutilation", which also feature in "Mr. Grieves" and "Monkey Gone to Heaven", are explorations of one arena for man's death and destruction. Ben Sisario points out that the album begins ("Debaser") and ends ("Gouge Away") with songs about violence being done to eyes. "Crackity Jones" covers another offbeat subject: Francis' roommate in his student exchange trip to San Juan, Puerto Rico, whom he described as a "weird psycho gay roommate".Doolittle also references more ostensibly conventional subjects. "La La Love You", sung by the band's drummer, David Lovering, is a love song; although its "first base, second base, third base, home run" break has led to it being described as "a dig at the very idea of a love song". Francis gave it to Lovering to sing, "like a Ringo thing". Lovering initially refused to sing it, but Norton said that he was soon unable to "get him away from the microphone". As well as lead vocals on "La La Love You", Lovering played bass guitar on "Silver", with Deal playing slide guitar; this arrangement did not occur again.
Packaging and title Doolittle was the first album where Simon Larbalestier, the Pixies' cover photographer, and Vaughan Oliver, the band's cover artist, had access to the lyrics. According to Larbalestier, this "made a fundamental difference".
The surrealist and abstract images throughout the album booklet are linked to the album's content. "Gouge Away" is represented by a picture of a spoon containing hair, laid across a woman's torso; a direct pictorial representation of heroin, with the spoon and the hair being horses. The image "As Loud As Hell" shows "a ringing bell", with a set of teeth; this alludes to the line "it shakes my teeth" in the song "I Bleed". "Walking with the Crustaceans" is a visual representation of the lyrics to "Wave of Mutilation". Larbalestier later commented that he was interested in "early Surrealist stuff" at this time.
During the recording sessions, Whore was discarded as a potential album title, after Oliver changed the cover artwork idea to a monkey and halo cover. Francis later explained his rationale for the move:
Francis then named the album Doolittle, from the "Mr. Grieves" lyric "Pray for a man in the middle / One that talks like Doolittle".
Release
In the months following the release of Surfer Rosa, Pixies' management fielded calls from a number of labels. Elektra Records A&R scout Peter Lubin first saw the band in October 1988, when they opened for the Jesus and Mary Chain, and immediately sought to convince the band to sign to his label. Pixies signed to Elektra Records during a UK spring tour in 1989. Elektra followed by releasing a live promotional album, which contained two songs from their forthcoming album—"Debaser" and "Gouge Away"—along with a selection of earlier material.
However, Elektra had not yet attained distribution rights to the band's forthcoming album. 4AD, then a small British independent record label, held worldwide distribution rights to Pixies, but did not have access to distribution outside of the United Kingdom; the band had had to import all its previous records from Europe. Pixies' management sought international distribution, and while negotiations with Elektra and other record companies began in the third quarter of 1988, they were only completed just two weeks before Doolittles release, on April 2, 1989. PolyGram had already secured Canadian distribution rights by that time.
Doolittle was released in the United Kingdom on April 17, 1989, and in the United States the following day. Throughout the States, helped by Elektra's major label status, retail displays were constructed for the record, and "Monkey Gone to Heaven", the first single from the album, was released to radio stations for inclusion on playlists.
Reissues
To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the album, 4AD announced that a deluxe edition of the album, titled Doolittle 25, was to be released January 12, 2015, containing unreleased B-sides, demos, and two full Peel sessions.
On December 9, 2016, a limited Pure Audio Blu-Ray version of the album was released containing a 5.1 surround sound mix of the album by Kevin Vanbergen and a high definition stereo mix by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab.
Reception
Commercial
Doolittles chart performance in the United States was unremarkable, as the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 171. However, with the help of college radio play of "Monkey Gone to Heaven", Doolittle eventually rose to number 98 and spent two weeks in the top 100. In Britain, the record reached number eight on the UK Album Chart. This chart placing was an unexpected success for the band as their previous two records, Come On Pilgrim and Surfer Rosa, had failed to reach as high on the British charts.
In June 1989, 4AD released "Here Comes Your Man" as the album's second single. It reached number three on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart and number 56 in the UK Singles Chart. It was not the last single from the album: in 1997, "Debaser" was released as a single to promote the Death to the Pixies compilation.
Following its release, Doolittle sold steadily in America, and broke sales of 100,000 after six months. By early 1992, while the band were supporting U2 on their Zoo TV Tour, the album was selling 1,500 copies per week. By the middle of 1993—two years after the release of the band's last album before their initial breakup, Trompe le Monde—Doolittle saw sales average 1,200 copies per week. Doolittle was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1995.
Ten years after the breakup, Doolittle was still selling between 500 and 1,000 copies a week, and their 2004 reunion tour saw sales creep back up to 1,200 copies per week. At the end of 2005, best estimates put total sales in America at between 800,000 and one million copies. As of 2015, sales in the United States have exceeded 834,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan.
On May 6, 2019, "Here Comes Your Man" was certified Gold in Canada. On September 20, 2021, "Hey" was certified Gold in Canada.
Critical
Reaction to Doolittle was positive in general, with the album garnering praise from several major music publications. NME writer Edwin Pouncey commented that "the songs on Doolittle have the power to make you literally jump out of your skin with excitement". Q critic Peter Kane said that Doolittles "carefully structured noise and straightforward rhythmic insistence makes perfect sense". Tim Rolston of The Daily Telegraph praised Doolittle as "a scintillating rock'n'roll album" and the Pixies' "finest half-hour so far". Several other publications ran positive reviews of the album, including the British music weekly Record Mirror, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Los Angeles Times, and the Chicago Tribune. Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote, "They're in love and they don't know why—with rock and roll, which is heartening in a time when so many college dropouts have lost touch with the verities". However, he concluded that "getting famous too fast could ruin them", while suggesting the lyrics reflect somewhat of a disconnection with "the outside world".
Some reviewers were more critical. Time Out said that "Gil Norton's toy theatre production makes a drama out of what should have been a crisis". Spin ran a hundred-word review of the album, with critic Joe Levy finding "the insanity less surreal and more silly, and the songs themselves more like songs and less like adventures". Rolling Stone, reviewing the album in July 1989, gave the album three and a half stars. Doolittle appeared on several end-of-year "Best Album" lists; both Rolling Stone and The Village Voice placed the album tenth, and independent music magazines Sounds and Melody Maker both ranked the album as the second-best of the year. NME also ranked the album highly, placing it fourth in their end-of-year list.
Legacy
The sudden loud to quiet dynamic present on Doolittle, most notably in "Tame", has been very influential on alternative rock. After writing "Smells Like Teen Spirit", both Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic of Nirvana thought: "this really sounds like the Pixies. People are really going to nail us for this." Producer Gil Norton usually receives much credit for the album's dynamic, and is sought by bands seeking a similar sound. The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha described Doolittle as less raw than Surfer Rosa but "more listenable" and "Here Comes Your Man" as a "classic pop record". Fellow alternative musician PJ Harvey was "in awe" of "I Bleed" and "Tame", and described Francis' writing as "amazing". The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. PopMatters included it in their list of the "12 Essential 1980s Alternative Rock Albums" saying, "Doolittle, captured the musicians at the top of their game when it was released in 1989".
Accolades
A range of music magazines have since acclaimed Doolittle as one of the quintessential alternative rock albums of the 1980s. Rolling Stone, reviewing Doolittle again in 2002, gave the album a maximum score of five stars, remarking that it laid the "groundwork for Nineties rock". Doolittle has received a number of international accolades and is consistently noted as one of the best albums of the 1980s in any genre.
The information regarding accolades attributed to Doolittle is taken from AcclaimedMusic.net.
(*) designates unordered lists.
Track listing
All tracks were written by Black Francis, except where noted.
Doolittle 25 bonus discs
Disc 2 / LP 2 – B-sides & Peel Sessions
All tracks previously released unless otherwise indicated.
Disc 3 / LP 3 (tracks 1-18) – Demos
All tracks previously unreleased unless otherwise indicated.
Personnel Pixies Black Francis – vocals, guitar
Kim Deal – bass guitar, vocals, acoustic slide guitar ("Silver")
Joey Santiago – lead guitar, backing vocals
David Lovering – drums, lead vocal ("La La Love You"), bass guitar ("Silver")Additional musicians Karen Karlsrud – violin ("Monkey Gone to Heaven")
Corine Metter – violin ("Monkey Gone to Heaven")
Arthur Fiacco – cello ("Monkey Gone to Heaven")
Ann Rorich – cello ("Monkey Gone to Heaven")Technical Gil Norton – producer, engineer
Dave Snider – assistant engineer
Matt Lane – assistant engineer
Steve Haigler – mixing
Vaughan Oliver – art direction, design
Simon Larbalestier – photography
Chris Bigg – calligraphy
Chart performance AlbumSingles'Certifications and sales
References
Citations
Works cited
Frank, Josh; Ganz, Caryn. Fool the World: The Oral History of a Band Called Pixies. Virgin Books, 2005. .
Sisario, Ben. Doolittle ''. Continuum, 2006. .
External links
Doolittle (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed)
Doolittle at Last.fm
Doolittle at Google Music
1989 albums
4AD albums
Albums produced by Gil Norton
Elektra Records albums
Noise pop albums
Pixies (band) albums
PolyGram albums | [
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238429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfer%20Rosa | Surfer Rosa | Surfer Rosa is the debut studio album by the American alternative rock band Pixies, released in March 1988 on the British label 4AD. It was produced by Steve Albini. Surfer Rosa contains many of the elements of Pixies' earlier output, including Spanish lyrics and references to Puerto Rico. It includes references to mutilation and voyeurism alongside experimental recording techniques and a distinctive drum sound.
As 4AD was an independent label, distribution in the United States was handled by British label Rough Trade Records; however, it failed to chart in either country. Only one single was released, a rerecorded version of "Gigantic", and reached number 93 on the UK Singles Chart. Surfer Rosa was rereleased in the US by Elektra Records in 1992, and in 2005 was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Surfer Rosa is often included on critics' lists of the best rock albums. Alternative rock artists including Billy Corgan and PJ Harvey have cited it as an inspiration; it was an influence on Nirvana's 1991 album Nevermind.
Background
Before the release of Pixies' debut mini-album Come On Pilgrim in October 1987, Ivo Watts-Russell, head of 4AD, suggested they return to the studio to record a full-length album. The original plan was to record new material at Fort Apache Studios, where the band had produced The Purple Tape and Come On Pilgrim. However, due to differences between the band's manager Ken Goes and The Purple Tape producer Gary Smith, Pixies ended up looking for a new producer and recording studio. On the advice of a 4AD colleague, Watts-Russell looked to hire Steve Albini, ex-frontman of Big Black, as the record's engineer and producer. Having sent a pre-release tape of Come On Pilgrim to Albini, Pixies' manager, Ken Goes, invited him to a Boston dinner party at drummer David Lovering's house a few weeks after Come On Pilgrim's release.
Albini met the band that evening, and they discussed how the next record should sound and be recorded. Albini said that, "[the band and I] were in the studio the next day." Paul Q. Kolderie, who had worked at Fort Apache Studios with Smith, recommended the Boston recording studio Q Division to Albini. This created tension between Smith and Kolderie, and Kolderie later remarked that "Gary almost killed me for the suggestion, he thought I was scheming to get the project."
Recording and production
Pixies entered Q Division in December 1987, booking ten working days of studio time in which to record the album. 4AD allocated the band a budget of US$10,000. Albini's producer's fee was US$1,500, and he received no royalties; Albini has a practice of refusing royalties from records he produces, viewing it as "an insult to the band." Along with Albini in the studio, Q Division's Jon Lupfer acted as studio assistant. The recording process took the entire booked period of ten working days to complete, with extra vocal mixes subsequently added in the studio. Albini planned to mix the record "somewhere else", but according to Lupfer, "He was unhappy there with it."
Albini's recording techniques
During Kim Deal's vocals takes during "Where Is My Mind?" and "Gigantic", he moved the equipment to record into a studio bathroom to achieve more "roomy" echo. John Murphy, Deal's then husband, said that "Albini didn't like the studio sound. Albini later said that the record could have been completed in a week, but "we ended up trying more experimental stuff basically to kill time and see if anything good materialized." An example was "Something Against You", where Albini filtered Black Francis' voice through a guitar amp for "a totally ragged, vicious texture."
Studio banter
The recording of a conversation held between Francis and Albini can be heard at the end of "Oh My Golly!". Lupfer writes that "it was a concept he [Albini] was going for to get some studio banter." As Deal was leaving the studio to smoke a cigarette, she exclaimed "If anybody touches my stuff, I'll kill ya." Francis replied with "I'll kill you, you fucking die, if anybody touches my stuff". The track begins at this point, with Francis explaining the conversation to Albini, whose voice is not heard on the track. Lupfer later admitted that Albini knew "perfectly well what was going on."
"I'm Amazed" begins with Deal recounting a story in which one of her former teachers who was "into field hockey players" was discreetly fired. Francis finishes Deal's sentences, joking that her response to hearing of the teacher's activities was to try to join the team. Albini later observed the use of studio banter on Surfer Rosa: "It's on their record forever so I think now they are obliged to say that they're ok with it, but I honestly don't know that that idea would've ever come up if I hadn't done it. There are times when things like that are revealing and entertaining and I kind of felt it was a bit gimmicky on this record."
Music
Like Come On Pilgrim, Surfer Rosa displays a mix of musical styles; pop guitar songs such as "Broken Face", "Break My Body", and "Brick Is Red" are featured alongside slower, more melodic tracks exemplified by "Where Is My Mind?". The album includes heavier material, and prominently features the band's trademark quiet-loud dynamic. Frontman and principal songwriter Black Francis wrote the material, the only exception being "Gigantic," which was co-written with Kim Deal. "Gigantic" is one of only two Pixies album tracks on which Deal sang lead vocals.
Surfer Rosa's lyrical content includes examinations of mutilation and incest in "Break My Body" and "Broken Face", while references to superheroes appear on "Tony's Theme". Voyeurism appears in "Gigantic", and surrealistic lyrics are featured on "Bone Machine" and "Where Is My Mind?". Puerto Rico references and Spanish lyrics are found on the tracks "Oh My Golly!" and "Vamos." The latter track was previously featured on Come On Pilgrim, and appears on Surfer Rosa as a rerecorded version of the original song. Many of the themes explored on previous recordings are revisited on Surfer Rosa; however, unlike on the band's later albums, the songs in Surfer Rosa are not preoccupied with one overarching topic.
Other unusual and offbeat subject matter is raised on the album. "Cactus" is narrated by a prison inmate who requests his girlfriend smear her dress with blood and mail it to him. "Gigantic" is about an illicit love affair and borrows from the 1986 film Crimes of the Heart, in which a married woman falls in love with a teenager. Francis was inspired to write "Where Is My Mind?" after scuba diving in the Caribbean. He later said he had "this very small fish trying to chase me. I don't know why—I don't know too much about fish behavior."
Release
Surfer Rosa was released in the UK by 4AD on March 21, 1988, entering the UK Indie Chart the following week. It spent 60 weeks in the chart, peaking at number 2. Until August of that year it was only available in the U.S. as an import. Although the label held worldwide distribution rights to Pixies, they did not have access to a distributor outside the UK. When 4AD signed a distribution deal with Rough Trade's U.S. branch, the album was released on vinyl and cassette as part of the Surfer Rosa/Come On Pilgrim release. While Surfer Rosa/Come On Pilgrim has remained in print on CD in the UK, subsequent U.S. releases have seen the two released on separate CDs. These separate releases first appeared in January 1992, when Elektra Records first reissued the band's first two albums. After 4AD reacquired rights to the band's U.S. distribution, they released both as separate CDs. Surfer Rosa was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005, 17 years after its original release.
"Gigantic" was the only single taken from Surfer Rosa. The track and its B-side, "River Euphrates", were rerecorded by Gil Norton at Blackwing Studios in London, early in May 1988. The remixed single was well met by critics. The single failed to sell, and spent just one week at number 93 on the UK Singles Chart. Despite the poor commercial performance of both Surfer Rosa and "Gigantic", Ivo Watts-Russell has said that the response to the album was "times five" compared with Come On Pilgrim.
Packaging
Surfer Rosas cover artwork features a photograph of a topless "friend of a friend" of the band, posing as a flamenco dancer, pitched against a wall which displays a crucifix and a torn poster. Simon Larbalestier, who contributed pictures to all Pixies album sleeves, decided to build the set because "we couldn't find the atmosphere we wanted naturally." According to Larbalestier, Black Francis came up with the idea for the cover as he wrote songs in his father's "topless Spanish bar"; Larbalestier added the crucifix and torn poster, and they "sort of loaded that with all the Catholicism." Commenting on the cover in 2005, Francis said, "I just hope people find it tasteful." The cover booklet expands on the theme, and features photographs of the flamenco dancer in several other poses; there are no song lyrics or written content, apart from album credits, in the booklet.
Albini's name does not appear on the original record sleeve. The booklet's photographs were taken in one day at a pub opposite the 4AD offices, because, according to Larbalestier, "it was one of the few places that had a raised stage". In a 1988 interview with Joy Press, Black Francis described the concept as referring to "a surfer girl," who "walks along the Beach of Binones, has a surfboard, very beautiful." When questioned about the topless element, he replied, "For the first record, I told them I liked nudity. I like body lines—not necessarily something in bad taste, didn't even have to be female, just body lines ... like that Obsession ad, you know?" According to Melody Maker, the album was originally entitled "Gigantic" after Deal's song, but the band feared misinterpretation of the cover and changed it to "Surfer Rosa." The "name" of the cover woman, and the album title, comes from the "Oh My Golly!" lyric "Besando chichando con surfer rosa", which roughly translates to "Kissing, having sex with Surfer Rosa".
Critical reception
UK music press reviews of Surfer Rosa were generally positive. Q's Ian Cranna wrote that "what sets the Pixies apart are their sudden bursts of memorable pop melody," and noted that "they could have a bright future ahead of them." NMEs Mark Sinker, reviewing the album in March 1988, said "they force the past to sound like them", while Dave Henderson from Underground magazine found the songs "well crafted, well delivered sketches which embrace commercial ideals as well as bizarre left-field out of control moments". American music magazine Spin described it as "beautifully brutal", and named Pixies their musicians of the year. In a less enthusiastic contemporary review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau found the band's guitar riffs recognizable and their strong rhythms unique, but felt they had been overrated by critics who hailed them as "the Amerindie find of the year". In a 2003 review of the Pixies' 2002 self-titled EP, Christgau wrote that while he initially found Francis' fey and philosophically limited lyrics somewhat annoying, Surfer Rosa now seemed "audaciously funny and musically prophetic".
At the end of 1988, Surfer Rosa was named one of the year's best albums on English critics' year-end lists. Independent music magazines Melody Maker and Sounds named Surfer Rosa as their album of the year; NME and Record Mirror placed the album 10th and 14th, respectively. However, Surfer Rosa failed to appear on The Village Voices Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics. It also did not appear on any end-of-year list in the United States. A number of music magazines have since positioned Surfer Rosa as one of the quintessential alternative rock records of the 1980s. The album has appeared on several all-time best album lists, and is consistently placed as one of the best albums of the 1980s in any genre.
As of 2015, sales in the United States have exceeded 705,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan.
Legacy
Both Surfer Rosa and Steve Albini's production of the album have been influential on alternative rock, and on grunge in particular. Nirvana's Kurt Cobain cited Surfer Rosa as the basis for Nevermind's songwriting. When he first heard the album, Cobain discovered a template for the mix of heavy noise and pop he was aiming to achieve. He remarked in 1992 that he "heard songs off of Surfer Rosa that I'd written but threw out because I was too afraid to play them for anybody." Cobain hired Albini to produce Nirvana's 1993 album In Utero, primarily due to his contribution to Surfer Rosa. The Smashing Pumpkins' Billy Corgan described Surfer Rosa as "the one that made me go, 'holy shit'. It was so fresh. It rocked without being lame." Corgan was impressed by the album's drum sound, and acknowledged that The Smashing Pumpkins used to study the record for its technical elements. Musician PJ Harvey said that Surfer Rosa "blew my mind," and that she "immediately went to track down Steve Albini." Cobain listed Surfer Rosa as one of the top 50 albums he thought were most influential to Nirvana's sound in his journal in 1993.
People connected with the band were impressed by the record. Ivo Watts-Russell recalled: "I remember when I first heard Surfer Rosa thinking, 'I didn't know the Pixies could sound like The Fall.' That was my immediate reaction, in other words, incredibly raw." Gary Smith, who at the time was in a disagreement with the band, admitted he "was really happy that they had made such a forceful, aggressive, record." Dinosaur Jr.'s J Mascis, comparing the record to the later Pixies albums Bossanova and Trompe le Monde, said he thought that Steve Albini's production "sounded way better than the other ones."
In 1991, as Pixies were recording Trompe le Monde, Albini told the fan magazine Forced Exposure that Surfer Rosa was "a patchwork pinch loaf from a band who at their top dollar best are blandly entertaining college rock", and said of the band: "Their willingness to be 'guided' by their manager, their record company and their producers is unparalleled. Never have I seen four cows more anxious to be led around by their nose rings." In 2005, Albini apologized for the remarks, saying: "To this day I regret having done it. I don't think that I regarded the band as significantly as I should have."
Track listing
All tracks written by Black Francis, except where noted.
Notes
For the Surfer Rosa/Come On Pilgrim release, the eight tracks of Come On Pilgrim appear after "Brick is Red".
