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234483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amadeus%20Quartet | Amadeus Quartet | The Amadeus Quartet was a string quartet founded in 1947 and disbanded in 1987, having retained its founding members throughout its history.
History
Because of their Jewish origin, the violinists Norbert Brainin (12 March 1923 – 10 April 2005), Siegmund Nissel (3 January 1922 – 21 May 2008) and Peter Schidlof (9 July 1922 – 16 August 1987; later violist) were driven out of Vienna after Hitler's Anschluss of 1938. Brainin and Schidlof met in a British internment camp at Prees Heath before being transferred to the Isle of Man; many Jewish refugees were confined by the British as "enemy aliens" upon seeking refuge in the UK. Brainin was released after a few months, but Schidlof remained in the camp, where he met Nissel. Finally Schidlof and Nissel were released, and the three of them were able to study with violin teacher Max Rostal, who taught them free of charge. It was through Rostal that they met cellist Martin Lovett (3 March 1927 – 29 April 2020), and in 1947 they formed the Brainin Quartet, which was renamed the Amadeus Quartet in 1948.
The group gave its first performance as the Amadeus Quartet at the Wigmore Hall in London on 10 January 1948, underwritten by British composer and conductor Imogen Holst. On 25 January 1983 the Quartet gave a 35th-anniversary concert in the same concert hall with a programme which included Beethoven's String Quartet in C major, Op. 59 No. 3 (3rd Rasumovsky Quartet). Touring extensively, the Amadeus performed throughout Europe, Canada, the United States, Japan, and South America. Noted for its smooth, sophisticated style, its seamless ensemble playing, and its sensitive interpretation, the quartet made some 200 recordings, among them the complete quartets of Ludwig van Beethoven, Johannes Brahms, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. For concerts as well as recordings of string quintets (Mozart, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Anton Bruckner) and string sextets (Brahms) they regularly invited Cecil Aronowitz as second viola and William Pleeth as second cello. Though they emphasized a standard Classical and Romantic repertory, they also performed works by such 20th-century composers as Béla Bartók, and Benjamin Britten who wrote his last string quartet expressly for them, which they premiered after his death.
Awards
The Amadeus Quartet's members were awarded numerous honors, including:
The Order of the British Empire, presented by the Queen.
Doctorates from the Universities of London, York, and Caracas.
The highest of all German awards, the Great Cross of Merit.
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art.
The quartet disbanded in 1987 upon the death of the violist Peter Schidlof. When the quartet was founded in 1947, the four members decided that, if one of the musicians either left the quartet or died, he would not be replaced and the quartet would disband. Forty years later, true to their word, the quartet disbanded upon Schidlof's death (of a heart attack, at 65). Brainin died on 10 April 2005 and Nissel on 21 May 2008. The final member, Martin Lovett, died on 29 April 2020.
References
Further reading
Muriel Nissel, Married to the Amadeus: Life with a String Quartet, , Giles de la Mare Publishers Limited
List of émigré musicians from Nazi Europe who settled in Britain
discography https://www.prestomusic.com/classical/products/8339234--amadeus-quartet-the-complete-recordings-on-dg
Musical groups established in 1947
Musical groups disestablished in 1987
English string quartets
Jewish classical musicians
1947 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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234487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Juneau%20%28LPD-10%29 | USS Juneau (LPD-10) | {|
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=United States
|Ship flag=
|Ship namesake=City of Juneau, Alaska
|Ship ordered=23 May 1963
|Ship awarded=
|Ship builder=
|Ship original cost=
|Ship yard number=
|Ship way number=
|Ship laid down=23 January 1965
|Ship launched=12 February 1966
|Ship sponsor=Mrs. William A. Egan
|Ship christened=
|Ship completed=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned=12 July 1969
|Ship decommissioned=30 October 2008
|Ship struck=13 November 2017
|Ship reinstated=
|Ship homeport=
|Ship identification=
|Ship motto=
|Ship nickname=The Mighty "J", "The Perfect 10", “The Jolly J”’’
|Ship honors=
|Ship fate=
|Ship status=Stricken, Final Disposition Pending
|Ship notes=
|Ship badge=
}}
|}
USS Juneau (LPD-10), an Austin-class amphibious transport dock, is the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the capital of Alaska. The ship entered service on 12 July 1969, and participated in the Vietnam War, was command ship for the response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, transported troops to the Persian Gulf for Operation Desert Storm, and was part of the attempted US response to Cyclone Nargis. Juneau was decommissioned in 2008, and is part of the National Defense Reserve Fleet, and is currently berthed in Oahu, Hawaii waiting for disposal.
Construction and launch
Her keel was laid down by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company of Seattle, Washington, on 23 January 1965. She was launched on 12 February 1966 (sponsored by Mrs. William A. Egan, wife of William A. Egan, the Governor of Alaska), and commissioned on 12 July 1969.
Operational history
Throughout the 1970s, Juneau completed five deployments to the western Pacific, including eight trips into Vietnamese waters, earning five battle stars for its efforts in the Vietnam War. Juneau conducted the first AV-8A Harrier landing on a Pacific Fleet LPD in February 1976. On 4 July 1976, Juneau arrived in Juneau, Alaska with a complement of Marines from 1st Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division as part of United States Bicentennial celebrations.
During the 1980s Juneau completed seven deployments. In April 1989, Juneau received emergency orders to Prince William Sound in support of the Exxon Valdez oil spill clean up. She was the first naval vessel on station, and assumed the duties of command and control ship for Joint Task Force Alaska. She provided berthing, communications, transportation (both surface and air), food, medical and laundry services for over four hundred civilian cleanup workers. She was the host of Vice-President Dan Quayle's visit to Prince William Sound, where he toured an oil soaked beach and then returned to Juneau and gave a speech that was televised nationwide.
After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the initiation of Operation Desert Shield, Juneau sailed with twelve other ships of Amphibious Group Three in December 1990 to participate in Operation Desert Storm. Joining with ships from Amphibious Group Two, Juneau was a member of the largest amphibious task force since the United Nations assault on Incheon, South Korea in the Korean War. On 24 February 1991 Juneau off-loaded her equipment and ammunition in record time and landed her embarked troops at Ras Mishab, Saudi Arabia, whence they would assault Iraqi positions in southern Kuwait.
In May 1991, Juneau proceeded to Bangladesh to assist in Operation Sea Angel, providing relief after a disastrous cyclone.
During her 14th deployment in late 1992, Juneau was diverted to the coast of Somalia in support of Operation Restore Hope. Early on 9 December 1992, the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) performed an unopposed amphibious assault into the city of Mogadishu from Juneau, and . The embarked Marines ensured the security of shipments of food supplies to the people of Somalia.Juneau was homeported in San Diego until 30 July 1999 when she relieved as part of the forward-deployed naval forces. From June to September 1999 Juneau participated in the first ship swap with her sister ship Dubuque, where each ship's crew remained in their original home ports, allowing Dubuque to return to the homeport of San Diego, California. Since that date, Juneau has been homeported in Sasebo, Japan.Juneau was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian-led INTERFET peacekeeping taskforce from 28 to 31 January 2000.
During the 2008 Myanmar Cyclone Nargis crisis and the subsequent Operation Caring Response aid mission, Juneau (as part of the amphibious group, along with , and ), she stood by off Burma from 13 May to 5 June, waiting for the Myanmar junta government to permit US aid to its citizens. However, in early June, with permission still not forthcoming, it was decided to put the group back on its scheduled operations.
DecommissioningJuneau'' swapped with her sister ship during the third quarter of fiscal year 2008. After the swap, the ship sailed to San Diego for decommissioning. The decommissioning took place 30 October 2008 after which the ship was moved to Hawaii and placed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet.
References
External links
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy Alaska-related ships
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Vietnam War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company
National Defense Reserve Fleet
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234492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Camaro | Chevrolet Camaro | The Chevrolet Camaro is a mid-size American automobile manufactured by Chevrolet, classified as a pony car. It first went on sale on September 29, 1966, for the 1967 model year and was designed as a competing model to the Ford Mustang. The Camaro shared its platform and major components with the Firebird, produced by Chevy's sister division Pontiac, also introduced for 1967.
Four distinct generations of the Camaro were developed before production ended in 2002. The nameplate was revived on a concept car that evolved into the fifth-generation Camaro; production started on March 16, 2009. Over 5 million Camaros have been sold.
Background
Before any official announcement, reports began running during April 1965 within the automotive press that Chevrolet was preparing a competitor to the Ford Mustang, code-named Panther. On June 21, 1966, around 200 automotive journalists received a telegram from General Motors stating, "...please save noon of June 28 for important SEPAW meeting. Hope you can be on hand to help scratch a cat. Details will follow...(signed) John L. Cutter – Chevrolet public relations – SEPAW secretary." The following day, the same journalists received another General Motors telegram stating, "Society for the Eradication of Panthers from the Automotive World will hold first and last meeting on June 28...(signed) John L. Cutter – Chevrolet public relations SEPAW secretary." These telegrams puzzled automotive journalists.
On June 28, 1966, General Motors held a live press conference in Detroit's Statler-Hilton Hotel. It was the first time that 14 cities were connected in real-time for a press conference via telephone lines. Chevrolet general manager Pete Estes started the news conference stating that all attendees of the conference were charter members of the Society for the Elimination of Panthers from the Automotive World and that this would be the first and last meeting of SEPAW. Estes then announced a new car line, project designation XP-836, with a name that Chevrolet chose in keeping with other car names beginning with the letter C such as the Corvair, Chevelle, Chevy II, and Corvette. He claimed the name, "suggests the comradeship of good friends as a personal car should be to its owner" and that "to us, the name means just what we think the car will do... go." The Camaro name was then unveiled. Automotive press asked Chevrolet product managers, "what is a Camaro?" and were told it was "a small, vicious animal that eats Mustangs," an obvious reference to the extremely successful Ford Mustang that created and dominated the Pony car market GM was entering.
According to the book The Complete Book of Camaro: Every Model Since 1967, the name Camaro was conceived by Chevrolet merchandising manager Bob Lund and General Motors vice president Ed Rollett, while they were reading the book Heath's French and English Dictionary by James Boïelle and by de V. Payen-Payne printed in 1936. In the book The Complete Book of Camaro, it states that Mr. Lund and Mr. Rollett found the word camaro in the French-English dictionary was slang, to mean "friend, pal, or comrade". The article further repeated Estes's statement of what the word camaro was meant to imply, that the car's name "suggests the comradeship of good friends, as a personal car should be to its owner". The accepted French word with the closest meaning is "camarade," from which the English word "comrade" is derived.
The Camaro was first shown at a press preview in Detroit on September 12, 1966, and later in Los Angeles, on September 19, 1966. Public introduction of the new model was on September 26, 1966. The Camaro officially went on sale in dealerships on September 29, 1966, for the 1967 model year.
First generation (1967–1969)
The first-generation Camaro debuted in September 1966. It was produced for the 1967 to 1969 model years on a new rear-wheel drive GM F-body platform as a two-door 2+2 in coupé and convertible models. The base engine was
inline-6, with a six or , , , , and V8s as options. Concerned with the runaway success of the Ford Mustang, Chevrolet executives realized that the sporty version of their compact rear-wheel drive Corvair, the Monza, would not be able to generate the sales volume of the Mustang due to limitations with that layout (including its inability to share the whole range of Chevrolet engines) and declining sales, partly due to the negative publicity from Ralph Nader's book, Unsafe at Any Speed. Therefore, the Camaro was touted as having the same conventional rear-drive, front-engine configuration as the Mustang. In addition, the Camaro could borrow parts from the existing Chevy Nova the way the Mustang did from the Ford Falcon. The first-generation Camaro lasted until the 1969 model year and eventually inspired the design of the new retro fifth-generation Camaro.
The first-generation was available in Super Sport, Rally Sport, and beginning in December 1966 the high-performance Z/28, models. It came with stripes on the hood and trunk (that could be optioned-out at no charge), styled rally road wheels, and a special V8 engine that had been developed for Trans Am series racing. Front vent windows disappeared and safety side marker lights appeared in 1968.
Second generation (1970–1981)
Introduced in February 1970, the second-generation Camaro was produced through the 1981 model year, with cosmetic changes made in 1974 and 1978 model years. The car was heavily restyled and became somewhat larger and wider with the new styling. Still based on the F-body platform, the new Camaro was similar to its predecessor, with a unibody structure, front subframe, an A-arm front suspension, and leaf springs to control the solid rear axle. The 1980 and 1981 Z28 models included an air induction hood scoop with an intake door that opened under full throttle. The RS SS package was dropped in 1972 and reintroduced in 1996.
Road & Track included the 1971 SS350 as one of the 10 best cars in the world in August 1971.
Third generation (1982–1992)
The third-generation Camaro was produced from 1981 (for the 1982 model year) to 1992. These were the first Camaros to offer modern fuel injection, Turbo-Hydramatic 700R4 four-speed automatic transmissions, five-speed manual transmissions, 14,15- or 16-inch wheels, a standard OHV 4-cylinder engine, and hatchback bodies. The cars were nearly lighter than the second generation model.
The IROC-Z was introduced in 1985 and continued through 1990. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Regulations required a CHMSL (Center High Mounted Stop Lamp) starting with the 1986 model year. For 1986, the new brake light was located on the exterior of the upper center area of the back hatch glass. Additionally, the 2.5 L Iron Duke pushrod 4-cylinder engine was dropped, and all base models now came with the 2.8 L V6 (OHV). For 1987 and later, the CHMSL was either mounted inside the upper hatch glass or integrated into a rear spoiler (if equipped). In 1985, the small block V8 was available with indirect injection called "tuned port injection" (TPI). In 1987 the L98 V8 engine became a regular option on the IROC-Z, paired with an automatic transmission only. The convertible body style returned in 1987 (absent since 1969) and all came with a special "20th Anniversary Commemorative Edition" leather map pocket. 1992 offered a "25th Anniversary Heritage Package" that included stripes and a unique spoiler plaque. Beginning in 1988, the 1LE performance package was introduced, optional on street models, and for showroom stock racing in the U.S. and Canada. The B4C or "police" package was made available beginning in 1991. This created a Z28 in more subtle RS styling.
Fourth generation (1993–2002)
The fourth-generation Camaro debuted in 1993 on an updated F-body platform. It retained the same characteristics since its introduction in 1967: a coupé body style with 2+2 seating (with an optional T-top roof) or convertible (reintroduced in 1994), rear-wheel drive, pushrod 6-cylinder and V8 engines. The standard powerplant from 1993 to 1995 was a 3.4 L V6, then a 3.8 L V6 was introduced in 1995. A 350 MPFI (LT1) Small Block V-8 engine, which was introduced in the Corvette in 1992, was standard in the Z28. Optional equipment included all-speed traction control and a new six-speed T-56 manual transmission; the 4L60E 4-speed automatic transmission was standard on the Z28, yet optional on the V6 models which came with a 5-speed manual as standard. Anti-lock brakes were standard equipment on all Camaros. A limited quantity of the SS version (1996-1997) came with the 330 HP LT4 small block engine from the Corvette, although most were equipped with the 275 hp LT1. The 1997 model year included a revised interior, and the 1998 models included exterior styling changes and a switch to GM's aluminum block LS1 used in the Corvette C5. In 1998, the 5.7 L LS1 was the first all-aluminum engine offered in a Camaro since the 1969 ZL-1 and carried a 305-horsepower rating. The SS versions (1998-2002) received slightly improved exhaust and intake systems, bigger wheels and tires, a slightly revised suspension for improved handling and grip while retaining ride comfort, an arc-shaped rear wing for downforce, and different gearing ratios for faster acceleration, over the Z28 models. Chevrolet offered a 35th-anniversary edition for the 2002 model year. Production of the F-Body platform was discontinued due to slowing sales, a deteriorating market for sports coupés, and plant overcapacity, but an entirely new platform went on sale in 2009. The B4C Special Service Package for police agencies was carried over from the 3rd generation & sold between 1993 and 2002.
Fifth generation (2010–2015)
The Camaro received a complete redesign and new platform in 2009 for the 2010 model year and fifth generation. Based on the 2006 Camaro Concept and 2007 Camaro Convertible Concept, production of the fifth-generation Camaro was approved on August 10, 2006. The Oshawa Car Assembly plant in the city of Oshawa, Ontario, Canada, began producing the new Camaro which went on sale in spring of 2009 as a 2010 model year vehicle.
Following the development of the Zeta architecture and because of its position as the GM global center of RWD development, GM Holden in Australia led the final design, engineering, and development of the Camaro. Production of the coupé began on March 16, 2009, in LS, LT, and SS trim levels. LS and LT models are powered by a V6 producing for the 2010 and 2011 models mated to either a 6-speed manual or a 6-speed automatic with manual shift. The SS is powered by the LS3 V8 producing and is paired with a 6-speed manual. The automatic SS has the L99 V8 with . The RS appearance package is available on both the LT and SS and features 20-inch wheels with a darker gray tone, halo rings around xenon headlamps, a unique spoiler, and red RS or SS badges.
In addition to the original 2012 Camaro LS model. Chevrolet has manufactured the 2LS model. The 2LS model uses a slightly different rear axle ratio than the original LS. Having a 2.92 rear axle ratio increased fuel economy to about 19/30 miles per gallon. The base engine 2012 model had a higher redline than previous V6 models, now reaching 7200RPM; delivering an overall boost in the power and performance of the car. Almost all 2LS models have been released with various styles of a rear spoiler on the back as well. The 2LS was made to have better fuel mileage than the Camaro LS.
On April 1, 2010, the Camaro was named the World Car Design of the Year at the World Car of the Year Awards.
In late January 2011, the production of the 2011 Camaro Convertibles started. The first going to Rick Hendrick via Barrett-Jackson Car Auction. Convertibles had the same options as the coupé (engines, RS, SS, etc.). The Camaro convertible added an aluminum brace over the engine assembly, and under the transmission. Due to the 2011 Fukushima earthquake, certain pigments were not available to make certain colors.
In November 2011, the export version (excluding the Japanese version) of the Camaro was introduced after a two-year delay. The delay was due to unexpected domestic demand. The export version included different tail lamps with integrated reverse and amber turn signal lamps, larger external rearview mirrors with integrated side turn signal repeaters, a rear bumper without reverse light inserts, and other changes as to comply with ECE regulations.
Although not in continuous production for the entire period, the 2012 model year marked the 45th anniversary of the Camaro and this was commemorated with a model available only in "Carbon Flash Metallic" paint. This edition Camaro also included a unique stripe package, red, white, and blue interior stitching as well as 45th edition exclusive 20-inch wheels. The V6 was updated to a 3.6 L "LFX" engine producing . The SS model received an upgrade to the suspension system. All models received the RS spoiler and taillight details, steering wheel-mounted volume and radio controls, and Bluetooth connectivity controls as standard. The 2012 ZL1 Camaro included a 6.2 L LSA supercharged V8 producing . This engine was first used in the Cadillac CTS-V for the 2009 model year. Other features included a 2-stage exhaust, the addition of suede seats, steering wheel, and shift knob, as well as ZL1-exclusive 20-inch aluminum wheels. In 2012, Chevrolet unveiled the production of the 2013 Camaro ZL1 Convertible.
The 2014 Camaro was unveiled at the 2013 New York Auto Show, with a refreshed body style and the return of a Z/28 model. Upgrades included a slimmer grille along with a larger lower fascia and new fog lights along with taillights that took styling cues from the original first-generation Camaro. The RS appearance package incorporates LEDs into both the headlights and taillights. The Z/28 model features a high-performance 7.0 L LS7 V8 engine that produces , the same engine used in the C6 Z06 Corvette. The new Z/28 features upgrades intended to improve lap times, and as with the original Z/28, air conditioning is an option. The Z/28 model retains only one speaker for the seat belt chime, the rear quarter glass has been thinned, rear seats have been thinned, and most of the sound deadening has been removed in an effort to reduce the weight of the vehicle.
Sixth generation (2016–present)
On May 16, 2015, Chevrolet introduced the sixth generation Camaro at Belle Isle park in Detroit. The launch, complete with previous generation Camaros on display, coincided with the vehicle's upcoming 50th birthday.
The sixth generation Camaro sales began in late 2015 and offered in LT and SS models built on the GM Alpha platform at Lansing Grand River Assembly in Michigan. The Alpha platform is currently used by the Cadillac ATS. The 2016 Camaro weighs less than its predecessor. Over 70% of the sixth generation's architectural components are unique to the car and are not shared with any other current GM product.
Motor Trend named the 2016 Camaro its "Car of the Year".
Early production have three engine versions: a 2.0 L turbo-charged inline-four producing , a new 3.6 L V6 making , while the SS model features the 6.2 L LT1 V8 with ; the ZL1 model will use a supercharged LT4 based on the Corvette Z06, and the transmissions are either a six-speed manual or an eight-speed automatic (the 2017 ZL1 will share the six-speed manual but has an optional ten-speed automatic).
The 2016 Camaro come equipped with both Apple CarPlay and Android Auto Capability features.
For the 2017 model year, the 1LE performance package returns to the Camaro. The package builds off the success of the previous-generation 1LE, offering increased handling and track performance. In response to customer demand, Chevrolet offers two distinct 1LE packages, for both V6 and V8 models, each visually distinguished with a satin black hood and specific wheels. The 2017 ZL1 Camaro has a top speed of 205 mph, and a Nürburgring Nordschleife lap time of 7:16.4.
The 2017 ZL1 edition is also one of the first cars with a 10-speed automatic transmission, making it the most unique one in its form.
For the 2018 model year, Chevrolet introduced the ZL1 1LE package for the Camaro. The new package tested to be three seconds faster around General Motors' Milford Road Course than the next-fastest ZL1 Camaro. The ZL1 1LE performance package introduces improved aerodynamics, a new racing-inspired adjustable suspension, and new lightweight forged aluminum wheels with Goodyear Eagle F1 Supercar 3R tires created especially for the ZL1 1LE. Overall the new performance package reduces the car's weight by over the ZL1. The ZL1 1LE shares the ZL1's supercharged LT4 engine paired with a six-speed manual transmission with Active Rev Match.
Racing
The Camaro was one of the vehicles in the SCCA-sanctioned Trans-Am Series. Chevrolet worked with Roger Penske to operate their unofficially factory-backed Trans Am team, winning the title in 1968 and 1969 with Mark Donohue. Jim Hall's Chaparral team replaced Penske for the 1970 season. Warren Agor of Rochester, NY, was the series' leading Camaro privateer, his orange #13's o, 1993, 1994, and 1998.
There was also another SCCA Trans-Am Series Camaro that was not popular because of racing but because of its body modifications. This Camaro, number 13, had been built and driven by Henry “Smokey” Yunick. Smokey Yunick was a car builder who worked to reduce the weight of his cars by acid-dipping body parts and installing thinner safety glass.
Camaro-styled cars also race in the NASCAR Xfinity Series, with all Chevrolet teams having used the body since 2013.
The Penske/Donohue Camaros also had the front sheet metal dropped, all four fenders widened, windshield laid back, front sub-frame “Z’d” to lower the car, the floor pan moved up and even the drip-rails were moved closer to the body. This Camaro had always kept its stock look and had a 302 engine that was able to produce 482 horsepower. One part that had come out of his testing was the Edelbrock Cross-Manifold. To this day the Smokey Yunick 1968 Camaro is owned by Vic Edelbrock Jr.
Bob Jane won both the 1971 and 1972 Australian Touring Car Championships at the wheel of a Camaro.
The Camaro was the official car of and used in the International Race of Champions starting in 1975 and lasting for 12 years until 1989. It was the first American car of the series succeeding the Porsche Carrera RSR.
Camaros are a favorite in drag racing, having won many championships, and can be currently found in several series from the National Hot Rod Association, International Hot Rod Association, and United States Hot Rod Association. Road racing Camaros can currently be found in the Sports Car Club of America's American Sedan series. They have also been the vehicle used in the Swedish Camaro Cup series since 1975.
The Camaro was the Indianapolis 500 Pace Car in 1967, 1969, 1982, 1993, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014, and 2016. The Camaro also paced races at Daytona, Watkins Glen, Mosport in Canada, and Charlotte Motor Speedway.
The Camaro was also a regular in the IMSA GT Series.