The untitled eleventh track consists of a quiet recording of conversation in the studio. It exists as a separate track on some CD releases but is not listed on the artwork. As such, after track 10, the track listing numbering on the artwork does not match actual tracks on those CDs.
The album was re-mastered and released in 2007 as a Hybrid Super Audio CD disc by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab from recently discovered, first-generation analog original master tapes. The studio banter that makes up the untitled track on other releases is on the same track as "Oh My Golly!".
Personnel
All information taken from the CD release of Surfer Rosa.
Pixies
Black Francis – vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar
Kim Deal – bass, vocals, lead vocals on "Gigantic" (credited as Mrs. John Murphy)
Joey Santiago – lead guitar
David Lovering – drums
Technical
Steve Albini – production, audio engineering
Simon Larbalestier, Vaughan Oliver – cover image, album booklet imagery
Published by Rice 'n' Beans Music BMI
Accolades
The information regarding accolades attributed to Surfer Rosa is adapted from Acclaimedmusic.net.
(*) designates unordered lists.
Certifications and sales
References
Frank, Josh; Ganz, Caryn. "Fool the World: The Oral History of a Band Called Pixies". Virgin Books, 2005. .
Sisario, Ben. "Doolittle 33⅓." Continuum, 2006. .
External links
Surfer Rosa (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed)
Surfer Rosa at Last.fm
1988 debut albums
4AD albums
Albums produced by Steve Albini
Elektra Records albums
Spanish-language albums
Pixies (band) albums
Rough Trade Records albums | [
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238430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20egret | Great egret | The great egret (Ardea alba), also known as the common egret, large egret, or (in the Old World) great white egret or great white heron is a large, widely distributed egret, with four subspecies found in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and southern Europe, recently also spreading to more northern areas of Europe. Distributed across most of the tropical and warmer temperate regions of the world, it builds tree nests in colonies close to water.
Taxonomy and systematics
Like all egrets, it is a member of the heron family, Ardeidae. Traditionally classified with the storks in the Ciconiiformes, the Ardeidae are closer relatives of pelicans and belong in the Pelecaniformes, instead. The great egret — unlike the typical egrets — does not belong to the genus Egretta, but together with the great herons is today placed in Ardea. In the past, however, it was sometimes placed in Egretta or separated in a monotypic genus Casmerodius.
The Old World population is often referred to as the "great white egret". This species is sometimes confused with the great white heron of the Caribbean, which is a white morph of the closely related great blue heron.
The scientific name comes from Latin ardea, "heron", and alba, "white".
Subspecies
Four subspecies are found in various parts of the world, which differ but little. Differences among them include bare-part coloration in the breeding season and size. The smallest subspecies, A. a. modesta, is from Asia and Australasia and some taxonomists consider it to be a full species, the eastern great egret (Ardea modesta), but most scientists treat it as a subspecies.
A. a. alba Linnaeus, 1758 – nominate, found in Europe and across the Palearctic.
A. a. egretta Gmelin, JF, 1789 – found in the Americas
A. a. melanorhynchos Wagler, 1827 – found in Africa
A. a. modesta Gray, JE, 1831 – eastern great egret, found in India, Southeast Asia, East Asia and Oceania
Description
The great egret is a large heron with all-white plumage. Standing up to tall, this species can measure in length and have a wingspan of . Body mass can range from , with an average around . It is thus only slightly smaller than the great blue or grey heron (A. cinerea). Apart from size, the great egret can be distinguished from other white egrets by its yellow bill and black legs and feet, though the bill may become darker and the lower legs lighter in the breeding season. In breeding plumage, delicate ornamental feathers are borne on the back. Males and females are identical in appearance; juveniles look like nonbreeding adults. Differentiated from the intermediate egret (Mesophoyx intermedius) by the gape, which extends well beyond the back of the eye in case of the great egret, but ends just behind the eye in case of the intermediate egret.
It has a slow flight, with its neck retracted. This is characteristic of herons and bitterns, and distinguishes them from storks, cranes, ibises, and spoonbills, which extend their necks in flight. The great egret walks with its neck extended and wings held close. The great egret is not normally a vocal bird; it gives a low, hoarse croak when disturbed, and at breeding colonies, it often gives a loud croaking cuk cuk cuk and higher-pitched squawks.
Owing to its wide distribution across so much of the Americas, as well as Africa, Europe and Asia, the great egret shares its habitat with many other similar species. For example, the little egret (Egretta garzetta), intermediate egret (Ardea intermedia), Chinese egret (Egretta eulophotes), and the western reef heron (Egretta gularis). In the Americas, the snowy egret (Egretta thula) — a medium-sized heron that shares the same habitat as the great egret — is one such species. The snowy egret is readily distinguished from the great egret because it is noticeably smaller, and it has a more slender bill which is black in color and yellow feet, whereas the great egret has a yellow bill and black feet. Another species that — in North America — is easily confused with the great egret is the white morph of the great blue heron (Ardea herodias). The great blue heron is a bit larger, and has a thicker bill than that of the great egret.
Distribution and habitat
The great egret is generally a very successful species with a large and expanding range, occurring worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. It is ubiquitous across the Sun Belt of the United States and in the Neotropics.
Conservation
In North America, large numbers of great egrets were killed around the end of the 19th century so that their plumes, known as "aigrettes", could be used to decorate hats. Numbers have since recovered as a result of conservation measures. Its range has expanded as far north as southern Canada. However, in some parts of the southern United States, its numbers have declined due to habitat loss, particularly wetland degradation through drainage, grazing, clearing, burning, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants. Nevertheless, the species adapts well to human habitation and can be readily seen near wetlands and bodies of water in urban and suburban areas.
The great egret is partially migratory, with northern hemisphere birds moving south from areas with colder winters. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
In 1953, the great egret in flight was chosen as the symbol of the National Audubon Society, which was formed in part to prevent the killing of birds for their feathers.
On 22 May 2012, a pair of great egrets was announced to be nesting in the UK for the first time at the Shapwick Heath nature reserve in Somerset. The species was a rare visitor to the UK and Ben Aviss of the BBC stated that the news could mean the UK's first great egret colony had become established. The following week, Kevin Anderson of Natural England confirmed a great egret chick had hatched, making it a new breeding bird record for the UK. In 2017, seven nests in Somerset fledged 17 young, and a second breeding site was announced at Holkham National Nature Reserve in Norfolk where a pair fledged three young. In January 2021, Bird Guides, a UK website and magazine which reports sightings of rare birds, dropped the species from its list of nationally rare birds because sightings had become so numerous.
In 2018, a pair of great egrets nested in Finland for the first time, raising four young in a grey heron colony in Porvoo.
Ecology
The species breeds in colonies in trees close to large lakes with reed beds or other extensive wetlands, preferably at height of . It begins to breed at 2–3 years of age by forming monogamous pairs each season. Whether the pairing carries over to the next season is not known. The male selects the nest area, starts a nest, and then attracts a female. The nest, made of sticks and lined with plant material, could be up to 3 feet across. Up to six bluish green eggs are laid at one time. Both sexes incubate the eggs and the incubation period is 23–26 days. The young are fed by regurgitation by both parents and they are able to fly within 6–7 weeks.
Diet
The great egret forages in shallow water or in drier habitats, feeding mainly on fish, frogs, small mammals, and occasionally small reptiles, crustaceans and insects. This species normally impales its prey with its long, sharp bill by standing still and allowing the prey to come within the striking distance of its bill, which it uses as a spear. It often waits motionless for prey, or slowly stalks its victim.
Parasites
A long-running field study (1962–2013) suggested that the great egrets of central Europe host 17 different helminth species. Juvenile great egrets were shown to host fewer species, but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adults. Of the digeneans found in central European great egrets, numerous species likely infected their definitive hosts outside of central Europe itself.
In culture
The great egret is depicted on the reverse side of a 5-Brazilian reais banknote.
The great egret is the symbol of the National Audubon Society.
An airbrushed photograph of a great egret in breeding plumage by Werner Krutein is featured in the cover art of the 1992 Faith No More album Angel Dust.
In Belarus, a commemorative coin has the image of a great egret. The great egret also features on the New Zealand $2 coin and on the Hungarian 5-forint coin.
Gallery
References
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Great White Heron – The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Great White Egret – National Park Neusiedlersee Seewinkel in Austria
Great Egret – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Great egret Ardea alba – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
great egret
great egret
Birds of Africa
Birds of the Americas
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Japan
Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area
great egret
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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238431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrity%20Skin | Celebrity Skin | Celebrity Skin is the third studio album by American alternative rock band Hole, released on September 8, 1998, in the United States on DGC Records and internationally on Geffen Records. It was the last album released by the band before their dissolution in 2002. Hole intended for the record to diverge significantly from their previous noise and grunge-influenced sound as featured on Pretty on the Inside (1991) and Live Through This (1994). The band hired producer Michael Beinhorn to record Celebrity Skin over a nine-month period that included sessions in Los Angeles, New York City, and London. It was the band's only studio release to feature bassist Melissa Auf der Maur. Drummer Patty Schemel played the demos for the album, but was replaced by session drummer Deen Castronovo at the suggestion of producer Beinhorn. This issue created a rift between Schemel and the band, resulting in her dropping out of the tour and parting ways with the group, though she received the drumming credit on the album.
The band sought to use Los Angeles and the state of California as a unifying theme, and began writing what they conceived as a "California album" in 1997. Unlike Hole's previous releases, the final songs on Celebrity Skin featured instrumental contributions from several musicians outside the band, primarily Billy Corgan, who co-wrote the musical arrangements on five songs. Auf der Maur's former bandmate Jordon Zadorozny, as well as Go-Go's guitarist Charlotte Caffey, also contributed to the composition of one track. Frontwoman Courtney Love, who wrote all of the lyrics, named the album and its title track after a poem she had written that was influenced by T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land". Motifs of water and drowning are also prominent throughout the album.
Celebrity Skin is Hole's most commercially successful album. It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard 200, number four on the Australian Albums Chart, and number 11 on the UK Albums Chart. To date, it has sold over 1.4 million copies in the United States alone, has been certified as double-platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and platinum in Canada by Music Canada (MC) and the United States by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It garnered Hole a number-one hit single on the Modern Rock Tracks chart with the title track, "Celebrity Skin". Critical reaction to the album was very positive and it was listed on a number of publications' year-end lists in 1998, including those by Time and The Village Voice. The album was named the 265th greatest album of all time by a 2013 poll by NME magazine and was featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Production and composition
Recording history
In September 1995, Hole completed the final leg of their year-long tour in promotion for their second studio album, Live Through This (1994). During the hiatus that followed, the members of Hole began working on individual projects. Frontwoman Courtney Love was cast as Althea Flynt in The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996) alongside Woody Harrelson, lead guitarist Eric Erlandson collaborated with Rodney Bingenheimer and Thurston Moore in a short-lived project Rodney & the Tube Tops from 1996 to 1997, bassist Melissa Auf der Maur recorded Ric Ocasek's album Troublizing (1997), and drummer Patty Schemel was a guest musician with the Lemonheads on the tribute album Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks (1996).
Following Love's promotion of The People vs. Larry Flynt, the band reunited to write new material for Celebrity Skin. According to Love, the embryonic versions of the songs "weren't very good" and "not written well". However, the songs developed following the band's relocation to several parts of the United States, including Nashville, Memphis, and New Orleans. During their time in New Orleans, the band recorded a number of demos, including an early version of "Awful" (1999) and songs which later developed into "Dying" and "Hit So Hard". During these writing and recording attempts, Love had grown frustrated as she felt the songs were not coalescing. Erlandson later said he felt that "everything was falling apart... Making that record was insane. There were obstacles at each step of the way." Because of this perceived lack of direction, Love decided to use California as a unifying theme to begin writing around: "Let's tie this together with a concept, even if it's fake," she recalled, "for directional purposes." Specifically, Love sought to interpret California as "a metaphor for the American dream".
The band entered Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles in April 1997 to begin the recording sessions of the album. The original plan was to have Billy Corgan as executive producer, who was a second choice after Brian Eno, however, Corgan did not initially participate in, or contribute to the recording process. Michael Beinhorn was hired as head of production instead. Recording sessions for the album were spread out over the course of eight to nine months in various locations. The majority of the album was recorded at Conway Recording Studios, however, additional recording was done at Record Plant West in Los Angeles and Olympic Studios in London, United Kingdom. The final recording sessions were completed at Quad Studios in early 1998. These sessions were also video-taped by a friend of the band, as noted in an October 1998 article in Spin magazine. Auf der Maur characterized the sessions as being based around Love's busy schedule at the time: "It was her Hollywood phase", during which she would "chain-smoke Marlboro lights", "go to the beach at 7AM with a personal trainer and auditioning. She'd just done [The People vs.] Larry Flynt."
According to Love, her vision for the album was to "deconstruct the California Sound" in the L.A. tradition of bands like The Doors, The Beach Boys and The Byrds, but she was struggling with the composition of the record and felt like she was "in a rut". After sending early recordings of the songs to Billy Corgan, Corgan joined the band in the studio for a total of twelve days. Love compared Corgan's presence in the studio to "a math teacher who wouldn't give you the answers but was making you solve the problems yourself", and stated that he had her study key changes as well as melodies and phrasing from songs by Frank Sinatra and The Beatles:
Of the album's twelve tracks, Corgan shares instrumental songwriting credits on five. In addition to Corgan, Auf der Maur's former Tinker bandmate, Jordon Zadorozny, and Go-Go's guitarist Charlotte Caffey, helped co-compose the track "Reasons to Be Beautiful".
A wide variety of guitars, effect pedals and equipment were used during the recording of Celebrity Skin. Love used Fender tube amplifiers, Matchless amps, Ampeg amps and a Randall Commander that belonged to Love's late husband Kurt Cobain. Love's primary guitars during the sessions were her custom Fender Vista Venus and a Chet Atkins Gretsch. Erlandson's guitar set-up was much more complex, using numerous guitars through different effects in a set-up he arranged with Beinhorn. He used three of his Veleno guitars that were also used to record Live Through This, a 1968 Fender Telecaster and "numerous other guitars". Each signal from each guitar was split to two separate channels. One channel included a Tech 21 SansAmp, a collection of vintage analog synthesizers, including a Serge modular system, an ARP 2600 and a Moog modular system with a Bode frequency shifter. The other side included a Watkins Dominator, which "provided tons of low end", and generators that were later used during the production process. Recording was officially completed in London in late February 1998.
Drum tracks
Despite receiving credit on the album, Patty Schemel only recorded drum tracks for its demos, and was replaced by session drummer Deen Castronovo during the final recording sessions; thus, her drumming does not appear on the finished tracks. According to Schemel, Beinhorn was actively "psyching her out" in the studio when she began recording. According to Chris Whitemeyer, a sound technician working on the record, Beinhorn would request endless takes of Schemel's drumming, and would dim the volume in the sound booth and read the newspaper while she played. Whitemeyer stated that Schemel was drumming in the studio eight hours a day for over two weeks, and that Beinhorn "wanted Patty to give up". Schemel later likened the recording sessions to "athletic training". After Schemel completed over two weeks of recording, Beinhorn brought Love into the studio and had her listen to loops of Schemel's "weakest playing", and then suggested Castronovo as an alternative. Beinhorn also claimed to Love that Schemel would get "red-light fever" in the studio, meaning she would forget what she was playing once Beinhorn began recording. Whitemeyer claimed that Castronovo had been asked by Beinhorn to play on the record before Love or any of the other band members heard Schemel's drum tracks, and that Beinhorn "had it all planned out" early on.
The event resulted in Schemel leaving the studio and requesting a settlement and breaking ties with the band. Several months later, Schemel participated in the promotional photo shoot for the album due to prior agreement, but refused to tour with the band to support the record. In 2002, Love admitted in an interview with Carrie Fisher to having Schemel replaced on the album:
Music and arrangements
Celebrity Skin marked a major shift in Hole's musical style, emphasizing a more mainstream alternative rock sound. Jael Goldfine of Paper magazine notes that the album "defined the post-grunge power pop sound of the '90s." Rolling Stones James Hunter observed that the album features shifts in guitar sounds that alternate from "silveriness to something rougher in a heartbeat," adding that it is teeming with "minimalist explosion, idiomatic flair and dead-on rhythms."
In 2018, Bassist Melissa Auf der Maur, reflected "That wasn't something I was striving for but it was something Courtney and the label were. At the time I was like, 'why are you making this so fancy?' but she had a whole vision for her art." Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian observed a darker subtext to the album's glossy production, however, noting: "Celebrity Skins aesthetic is caught up in that turmoil of competing identities, a push-pull of glossy glamour and its seedy underbelly. For all the slickness of Michael Beinhorn’s production and the big-budget videos that accompanied its singles, the songs remain raw and cynical, as wary and worn as they are defiant."
Lyrics and themes
While writing the lyrics for Celebrity Skin, Love aimed to "marry great hooks with a dense [lyrical] vision... I want to be as perverse as I'd like to be—while making you hum along with it." She cited an array of literary influences, including T. S. Eliot. Several songs on the album reference, and sometimes directly quote, multiple literary works: The album's title track directly quotes The House of Life by Dante Rossetti ("my name is might-have-been"), as well as William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice ("So glad I came here with your pound of flesh"). "Awful", the album's third single, references Neil Diamond's "Cherry, Cherry", as well as the American spiritual "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot".
Various lyrical references to Hollywood and California culture are present throughout the album. Whereas the band's debut, Pretty on the Inside, had dealt with the "repulsive aspects of L.A.superficiality, sexism, violence, and drugs", Celebrity Skin examined the more opulent elements of Los Angelesspecifically from the perspective of Love, who at the time had risen as an A-list star but "deconstructed the concept, picking off the healing scab of her public reinvention to rehash the wounds of her past". Commenting on the themes, James Hunter of Rolling Stone notes that the album is lyrically obsessed with "the promises and the agonies of Southern California. Sold-out sluts, fading actresses, deluded teenagers, “summer babes” and hunks—all this “beautiful garbage” crowds the roadside of the album." Gil Kaufman, writing about the album for MTV, noted that "Love's crash-and-burn lyrics are full of provocative, self-referential phrases that might harbor double or triple meanings."
Another prominent lyrical and aesthetic theme on the record is water and drowning, as noted by Erlandson in a 1998 interview on the album's composition and recording sessions. Erlandson cited the drowning death of Jeff Buckley, as well as the deaths of both Erlandson's and Auf der Maur's fathers of pulmonary edema and lung cancer, respectively. "Those were literal things," said Erlandson, "but drowning became a metaphor for this record and for all the people we had lost." Additional lyrical motifs include angels, stars, and heaven. Commenting on the recurring images throughout the album, Love said: "I'm a Cancer. I recycle."
On the album's title, Love divulged that she initially wanted to name it Holy War, as she felt it was "a mission statement. It's a statement of such pretense and import. It's incredibly ambitious." Erlandson alternately wanted to name the record Sugar Coma, which Love opposed, stating it was "pedestrian—it denotes the end of a cycle. Something deadly. If executives like it, you know it's bad." The final title, Celebrity Skin, was teased by Love during a 1995 interview with Jools Holland, in which she joked that she was considering naming their upcoming album Celebrity Skin because she had "touched a lot of it". She subsequently clarified that she had derived the name from a short-lived band in Los Angeles named Celebrity Skin, as well as a bootleg pornographic magazine featuring nude candid photos of celebrities.
Release
Celebrity Skin was released internationally on September 8, 1998. It was the last album released by Hole before their dissolution in 2002, though frontwoman Courtney Love later revived the band with new members for the release of Nobody's Daughter in 2010.
Singles
Despite the extreme measures undertaken by Hole's label, DGC Records, to prevent the album from leaking (including an "iron clad" agreement that prohibited music journalists who received advance copies from allowing anyone else to hear or record the album), the first single from the album, "Celebrity Skin", was leaked three weeks before its intended release dates and played "nearly a dozen times" on New York radio station WXRK (92.3 FM) and their Los Angeles-based sister station, KROQ-FM (106.7 FM), on the weekend of July 31 to August 2, 1998. DGC spokesperson Jim Merlis denied that the leak originated from them and issued WXRK a cease and desist order on August 3, 1998. Nevertheless, San Francisco radio station Live 105 (105.3 FM) played the single again the following weekend.
The lead single, "Celebrity Skin", was officially released on September 8, 1998, the same day of the album release. It peaked at number 85 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and entered the top 20 of the United Kingdom, Scotland, and Iceland. It also topped the US Alternative Songs chart and the Canadian Rock/Alternative chart. The single was nominated for Best Rock Song and Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group at the 1999 Grammy Awards. It was followed by "Malibu", released on December 29, 1998. The single peaked at number 81 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and entered the top 40 of Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.
"Malibu" was nominated for Best Cinematography at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards and nominated for a Music Video Cinematography Achievement provided by the Music Video Production Association. The single also received a nomination for Best Rock Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group at the 2000 Grammy Awards. The third and final single, "Awful", was released on April 27, 1999. It peaked at number 13 on US Alternative Songs chart and entered the ARIA Top 100 Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart.
Artwork
The front cover of the album features a black-and-white photograph of all four band members standing in front of a burning palm tree. The photograph was a Polaroid that had initially been intended as a test shot, but was ultimately chosen for the cover art. Joe-Mama Nitzberg, the album's art director, recalled that the palm tree and fire were in fact real, and that at one point during the shoot, a wind gust led the tree to topple over. Nitzberg stated that the unifying visual theme for the album's overall artwork and packaging was to highlight Los Angeles as an artificial "paradise."