The fifth-generation Camaro took to the tracks in 2010 in the GT class of the Grand Am Road Racing Championship. Stevenson Motorsports announced that it was seeking to run a two-car team of Pratt & Miller built cars, based on the same spaceframe as the Pontiac GXP-R. The team also competed with Camaros in the Grand Sports class of the Grand-Am's Continental Tire Challenge.
The Camaro ZL1 was introduced in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series in 2018, replacing the discontinued Chevrolet SS. On February 18, 2018, Austin Dillon won the Daytona 500 in the ZL1's debut. In the 2020 season, Chase Elliott won the Camaro's first NASCAR Championship in the last race of the season.
In 2023, the Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 will join the Australian Supercars Championship to replace the Holden Commodore ZB.The prototype will run demonstration runs at all rounds of the 2022 Supercars Championship
Sales
In popular culture
General Motors has made product placement, or embedded marketing, deals for the Chevrolet Camaro in numerous media.
The vehicle mode of the fictional character Bumblebee in the 2007 film, Transformers, is first depicted as a 1976 Camaro and later a fifth-generation concept variant. A modified fifth-generation Camaro reprises the role of Bumblebee in the sequels, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, and Transformers: Dark of the Moon. Bumblebee takes on the form of a modified 1967 Camaro in Transformers: Age of Extinction, and later a sixth-generation concept Camaro. He also returns as a modified 2016 Camaro in Transformers: The Last Knight. The final moments of the 2018 reboot film Bumblebee reveal that the Camaro was his third-ever form that he took on upon arriving on Earth, after a Jeep and a Volkswagen Beetle.
Hot Wheels has been making several versions of the Camaro since 1968, with the "Custom Camaro" being the first of the original lineup. Chevrolet worked with Lego to create a special "Lego Speed Champions" version of the Camaro.
References
External links
Camaro
Muscle cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Coupés
Pony cars
Convertibles
Hatchbacks
Chevrolet Camaro (first generation)
Chevrolet Camaro (fifth generation)
1970s cars
1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
2020s cars
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234494 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne%20Anka | Arne Anka | Arne Anka is a Swedish comic strip drawn by Charlie Christensen under the pseudonym Alexander Barks from 1983 to 1995 and 2006 and forward. The title character closely resembles Donald Duck (who is called Kalle Anka in Swedish). The likeness with Donald Duck is only feather deep, however; the comics often take place at a bar, Zeke's, where Arne gets drunk while he cynically thinks about and discusses life. This usually happens in the company of his friend, Krille Krokodil ("Krille Crocodile"). In other situations, Arne is found walking, with friends or alone, and occasionally he is found in a completely different setting (albeit with the same group of friends), like ancient Rome or 18th century Paris. Always, however, he comments on life and (especially Swedish) society with sharp wit.
Some distinct features about Arne Anka is deep love for Swedish poetry and literature, his miserable economy, his very high alcohol consumption and his enthusiasm towards women - even though he has very little luck with any such connections.
Charlie Christensen uses his friends as inspiration for the characters and stories in Arne Anka. One of his friends has said that you sometimes notice that Charlie Christensen gets a particular look and then a few weeks later you read what you just said in an Arne Anka strip.
In 1997, a few pages were translated to English in connection with an exhibition of Nordic comics in France, and the publication of an English-language anthology. In this translation, the character was given the name "Arnie the Duck".
The Disney threat
In the beginning of the 1990s, The Walt Disney Company threatened to sue the author, Charlie Christensen, due to Arne Anka's similarity with Donald Duck. As a response, Charlie Christensen drew a comic strip about Arne faking his own death, so that he could have plastic surgery done to his beak in secrecy. Arne then returned with a new, pointed beak, and the pseudonym Alexander Barks was changed to Alexander X.
After a while though, Arne went to a novelty store to buy a fake beak, which looked exactly like his old one. This new beak was drawn showing a small rubber band holding it in place until the threat of being sued was withdrawn. In the meanwhile, however, Disney's threat of a lawsuit, which received very extensive publicity in Sweden, had turned Arne Anka into a Swedish independence hero and increased his popularity manyfold.
Theater play
In 1995, Arne Anka was produced as a play at Stockholm City Theatre (Stockholms Stadsteater). The play was written by Christensen himself, and it was called "Arne Anka - en afton på Zekes" ("Arne Anka - an evening at Zeke's"), starring Robert Gustafsson as Arne.
Comeback
In December 2006, after more than ten years of absence, Arne made his comeback in Christensen's Arne Anka, Part V: Återuppståndelsen (The resurrection).
When we meet him now, he is divorced with two kids, pays child support and, if possible, has even worse finances than in the past.
Albums
Arne Anka, Tago 1989
Arne Anka, Del II, Tago 1991
Arne Anka, Del III, Tago 1993
Arne Anka, Bombad och sänkt" (Bombed and Sunk), Autobiography, Tago 1993
Arne Anka, Del IV, Tago 1995
Jag, Arne (Me, Arne) (collected comics 1983-1995), (hardcover), Tago, 1997
Jag, Arne (Me, Arne) (collected comics 1983-1995), (softcover), Kartago, 2001
Arne Anka, Del V: Återuppståndelsen (The resurrection), Kartago 2006
Arne Anka, Del VI: Manöver i mörkret (Maneuver in the dark), Kartago 2007
Arne Anka, Del VII: Ner med monarkin (Down with the Monarchy), Kartago 2008
Arne Anka: Rapport från kriget (Report from the war), Kartago 2010
Arne Anka IX - Voodoo vid vatten (Voodoo by the water), Kartago 2011
Arne Anka X - Utsikt från en svamp (View from a mushroom), Kartago 2013
Arne Anka XI - Dagbok från Svitjod (Diary from Svitjod), Kartago 2014
Arne Anka XII - Mentala selfies (Mental selfies), Kartago 2016
Trivia
For Joachim Trier's 2021 Norwegian film The Worst Person in the World, Christensen was hired to do the comic "Gaupe" (roughly "Lynxie") in an Arne Anka-inspired style. Her er tegneserien Gaupe fra Verdens verste menneske, Walter Wehus, Empirix.no, Dec. 31, 2021. (Norwegian)
See also
The Disneyland Memorial Orgy
Air Pirates
References
Swedish comic strips
Anka, Arne
Anka, Arne
Satirical comics
Parody comics
Disney parodies
Underground comix
Adult comics
1983 comics debuts
1995 comics endings
Anka, Arne
Comics about animals
Comics adapted into plays
Anka, Arne
Comics about ducks | [
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234496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Shreveport%20%28LPD-12%29 | USS Shreveport (LPD-12) | USS Shreveport (LPD-12) is an Austin-class American amphibious transport dock. It is the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the city in Louisiana. Her keel was laid down on 27 December 1965 by the Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company of Seattle, Washington. She was launched on 22 October 1966 sponsored by Mrs. Andrew McBurney Jackson, Jr., and commissioned on 12 December 1970 with Captain Pehr H. Pehrsson in command.
History
1970s
On 22 January 1971, Shreveport departed Puget Sound for her home
port, Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, where she arrived on 21 February. Between 9 March and 9 April 1971, the amphibious transport dock underwent shakedown training at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and, from 16 June to 4 August, she carried 375 midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy on a training cruise to Northern Europe. After post shakedown repairs from 6 October to 24 November 1971, she sailed for the Caribbean Sea, where she participated in landing exercises during the first part of 1972. On 12 June, the ship again sailed on a midshipman training cruise to Northern Europe, visiting the Azores; Aalborg, Denmark; Portsmouth, England; and Le Havre, France; before returning to Norfolk, Virginia, on 3 August. During the rest of 1972, Shreveport conducted amphibious training exercises off the coasts of Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida.
Shreveport, with Amphibious Squadron 2, departed Norfolk on 4 January 1973 for her first tour of duty with the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea. The squadron stopped at Morehead City, North Carolina, and embarked elements of the Sixth Marines (BLT 1/6) before it proceeded to Rota, Spain, where it was assigned to CTF 61. The task force departed Rota on 16 January, called at Cannes, France, on 18 January, and was underway for Monte Romano, Italy, on 22 January. During her six-month deployment, Shreveport also visited ports in Italy, Greece, Crete, and Turkey before returning to Morehead City on 2 July. The Marines were offloaded, and the ship continued to Norfolk that afternoon.
Shreveport operated in the Norfolk area until February 1974 when she sailed, with PhibRon 2, for operations in the Caribbean. She returned to her home port on 19 March. The ship made another trip south to the Panama Canal area that lasted from 18 April to 4 June. On 24 June, Shreveport sailed for Rotterdam and another deployment with the Sixth Fleet.
Throughout 1974 and half of 1975, Shreveport was the flagship of the Caribbean Amphibious Ready Group and participated in various fleet exercises with the Marine Corps, occasionally also with South American Forces. In July 1975, she deployed back to the Mediterranean where she participated in a major NATO exercise involving British, Turkish and U.S. Navies. During the return trip to Norfolk in February 1976, the ship's flag bridge was destroyed by a forty-foot wave off Cape Hatteras. Thereafter "Shreveport" returned to fleet exercises in the Caribbean until September 1979 when she began another Mediterranean deployment where she completed four major amphibious operations with various European allies.
1980s
In September 1981, Shreveport visited Cancún, Mexico to support President Ronald Reagan’s participation in the North-South Economic Summit.
During a Mediterranean cruise that began in August 1982, Shreveport spent four months off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon. As a result of this operation, she received the Navy Unit Commendation and the Navy Expeditionary Medal. In July 1984, she broke the world record for transiting the Suez Canal. In late 1984, she received the Meritorious Unit Commendation for conducting mine clearing operations in the Red Sea in support of Operation Intense Look. Later in the deployment, she was called to action off the Lebanese coast. Following the bombing of the US Embassy in Beirut, Shreveport provided critical medical evacuation and logistics support services. After making port calls in Marseille, France, and Malaga and Rota, Spain, she returned to Norfolk.
1990s and Operation Desert Shield/Storm
From 15 August 1990 to 17 April 1991, Shreveport was deployed to the Persian Gulf in support of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm with Commander, Amphibious Squadron Six embarked. Her involvement in this conflict helped to earn her the Arleigh Burke Fleet Trophy for Operational Readiness in January 1992. During a Mediterranean deployment in November 1993, Shreveport was assigned to Mogadishu, Somalia in support of Operation Restore Hope.
From 1994 and 1995 saw Shreveport participating in Operation Provide Promise in the Adriatic Sea by flying video reconnaissance missions over Bosnia-Herzegovina utilizing the Pioneer UAV. During this time, she also served in the first amphibious Partnership for Peace exercise in Bulgaria.
From December 1995 to February 1996, Shreveport participated in Operations Deny Flight, Provide Promise, and Joint/Decisive Endeavor in the Adriatic sea. On 3 October 1997, USS Shreveport deployed for yet another Mediterranean cruise.
While operating in the Black Sea, Shreveport conducted a Change of Command ceremony in Constanţa, Romania on 11 December 1997. In early February 1998, she was called away from her original schedule and spent the remainder of the deployment operating in the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Southern Watch. From July 1998 – November 1998 she underwent a Metro machine Dry Dock Phased Maintenance Availability.
Was awarded the Commander, Naval Surface, U.S. Atlantic Fleet Battle Efficiency Award and Safety Award for 1998 and 1999, as well as her sixth consecutive Engineering "E", seventh Maritime Warfare "E", third Operations "E", first Logistics "E" and first Medical "H".
From September 1999 to April 2000 USS Shreveport deployed on a Mediterranean Cruise where she spent time in the Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf supporting exercises Bright Star, Noble Shirley, Infinite Moonlight.
2000s and Hurricane Katrina
On 16 February 2000, Shreveport ran aground in the Suez Canal, on its way back into the Mediterranean Sea from the Red Sea. It sustained damage to its starboard propeller, propeller shaft, rudder and steering system. Its captain was relieved of command. Damages were estimated at $932,000.
From September 2001 to April 2002 USS Shreveport deployed on a Mediterranean Cruise to the Persian Gulf to support Operation Enduring Freedom.
From May 2003 Fleet week New York City.
From February 2004 to September 2004 USS Shreveport deployed on a Mediterranean Cruise to the Persian Gulf to support Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom as part of the Wasp Amphibious Ready Group
On 31 August 2005 USS Shreveport deployed with the USS Iwo Jima Amphibious Ready Group where had been since the day that the city of New Orleans was stricken and flooded in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.
Final voyage and decommissioning
After one last deployment in January 2007 as part of the Bataan Expeditionary Strike Group with her final Commanding Officer, Captain Paul Monger, USS Shreveport was decommissioned on 28 September 2007 and towed to the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
On December 14, 2021, she was towed by the Southern Dawn (IMO: 9032800) to Brownsville, TX for disposal by scrapping.
References
External links
Note: Adding quality links
USS Shreveport on Navsource.org
USS Shreveport (LPD-12) Shipmates - FB Group
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy Louisiana-related ships
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
USS Shreveport (LPD-12)
Ships built by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company
1966 ships | [
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234498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Nashville%20%28LPD-13%29 | USS Nashville (LPD-13) | USS Nashville (LPD-13), an , was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the capital city of Tennessee. Her keel was laid down on 14 March 1966 by the Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company of Seattle, Washington. She was launched on 7 October 1967 sponsored by Mrs. Roy L. Johnson, and commissioned at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, on 14 February 1970 with Captain Frank R. Fahland in command.
History
Nashville various assignments have included four Caribbean Amphibious Ready Groups, eight Mediterranean Groups, two Persian Gulf Groups, a Mine Countermeasure Task Group, North Atlantic Treaty Organization Operations and training assignments with Fleet Marine Force Atlantic.
The ship remained in Amphibious Squadron 2 in 1977. She served as squadron flagship from 1 January through 11 March; 29 April through 21 May; and 10 August through 31 December 1977. In addition, she served as flagship for Commander Combined Amphibious Task Force (Commander Task Force 401), Commander Combined Landing Force, and Commander Task Force 61 (Commander Amphibious Squadron 2) during NATO Exercise Dawn Patrol '77.
Nashville provided support during 8 June 1995 rescue of pilot Capt. Scott O'Grady, who was shot down over Bosnia on 2 June 1995 by an SA-6 mobile launcher and forced to eject from his F-16C into hostile territory.
In 2003, she deployed as part of the Iwo Jima Amphibious Ready Group with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit.
On 16 and 17 January 2006, she was the first vessel to receive the landing of an unmanned robotic RQ-8A Fire Scout helicopter.
In July 2006, she was sent to Lebanon as part of the Expeditionary Strike Group transporting the 24th MEU to assist with the evacuation of U.S. nationals from the country, after a conflict erupted between the Israeli military and Hezbollah militants. On 20 July 2006, it landed the first Marines on Lebanese soil since 1982. The Nashville is featured in an episode of the television program Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations, as it evacuated Americans (including Bourdain and his production crew) from Beirut. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award.
The USS Nashville was decommissioned on 30 September 2009 at the Norfolk Naval Station in Norfolk, Virginia. Navy officials stated the ship was too costly to maintain and was unable to match the efficiency of newer vessels. , the vessel is moored at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Possible sale to India
According to an Indian news source, the Indian Navy may bid to acquire the Nashville, but , India had decided not to move forward with the deal. The Nashville is of the same class as the which was previously sold to India and is now the .
Gallery
References
External links
USS Nashville at Navy.mil
USS Nashville command history at the Naval History & Heritage Command
Austin-class amphibious transport docks
United States Navy Tennessee-related ships
Cold War amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company
1967 ships | [
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] |
234499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux%20Arts%20Trio | Beaux Arts Trio | The Beaux Arts Trio was a noted piano trio, celebrated for their vivacity, emotional depth and wide-ranging repertoire. They made their debut on 13 July 1955, at the Berkshire Music Festival, Lenox, Massachusetts, United States, known today as the Tanglewood Music Center. Their final American concert was held at Tanglewood on 21 August 2008. It was webcast live and archived on NPR Music. Their final concert was in Lucerne, Switzerland on 6 September 2008.
The Beaux Arts Trio recorded the entire standard piano trio repertoire. In 2005, the trio celebrated its 50th anniversary with two special CD issues, one featuring their most popular releases through their long years of recording (released by Philips Records), and the other an anniversary collection of new music (released by Warner Records).
Throughout its existence, the trio was held together by founding pianist Menahem Pressler. The original members of the trio when it was founded in 1955 were as follows:
Piano: Menahem Pressler
Violin: Daniel Guilet
Cello: Bernard Greenhouse
The violin and cello members changed on a number of occasions, with later members including the following:
Violin: Isidore Cohen (1968–1992; formerly second violinist of the Juilliard String Quartet), Ida Kavafian (1992–1998), Yung Uck Kim (1998–2002), Daniel Hope (2002–2008)
Cello: Peter Wiley (1987–1998; he then moved to Guarneri Quartet), Antonio Meneses (1998–2008)
In July 2015, Decca Classics released a 60-CD boxed set to mark their 60th anniversary.
See also
Beaux-Arts architecture
Beaux-Arts (Charleroi Metro)
References
External links
Beaux Arts Trio website
Beaux Arts Trio concerts and interviews on the NPR radio (especially the last concert)
A live performance on YouTube of Dvořák's Dumky Trio, played on April 20, 2008, at the Herbst Theatre, San Francisco
1955 establishments in Massachusetts
2008 disestablishments in Switzerland
Chamber music groups
Piano trios
Musical groups established in 1955
Musical groups disestablished in 2008
Edison Classical Music Awards Oeuvreprijs winners | [
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234500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20establishing%20a%20Constitution%20for%20Europe | Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe | The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE; commonly referred to as the European Constitution or as the Constitutional Treaty) was an unratified international treaty intended to create a consolidated constitution for the European Union (EU). It would have replaced the existing European Union treaties with a single text, given legal force to the Charter of Fundamental Rights, and expanded qualified majority voting into policy areas which had previously been decided by unanimity among member states.
The Treaty was signed on 29 October 2004 by representatives of the then 25 member states of the European Union. It was later ratified by 18 member states, which included referendums endorsing it in Spain and Luxembourg. However, the rejection of the document by French and Dutch voters in May and June 2005 brought the ratification process to an end.
Following a period of reflection, the Treaty of Lisbon was created to replace the Constitutional Treaty. This contained many of the changes that were originally placed in the Constitutional Treaty but, instead of repealing and replacing the existing treaties, simply amended them and abandoned the idea of a single codified constitution. Signed on 13 December 2007, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force on 1 December 2009.
History
Drafting
The drafting for European Constitution began in a call for a new debate on the future of Europe at the Laeken European Council in December 2001. A European Convention was founded shortly afterward which was chaired by former French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and composed of two Members of Parliament (generally one from the governing majority and one from the opposition) of each Member State and applicant state, 16 MEPs, 2 members of the European Commission and a representative from each government. It met in public. Giscard d'Estaing proposed to draft a Constitution. Romano Prodi, the President of the European Commission backed a draft text, called the 'Penelope Project', which contained a deeper integration of the countries and a clearer institutional model.
After protracted negotiations in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) during the Italian presidency, disputes arose over the proposed framework for qualified majority voting: the final text of the TCE was settled in June 2004 under the Irish presidency.
Mention of Christianity in the preamble
Several countries urged for the preamble of the Constitution to include a reference to Christianity. Among these were Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, who in May 2004 sent a letter to the Irish Presidency, saying "the governments of those countries consider as a priority the recognition of the Christian tradition in the Preamble" and noting that the list of signatories was not exhaustive as they hoped other countries would join their initiative. The Greek government likewise supported a reference to Christianity.
The strongest opponents to any reference to Christianity were France and Belgium. Other countries opposing such a reference were Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Slovenia, and Cyprus. Among other nations, Spain originally supported the inclusion of a reference to Christianity, but the incoming Zapatero government reversed the stance of its predecessor.
Eventually the agreed upon Constitution made no explicit references to Christianity, only mentioning the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe". This decision caused disappointment in the Vatican, but satisfaction from candidate state Turkey.
Signing
The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was signed in Rome on 29 October 2004 by 53 senior political figures from the 25 member states of the European Union. In most cases heads of state designated plenipotentiaries to sign the treaty, but some presidents also signed on behalf of states which were republics. Most designated plenipotentiaries were prime ministers and foreign ministers.
Ratification
On 12 January 2005 the European Parliament voted a legally non-binding resolution in support of the Constitution by 500 votes in favour to 137 votes against, with 40 abstentions.
Before an EU treaty can enter into force, it must be ratified by all member states. Ratification takes different forms in each country, depending on its traditions, constitutional arrangements and political processes. Most member states ratify EU treaties following parliamentary votes, while some — notably Ireland and Denmark — sometimes hold referendums, in Ireland's case where the treaty requires a constitutional amendment as all amendments have to be approved by referendum. As a reaction to what was seen as the novel nature of the Constitution, many advocates and opponents of the Constitution argued that it should be subjected to referendums across the European Union.
On 20 April 2004 then British prime minister Tony Blair unexpectedly announced an intention to hold a referendum, a proposal which he had previously rejected. A further seven member states announced or had already announced that they would hold referendums on the Constitution, these being Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.
Spain was the first country to hold a referendum on the Constitution. On 20 February 2005, Spanish voters backed the treaty with 76% voting in favour to 24% against, on a turnout of 43%.
On 29 May 2005 the French people rejected the Constitution by margin of 55% to 45% on a turnout of 69%. On 1 June, the Dutch rejected the constitution by a margin of 61% to 39% on a turnout of 62%.
Notwithstanding the rejection in France and the Netherlands, Luxembourg held a referendum on 10 July 2005 approving the Constitution by 57% to 43%. It was the last referendum to be held on the Constitution as all of the other member states that had proposed to hold referendums cancelled them.
Post-rejection
After the French and Dutch referendum results European leaders decided to hold a "period of reflection" on what to do next. As part of this reflection period a "group of wise men" was set up to consider possible courses of action. This group of high-level European politicians – former prime ministers, ministers and members of the European Commission – first met on 30 September 2006 in Rome.
On 4 June 2007, this group, known as the Amato Group, presented its report. They proposed to establish a new Inter-Governmental Conference with a view to writing a new treaty which would rewrite the Maastricht Treaty, amend the Treaty of Rome and give the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union a legally binding status. The new treaty would be based on the first and fourth parts of the Constitution, the rest of the Constitution's changes being achieved through amendments to the Treaty of Rome.
In the June 2007 European summit meeting, Member States agreed to abandon the constitution and to amend the existing treaties, which would remain in force. They also agreed a detailed mandate for a new intergovernmental conference to negotiate a new treaty containing such amendments to the existing treaties (primarily the Treaty of Rome and the Treaty of Maastricht). These negotiations were completed by the end of the year. The new treaty, which had previously been referred to as the Reform Treaty, became the Lisbon Treaty on its signing in Lisbon on 13 December 2007.
National processes at a glance
Content
Institutional structure
Under the TCE, the Council of the European Union would have been formally renamed the "Council of Ministers", which is already its informal title. The "General Affairs Council" would have been formally split from the "Foreign Affairs Council", which had informally held meetings separately since June 2002.
The TCE proposed the formal recognition of a flag, an anthem and a motto for the Union, although none of them were new.
Conferral, subsidiarity, proportionality
The TCE would have reiterated several key principles of how the Union functions:
the principle of conferral: that all EU competences are conferred on it voluntarily by member states;
the principle of subsidiarity: that governmental decisions should be taken at the lowest level possible while still remaining effective;
the principle of proportionality: that the EU may only act exactly to the extent that is needed to achieve its objectives;
the primacy of EU law: in areas where member states have made legally binding agreements at EU level, they may not then pass national laws incompatible with those EU laws.
The TCE would have specified that the EU is a union of member states, and that all its competences (areas of responsibility) are voluntarily conferred on it by its member states according to the principle of conferral. The EU would have no competences by right, and thus any areas of policy not explicitly specified in the Constitution would have remained the domain of the sovereign member states (notwithstanding the ‘flexibility clause').
According to the TCE, the EU may act (i.e. make laws) only where its member states agree unanimously that actions by individual countries would be insufficient. This is the principle of subsidiarity and is based on the legal and political principle that governmental decisions should be taken as close to the people as possible while still remaining effective. It is a main argument against claims that Europe limits national sovereignty, but critics say that it is a principle to which lip service only is paid and, in practice, the reach of the EU has been increasingly ambitious.
Primacy of Union law
Amongst European countries, the European Court of Justice has consistently ruled since 1964 that EU law has primacy over the laws of member states in the areas where member states allow it to legislate. National law which is incompatible with an agreement already made at European level, is deemed to be 'disapplied' when questions arise in courts. This controversial and fundamental principle of European Community law, was first recognised in the case of Van Gend en Loos in 1963 which was followed in Costa v. ENEL in 1964.
Judicial protection and fundamental rights
The TCE would have maintained the role of the Court of Justice of the European Union (articles III-353 et seq.).
It would further have rendered the (at that point) non-binding Charter of Fundamental Rights legally binding. Unlike the Treaty of Lisbon, it incorporated the text of the Charter in the Treaty itself (see Part II of the TCE). This included various adjustments to the Charter as promulgated in 2000, including granting persuasive value to the Explanations to the Charter (see article II-112(7) and Declaration 12 to the TCE).
This would continue to exist alongside the protection of fundamental rights as general principles of EU law (article (I-9(3) TCE). Further, article I-9(2) TCE required the EU to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights.
Common values of the Union's member states
As stated in Articles I-1 and I-2, the Union is open to all European States that respect the member states' common values, namely:
human dignity
freedom
democracy
equality
the rule of law
respect for human rights
minority rights.
Member states also declare that the following principles prevail in their society:
pluralism
non-discrimination
tolerance
justice
solidarity
equality of the sexes.
Some of these provisions would have been codified for the first time in the TCE.
Aims of the Union
The aims of the EU were stated to be (Article I-3):
promotion of peace, its values and the well-being of its people.
maintenance of freedom, security and justice without internal borders, and an internal market where competition is free and undistorted.
sustainable development based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy.
social justice and protection, equality between women and men, solidarity between generations and protection of the rights of the child.
economic, social and territorial cohesion, and solidarity among member states.
respect for linguistic and cultural diversity.
In its relations with the wider world the Union's objectives are:
to uphold and promote its values and interests.
to contribute to peace, security, the sustainable development of the Earth.
solidarity and mutual respect among people.
free and fair trade.
eradication of poverty and the protection of human rights, in particular the rights of the child.
strict observance and development of international law, including respect for the principles of the United Nations Charter.
Scope of the Union
Competences
The EU has six exclusive competences, policy areas in which member states have agreed that they should act exclusively through the EU and not legislate at a national level. The list remains unchanged from the previous treaties:
customs union;
those competition rules that govern the internal market;
eurozone monetary policy;
conservation of marine biological resources (the Common Fisheries Policy);
common commercial policy;
the conclusion of certain limited international agreements.
There are a number of shared competences. These are areas in which member states agree to act individually only where they have not already acted through the EU, or where the EU has ceased to act (though these are areas where member states may act both nationally and through the EU if they wish). Three new competences have been added to those in previous treaties.
There are a number of areas where the EU may take only supporting, coordinating or complementary action. In these areas, member states do not confer any competences on the Union, but they agree to act through the Union in order to support their work at national level. Again, three new competences have been added to those from previous treaties.
Flexibility clause
The TCE's flexibility clause allows the EU to act in areas not made explicit in the TCE, but only:
if all member states agree;
with the consent of the European Parliament; and
where this is necessary to achieve an agreed objective under the TCE.
This clause has been present in EU law since the original Treaty of Rome, which established the EEC in 1958.
Common foreign and security policy
The EU is charged with defining and implementing a common foreign and security policy in due time. The wording of this article is taken from the existing Treaty on European Union.
New provisions
Legal personality
The TCE was going to state explicitly that the EU had a legal personality. Prior to this, the treaties explicitly stated that the European Community, the European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom each had their own separate legal personality, but remained silent over whether the European Union itself had one. They did mandate the EU "to assert its identity on the international scene", and permitted the European Union to enter into treaties. Brsakoska-Bazerkoska, and Choutheete and Ndoura argue that the EU had an implicit legal personality prior to the Treaty of Lisbon; the latter treaty also contained an express statement that the EU had a legal personality.
New competences
The TCE would have conferred upon the EU as new 'shared competences' the areas of territorial cohesion, energy, and space. These are areas where the EU may act alongside its individual member states. The EU has conferred upon it as new areas of 'supporting, coordinating or complementary action' the areas of tourism, sport, and administrative co-operation.
Criminal justice proceedings
Member states would have continued to co-operate in some areas of criminal judicial proceedings where they agree to do so, as at present. Under the TCE, seven new areas of co-operation would have been added:
Child abuse
Drug trafficking
Fraud
Human trafficking
Political corruption
Terrorism
Trafficking of arms
Solidarity clause
The new solidarity clause of the TCE specifies that any member state which falls victim to a terrorist attack or other disaster will receive assistance from other member states, if it requests it. The type of assistance to be offered is not specified. Instead, the arrangements will be decided by the Council of Ministers should the situation arise.
European Public Prosecutor
Provision exists for the creation of a European Public Prosecutor's Office, if all member states agree to it and if the European Parliament gives its consent.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
The TCE includes a copy of the Charter already agreed to by all EU member states. This is included in the Constitution so that EU institutions themselves are obliged to conform to the same standards of fundamental rights. At the time of the Charter's original agreement, the British Government said that it did not have binding effect. Incorporation into TCE would have put its importance beyond doubt.
Simplification
Simplified jargon and legal instruments
The TCE made an effort to simplify jargon and reduce the number of EU legal instruments. However, it is a long document couched in technical terms, which proved unpopular when presented (for example) to French voters in their referendum on the TCE.
The TCE unifies legal instruments across areas of policy (referred to as pillars of the European Union in previous treaties). Specifically:
'Regulations' (of the Community pillar) and 'Decisions' (of the Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJC) pillar) both become referred to as European laws.
'Directives' (of the Community pillar) and 'Framework Decisions' (of the PJC pillar) both become referred to as European framework laws.
'Conventions' (of the PJC pillar) are done away with, replaced in every case by either European laws or European framework laws.
'Joint actions' and 'Common positions' (of what is now the Common Foreign and Security Policy Pillar) are both replaced by Decisions.
Position of Union Minister for Foreign Affairs
Under the TCE, the role of High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy would be amalgamated with the role of the Commissioner for External Relations. This would create a new Union Minister for Foreign Affairs who would also be a Vice President of the Commission. This individual would be responsible for co-ordinating foreign policy across the Union, representing the EU abroad in areas where member states agree to speak with one voice.
Functioning of the institutions
Qualified majority voting
More day-to-day decisions in the Council of Ministers would be to be taken by qualified majority voting, requiring a 55% majority of members of the Council representing a 65% majority of citizens. (The 55% is raised to 72% when the Council acts on its own initiative rather than on a legislative proposal from the Commission or the Union Minister for Foreign Affairs.) The unanimous agreement of all member states would only be required for decisions on more sensitive issues, such as tax, social security, foreign policy and defence.
President of the European Council
The six-month rotating Presidency of the European Council would switch to a chair chosen by the heads of government, in office for 2½ years and renewable once. The role itself would remain administrative and non-executive, but rather than the Presidency being held by a member state as at present, it would be held by an individual elected by and accountable to the Council.
President of the Council of Ministers
The six-month rotating Presidency of the Council of Ministers, which currently coincides with the Presidency of the European Council, would be changed to an 18-month rotating Presidency shared by a trio of member countries, in an attempt to provide more continuity. The exception would be the Council's Foreign Affairs configuration, which would be chaired by the newly created Union Minister for Foreign Affairs.
Smaller Commission
The Commission would be reduced in size from 27 to 18 by the year 2014. There would be fewer Commissioners, with member states taking it in turn to nominate Commissioners two times out of three.
Parliamentary power and transparency
President of the Commission: The candidate for President of the European Commission would be proposed by the European Council, after consultation with the European Parliament, and would be elected by the European Parliament. Parliament would have the final say.
Parliament as co-legislature: The European Parliament would acquire equal legislative power under the codecision procedure with the Council in virtually all areas of policy. Previously, it had this power in most cases but not all.
Meeting in public: The Council of Ministers would be required to meet in public when debating all new laws. Currently, it meets in public only for texts covered under the codecision procedure.
Budget: The final say over the EU's annual budget would be given to the European Parliament. Agricultural spending would no longer be ring-fenced, and would be brought under the Parliament's control.
Role of national parliaments: Member states' national parliaments would be given a new role in scrutinising proposed EU laws, and would be entitled to object if they feel a proposal oversteps the boundary of the Union's agreed areas of responsibility. If the Commission wishes to ignore such an objection, it would be forced to submit an explanation to the parliament concerned and to the Council of Ministers.
Popular initiative: The Commission would be invited to consider any proposal "on matters where citizens consider that a legal act of the Union is required for the purpose of implementing the Constitution" which has the support of one million citizens. The mechanism by which this would be put into practice has yet to be agreed. (See Article I-46(4) for details.)
Further integration, amendment and withdrawal
Enhanced co-operation
There would have been a tightening of existing rules for 'enhanced cooperation', where some member states would have chosen to act together more closely and others not. A minimum of one third of member states would now be forced to participate in any enhanced cooperation, and the agreement of the European Parliament is needed. The option for enhanced cooperation would also be widened to all areas of agreed EU policy.
Treaty revisions
Traditionally amendments to the EU treaties were considered in inter-governmental conferences in which the European Council would meet in long private sessions in order to reach unanimous agreement on the proposed changes. The Convention which wrote the draft constitutional treaty was quite different in this regard. It met in public and was composed of a mix of national and European politicians. The Constitution proposed that amendments to the Constitution would be drafted by a convention unless both the Council of Minister and the European Parliament agreed otherwise.
A simplified revision was created for changes which might be proposed to be made to Title III of Part III of the TCE on the internal policies and action of the Union. Changes to this Title could be made by a decision of the European Council subject to it being ratified by all member states.
The Constitution also proposed a general 'passerelle clause' (Article IV-444) with which the European Council could agree to:
move from unanimity voting to qualified majority voting, or
move from a special legislative procedure to the ordinary legislative procedure
in a specific policy area.
Although the Lisbon Treaty, was itself drafted behind closed doors, it adopted the amendment procedures proposed by the Constitution.
Withdrawal clause
A new clause in the TCE provided for the unilateral withdrawal of any member state from the Union (clause I-60). Under this clause, when a country notifies the Council of its intent to withdraw, a settlement is agreed in the Council with the consent of Parliament. If negotiations are not agreed within two years, the country leaves anyway. An identical provision was subsequently inserted into the treaties by the Lisbon Treaty.
See also
Treaties of the European Union
References
External links
History of the Constitution – Academic site linking to many documents concerning the preparation, negotiation and ratification stages of the TCE and previous treaties.
The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe on CVCE website
Media overviews
BBC: Questions and answers about the TCE
BBC: Quick guide to the Constitution
BBC: Progress of ratification | [
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234502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustang%20%28disambiguation%29 | Mustang (disambiguation) | A mustang is a free-ranging horse of the American west.
Mustang may also refer to:
Aircraft
North American P-51 Mustang, an American World War II fighter
North American F-82 Twin Mustang, an American military fighter
FK-Lightplanes SW51 Mustang, a 70-%-sized P-51 replica
Titan T-51 Mustang, a 75-%-sized P-51 replica
Cessna Citation Mustang, a modern business jet
Mustang Aeronautics Midget Mustang, a homebuilt sportsplane
Mustang Aeronautics Mustang II, a two-seat homebuilt sportsplane
Land transportation
Ford Mustang, a line of U.S. "pony cars"
Shelby Mustang, a high performance variant series of the Ford Mustang
Hulas Mustang, an SUV from Hulas Motors
KAMAZ Mustang, a line of Russian tactical trucks
Polaris Mustang, a 1965 snowmobile model from Polaris Industries
Mustang (motorcycle), a manufacturer of lightweight motorcycles
Ships
Mustang (brogan), a Chesapeake Bay brogan built in 1907
, a patrol vessel in commission from 1917 to 1919
, a wooden schooner in commission from 1944 to 1946
, a US Coast Guard patrol vessel commissioned in 1986
Places
Mustang District, Nepal
Mustang, Oklahoma, United States, a city
Mustang, Texas, United States, a town
Fiction
"Mustang", a poem by Patti Smith from her 1973 book Witt
Roy Mustang, character from the anime/manga series Fullmetal Alchemist
Mustang! (film), a 1959 western film directed by Tom Gries
Mustang (film), a 2015 Turkish-language French film directed by Deniz Gamze Ergüven
The Mustang, a 2019 film directed by Laure de Clermont-Tonnerre
Music
Fender Mustang, an electric guitar brand from Fender
Mustang (Curtis Amy album)
Mustang! (Donald Byrd album)
Mustang! (Dragon Ash album)
Mustang (Electric Six album)
"The Mustang", by David Gates from the album The David Gates Songbook
The Mustangs, British blues rock band
Sports teams
Canada
Calgary Mustangs (ice hockey), a junior "A" ice hockey team in Calgary, Alberta
Calgary Mustangs (CPSL), a defunct professional soccer team from 1983
Calgary Mustangs (USL), a defunct professional soccer team from 2001 to 2004
Melfort Mustangs, a junior "A" ice hockey team in Melfort, Saskatchewan
Williams Lake Mustangs, a defunct junior ice hockey team based in Williams Lake, British Columbia
Western Ontario Mustangs, the athletics teams of the University of Western Ontario
United States
Billings Mustangs, a minor league baseball team in Billings, Montana
Cal Poly Mustangs, the athletics teams of California Polytechnic State University
Chicago Mustangs (1967–68), an American professional soccer team based in Chicago, Illinois, in the 1967 and 1968 seasons
Chicago Mustangs (PASL), an American professional indoor soccer team awarded a franchise in 2012
Lone Star Mustangs, a Women's Football Alliance team
Martinsville Mustangs, a baseball team in the Coastal Plain League, a collegiate summer baseball league
Phoenix Mustangs, a former professional minor league ice hockey team
Rochester Mustangs, a defunct senior ice hockey team from Rochester, Minnesota
SMU Mustangs, the athletics teams of Southern Methodist University
Washington Mustangs, a defunct soccer team based in Washington, D.C.
Elsewhere
Melbourne Mustangs, a semi-professional ice hockey team in Docklands, Victoria, Australia
Doncaster Mustangs (American football), based in Doncaster, England
Other uses
Mustang (military officer), slang for an American military officer who rose from the enlisted ranks
Task Force Mustang, the deployment unit name for the Combat Aviation Brigade, 36th Infantry Division, Texas Army National Guard
MUSTANG (camera), a bolometer camera for the Green Bank Telescope
Mustang Software, a business that developed the Wildcat! bulletin board system software
Mustang, codename of a version of Java (software platform) SE 6
Mustang (advertisement), a 2004 advertising campaign promoting Guinness
Vitis mustangensis, a species of grape commonly known as the Mustang Grape
Mustang wine, a wine from Texas, United States made with mustang grapes
See also
Mustang Sally (disambiguation)
Mastung (disambiguation), places in Pakistan | [
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234503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Cleves%20Symmes | John Cleves Symmes | John Cleves Symmes (July 21, 1742February 26, 1814) was a delegate to the Continental Congress from New Jersey, and later a pioneer in the Northwest Territory. He was also the father-in-law of President William Henry Harrison and, thereby, the great-grandfather of President Benjamin Harrison.
Early life
He was the son of the Rev. Timothy Symmes (1715–1756) and Mary Cleves (died ) of Suffolk County on Long Island. John was born in Riverhead in what was then the Province of New York, a part of British America, on July 21, 1742.
Symmes was educated as a lawyer.
Career
Symmes supported the revolution, becoming chairman of the Sussex County, New Jersey Committee of Safety in 1774. When the Revolutionary war began in earnest, he served as Colonel of the 3rd Regiment of the Sussex County militia from 1777 to 1780. The unit was called into service with the Continental Army on several actions.
In 1776, he was elected to the New Jersey Legislative Council (now the New Jersey Senate); he was also a member in 1780. Symmes served on the New Jersey Supreme Court in 1777 and 1778. He was a frequent visitor to Governor William Livingston both in Elizabethtown and in Parsippany.
Symmes represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress (1785–1786), then, in 1788, moved to the west, settling in what later became North Bend, Ohio. He served as a judge of the Territorial Court from 1788 until Ohio became a state in 1803. He also pursued an active career as a land developer and seller.
Land development
Symmes bought from the Congress in 1788. President George Washington signed the patent on October 30, 1794 conveying to Symmes 248,250 acres (1,005 km²) plus a surveying township of 23,040 acres (93 km²), in trust, for an academy. This land was known as the Symmes Purchase, and was the cause of considerable controversy in his lifetime and after. The purchase price was $225,000, and was paid in notes issued by the Congress to raise money during the Revolutionary War. There is no doubt that a considerable part of this amount came from Symmes in the first place as he lent most of his own money to the revolution.
There were other investors who served as partners in the transaction, notably General Dayton and Elias Boudinot. There is also no doubt that some of these notes were purchased from other holders, probably at a discount. This was before the rampant speculation in these notes that happened a few years later, but is still questionable.
There were also disputes about the actual boundaries of the purchase and the quality of surveying and validity of titles. In the last years of his life, he spent a great deal of time in court, defending himself from claims.
Personal life
Symmes was married to Anna Tuthill (1741–1776) at Mattituck, New York on October 30, 1760. They had three children at Mattituck, before moving to Morristown sometime around 1770, and another child born at her father's estate Solitude, just outside Morristown (present day Wheatsheaf Farms subdivision off Sussex Avenue in Morris Township). Their children included:
Maria Symmes (born April 23, 1765), who married Kentucky State Senator Peyton Short (1761–1825).
Mary Symmes (born August 30, 1767)
Anna Tuthill Symmes (July 25, 1775 – February 25, 1864), who married William Henry Harrison, who eventually became the President of the United States.
His wife died in 1776 and in 1794, John married Governor Livingston's daughter, Susannah Livingston (1748–1840). Besides being the governor's daughter, she was John Jay's sister-in-law.
Symmes died on February 26, 1814 at Cincinnati, Ohio, and is buried at Congress Green Cemetery in North Bend, Ohio.
Legacy
John Cleves Symmes is the namesake of the village of Cleves, Ohio. Symmes' nephew and namesake John Cleves Symmes, Jr. fought in the War of 1812 and is best known for his Hollow Earth Theory.
Miami University's Symmes Hall was named in his honor in 1949. Symmes Hall is located on East Quad near Erickson Dining Hall on the university's Oxford, Ohio campus and is currently being used a residence hall for first-year undergraduate students.
References
External links
Butler Index
Capt. John Cleves Symmes Memorial in Ludlow Park, Hamilton, Ohio
1741 births
1814 deaths
People from Mattituck, New York
People from Hamilton County, Ohio
People of colonial New York
People from Riverhead (town), New York
18th-century American politicians
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
New Jersey militiamen in the American Revolution
Members of the New Jersey Legislative Council
Northwest Territory judges
People from Sussex County, New Jersey
Politicians from Cincinnati
Burials in Ohio | [
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234506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kings%20of%20Babylon | List of kings of Babylon | The king of Babylon (Akkadian: šakkanakki Bābili, later also šar Bābili) was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and its kingdom, Babylonia, which existed as an independent realm from the 19th century BC to its fall in the 6th century BC. For the majority of its existence as an independent kingdom, Babylon ruled most of southern Mesopotamia, composed of the ancient regions of Sumer and Akkad. The city experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylonian kings rose to dominate large parts of the Ancient Near East: the First Babylonian Empire (or Old Babylonian Empire, 1894/1880–1595 BC) and the Second Babylonian Empire (or Neo-Babylonian Empire, 626–539 BC).
Many of Babylon's kings were of foreign origin. Throughout the city's nearly two-thousand year history, it was ruled by kings of native Babylonian, Amorite, Aramean, Assyrian, Chaldean, Elamite, Greek, Kassite, Parthian and Persian origin. A king's cultural and ethnic background does not appear to have been important for the Babylonian perception of kingship, the important matter instead being whether the king was capable of executing the duties traditionally ascribed to the Babylonian king: establishing peace and security, upholding justice, honouring civil rights, refraining from unlawful taxation, respecting religious traditions, constructing temples, providing gifts to the gods in the temples and maintaining cultic order. Babylonian revolts of independence during the times the city was ruled by foreign empires probably had little to do with the rulers of these empires not being Babylonians and more to do with the rulers rarely visiting Babylon and failing to partake in the city's rituals and traditions.
Babylon's last native king was Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 BC. Nabonidus's rule was ended through Babylon being conquered by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Though early Achaemenid kings continued to place importance on Babylon and continued using the title 'king of Babylon', later Achaemenid rulers being ascribed the title is probably only something done by the Babylonians themselves, with the kings themselves having abandoned it. Babylonian scribes continued to recognise rulers of the empires that controlled Babylonia as their kings until the time of the Parthian Empire, when Babylon was gradually abandoned. Though Babylon never regained independence after the Achaemenid conquest, there were several attempts by the Babylonians to drive out their foreign rulers and re-establish their kingdom, possibly as late as 336/335 BC under the rebel Nidin-Bel.
Introduction
Royal titles
Throughout the city's long history, various titles were used to designate the ruler of Babylon and its kingdom, the most common titles being 'viceroy of Babylon', 'king of Karduniash' and 'king of Sumer and Akkad'. Use of one of the titles did not mean that the others could not be used simultaneously. For instance, the Neo-Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (729–727 BC in Babylon), used all three of the aforementioned titles.
Viceroy (or governor) of Babylon (šakkanakki Bābili) – emphasises the political dominion of Babylon itself. For much of the city's history, its rulers referred to themselves as viceroys or governors, rather than kings. The reason for this was that Babylon's true king was formally considered to be its national deity, Marduk. By not explicitly claiming the royal title, Babylonian rulers thus showed reverence to the city's god. The reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib (705–681 BC) has been noted as a particular break in this tradition, as he assumed the title king of Babylon (šar Bābili), which may have contributed to widespread negative reception of him in Babylonia. However, šar Bābili is recorded as being used in some inscriptions from before Sennacherib's time, such as in the inscriptions of his father and predecessor Sargon II (710–705 BC in Babylon), who used it interchangeably with šakkanakki Bābili. Though Sennacherib's successors would primarily use šakkanakki Bābili, there are likewise examples of them instead using šar Bābili. The titles would also be used interchangeably by the later Neo-Babylonian kings.
King of Karduniash (šar Karduniaš) – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole. 'Karduniash' was the Kassite name for the Babylonian kingdom, and the title 'king of Karduniash' was introduced by the city's third dynasty (the Kassites). The title continued to be used long after the Kassites had lost control of Babylon, for instance as late as under the native king Nabu-shuma-ukin I ( 900–888 BC) and the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon (681–669 BC).
King of Sumer and Akkad (šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) – refers to rule of southern Mesopotamia as a whole. A title originally used by the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur ( 2112–2004 BC), centuries prior to Babylon's foundation. The title was used by kings to connect themselves to the culture and legacy of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations, as well as to lay claim to the political hegemony achieved during the ancient Akkadian Empire. The title was also a geographical one, in that southern Mesopotamia was typically divided into the two regions Sumer (the south) and Akkad (the north), meaning that 'king of Sumer and Akkad' referred to rulership over the entire country. The title was used by the Babylonian kings until the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, and was also assumed by Cyrus the Great, who conquered Babylon and ruled Babylonia until his death in 530 BC.
Role and legitimacy
The Babylonian kings derived their right to rule from divine appointment by Babylon's patron deity Marduk and through consecration by the city's priests. Marduk's main cult image (often conflated with the god himself), the statue of Marduk, was prominently used in the coronation rituals for the kings, who received their crowns "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the deity. The king's rule and his role as Marduk's vassal on Earth were reaffirmed annually at this time of year, when the king entered the Esagila, Babylon's main cult temple, alone on the fifth day of the New Year's Festival each year and met with the high priest. The high priest removed the regalia from the king, slapped him across the face and made him kneel before Marduk's statue. The king would then tell the statue that he had not oppressed his people and that he had maintained order throughout the year, whereafter the high priest would reply (on behalf of Marduk) that the king could continue to enjoy divine support for his rule, returning the royal regalia. Through being a patron of Babylon's temples, the king extended his generosity towards the Mesopotamian gods, who in turn empowered his rule and lent him their authority.