The lyrical themes of water and drowning were carried over to the album's packaging, with the back cover displaying a cropped version of the painting Ophelia Drowning (1895) by Paul Albert Steck. Photographs of the Modesto Arch (which reads "Water, Wealth, Contentment, Health") and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power figure in the liner notes, keeping in theme with the album's preoccupation with California. The liner notes dedicate the album to "the stolen water of Los Angeles and to anyone who ever drowned", the former referring to the California water wars.
Reception
Celebrity Skin received positive reviews from music critics. The Village Voice critic Robert Christgau said Love is "better punk than actress, better actress than popster" and listed the title track and "Awful" as the album's most notable songs. Robert Cherry of the Alternative Press described Celebrity Skins sound as "meticulously orchestrated guitars, multilayered vocal harmonies, quantized drums and sheeny studio magic" and said the songs "hit nerve centers like a thousand AM classics". The Austin Chronicles Marc Savlov referred to the album as "end of the summer crunch-pop from the most enigmatic woman around" but criticized Love's "painful, quasi-Freudian vein" and "Michael Beinhorn's slick, SoCal production". The Los Angeles Times reviewer Robert Hilburn called the album "one wild emotional ride" and "a far more complex work than the invigorating, mainstream coating would lead you to believe." Steve Sutherland of NME mentioned that "the first thing you think when Celebrity Skin smacks you in the nose is that you may never need to hear a rock 'n' roll record ever again," and compared the album's sound to Fleetwood Mac.
James Hunter from Rolling Stone described it as "sprung, flung and fun, high-impact, rock-fueled pop" and noted that "it teems with sonic knockouts that make you see all sorts of stars and is accessible, fiery and intimate – often at the same time," while Spin reviewer Joshua Clover referred to the album as "a record filled with quotation and reference, backtalk and revision" and said "there are too many great songs, and this is a magnificent pop record." A review published in Musician also praised the album, particularly Erlandson's guitar contributions, noting: "Erlandson's tireless, monomaniacal guitar wizardry gives Celebrity Skin its gorgeous textures and resonant power." Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne said "the music is sleeker and more taut than anything Hole have done". The Guardians Caroline Sullivan awarded the album three out of five stars, writing that "Love and Hole have always been about feeling rather than technique... well, a bit of technique actually creeps in, too. Technique is the only word for whatever process made certain segments of Celebrity Skin sound so confident, so smooth."
Of retrospective assessments, AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the album was "a glaze of shiny guitars and hazy melodies, all intended to evoke the heyday of Californian pop in the late '70s," awarding the album three and a half stars out of five. In a piece celebrating the album's 20th anniversary, Stereogum critic Gabriela Claymore characterized it as a "polished, decadent rock [record] with something rotten at its core... Hole's most sonically accomplished album but it is not their best." Tom Edwards of Drowned in Sound was more critical in a retrospective review, referring to "Awful" as "gorgeous, pure blues" and "Hit So Hard" as "the best song about love since 'Retard Girl'," but concluding that "it's a weak record full of empty music either way."
Accolades
Several publications included Celebrity Skin in their year-end periodical lists, including Time, who listed the album at number nine on its Best of 1998 Music list, Spin, who listed the album at number 11 on its Top 20 Albums of the Year list, and The Village Voice, who listed the album at number 14 in the Pazz and Jop Critics' Poll. Los Angeles Timess Robert Hillburn ranked it number five on the list of Top 10 Albums of the Year. The 2013 NMEs The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ranked Celebrity Skin 265th on their list. It is also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die (2010). Celebrity Skin was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 1999 Grammy Awards.
Commercial performance
Celebrity Skin was a commercial success, charting in various countries within a week of its release. In the United States, the album debuted at number nine on the Billboard 200 with sales of 86,000 copies in its first week. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on October 13, 1998, and later certified platinum on December 21 for shipments in excess of one million copies. As of April 2010, it had sold 1.4 million copies in the United States.
The album has also been certified Platinum by platinum by Music Canada (MC), peaking at number three with sales of over 100,000 copies, and two times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), peaking at number four, with sales of over 140,000 copies. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number 11 with 124,221 copies sold, and was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Additionally, the album peaked at number 15 on the Austrian Albums Chart; on Switzerland's Albums Chart at number six; on Sweden's Albums Chart at number 10; and on the New Zealand Music Chart at number 15, where it was also certified gold.
Track listing
All lyrics written by Courtney Love.
All tracks produced by Michael Beinhorn.
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Celebrity Skin and Hit So Hard: A Memoir.
Hole
Courtney Lovelead vocals, rhythm guitar
Eric Erlandsonlead guitar
Melissa Auf der Maurbass, backing vocals
Patty Schemeldrums
Guest musicians
Deen Castronovodrums
Billy Corganbass
Craig Armstrongstrings
David Campbellstrings
Production
Michael Beinhornproducer, programming
Eric Erlandsonadditional producer
Paul Northfieldengineer
Rob Eatonengineer
Joe Barresiengineer
Frank Filipettiengineer
John Nelsonadditional engineer
Ben Holtadditional engineer
Ann Mincieliadditional engineer
Paul Waltonadditional engineer
Technical
Tom Lord-Algemixing
Chris Lord-Algemixing
Jack Joseph Puigmixing
Leo Ferreramixing assistant
Femio Hernandezmixing assistant
Rob Hoffmanmixing assistant
Mike Dymixing assistant
Jim Champagnemixing assistant
Ted Jensenmastering
Paul DeCarliprogramming
Max Risenhowerprogramming
Chris Vrennaprogramming
Nick Franglenprogramming
Chris Whitemyertechnician
Design
Joe-Mama Nitzbergart direction
Janet Wolsbornart direction
Front cover: Guzman (Constance Hansen & Russell Peacock)
Back cover: Ophelia Drowning by Paul Steck, 1895
Maggie Hallahanphotography
Robert Dawsonphotography
Richard Princephotography
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1998 albums
Albums produced by Michael Beinhorn
Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios
Albums recorded at Record Plant (Los Angeles)
Billy Corgan
DGC Records albums
Geffen Records albums
Hole (band) albums | [
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238440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20heron | Great white heron | Great white heron may refer to:
The all-white population of the great blue heron
Great egret
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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238443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam%20Lynch%20%28musician%29 | Liam Lynch (musician) | William Patrick Niederst (born September 5, 1970), better known as Liam Lynch, is an American filmmaker, singer, musician, songwriter, and puppeteer.
While studying at LIPA in Liverpool, Lynch co-created, co-wrote, directed, scored, and produced the 1998 MTV comedy puppet series The Sifl and Olly Show. His 2003 album Fake Songs featured the song "United States of Whatever", which charted in the Top 10 in Australia and the United Kingdom. He has since become more known for directing music videos for acts such as Queens of the Stone Age, Foo Fighters, Royal Blood, Tenacious D, Spinnerette, No Doubt, Eagles of Death Metal, "Weird Al" Yankovic, and They Might Be Giants.
Lynch directed the 2006 film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny after working with Tenacious D in 2002, having directed the music video for their song "Tribute". He also directed several short films that played as part of their live show, as well as the documentary On The Road with Tenacious D. He also wrote the original music used in the 2002 MTV animated series Clone High and co-wrote a song in the 2003 film School of Rock, as well as directing Sarah Silverman's 2005 stand-up comedy film Sarah Silverman: Jesus Is Magic.
Early life
Lynch was born William Patrick Niederst in Petersburg, Virginia, on September 5, 1970. Before pursuing a career in the arts, he worked various jobs such as a restaurant dishwasher, a Blockbuster employee, a car washer, a box factory worker, a telemarketer, and a wax museum tour guide. He also tested artificial intelligence for Sony when they introduced their now-defunct AIBO robot dogs, and still owns the early prototype of the robot.
Career
When Lynch was 23, his friend read a story in Rolling Stone that Paul McCartney was going to open a unique performing arts school in Liverpool called the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts (LIPA) and gave Lynch information on how to apply. He was one of 40 musicians chosen to join LIPA from around the world. During his time in Liverpool, he created the concept of what was to become The Sifl and Olly Show. He wanted to make something using the recordings he and Matt Crocco made a few years prior as a Christmas present for Crocco. He originally wanted to do stop motion photography, but didn't have the money or the equipment for it. When he made the first episode, it was 3 a.m. and he grabbed the only materials he had nearby, which were socks; he later said that "it could have easily been buckets". Making puppets out of his socks and borrowing a video camera from a friend, he created Sifl and Olly. He sent a few tapes to MTV Europe in 1996, leading them to become idents played in between music videos. A year later, the idents would become half-hour shows. In 1997, to work on The Sifl and Olly Show pilot, Lynch relocated back to the U.S. from Liverpool and settled in Nashville, Tennessee, though he briefly returned to Liverpool to finish his studies.
MTV began airing Sifl and Olly in the U.S. in July 1998, but the show only lasted two seasons. A third season was released as a DVD available through the Sifl and Olly website. Lynch's song "United States of Whatever" was featured during the first season of Sifl and Olly. When the show was canceled, he put the song on a sampler CD. It was used in a commercial for the 2003 video game Tony Hawk's Underground, with Tony Hawk having made a guest appearance on the third season of Sifl and Olly. The song was later featured on Lynch's 2003 album Fake Songs, produced by his own company 111 Productions, which led to the song charting in the Top 10 in Australia and the United Kingdom. The song later gained a Guinness World Record for being the shortest song to reach the top 10 in the UK, clocking in at just 1 minute and 25 seconds. When he was asked to perform the song on Top of the Pops, Lynch was on tour with No Doubt to film them for a live DVD. Since he could not make the show, he promised to send a performance video in his place; the video, hastily shot and edited in one day, become the song's official music video.
While working on Fake Songs, Lynch directed a UK-only music video for the Foo Fighters song "Times Like These"; worked on DVDs for No Doubt, Tenacious D, and Eagles of Death Metal, Sarah Silverman, and Queens of the Stone Age; and finished composing music for the MTV animated series Clone High. He also co-wrote music for the Jack Black film School of Rock. He released several of his albums, including We're All-Nighters and How to Be a Satellite, in 2006. He released his album Get Up on the Raft in 2008. He also released two volumes of songs from his podcast Lynchland. He collaborated on and directed Sarah Silverman's film Sarah Silverman: Jesus Is Magic, also co-writing and producing the soundtrack. He then directed Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny, released in late 2006, and helped to write and played guitar for the album of the same name. In 2007, he animated and voiced the character of Bulby, a wise-cracking light bulb created to promote the Queens of the Stone Age album Era Vulgaris.
In 2009, Lynch directed the music video for the song "Craigslist" by "Weird Al" Yankovic from his album Alpocalypse. Later that year, he was credited for the graphics and artwork on Them Crooked Vultures' debut self-titled album. In 2012, he directed several music videos for songs from Tenacious D's Rize of the Fenix album. He also made the artwork for the band's 2012 Jazz EP. In 2013, he directed the music video for They Might Be Giants' title track from the album Nanobots. In 2014, he directed the music video for "Weird Al" Yankovic's song "First World Problems" from his album Mandatory Fun. In 2018, he directed the music video for Queens of the Stone Age's song "Head Like a Haunted House" from their album Villains. In 2021, he directed and starred in the music videos for Royal Blood's songs "Boilermaker" and "Oblivion" from their album Typhoons.
Pictures of Lynch were used as inspiration in designing one of the aliens in J. J. Abrams' 2009 Star Trek film. Lynch has a podcast, LynchLand, which features video animations, songs from his albums, and guests. He also features his cats and other animals around his home. His video podcast has over 90,000 viewers. He sells merchandise on his website to offset the costs of making the podcast. The podcast has featured appearances by Ringo Starr, Josh Homme, Sarah Silverman, Jack Black, Tony Hawk, Tim Robbins, Shirley Manson, "Weird Al" Yankovic, Dhani Harrison, and Alex Albrecht.
Personal life
Lynch married his wife, artist Robin McCauley, on an unknown date in the wheel house of the RMS Queen Mary in Long Beach, California. He claims to have lived in a haunted building during his time in Liverpool, which gave him an interest in the paranormal. He and his wife have collected many audio recordings and videos of their paranormal experiences, some of which they have uploaded onto a YouTube channel called The Spark Club. In 2006, he had his pet cat cloned, making it the sixth cat ever to be cloned; the company who performed the cloning was later absorbed into ViaGen Pets.
Lynch suffers from dyslexia, two types of color blindness, and insomnia. He is unable to burp. He does not drink alcohol or use recreational drugs of any kind. He is an avid gamer and can be seen in a bonus video on the original disc of the video game Guitar Hero, in which he explains the equipment he uses by Line 6, the company who developed the guitar tones for the game to match the various musicians they needed to mimic. He is a lifelong Doctor Who fan, and continues to watch the series and collect memorabilia.
Discography
Solo albums
Eel (1995, self-released)
We're All Nighters (2002, 111 Productions Inc)
Fake Songs (2003, S-Curve)
How to Be a Satellite (2006, 111 Productions Inc)
Songs from Lynchland (2006, 111 Productions Inc)
More Songs from Lynchland (2007, 111 Productions Inc)
Get Up on the Raft (2008, 111 Productions Inc)
The Middle (2011, 111 Productions Inc)
New Springs (2014, 111 Productions Inc)
The Whole Damn Thing (2017, 111 Productions Inc)
Be An Owl (2018, 111 Productions Inc)
Crowing (2021, 111 Productions Inc)
Albums with Matt Crocco
Camp Sunny Side Up (with Matt Crocco) (1999, 111 Productions Inc)
History of America? (with Matt Crocco) (2000, 111 Productions Inc)
Sifl and Olly – Songs of Season One (with Matt Crocco) (2001, 111 Productions Inc)
Other appearances
School of Rock – Official soundtrack (2003)
Eagles of Death Metal – Death by Sexy (2006)
Sarah Silverman – Jesus Is Magic (2006)
Tenacious D – The Pick of Destiny (2006)
Queens of the Stone Age – Era Vulgaris (2007)
References
External links
1970 births
American male musicians
American novelty song performers
American music video directors
Living people
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Musicians from Virginia
Alumni of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts
People from Petersburg, Virginia | [
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238446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lily%20of%20the%20valley | Lily of the valley | Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis ()), sometimes written lily-of-the-valley, is a woodland flowering plant with sweetly scented, pendent, bell-shaped white flowers borne in sprays in spring. It is native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere in Asia and Europe, but is considered generally invasive in parts of North America. Convallaria majalis var. montana, also known as the American lily of the valley, is native to North America.
Due to the concentration of cardiac glycosides (cardenolides), it is highly poisonous if consumed by humans or animals.
Other names include May bells, Our Lady's tears, and Mary's tears. Its French name, muguet, sometimes appears in the names of perfumes imitating the flower's scent. In pre-modern England, the plant was known as glovewort (as it was a wort used to create a salve for sore hands), or Apollinaris (according to a legend that it was discovered by Apollo).
Description
Convallaria majalis is an herbaceous perennial plant that often forms extensive colonies by spreading underground stems called rhizomes. New upright shoots are formed at the ends of stolons in summer, these upright dormant stems are often called pips. These grow in the spring into new leafy shoots that still remain connected to the other shoots under ground. The stems grow to tall, with one or two leaves long; flowering stems have two leaves and a raceme of five to fifteen flowers on the stem apex.
The flowers have six white tepals (rarely pink), fused at the base to form a bell-shape, diameter, and sweetly scented; flowering is in late spring, in mild winters in the Northern Hemisphere it is in early March. The fruit is a small orange-red berry diameter that contains a few large whitish to brownish colored seeds that dry to a clear translucent round bead wide. Plants are self-incompatible, and colonies consisting of a single clone do not set seed.
Taxonomy
In the APG III system, the genus is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). It was formerly placed in its own family Convallariaceae, and, like many lilioid monocots, before that in the lily family Liliaceae.
There are three varieties that have sometimes been separated out as distinct species or subspecies by some botanists.
Convallaria majalis var. keiskei – from China and Japan, with red fruit and bowl-shaped flowers (now widely cited as Convallaria keiskei)
C. majalis var. majalis – from Eurasia, with white midribs on the flowers
C. majalis var. montana – from the United States, maybe with green-tinted midribs on the flowers
Convallaria transcaucasica is recognised as a distinct species by some authorities, while the species formerly called Convallaria japonica is now classified as Ophiopogon japonicus.
Distribution
Convallaria majalis is a native of Europe, where it largely avoids the Mediterranean and Atlantic margins. An eastern variety, C. majalis var. keiskei occurs in Japan and parts of eastern Asia. A limited native population of C. majalis var. montana (synonym C. majuscula) occurs in the Eastern United States. There is, however, some debate as to the native status of the American variety.
Like many perennial flowering plants, C. majalis exhibits dual reproductive modes by producing offspring asexually by vegetative means and by seed, produced via the fusion of gametes.
Ecology
Convallaria majalis is a plant of partial shade, and mesophile type that prefers warm summers. It likes soils that are silty or sandy and acid to moderately alkaline, with preferably a plentiful amount of humus. The Royal Horticultural Society states that slightly alkaline soils are the most favored. It is a Euroasiatic and suboceanic species that lives in mountains up to elevation.
Convallaria majalis is used as a food plant by the larvae of some moth and butterfly (Lepidoptera) species including the grey chi. Adults and larvae of the leaf beetle Lilioceris merdigera are also able to tolerate the cardenolides and thus feed on the leaves.
Cultivation
Convallaria majalis is widely grown in gardens for its scented flowers and ground-covering abilities in shady locations. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. In favourable conditions it can form large colonies.
Various kinds and cultivars are grown, including those with double flowers, rose-colored flowers, variegated foliage and ones that grow larger than the typical species.
C. majalis 'Albostriata' has white-striped leaves
C. majalis 'Green Tapestry', 'Haldon Grange', 'Hardwick Hall', 'Hofheim', 'Marcel', 'Variegata' and 'Vic Pawlowski's Gold' are other variegated cultivars
C. majalis 'Berlin Giant' and C. majalis 'Géant de Fortin' (syn. 'Fortin's Giant') are larger-growing cultivars
C. majalis 'Flore Pleno' has double flowers.
C. majalis 'Rosea' sometimes found under the name C. majalis var. rosea, has pink flowers.
Traditionally Convallaria majalis has been grown in pots and winter forced to provide flowers during the winter months, both for as potted plants and as cut flowers.
Chemistry
Roughly 38 different cardiac glycosides (cardenolides) – which are highly toxic if consumed by humans or animals – occur in the plant, including:
The odor of lily of the valley, specifically the ligand bourgeonal, was thought to attract mammalian sperm. The 2003 discovery of this phenomenon prompted research into odor reception, but a 2012 study demonstrated instead that at high concentrations, bourgeonal imitated the role of progesterone in stimulating sperm to swim (chemotaxis), a process unrelated to odor reception.
Toxicology
All parts of the plant are potentially poisonous, including the red berries which may be attractive to children. If ingested, the plant can cause abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and irregular heartbeats.
Uses
Perfume
In 1956, the French firm Dior produced a fragrance simulating lily of the valley, which was Christian Dior's favorite flower. Diorissimo was designed by Edmond Roudnitska. Although it has since been reformulated, it is considered a classic.
Other perfumes imitating or based on the flower include Henri Robert's Muguet de Bois (1936), Penhaligon's Lily of the Valley (1976), and Olivia Giacobetti's En Passant (2000).
Weddings and other celebrations
Lily of the valley has been used in weddings and can be very expensive. Lily of the valley was featured in the bridal bouquet at the wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton. Lily of the valley was also the flower chosen by Princess Grace of Monaco to be featured in her bridal bouquet.
At the beginning of the 20th century, it became tradition in France to sell lily of the valley on international labour day, 1 May (also called La Fête du Muguet (Lily of the Valley Day) by labour organisations and private persons without paying sales tax (on that day only) as a symbol of spring.
Lily of the valley is worn in Helston (Cornwall, UK) on Flora Day (8 May each year, see Furry Dance) representing the coming of "the May-o" and the summer. There is also a song sung in pubs around Cornwall (and on Flora Day in Cadgwith, near Helston) called "Lily of the Valley"; the song, strangely, came from the Jubilee Singers from Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee.
Folk medicine
The plant has been used in folk medicine for centuries. There is a reference to "Lilly of the valley water" in Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Kidnapped where it is said to be "good against the Gout", and that it "comforts the heart and strengthens the memory" and "restores speech to those that have the dumb palsey". There is no scientific evidence that lily of the valley has any effective medicinal uses for treating human diseases.
Cultural symbolism
The lily of the valley was the national flower of Yugoslavia, and it also became the national flower of Finland in 1967.
In the "language of flowers", the lily of the valley signifies the return of happiness.
Myths
The name "lily of the valley", like its correspondences in some other European languages, is apparently a reference to the phrase "lily of the valleys" (sometimes also translated as "lily of the valley") in Song of Songs 2:1 (). European herbalists' use of the phrase to refer to a specific plant species seems to have appeared relatively late in the 16th or 15th century. The New Latin term convallaria (coined by Carl Linnaeus) and, for example, Swedish name derives from the corresponding phrase lilium convallium in the Vulgate.