Babylonian kings were expected to establish peace and security, uphold justice, honor civil rights, refrain from unlawful taxation, respect religious traditions and maintain cultic order. None of the king's responsibilities and duties required him to be ethnically or even culturally Babylonian. Any foreigner sufficiently familiar with the royal customs of Babylonia could adopt the title, though they might then require the assistance of the native priesthood and the native scribes. Ethnicity and culture does not appear to have been important in the Babylonian perception of kingship: many foreign kings enjoyed support from the Babylonians and several native kings were despised. That the rule of some foreign kings was not supported by the Babylonians probably has little to do with their ethnic or cultural background, but rather that they were perceived as not properly executing the traditional duties of the Babylonian king.
Dynasties
As with other monarchies, the kings of Babylon are grouped into a series of royal dynasties, a practice started by the ancient Babylonians themselves in their king lists. The generally accepted Babylonian dynasties should not be understood as familial groupings in the same vein as the term is commonly used by historians for ruling families in later kingdoms and empires. Though Babylon's first dynasty did form a dynastic grouping where all monarchs were related, the dynasties of the first millennium BC, notably the Dynasty of E, did not constitute a series of coherent familial relationships at all. In a Babylonian sense, the term dynasty, rendered as palû or palê, related to a sequence of monarchs from the same ethnic or tribal group (i.e. the Kassite dynasty), the same region (i.e. the dynasties of the Sealand) or the same city (i.e. the dynasties of Babylon and Isin). In some cases, kings known to be genealogically related, such as Eriba-Marduk ( 769–760 BC) and his grandson Marduk-apla-iddina II (722–710 BC and 703 BC), were separated into different dynasties, the former designated as belonging to the Dynasty of E and the latter as belonging to the (Third) Sealand dynasty.
Sources
Among all the different types of documents uncovered through excavations in Mesopotamia, the most important for reconstructions of chronology and political history are king-lists and chronicles, grouped together under the term 'chronographic texts'. Mesopotamian king lists are of special importance when reconstructing the sequences of monarchs, as they are collections of royal names and regnal dates, also often with additional information such as the relations between the kings, arranged in a table format. In terms of Babylonian rulers, the main document is the Babylonian King List (BKL), a group of three independent documents: Babylonian King List A, B, and C. In addition to the main Babylonian King Lists, there are also additional king-lists that record rulers of Babylon.
Babylonian King List A (BKLa, BM 33332) — created at some point after the foundation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylonian King List A records the kings of Babylon from the beginning of Babylon's first dynasty under Sumu-abum ( 1894–1881 BC) to Kandalanu (648–627 BC). The end of the tablet is broken off, suggesting that it originally listed rulers after Kandalanu as well, possibly also listing the kings of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. All dynasties are separated by horizontal lines, under which subscript records a sum of the regnal years of each dynasty, and the number of kings the dynasties produced. Written in Neo-Babylonian script.
Babylonian King List B (BKLb, BM 38122) — date of origin uncertain, written in Neo-Babylonian script. Babylonian King List B records the kings of Babylon's first dynasty, and the kings of the First Sealand dynasty, with subscripts recording the number of kings and their summed up reigns in these dynasties. Regnal years are recorded for the kings of the first dynasty, but omitted for the kings of the Sealand dynasty. The regnal years used for the kings are inconsistent with their actual reign lengths, possibly due to the author having copied the list from a document where the years had been lost or damaged. The list records genealogical information for all but two of the kings of the first dynasty, but only for two of the kings of the Sealand dynasty. Because the document is essentially two lists for two dynasties, it is possible that it was copied and extracted from longer king lists in the late period for some unknown purpose.
Babylonian King List C (BKLc) — a short text, written in Neo-Babylonian script. King List C is important as a source on the second dynasty of Isin, as the first seven lines of the preserved nine lines of text provide a portion of the sequence of kings of this dynasty and their dates. The corresponding section in Babylonian King List A is incompletely preserved. As the list ends with the Isin dynasty's seventh king, Marduk-shapik-zeri ( 1081–1069 BC), it is possible that it was written during the reign of his successor, Adad-apla-iddina ( 1068–1047 BC). Its short length and unusual shape (being curved rather than flat) means that it might have been a practice tablet used by a young Babylonian student.
Synchronistic King List (ScKL) — a collection of individual tablets and examplars. The Synchronistic King List features two columns, and records the kings of Babylon and Assyria together, with kings recorded next to each other presumably being contemporaries. Unlike most of the other documents, this list generally omits regnal years and any genealogical information, but it also differs in including many of the chief scribes under the Assyrian and Babylonian kings. The tablet with the earliest known portion of the list begins with the Assyrian king Erishum I (uncertain regnal dates) and the Babylonian king Sumu-la-El ( 1880–1845 BC). The latest known portion ends with Ashur-etil-ilani (631–627 BC) in Assyria and Kandalanu in Babylon. As it is written in Neo-Assyrian script, it might have been created near the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Uruk King List (UKL, IM 65066) — the preserved portion of this king list records rulers from Kandalanu in the Assyrian period to Seleucus II Callinicus (246–225 BC) in the Seleucid period.
Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (BM 35603) — written at Babylon at some point after 141 BC, recording rulers from the start of Hellenistic rule in Babylonia under Alexander the Great (331–323 in Babylon), to the end of Seleucid rule under Demetrius II Nicator (145–141 BC in Babylon) and the conquest of Babylonia by the Parthian Empire. Entries before Seleucus I Nicator (305–281 BC) and after Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC) are damaged and fragmentary.
As years in Babylon were named after the current king, and the current year of their reign, date formulas in economic, astronomical and literary cuneiform texts written in Babylonia also provide highly important and useful chronological data.
Kingship after the Neo-Babylonian Empire
In addition to the king lists described above, cuneiform inscriptions and tablets confidently establish that the Babylonians continued to recognise the foreign rulers of Babylonia as their legitimate monarchs after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and throughout the rule of the Achaemenid (539–331 BC), Argead (331–310 BC), and Seleucid (305–141 BC) empires, as well as well into the rule of the Parthian Empire (141 BC – AD 224).
Early Achaemenid kings greatly respected Babylonian culture and history, and regarded Babylonia as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union. Despite this, the Babylonians would grow to resent Achaemenid rule, just as they had resented Assyrian rule during the time their country was under the rule of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (722–626 BC). Babylonian resentment of the Achaemenids likely had little to do with the Achaemenids being foreigners, but rather that the Achaemenid kings were perceived to not be capable of executing the duties of the Babylonian king properly, in line with established Babylonian tradition. This perception then led to frequent Babylonian revolts, an issue experienced by both the Assyrians and the Achaemenids. Since the capitals of the Assyrian and Achaemenid empires were elsewhere, these foreign kings did not regularly partake in the city's rituals (meaning that they could not be celebrated in the same way that they traditionally were) and they rarely performed their traditional duties to the Babylonian cults through constructing temples and presenting cultic gifts to the city's gods. This failure might have been interpreted as the kings thus not having the necessary divine endorsement to be considered true kings of Babylon.
The standard regnal title used by the early Achaemenid kings, not only in Babylon but throughout their empire, was 'king of Babylon and king of the lands'. The Babylonian title was gradually abandoned by the Achaemenid king Xerxes I (486–465 BC), after he had to put down a major Babylonian uprising. Xerxes also divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy into smaller sub-units and, according to some sources, damaged the city itself in an act of retribution. The last Achaemenid king whose own royal inscriptions officially used the title 'king of Babylon' was Xerxes I's son and successor Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). After Artaxerxes I's rule there are few examples of monarchs themselves using the title, though the Babylonians continued to ascribe it to their rulers. The only known official explicit use of 'king of Babylon' by a king during the Seleucid period can be found in the Antiochus cylinder, a clay cylinder containing a text wherein Antiochus I Soter (281–261 BC) calls himself, and his father Seleucus I Nicator (305–281 BC), by the title 'king of Babylon', alongside various other ancient Mesopotamian titles and honorifics. The Seleucid kings continued to respect Babylonian traditions and culture, with several Seleucid kings recorded as having "given gifts to Marduk" in Babylon and the New Year's Festival still being recorded as a contemporary event. One of the last times the festival is known to have been celebrated was in 188 BC, under the Seleucid king Antiochus III (222–187 BC), who prominently partook in the rituals. From the Hellenistic period (i. e. the rule of the Greek Argeads and Seleucids) onwards, Greek culture became established in Babylonia, but per Oelsner (2014), the Hellenistic culture "did not deeply penetrate the ancient Babylonian culture, that persisted to exist in certain domains and areas until the 2nd c. AD".
Under the Parthian Empire, Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban centre and the old Babylonian culture diminished. The nearby and newer imperial capitals cities of Seleucia and later Ctesiphon overshadowed the ancient city and became the seats of power in the region. Babylon was still important in the first century or so of Parthian rule, and cuneiform tablets continued to recognise the rule of the Parthian kings. The standard title formula applied to the Parthian kings in Babylonian documents was "ar-ša-kâ lugal.lugal.meš" (Aršakâ šar šarrāni, "Arsaces, king of kings"). Several tablets from the Parthian period also in their date formulae mention the queen of the incumbent Parthian king, alongside the king, the first time women were officially recognised as monarchs of Babylon. The few documents that survive from Babylon in the Parthian period indicate a growing sense of alarm and alienation in Babylon as the Parthian kings were mostly absent from the city and the Babylonians noticed their culture slowly slipping away.
When exactly Babylon was abandoned is unclear. The Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote in AD 50 that proximity to Seleucia had turned Babylon into a "barren waste" and during their campaigns in the east, Roman emperors Trajan (in AD 115) and Septimius Severus (in AD 199) supposedly found the city destroyed and deserted. Archaeological evidence and the writings of Abba Arikha ( AD 219) indicate that at least the temples of Babylon may still have been active in the early 3rd century. If any remnants of the old Babylonian culture still existed at that point, they would have been decisively wiped out as the result of religious reforms in the early Sasanian Empire AD 230.
Due to a shortage of sources, and the timing of Babylon's abandonment being unknown, the last ruler recognised by the Babylonians as king is not known. The latest known cuneiform tablet is W22340a, found at Uruk and dated to AD 79/80. The tablet preserves the word LUGAL (king), indicating that the Babylonians by this point still recognised a king. At this time, Babylonia was ruled by the Parthian rival king (i. e. usurper) Artabanus III. Modern historians are divided on where the line of monarchs ends. Spar and Lambert (2005) did not include any rulers beyond the first century AD in their list of kings recognised by the Babylonians, but Beaulieu (2018) considered 'Dynasty XIV of Babylon' (his designation for the Parthians as rulers of the city) to have lasted until the end of Parthian rule of Babylonia in the early 3rd century AD.
Names in cuneiform
The list below includes the names of all the kings in Akkadian, as well as how the Akkadian names were rendered in cuneiform signs. Up until the reign of Burnaburiash II ( 1359–1333 BC) of the Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III), Sumerian was the dominant language for use in inscriptions and official documents, with Akkadian eclipsing it under the reign of Kurigalzu II ( 1332–1308 BC), and thereafter replacing Sumerian in inscriptions and documents. For consistency purposes, and because several kings and their names are known only from king lists, which were written in Akkadian centuries after Burnaburiash II's reign, this list solely uses Akkadian, rather than Sumerian, for the royal names, though this is anachronistic for rulers before Burnaburiash II.
It is not uncommon for there to be several different spellings of the same name in Akkadian, even when referring to the same individual. To examplify this, the table below presents two ways the name of Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) was spelt in Akkadian (Nabû-kudurri-uṣur). The list of kings below uses more concise spellings when possible, primarily based on the renditions of names in date formulae and king lists.
Even if the same spelling is used, there were also several different scripts of cuneiform signs: a name, even if spelt the same, looks considerably different in Old Babylonian signs compared to Neo-Babylonian signs or Neo-Assyrian signs. The table below presents different variants, depending on the signs used, of the name Antiochus in Akkadian (Antiʾukusu). The list of kings below uses Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian signs, given that those scripts are the signs primarily used in the king lists.
Dynasty I (Amorite), 1894–1595 BC
Per BKLb, the native name for this dynasty was simply palû Babili ('dynasty of Babylon'). To differentiate it from the other dynasties that later ruled Babylon, modern historians often refer to this dynasty as the 'First Dynasty of Babylon'. Some historians refer to this dynasty as the 'Amorite dynasty' on account of the kings being of Amorite descent.
Dynasty II (1st Sealand), 1725–1475 BC
Both BKLa and BKLb refer to this dynasty as palû Urukug ('dynasty of Urukug'). Presumably, the city of Urukug was the dynasty's point of origin. Some literary sources refer to some of the kings of this dynasty as 'kings of the Sealand', and thus modern historians refer to it as a dynasty of the Sealand. The designation as the first Sealand dynasty differentiates it from Dynasty V, which the Babylonians actually referred to as a 'dynasty of the Sealand'. This dynasty overlaps with Dynasty I and Dynasty III, with these kings actually ruling the region south of Babylon (the Sealand) rather than Babylon itself. For instance, the king Gulkishar of this dynasty was actually a contemporary of Dynasty I's last king, Samsu-Ditana. It is possible that the dynasty was included in Babylon's dynastic history by later scribes either because it controlled Babylon for a time, because it controlled or strongly influenced parts of Babylonia or because it was the most stable power of its time in Babylonia. The dates listed below are highly uncertain, and follow the timespan listed for the dynasty in Beaulieu (2018), 1725–1475 BC, with the individual dates based the lengths of the reigns of the kings, also as given by Beaulieu (2018).
Dynasty III (Kassite), 1729–1155 BC
The entry for this dynasty's name in BKLa is lost, but other Babylonian sources refer to it as palû Kasshi ('dynasty of the Kassites'). The reconstruction of the sequence and names of the early rulers of this dyansty, the kings before Karaindash, is difficult and controversial. The king lists are damaged at this point and the preserved portions seem to contradict each other: for instance, BKLa has a king in-between Kashtiliash I and Abi-Rattash, omitted in the Synchronistic King List, whereas the Synchonistic King List includes Kashtiliash II, omitted in BKLa, between Abi-Rattash and Urzigurumash. It also seems probable that the earliest kings ascribed to this dynasty in king lists did not actually rule Babylon, but were added as they were ancestors of the later rulers. Babylonia was not fully consolidated and reunified until the reign of Ulamburiash, who defeated Ea-gamil, the last king of the first Sealand dynasty.
Dynasty IV (2nd Isin), 1153–1022 BC
Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû Ishin ('dynasty of Isin'). Presumably, the city of Isin was the dynasty's point of origin. Modern historians refer to this dynasty as the second dynasty of Isin to differentiate it from the ancient Sumerian dynasty of Isin. Previous scholarship assumed that the first king of this dynasty, Marduk-kabit-ahheshu, ruled for the first years of his reign concurrently with the last Kassite king, but recent research suggests that this was not the case. This list follows the revised chronology of the kings of this dynasty, per Beaulieu (2018), which also means revising the dates of subsequent dynasties.
Dynasty V (2nd Sealand), 1021–1001 BC
Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû tamti ('dynasty of the Sealand'). Modern historians call it the second Sealand dynasty in order to distinguish it from Dynasty II.
Dynasty VI (Bazi), 1000–981 BC
BKLa refers to this dynasty as palû Bazu ('dynasty of Baz') and the Dynastic Chronicle calls it palû Bīt-Bazi ('dynasty of Bit-Bazi'). The Bit-Bazi were a clan attested already in the Kassite period. It is likely that the dynasty derives its name either from the city of Baz, or from descent from Bazi, the legendary founder of that city.
Dynasty VII (Elamite), 980–975 BC
BKLa dynastically separates Mar-biti-apla-usur from other kings with horizontal lines, marking him as belonging to a dynasty of his own. The Dynastic Chronicle also groups him by himself, and refers to his dynasty (containing only him) as the palû Elamtu ('dynasty of Elam').
Dynasty VIII (E), 974–732 BC
Per BKLa, the native name of this dynasty was palû E ('dynasty of E'). The meaning of 'E' is not clear, but it is likely a reference to the city of Babylon, meaning that the name should be interpreted as 'dynasty of Babylon'. The time of the dynasty of E was a time of great instability and the unrelated kings grouped together under this dynasty even belonged to completely different ethnic groups. Another Babylonian historical work, the Dynastic Chronicle (though it is preserved only fragmentarily), breaks this dynasty up into a succession of brief, smaller, dynasties.
: Babylonian King List A records the names of 17 kings of the dynasty of E, but it states afterwards that the dynasty comprised 22 kings. The discrepancy might be explainable as a scribal error, but it is also possible that there were further kings in the sequence. The list is broken at critical points, and it is possible that five additional kings, whose names thus do not survive, could be inserted between the end of the Babylonian interregnum and the reign of Ninurta-apla-X. Lists of Babylonian rulers by modern historians tend to list Ninurta-apla-X as the first king to rule after Baba-aha-iddina's deposition.
Dynasty IX (Assyrian), 732–626 BC
'Dynasty IX' is used to, broadly speaking, refer to the rulers of Babylonia during the time it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including Assyrian kings of both the Adaside dynasty and the subsequent Sargonid dynasty, as well as various non-dynastic vassal and rebel kings. They are often grouped together as a dynasty by modern scholars as BKLa does not use lines to separate the rulers, used elsewhere in the list to separate dynasties. BKLa also assigns individual dynastic labels to some of the kings, though thus not in the same fashion as is done for the more concrete earlier dynasties. The palê designation associated with each king (they are recorded in the list up until Mushezib-Marduk) is included in the table below and follows Fales (2014).
Dynasty X (Chaldean), 626–539 BC
The native name for this dynasty does not appear in any sources, as the kings of Dynasty X are only listed in king lists made during the Hellenistic period, when the concept of dynasties ceased being used by Babylonians chronographers to describe Babylonian history. Modern historians typically refer to the dynasty as the 'Neo-Babylonian dynasty', as these kings ruled the Neo-Babylonian Empire, or the 'Chaldean dynasty', after the presumed ethnic origin of the royal line. The Dynastic Chronicle, a later document, refers to Nabonidus as the founder and only king of the 'dynasty of Harran' (palê Ḫarran), and may also indicate a dynastic change with Neriglissar's accession, but much of the text is fragmentary.
Babylon under foreign rule, 539 BC – AD 224
The concept of dynasties ceased being used in king-lists made after the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, meaning that the native Babylonian designations for the ruling dynasties of the foreign empires that succeeded the Chaldean kings are unknown.
Dynasty XI (Achaemenid), 539–331 BC
Dynasty XII (Argead), 331–305 BC
Dynasty XIII (Seleucid), 305–141 BC
Dynasty XIV (Arsacid), 141 BC – AD 224
: The chronology of the Parthian kings, especially in the early period, is disputed on account of a lack of sources. The chronology here, which omits several rival kings and usurpers, primarily follows Shayegan (2011), Dąbrowa (2012) and Daryaee (2012). For alternate interpretations, see the List of Parthian monarchs.
See also
List of Assyrian kings – for the Assyrian kings
List of Mesopotamian dynasties – for other dynasties and kingdoms in ancient Mesopotamia
Notes
References
Bibliography
Web sources
Babylonia
Babylon
Kings of Babylon | [
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234507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%20Grove%20Dictionary%20of%20Music%20and%20Musicians | The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians | The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians is an encyclopedic dictionary of music and musicians. Along with the German-language Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, it is one of the largest reference works on the history and theory of music. Earlier editions were published under the titles A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, and Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians; the work has gone through several editions since the 19th century and is widely used. In recent years it has been made available as an electronic resource called Grove Music Online, which is now an important part of Oxford Music Online.
A Dictionary of Music and Musicians
A Dictionary of Music and Musicians was first published in London by Macmillan and Co. in four volumes (1879, 1880, 1883, 1889) edited by George Grove with an Appendix edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland in the fourth volume. An Index edited by Mrs. E. Wodehouse was issued as a separate volume in 1890. In 1900, minor corrections were made to the plates and the entire series was reissued in four volumes, with the index added to volume 4. The original edition and the reprint are now freely available online. Grove limited the chronological span of his work to begin at 1450 while continuing up to his time.
Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians
The second edition (Grove II), in five volumes, was edited by Fuller Maitland and published from 1904 to 1910, this time as Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. The individual volumes of the second edition were reprinted many times. An American Supplement edited by Waldo Selden Pratt and Charles N. Boyd was published in 1920 in Philadelphia by Theodore Presser. This edition removed the first edition's beginning date of 1450, though important earlier composers and theorists are still missing from this edition. These volumes are also now freely available online.
The third edition (Grove III), also in five volumes, was an extensive revision of the 2nd edition; it was edited by H. C. Colles and published in 1927. The 3rd edition was reprinted several times. An American Supplement was published in the U.S. in 1927, and also later reprinted separately.
An extra-large Supplementary Volume also edited by Colles was published in 1940 and called the fourth edition (Grove IV). A reprint of the 3rd edition with some corrections, was released at the same time. The five-volume 3rd edition, with the Supplementary Volume as volume 6, and the American Supplement of the 3rd edition as volume 7, were reprinted together as a set in 1945.
The fifth edition (Grove V), in nine volumes, was edited by Eric Blom and published in 1954. This was the most thoroughgoing revision of the work since its inception, with many articles rewritten in a more modern style and a large number of entirely new articles. Many of the articles were written by Blom personally, or translated by him. An additional Supplementary Volume prepared by Eric Blom and completed by Denis Stevens after Blom's death in 1959, was issued in 1961. The fifth edition was reprinted in 1966, 1968, 1970, 1973, and 1975, each time with numerous corrections, updates, and other small changes.
The New Grove
First edition
The next edition was published in 1980 under the name The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and was greatly expanded to 20 volumes with 22,500 articles and 16,500 biographies. Its senior editor was Stanley Sadie with Nigel Fortune also serving as one of the main editors for the publication.
It was reprinted with minor corrections each subsequent year until 1995, except 1982 and 1983. In the mid-1990s, the hardback set sold for about $2,300. A paperback edition was reprinted in 1995 which sold for $500.
– hardback
– paperback
– British special edition
– American special edition
Spin-offs
Some sections of The New Grove were also issued as small sets and individual books on particular topics. These typically were enhanced with expanded and updated material and included individual and grouped composer biographies, a four-volume dictionary of American music (1984; revised 2013, 8 vols.), a three-volume dictionary of musical instruments (1984), a four-volume dictionary of opera (1992)., and a volume on women composers (1994).
Second edition
The second edition under this title (the seventh overall) was published in 2001, in 29 volumes. It was also made available by subscription on the internet in a service called Grove Music Online. It was again edited by Stanley Sadie, and the executive editor was John Tyrrell. It was originally to be released on CD-ROM as well, but this plan was dropped. As Sadie writes in the preface, "The biggest single expansion in the present edition has been in the coverage of 20th-century composers".
This edition was subjected to negative criticism (e.g. in Private Eye) owing to the significant number of typographical and factual errors that it contained. Two volumes were re-issued in corrected versions after production errors originally caused the omission of sections of Igor Stravinsky's worklist and Richard Wagner's bibliography.
– British
– American (cloth: alk.paper)
Publication of the second edition of The New Grove was accompanied by a Web-based version, Grove Music Online. It too, attracted some initial criticism, for example for the way in which images were not incorporated into the text but kept separate.
Grove Music Online and Oxford Music Online
The complete text of The New Grove is available to subscribers to the online service Grove Music Online.
Grove Music Online includes a large number of revisions and additions of new articles. In addition to the 29 volumes of The New Grove second edition, Grove Music Online incorporates the four-volume New Grove Dictionary of Opera (ed. Stanley Sadie, 1992) and the three-volume New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, second edition (ed. Barry Kernfeld, 2002), The Grove Dictionary of American Music and The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, comprising a total of more than 50,000 articles. The current editor-in-chief of Grove Music, the name given to the complete slate of print and online resources that encompass the Grove brand, is University of Pittsburgh professor Deane Root. He assumed the editorship in 2009.
The dictionary, originally published by Macmillan, was sold in 2004 to Oxford University Press. Since 2008 Grove Music Online has served as a cornerstone of Oxford University Press's larger online research tool Oxford Music Online, which remains a subscription-based service. As well as being available to individual and educational subscribers, it is available for use at many public and university libraries worldwide, through institutional subscriptions.
Grove Music Online identifies itself as the eighth edition of the overall work.
Status
The New Grove is often the first source that English-speaking musicologists use when beginning research or seeking information on most musical topics. Its scope and extensive bibliographies make it exceedingly valuable to any scholar with a grasp of the English language.
The print edition of The New Grove costs between $1,100 and $1,500, while an annual subscription to Grove Music Online is $295.
The companion four-volume series, New Grove Dictionary of Opera, is the main reference work in English on the subject of opera.
Its principal competitor is the Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart ("MGG"), currently ten volumes on musical subjects and seventeen on biographies of musicians, written in German.
Contents
The 2001 edition contains:
29,499 articles in total
5,623 entirely new articles
20,374 biographies of composers, performers and writers on music
96 articles on theatre directors
1,465 articles on styles, terms and genres
283 articles on concepts
805 articles on regions, countries and cities
580 articles on ancient music and church music
1,327 articles on world musics
1,221 articles on popular music, light music, and jazz
2,261 articles on instruments and their makers, and performance practice
89 articles on acoustics
693 articles on printing and publishing
174 articles on notation
131 articles on sources
Hoaxes and parodies
Two non-existent composers have appeared in the work:
Dag Henrik Esrum-Hellerup was the subject of a hoax entry in the 1980 New Grove. Esrum-Hellerup's surname derives from a Danish village and a suburb of Copenhagen. The writer of the entry was Robert Layton. Though successfully introduced into the encyclopaedia, Esrum-Hellerup appeared in the first printing only: soon exposed as a hoax, the entry was removed and the space filled with an illustration. In 1983, the Danish organist Henry Palsmar founded an amateur choir, the Esrum-Hellerup Choir, along with several former pupils of the Song School, St. Annae Gymnasium in Copenhagen.
Guglielmo Baldini was the name of a non-existent composer who was the subject of a hoax entry in the 1980 edition. Unlike Esrum-Hellerup, Baldini was not a modern creation: his name and biography were in fact created almost a century earlier by the renowned German musicologist Hugo Riemann. The New Grove entry on Baldini was supported by a fictional reference in the form of an article supposedly in the Archiv für Freiburger Diözesan Geschichte. Though successfully introduced into the encyclopaedia, Baldini appeared in the first printing only: soon exposed as a hoax, the entry was removed.
Seven parody entries, written by contributors to the 1980 edition, and full of musical puns and dictionary in-jokes, were published in the February 1981 issue of The Musical Times (which was also edited by Stanley Sadie at the time). These entries never appeared in the dictionary itself and are:
Brown, "Mother" (Mary) (b. 1550; d. Wapping, 3 January 1611)
Ear-flute
Hameln [Hamelin]
Khan't, Genghis (Tamburlaine) (b. Ulan Bator, c. 1880; d. New York, 22 November 1980)
Stainglit (Nevers), Sait d'Ail (fl Middle Ages) – i.e. "Stanley Sadie", following the example of Luis van Rooten
Toblerone
Verdi, Lasagne ['Il Bolognese'] (b. Bologna, 10 October 1813; d. Naples, 15 March 1867)
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Eric Blom, editor (1954). Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (fifth edition). New York: St. Martin's Press () and London: Macmillan ()
Supplementary volume, associate editor Denis Stevens, 1961, New York (), London ()
Fifth edition reprints: 1966: New York (), London (); 1968: New York (); 1970: New York (); 1973: New York (), London (); 1975: New York (), London (, .)
Barry Kernfeld, editor (1988). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, Volume One, A-K, 670 pp., The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, Volume Two, L-Z, 690 pp. (set of 2)
Barry Kernfeld, editor (1994). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz (in one volume), 1358 pp.
Barry Kernfeld, editor (2003). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, 2nd edition (in three volumes), 3000 pp.
External links
Grove, George, ed.; A Dictionary of Music and Musicians 1450–1889 (1900), 4 Volumes. Internet Archive. Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4
Second edition: Vol. 1 (1904) A–E, Vol. 2 (1906) F–L, Vol. 3 (1907) M–P, Vol. 4 (1908) Q–S, Vol. 5 (1910) T–Z, Appendix
, San Francisco Symphony Orchestra
"Grove sees trees but not forest", Greg Sandow and Anne Midgette, The Wall Street Journal, 3 July 2001
Benjamin Ivry, "You could look it up: The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians" (Review), Commonweal, 9 March 2001 (archived at the Wayback Machine)
Allen P. Britton, Review: The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, American Music, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 1987), pp. 194–203, at JSTOR
Phillip D. Crabtree, Donald H. Foster, 1993, Sourcebook for Research in Music, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993, .
Bruce Duffie, Interview with Stanley Sadie, 29 October 1992.
(1904 edition, 1920 supplement)
History of Grove Music
Grove Music Online Official home page
1878 books
Encyclopedias of music
Macmillan Publishers books
Oxford University Press books
Reference works in the public domain
Dictionaries by subject
20th-century encyclopedias
19th-century encyclopedias | [
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234508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargent%20Shriver | Sargent Shriver | Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. (November 9, 1915 – January 18, 2011) was an American diplomat, politician, and activist. As the husband of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, he was part of the Kennedy family. Shriver was the driving force behind the creation of the Peace Corps, and founded the Job Corps, Head Start, VISTA, Upward Bound, and other programs as the architect of the 1960s War on Poverty. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for vice president in the 1972 presidential election.
Born in Westminster, Maryland, Shriver attended Yale University, then Yale Law School, graduating in 1941. An opponent of U.S. entry into World War II, he helped establish the America First Committee but volunteered for the United States Navy before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, he served in the South Pacific, participating in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. After being discharged from the navy, he worked as an assistant editor for Newsweek and met Eunice Kennedy, marrying her in 1953.
He worked on the 1960 presidential campaign of his brother-in-law, John F. Kennedy, and helped establish the Peace Corps after Kennedy's victory. After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver served in the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson and helped establish several anti-poverty programs as director of the Office of Economic Opportunity from October 16, 1964 to March 22, 1968. He also served as the United States Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970. In 1972, Democratic vice presidential nominee Thomas Eagleton resigned from the ticket, and Shriver was chosen as his replacement. The Democratic ticket of George McGovern and Shriver lost in a landslide election defeat to Republican President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew. Shriver briefly sought the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination but dropped out of the race after the first set of primaries.
After leaving office, he resumed the practice of law, becoming a partner with Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson. He also served as president of the Special Olympics and was briefly a part-owner of the Baltimore Orioles. He was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003 and died in Bethesda, Maryland in 2011.
Early life and education
Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. was born in Westminster, Maryland, the younger of two sons. Shriver's parents Robert Sargent Shriver Sr. and Hilda, who had also been born with the surname "Shriver", were second cousins. His elder brother was Thomas Herbert Shriver. Of partial-German ancestry, Shriver was a descendant of David Shriver, who signed the Maryland Constitution and Bill of Rights at Maryland's Constitutional Convention of 1776.
He spent his high school years at Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut, which he attended on a full scholarship. In his freshman year at Canterbury, he befriended future President John F. Kennedy. He was on Canterbury's baseball, basketball, and football teams, became the editor of the school's newspaper, and participated in choral and debating clubs. After graduating from The Browning School in 1934, Shriver spent the summer in Germany as part of The Experiment in International Living, returning in the fall of 1934 to enter Yale University, where he was a brother in the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, as well as a member of Yale's Scroll and Key society.
Military career
An early opponent of American involvement in World War II, Shriver was a founding member of the America First Committee, an organization started in 1940 by a group of Yale Law School students, also including future President Gerald Ford and future Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, which tried to keep the US out of the European war. Nevertheless, Shriver volunteered for the US Navy before the attack on Pearl Harbor and said he had a duty to serve his country even if he disagreed with its policies. He spent five years on active duty, mostly in the South Pacific, serving aboard the , reaching the rank of lieutenant commander (O-4). He was awarded a Purple Heart for wounds he received during the bombardment of Guadalcanal.
Family life
Shriver's relationship with the Kennedys began when he was working as an assistant editor at Newsweek after his discharge from the Navy. He met Eunice Kennedy at a party in New York, and shortly afterwards, family patriarch Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. asked him to look at diary entries written by his eldest son, Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., who had died in a plane crash while he was on a military mission during World War II. Shriver was later hired to manage the Merchandise Mart, part of Kennedy's business empire, in Chicago, Illinois.
After a seven-year courtship, Shriver married Eunice Kennedy on May 23, 1953, at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. She was the third daughter of Joseph Kennedy Sr. and Rose Kennedy.
They had five children: Robert Sargent "Bobby" Shriver III (born April 28, 1954), Maria Owings Shriver (born November 6, 1955), Timothy Perry Shriver (born August 29, 1959), Mark Kennedy Shriver (born February 17, 1964), and Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born July 20, 1965). The Shrivers were married for 56 years, and often worked together on projects.
Shriver was admitted to practice law in the District of Columbia, Illinois, and New York, and at the US Supreme Court.
A devout Catholic, Shriver attended daily Mass and always carried a rosary of well-worn wooden beads. He was critical of abortion and was a signatory to "A New Compact of Care: Caring about Women, Caring for the Unborn", which appeared in the New York Times in July 1992 and stated that "To establish justice and to promote the general welfare, America does not need the abortion license. What America needs are policies that responsibly protect and advance the interest of mothers and their children, both before and after birth."
Public service and political career
1950s
In May 1954, Shriver was appointed to the Chicago Board of Education by Chicago mayor Martin H. Kennelly. On October 26, 1955, Shriver was elected president of the Chicago Board of Education by a vote of the Board. Shriver would serve in the position of president for five years, resigning from the position on October 10, 1960. At the time he became president of the Board, he was the second-youngest individual to hold that office, being only 39. At the time, Chicago Public Schools was the second-largest school district in the United States.
Shriver also served as director of the Catholic Interracial Council, a group created to advocate for desegregation in Chicago schools.
1960s
Shriver was speculated to be a potential Democratic candidate for the 1960 Illinois gubernatorial election, but did not run.
When brother-in-law John F. Kennedy ran for president, Shriver worked as a political and organization coordinator in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries. During Kennedy's presidential term, Shriver founded and served as the first director of the Peace Corps from March 22, 1961 to February 28, 1966.
Shriver has been credited with convincing a hesitant Kennedy to contact Coretta Scott King after her husband, prominent civil rights activist Martin Luther King, was jailed for civil disobedience in Georgia in October 1960. Kennedy's phone call to Coretta Scott King was credited with helping to strengthen black support for Kennedy's candidacy.
After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver continued to serve as Director of the Peace Corps and served as Special Assistant to President Lyndon Johnson. Under Johnson, he created the Office of Economic Opportunity with William B. Mullins and served as its first Director. He is known as the "architect" of the Johnson administration's "War on Poverty". Hired by President Johnson to be the "salesman" for Johnson's War on Poverty initiative, Shriver initially was "not interested in hearing about community action proposals." The Job Corps movement was more consistent with his goals. Thus, soon after his appointment, Shriver "moved quickly to reconsider the proposed anti-poverty initiative."
Shriver founded numerous social programs and organizations, including Head Start, VISTA, Job Corps, Community Action, Upward Bound, Foster Grandparents, Legal Services, the National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (now the Shriver Center), Indian and Migrant Opportunities and Neighborhood Health Services, in addition to directing the Peace Corps. He was active in the Special Olympics, which was founded in 1968 by his wife Eunice.
Shriver was awarded the Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award in 1967. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth'.
Shriver served as U.S. Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970, becoming a quasi-celebrity among the French for bringing what Time magazine called "a rare and welcome panache" to the normally sedate world of international diplomacy.
1970s and Vice Presidential/Presidential candidacies
During the 1972 Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, George McGovern considered Shriver as a vice presidential candidate, but his campaign was unable to reach Shriver, who was at the time visiting Moscow, Soviet Union. McGovern then selected Thomas Eagleton instead, who later resigned from the Democratic ticket following revelations of past mental health treatments. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the ticket. The McGovern-Shriver ticket lost to Republican incumbents Richard Nixon and Spiro Agnew.
Shriver unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1976. In the months before the primaries began, political observers thought that Shriver would draw strength from legions of former colleagues from the Peace Corps and the War on Poverty programs, and he was even seen as an inheritor of the Kennedy legacy, but neither theory proved true. His candidacy was short-lived and he returned to private life.
Life after politics
Shriver was a partner of the Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson law firm in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in international law and foreign affairs, beginning in 1971. He retired as partner in 1986 and was then named of counsel to the firm.
In 1981, Shriver was appointed to the Rockefeller University Council, an organization devoted exclusively to research and graduate education in the biomedical and related sciences.
In 1984, he was elected president of Special Olympics by the board of directors; as president, he directed the operation and international development of sports programs around the world. Six years later, in 1990, he was appointed chairman of the board of Special Olympics.
He was an investor in the Baltimore Orioles along with his eldest son Bobby Shriver, Eli Jacobs, and Larry Lucchino from 1989 to 1993.
Illness and death
Shriver was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003. In 2004, his daughter, Maria, published a children's book, What's Happening to Grandpa?, to help explain Alzheimer's to children. The book gives suggestions on how to help and to show love to an elderly person with the disease. In July 2007, Shriver's son-in-law, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, speaking in favor of stem-cell research, said that Shriver's Alzheimer's disease had advanced to the point that "Today, he does not even recognize his wife." Maria Shriver discusses her father's worsening condition in a segment for the four-part 2009 HBO documentary series The Alzheimer's Project called Grandpa, Do You Know Who I Am?, including describing a moment when she decided to stop trying to correct his various delusions.
On August 11, 2009, Shriver's wife of 56 years, Eunice, died at the age of 88. He attended her wake and funeral in Centerville and Hyannis, Massachusetts. Two weeks later, on August 29, 2009, he also attended the funeral of her brother Ted Kennedy in Boston, Massachusetts.
Shriver died on January 18, 2011, in Suburban Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, at age 95. Shriver's family released a statement calling him "a man of giant love, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment" who "lived to make the world a more joyful, faithful, and compassionate place." President Barack Obama also released a statement, calling Shriver "one of the brightest lights of the greatest generation". Aaron S. Williams, the director of the Peace Corps, said in a statement, "The entire Peace Corps community is deeply saddened by the passing of Sargent Shriver." He further noted that Shriver "served as our founder, friend, and guiding light for the past 50 years" and that "his legacy of idealism will live on in the work of current and future Peace Corps volunteers." He is buried alongside his wife Eunice at St. Francis Xavier Cemetery in Centerville, Massachusetts.
Legacy
In 1968, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, the oldest and most prestigious award for American Catholics.
In 1993, Shriver received the Franklin D. Roosevelt Freedom From Want Award. On August 8, 1994, Shriver received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, from President Bill Clinton.
In December 1993, the University of Maryland, Baltimore County created the Shriver Center in honor of Shriver and his wife. The center serves as the university's civic engagement, and applied learning organization. The Shriver Center also is home to the Shriver Peaceworker Program and the Shriver Living Learning Community.
The Job Corps dedicated a center to his name in 1998 – the "Shriver Job Corps Center" – located in Devens, Massachusetts. The National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (renamed the National Center on Poverty Law in 1995) was renamed the Shriver Center in 2002 and each year awards a Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice.
Sargent Shriver Elementary School, located in Silver Spring, Maryland, is named after him.
In January 2008, a documentary film about Shriver aired on PBS, titled American Idealist: The Story of Sargent Shriver.
The Kennedy Shriver Aquatic Center in Bethesda, Maryland is named after him and Eunice Kennedy Shriver.
Following his death, Daniel Larison wrote:
Shriver was an admirable, principled, and conscientious man who respected the dignity and sanctity of human life, and he also happened to be a contemporary and in-law of Kennedy. Not only did Shriver represent a "link" with JFK, but he represented a particular culture of white ethnic Catholic Democratic politics that has been gradually disappearing for the last fifty years. A pro-life Catholic, Shriver had been a founding member of the America First Committee, and more famously he was also on the 1972 antiwar ticket with George McGovern. In short, he represented much of what was good in the Democratic Party of his time.
Electoral history
1972 United States presidential election
Richard Nixon/Spiro Agnew (R) (inc.) – 47,168,710 (60.7%) and 520 electoral votes (49 states carried)
George McGovern/Sargent Shriver (D) – 29,173,222 (37.5%) and 17 electoral votes (1 state and D.C. carried)
John Hospers/Theodora Nathan (Libertarian) – 3,674 (0.00%) and 1 electoral vote (Republican faithless elector)
John G. Schmitz/Thomas J. Anderson (AI) – 1,100,868 (1.4%) and 0 electoral votes
Linda Jenness/Andrew Pulley (Socialist Workers) – 83,380 (0.1%)
Benjamin Spock/Julius Hobson (People's) – 78,759 (0.1%)
1976 Democratic presidential primaries
Jimmy Carter – 6,235,609 (39.27%)
Jerry Brown – 2,449,374 (15.43%)
George Wallace – 1,955,388 (12.31%)
Mo Udall – 1,611,754 (10.15%)
Henry M. Jackson – 1,134,375 (7.14%)
Frank Church – 830,818 (5.23%)
Robert Byrd – 340,309 (2.14%)
Sargent Shriver – 304,399 (1.92%)
Unpledged – 283,437 (1.79%)
Ellen McCormack – 238,027 (1.50%)
Fred R. Harris – 234,568 (1.48%)
Milton Shapp – 88,254 (0.56%)
Birch Bayh – 86,438 (0.54%)
Hubert Humphrey – 61,992 (0.39%)
Ted Kennedy – 19,805 (0.13%)
Lloyd Bentsen – 4,046 (0.03%)
Terry Sanford – 404 (0.00%)
Portrayals in film
The film Too Young the Hero (1988), about the life of Calvin Graham, features a scene during World War II in which Graham (played by Ricky Schroder) meets Shriver (played by Carl Mueller).
Al Conti portrays Shriver in the 1983 miniseries Kennedy.
He is played by David De Beck in the 2018 film Chappaquiddick.
See also
List of United States political appointments across party lines
Kennedy family tree
References
Further reading
External links
Sargent Shriver Peace Institute
FBI file on Sargent Shriver
Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law
Video: Sargent Shriver delivering a speech about the Peace Corps in 1965
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Deaths from Alzheimer's disease | [
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234514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathroom | Bathroom | A bathroom or washroom is a room, typically in a home or other residential building, that contains either a bathtub or a shower (or both). The inclusion of a wash basin is common. In some parts of the world e.g. India, a toilet is typically included in the bathroom; in others, the toilet is typically given a dedicated room separate from the one allocated for personal hygiene activities. In North American English the word 'bathroom' is sometimes used to refer to any room in a residence that contains a toilet, regardless of the inclusion of a bath or shower.
Historically, bathing was often a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the shared social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with sento in Japan and the "Turkish bath" (also known by other names) throughout the Islamic world.
Variations and terminology
The term for the place used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world, as does the design of the room itself. A full bathroom is generally understood to contain a bath or shower (or both), a toilet, and a sink. An en suite bathroom or en suite shower room is attached to, and only accessible from, a bedroom. A family bathroom, in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, but with its door opening onto a corridor. A Jack and Jill bathroom (or connected bathroom) is situated between and usually shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms. It may also have two wash basins. A wetroom is a waterproof room usually equipped with a shower; it is designed to eliminate moisture damage and is compatible with underfloor heating systems.
In the United States, there is a lack of a single definition. This commonly results in discrepancies between advertised and actual number of baths in real estate listings. Bathrooms are generally categorized as "master bathroom", containing a shower and a bathtub that is adjoining to the largest bedroom; a "full bathroom" (or "full bath"), containing four plumbing fixtures: a toilet and sink, and either a bathtub with a shower, or a bathtub and a separate shower stall; "half bath" (or "powder room") containing just a toilet and sink; and "3/4 bath" containing toilet, sink, and shower, although the terms vary from market to market. In some U.S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a "full bath." In addition, there is the use of the word "bathroom" to describe a room containing a toilet and a basin, and nothing else.
In Canada, "washroom" is a frequently used term to refer to such a room, though "bathroom" is also sometimes used.
Design considerations
Towels
Bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels.
Furniture
Some bathrooms contain a bathroom cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, and drawers or shelves (sometimes in column form) for storing towels and other items. Washing Machine
Bidet
Some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet.
Plumbing
The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is also used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are often cold to the touch, however, and so water-resistant bath mats or even bathroom carpets may be used on the floor to make the room more comfortable. Alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface.
Electricity
Electrical appliances, such as lights, heaters, and heated towel rails, generally need to be installed as fixtures, with permanent connections rather than plugs and sockets. This minimizes the risk of electric shock. Ground-fault circuit interrupter electrical sockets can reduce the risk of electric shock, and are required for bathroom socket installation by electrical and building codes in the United States and Canada. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, only special sockets suitable for electric shavers and electric toothbrushes are permitted in bathrooms, and are labelled as such.
UK building regulations also define what type of electrical fixtures, such as light fittings (i.e. how water-/splash-proof) may be installed in the areas (zones) around and above baths, and showers.
Lighting
Bathroom lighting should be uniform, bright and must minimize glare. For all the activities like shaving, showering, grooming etc. one must ensure equitable lighting across the entire bathroom space. The mirror area should definitely have at least two sources of light at least 1 feet apart to eliminate any shadows on the face. Skin tones and hair color are highlighted with a tinge of yellow light. Ceiling and wall lights must be safe for use in a bathroom (electrical parts need to be splash proof) and therefore must carry appropriate certification such as IP44.
All forms of bathroom lighting should be IP44 rated as safe to use in the bathroom.
History
The first records for the use of baths date back as far as 3000 B.C. At this time water had a strong religious value, being seen as a purifying element for both body and soul, and so it was not uncommon for people to be required to cleanse themselves before entering a sacred area. Baths are recorded as part of a village or town life throughout this period, with a split between steam baths in Europe and America and cold baths in Asia. Communal baths were erected in a distinctly separate area to the living quarters of the village.
Nearly all of the hundreds of houses excavated had their own bathing rooms. Generally located on the ground floor, the bath was made of brick, sometimes with a surrounding curb to sit on. The water drained away through a hole in the floor, down chutes or pottery pipes in the walls, into the municipal drainage system. Even the fastidious Egyptians rarely had special bathrooms.
Greek and Roman bathing
The Roman attitudes towards bathing are well documented; they built large thermal baths (thermae), marking not only an important social development, but also providing a public source of relaxation and rejuvenation. Here was a place where people could meet to discuss the matters of the day and enjoy entertainment. During this period there was a distinction between private and public baths, with many wealthy families having their own thermal baths in their houses. Despite this they still made use of the public baths, showing the value that they had as a public institution. The strength of the Roman Empire was telling in this respect; imports from throughout the world allowed the Roman citizens to enjoy ointments, incense, combs, and mirrors. The partially reconstructed ruins can still be seen today, for example at Thermae Bath Spa in Bath, England, then part of Roman Britain.
Not all ancient baths were in the style of the large pools that often come to mind when one imagines the Roman baths; the earliest surviving bathtub dates back to 1700 B.C, and hails from the Palace of Knossos in Crete. What is remarkable about this tub is not only the similarity with the baths of today, but also the way in which the plumbing works surrounding it differ so little from modern models. A more advanced prehistoric (15th century BC and before) system of baths and plumbing is to be found in the excavated town of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini (Thera). There, alabaster tubs and other bath fittings were found, along with a sophisticated twin plumbing system to transport hot and cold water separately. This was probably because of easy access to geothermic hot springs on this volcanic island.
Both the Greeks and the Romans recognized the value of bathing as an important part of their lifestyles. Writers such as Homer had their heroes bathe in warm water so as to regain their strength; it is perhaps notable that the mother of Achilles bathed him in order to gain his invincibility. Palaces have been uncovered throughout Greece with areas that are dedicated to bathing, spaces with ceramic bathtubs, as well as sophisticated drainage systems. Homer uses the word λοετρά, loetrá, "baths", later λουτρά, loutrá, from the verb λούειν, loúein, to bathe. The same root finds an even earlier attestation on Linear B tablets, in the name of the River Lousios ("bathing" [river]), in Arcadia. Public baths are mentioned by the comedian Aristophanes as βαλανεία, balaneía (sing.: βαλανείον, balaneíon, Latinized as balneum, a "balneary").
More recently
Throughout the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the use of public baths declined gradually in the west, and private spaces were favoured, thus laying the foundations for the bathroom, as it was to become, in the 20th century. However, increased urbanization led to the creation of more baths and wash houses in Britain.
In Japan shared bathing in sento and onsen (spas) still exists, the latter being very popular.
Cultural historian Barbara Penner has written of the ambiguous nature of bathrooms as both the most private space and one most connected to the wider outside world.