Gallery
See also
List of plants known as lily
References
External links
Invasive Plant Atlas – US Distribution Map
Convallaria majalis fact sheet – NC Cooperative Extension
Flora of Europe
Flora of temperate Asia
Flora of the Southeastern United States
Flora of Myanmar
Flora of West Virginia
Garden plants of Asia
Garden plants of Europe
Garden plants of North America
Medicinal plants
Nolinoideae
Plants described in 1753 | [
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238451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney | Mudhoney | Mudhoney is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1988, following the demise of Green River. Its members are singer and rhythm guitarist Mark Arm, lead guitarist Steve Turner, bassist Guy Maddison and drummer Dan Peters. Original bassist Matt Lukin left the band in 1999.
Mudhoney's early releases on the Sub Pop label, particularly their debut single "Touch Me I'm Sick" and the Superfuzz Bigmuff EP, were instrumental in the creation of the Grunge genre. Although the band found little commercial success and remained somewhat 'underground' and non-mainstream, Mudhoney has released ten studio albums and inspired countless grunge and alternative rock musicians during their long career.
History
Mr. Epp and the Calculations: 1978–1984
Two future members of Mudhoney met through their association with Mr. Epp and the Calculations. This band formed in 1978 in Bellevue, Washington, a suburb of Seattle. While at Bellevue Christian High School, Mark McLaughlin (later known as Mark Arm) and some friends started Mr. Epp and the Calculations, a band named after a math teacher of his. Initially the band was essentially a joke band rather than a serious one; their first "show" was in class singing Marvin Gaye's "Got to Give It Up", using rolled-up maps as guitars because they could not actually play any instruments. Mr. Epp and the Calculations played their first real show in 1981, three years after they formed. To make the band seem more serious, Mr. Epp added a second guitarist Steve Turner, who was in a small garage band called The Ducky Boys. Mark Arm and Steve Turner became instant friends. In 1983, three songs of Mr. Epp were included in First Strike: a compilation, the first cassette in the BCT catalog. Mr. Epp and the Calculations appeared on KZAM radio and were introduced as "the worst band in the world." They played their last show on February 3, 1984 with Malfunkshun at Seattle's Metropolis. Mark Arm and Steve Turner formed a joke-punk band called The Limp Richerds in 1984 near the end of Mr. Epp but this band ended shortly after Mr. Epp's ending as well.
Green River: 1984–1987
Green River was formed in 1984 when Arm and Turner recruited Alex Vincent as drummer, who had previously played with Turner in the short-lived Spluii Numa. Bassist Jeff Ament joined the band after arriving in Seattle with his band Deranged Diction. Stone Gossard, another of Turner's former bandmates, was recruited as second guitarist. Green River recorded their debut EP, Come on Down, in 1985, and it is considered the first grunge record because it was released several months before the Deep Six album that was compiled by six other Seattle grunge bands. Turner left the band after its release due to his distaste of the band's hard rock leanings. He was replaced by another Deranged Diction member, Bruce Fairweather. After recording another EP (Dry As a Bone) and a full-length album (Rehab Doll), the band disbanded in late 1987. Gossard, Ament, and Fairweather went on to join Mother Love Bone. Following lead singer Andrew Wood's death, Gossard and Ament went on to form Pearl Jam, and Fairweather joined Love Battery. In January 1988, Arm reunited with Turner to form Mudhoney.
Sub Pop: 1988–1991
Turner wanted to start a band that practiced before playing to a live audience. He and Arm began songwriting with Bundle of Hiss drummer Dan Peters. The trio decided that Matt Lukin, who had recently left Melvins, should join the band as bassist. They named themselves after the Russ Meyer film Mudhoney.
In 1988, the band recorded and released their debut EP, Superfuzz Bigmuff, and their first single, "Touch Me I'm Sick", on the Sub Pop label. The single attracted attention and the band enjoyed moderate success in the United States. Mudhoney quickly became Sub Pop's flagship band. Sonic Youth, who were fans of the band, had invited Mudhoney to join them for a tour in the UK in 1989. After this tour Superfuzz Bigmuff entered the British indie charts and they received a respectable amount of press coverage. The band released their first album, Mudhoney, in 1989.
Kurt Cobain listed Superfuzz Bigmuff as one of his favourite albums in his journal in 1993.
They released their second album, Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge, in 1991. After the album's release they were offered a deal with Reprise Records, and they joined the label in 1992.
Reprise: 1992–1999
Mudhoney's first album with Reprise was Piece of Cake. In a 2008 Mojo magazine article, Turner explained the album references "how easily things had come to them ... the songs were kinda half-baked ..." They also contributed a track "Overblown" at this time to the soundtrack to the film Singles.
With their 1995 album My Brother the Cow they mixed their earlier and more recent sound, but Turner explained in an article in Mojo, "There was a backlash after Kurt [Cobain] killed himself. The English press were so angry that we were still around. Those were some of the worst reviews we'd ever gotten. We were mocked for still existing." The press was not all negative, as the album received praise in certain U.S. publications, including People magazine: "Leave the brooding anthems to Pearl Jam. Mudhoney delivers pure grunge—messy music that casts a powerful spell."
In 1996, Mudhoney appeared in the comedy movie Black Sheep, starring Chris Farley and David Spade. The band was shown performing at an MTV concert and then speaking with Farley backstage. Tomorrow Hit Today was released in September 1998. The album demonstrated a blues-rock influence, and the band used record producer Jim Dickinson, who worked with The Rolling Stones. They recorded the set in three different cities.
After a few years of touring, Reprise decided to release Mudhoney. Subsequently, Lukin left the band. They released March to Fuzz, a retrospective compilation album.
After Matt Lukin: 2000–present
Mudhoney continued to play some concerts in the Pacific Northwest, and recruited permanent bassist Guy Maddison (of Monroe's Fur and Lubricated Goat) who had played with Arm in one of his many side projects, Bloodloss. In 2002, following their return to Sub Pop, the band recorded and released a new studio album, Since We've Become Translucent. This was followed by a major South American tour.
In early 2003 the band entered the studio to record "Hard-On For War", that would appear exclusively on Buddyhead Presents: Gimme Skelter compilation album. Later that year the band recorded Under a Billion Suns on which a new version of the song appeared. The album was released in 2006 and received favorable reviews. In 2006 the band also helped to curate an edition of the British All Tomorrow's Parties festival.
During 2007, Mudhoney played in Brazil again and went on a brief European tour. In November that year, the band released a live album entitled Live Mud, containing songs recorded at a concert in Mexico.
In 2008, Mudhoney began recording their next album with producer Tucker Martine, The Lucky Ones, which was released in May 2008. Shortly thereafter, Sub Pop released a deluxe, remastered edition of Superfuzz Bigmuff. The reissue contained the original EP in its correct running order, along with singles, demos, and two live recordings from 1988. In the liner notes of the reissued Superfuzz Bigmuff, Jay Hinman wrote: My feeling—and I know I'm not alone in this one—is that for all the play and worldwide attention several Seattle-area bands got during the 1988–92 period, at the end of the day (and even at the time), there was Mudhoney—and then there was everybody else. To me, you, and everyone else paying close attention to underground rock music during those years, Mudhoney still sound like the undisputed kingpins of roaring, surging, fuzzed-out, punk music.
In 2009, Mudhoney announced a series of live dates. This included an extensive tour of Europe which started in Edinburgh, Scotland with Sub Pop label mates The Vaselines. The tour ended on October 26. The group performed at the Nelsonville Music Festival in Nelsonville, Ohio in May 2009. The group played at the ATP New York 2010 music festival in Monticello, New York in September 2010, where they performed Superfuzz Bigmuff in its entirety.
In 2011, Pearl Jam had Mudhoney open for them on their 20th Anniversary tour. They were chosen by Mogwai to perform in May 2012 at the All Tomorrow's Parties 'I'll Be Your Mirror' festival at Alexandra Palace, London. In April 2013 the band put out their ninth studio album Vanishing Point on the independent label Sub Pop. This was followed by 2018's Digital Garbage, also on Sub Pop.
In 2021, Mudhoney and label Sub pop celebrated the 30 year anniversary of their sophomore album, Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge, with a remastered, deluxe version. This included remastered and re-released music videos and songs as well as previously unreleased songs and demos.
Members
Mark Arm – vocals, rhythm guitar (1988–present)
Steve Turner – lead guitar (1988–present)
Dan Peters – drums, percussion (1988–present)
Guy Maddison – bass guitar (2001–present)
Former members
Matt Lukin – bass guitar (1988–2000)
Discography
Superfuzz Bigmuff (1988)
Mudhoney (1989)
Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge (1991)
Piece of Cake (1992)
My Brother the Cow (1995)
Tomorrow Hit Today (1998)
Since We've Become Translucent (2002)
Under a Billion Suns (2006)
The Lucky Ones (2008)
Vanishing Point (2013)
Digital Garbage (2018)
References
Other sources
Deming, Mark. "[ Mudhoney]". AllMusic. Retrieved May 14, 2005.
Vinylnet Record Label Discographies. link. – Sub Pop catalogue references.
External Links
Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)
Grunge musical groups
Sub Pop artists
Musical groups established in 1988
Musical quartets
Musical groups from Seattle
Garage punk groups
Musical groups from Washington (state)
Third Man Records artists | [
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238452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaumes | Chaumes | Chaumes is a cow's milk cheese from Saint-Antoine-de-Breuilh in the Périgord (South West of France), made by traditional cheese-making processes. Translated literally, "chaumes" is French for stubble.
Based upon traditional Trappist-style cheeses, it is a rather popular cheese among modern French varieties, in particular with children. It is a soft pale cheese with a rich full-bodied flavour and smooth creamy and quite rubbery texture. Its aroma comes from the soft rind, which has a bright tangerine-orange color. The rind appears after several washings of the crust, along with brushing with some ferments.
Maturation of the Chaumes takes four weeks. It is used as a table cheese and also for grilling. It is also available in limited markets around France as a spreadable cream cheese, "Chaumes la Crème".
See also
List of French cheeses
List of cheeses
References
Occitan cheeses
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238454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20World%20Colleges | United World Colleges | United World Colleges (UWC) is an international network of schools and educational programmes with the shared aim of "making education a force to unite people, nations and cultures for peace and a sustainable future." The organization was founded on the principles of German educationalist Kurt Hahn in 1962 to promote intercultural understanding.
Today, UWC consists of 18 schools on four continents. Young people from more than 155 countries are selected through a system of national committees and pursue the International Baccalaureate Diploma; some of the schools are also open to younger years (from kindergarten). UWC runs the world’s largest scholarship programme in international secondary education, with over 80% of students selected by UWC national committees to attend one of the colleges receiving financial support. To date, there are almost 60,000 UWC alumni from all over the world.
The current President of UWC is Queen Noor of Jordan (1995–present). Former South African President Nelson Mandela was joint President (1995–1999) alongside Queen Noor, and subsequently Honorary President of UWC (1999–2013). Former UWC presidents are Lord Mountbatten (1968–1977) and Prince Charles (1978–1995).
History
UWC was originally founded in the early 1960s to bridge the social, national and cultural divides apparent during the Second World War and exacerbated by the Cold War. The first college in the movement, UWC Atlantic College in Wales, United Kingdom, was founded in 1962 by Kurt Hahn, a German educationalist who had previously founded Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun in Scotland, the Outward Bound movement, and the Duke of Edinburgh's Award Scheme.
Hahn envisaged a college educating boys and girls aged 16 to 19. He believed that schools should not simply be a means for preparing to enter university, but should help students prepare for life by developing resilience and the ability to experience both successes and failures. The selection would be based on personal motivation and potential, regardless of any social, economic or cultural factors. A scholarship programme would facilitate the recruitment of young people from different socio-economic backgrounds.
Louis Mountbatten was involved with Atlantic College from its early days, and encouraged the organization to adopt the name "United World Colleges" and to open an international office with operations distinct from that of Atlantic College, to indicate a global reach and ambition beyond a single college. In 1967 he became the first president of the United World Colleges, a position he held until 1977. Lord Mountbatten supported the organization by gaining support from heads of state and politicians, and in fundraising activities. Under his presidency, the United World College of South East Asia was established in Singapore in 1971 (formally joining the UWC movement in 1975), followed by the United World College of the Pacific in Victoria, British Columbia, in 1974.
The Colleges
There are currently 18 UWC schools and colleges in operation, with an international office in London. UWC Simón Bolivar was a member of the movement until its closing in 2012 by the Venezuelan government. The location and opening date (and, for those that joined the UWC movement after being founded as an independent institution, their joining year) for each United World College is given below:
United World College of the Atlantic (Llantwit Major, Wales), 1962
Lester B. Pearson United World College of the Pacific (Victoria, British Columbia, Canada), 1974
UWC South East Asia (Singapore), founded 1971, joined UWC 1975
Waterford Kamhlaba United World College of Southern Africa (Mbabane, Eswatini), founded 1963, joined UWC 1981
UWC-USA (Montezuma, New Mexico), 1982
UWC Adriatic (Duino, Italy), 1982
Simón Bolívar United World College of Agriculture (Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela), founded 1986, joined UWC 1987, closed 2012
Li Po Chun United World College (Wu Kai Sha, Hong Kong), 1992
UWC Red Cross Nordic (Flekke, Norway), 1995
UWC Mahindra (Village Khubavali, India), 1997
UWC Costa Rica (Santa Ana, Costa Rica), founded 2000, joined UWC 2006
UWC Mostar (Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina), 2006
UWC Maastricht (Maastricht, Netherlands), founded 1984, joined UWC 2009
UWC Robert Bosch (Freiburg, Germany), 2014
UWC Dilijan (Dilijan, Armenia), 2014
UWC Changshu China (Changshu, China), 2015
UWC Thailand (Phuket, Thailand), founded 2008, joined UWC 2016
UWC ISAK Japan (Karuizawa, Japan), founded 2014, joined UWC 2017
UWC East Africa (Kilimanjaro and Arusha, Tanzania), founded 1969, joined UWC 2019
Academics
UWC values experiential learning alongside providing its 16–19-year-old students with the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma, an internationally recognised pre-university educational programme developed in close collaboration with UWC in the late 1960s. The IB Diploma Programme was co-developed by UWC Atlantic College, the Geneva International School and the United Nations School in New York in 1968 and aims "to develop students who have excellent breadth and depth of knowledge – students who flourish physically, intellectually, emotionally and ethically". Today, UWC and the IB Organisation continue to work closely together to develop new curricula and shaping international education.
Five UWC schools (UWC Thailand, UWC South East Asia in Singapore, UWC Maastricht in the Netherlands, UWC East Africa in Tanzania and Waterford Kamhlaba UWC of Southern Africa in Eswatini) also offer non-residential educational programmes for younger students aged between 18 months and 15 years.
Meanwhile, some UWC schools and colleges offer a Pre-IB Year, as a preparation year for students before they begin their IB Diploma Programme. UWC schools and colleges that offer the Pre-IB Programme include, UWC Changshu in China, UWC South East Asia in Singapore, Waterford Kamhlaba UWC of Southern Africa in Eswatini, UWC Thailand, UWC ISAK Japan and UWC East Africa in Tanzania.
Co-curricular Activities
The UWC education nurtures students' whole person development by having the 'Creativity, Activity, Service' Programme (CAS) at its core. Each UWC school and college offers CAS activities under different names but similarly offers a wide range of both faculty and student led activities.
Funding
The UWC model relies heavily on funding support of different philanthropists as well as national governments. In it's early years, the United World College of the Atlantic and the UWC International Office were funded by the donations and grants from the Ford Foundation, the Dulverton Trust, and the Bernard Sunley trust, in addition to the British and West German governments, and many smaller funders; the site for Atlantic College, St Donat's Castle, was donated for the college by Antonin Besse II. The colleges in Italy and Canada, in particular, receive significant support and funding from their national and local governments.
More recently, the Davis-UWC Scholars Program was launched by Shelby M.C. Davis in 2000 and now supports UWC graduates to study at 99 selected US colleges and universities, and has grown to become the world's largest, privately funded, international scholarship program. In 2018, the Davis-UWC Dare to Dream Programme was launched with the support of Shelby M. C. Davis. In 2020, UWC announced a partnership with the Schmidt Futures and the Rhodes Trust, the Rise Programme, through which 15 students with refugee backgrounds will receive all-inclusive scholarships to attend across 3 years from 2021 to 2023, and further educational programmes will be delivered at Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya.
Notable alumni
Politics and government
Ashley Bloomfield: New Zealand's Director-General of Health and Chief Executive of New Zealand's Ministry of Health
Ian Khama: Former President of Botswana
Julie Payette: Governor General of Canada and astronaut
Douglas Alexander: British politician, who served as Scottish Secretary, Transport Secretary, and International Development Secretary in the Blair and Brown cabinets
Lene Feltman Espersen: former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Denmark
Eluned Morgan: Welsh politician, member of the House of Lords and former member of the European Parliament
Lindiwe Sisulu: Minister of Defence and Military Veterans in South Africa
Lousewies van der Laan: Dutch politician, Vice President of the European Liberal Democrats, Chief of Staff to the President of the International Criminal Court
Corinne Ellemeet: Dutch Member of Parliament
David Cunliffe: New Zealand Member of Parliament
Chrystia Freeland: Current Canadian Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs, Former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Federal Minister of Foreign Trade, journalist and member of the Canadian Parliament
Niki Ashton: Canadian Member of Parliament
Tim Owen QC: British human rights barrister
Jakob von Weizsäcker: German politician, chief economist of the German Ministry of Finance, Member of the European Parliament
Marina Catena: Director United Nations World Food Programme and Lieutenant Italian Army
Pilvi Torsti: Finnish politician and historian
Xochitl Torres Small: Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Mexico's 2nd congressional district
Yuen Pau Woo: Singaporian-Canadian academic and politician
Kim Han-sol: Grandson of Kim Jong-il
King Willem-Alexander: King of The Netherlands
Princess Raiyah bint Hussein: Princess of Jordan
Princess Elisabeth, Duchess of Brabant: heir to the Belgian Crown.
Zenani Mandela-Dlamini
Wang Guangya: Chinese diplomat, former Director of the Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China
Nadiem Anwar Makarim: current Minister of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia
Paul Francis Grimes: senior Australian public servant. Former Secretary of the Australian Government Department of Agriculture.
Business
Pentti Kouri: Finnish economist and venture capitalist
Robert Milton: Chairman, President and CEO of ACE Aviation Holdings Inc. and Chairman of Air Canada
Jorma Ollila: former chairman and CEO of Nokia Corporation
Peter Sands: CEO of Standard Chartered
Robin Chase: co-founder and the first CEO of Zipcar
Todd Sampson: CEO of Leo Burnett, Sydney, co-creator of the Earth Hour initiative
Tellef Thorleifsson: CEO of Norfund
Hakeem Belo-Osagie: Nigerian businessman (energy, finance and telecommunications)
Qais Al Khonji: Omani businessman and entrepreneur
Eyal Ofer: Israeli businessman (real estate and shipping)
Darren Huston: Canadian businessman, former president and CEO of Priceline and Booking.com
Arts and media
Sally El Hosaini: Award-winning Film-maker, Screen International's UK Stars of Tomorrow 2009.
Anne Enright: Irish author, 2007 winner of the Man Booker Prize
Richard E. Grant: Swazi-English actor of Withnail & I fame and 2019 Academy Award nominee for Best Supporting Actor Can You Ever Forgive Me
J. Nozipo Maraire: Zimbabwean-born doctor, entrepreneur and writer.
Karen Mok: Hong-Kong singer, actress and songwriter, three-time Golden Melody Award-winner
Wangechi Mutu: Kenyan artist and 2010 Deutsche Bank Artist of the Year
Aki Sasamoto: New York-based Japanese artist
Eric Khoo: film director from Singapore
Ashraf Johaardien: playwright from South Africa
Sonam Kapoor: Indian actor
Juan Pablo Di Pace: Actor
Hernán Jiménez: Comedian and film director from Costa Rica
Tara Sharma: Indian actress
Sophie Hawley-Weld: Singer for band Sofi Tukker
Valeria Luisello: Writer from México.
Emma Tucker: British journalist, editor of The Sunday Times
Saba Douglas-Hamilton: conservationist and TV presenter
Iqbaal Ramadhan: Indonesian Actor and Musician
Nicholas Dawes, South African journalist and editor
Anne Enright: Irish author and writer
Aernout van Lynden: Dutch-british journalist/ war correspondent
Luke Harding: British journalist and author
Lina Attalah: Egyptian journalist
Juan Pablo Di Pace: Argentinian actor
Academics
Alison Donnell: English Professor and Head of School of Literature and Languages at University of Reading
: Professor of Public Law, Chair of Public Finance and Tax Law at the University of Heidelberg
Jonathan Michie: Director of the Department for Continuing Education and President of Kellogg College, University of Oxford
Gina Neff: Professor of Sociology, Oxford University and Senior Research Fellow, Christ Church, Oxford
Gyda Sindre: Professor of Political Science, University of York
Howard Newby: Vice-Chancellor of the University of Liverpool
Federico Varese: Professor of Criminology, Oxford University and Senior Research Fellow, Nuffield College, Oxford
Ghil'ad Zuckermann: Chair of Linguistics and Endangered Languages, University of Adelaide.
Shawkat Toorawa: Professor of Arabic Studies, Yale University.
Stephan Klasen: Professor of Development Economics, University of Göttingen.
Alan Whiteside: South African academic, researcher and professor, especially known for his work on Aids in Africa.
Tamar Herzog: Monroe Gutman Professor of Latin American Affairs at Harvard University
Federico Varese: Professor of Criminology at Oxford University
Jukka-Pekka Onnela: Finnish scientist
Other fields
Akihiko Hoshide: Japanese astronaut
Malaika Vaz: youngest explorer to reach Antarctica and Arctic.