Gallery
See also
Accessible toilet
Folding screen
Furo - Japanese bathroom
Washstand
References
Further reading
External links
Rooms
Bathing | [
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234516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry | Dowry | A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom, or his family, to the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to the groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control.
Dowry is an ancient custom that is already mentioned in some of the earliest writings, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected and demanded as a condition to accept a marriage proposal in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia, Northern Africa and the Balkans. In certain Asian countries, disputes related to dowry sometimes result in acts of violence against women, including killings and acid attacks. The custom of dowry is most common in cultures that are strongly patrilineal and that expect women to reside with or near their husband's family (patrilocality). Dowries have long histories in Europe, South Asia, Africa and other parts of the world.
Definition
A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. 'inter vivos') rather than at the owner's death (mortis causa). A dowry establishes a type of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of financial security in widowhood or against a negligent husband, and may eventually go to provide for her children. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include furnishings such as linens and furniture.
Locally, dowry or trousseau is called in Urdu, Persian and Arabic; dahez in Hindi, in Punjabi, daijo in Nepali, in Turkish, joutuk in Bengali, jiazhuang in Mandarin, varadhachanai in Tamil, streedhanam in Malayalam, miraz in Serbo-Croatian and in various parts of Africa as serotwana, idana, saduquat or mugtaf.
Origins
Anthropologist Jack Goody's comparative study of dowry systems around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated that dowry is a form of inheritance found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice "diverging devolution", i.e., that transmit property to children of both sexes. This practice differs from the majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice "homogenous inheritance" in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the "bride price", the money, goods or property given by the groom or his family to the parents of the bride (not the bride herself).
Goody has demonstrated a historical correlation between the practices of "diverging devolution" (dowry) and the development of intensive plough agriculture on the one hand, and homogeneous inheritance (brideprice) and extensive hoe agriculture on the other. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of the work is done by women. These are the societies that give brideprice. Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy, and hence bridewealth is paid as a compensation to her family for the loss of her labour. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work; this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with private property and marriage tends to be monogamous, to keep the property within the nuclear family. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to keep property within the group.
There is a scholarly debate on Goody's theory. Sylvia Yanagisko argues, for example, that there are a number of societies including parts of Japan, Southern Italy, and China, that do not support Goody's claim that dowry is a form of female inheritance of male property. She notes that Goody's is an evolutionary model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today. Susan Mann argues, in contrast, with examples where even in late Imperial China, dowry was a form of female inheritance.
Stanley J. Tambiah (Goody's co-author on the earlier "Bridewealth and Dowry") later argued that Goody's overall thesis remained pertinent in North India, although it required modification to meet local circumstances. He points out that dowry in North India is only partially used as a bride's conjugal fund, and that a large part goes directly to the groom's joint family. This would initially seem to discount Goody's model, except that in North India, the joint family is composed of the groom's parents, his married brothers and unmarried sisters, and their third generation children. This joint family controlled this part of the dowry, which they used to help fund their own daughter/sister's dowries. But when the parents die, and the joint family partitions, this jointly held wealth was then divided among the married sons, such that ultimately, the bride's dowry given to the joint family returned to her and her husband as their "conjugal fund."
Schlegel and Eloul expanded on Goody's model through further statistical analysis of the Ethnographic atlas. They argue that a major factor in determining the type of marriage transaction is the type of property controlled by the household. Bridewealth circulates property and women, and is typical of societies where property is limited. Dowry concentrates property and is found in property owning classes or commercial or landed pastoral peoples. When families give dowry, they not only ensure their daughter's economic security, they also "buy" the best possible husband for her, and son-in-law for themselves.
Historical practices
Babylon
Even in the oldest available records, such as the Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon, the dowry is described as an already-existing custom. Daughters did not normally inherit any of her father's estate. Instead, with marriage, the bride got a dowry from her parents, which was intended to offer her as much lifetime security as her family could afford.
In Babylonia, both bride price and dowry auctions were practiced. However, bride price almost always became part of the dowry. According to Herodotus, auctions of maidens were held annually. The auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method. Attractive maidens were offered in an auction to determine the bride price to be paid by a swain, while in the case of maidens lacking attractivity a reverse auction was needed to determine the dowry to be paid to a swain. In case of divorce without reason, a man was required to give his wife the dowry she brought as well as the bride price the husband gave. The return of dowry could be disputed, if the divorce was for a reason allowed under Babylonian law.
A wife's dowry was administered by her husband as part of the family assets. He had no say, however, in its ultimate disposal; and legally, the dowry had to be kept separate for it was expected to support the wife and her children. The wife was entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. If she died childless, her dowry reverted to her family, that is her father if he was alive, otherwise her brothers. If she had sons, they would share it equally. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children by other women.
Ancient Greece
In archaic Greece, the usual practice was to give a bride price (hédnon (ἕδνον)). Dowries (pherné (φερνή)) were exchanged by the later classical period (5th century B.C). A husband had certain property rights in his wife's dowry. In addition, the wife might bring to the marriage property of her own, which was not included in the dowry and which was, as a result, hers alone. This property was "beyond the dowry" (Greek parapherna, the root of paraphernalia) and is referred to as paraphernal property or extra-dotal property.
A dowry may also have served as a form of protection for the wife against the possibility of ill treatment by her husband and his family, providing an incentive for the husband not to harm his wife. This would apply in cultures where a dowry was expected to be returned to the bride's family if she died soon after marrying.
In contemporary Greece, dowry was removed from family law through legal reforms in 1983.
Roman Empire
The Romans practiced dowry (dos). The dowry was property transferred by the bride, or on her behalf by anyone else, to the groom or groom's father, at their marriage. Dowry was a very common institution in Roman times, and it began out of a desire to get the bride's family to contribute a share of the costs involved in setting up a new household. Dos was given for the purpose of enabling the husband to sustain the charges of the marriage state (onera matrimonii). All the property of the wife which was not dowry, or was not a donatio propter nuptias, continued to be her own property, and was called Parapherna. The dowry could include any form of property, given or promised at the time of marriage, but only what remained after deducting the debts. Not only the bride's family, any person could donate his property as dowry for the woman.
Two types of dowry were known—dos profectitia and dos adventitia. That dos is profectitia which was given by the father or father's father of the bride. All other dos is adventitia. Roman law also allowed for a species of dowry, called dos receptitia, which was given by some other person than the father or father's father of the bride, in consideration of marriage, but on the condition that it should be restored back to the dowry giver, on the death of the wife. The bride's family were expected to give a dowry when a girl married, and in proportion to their means. It was customary for the bride's family and friends to pay promised dowries in installments over three years, and some Romans won great praise by delivering the dowry in one lump sum.
Indian subcontinent
The practice of dowry in the Indian subcontinent is a controversial subject. Some scholars believe dowry was practiced in antiquity, but some do not. Historical eyewitness reports (discussed below) suggest dowry in ancient India was insignificant, and daughters had inheritance rights, which by custom were exercised at the time of her marriage. Documentary evidence suggests that at the beginning of 20th century, bridewealth, rather than dowry was the common custom, which often resulted in poor boys remaining unmarried.
Stanley J. Tambiah claims the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India (typically in Rohtak) and especially in Kadia families, but dowry was the more prestigious form and associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) caste. Bridewealth was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to suggest that this pattern of dowry in upper castes and bridewealth in lower castes persisted through the first half of the 20th century. However, it is more likely that marriages involved both reciprocal gifts between the two families, claims Tambiah, so that insofar as the groom's family gave the bridewealth, it tended to be given back as dowry to the bride as part of her conjugal estate.
Michael Witzel, in contrast, claims the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers.
The findings of MacDonell and Keith are similar to Witzel, and differ from Tambiah; they cite ancient Indian literature suggesting bridewealth was paid even in brahma- and daiva-types of marriage associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) upper caste. Dowry was not infrequent, when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era (200 BC – 700 AD). Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind.
The above analysis by various scholars is based on interpreting verses of ancient Sanskrit fiction and inconsistent smritis from India, not eyewitness accounts. Available eyewitness observations from ancient India give a different picture. One of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great's conquest (ca. 300 BC), as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian's first book mentions a lack of dowry,
Arrian's second book similarly notes,
The two sources suggest dowry was absent, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian. About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, another eyewitness scholar visited India named Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni was an Islamic era Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE. He translated many Indian texts into Arabic, as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed,
Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th century India, had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father's death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father's debt, then allocate a fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep till she is ready to marry, and then give the rest to her to take with her into her married life.
China
Dowry was common in different historic periods of China and continued through the modern history. Locally called " (), the dowry ranged from land, jewelry, money to a collection of clothing, sewing equipment and collection of household items. Mann and others find that dowry was a form of inheritance to daughters. In traditional China, the property owned by a family, if any, was earmarked for equal division or inheritance by sons only. Dowry was the only way assets were transferred to a daughter. It included immovable property such as land, and movable property like jewelry and fine clothing. The dowry she brought with her was typically sequestered from the property of her husband and other male members in a joint family. She would often sell this property for cash to overcome hard economic times or needs of her children and husband. In a few cases, she may transfer the property she brought as dowry to her daughter or daughter-in-law. Dowry assets once transferred in turn constituted separate wealth of the woman who received it (sifang qian, etc.). Often a woman who brought a large dowry was considered more virtuous in Chinese culture than one who didn't. In parts of China, both dowry and brideprice (pinjin) were practiced from ancient eras to the 20th century. Though throughout the history of China, the practice of using a brideprice has largely been used instead of dowries, but has slowly diminished in modern times.
Europe
Dowry was widely practiced in Europe until the early modern era. Folklorists often interpret the folk tale Cinderella as the competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide a dowry. Gioachino Rossini's opera La Cenerentola makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowries larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry.
One common penalty for the kidnapping and rape of an unmarried woman was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry. Until the late 20th century this was sometimes called wreath money, or the breach of promise.
Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity by wealthier parishioners. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of St. Nicholas, in which he threw gold in the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. Elizabeth of Portugal and St. Martin de Porres were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and the Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of Pope Urban VII. In 1425, the Republic of Florence created a public fund, called the Monte delle doti, to provide dowries to Florentine brides.
Vast inheritances were standard as dowries for aristocratic and royal brides in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese crown gave two cities in India and Morocco as dowry to the British Crown in 1661 when King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza, a princess of Portugal.
In some cases, nuns were required to bring a dowry when joining a convent. At some times, such as Ancien Régime France, convents were also used by some parents to put less attractive daughters, so that the more marriageable daughters could have larger dowries. Ancien Régime families that could not provide proper dowries also used the convents as places to put their daughters.
In the County of Bentheim, for instance, parents who had no sons might give a land dowry to their new son-in-law. It was commonly given with the condition that he take the surname of his bride, in order to continue the family name.
England
Dowry was used in England. However, the right of daughters to inherit and of women to hold property and other rights in their own name made it a different instrument than on the Continent. The Salic law, which required females to be disinherited and disenfranchised from land ownership, did not apply in England. Single women held many rights men did. The most famous example of this English female inheritance and agency right is perhaps Elizabeth I of England, who held all rights a male monarch did.
While single women held rights to hold property equivalent to those of men, marriage and married women were affected by the Norman Conquest changes to the law in the 12th Century. Coverture was introduced to the common law in some jurisdictions, requiring property of a wife to be held in the husband's name, custody and control. The Normans also introduced the dowry in England replacing the earlier custom of the new husband giving a morning gift to his bride. At first the husband publicly gave [or received?] the dowry at the church door at the wedding.
If the husband died first, which was frequent, there was a Widows dowry of one third of the husband's lands at the time of his marriage; the income, and in some cases, the management, of the lands, was assigned to her for the rest of her life. This concept is included in the Great Charter, and along with the recognition of female inheritance and absence of the Salic law, and women, particularly single women, holding many rights equivalent to those men held, manifests English law differing fundamentally from the law of the Continent, especially the law of the Holy Roman Empire.
Thirteenth-century court records are filled with disputes over dowries, and the law became increasingly complex.
The English dowry system permitted most noble families to marry off their daughters and thereby gain extended kin and patronage ties. Marriageable daughters were a valuable commodity to ambitious fathers, and the English aristocracy sent few of their eligible daughters to convents.
Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could cause a marriage to be called off. William Shakespeare made use of such an event in King Lear: one of Cordelia's suitors gives up his suit upon hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry. In Measure for Measure, Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after the betrothal. Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana was the loss of her dowry at sea.
In Victorian England, dowries were viewed by some members of the upper class as an early payment of the daughter's inheritance. In some instances, daughters who had not received their dowries were the only female heirs entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children, a woman's dowry was often returned to her family.
Coverture never applied universally in Britain and was repealed in the 1800s. This effectively ended the concept of dowry as the property of a single woman was either retained by her after marriage or its income became marital property under joint control with a husband (not under his sole control as in coverture).
Russia
In some parts of Europe, especially Eastern Europe, land dowries were common.
The Domostroy, a Russian advice book of the 16th century for upper classes, includes advice to set aside property for purposes of a dowry, and use it to accumulate linens, clothing, and other things for it, rather than have to suddenly buy it all for the wedding; if the daughter should happen to die, the dowry should be used to give alms and for prayers for her soul, although some might be set aside for other daughters. In late Tsarist Russia the dowry originally consisted of clothing for the bride, linen, and bedding. Linen became less common, a fact blamed on poor flax harvest and girls being poor spinners, but emphasis was added to the finest of the clothing, and a money dowry was sometimes added, particularly if the bride was regarded as having some fault. Prospective in-laws, usually concerned mostly with her working ability, grew more concerned about a money dowry.
Romania
In Romania in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (1750–1830s) the exclusion of dowered girls from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family. The wife's male relatives controlled the dowry but she retained sole ownership of the dowry and wedding gifts. Her relatives could prosecute the husband for squandering a dowry; wives gained some ability to leave an abusive marriage. The long-term result was a greater legal empowerment of women, while providing economic security to divorced women, widows, and children.
The Americas
Indigenous cultures
According to one ethnographic study of indigenous cultures worldwide, around six percent of North American indigenous cultures practised reciprocal exchange, involving the giving of gifts between both the bride and groom's families. Among the tribes of the American Plains, a combination of dower and dowry was used. The groom would give a gift of horses to the bride's parents, while they in turn would give a gift to the groom. The exchange was somewhat reciprocal.
Mexico
Spanish colonists brought the dowry custom to Mexico. Spain's laws gave brides the right to control their dowry after marriage, contrary to the usual European practice of transferring the dowry to the control of the groom and his family. Women, in practice, often did maintain control over their dowry after marriage. The husband might be given funds from the dowry to invest for the mutual benefit of the couple and their children, but wives also often used funds from their dowries to operate their own businesses, as grocers, tavern keepers, and shop owners in urban areas. Dowries were a common custom in the early colonial years, but were passing out of use by the mid-18th century. By that time, less wealthy daughters were often marrying without any dowry.
New France
The French government made efforts to encourage marriage for the male soldiers and traders in New France by granting dowries to women willing to travel to the colony at Quebec. As the French crown provided dowries for many of the women persuaded to travel to New France for marriages and settlement there, they were known as filles du roi (daughters of the king).
Convents in Quebec, as in Europe, required a dowry from the parents of girls becoming nuns, much as the dowry was expected in the marriages of upper class brides. The Catholic Church and secular authorities intended for this requirement to regulate admission into religious communities. Girls without a dowry were often supported by benefactors, however, and occasionally convents lowered the sum required to enter the convent.
United States
The dowry was a custom brought to the United States by colonists from England and elsewhere in Europe. One legend tells how John Hull, the Master of the Mint in Boston and a wealthy man, determined the dowry for his daughter Hannah's marriage to Samuel Sewall. Hull is said to have set his 18-year-old daughter onto one side of the large scales in his warehouse. He piled shillings into the other side of the scale until he reached her weight in silver, and that was her dowry.
The daughters of wealthy 19th century industrialists, who were able to inherit large amounts of money and property, were given "dowries" by their fathers to marry European aristocrats who held a title but had little wealth. The mutual exchange of title and wealth raised the status of both bride and groom.
Brazil
The dowry was a custom brought to Brazil by Portuguese settlers. Colonial economics meant that families had a great stake in inheritances of land in particular. As in Europe, the eldest daughter was usually granted the largest dowry by her father. Variations were not unusual, however, as research has shown in São Paulo, 31% of fathers gave dowries of increasing size to the younger daughters, and 21% distributed dowries with no particular favour shown to birth order of the daughters. In addition to dowries, daughters could also be granted an inheritance from their father, a share of the legìtima. Inheritance laws were complex in colonial Brazil. According to Portuguese law, an estate was to be divided among children who had not already received a dowry. In the early colonial period, married daughters receiving a large dowry would refuse to accept a further inheritance after the death of their father. In the 18th century, as inheritances and dowries gradually became smaller, this custom disappeared. Daughters accepted a dowry, plus a legìtima. In this way, they folded their dowry back into the estate with the legìtima, called bringing the dowry à colação. The remaining third of the estate, the terça, was free for the father to divide as he wished among his heirs.
There were instances where a daughter was left to marry without a dowry, whereas her sisters were given dowries, an indication of paternal control over marriage choices. During the 18th century, as inheritances decreased in size, litigation among siblings became more common. Dowries could include land, a house in the city, cash, gold dust, gold bars, tools and machinery, cattle, or horses. By the 19th century, economic changes meant that men, typically merchants, brought more to the marriage materially, and the economic dynamics of marriage changed.
Current practices
Dowry is a common practice in many parts of the world, especially in South Asia and several Middle East and North Africa countries. Dowry is most common in nations with inadequate male-biased inheritance laws and patrilineal societies, which expect women to live with or near their husband's family.
An unusual exception to the dowry custom in South Asia is found in Bhutan. The dowry system does not exist in Bhutan; inheritance is matrilineal, and daughters do not take their father's name at birth, nor their husband's name upon marriage. Rural land may be registered in a woman's name. Women own businesses, and both polyandry and polygyny are socially accepted, with polygyny being more prevalent. Sometimes a prospective groom will work in the bride's family's household to earn the right to marry her.
India
In India, dowry is called Dahez in Hindi, and Jahez in Arabic among the Islamic Community (derived from Islamic jahez-e-fatimi). In far eastern parts of India, dowry is called Aaunnpot. Dowry is a payment of cash or gifts from the bride's family to the bridegroom's family upon marriage. It may include cash, jewelry, electrical appliances, furniture, bedding, crockery, utensils, car and other household items that help the newlyweds set up their home.
In India, the dowry system puts great financial strain on the bride's family. Payment of dowry is now prohibited under the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 in Indian civil law and subsequently by Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). Despite anti-dowry laws in India, it is still a common illegal practice. Other laws attempting to address the problem include the Dowry and Bridal Gifts Restrictions Rules, 1976 and the Dowry Prohibition (Maintenance of Lists of Presents to the Bride and Bridegroom) Rules, 1985, which are intended to document gifts and provide complainants with stronger evidence in case prosecution for crimes against the bride occurs later.
Dowry in India is not limited to Hindus or any specific religion. It is widespread. For example, Indian Muslims call dowry as jahez, justify the practice in terms of jahez-e-fatimi. Islamists classify jahez into two categories: The first comprises some essential articles for the outfit of the bride as well as for conjugal life. The other is made up of valuable goods, clothes, jewelry, an amount of money for the groom's family, which is settled on after bargaining. The jahez often far exceeds the cost of the barat.
Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, they have been largely criticised as being ineffective. The practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India and this has further added to the concerns of enforcement. Dowry-murder persists. It is the killing of a wife for not bringing sufficient dowry to the marriage. It is the culmination of a series of prior domestic abuses by the husband's family.
Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code required the bridegroom and his family to be automatically arrested if a wife complains of dowry harassment. The law was widely abused and in 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that arrests can only be made with a magistrate's approval.
Bangladesh
The original custom in Bangladesh was the bride price, called pawn, where the groom's family makes a payment to the bride's parents. This has gradually been replaced by the dowry, called joutuk. This transition in customs began in the 1960s. By the early 21st century, the bride price has been supplanted by the dowry. Joutuk, sometimes spelled Joutukh, like elsewhere in South Asia, is a serious and growing problem in Bangladesh. Between 0.6 and 2.8 brides per year per 100,000 women are reported to die because of dowry-related violence.
Bangladesh has seen a rise in the expected size of dowries in recent decades, as its middle class has grown. Sociologist Sarah White has argued that the dowry is not compensation for weakness in women's economic contribution. Instead, its main function is now to support family advancement by mobilizing additional resources. It also demonstrates an ongoing commitment to the norms of masculine provision and protection. Dowries make women more valuable, which pushes against the background of widespread corruption and political and gender violence.
A negative factor is a rise in the rate of "dowry deaths". In Bangladesh, dowry killings are more frequently done by stabbing or poison rather than burning. Dowry extortion is also a problem in Bangladesh. From January to October 2009, more than 3,413 complaints were made to the police in Bangladesh concerning beatings and other abuses related to dowries. One of the methods used by families who are unhappy with dowry includes acid throwing, in which concentrated acid is thrown on the bride's face to cause disfiguration and social isolation. From 1995 to 1998, 15 women reported dowry disputes as the motivation behind acid attacks, though that number may be low due to underreporting. Bangladesh is combating the problem with legislation largely copied from that of India. Laws prohibiting dowry in Bangladesh include Dowry Prohibition Act, 1980; Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982; and Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1986.
Dowry Prohibition Act Clause 4 states that anyone demanding dowry from a person has committed a crime. The law does not have any clause stating punishment to misuse it. Therefore, the law is frequently used by women to harass in-laws and husbands.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, dowry is called Jahez in Arabic (derived from Islamic jahez-e-fatimi). At over 2000 dowry-related deaths per year, and annual rates exceeding 2.45 deaths per 100,000 women from dowry-related violence, Pakistan has the highest reported number of dowry death rates per 100,000 women in the world.
According to Ansari, Pakistan's Muslim community considers dowry as an obligatory Islamic practice. Over 95 percent of all marriages in Pakistan involves transfer of a dowry from the bride's family to groom's family. A 2014 Gallup survey in Pakistan found that 84% of Pakistanis believe that dowry plays either very important or somewhat important role in marriage, while 69% believed it is not possible for a girl to get married without a dowry.
Pakistan has seen a rise in the values of dowries in recent decades, as in other South Asian countries. However, in Pakistan it is still expected that a bride will bring some kind of dowry with her to a marriage, whether she is Muslim, Hindu, or Christian. The Dower (bride price), called mahr, and dowry, called jahaiz, are both customs with long histories in Pakistan. Today, the dowry will often consist of jewelry, clothing, and money. Dowry is expected while the majority of marriages are consanguineously arranged between first cousins.
Control of the dowry belongs to the bride in theory, although in practice control often transfers to the husband and in-laws, and grooms sometimes extort large dowries. In rural Pakistan, dowry values are still relatively low, around 12 percent of a household's annual (non-durable goods) expenses. Also, in rural Pakistan it is standard for the bride to maintain control over her dowry after marriage, rather than control of the dowry being given to the in-laws. A recent survey in January 2017 by Gallup Pakistan showed that 56 percent of the population expects the girl to bring dowry to marriage. The pressure among some Pakistanis to provide a large dowry results in some brides' families going into debt, including debt servitude; some brides build up their dowry with their own earnings if they work outside the home. The debt trap created by providing large dowries puts pressure on parents aspiring to arrange a marriage for their daughter(s) into a better social class. It is also cited as a reason for the current trend toward delayed marriages. Arranged marriages among first cousins are common, since they provide a way of keeping dowries within an extended family.
Pakistan has passed several laws to address the problem of excessive dowry demands: West Pakistan Dowry (Prohibition of Display) Act, 1967; Dowry and Bridal Gifts (Restriction) Act, 1976. Women's rights to inheritance separate from the dowry are offered some protection in the Muslim Personal Law of Shariat of 1948 and the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance of 1961. In October 2020, Pakistan became the first Muslim country to make it illegal to receive dowry as per the tenets of Islamic sunnah. According to the bill, the maximum amount to be given to the bride as her dowry may be no more than four tola gold, which may include clothes that belong to the bride, and bedsheets only. Guests arriving at the marriage ceremony will be banned from giving gifts costing more than .