Mayumi Raheem: Sri Lankan swimmer, three times gold medal winner at the 2006 South Asian Games
Paul Colton: Bishop of Cork, Cloyne and Ross, Ireland
Andreas Loewe: Dean of Melbourne in the Anglican Church of Melbourne
References
External links
International school associations | [
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238455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Ramsey | Frank Ramsey | Frank Ramsey may refer to:
Frank Ramsey (mathematician) (1903–1930), mathematician, philosopher, and economist
Frank Ramsey (basketball) (1931–2018), basketball Hall of Famer
See also
Frank William Ramsay (1875–1954), senior British Army officer in World War I | [
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238456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UWC | UWC | UWC may refer to:
Ukrainian World Congress, the umbrella organization of Ukrainian diaspora communities.
Ulster Workers' Council, a grouping of loyalist and unionist workers in Northern Ireland responsible for the 1974 Ulster Workers' Strike
Unified World Champion
United World Colleges, a group of international schools.
United Wrestling Coalition, a wrestling promotion in Burlington County, New Jersey.
University of the Western Cape, a university in South Africa.
University of Wisconsin Colleges
User Worked Crossing, a type of level crossing
Universal Wrestling Corporation, the original name given to World Championship Wrestling in 1988 and from 2001 to 2017
UWC (video game), a unreleased wrestling game for NES
Union of World Cartoonists. | [
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238457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo%20Parra%20Pizarro | Eduardo Parra Pizarro | Eduardo Parra (Eduardo Parra Pizarro?) (July 24, 1943, Los Andes, Chile) is a member of the Chilean rock fusion band Los Jaivas. He is the oldest of the Parra brothers (plus Claudio and Gabriel). Eduardo plays the keyboards and some percussion instruments.
Poetry
He has written several poetry books, including:
La Puerta Giratoria.Ediciones Rivera Scott. 1968
Pequeño contratiempo justo a final de siglo. Ediciones Rumbos. 1996
Cuentos de Paciencia-Ficción. Editorial Efímera. 1987
Ruego por ti, Valparáiso. Editorial Contemporánea S.A.
La isla de la dulzura. Ediciones Los Jaivas. Sony BMG.
References
1943 births
Living people
People from Los Andes Province, Chile
Chilean folk singers
20th-century Chilean male singers
Chilean pianists
Chilean male poets
Male pianists
21st-century pianists | [
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238459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juanita%20Parra | Juanita Parra | Juana (Juanita) Parra (born 19 November 1970) is a Chilean musician, known as the drummer and percussionist of the Chilean rock band Los Jaivas.
She is the daughter of Gabriel Parra, and Eugenia Correa. Gabriel was the original drummer of Chilean progressive rock–folk group Los Jaivas. He died in a crash in Peru in 1988.
Juanita joined the band as the drummer after her father's death. Her first CD with the band was Hijos de la tierra in 1995.
References
1970 births
Living people
Chilean musicians
Women drummers
21st-century women musicians
21st-century drummers
Chilean drummers | [
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] |
238460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HESH | HESH | HESH or Hesh may refer to:
Places
Sharm El Sheikh International Airport, is an international airport in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt
Science and technology
High-explosive squash head, a type of explosive ammunition | [
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238461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudio%20Parra | Claudio Parra | Claudio Parra Pizarro (Viña del Mar, September 14, 1945) is a Chilean musician, pianist and composer. He has served as a pianist and keyboardist for the band Los Jaivas its formation in 1963. He is an undisputed reference of the piano with a properly Chilean sound, and considered one of the most important in the history of popular music in Chile.
Biography
Claudio is part of the Parra family of Viña del Mar, which should not be confused with the Parra clan, from where Violeta Parra, Nicanor Parra and Roberto Parra, among others, emerged. It is through this family's friendship with Mario Mutis and Gato Alquinta that the Los Jaivas group was born.
The formal approach to music occurs under the influence of two family members: his uncle Ramón Parra Román ("Uncle Moncho"), who had been a talented classical piano soloist, and his aunt Gladys, who took him along with his brother. Eduardo, to concerts by the Chilean Symphony Orchestra and to presentations, among others, of the great Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau. Between the ages of eight and twelve, and thanks to these influences, Claudio began to cultivate classical music techniques in his piano playing and to apply them to collective musical creation.
When The High & Bass was formed, Claudio's job was to play the accordion. Convinced by a professor at the Federico Santa María Technical University while studying engineering in 1965, Claudio decides to drop out, travel to Santiago and apply to the Conservatory of the University of Chile. Learning intensively, since his nineteen years are not the optimal age for piano studies, Claudio manages to enter the Conservatory and becomes the only member of the group to have formal musical training. He moved from the accordion to the piano, an instrument that would characterize his work in the group's most glorious years, and that would define an important part of his characteristic sound.
His knowledge of learned music has also led him to be the constant link between the band and the orchestras with which they have worked in their symphonic incursions, such as the still unpublished "Litanies Por El Azar", "Los Caminos Que Se Abren", "Corre Que Te Pillo" and the album Mamalluca (1999). The composition of melodies is his strength, and his characteristic piano is the one that guides songs as important as "La Conquistada", "La Poderosa Muerte" and "Mira Niñita", although it is seen more noticeable in progressive works such as those that adorn the album. Works by Violeta Parra from 1984 and even in her beautiful composition "Elqui", which appears in Mamalluca. But he has also executed interesting arrangements on synthesizers, such as those that adorn the song "Amor Americano" by Alturas de Machu Picchu, from 1981 and the complete album Si Tú No eres from 1989.
Within the band, he is the inveterate collector, the one in charge of keeping the updated archive of the concerts and recordings of Los Jaivas, as well as the memories and the scores. Due to his sociable nature, he is the member of the group that has given the most interviews to the press, and in recent years he has become the person in charge of presenting the songs at concerts. After the death of Gato Alquinta, his character as the band's "musical director" led him to be the one who prepared his children, Eloy and Ankatu, to be his replacement.
In 2007 he received a tribute from the engineer Carolina Hernández in the Plaza de Armas in Santiago de Chile
He is the only one to have been in Los Jaivas from the beginning of the band.
References
Chilean pianists
People from Viña del Mar
1945 births
Living people
Chilean composers
Chilean multi-instrumentalists | [
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238463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Mutis | Mario Mutis | Mario Mutis (born 1947) is the bass player in the Chilean progressive rock-folk band Los Jaivas.
References
1947 births
Living people
Chilean guitarists
20th-century Chilean male singers
Chilean singer-songwriters
People from Viña del Mar
Male bass guitarists | [
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238465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-explosive%20squash%20head | High-explosive squash head | High explosive squash head (HESH) in British terminology, or high explosive plastic/plasticized (HEP) in American terminology, is a type of explosive projectile which utilizes a plastic explosive that conforms to the surface of a target before detonating, to improve the transfer of explosive energy to the target. Squash head projectiles are similar to high explosive projectiles and are well suited to many of the same targets. However, while HESH projectiles are not armour-piercing, they are capable of defeating armored targets by causing spall which can injure or kill a vehicle's occupants.
Design
Function
HESH rounds are thin metal shells filled with inert material (like coal-tar pitch) ,plastic explosive and a delayed-action base fuze. Upon impacting, the inert material followed by plastic explosive is "squashed" against the surface of the target and spreads out to form a disc or "pat" of explosive. The inert material helps to prevent premature detonation of the plastic explosive and to sustain the impact pressure and temperature.
The base fuze then detonates the explosive milliseconds later, creating a shock wave that, owing to its large surface area and direct contact with the target, is transmitted through the material. In the case of the metal armour of a tank, the compression shock wave is conducted through the armour to the point where it reaches the metal-air interface (the hollow crew compartment), where some of the energy is reflected as a tension wave, a phenomenon called impulsive loading. At the point where the compression and tension waves intersect, a high-stress zone is created in the metal, causing pieces of steel to be projected off the interior wall at high velocity.
Effect
This fragmentation by blast wave is known as scabbing or spalling, with the fragments themselves known as scabs or spall.
Depending upon the armour thickness, a heavy chunk of target material (4 to 10 kg for a standard 120 mm round) can separate out from the other end of the target with supersonic velocities. This spall, is sufficient to permanently damage the essentials of tank, igniting the ammunition or fuel storage and severely damaging the crew to achieve a "total kill" of the target. In general, the higher the armour thickness, the higher the scab weight will be.
The fragmentation achieved by impulsive loading of armour block by an HESH round is more lethal compared to similar high explosive rounds.
Use
HESH rounds are mostly fired from guns with rifled barrels rather than smoothbore ones. Rifling decreases the penetrating power of HEAT warheads because the centrifugal force of the spinning projectile tends to disperse the shaped-charge jet, but this same effect can assist an HESH shell by increasing the surface area of contact, the higher the spinning the larger the spat contact patch will be. Unlike high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds, which are shaped-charge ammunition, HESH shells are not specifically designed to perforate the armour of main battle tanks. HESH shells rely instead on the transmission of the shock wave through the solid steel armour.
HESH ammunition has good general purpose use, being effective against most targets, though the round is generally used at relatively low velocities because high velocity excessively disperses the pat of explosive. While only effective against tanks without spaced armour or spall liners, the round is still favoured for combat demolition purposes. The flattened high-velocity explosive pat is capable of destroying concrete constructions much faster than an HEAT round (which is designed for armour penetration), and without the dangerous fragmentation of a traditional high-explosive (HE) fragmentation round.
History
HESH was developed by Dennistoun Burney in the 1940s for the UK's war effort, originally as an anti-fortification "wallbuster" munition for use against concrete. He also led British developments in recoilless rifles as a means to deliver the shell. An early application of the HESH principle was the AVRE's 165 mm demolition gun.
HESH was found to be surprisingly effective against metallic armour and concrete structures as well. It was widely used as an primary round in most of the large calibre rifled guns.
Users
HESH rounds were fielded primarily by the British Army as the main explosive round of its main battle tanks during the Cold War. It was also used by other military forces, particularly those that acquired the early post-World War II British 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7A1 tank gun, including Germany, India, Israel and Sweden.
Since the 1970s, HESH ammunition has increasingly fallen out of favour as armour designs have trended towards layered composites of hard metal and heat-resistant materials. This type of armour is a poor conductor of shock waves. Anti-spalling devices (spall liners), made of materials such as Kevlar, are commonly fitted to the interior surface of modern armoured vehicles to minimise spalling effects. Another reason for the declining use of HESH rounds is the preference of most armies for smoothbore guns due to the use of high power armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot which significantly decrease the rifled barrel life.
British Challenger 1 and Challenger 2 tanks, India's Arjun tank (which has the same rifled 120 mm gun as the UK's MBTs) use HESH rounds as their primary ammunition. Amongst other ammunition types, the Stryker Mobile Gun System variant is to be equipped with a 105 mm HESH round for demolition and bunker-busting purposes. Argentina's TAM medium tanks, Canada's Leopard C1 and Leopard C2 main battle tanks (all of which mount the same 105 mm gun as the Centurion), the Australian Leopard AS1 main battle tank, and the Chinese VT-4 main battle tank (which mounts a 125 mm smoothbore gun).
HESH rounds are also carried by armoured engineer vehicles; they are typically intended for use against fortifications rather than armoured fighting vehicles. A 165 mm HESH round is used by the United States Army for the main gun of the M728 combat engineer vehicle, an M60 tank equipped with a bulldozer blade. Similarly, the UK's Centurion AVRE was equipped with a short 165 mm gun solely for a 29 kg HESH shell.
See also
Munroe effect
High-explosive incendiary
References
Artillery ammunition
Anti-tank rounds
Anti-fortification weapons
English inventions
History of the tank
pl:Amunicja przeciwpancerna#przeciwpancerny pocisk odkształcalny | [
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238467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Henry%20Pope%20%28Canadian%20politician%29 | William Henry Pope (Canadian politician) | William Henry Pope (1825–1879) was a Canadian lawyer, politician, journalist, judge and one of the Fathers of Confederation.
He was born in Bedeque, P.E.I.(Prince Edward Island), the son of Joseph Pope and Lucy Colledge. He was educated in England, but returned to Charlottetown where he studied law at the office of Edward Palmer. He became a lawyer in 1847. The editor of Prince Edward Island's main Tory newspaper, The Islander, from 1859 to 1872, he entered politics in 1863.
He was named Colonial Secretary in 1859 even though he was not a part of the legislature because of a government experiment of having civil servants head the government departments. When he became a representative for the constituency of Belfast in 1863, he continued to hold that position. He was one of the hosts of the Charlottetown Conference in 1864.
An enthusiastic supporter of Canadian Confederation, he left the PEI cabinet in 1864 when the government rejected Confederation outright, but continued to press for union. The allocation of land was a key issue for Islanders in the 1860s; Pope opposed the idea of escheat, a common idea at the time. After this was accomplished in 1873 under the leadership of his brother, PEI Premier James Colledge Pope, he was appointed a county court judge. His son, Joseph Pope, became the private secretary to Canada's first Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald and later wrote his biography The Day of Sir John Macdonald
Ardgowan, Pope's residence, was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1966. During the Charlottetown Conference, the Popes billetted George Brown and hosted a luncheon for delegates at Ardgowan.
Pope was a Freemason of Victoria Lodge in Charlottestown, at the time No. 383 under the Grand Lodge of Scotland, but today No. 2 under the Grand Lodge of Prince Edward Island.
References
Bibliography
1825 births
1879 deaths
Fathers of Confederation
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Colonial Secretaries of Prince Edward Island
Judges in Prince Edward Island
Canadian Freemasons | [
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238470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett%20Newman | Barnett Newman | Barnett Newman (January 29, 1905 – July 4, 1970) was an American artist. He is seen as one of the major figures in abstract expressionism and one of the foremost of the color field painters. His paintings are existential in tone and content, explicitly composed with the intention of communicating a sense of locality, presence, and contingency.
Early life
Barnett Newman was born in New York City, the son of Jewish immigrants from Poland. He studied philosophy at the City College of New York and worked in his father's business manufacturing clothing. He later made a living as a teacher, writer, and critic. From the 1930s on he made paintings, said to be in an expressionist style, but eventually destroyed all these works. Newman met Annalee Greenhouse in 1934, while both were working as substitute teachers at Grover Cleveland High School; they were married on June 30, 1936.
Career
Newman wrote catalogue forewords and reviews and also organized exhibitions before becoming a member of the Uptown Group and having his first solo show at the Betty Parsons Gallery in 1948. Soon after his first exhibition, Newman remarked in one of the Artists' Session at Studio 35: "We are in the process of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own image." Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought to reinforce his newly established image as an artist and to promote his work. An example is his letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter to Sidney Janis: ... it is true that Rothko talks the fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the philistine world. My struggle against bourgeois society has involved the total rejection of it."
Throughout the 1940s he worked in a surrealist vein before developing his signature style. This is characterized by areas of color separated by thin vertical lines, or "zips" as Newman called them. In the first works featuring zips, the color fields are variegated, but later the colors are pure and flat. Newman himself thought that he reached his fully distinct, signature style with the Onement series (from 1948). The zips define the spatial structure of the painting, while simultaneously dividing and uniting the composition. According to Art Historian April Kingsley, the zip in Newman's paintings are 'flashing light of a nucelar explosion and the old testament pillar of fire' thus mixing the paradox of romantic sublime with the depiction of destruction and transcendence. Already 1944 Barnett Newman tried to explain America's newest art movement and included a list of "the men in the new movement." Ex-Surrealists, like Matta are mentioned, Wolfgang Paalen Paalen is mentioned twice together with Gottlieb, Rothko, Pollock, Hofmann, Baziotes, Gorky and others. Motherwell is mentioned with a question mark.
The zip remained a constant feature of Newman's work throughout his life. In some paintings of the 1950s, such as The Wild, which is eight feet tall by one and a half inches wide (2.43 meters by 4.1 centimeters), the zip is all there is to the work. Newman also made a few sculptures which are essentially three-dimensional zips.
Although Newman's paintings appear to be purely abstract, and many of them were originally untitled, the names he later gave them hinted at specific subjects being addressed, often with a Jewish theme. Two paintings from the early 1950s, for example, are called Adam and Eve. There is also Uriel (1954), and Abraham (1949), a very dark painting which, as well as being the name of a biblical patriarch, was also the name of Newman's father, who had died in 1947.
The Stations of the Cross series of black and white paintings (1958–1966), begun shortly after Newman had recovered from a heart attack, is usually regarded as the peak of his achievement. The series is subtitled Lema sabachthani - "Why have you forsaken me" - the last words spoken by Jesus on the cross, according to the New Testament. Newman saw these words as having universal significance in his own time. The series has also been seen as a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust.
Newman's late works, such as the Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue series, use vibrant, pure colors, often on very large canvases - Anna's Light (1968), named in memory of his mother, who had died in 1965, is his largest work, 28 feet wide by 9 feet tall (8.5 by 2.7 meters). Newman also worked on shaped canvases late in life, with Chartres (1969), for example, being triangular, and returned to sculpture, making a small number of sleek pieces in steel. These later paintings are executed in acrylic paint rather than the oil paint of earlier pieces. Of his sculptures, Broken Obelisk (1963) is the most monumental and best-known, depicting an inverted obelisk whose point balances on the apex of a pyramid.
Newman also made a series of lithographs, the 18 Cantos (1963–64) which, according to Newman, are meant to be evocative of music. He also made a small number of etchings.
In 1948, Newman, William Baziotes, Mark Rothko, Robert Motherwell and David Hare founded the Subjects of the Artist School at 35 East 8th Street. Well attended lectures there were open to the public, with speakers such as Jean Arp, John Cage and Ad Reinhardt, but the art school failed financially and closed in the spring of 1949. Newman is generally classified as an abstract expressionist on account of his working in New York City in the 1950s, associating with other artists of the group and developing an abstract style which owed little or nothing to European art. However, his rejection of the expressive brushwork employed by other abstract expressionists such as Clyfford Still and Mark Rothko, and his use of hard-edged areas of flat color, can be seen as a precursor to post painterly abstraction and the minimalist works of artists such as Frank Stella.
Newman was unappreciated as an artist for much of his life, being overlooked in favor of more colorful characters such as Jackson Pollock. The influential critic Clement Greenberg wrote enthusiastically about him, but it was not until the end of his life that he began to be taken seriously. He was, however, an important influence on many younger artists such as Donald Judd, Frank Stella and Bob Law.
Legacy
Newman died in 1970 of a heart attack in New York City.
Nine years after Newman's death, his widow Annalee founded the Barnett Newman Foundation. The foundation not only functions as his official estate, but also serves "to encourage the study and understanding of Barnett Newman's life and works." The foundation was instrumental in creating Newman's catalogue raisonné in 2004. The U.S. copyright representative for the Barnett Newman Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.
In 2018, the Foundation gave more than 70 artworks to the Jewish Museum, New York.
Selected collections
Among the public collections holding works by Barnett Newman are the Addison Gallery of American Art (Andover, Massachusetts), the Allen Memorial Art Museum (Oberlin College, Ohio), the Art Institute of Chicago, the Berlin State Museums, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Detroit Institute of Art, Harvard University Art Museums, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington D.C.), the Indianapolis Museum of Art, Kawamura Memorial Museum of Art (Japan), Kunstmuseum Basel (Switzerland), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Menil Collection (Houston, Texas), the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (Madrid), the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, the Museum of Modern Art (New York City), the Nasher Sculpture Center (Dallas, Texas), the Nassau County Museum of Art (Roslyn Harbor, New York), the National Gallery of Art (Washington D.C.), the National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa), the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, the Sheldon Museum of Art (Lincoln, Nebraska), the Smithsonian American Art Museum (Washington D.C.), Stedelijk Museum (Amsterdam), the Tate Gallery (London), the Wadsworth Atheneum (Hartford, Connecticut), the Walker Art Center (Minneapolis, Minnesota), the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum (Cologne, Germany), and the Whitney Museum of American Art (New York City).
Art market
After Newman had an artistic breakthrough in 1948, he and his wife decided that he should devote all his energy to his art. They lived almost entirely off Annalee Newman's teaching salary until the late 1950s, when Newman's paintings began to sell consistently. Ulysses (1952), a blue-and-black striped painting, sold in 1985 for $1,595,000 at Sotheby's to an American collector who was not identified. Consigned by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen and previously part of Frederick R. Weisman's collection, Newman's 8.5-by-10-foot Onement VI (1953) was sold for a record $43.8 million at Sotheby's New York in 2013; its sale was ensured by an undisclosed third-party guarantee. This was eclipsed on May 13, 2014 when Black Fire 1 sold for $84.2 million.
Auction record
In May 2014, Christie's set an auction record for the artist, with his work Black Fire I selling for $84 million.
See also
Black Fire I painted by Newman in 1961
Voice of Fire painted by Newman in 1967
Broken Obelisk
Vir Heroicus Sublimis
References
Further reading
Ellyn Childs Allison, ed., Barnett Newman: A Catalogue Raisonné (Yale University Press, 2004.)
Yve-Alain Bois. "Perceiving Newman," in Painting as Model (Cambridge, MA/London: MIT Press, 1995).
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey (New York School Press, 2003.)
Ann Temkin, Barnett Newman (Yale University Press, 2002.) [Catalogue for the Exhibition "Barnett Newman," Philadelphia Museum of Art, March 24 to July 7, 2002; Tate Modern London, September 19, 2002, to January 5, 2003]
Jean-Francois Lyotard, "Newmann: The Instant", in: Jean-Francois Lyotard, Miscellaneous Texts II: Contemporary Artists (Leuven University Press, 2012.)
External links
Barnett Newman at the National Gallery of Art
The Barnett Newman Foundation
Barnett Newman at the Philadelphia Museum of Art
Newman's page at the Tate Gallery (includes images of the 18 Cantos and other works)
American Museum of Natural History, Dept. of Anthropology correspondence with Barnett Newman and Betty Parsons, 1944-1946 in the collection of the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Abstract expressionist artists
Abstract painters
American abstract artists
Modern painters
1905 births
1970 deaths
Artists from New York City
Jewish painters
Jewish American artists
Art Students League of New York alumni
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
City College of New York alumni
20th-century American Jews | [
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238472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20William%20Ritchie | John William Ritchie | John William Ritchie (26 March 1808 – 13 or 18 December 1890) was a Canadian lawyer and politician from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia who is one of the Fathers of Confederation. Ritchie was the son of Thomas Ritchie and Elizabeth Wildman Johnston. He studied law with his uncle James William Johnston and was admitted to the bar in 1831. Appointed to the Nova Scotia legislative council as Solicitor General in 1864, he was a delegate to the London Conference on Canadian Confederation and as such is considered one of the Fathers of Confederation. Appointed to the Senate of Canada in 1867, he was a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia from 1873 to 1882. His younger brother, William Johnstone Ritchie, was Chief Justice of Canada. His daughter was Eliza Ritchie.
Ritchie died at his estate in the Northwest Arm of Halifax and is buried at St. John's Cemetery.
Gallery
References
1808 births
1890 deaths
Canadian senators from Nova Scotia
Canadian people of British descent
Fathers of Confederation
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
People from Annapolis County, Nova Scotia
Colony of Nova Scotia people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Members of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia
Judges in Nova Scotia | [
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238480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senedd | Senedd | The Senedd (; ), officially known as the Welsh Parliament in English and () in Welsh, is the devolved, unicameral legislature of Wales. A democratically elected body, it makes laws for Wales, agrees certain taxes and scrutinises the Welsh Government. It is a bilingual institution, with both Welsh and English being the official languages of its business. From its creation in May 1999 until May 2020, the Senedd was known as the National Assembly for Wales ().
The Senedd comprises 60 members who are known as Members of the Senedd (), abbreviated as "MS" (). Since 2011, members are elected for a five-year term of office under an additional member system, in which 40 MSs represent smaller geographical divisions known as "constituencies" and are elected by first-past-the-post voting, and 20 MSs represent five "electoral regions" using the D'Hondt method of proportional representation. Typically, the largest party in the Senedd forms the Welsh Government.
A National Assembly for Wales was created by the Government of Wales Act 1998, following the result of the 1997 referendum. The Assembly initially had no powers to make primary legislation. Limited law-making powers were gained through the Government of Wales Act 2006. Its primary law-making powers were enhanced following a Yes vote in the referendum on 3 March 2011, meaning that the UK Parliament or the Secretary of State for Wales were no longer consulted when passing acts of the National Assembly for Wales related to the 20 devolved areas. These powers were further extended by the Wales Act 2014 and Wales Act 2017, with the latter moving the Assembly to a reserved powers model of devolution like that of the Scottish Parliament. In May 2020, the Assembly was renamed to "Senedd Cymru" or "the Welsh Parliament" when section 2 of the Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020 came into force. Matters devolved to the Senedd include health, education, economic development, transport, the environment, agriculture, local government and some taxes.
History
Road to devolution
An appointed Council for Wales and Monmouthshire was established in 1949 to "ensure the government is adequately informed of the impact of government activities on the general life of the people of Wales". The council had 27 members nominated by local authorities in Wales, the University of Wales, National Eisteddfod Council and the Welsh Tourist Board. A post of Minister of Welsh Affairs was created in 1951 and the post of Secretary of State for Wales and the Welsh Office were established in 1964 leading to the abolition of the Council for Wales. The establishment of the Welsh Office effectively created the basis for the territorial governance of Wales. The Royal Commission on the Constitution (the Kilbrandon Commission) was set up in 1969 by Harold Wilson's Labour Government to investigate the possibility of devolution for Scotland and Wales. Its recommendations formed the basis of the 1974 White Paper Democracy and Devolution: proposals for Scotland and Wales, which proposed the creation of a Welsh Assembly. However, Welsh voters overwhelmingly rejected the proposals in a referendum held in 1979.
After the 1997 general election, the new Labour Government argued that an Assembly would be more democratically accountable than the Welsh Office. For eleven years prior to 1997 Wales had been represented in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom by a Secretary of State who did not represent a Welsh constituency at Westminster.
A referendum was held in Wales on 18 September 1997 in which voters approved the creation of the National Assembly for Wales with a total of 559,419 votes, or 50.3% of the vote.
The following year the Government of Wales Act was passed by the United Kingdom parliament, establishing the Assembly. On 1 July 1999 the powers of the Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to the Assembly and the Welsh Office ceased to exist.
In July 2002, the Welsh Government established an independent commission, with Lord Richard (former leader of the House of Lords) as chair, to review the powers and electoral arrangements of the National Assembly to ensure that it is able to operate in the best interests of the people of Wales. The Richard Commission reported in March 2004. It recommended that the National Assembly should have powers to legislate in certain areas, whilst others would remain the preserve of Westminster. It also recommended changing the electoral system to the single transferable vote (STV) which would produce greater proportionality.
In response, the British government, in its Better Governance for Wales White Paper, published on 15 June 2005, proposed a more permissive law-making system for the Welsh Assembly based on the use of Parliamentary Orders in Council. In so doing, the Government rejected many of the cross party Richard Commission's recommendations. This has attracted criticism from opposition parties and others.
Enhanced powers: The Government of Wales Act 2006
The Government of Wales Act 2006 received Royal Assent on 25 July 2006. It conferred on the Assembly legislative powers similar to other devolved legislatures through the ability to pass Assembly Measures concerning matters that are devolved. Requests for further legislative powers made through legislative competence requests were subject to the veto of the Secretary of State for Wales, House of Commons or House of Lords.
The Act reformed the assembly to a parliamentary-type structure, establishing the Welsh Government as an entity separate from, but accountable to the National Assembly. It enables the Assembly to legislate within its devolved fields.
The Act also reforms the Assembly's electoral system. It prevents individuals from standing as candidates in both constituency and regional seats. This aspect of the act was subject to a great deal of criticism, most notably from the Electoral Commission.
The Act was heavily criticised. Plaid Cymru, the Official Opposition in the National Assembly from 1999 to 2007, attacked it for not delivering a fully-fledged parliament. Many commentators have also criticised the Labour Party's allegedly partisan attempt to alter the electoral system. By preventing regional Members from standing in constituency seats the party has been accused of changing the rules to protect constituency representatives. Labour had 29 members in the Assembly at the time, all of whom held constituency seats.
The changes to the Assembly's powers were commenced on 4 May 2007, after the election.
Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law making powers, without the need to consult Westminster.
Reserved powers model: The Wales Act 2017
The Conservative-Liberal coalition government created the Commission on Devolution in Wales (also known as Silk Commission), composed of members nominated by the 4 parties represented in the Welsh Assembly and several leading legal and political experts, to "create a lasting devolution settlement for Wales". Following the first set of recommendations by the Commission, the UK government announced in November 2013 that some borrowing powers are to be devolved to the Assembly along with control of landfill tax and stamp duty. Additionally the Wales Act 2014 provides for a referendum to be held on the Assembly's ability to set a degree of income tax, though there is a proposal for the requirement for a referendum to be removed.
Both the UK and Welsh governments supported the Silk Commission (Part 2) proposal to move to a "reserved powers" model of devolution (similar to that of the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly) where the UK government would have specific "reserved" powers and the Welsh Assembly would have control of all other matters. This replaced the previous model where certain powers were "conferred" and all others were assumed to be powers of the UK national government. Since the passing of the Wales Act 2017, the power model in Wales has been in line with that of Scotland, being a reserved matter model.
The Wales Act 2017, based on the second set of recommendations of the Silk Commission, proposed devolving further areas of government, including some relating to water, marine affairs (ports, harbours, conservation), energy (subsidies, petroleum extraction, construction of smaller energy-generating facilities, etc.), rail franchising and road travel.
Name change
In July 2016, Assembly members unanimously agreed that the name of the Assembly should reflect its constitutional status as a national parliament. The Assembly Commission ran a public consultation on the proposal, which showed that 61% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the Assembly should change its name. In 2018, the commission announced its intention to introduce legislation to change the name of the Assembly. Later that year, the Llywydd – the Assembly's presiding officer – wrote to all Assembly Members explaining that the name change proposed in the Bill would be the monolingual name "Senedd". In 2019, the Senedd and Elections (Wales) Bill, favouring the name "Senedd", was introduced on behalf of the Assembly Commission. Following support of a subsequent amendment to the Bill which favoured a bilingual name for the institution, the Bill was passed by the Assembly on 27 November 2019 and was given Royal Assent on 15 January 2020. The Act changed the name of the Assembly to "Senedd Cymru" or the "Welsh Parliament". Its guidance states that the institution will be commonly known as the Senedd in both languages. The name change came into effect on 6 May 2020. Members of the renamed body are known as Members of the Senedd (MS), or Aelodau o'r Senedd (AS) in Welsh.
Expansion
On 22 November 2021, Welsh Labour and Plaid Cymru agreed a co-operation deal that will see the implementation of 46 policies that the two parties share. One of these is the expansion of the Senedd from 60 Members to between 80 and 100 Members.
Buildings
Senedd building
The debating chamber in Cardiff Bay, the Senedd (Senate), was designed by the Richard Rogers Partnership, and built by Taylor Woodrow, with environmental, mechanical, electrical and plumbing design by BDSP Partnership. It uses traditional Welsh materials, such as slate and Welsh oak, in its construction, and the design is based around the concepts of openness and transparency. The timber ceiling and centre funnel, manufactured and installed by BCL Timber Projects (sub-contracted by Taylor Woodrow) is made from Canadian sourced Western Red Cedar.
The Senedd houses the debating chamber known as the Siambr () and Committee Rooms. It was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on St David's Day, 1 March 2006.
The Senedd is designed to be environmentally friendly: it uses an Earth Heat Exchange system for heating; rainwater is collected from the roof and used for flushing toilets and cleaning windows, and the roof features a wind cowl which funnels natural light and air into the debating chamber below.
Telecasting
The building houses the debating chamber and committee rooms for the Senedd. When the Senedd building opened on 1 March 2006, there was regular screening of live proceedings from the Siambr on S4C2 and also on internet television. Coverage of the S4C2 screenings were on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays between 9:00 am 6:00 pm when the Senedd was sitting. In addition, limited screens were shown on the BBC Two Wales programme "am.pm", including First Minister's Questions. These were decommissioned after S4C2 switched its scheduling to children programs and because of budget cuts. Internet television screenings are now shown on the Senedd's own website called Senedd.tv, which screens approximately 35 hours of content each week in English and Welsh. The service began 15 April 2008. Key events such as First Minister's Questions are shown live and recorded on BBC Parliament on television and on iPlayer. Also on BBC Parliament some proceedings are shown as highlights of the week on the program The Week in Parliament.
Tŷ Hywel and Pierhead Building
The debating chamber was initially based in Tŷ Hywel, next to the site of the present building. The offices of Members are still in this building which is connected to the Senedd by a skyway. The Senedd Commission is also responsible for the Pierhead Building, which is the location of "The Assembly at the Pierhead" exhibition, and is the Visitor and Education Centre for the Senedd as well as housing a small gift shop. The exhibition, currently still in the process of being updated following the 2016 National Assembly for Wales election, provides visitors with information on who's who, what's happening and how the Senedd works.
North Wales Office
The North Wales Information Centre is located in Prince's Park on Prince's Drive, Colwyn Bay. The office is open to the public to access information about the Senedd. The office is open on weekdays between 9:00 and 17:00.
Officials
Elected officials
After each election, the Senedd elects one Member of the Senedd to serve as Llywydd (Presiding Officer) of the Senedd, and another to serve as Dirprwy Lywydd (Deputy Presiding Officer). Elin Jones, Plaid Cymru MS, has been Llywydd since 2016, having taken over from Rosemary Butler. The Llywydd also acts as Chair of the Senedd Commission. Both the Llywydd and the Dirprwy Lywydd typically don't vote in simple-majority votes.
Permanent officials
The permanent administrative and support staff of the Senedd are employed by the Senedd Commission. They are not civil servants, although they enjoy similar terms and conditions of service to members of the UK Civil Service.
Powers and status
The Senedd consists of 60 elected members. They use the title Member of the Senedd (MS) or Aelod o'r Senedd (AS). The executive arm of the Senedd, the Welsh Government, has been a Labour administration since its inception in 1999. Currently it is led by First Minister, Mark Drakeford, since December 2018. The government between 2007 and 2011, had been a coalition between Labour, led by First Minister Carwyn Jones and Plaid Cymru, led by Deputy First Minister Ieuan Wyn Jones; and between 2016 and 2021, Labour had been in coalition with the Liberal Democrats and an independent member. Since 2021, the government has been a Labour minority government. The executive and civil servants are mainly based in Cardiff's Cathays Park while the MSs, the Senedd Commission and Ministerial support staff are based in Cardiff Bay, where a new £67 million building, the Senedd, has been built.
One important feature of the National Assembly until 2007 was that there was no legal or constitutional separation of the legislative and executive functions, since it was a single corporate entity. Compared with other parliamentary systems, and arrangements for devolution in other countries of the UK, this was unusual. In practice, however, there was separation of functions, and the terms "Assembly" and "Assembly Parliamentary Service" came into use to distinguish between the two arms. The Government of Wales Act 2006 regularised the separation when it came into effect following the 2007 Assembly Election.
Initially, the Assembly did not have primary legislative or fiscal powers, as these powers were reserved by Westminster. The Assembly did have powers to pass secondary legislation in devolved areas. Sometimes secondary legislation could be used to amend primary legislation, but the scope of this was very limited. For example, the first Government of Wales Act gave the Assembly power to amend primary legislation relating to the merger of certain public bodies. However, most secondary powers were conferred on the executive by primary legislation to give the executive (i.e. Ministers) more powers, and the Assembly had wider legislative powers than appearances might suggest. For example, the Assembly delayed local elections due to be held in 2003 for a year by use of secondary powers, so that they would not clash with Assembly elections. In 2001 the UK parliament used primary legislation to delay for one month local elections in England during the Foot and Mouth Disease epidemic.
The Assembly gained limited primary legislative powers following the 2007 election and the passage of the Government of Wales Act 2006. These laws are known as Assembly Measures and can be enacted in specific fields and matters within the legislative competency of the Assembly. New matters and fields can be devolved by Acts of the UK Parliament or by LCOs approved by Parliament.
Until 2015 the Assembly had no tax-varying powers, however it could influence the rate of Council Tax set by local authorities, which are part-funded by a grant from the Welsh government. It also has some discretion over charges for government services. Notable examples in which this discretion has been used to create significant differences from other areas in the UK are:
Charges for NHS prescriptions in Wales – these have now been abolished.
Charges for University Tuition – are different for Welsh resident students studying at Welsh Universities, compared with students from or studying elsewhere in the UK.
Charging for Residential Care – In Wales there is a flat rate of contribution towards the cost of nursing care (roughly comparable to the highest level of English Contribution) for those who require residential care.
This means in reality that there is a wider definition of "nursing care" than in England and therefore less dependence on means testing in Wales than in England, so that more people are entitled to higher levels of state assistance. These variations in the levels of charges may be viewed as de facto tax varying powers.
This model of more limited legislative powers created in 1999 was partly because Wales has had the same legal system as England since 1536 (though a different court system until 1830), when it was merged with England. Ireland and Scotland were never merged with England, and so always retained some differences in their legal systems. The Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly both have deeper and wider powers.
The Assembly inherited the powers and budget of the Secretary of State for Wales and most of the functions of the Welsh Office. It has power to vary laws passed by Westminster using secondary legislation.
Following a referendum on 4 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers (without the need to consult Westminster).
On 3 July 2012, the Welsh Assembly passed its first Act, the Local Government Byelaws (Wales) Act.
The Wales Act 2014 and Wales Act 2017 devolved the following taxes to the Welsh Assembly:
Non-domestic rates (business rates) – from 1 April 2015
Land Transaction Tax (LTT) – from 1 April 2018
Landfill Disposal Tax (LDT) – from 1 April 2018
Welsh rate of Income Tax (WRIT) – from 1 April 2019
Powers of the Senedd
The Senedd has the competence to pass bills for Acts of Senedd Cymru in all areas which are not explicitly reserved to Westminster; these 'reserved matters' are outlined in schedule 7A of the Government of Wales Act 2006.
This means the Senedd has powers over areas such as:
Agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development
Culture
Economic development
Education and training
Environment
Health and health services
Highways and transport
Local government
Tourism
Welsh language
Reserved matters include subjects such as:
Foreign affairs
Police and justice
Currency
Most benefits
Most taxes
Members, constituencies, and electoral system
Under mixed-member proportional representation, a type of Additional Member System, forty of the MSs are elected from single-member constituencies on a plurality voting system (or first past the post) basis, the constituencies being equivalent to those used for the House of Commons and twenty MSs are elected from regional closed lists using an alternative party vote. There are five regions: Mid and West Wales, North Wales, South Wales Central, South Wales East and South Wales West (these are the same as the pre 1999 European Parliament constituencies for Wales), each of which returns four members. The additional members produce a degree of proportionality within each region. Whereas voters can choose any regional party list irrespective of their party vote in the constituency election, list MSs are not elected independently of the constituency element; rather, elected constituency MSs are deemed to be pre-elected list representatives for the purposes of calculating remainders in the D'Hondt method. Overall proportionality is limited by the low proportion of list members (33% of the Senedd compared with 43% in the Scottish Parliament and 50% in the German Bundestag) and the regionalisation of the list element. Consequently, the Senedd as a whole has a greater degree of proportionality (based on proportions in the list elections) than the plurality voting system used for British parliamentary elections, but still deviates somewhat from proportionality. The single transferable vote system had been considered for the Senedd by the Labour Party as early as 1995–96, but according to the evidence given to the Richard Commission by Ron Davies, a former Welsh Secretary,
In April 2020 the Senedd became the first legislature in the UK to meet over the internet. Due to the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, it held First Minister's Questions using Zoom videotelephony software and the session was subsequently broadcast by Senedd.tv.
Elections
There have been six elections to the Senedd, in 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2016 and 2021. The 2016 election was delayed from 2015 as the UK general election was held in 2015, and following the passing of the Wales Act 2014, elections occur every five years from the 2016 election.
The next Senedd election is due to be held on Thursday 7 May 2026.
Summary
Last election
Overall
|-
| style="background-color:white" colspan=15 |
|-
!rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Parties
!colspan=10 | Additional member system
!rowspan=2 colspan=5 | Total seats
|-
!colspan=5 |Constituency
!colspan=5 |Region
|-
! Votes !! % !! +/− !! Seats !! +/−
! Votes !! % !! +/− !! Seats !! +/−
! Total !! +/− !! %
|-
|}
Turnout
Voter turnout at Senedd elections has been traditionally lower than UK general elections. No election since devolution began has hit 50% turnout, with the 2021 election being the highest at 46.6%. In their 2004 paper Turnout, Participation and Legitimacy in Post-Devolution Wales, academics Roger Awan-Scully, Richard Wyn Jones and Dafydd Trystan Davies identified three potential reasons for this: antipathy to the Welsh institutions, apathy to the Welsh institutions or apathy to politics more generally. They suggested apathy – in Wales and to politics in general – is the most likely reason.
Following the 2021 election, Dr Jac Larner, a politics lecturer at Cardiff University and an investigator for the Welsh election survey, said the lower turnout figures in Wales did not necessarily reflect a lack of perceived importance in the Senedd. He told BBC News: "We know from research that low voter turnout is actually a lot do to with people thinking they can't win in a devolved election, so they don't bother going to vote. That's different to a general election where, in Wales, Labour are still more likely to win a majority of seats, but at the UK level it's far more competitive." He compared turnout in Wales to turnout for Scottish Parliament elections, which is significantly higher: "Scotland is in quite a unique political position at the moment, where the single most salient issue and the biggest cleavage in society – the issue of independence – basically is going to be determined by what happens at the Holyrood elections. Part of it is this idea of interest – there has always been more interest in the idea of a Scottish Parliament, the Scottish Parliament has always been more powerful than the Senedd, even going back to 1999."
Current composition
Government formation
Welsh Labour won 30 seats out of 60 in the 2021 Senedd elections. On 9 May 2021 the First Minister, Mark Drakeford MS said "We have demonstrated over a number of governments that you can govern successfully on 30 seats, but I'm open to working with any party where there is common ground between us."
On 22 November a deal between Welsh Labour and Plaid Cymru was announced. This is not a formal coalition and will not see Plaid Cymru MSs take up Minister or Deputy Minister Posts. However, Plaid Cymru will be able to appoint special advisors to the Welsh Government. The deal will last for three years.