Nepal
The practice of dowry is common in Nepal, and dowry-related violence is increasingly becoming a problem. As a result, the dowry system has been banned in Nepal. Despite the laws, the violent incidents continue, under a general perception of impunity. Nepali people of the Madhesi society still freely welcome dowry as a right to the groom's side. Even highly educated people living in the Terai of Nepal accept dowry without any second thoughts. Parents have thus started dreading the birth of daughters in the family, going as far as determining the sex of fetuses in order to abort daughters. Many deaths have also been caused by not giving dowry to the groom's side. Dowry system, however, is not practiced by indigenous people and is less prevalent in Hill Region.
In Nepal, the practice of dowry is closely related to social prestige; and dowry violence is especially prevalent in the Terai belt. In 2009, Nepal enacted the Social Customs and Practices Act outlawing dowry; however, there have been no known cases of enforcement.
Sri Lanka
Here, the dowry is known as dewedda. The payment of dowry in Sri Lanka has a strong tradition, and has been connected to family violence. However its importance is declining, and violence related to it is not as common as in other South Asian countries, though it still exists.
Afghanistan
Dowry is called Jehez in Afghanistan, and is separate from Mahr, sherbaha, and brideprice (locally called walwar, toyana, or qalyn).
A large dowry is sometimes expected, and given, in Afghanistan; some houses are almost emptied so that the daughter may make a grand show at the wedding. Items included in a dowry depend on the resources of the bride's family and the demands made by the groom's family. Embroidery is traditionally included in a dowry, as is land, money, jewelry such as necklaces and pazab, shoes, shawls, carpets, bedding, furniture, crockery, mirrors, clocks and such items. The dowry is transferred from bride's family house to the groom's family house one day before the wedding day in a ritual ceremony with band and a procession, which typically adopts the longest route in the residential area for the Afghan community to see the dowry being given by the bride's family.
Afghanistan has both dowry and bride price, although the practice differs between different tribal and ethnic groups. In Afghanistan, a marriage typically requires two kinds of payments: a mahr, which typically consists of livestock, property and money, and in practice often takes the form of a bride price paid to the woman's family; and a dowry brought by the bride to her husband's home which may include various goods such as clothing, bedding and household utensils. The nature of dowry the bride brings often influences how she is treated when she arrives at her husband's home. Parents frequently arrange marriages for daughters at a young age, in order to end their economic responsibility for their daughter.
Iran
Dowry has existed in Persia for over 1000 years, and called jahīzīeh (sometimes spelled jahaz or jaheez, جهیزیه). Jahiz is vestments, furniture, jewelry, cash and other paraphernalia a bride's family gives to the bride to take with her to the groom's family. Jahiz is separate from Mahr required by Sharia religious laws, as well as the traditional payment of Shir Baha (literally: price of milk), in rural Iran. Dowry-related violence and deaths in Iran are reported in Iranian newspapers, some of which appear in English media.
Turkey
Dowry is known as çeyiz in Turkey. Çeyiz is the property and/or money the bride's family gives the couple at marriage. Çeyiz is different and separate from the Mahr, which is paid by the groom to the bride, or traditional baslik in some parts of Turkey. The giving of dowry has been replaced with the exchanging of gifts at the marriage ceremony by family members in modern times.
Çeyiz often includes furnishings, appliances, clothing, gold jewelry, cash and other items depending on the resources of the Turkish family. Some of the Turkish dowry remains with the couple after marriage, other is specifically meant for the groom's family and relatives. The çeyiz is typically agreed upon between the groom's and bride's families before the wedding date is finalized. According to tradition, even in current times, the dowry is displayed for showing-off, before the marriage in rural Turkey, at the bride's family, or groom's family—the display is typically attended and examined by women, particularly from the groom's family. In some cases, if the groom's family is not satisfied with the displayed dowry, the wedding is cancelled. The dowry is transferred, from the bride's family to the groom's family just before the wedding in a ceremonial ritual. Thereafter, the wedding is completed.
Scholars and government agencies claim significant domestic violence in Turkish population due to dowry disputes. Violence and property claims related disputes are more frequent if there is a divorce.
Azerbaijan
Dowry is known as cehiz in Azerbaijan. Cehiz is the property and money the bride's family must give to the groom's family prior to marriage. Cehiz is separate from the money under Mahr required under Sharia religious requirements in Islamic Azerbaijan. Cehiz often includes furnishings, appliances, crystal, mirrors, bed, jewelry and cash depending on the negotiations between the groom's and bride's families before the wedding day. While the groom's family receives Cehiz, the bride receives Mahr. Relatives of the bride often contribute to the Cehiz demands, through the ritual of koncas. Dowry is transferred a few days before the wedding, and examined by groom's family, and a Sihaye (receipt) for the dowry is issued by the groom's family; this helps avoid disputes. If some items of the dowry are not satisfactory, the wedding may be delayed or cancelled. Similar traditions continue in many regions of Caucasus, including non-Muslim ethnic groups.
Tajikistan
Dowries are sometimes expected in Tajikistan, and they often consist of a collection of traditional dresses which are on display on the wedding day. However, the practice is much less common than in other parts of the Persophone world, as Tajikistan has a strong history of secularism due to it being a former Soviet republic.
Egypt
In Egypt, dowry is known as Gehaz. This is the property a bride is expected to bring with her at marriage, and it is different from the dower (Mahr) paid by the groom to the bride per requirements of Sharia. Gehaz is observed in rural and urban Egypt, and is typically negotiated between the groom's family and bride's. Gehaz includes furniture, appliances, jewelry, china, bedding and various household items. Families begin collecting dowry years before a girl is betrothed. Many Egyptian girls take up jobs so as to save money necessary to meet the expected dowry demands.
While the dowry is given during the marriage, in rural Egypt, it is ritually displayed to the village prior to the marriage. Every piece of the gehaz is placed on open cars that go around the village several times, with music, in order to show off the dowry being given by the bride's family to the groom. The gehaz show off ritual is also a means to enhance the bride's status within her new marital family.
Morocco
Dowry is a traditional and current practice in Morocco, and is called shura, shawar, ssdaq or amerwas depending on the speaker's region and ethnicity (e.g. Arabic, Berber, etc.). Dowry in Morocco is separate from the Mahr or Sadaq that is religiously required by Sharia.
Centuries ago, Mahr and Sadaq meant something different in Morocco. Mahr was the purchase price paid for the bride by the groom's family to the bride's father or guardian, while Sadaq was the betrothal gift offered by groom to the bride. Over time, the difference vanished and they are now one and the same, but different from the practice of dowry.
In modern times, the Moroccan practice is to split the so-called Sadaq, which meets the Islamic requirement of Mahr, into two parts: naqd (cash) and kali (remainder Mahr). The Naqd Sadaq is paid by the groom's family to bride's family before the wedding. The bride's family supplements the Naqd amount with an equal or greater amount of cash, and gives dowry (called shura, shawar or amerwas). This dowry typically includes furniture, clothing, appliances, beds, household items, divans, jewelry, and other property. The dowry amounts are negotiated before the wedding. Higher dowry and lower Mahr are expected for widows and divorcées than for virgins. If elders of the two families do not agree on the dowry amount, the marriage is typically delayed or cancelled. The value and composition of the dowry varies according to social class, family wealth and regional customs. The kali al-sadaq (sometimes called mwahhar in Northern Morocco) is paid later, to technically meet the requirements of Mahr under Islamic Sharia. The shura (dowry) far exceeds the kali al-sadaq, and there is a large transfer of wealth from bride's family to the couple and the groom's family.
Bosnia
Dowry is known as oprema in Bosnia. In neighboring regions, it is sometimes called prikija or ženinstvo. Another term miraz is used sometimes, but miraz is also used to mean inheritance, something different from dowry.
Oprema refers to the property the bride's parents give her as part of the marriage. It often includes furniture, kitchenware, decorative items, gold jewelry and other items. Oprema is also different from pohod (gift giving, dar) ritual of Bosnia, as well as the ruho (embroidered clothing) ritual. Oprema is discussed between the groom's and bride's family before the marriage; the groom's family sets the quality and quantity expectations. The oprema is typically not displayed to those who attend the wedding. Oprema and dar are a major economic burden to bride's family in Bosnia. Poorer families spend years saving money and buying oprema in order to get their daughter(s) married.
Serbia
In Serbia, in some rural areas, the custom of dowry continues to be observed.
Dowry had been brought to medieval Serbia mainly through Byzantine influences; it was not originally a Slavic custom. The Turkish conquest of Serbia has caused the temporary disappearance of dowry, but the custom re-emerged in the 19th century. The communist regime sought to abolish dowry, but the custom has survived in some rural areas to this day.
Violence against women and international perspectives
Disputes related to dowry sometimes result in violence against women, including killings and acid attacks. Amnesty International has stated:
The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women classifies violence against women into three categories: that occurring in the family (DV), that occurring within the general community, and that perpetrated or condoned by the State. Family violence is defined as follows:
Kirti Singh states, "Dowry is widely considered to be both a cause and a consequence of son preference. The practice of dowry inevitably leads to discrimination in different areas against daughters and makes them vulnerable to various forms of violence." Singh suggests this may lead to girls being unwanted, sex selective abortion, or her parents may abandon or mistreat her after she is born. UNICEF notes dowry helps perpetuate child marriage. The World Health Organization (WHO) has expressed concern for dowry-related femicide, citing the study by Virendra Kumar which argued that dowry deaths occur primarily in areas of the Indian subcontinent. They note the estimates for actual number of dowry deaths per year vary widely ranging from 600–750 homicides a year to 25,000 homicides a year, with official government records suggesting 7,618 deaths in 2006. Rakhshinda Perveen states thousands of dowry-related bride burning cases in Pakistan, yet few prosecutions and rare convictions for dowry-related violence against women.
UNODC includes dowry deaths as a form of gender-based violence. About 4.6% of total crimes against women in India were dowry death-related, and another 1.9% were related to violation of Dowry Prohibition Act. The dowry death rate in India has been about 0.7 women per 100,000 every year from 1998 to 2009.
See also
Bride price, the payment made by a groom to the bride or her family
Excrex, old Spanish law of Aragon
References
Further reading
Hirsch, Jennifer S., Wardlow, Holly, Modern loves: the Anthropology of Romantic Courtship & Companionate Marriage, Macmillan, 2006. . Cf. Chapter 1 "Love and Jewelry", on contrasting a dowry and a bride price.
Kaplan, Marion, ed. The Marriage Bargain. Women and Dowries in European History (1985).
Kirshner, Julius. Marriage, dowry, and citizenship in late medieval and renaissance Italy (U of Toronto Press, 2015).
"Dowry & Inheritance" edited by Smt. Basu, Women Unlimited & Kali for Women, New Delhi 2005.
External links
Marriage
Divorce
Women in society
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234517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Assyrian%20kings | List of Assyrian kings | The king of Assyria (Akkadian: Išši'ak Aššur, later šar māt Aššur) was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Assyria, which was founded in the late 21st century BC and fell in the late 7th century BC. For much of its early history, Assyria was little more than a city-state, centered on the city Assur, but from the 14th century BC onwards, Assyria rose under a series of warrior kings to become one of the major political powers of the Ancient Near East, and in its last few centuries it dominated the region as the largest empire the world had seen thus far. Ancient Assyrian history is typically divided into the Old, Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods, all marked by ages of ascendancy and decline.
The ancient Assyrians did not believe that their king was divine himself, but saw their ruler as the vicar of their principal deity, Ashur, and as his chief representative on Earth. In their worldview, Assyria represented a place of order while lands not governed by the Assyrian king (and by extension, the god Ashur) were seen as places of chaos and disorder. As such it was seen as the king's duty to expand the borders of Assyria and bring order and civilization to lands perceived as uncivilized. As Assyria expanded, its rulers gradually adopted grander and more boastful titles. Early kings used Išši'ak Aššur (representative/viceroy of Ashur), considering the god Ashur to be the true king. From the time of Ashur-uballit I (14th century BC), the rulers instead used king (šar). In time, further titles, such as "king of Sumer and Akkad", "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World", were added, often to assert their control over all of Mesopotamia.
All modern lists of Assyrian kings generally follow the Assyrian King List, a list kept and developed by the ancient Assyrians themselves over the course of several centuries. Though some parts of the list are probably fictional, the list accords well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and is generally considered reliable for the age. The line of Assyrian kings ended with the defeat of Assyria's final king Ashur-uballit II by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Median Empire in 609 BC, after which Assyria disappeared as an independent political unit, never to rise again. The Assyrian people survived the fall of their empire and kept their own cultural and religious traditions (though were Christianized in the 1st–3rd centuries AD). At times, Assur and other Assyrian cities were afforded great deals of autonomy by its foreign rulers after the 7th century BC, particularly under the Achaemenid and Parthian empires.
Introduction
Sources
Incomplete king-lists have been recovered from three of the major ancient Assyrian capitals (Assur, Dur-Sharrukin and Nineveh). The three lists are largely consistent with each other, all originally copies of a single original list, and are based on the yearly appointments of limmu-officials (the eponymous officials for each year, appointed by the king to preside over the celebration of the New Year festival). Because of the consistency between the list and the method through which it was created, modern scholars usually accept the regnal years mentioned as more or less correct. There are some differences between the copies of the list, notably in that they offer somewhat diverging regnal years before the reign of king Ashur-dan I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (reign beginning in 1178 BC). After his time, the lists are identical in their contents.
The king-lists mostly accord well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and are generally considered reliable for the age. It is however clear that parts of the list are fictional, as some known kings are not found on the list and other listed kings are not independently verified. Originally it was assumed that the list was first written in the time of Shamshi-Adad I 1800 BC but it now is considered to date from much later, probably from the time of Ashurnasirpal I (1049–1031 BC). The oldest of the surviving king-lists, List A (8th century BC) stops at Tiglath-Pileser II (967–935 BC) and the youngest, List C, stops at Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC).
One problem that arises with the Assyrian King List is that the creation of the list may have been more motivated by political interest than actual chronological and historical accuracy. In times of civil strife and confusion, the list still adheres to a single royal line of descent, probably ignoring rival claimants to the throne. Additionally, there are some known inconsistencies between the list and actual inscriptions by Assyrian kings, often regarding dynastic relationships. For instance, Ashur-nirari II is stated by the list to be the son of his predecessor Enlil-Nasir II, but from inscriptions it is known that he was actually the son of Ashur-rabi I and brother of Enlil-Nasir.
Titles
Assyrian royal titles typically followed trends that had begun under the Akkadian Empire ( 2334–2154 BC), the Mesopotamian civilization that preceded the later kingdoms of Assyria and Babylon. When the Mesopotamian central government under the Third Dynasty of Ur ( 2112–2004 BC) collapsed and polities that had once been vassals to Ur became independent, many of the new sovereign rulers refrained from taking the title of king (šar), instead applying that title to their principal deities (in the case of Assyria, Ashur). For this reason, most of the Assyrian kings of the Old Assyrian period ( 2025–1364 BC) used the title Išši'ak Aššur, translating to "governor of Assyria".
In contrast to the titles employed by the Babylonian kings in the south, which typically focused on the protective role and the piety of the king, Assyrian royal inscriptions tend to glorify the strength and power of the king. Assyrian titularies usually also often emphasize the royal genaeology of the king, something Babylonian titularies do not, and also drive home the king's moral and physical qualities while downplaying his role in the judicial system. Assyrian epithets about royal lineage vary in how far they stretch back, most often simply discussing lineage in terms of "son of ..." or "brother of ...". Some cases display lineage stretching back much further, Shamash-shum-ukin (667–648 BC) describes himself as a "descendant of Sargon II", his great-grandfather. More extremely, Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) calls himself a "descendant of the eternal seed of Bel-bani", a king who lived more than a thousand years before him.
Assyrian royal titularies were often changed depending on where the titles were to be displayed, the titles of the same Assyrian king would have been different in their home country of Assyria and in conquered regions. Those Neo-Assyrian kings who controlled the city of Babylon used a "hybrid" titulary of sorts in the south, combining aspects of the Assyrian and Babylonian tradition, similar to how the traditional Babylonian deities were promoted in the south alongside the Assyrian main deity of Ashur. The assumption of many traditional southern titles, including the ancient "king of Sumer and Akkad" and the boastful "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World", by the Assyrian kings served to legitimize their rule and assert their control over Babylon and lower Mesopotamia. Epithets like "chosen by the god Marduk and the goddess Sarpanit" and "favourite of the god Ashur and the goddess Mullissu", both assumed by Esarhaddon, illustrate that he was both Assyrian (Ashur and Mullissu, the main pair of Assyrian deities) and a legitimate ruler over Babylon (Marduk and Sarpanit, the main pair of Babylonian deities).
To examplify an Assyrian royal title from the time Assyria ruled all of Mesopotamia, the titulature preserved in one of Esarhaddon's inscriptions reads as follows:
Role of the Assyrian king
Ancient Assyria was an absolute monarchy, with the king believed to be appointed directly through divine right by the chief deity, Ashur. The Assyrians believed that the king was the link between the gods and the earthly realm. As such, it was the king's primary duty to discover the will of the gods and enact this, often through the construction of temples or waging war. To aid the king with this duty, there was a number of priests at the royal court trained in reading and interpreting signs from the gods.
The heartland of the Assyrian realm, Assyria itself, was thought to represent a serene and perfect place of order whilst the lands governed by foreign powers were perceived as infested with disorder and chaos. The peoples of these "outer" lands were seen as uncivilized, strange and as speaking strange languages. Because the king was the earthly link to the gods, it was his duty to spread order throughout the world through the military conquest of these strange and chaotic countries. As such, imperial expansion was not just expansion for expansion's sake but was also seen as a process of bringing divine order and destroying chaos to create civilization.
There exists several ancient inscriptions in which the god Ashur explicitly orders kings to extend the borders of Assyria. A text from the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I ( 1243–1207 BC) states that the king received a royal scepter and was commanded to "broaden the land of Ashur". A similar inscription from the reign of Ashurbanipal (668–631 BC) commands the king to "extend the land at his feet".
The king was also tasked with protecting his own people, often being referred to as a "shepherd". This protection included defending against external enemies and defending citizens from dangerous wild animals. To the Assyrians, the most dangerous animal of all was the lion, used (similarly to foreign powers) as an example of chaos and disorder due to their aggressive nature. To prove themselves worthy of rule and illustrate that they were competent protectors, Assyrian kings engaged in ritual lion hunts. Lion-hunting was reserved for Assyrian royalty and was a public event, staged at parks in or near the Assyrian cities. In some cases, the hunt even took place with captive lions in an arena.
Legitimacy
As opposed to some other ancient monarchies, such as ancient Egypt, the Assyrian king was not believed to be divine himself, but was seen as divinely chosen and uniquely qualified for the royal duties. Most kings stressed their legitimacy through their familial connections to previous kings; a king was legitimate through his relation to the previous line of great kings who had been chosen by Ashur. Usurpers who were unrelated to previous kings usually either simply lied about being the son of some previous monarch or claimed that they had been divinely appointed directly by Ashur.
Two prominent examples of such usurpers are the kings Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC) and Sargon II (722–705 BC). The inscriptions of these kings completely lack any familial references to previous kings, instead stressing that Ashur himself had appointed them directly with phrases such as "Ashur called my name", "Ashur placed me on the throne" and "Ashur placed his merciless weapon in my hand".
Assyrian kings
Early Assyrian rulers
Early names in king lists
The Assyrian King List includes a long sequence of rulers before Assyria's first confidently attested kings (of the Puzur-Ashur dynasty), though it is suspected by modern scholars that at least portions of this line of rulers is invented since none of the names are attested in contemporary records and many of the names of the earliest rulers rhyme (suggesting an invented pattern). This is further corroborated by the absence of certain figures in the list known to have ruled in Assur prior to the Puzur-Ashur dynasty (the governors under Assur's foreign rulers). The Synchronistic King List diverges from the Assyrian King List and considers Erishum I ( 1974–1935 BC), the fourth king of the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, to be the first king of Assyria. Though it includes earlier names, the Assyrian King List does not list the length of the rule of any king before Erishum I.
Given that the earliest rulers are described as "kings who lived in tents", they, if real, may not have ruled Assur at all but rather have been nomadic tribal chieftains somewhere in its vicinity. As in the Sumerian King List, several names may also have belonged to rulers who were contemporaries/rivals, rather than successors and predecessors of one another. Some researchers have dismissed these names as a mixture of Amorite tribal-geographical names with no relation to Assyria at all. It is possible that the 'kings who were ancestors', who are not attested in any other sources as present at Assur, refer to the ancestors of Shamshi-Adad I ( 1808–1776 BC), given that other sources claim that his father was named Ilu-kabkabu, and they might thus not actually have been kings of Assyria, but rather rulers of Terqa, Shamshi-Adad's supposed ancestral home. Including these figures may have served to justify Shamshi-Adad's rise to the throne, either through obscuring his non-Assyrian origins or through inserting his ancestors into the sequence of Assyrian kings.
The early portion of the Assyrian King List contains these otherwise historically unverified names:
"Kings who lived in tents"
Tudiya
Adamu
Yangi
Suhlamu
Harharu
Mandaru
Imsu
Harsu
Didanu
Hana
"Kings who were ancestors"
"Kings named on bricks"
Attested early rulers
A handful of early local rulers of Assur under foreign suzerainty are known from contemporary sources from before the time of Puzur-Ashur I. The precise dates of the highly incomplete sequence of figures listed below are unknown and none of them appear among the rulers before Puzur-Ashur I in the king list. Perhaps their absence could be explained by these figures not being considered to be proper kings. Several are however attested with the title "supreme judge" (waklum) a title probably equivalent to Išši'ak Aššur and sometimes used by later kings.
Puzur-Ashur dynasty (2025–1809 BC)
The dynasty founded by Puzur-Ashur is conventionally known by modern historians as the 'Puzur-Ashur dynasty' after its founder. Puzur-Ashur I is generally seen as the founder of Assyria as an independent city-state 2025 BC. Some historians on the other hand speculate that Puzur-Ashur was not a new dynastic founder, but that his dynasty actually began earlier, perhaps by Sulili. The dynasty has thus also been termed the 'Sulili–Puzur-Ashur dynasty'. The dynasty has also been referred to simply as the 'Old Assyrian dynasty'. These kings, beginning with Puzur-Ashur I, took power in the aftermath of the collapse of the Neo-Sumerian Empire, which had ruled over Assyria.
Shamshi-Adad dynasty (1808–1736 BC)
The dynasty founded by Shamshi-Adad I, who deposed the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, is conventionally known as the 'Shamshi-Adad dynasty', after its founder. During the rule of Shamshi-Adad I and his successors, of Amorite descent and originally from the south, a more absolute form of kingship, inspired by that of Babylon, was introduced in Assyria. During the preceding Puzur-Ashur dynasty, royal power in Assur had been more limited than in other cities, with inscriptions describing how the king worked in tandem with the city assembly to establish law and order. The earliest use of the term šarrum (king) in Assyrian inscriptions comes from Shamshi-Adad I's reign. Shamshi-Adad I was also the first Assyrian king to assume the title 'king of the Universe', though these styles fell into a long period of disuse again after his death. The short-lived realm founded by Shamshi-Adad I is sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia.
Non-dynastic usurpers (1735–1701 BC)
Adaside dynasty (1700–722 BC)
The dynasty founded by Bel-bani, which ruled Assyria throughout most of its history, is conventionally known as the Adaside or Adasi dynasty, after Bel-bani's father. In Babylonia, this dynasty of kings was called the "Baltil dynasty", Baltil being the oldest portion of the city of Assur.
Sargonid dynasty (722–609 BC)
Later Assyrian kingship
Geopolitical history and context
The defeat of Ashur-uballit II at Harran in 609 BC marked the end of the ancient Assyrian monarchy, which was never restored. The territory of the Assyrian Empire was split between the Neo-Babylonian and Median empires. The Assyrian people survived the fall of the empire, though Assyria continued to be a sparsely populated and marginal region under the Neo-Babylonian and later Achaemenid empires. Under the Seleucid and Parthian empires, Assyria experienced a remarkable recovery. Under the last two or so centuries of Parthian rule, archaeological surveys have shown that the region reached a density of settlements that is only comparable to what the region was like under the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
A semi-autonomous city-state under Parthian suzerainty appears to have formed around the city of Assur, Assyria's oldest capital, near, or shortly after, the end of the 2nd century BC. In this period, the ancient city flourished, with some old buildings being restored and some new ones, such as a new palace, being constructed. The ancient temple dedicated to the god Ashur was also restored for the second time in the second century AD, and a cultic calendar effectively identical to that used under the Neo-Assyrian Empire was used. Stelae erected by the local rulers of Assur in this time resemble the stelae erected by the Neo-Assyrian kings, though the rulers are depicted in Parthian-style trouser-suits rather than ancient garb. The rulers used the title maryo of Assur ("master of Assur") and appear to have viewed themselves as continuing the old Assyrian royal tradition. These stelae retain the shape, framing and placement (often in city gates) of stelae erected under the ancient kings and also depict the central figure in reverence of the moon and sun, an ever-present motif in the ancient royal stelae. This second period of prominent Assyrian cultural development at Assur came to and with the conquests of the Sasanian Empire in the region, 240, whereafter the Ashur temple was destroyed again and the city's people were dispersed.