See also
Contemporary Welsh Law
Act of Senedd Cymru
List of by-elections to the Senedd
Regional Member changes to the Senedd
London Assembly
Member of the Senedd
List of female Members of the Senedd
1999 National Assembly for Wales election
2003 National Assembly for Wales election
2007 National Assembly for Wales election
2011 National Assembly for Wales election
2016 National Assembly for Wales election
2021 Senedd election
Northern Ireland Assembly
Senedd constituencies and electoral regions
Scottish Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom budget
Wales-only laws
List of Senedd elections
References
External links
The Queen opens the First Welsh Assembly 1999
Government of Wales Act 1998
Live internet television from www.senedd.tv
Recorded internet television from the BBC am.pm
Politics of Wales
Politics of Cardiff
Unicameral legislatures
1998 establishments in Wales
Welsh parliaments
Legislatures of country subdivisions
Television in Wales
Topics of television programs
Welsh culture | [
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238482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIAT | PIAT | The Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank (PIAT) Mk I was a British man-portable anti-tank weapon developed during the Second World War. The PIAT was designed in 1942 in response to the British Army's need for a more effective infantry anti-tank weapon and entered service in 1943.
The PIAT was based on the spigot mortar system, and projected (launched) a 2.5 pound (1.1 kg) shaped charge bomb using a cartridge in the tail of the projectile. It possessed an effective range of approximately in a direct fire anti-tank role, and in an indirect fire role. The PIAT had several advantages over other infantry anti-tank weapons of the period: it had greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, it had no back-blast which might reveal the position of the user or accidentally injure friendly soldiers around the user, and it was simple in construction. However, the device also had some disadvantages: powerful recoil, a difficulty in cocking the weapon, and early problems with ammunition reliability.
The PIAT was first used during the Tunisia Campaign in 1943, and remained in use with British and other Commonwealth forces until the early 1950s. PIATs were supplied to or obtained by other nations and forces, including the Soviet Union (through Lend Lease), the French resistance, the Polish Underground, and the Israeli Haganah (which used PIATs during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War). Six members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces received Victoria Crosses for their use of the PIAT in combat.
Development
At the beginning of the Second World War, the British Army possessed two primary anti-tank weapons for its infantry: the Boys anti-tank rifle and the No. 68 AT Rifle Grenade. However, neither of these was particularly effective as an anti-tank weapon. The No. 68 anti-tank grenade was designed to be fired from a discharger fitted onto the muzzle of an infantryman's rifle, but this meant that the grenade was too light to deal significant damage, resulting in it rarely being used in action. The Boys was also inadequate in the anti-tank role. It was heavy, which meant that it was difficult for infantry to handle effectively, and was outdated; by 1940 it was effective only at short ranges, and then only against armoured cars and light tanks. In November 1941 during Operation Crusader, part of the North African Campaign, staff officers of the British Eighth Army were unable to find even a single instance of a Boys knocking out a German tank.
Due to these limitations, a new infantry anti-tank weapon was required, and this ultimately came in the form of the Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank, commonly abbreviated to PIAT. The origins of the PIAT can be traced back as far as 1888, when an American engineer by the name of Charles Edward Munroe was experimenting with guncotton; he discovered that the explosive would yield a great deal more damage if there were a recess in it facing the target. This phenomenon is known as the 'Munroe effect'. The German scientist Egon Neumann found that lining the recess with metal enhanced the damage dealt even more. By the 1930s Henry Mohaupt, a Swiss engineer, had developed this technology even further and created shaped charge ammunition. This consisted of a recessed metal cone placed into an explosive warhead; when the warhead hit its target, the explosive detonated and turned the cone into an extremely high-speed spike. The speed of the spike, and the immense pressure it caused on impact allowed it to create a small hole in armour plating and send a large pressure wave and large amounts of fragments into the interior of the target. It was this technology that was utilized in the No. 68 anti-tank grenade.
Although the technology existed, it remained for British designers to develop a system that could deliver shaped charge ammunition in a larger size and with a greater range than that possessed by the No. 68. At the same time that Mohaupt was developing shaped charge ammunition, Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker of the Royal Artillery was investigating the possibility of developing a lightweight platoon mortar. However, rather than using the conventional system of firing the mortar shell from a barrel fixed to a baseplate, Blacker wanted to use the spigot mortar system. Instead of a barrel, there was a steel rod known as a 'spigot' fixed to a baseplate, and the bomb itself had a propellant charge inside its tail. When the mortar was to be fired, the bomb was pushed down onto the spigot, which exploded the propellant charge and blew the bomb into the air. By effectively putting the barrel on the inside of the weapon, the barrel diameter was no longer a limitation on the warhead size. Blacker eventually designed a lightweight mortar that he named the 'Arbalest' and submitted it to the War Office, but it was turned down in favour of a Spanish design. Undeterred, however, Blacker continued with his experiments and decided to try to invent a hand-held anti-tank weapon based on the spigot design, but found that the spigot could not generate sufficient velocity needed to penetrate armour. But he did not abandon the design, and eventually came up with the Blacker Bombard, a swivelling spigot-style system that could launch a bomb approximately . Although the bombs it fired could not actually penetrate armour, they could still severely damage tanks, and in 1940 a large number of Blacker Bombards were issued to the Home Guard as anti-tank weapons.
When Blacker became aware of the existence of shaped charge ammunition, he realized that it was exactly the kind of ammunition he was looking for to develop a hand-held anti-tank weapon, as it depended upon the energy contained within itself, and not the sheer velocity at which it was fired. Blacker then developed a shaped charge bomb with a propellant charge in its tail, which fitted into a shoulder-fired launcher that consisted of a metal casing containing a large spring and a spigot; the bomb was placed into a trough at the front of the casing, and when the trigger was pulled the spigot rammed into the tail of the bomb and fired it out of the casing and up to approximately away. Blacker called the weapon the 'Baby Bombard', and presented it to the War Office in 1941. However, when the weapon was tested it proved to have a host of problems; a War Office report of June 1941 stated that the casing was flimsy and the spigot itself did not always fire when the trigger was pulled, and none of the bombs provided exploded upon contact with the target.
At the time that he developed the Baby Bombard and sent it off the War Office, Blacker was working for a government department known as MD1, which was given the task of developing and delivering weapons for use by guerrilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe. Shortly after the trial of the Baby Bombard, Blacker was posted to other duties, and left the anti-tank weapon in the hands of a colleague in the department, Major Millis Jefferis.
Jefferis took the prototype Baby Bombard apart on the floor of his office in MD1 and rebuilt it, and then combined it with a shaped charge mortar bomb to create what he called the 'Jefferis Shoulder Gun'. Jefferis then had a small number of prototype armour-piercing HEAT rounds made, and took the weapon to be tested at the Small Arms School at Bisley. A Warrant Officer took the Shoulder Gun down to a firing range, aimed it at an armoured target, and pulled the trigger; the Shoulder Gun pierced a hole in the target, but unfortunately also wounded the Warrant Officer when a piece of metal from the exploding round flew back and hit him. Jefferis himself then took the place of the Warrant Officer and fired off several more rounds, all of which pierced the armoured target but without wounding him. Impressed with the weapon, the Ordnance Board of the Small Arms School had the faults with the ammunition corrected, renamed the Shoulder Gun as the Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank, and ordered that it be issued to infantry units as a hand-held anti-tank weapon. Production of the PIAT began at the end of August 1942.
There was disagreement over the name to be given to the new weapon. A press report in 1944 gave credit for both the PIAT and the Blacker Bombard to Jefferis. Blacker took exception to this and suggested to Jefferis that they should divide any award equally after his expenses had been deducted. The Ministry of Supply had already paid Blacker £50,000 for his expenses in relation to the Bombard and PIAT. Churchill himself got involved in the argument; writing to the Secretary of State for war in January 1943 he asked "Why should the name Jefferis shoulder gun be changed to PIAT? Nobody objected to the Boys rifle, although that had a rather odd ring." Churchill supported Jefferis claims, but he did not get his way. For his part Blacker received £25,000 from the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors.
Design
The PIAT was long and weighed , with an effective direct fire range of approximately and a maximum indirect fire range of . It could be carried and operated by one man, but was usually assigned to a two-man team, the second man acting as an ammunition carrier and loader. The body of the PIAT launcher was a tube constructed out of thin sheets of steel, containing the spigot mechanism, trigger mechanism and firing spring. At the front of the launcher was a small trough in which the bomb was placed, and the movable spigot ran along the axis of the launcher and into the trough. Padding for the user's shoulder was fitted to the other end of the launcher, and rudimentary aperture sights were fitted on top for aiming; the bombs launched by the PIAT possessed hollow tubular tails, into which a small propellant cartridge was inserted, and shaped charge warheads.
Conventional spigot mortar designs have a fixed spigot rod, for example the Blacker Bombard. The moving spigot rod in the PIAT design was unusual, and served to help reduce recoil sufficiently to make it a viable shoulder fired weapon.
The PIAT was a little lighter (15kg vs 16kg) and smaller (0.99m long vs 1.57m) than its predecessor, the Boys anti-tank rifle, although it was heavier than the contemporary Bazooka (18 lbs/8.2 kg).
To prepare the weapon for firing the spigot mechanism, which was operated by a large spring, had to be cocked, and to do this was a difficult and awkward process. The user had to first place the PIAT on its butt, then place two feet on the shoulder padding and turn the weapon to unlock the body and simultaneously lock the spigot rod to the butt; the user would then have to bend over and pull the body of the weapon upwards, thereby pulling the spring back until it attached to the trigger and cocking the weapon. Once this was achieved, the body was then lowered and turned to reattach it to the rest of the weapon, and the PIAT could then be fired. Users of a small stature often found the cocking sequence challenging, as they did not have the sufficient height required to pull the body up far enough to cock the weapon; it was also difficult to do when lying in a prone position, as was often the case when using the weapon in action.
Note, however, that troops were trained to cock the PIAT before expected use, and "in action the projector will always be carried cocked" (but unloaded). Unless a stoppage occurred, it would not normally be necessary to manually re-cock the weapon in action.
When the trigger was pulled, the spring pushed the spigot rod (which has a fixed firing pin on the end) forwards into the bomb, which aligned the bomb, ignited the propellant cartridge in the bomb and launched it along the rod and into the air. The recoil caused by the detonation of the propellant blew the spigot rod backwards onto the spring; this reduced the shock of recoil and automatically cocked the weapon for subsequent shots, eliminating the need to manually re-cock.
Tactical training emphasized that it was best utilized with surprise and concealment on the side of the PIAT team, and where possible enemy armoured vehicles should be engaged from the flank or rear. Due to the short engagement distances and the power of the bomb, the crew could be in the bomb blast zone so hard cover was desirable; on open training grounds this might be a slit trench. The PIAT was often also used in combat to knock out enemy positions located in houses and bunkers. It was possible to use the PIAT as a crude mortar by placing the shoulder pad of the weapon on the ground and supporting it.
Despite the difficulties in cocking and firing the weapon, it did have several advantages. The Spigot mortar design allowed a large calibre powerful shaped charge bomb giving greatly increased penetration power over the previous anti-tank rifles, allowing it to remain effective for the rest of the war; its construction was relatively simple and robust without a conventional barrel; there was no back-blast (unlike the contemporary American bazooka) that might endanger friendly troops and give the user's position away, this also meant that the PIAT could be used in confined spaces as in urban warfare; compared to the previous anti-tank rifles the muzzle blast was minimal, also a potential concealment issue. However, the weapon did have drawbacks. It was very heavy and bulky, which meant that it was often unpopular with infantry required to carry it. There were also problems with early ammunition reliability and accuracy. Although the PIAT was theoretically able to penetrate approximately of armour, field experience during the Allied invasion of Sicily, which was substantiated by trials conducted during 1944, demonstrated that this capability was often nullified by problems of accuracy and round reliability. During these trials, a skilled user was unable to hit a target more than 60% of the time at , and faulty fuses meant that only 75% of the bombs fired detonated on-target.
Ammunition and effect
The PIATs' ammunition used the shaped charge principle, which, if the often unreliable early round design delivered it correctly to the target, allowed the warhead to penetrate almost all enemy armour types at close range.
The following ammunition types were available in 1943.
Service Bomb - "Bomb, HE/AT"
Manual says green, but museum examples seem to be brown.
AT shaped charge warhead design. Supplied with the propellant cartridge fitted and the fuse separate.
Versions:
Mark I, 1942, Nobels 808 plastic explosive filling, green band
Mark IA, Reinforced central tube
Mark II, Revised nose fuse
Mark III, Revised nose fuse, TNT filling, blue band
Mark IV, July 1944, Revised construction to reduce rearward fragmentation and "back blast" of warhead explosion.
Also useful as a general-purpose HE blast type round.
Drill -"Bomb, Drill/AT"
Black, marked "Drill"
Same shape as a live round, for dry loading practice. Cannot be fired or dry fired.
Practice Bomb - "Shot, Practice/AT"
White
Cylindrical thick steel construction, effectively a sub-calibre practice round. The PIAT requires a trough-like adapter to use it. Economical as it may be fired many times with new propellant cartridges. Trajectory slightly different to service bomb.
Inert - "Bomb, Practice Inert/AT"
Black, yellow ring, marked "Inert"
Same size and weight as a live round, no warhead, but has a live propellant cartridge. It can be fired once from a standard PIAT, it is not re-usable.
Rounds were supplied in three-round ammunition cases with the propellant cartridge fitted and the fuses separate.
Getting the bomb to detonate reliably against angled targets was troublesome and was addressed with revised fusing. See also the bazooka, which had similar early problems.
The 1943 manual simply describes the service bomb as "H.E." or "HE/AT" and does not mention shaped charge as such. It notes that the bomb has "Excellent penetration. The bomb can penetrate the armour of the latest known types of enemy A.F.Vs. and a considerable thickness of reinforced concrete". It also notes that it may be used "as a house-breaker".
Operational history
World War II
The PIAT was used in all theatres in which British and other Commonwealth forces served.
It entered service in mid-1943, and was first used in action during the Tunisia Campaign. The 1944 war establishment for a British platoon, which contained 36 men, had a single PIAT attached to the platoon headquarters, alongside a mortar detachment. Three PIATs were issued to every company at the headquarters level for issuing at the CO discretion – allowing one weapon for each platoon. British Army and Royal Marines commandos were also issued with PIATs and used them in action.
In Australian Army service, the PIAT was also known as "Projector Infantry Tank Attack" (PITA). From 1943, one PIAT team was allocated to each infantry platoon in a jungle division – the tropical light infantry formation that was the standard front-line Australian division in the South West Pacific theatre. It was used against Japanese tanks, other vehicles and fortifications during the Borneo campaign of 1945.
A contemporary (1944–45) Canadian Army survey questioned 161 army officers, who had recently left combat, about the effectiveness of 31 different infantry weapons. In that survey the PIAT was ranked the number one most "outstandingly effective" weapon, followed by the Bren gun in second place.
An analysis by British staff officers of the initial period of the Normandy campaign found that 7% of all German tanks destroyed by British forces were knocked out by PIATs, compared to 6% by rockets fired by aircraft. However, they also found that once German tanks had been fitted with armoured skirts that detonated shaped charge ammunition before it could penetrate the tank's armour, the weapon became much less effective.
As part of the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement, by 31 March 1946 the Soviet Union had been supplied with 1,000 PIATs and 100,000 rounds of ammunition. The PIAT was also utilized by resistance groups in Occupied Europe. During the Warsaw Uprising, it was one of many weapons that Polish Underground resistance fighters used against German forces. And in occupied France, the French resistance used the PIAT in the absence of mortars or artillery.
Six Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces for actions using the PIAT:
On 16 May 1944, during the Italian Campaign, Fusilier Frank Jefferson used a PIAT to destroy a Panzer IV tank and repel a German counterattack launched against his unit as they assaulted a section of the Gustav Line.
On 6 June 1944, Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis, in one of several actions that day, used a PIAT in an attack against a German field gun.
On 12 June 1944 Rifleman Ganju Lama of the 7th Gurkha Rifles used a PIAT to knock out two Japanese tanks attacking his unit at Ningthoukhong, Manipur (given as Burma in the official citation). Despite sustaining injuries, Ganju Lama approached within of the enemy tanks, and having knocked them out moved on to attack the crews as they tried to escape. When asked by his Army Commander, William Slim, why he went so close, he replied he was not certain of hitting with a PIAT beyond .
Between 19 and 25 September 1944, during the Battle of Arnhem, Major Robert Henry Cain used a PIAT to disable an assault gun that was advancing on his company position, and to force another three German Panzer IV tanks to retreat during a later assault.
On the night of 21/22 October 1944, Private Ernest Alvia ("Smokey") Smith used a PIAT to destroy a German Panther tank, one of three Panthers and two self-propelled guns attacking his small group. The self-propelled vehicles were also knocked out. He then used a Thompson submachine gun to kill or repel about 30 enemy soldiers. His actions secured a bridgehead on the Savio River in Italy.
On 9 December 1944, while defending positions in Faenza, Italy, Captain John Henry Cound Brunt used a PIAT, amongst other weapons, to help repel an attack by the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division.
After World War II
The PIAT remained in service until the early 1950s, when it was replaced initially by the ENERGA anti-tank rifle grenade and then the American M20 "Super Bazooka". The Australian Army briefly used PIATs at the start of the Korean War alongside bazookas, but quickly replaced both weapons with M20 "Super Bazookas".
The Haganah and the emerging Israel Defence Force (IDF) used PIATs against Arab armour during the 1947–1949 Palestine war.
PIATs were also used by French and Việt Minh forces during the First Indochina War.
Users
(Co-Belligerent Army and partisans)
known in Dutch service as granaatwerper tp (tegen pantser) ("grenade launcher anti-tank") entered service in 1943, with Dutch forces fighting under British command. It served into the 1950s.
Polish Underground
Used by Yugoslav partisans
Captured from France
Combat use
World War II:
Battle of Normandy (France 1944)
Battle of Arnhem (Netherlands, 1944)
Battle of Ortona (Italy, 1943)
Battle of Villers-Bocage (Normandy, France, 1944)
Operation Epsom (Normandy, France, 1944)
Operation Perch (Normandy, France, 1944)
Warsaw Uprising (1944)
1948 Arab–Israeli War:
Battle of Yad Mordechai (Israel, 1948)
Battles of the Kinarot Valley (Israel, 1948)
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
Battle of Longewala (India, 1971)
See also
Panzerfaust
Bazooka
RPG-1
Type 4 70 mm AT Rocket Launcher
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
PIAT performance and production
Nase noviny
Arnhem Archive
image of the round and fuze assembly
Pegasus bridge archive
Replica demonstrated
Anti-tank weapons
World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom
World War II mortars
Weapons of the United Kingdom
Spigot mortars
Military equipment introduced in the 1940s | [
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238484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillie%27s%20Punctured%20Romance%20%281914%20film%29 | Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914 film) | Tillie's Punctured Romance is a 1914 American silent comedy film directed by Mack Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand, Charlie Chaplin, and the Keystone Kops. The picture was the first feature-length comedy and the first motion picture produced by the Keystone Film Company, and is the only one featuring Chaplin.
At the time of production Marie Dressler was a major star, and in this capacity Chaplin plays a supporting role.
The film is based on Dressler's stage play Tillie's Nightmare by A. Baldwin Sloane and Edgar Smith. Tillie's Punctured Romance is notable for being the last Chaplin film which he neither wrote nor directed, as well as the first feature-length comedy in all of cinema. In it, Chaplin plays a slightly different role from his Tramp character, which was relatively new at the time. However, he retains his moustache, thin cane and distinctive walk.
Given the combination of factors it seems likely that it is also the first feature to contain a "film within the film" where the couple go to the cinema to watch "A Thief's Fate" large sections of which are seen. Whilst this occupies less than one reel of the total five reels it is still significant.
Plot
Charles Chaplin portrays a womanizing city man who meets Tillie (Marie Dressler) in the country after a fight with his girlfriend (Mabel Normand). When he sees that Tillie's father (Mack Swain) has a very large bankroll for his workers, he persuades her to elope with him. In the city, he meets the woman he was seeing already, and tries to work around the complication to steal Tillie's money. He gets Tillie drunk in a restaurant and asks her to let him hold the pocketbook. Since she is drunk, she agrees, and he escapes with his old girlfriend and the money.
Later that day, they see a Keystone picture show entitled "A Thief's Fate", which illustrates their thievery in the form of a morality play. They both feel guilty and leave the theater. While sitting on a park bench, a paperboy (Gordon Griffith) asks him to buy a newspaper. He does so, and reads the story about Tillie's Uncle Banks (Charles Bennett), a millionaire who died while on a mountain-climbing expedition. Tillie is named sole heir and inherits three million dollars. The man leaves his girlfriend on the park bench and runs to the restaurant, where Tillie is now forced to work to support herself as she is too embarrassed to go home. He begs her to take him back and although she is skeptical at first, she believes that he truly loves her and they marry. They move into the uncle's mansion and throw a big party, which ends horribly when Tillie finds her husband with his old girlfriend, smuggled into the house and working as one of their maids.
The uncle is found on a mountaintop, alive after all. He goes back to his mansion, in disarray after Tillie instigated a gunfight (a direct result of the husband smuggling the old girlfriend into the house) which, luckily, did not harm anyone. Uncle Banks insists that Tillie be arrested for the damage she has caused to his house. The three run from the cops all the way to a dock, where a car "bumps" Tillie into the water. She flails about, hoping to be rescued. She is eventually pulled to safety, and both Tillie and the man's girlfriend realize that they are too good for him. He leaves, and the two girls become friends.
Cast
Marie Dressler ... Tillie Banks, Country Girl
Mabel Normand .. Mabel, Charlie's Girl Friend
Charles Chaplin ... Charlie, City Slicker
Mack Swain ... John Banks, Tillie's Father
Charles Bennett ... Uncle Banks, Tillie's millionaire uncle
Uncredited
Dan Albert ... Party Guest/Cop
Phyllis Allen ... Prison Matron/Restaurant patron
Billie Bennett ... Maid/Party Guest
Joe Bordeaux ... Policeman (appearance is not verified)
Glen Cavender ... First Pianist in Restaurant
Charley Chase ... Detective in Movie Theater
Dixie Chene ... Guest
Nick Cogley ... Keystone Cop Desk Sergeant
Chester Conklin ... Mr. Whoozis/Singing Waitor
Alice Davenport ... Guest
Hampton Del Ruth ... Bank's tall Secretary searching for Tillie
Frankie Dolan ... Movie Spectator/Party Guest
Minta Durfee ... Maid
Ted Edwards ... Waiter
Edwin Frazee ...Movie Spectator/Guest/Cop
Billy Gilbert ... Policeman
Gordon Griffith ... Newsboy
William Hauber ... Servant/Cop
Fred Fishback ... Servant
Alice Howell ...Guest
Edgar Kennedy ... Restaurant Owner/Butler
Grover Ligon ... Keystone Cop
Wallace MacDonald ... Keystone Cop
Hank Mann ... Keystone Cop
Harry McCoy ... Second Pianist in Restaurant/Pianist in Theater/Servant
Rube Miller ... Tillie's Visitor
Charles Murray ... Detective in "A Thief's Fate"
Eva Nelson ... Disgusted Guest in 2nd Restaurant
Edward Nolan ... Restaurant Dancer/Policeman/Mountain Innkeeper/Party Guest
Frank Opperman ... Rev. D. Simpson
Hugh Saxon ...Bank's shorter Secretary searching for Tillie
Fritz Schade ... Waiter/Diner
Al St. John ... Keystone Cop
Slim Summerville ... Keystone Cop
Josef Swickard ... Movie Spectator
Morgan Wallace ... Thief in "A Thief's Fate"
Production
Mack Sennett, whilst working with a degree of autonomy, was working for the larger company of Kessel and Baumann.
When slapstick impresario Mack Sennett proposed to adapt the 1910 Broadway comedy Tillie's Nightmare to the screen in 1914, he enlisted the immensely successful star of the stage production, the then 45-year-old Marie Dressler, to play the guileless ingenue, Tillie Banks. Dressler was paid a huge fee of £2500 per week and was also meant to have a share of the profits of Kessler and Baumann but they passed the distribution contract to Alco, voiding Dressler's contract with K & B and forcing Dressler to sue them. The situation was further complicated by Alco going bust, mainly due to overpaying for the distribution rights: £100,000. Chaplin's salary was far less than Dressler, certainly under $1000 a week, as he demanded an increase to $1000 a week early in 1915.
Comedian Charles Chaplin, who had been with Sennett’s studio since December 1913, was selected to play opposite Dressler as Charlie, an unscrupulous playboy and bounder. Though Chaplin’s signature “The Tramp” character was already well-developed in other Sennett two-reelers (he had already appeared in more than 30 shorts as the Tramp by the time), here he abandons the sweet-natured hobo to play a villain. The contrast between the diminutive, “bow-legged” Chaplin and the bovine and “bulky” Dressler, adds to the absurdity of their pairing.
Sennett's augmentation of the film length from two-reels to six-reels provided him with sufficient scope to showcase his ensemble of talented players in numerous venues:
The film, which costs roughly $50,000 ($1.2 million in 2015) to make, was based on the Broadway play Tillie's Nightmare, which Dressler had great success in, on Broadway, and on tour in the United States, from 1910 to 1912. Dressler would revive the play with her own touring company.
Milton Berle always claimed that he played the five-year-old paperboy in the film. but the role was actually portrayed by Gordon Griffith.
This is one of only two films (the other is Making a Living, another pre-Tramp film) in which both Chaplin and the Keystone Cops appear.
Reception
Following its December 21, 1914 premiere at the Los Angeles Republic Theatre, the film was a tremendous success. As the Mutual Film Corporation, distributors of all Keystone's shorts, was not equipped to handle features, Tillie became Chaplin's only Keystone to be distributed by the newly-formed Alco Film Corporation. It remained in theatrical release for years, being continually re-edited and shortened, and much later having optical soundtracks added featuring music, sound effects and narration.
Home video
For decades the film was only available in poor quality, truncated prints, but eventually David Shepard of Film Preservation Associates released his restoration on LaserDisc (1997) and DVD (1999) via Image Entertainment. It was coupled with Mabel's Married Life (1914), another Keystone film featuring Normand, Chaplin and Swain. In 2003 a second restoration, a collaboration between UCLA Film and Television Archive and the British Film Institute, used more complete, higher quality materials and saw Tillie returned almost to its original length. This version has been released in the fully restored Chaplin at Keystone 4-DVD box set (2010) by various labels worldwide.
Sequels
Dressler appeared as Tillie in three more movies, Tillie's Tomato Surprise (1915), Tillie Wakes Up (1917), and The Scrub Lady (1917), aka Tillie the Scrub Lady.
In Tillie Wakes Up, the Tillie character is married and so has a different surname.
The 1928 film
Another comedy called Tillie's Punctured Romance was released in 1928 starring W. C. Fields as a circus ringmaster. Although often erroneously cited as a remake, the later movie actually bears no resemblance to the 1914 film aside from the shared title and that Chester Conklin and Mack Swain appear in both movies.
In popular culture
In The Simpsons episode American History X-cellent, one of Mr. Burns' belongings includes a ticket stub for Tillie's Punctured Romance.
See also
List of United States comedy films
Charlie Chaplin filmography
Footnotes
Sources
Pendleton, David. 2004. Tillie's Punctured Romance, 1914. UCLA Film and Television Archive: 12th Festival of Preservation, July 22-August 21, 2004. Festival guest handbook.
External links
Tillie's Punctured Romance public domain versions at the Internet Archive
1914 films
1910s romantic comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American silent feature films
American films
American black-and-white films
American films based on plays
American slapstick comedy films
Keystone Studios films
Films directed by Mack Sennett
Films produced by Mack Sennett
Articles containing video clips
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238486 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose%20Shea | Ambrose Shea | Sir Ambrose Shea (17 September 1815 – 30 July 1905) was a political and business figure in colonial Newfoundland who later served as Governor of the Bahamas. He was one of two Newfoundland delegates to the Québec Conference that led to Canadian confederation.
Life
Shea was born in St. John's, Newfoundland Colony, the fifth son of Henry Shea and Eleanor Ryan. His father had emigrated from County Tipperary, Ireland. Ambrose Shea worked for a time on The Newfoundlander, a family-owned newspaper, before going into business for himself. By the 1850s, he was a successful merchant who also dealt in insurance, and acted as the agent for the transatlantic steamer trade. He continued to operate the business during most of his political career. In addition, he helped found the Newfoundland Natives Society in 1840, serving on the management committee in 1842, and as president in 1846.
Although he had been suggested as a candidate for the Newfoundland House of Assembly in 1842, Shea declined a nomination. In 1848 that he ran and won as a Liberal member for Placentia-St. Mary's and supported the campaign for responsible government. He was also the party's spokesman on reciprocity with the United States and was a delegate to negotiations in Washington in 1853.
In the first responsible government election in 1855, Shea was elected to the House of Assembly from St. John's West, and was appointed Speaker.
However, tensions soon arose between those members who were immigrants to Newfoundland, and those, including Shea, who were born there. There were also difficulties between Shea and Prime Minister John Kent, who took office in 1858. Despite the conflicts, the Liberals retained power after the 1859 election. Shea won elected from Burin and remained Speaker after the election. He was absent much of the time from the fall session of 1860, and many believed that he was organizing a covert campaign against Kent.
When the Kent government collapsed, and Hugh Hoyles was invited to form a minority Conservative government in 1861, Shea was offered a cabinet post but declined. In the election held that year, Shea was elected in Placentia. The Liberals were soundly defeated. After Kent's departure, Shea became party leader.
When the invitation to the Québec Conference arrived in 1864, Shea acted as one of two delegates, along with F. B. T. Carter. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the Québec Resolutions, giving a speech in their favour at a dinner in Montréal. Upon his return to Newfoundland, however, he found that his enthusiasm was not shared by much of the population. Once again, Shea found himself in th
As one of the few Catholic supporters of the idea, Shea was invited to join a coalition cabinet under Carter. However, his presence there drew much criticism and provoked many anti-Confederation attacks, to the point where he was unable to sway even Catholic opinion in favour of union. His plan to promote union by employing Newfoundlanders on the construction of the Intercolonial Railway (ICR) was unsuccessful, as many men either failed find work on the line, or drifted away without returning to the island. In the 1869 election, Shea was forced to campaign in Placentia against Charles Fox Bennett, the anti-Confederation leader, and an electorate strongly opposed to union. He and Carter's pro-union coalition government were defeated.
Following the defeat, Shea avoided public life for a time, but by 1873 was ready to run again. Although he was defeated in St. John's East that year, he was returned unopposed in Harbour Grace in January 1874. When Carter re-assumed the premiership after the fall of the Bennett government in 1873, Shea remained in the Assembly, wielding considerable influence in the Executive Council although he was not a member.
Shea was one of the primary supporters of railway construction, and was a member of the joint committee that recommended establishment of a line in 1880. He fought the 1885 election as leader of the Liberal Party, quietly negotiating with members of the new Reform Party to ensure a Reform victory, and laying the groundwork for a future coalition.
Although Shea retained his seat in the 1882 election, he began campaigning for employment with the British imperial government. After receiving a knighthood in 1883, he began expressing his desire to become governor of Newfoundland. Previous government service had given him a favourable standing with the Colonial Office, which indicated to Shea that his services would be properly rewarded. However, he found himself in competition with Carter for the same position.
Although the Colonial Office initially decided to appoint Shea, it was forced to withdraw his name in the face of protests organized by Carter. The experience soured Shea's opinion of Newfoundland and its government.
Despite efforts to placate Shea, many in the Newfoundland government felt he was an embarrassment, and wished to see him employed elsewhere. When the governorship of the Bahamas became available, it was agreed to give Shea the position. He served there from October 1887 to December 1894, and was by all accounts a popular and respected figure.
However, he maintained an interest in Newfoundland's affairs, even attempting to participate in the 1888 Confederation negotiations (though his efforts were ignored). He also seemingly never lost his desire for the Newfoundland governorship. As late as 1894, he was still campaigning for appointment to the post. After his term as governor of the Bahamas ended, Shea retired to London.
Family
The Hon. Ambrose Shea, M.E.C. married his second wife at Quebec, 26 November 1878, Louisa Bouchette Hart, daughter of Joseph Bouchette, Deputy Surveyor-General of Lower Canada, and granddaughter of Colonel Joseph Bouchette, topographer. She was born and educated in Quebec. She married, first, at Quebec, 8 November 1851, Alexander Hart, who died.
References
External links
Collections Canada Biography
1815 births
1905 deaths
Politicians from St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
Fathers of Confederation
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
British governors of the Bahamas
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Speakers of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly
Newfoundland Colony people | [
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238487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Election%20Commission | Federal Election Commission | The Federal Election Commission (FEC) is an independent regulatory agency of the United States whose purpose is to enforce campaign finance law in United States federal elections. Created in 1974 through amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act, the commission describes its duties as "to disclose campaign finance information, to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of Presidential elections."
The commission was unable to function from late August 2019 to December 2020, with an exception for the period of May 2020 to July 2020, due to lack of a quorum. In the absence of a quorum, the commission could not vote on complaints or give guidance through advisory opinions. As of May 19, 2020, there were 350 outstanding matters on the agency's enforcement docket and 227 items waiting for action. In December 2020, three commissioners were appointed to restore a quorum. However, deadlocks arising from the equal number of members from the Republican and Democratic parties with the absence of a tie-breaking vote has resulted in some controversial investigations being not pursued.
History and membership
History
The FEC was established in 1974, in an amendment of the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), to enforce and regulate campaign finance law. Initially, its six members were to be appointed by both houses of Congress and the President, reflecting a strong desire for Congress to retain control. Two commissioners were to be appointed by the President pro tempore of the Senate and two by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, each upon recommendation by the respective majority and minority leaders in that chamber, and the last two appointed by the President. They were to be confirmed by both Houses of Congress, rather than only by the Senate.
The appointment process was invalidated in 1976, in Buckley v. Valeo, when the Supreme Court held that the commissioners of the FEC were “Officers of the United States” under the Appointments Clause, and must be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Congress then amended the FECA to comply with Buckley and now the six FEC commissioners are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate.
Since 1990, the FEC has grown more polarized, with considerable deadlocks in decision-making.
Commissioners
The commission consists of six commissioners appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Each commissioner is appointed for a six-year term, but each ending on April 30. Two commissioners are appointed every two years. However, commissioners continue to serve after their terms would expire until a replacement is confirmed, but may resign at any time. By law, no more than three commissioners can be members of the same political party.
The commission had fewer than six commissioners for several years after the resignation of Ann Ravel (Democratic) in March 2017. President Donald Trump nominated James E. Trainor III (Republican) on September 14, 2017, for a term expiring on April 30, 2023, to enable replacement for Lee Goodman (Republican), who resigned in February 2018, creating a second vacancy. When Matthew Petersen (Republican) resigned on August 31, 2019, the commission had only three commissioners, and was unable to conduct most of its regulatory and decision-making functions due to lack of a quorum.
Trainor was confirmed by the Senate on May 19, 2020, restoring the commission's quorum of four. One meeting was held online, due to the coronavirus pandemic, on June 18, 2020. On June 25, however, Caroline Hunter (Republican) resigned, effective July 3, with the result that the commission once again lacked a quorum. On December 9, three new members were confirmed by the Senate.
The chair of the commission rotates among the commissioners each year, with no commissioner serving as chair more than once during a six-year term. However, a commissioner may serve as chair more than once if they serve beyond the six-year mark and no successor is appointed; for example, Ellen L. Weintraub (Democratic) was chair in 2003, 2013 and 2019. The chair of the commission in 2021 is Shana M. Broussard, who was elected on December 22, 2020, succeeding James E. Trainor III.
Official duties
Duties
The FEC administers federal campaign finance laws. It enforces limitations and prohibitions on contributions and expenditures, administers the reporting system for campaign finance disclosure, investigates and prosecutes violations (investigations are typically initiated by complaints from other candidates, parties, watchdog groups, and the public), audits a limited number of campaigns and organizations for compliance, and administers the presidential public funding programs for presidential candidates.
Until 2014, the FEC was also responsible for regulating the nomination of conventions, and defends the statute in challenges to federal election laws and regulations.
The FEC also publishes reports, filed in the Senate, House of Representatives and presidential campaigns, that list how much each campaign has raised and spent, and a list of all donors over $200, along with each donor's home address, employer and job title. This database also goes back to 1980. Private organizations are legally prohibited from using this data to solicit new individual donors (and the FEC authorizes campaigns to include a limited number of "dummy" names as a measure to prevent this), but may use this information to solicit political action committees. The FEC also maintains an active program of public education, directed primarily to explaining the law to the candidates, their campaigns, political parties and other political committees that it regulates.
Procedures and deadlock
The most significant powers of the FEC require an affirmative vote. These powers include the ability to conduct investigations, report misconduct to law enforcement, pursue settlements with candidates, and to bring a civil action in court to enforce campaign finance regulations. The FEC can also publish advisory opinions on campaign finance issues and issue campaign finance regulations.
Under the statute, there is an even number of commissioners with no more than three commissioners being members of the same political party. However, there is no tie-breaking process, such as by the chair. In addition, there is a quorum requirement of four commissioners. This results in four of the six commissioners being required for a FEC decision, which in turn means that on controversial issues bipartisan support is required for a decision. Critics have argued that the even number of commissioners and the supermajority requirement was a “set up for deadlock and political shenanigans,” especially in an age of polarization.
Between 1996 and 2006, the FEC tied in only 2.4% of Matters Under Review (MURs). In 2008 and 2009, such deadlocks spiked to 13% and to 24.4% in 2014. By 2016, commissioners deadlocked on more than 30% of substantive votes and consequently enforcement intensity decreased significantly.
Because of the quorum requirement, and the failure of President Trump in nominating replacement commissioners, the FEC was unable to function from late August 2019 to December 2020, with an exception of May to July 2020.
Criticism
Campaign finance
Critics of the FEC, including many former commissioners and campaign finance reform supporters, have harshly complained of the FEC's impotence, and accused it of succumbing to regulatory capture where it serves the interests of the ones it was intended to regulate. The FEC's bipartisan structure, which was established by Congress, renders the agency "toothless." Critics also claim that most FEC penalties for violating election law come well after the actual election in which they were committed. Additionally, some critics claim that the commissioners tend to act as an arm of the "regulated community" of parties, interest groups, and politicians when issuing rulings and writing regulations. Others point out, however, that the commissioners rarely divide evenly along partisan lines, and that the response time problem may be endemic to the enforcement procedures established by Congress. To complete steps necessary to resolve a complaint – including time for defendants to respond to the complaint, time to investigate and engage in legal analysis, and finally, where warranted, prosecution – necessarily takes far longer than the comparatively brief period of a political campaign.
First Amendment issues
Critics including former FEC chairman Bradley Smith and Stephen M. Hoersting, former executive director of the Center for Competitive Politics, criticize the FEC for pursuing overly aggressive enforcement theories that amount to an infringement on the First Amendment right to free speech.
Division over the issue became especially prominent during the last several years of the Obama administration. Commissioners deadlocked on several votes over whether to regulate Twitter, Facebook, and other online mediums for political speech, as well as a vote to punish Fox News for the selection criteria it used in a presidential debate.
Deadlocks
Critics of the commission also argue that the membership structure regularly causes deadlocks on 3-3 votes, but others argue that deadlocks are actually quite rare, and typically based on principle rather than partisanship. Since 2008, 3-3 votes have become more common at the FEC. From 2008 to August 2014, the FEC has had over 200 tie votes, accounting for approximately 14 percent of all votes in enforcement matters.
On May 6, 2021, the FEC dropped an inquiry into whether the payment to Stormy Daniels by Donald Trump violated campaign financial law during the 2016 election. The FEC split 2-2 between Democrats and Republicans on taking action. Republican Vice Chairman Allen Dickerson recused himself, while independent Commissioner Steven Walther did not vote.
Similarly, in June 2021, the FEC found that National Enquirer violated US election laws and $150,000 paid by AMI to Karen McDougal amounted to an illegal campaign contribution. Publisher AMI agreed to a fine of $187,500. However, because the FEC was equally divided 3-3 on party lines, it could not pursue further investigation into Donald Trump.
Commissioners
Current
Vacancies and pending nominations
Former commissioners and chairmen
Source:
Joan D. Aikens – April 1975 – September 1998 (reappointed May 1976, December 1981, August 1983 and October 1989).
Thomas B. Curtis – April 1975 – May 1976.
Thomas E. Harris – April 1975 – October 1986 (reappointed May 1976 and June 1979).
Neil O. Staebler – April 1975 – October 1978 (reappointed May 1976).
Vernon W. Thomson – April 1975 – June 1979; January 1981 – December 1981 (reappointed May 1976).
Robert Tiernan – April 1975 – December 1981 (reappointed May 1976).
William L. Springer – May 1976 – February 1979.
John Warren McGarry – October 1978 – August 1998 (reappointed July 1983 and October 1989).
Max L. Friedersdorf – March 1979 – December 1980.
Frank P. Reiche – July 1979 – August 1985.
Lee Ann Elliott – December 1981 – June 2000 (reappointed July 1987 and July 1994).
Danny L. McDonald – December 1981 – January 2006 (reappointed in July 1987, July 1994 and July 2000).
Thomas J. Josefiak – August 1985 – December 1991.
Scott E. Thomas – October 1986 – January 2006 (reappointed in November 1991 and July 1998).
Trevor Potter – November 1991 – October 1995.
Darryl R. Wold – July 1998 – April 2002.
Karl J. Sandstrom – July 1998 – December 2002.
David M. Mason – July 1998 – July 2008.
Bradley A. Smith – May 2000 – August 2005.
Michael E. Toner – March 2002 – March 2007. (by recess appointment on March 29, 2002, confirmed to full term 2003)
Robert D. Lenhard – January 2006 – December 31, 2007. (by recess appointment on January 4, 2006)
Hans A. von Spakovsky – January 2006 – December 31, 2007. (by recess appointment on January 4, 2006)
Cynthia L. Bauerly – June 2008 – confirmed June 24, 2008 for a term expiring on April 30, 2011 Resigned effective February 1, 2013.
Don McGahn – June 2008 – September 2013.
Lee E. Goodman - October 2013 - February 2018.
Ann Ravel – October 2013 – March 2017.
Matthew S. Petersen – June 2008 – August 2019.
Caroline C. Hunter - June 2008 – July 2020.
See also
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
Campaign finance in the United States
Dark Money (film)
Election Assistance Commission
Elections in the United States
Federal Election Campaign Act
International Foundation for Electoral Systems
Title 11 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Shadow campaigns in the United States
Case law
Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976)
Federal Election Commission v. Akins (1998), authorizing "any party aggrieved by an order of the Commission" to file a suit
McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003)
Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007), holding that issue ads may not be banned before elections
Davis v. Federal Election Commission (2008)
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)
McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)
References
Further reading
External links
Federal Election Commission in the Federal Register
United States
Government agencies established in 1974
Organizations based in Washington, D.C. | [
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