City-lords of Assur
The sequence of local rulers of Assur under the three or four centuries of Parthian suzerainty is poorly known. Only five names are attested and their dates, their precise order and how they relate to each other is not clear. The order used here follows Aggoula (1985). Note that there are large gaps in this sequence.
See also
List of kings of Babylon – for the Babylonian kings
List of Mesopotamian dynasties – for other dynasties and kingdoms in ancient Mesopotamia
Notes
References
Bibliography
Web sources
Assyrian
Assyrian
Kings
Assyrian Kings | [
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234519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muztagh%20Tower | Muztagh Tower | Muztagh Tower (), also: Mustagh Tower; Muztagh: ice tower), is a mountain in the Baltoro Muztagh, part of the Karakoram range in Baltistan on the border of the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. It stands between the basins of the Baltoro and Sarpo Laggo glaciers.
Early prominence
The Mustagh Tower was the subject of a photograph taken by Vittorio Sella during the 1909 Italian expedition to K2. Taken from the upper Baltoro, due southeast of the mountain, the twin summits were perfectly aligned and the mountain was seen as a slender tooth, and looked impregnable. In 1941, the photograph was featured in a book on mountaineering with the caption "The Last Citadel".
First and second ascents
Nearly fifty years after Sella's photo was taken, in 1956, his photograph inspired two expeditions to race for the first ascent. Both teams found their routes less steep than Sella's view had suggested. The British expedition, consisting of John Hartog, Joe Brown, Tom Patey and Ian McNaught-Davis, came from the Chagaran Glacier on the west side of the peak and reached the summit via the Northwest Ridge first on 6 July, five days before the French team (:fr:Guido Magnone, :fr:Robert Paragot, André Contamine, Paul Keller) climbed the mountain from the east. François Florence waited for the two parties at the camp IV during 42 hours without a radio, when they went, reached the summit and came back to this camp.
Notable ascents and attempts
1984 Northwest Ridge 2nd of route, 3rd of peak by Mal Duff, Tony Brindle, Jon Tinker and Sandy Allan (all UK).
1990 The fourth ascent was made by Göran Kropp and Rafael Jensen.
A lower summit, was first climbed in 1984 by the northeast ridge.
2008 On 24 August 2008, the Northeast Face was climbed by two Slovenian alpinists, Pavle Kozjek and Dejan Miškovič. They bivouacked on the crest after 17 hours of climbing. They decided not to go to the summit because of strong wind. Just after they started descending, Kozjek fell to his death.
2012 On the day of 25 August, 56 years after the day when the first man climbed to the top of this mountain, three Russians made an ascent by the centre Northeast Face. Sergei Nilov, Dmitry Golovchenko and Alexander Lange reached the top and made a new route. The ascent lasted for 17 days.
See also
List of mountains in Pakistan
List of Ultras of the Karakoram and Hindu Kush
Notes
Mountains of Gilgit-Baltistan
Seven-thousanders of the Karakoram | [
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234523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proselytism | Proselytism | Proselytism () is the act or fact of religious conversion. It has come to be seen as a form of involuntary forced conversion through bribery, coercion, or violence, as such, proselytism is illegal in some countries.
It is considered to be an opposite to conscious and voluntary forms of conversion, such as those taught in evangelism or shahada.
Etymology
The English-language word proselytize derives from the Greek language prefix (, "toward") and the verb (, "I come") in the form of (, "newcomer"). Historically, in the Koine Greek Septuagint and New Testament, the word proselyte denoted a Gentile who was considering conversion to Judaism. Although the word proselytism originally referred to converting to Judaism (and earlier related to Gentiles such as God-fearers), it now implies an attempt of any religion or religious individuals to convert people to their belief.
Arthur J. Serratelli, the Catholic Bishop of Paterson, New Jersey, observed that the meaning of the word proselytism has changed over time.
[O]riginally, the Greek Septuagint translation of the Old Testament passed the word 'proselyte' into modern languages with a neutral meaning. It simply meant a convert, someone who changed his or her opinion or religion. And, proselytism meant the attempt to persuade someone to make such a change. But, today proselytism is almost universally seen as a sinister activity when it comes to religious beliefs.
English-speakers generally understand the word proselytism as a pejorative term. The World Council of Churches has indicated that, when used pejoratively, proselytism refers to attempts at conversion by "unjust means that violate the conscience of the human person", such as by coercion or bribery.
Limits
The right to change religion and to manifest religion is protected under Article 18 of the UN Declaration of Human Rights
Some countries such as Greece prohibited all proselytism until 1994 when Jehovah's Witnesses were legally recognized as a religion and allowed to preach. Some countries such as Morocco prohibit it except for Islam. Some restrict it in various ways such as prohibiting attempts to convert children or prohibit offering physical benefits to new converts.
Religious groups also draw lines between what they are willing to do or not do to convert people. For instance the Catholic Church in Ad gentes states that "The Church strictly forbids forcing anyone to embrace the Faith, or alluring or enticing people by worrisome wiles."
The World Council of Churches in The Challenge of Proselytism and the Calling to Common Witness states the following:
19. Proselytism as described in this document stands in opposition to all ecumenical effort. It includes certain activities which often aim at having people change their church affiliation and which we believe must be avoided, such as the following:
making unjust or uncharitable references to other churches' beliefs and practices and even ridiculing them;
comparing two Christian communities by emphasizing the achievements and ideals of one, and the weaknesses and practical problems of the other;
employing any kind of physical violence, moral compulsion and psychological pressure e.g. the use of certain advertising techniques in mass media that might bring undue pressure on readers/viewers;
using political, social and economic power as a means of winning new members for one’s own church;
extending explicit or implicit offers of education, health care or material inducements or using financial resources with the intent of making converts;
manipulative attitudes and practices that exploit people’s needs, weaknesses or lack of education especially in situations of distress, and fail to respect their freedom and human dignity.
By faith
Baháʼí Faith
In the writings of the Baháʼí Faith, the endeavour to attract people to the religion is strongly emphasized. The process of attracting people to the religion is referred to as teaching. The term proselytism is given the connotation of aggressively teaching the religion to others – as such, Bahaʼi proselytism is prohibited.
Every Bahaʼi has the obligation of teaching their religion, as it is seen as the path toward bringing peace and justice to the world. Some Bahaʼis become pioneers, moving to countries or cities where there are a small number of Bahaʼis, with the aim of helping to spread the religion. Some other Bahaʼis move from place to place in a process called travel teaching. When moving or travelling to other countries, Bahaʼis are encouraged to integrate into their new society and apply Bahaʼis principles in living and working with their neighbours. In total, however, only a small minority of Bahaʼis are directly teaching their religion to others. Despite this, as of 2010, the religion had grown "at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region" over the previous 100 years.
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahaʼi Faith, wrote that those who would be teaching his religion should emphasize the importance of ethics and wisdom, and he counselled Bahaʼis to be unrestrained and put their trust in God. At the same time he stated that Bahaʼis should exercise moderation, tact and wisdom and not be too aggressive in their teaching. In sharing their faith with others, Bahaʼis are cautioned to make sure the person they are proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. In most countries becoming a Bahaʼi is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes acknowledgement of Bahá'u'llah as the messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of his teachings, and intention to be obedient to the institutions and laws he established. It does not involve negating one's previous beliefs, due to the Bahaʼi belief in progressive revelation.
Christianity
Many Christians consider it their obligation to follow what is often termed the Great Commission in the final verses of the Gospel of Matthew: "Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit: Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world. Amen." The Acts of the Apostles and other sources contain several accounts of early Christians following this directive by engaging in individual conversations and mass sermons to spread the Good News.
Most self-described Christian groups have organizations devoted to missionary work which in whole or in part includes proselytism of the non-religious and people of other faiths (including sometimes other variants of Christianity). Jehovah's Witnesses and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are known in particular for their doctrinal emphasis on proselytizing.
The Moscow Patriarchate has repeatedly strongly condemned what it describes as Catholic proselytism of Orthodox Christians within Russia and has therefore opposed a Catholic construction project in an area of Russia where the Catholic community is small. The Catholic Church claims that it is supporting the existing Catholic community within Russia and is not proselytizing. In 1993 the Balamand declaration on proselytism was released between the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Churches.
Muggletonians
The Muggletonians, founded by John Reeve and Lodowick Muggleton in mid-17th century London, believed that if a person were exposed to the full tenets of their faith and rejected it they would be irretrievably damned. This risk tempered proselytization: they hesitated to expose people to loss of salvation which may explain their low numbers. In the mid-19th century two wealthy Muggletonians, Joseph and Isaac Frost, broke with this cautious approach and published several books about the faith.
Indian religions
Proselytisation is alien to Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism given that they are pluralistic. Due to an understanding of justice fundamentally based upon metaphysically cyclical concepts such as karma and rebirth, the Indic religions have diametrically been opposed to the type of exclusivism and proselytizing seen in Abrahamic religions as it, theologically speaking, would both be unnecessary and serve as a distraction towards the teaching most accustomed to the personal individual's sādhanā (spiritual practice) and samskaras (intrinsic qualities).
Buddhism
Buddhism does not have an accepted or strong proselytism tradition, with the Buddha having taught his followers to respect other religions and the clergy. Emperor Ashoka, however, sent royal missionaries to various kingdoms and sent his son and daughter as missionaries to Sri Lanka following his conversion to Buddhism. Aggressive proselytizing is discouraged in the major Buddhist schools and Buddhists do not engage in the practice of proselytisation.
Some adherents of Nichiren Buddhism proselytise in a process called shakubuku.
The Dalai Lama has critiqued proselytization and certain types of conversion, believing the practices to be contrary to the fundamental ideas of religious harmony and spiritual practice. He has stated that "It’s very important that our religious traditions live in harmony with one another and I don’t think proselytizing contributes to this. Just as fighting and killing in the name of religion are very sad, it’s not appropriate to use religion as a ground or a means for defeating others." In particular, he has critiqued Christian approaches to conversion in Asia, stating that he has "come across situations where serving the people is a cover for proselytization." The Dalai Lama has labeled such practices counter to the "message of Christ" and has emphasized that such individuals "practice conversion like a kind of war against peoples and cultures." In a statement with Hindu religious leaders, he expressed that he opposes "conversions by any religious tradition using various methods of enticement."
Hinduism
Hinduism lacks a proselytism tradition. Classical Hinduism represents a diversity of views and theology. Its followers are free to follow any among the theistic, non-theistic or other traditions within Hinduism. Followers can pick or change to any philosophy or belief they fancy and worship any personal god or goddess in a manner they deem fit, given an unspoken but loud understanding that all paths are equally valid in their purest form. In the modern era, religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject. Many state the concept of missionary activity and proselytism is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.
While proselytism is not a part of the Hindu tradition, religious conversion to and between various traditions within Hinduism such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism has a long history. However, these traditions of conversion did not have to do with an idea which was more objectively valid, or the potential consequences of false ideas in the afterlife, but which was more conducive in understanding the unknowable Brahman as well as promoting righteousness throughout society.
The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity, Islam and Hinduism is more recent, and started in the 19th century. Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the Arya Samaj launched the Shuddhi movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism, while those such as the Brahmo Samaj suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.
Hare Krishna Movement
One group that takes in willing converts in Hinduism is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as Hare Krishnas. Devotees have no codified rituals of conversion, but promote recitation of the Hare Krishna mantra as a means to achieve a mature stage of love of God. ISKCON adherents view Krishna as the supreme deity that those of other faith traditions worship. A commonly accepted notion among devotees is that ISKCON allows one to recognize the primacy of the supreme deity, Krishna, in the practices and traditions of other faiths. ISKCON promotes the concept of Sanatana-Dharma (Hinduism), the 'eternal law' that other faiths can uncover.
Jainism
Mahavira (599–527 BC), the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, developed an early philosophy regarding relativism and subjectivism known as Anekantavada. As a result of this acceptance of alternate religious practices, the phenomenon of proselytisation is largely absent in these religions but not unknown. Converts are welcome to the Jain faith.
Sikhism
Sikhism is not a proselytizing religion and proselytism is largely discouraged "through force or inducement" out of the belief that each person has a fundamental right to practice their religion freely.
Islam
In Islam, inviting people to the religion is a meritorious activity. The Quran states,
Here the operative phrase /udʿu ilà sabīli rabbika/ "Invite (command to a single male subject) to the way of your Lord" expresses the element direction /ilà/ "to" that is missing in 'The Cow', 2:256.
Judaism
Unlike in the Hellenistic era (Second Temple Judaism), in the modern era Judaism generally does not proselytize non-Jews. Instead, non-Jews are encouraged to follow Noahide Law, assuring a place in the world to come. In ancient times, these observant non-Jews could become geirim toshvim, a term still sometimes used informally to refer to those who strive to follow these laws and who will join the Jewish people in the world to come. A non-Jew who follows Noahide law is considered to believe in Noahidism; for this end, there is some minor outreach by Orthodox Jewish organizations.
Generally, Jews expect any convert to Judaism to come through their own accord. A common source of converts are those who have married a Jew, although there are also many people who join for spiritual or other personal reasons; these people are called "Jews by choice". Rabbis will often discourage new members from joining, although they may provide guidance through seminars or personal meetings for those who are truly interested. Orthodox Judaism in theory neither encourages nor discourages conversion. Standards for conversion can be very challenging, but rabbis will acquiesce to persistent and sincere requests for conversion. Much emphasis is placed on gaining a Jewish identity.
Although most Jewish organizations do not proselytize, Chabad practices Orthodox Judaism outreach.
Inherited membership
Sects of some religions, such as the Druze, Yazidis, and Zoroastrians, do not accept converts at all.
See also
Fate of the unlearned
Freedom of religion
List of proselytes
Religious conversion
References and sources
References
Sources
Yahiya Emerick. "The Holy Qur'an in Today's English",
External links
Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human Rights, by Natan Lerner, PhD
Religious conversion
Persuasion | [
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234524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kings%20of%20Akkad | List of kings of Akkad | The king of Akkad (Akkadian: , ) was the ruler of the city of Akkad and its empire, in ancient Mesopotamia. In the 3rd millennium BC, from the reign of Sargon of Akkad to the reign of his great-grandson Shar-Kali-Sharri, the Akkadian Empire represented the dominant power in Mesopotamia and the first known great empire.
The empire would rapidly collapse following the rule of its first five kings, owing to internal instability and foreign invasion, probably resulting in Mesopotamia re-fracturing into independent city-states, but the power that Akkad had briefly exerted ensured that its prestige and legacy would be claimed by monarchs for centuries to come. Ur-Nammu of Ur, who founded the Neo-Sumerian Empire and reunified most of Mesopotamia, created the title "King of Sumer and Akkad" which would be used until the days of the Achaemenid Empire.
History
Although Sargon of Akkad is often referred to as the "founder" of Akkad, the city itself probably existed before his rule; a pre-Sargonic inscription refers to it by name and the name "Akkad" itself is not actually of the Akkadian language of Sargon and his successors. Sargon's reign does however mark the transition of Akkad from a city-state into the first known great empire, with the Akkadian king ruling all Mesopotamia. His rise to power began with the defeat of the Sumerian king Lugal-zage-si, who had ruled Lower Mesopotamia from Uruk, and the conquest of his empire. Through military campaigns, Sargon subjugated regions as far west as the Mediterranean and as far north as Assyria, which he boasted of in his inscriptions.
Sargon's successors consolidated his vast realm and continued expanding the borders of the Akkadian Empire. Sargon's grandson and the fourth king of Akkad, Naram-Sin, brought the empire to its greatest extent and assumed a new title to illustrate his great power, King of the Four Quarters, which referenced the entire world. He was also the first king in Mesopotamia to be deified in his lifetime, being addressed as "the god of Akkad".
Although at least seven kings would rule Akkad after him, the Akkadian Empire quickly collapsed after Naram-Sin's reign and prominent central authority under a single king would not be restored in Mesopotamia until the rise of the Neo-Sumerian Empire. It's likely that the region reverted to local governance under kings of city-states in the time between the two empires. A major cause of this collapse was the invasion of Mesopotamia by a people referred to as the Gutians, who would be defeated and driven away by the founder of the Neo-Sumerian Empire, Ur-Nammu.
Kings of Akkad
Sargonic dynasty (c. 2334 – 2193 BC)
Akkadian interregnum (c. 2193 – 2189 BC)
Final kings of Akkad (c. 2189 – 2154 BC)
The final kings to rule Akkad, Dudu and Shu-turul are assumed to have been related to the original ruling dynasty and as such are often regarded as members of the Sargonic dynasty.
King of Sumer and Akkad
Although Akkad and what remained of its empire was destroyed, its power and prominence led to rulers of later Mesopotamian empires wishing to claim its prestige and legacy for themselves. Ur-Nammu, who founded the Neo-Sumerian Empire in the aftermath of the Gutian rule of Mesopotamia assumed the title "King of Sumer and Akkad". Although the title was meant to justify his rule over both southern (Sumer) and northern (Akkad) Mesopotamia, it also clearly connected Ur-Nammu to the old Akkadian kings, who may have been against linking Sumer and Akkad in such a fashion even though they had ruled both regions.
Ur-Nammu's title would endure for more than 1,500 years. It was assumed by Hammurabi, founder of the Old Babylonian Empire, and used by Babylonian kings up until the 8th century BC. It was also prominently used in the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empires and in the Neo-Babylonian Empire. For Assyrian kings, "King of Sumer and Akkad" was used as a marker of their control of Babylon (which was in the South, e.g. Sumer) and only those Assyrian kings who actually controlled Babylon used the title in their inscriptions.
The final king to assume the title of "King of Sumer and Akkad" was Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire, who reigned from 559 to 530 BC. In the Cyrus Cylinder, written in Akkadian cuneiform script following Cyrus's conquest of Babylon, he assumed several traditional Mesopotamian royal titles, most of which were not used by his successors.
References
Citations
Cited bibliography
Websites
Akkad
Akkadian Empire
Akkadian kings | [
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234526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Frankish%20kings | List of Frankish kings | The Franks—Germanic-speaking peoples that invaded the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century—were first led by individuals called dukes and reguli. The earliest group of Franks that rose to prominence were the Salian Merovingians. They conquered most of Roman Gaul, as well as the Gaulish territory of the Visigothic Kingdom, in 507 AD.
The sons of Clovis I, the first King of the Franks, conquered the Burgundians and Alamanni kingdoms. They acquired a province, called Provence, and went on to make the peoples of the Bavarii and Thuringii their clients. The Merovingians were later replaced by a new dynasty called the Carolingians in the 8th century. By the end of the 9th century, the Carolingians themselves were replaced throughout much of their realm by other dynasties.
A timeline of Frankish rulers has been difficult to trace, since the realm (according to old Germanic practice) was frequently divided among the sons of a leader upon the leader's death. However, territories were eventually reunited through marriage, treaty, or conquest. There were often multiple Frankish kings who ruled different territories, and divisions of the territories were not very consistent over time.
As inheritance traditions changed over time, the divisions of Francia (the lands of the Franks) started to become more-permanent kingdoms. West Francia formed the heart of what was to become the Kingdom of France, East Francia evolved into the Kingdom of Germany, and Middle Francia become the Kingdom of Lotharingia in the north, the Kingdom of Italy in the south, and the Kingdom of Provence in the west. West and East Francia soon divided up the area of Middle Francia, and Germany lost Carolingian control in 911 with the election of Conrad I as king.
The idea of a "King of the Franks" (or Rex Francorum) gradually disappeared during the 11th and 12th centuries. The title "King of the Franks" continued to be used in the Kingdom of France until 1190. While the Kingdom of the Franks had long been extinct by this time, the title "Queen consort of the Franks" continued to be used until 1227. This represented a shift in thinking about the monarchy from that of a popular monarchy (the leader of a people, sometimes without a defined territory to rule) to that of a monarchy tied to a specific territory.
King of the Franks (509–511)
Merovingian dynasty
Clovis I united all the Frankish petty kingdoms as well as most of Roman Gaul under his rule, conquering the Domain of Soissons of the Roman general Syagrius as well as the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse. He took his seat at Paris, which along with Soissons, Reims, Metz, and Orléans became the chief residences. Upon his death, the kingdom was split among his four sons.
Kings of the Neustrian Franks (511–679)
Merovingian dynasty
Kings of the Austrasian Franks (511–679)
Merovingian dynasty
Chlothar II defeated Brunhilda and her grandson, reunifying the kingdom. However, in 623, to appease the local nobility and also secure the borders, he gave the Austrasians his young son as their own king. His son and successor, Dagobert I, emulated this move by appointing a sub-king for Aquitaine, with a seat at Toulouse, in 629 and Austrasia in 634.
Kings of the Franks (679–840)
Merovingian dynasty
Theuderic III was recognized as king of all the Franks in 679. From then on, the kingdom of the Franks can be treated as a unit again for all but a very brief period of civil war. This is the period of the "idle kings" who were increasingly overshadowed by their mayors of the palace.
Carolingian dynasty
The Carolingians were initially mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings, first in Austrasia and later in Neustria and Burgundy. In 687 Pepin of Heristal took the title Duke and Prince of the Franks (dux et princeps Francorum) after his conquest of Neustria in at the Battle of Tertry, which was cited by contemporary chroniclers as the beginning of Pepin's reign. Between 715 and 716, the descendants of Pepin disputed the succession.
In March 752, Pepin became the King of the Franks and the office of mayor disappeared. The Carolingians displaced the Merovingians as the ruling dynasty.
Louis the Pious made many divisions of his empire during his lifetime. The final division, pronounced at Worms in 838, made Charles the Bald heir to the west, including Aquitaine, and Lothair heir to the east, including Italy and excluding Bavaria, which was left for Louis the German. However, following the emperor's death in 840, the empire was plunged into a civil war that lasted three years. The Frankish kingdom was then divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Lothair was allowed to keep his imperial title and his kingdom of Italy, and granted the newly created Kingdom of Middle Francia, a corridor of land stretching from Italy to the North Sea, and including the Low Countries, the Rhineland (including Aachen), Burgundy, and Provence. Charles was confirmed in Aquitaine, where Pepin I's son Pepin II was opposing him, and granted West Francia (modern France), the lands west of Lothair's Kingdom. Louis the German was confirmed in Bavaria and granted East Francia (modern Germany), the lands east of Lothair's kingdom.
The following table does not provide a complete listing for some of the various regna of the empire, especially those who were subregna of the Western, Middle, or Eastern kingdom such as Italy, Provence, Neustria, and Aquitaine.
References
Further reading
The history of France as recounted in the "Grandes Chroniques de France", and particularly in the personal copy produced for King Charles V between 1370 and 1380 that is the saga of the three great dynasties, the Merovingians, Carolingians, and the Capetians, that shaped the institutions and the frontiers of the realm. This document was produced and likely commissioned during the Hundred Years' War, a dynastic struggle between the rulers of France and England with rival claims to the French throne. It should therefore be read and considered carefully as a source, due to the inherent bias in the context of its origins.
The Cambridge Illustrated History of France – Cambridge University Press
The Origins of France: Clovis to the Capetians 500–1000 by Edward James
Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720 (Manchester Medieval Sources); Paul Fouracre (Editor), Richard A. Gerberding (Editor)
Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, eds. W. Kibler and G. Zinn. New York: Garland Publishing, 1995.
External links
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234527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem%20%28novella%29 | Anthem (novella) | Anthem is a dystopian fiction novella by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand, written in 1937 and first published in 1938 in the United Kingdom. The story takes place at an unspecified future date when mankind has entered another Dark Age. Technological advancement is now carefully planned and the concept of individuality has been eliminated. A young man known as Equality 7-2521 rebels by doing secret scientific research. When his activity is discovered, he flees into the wilderness with the girl he loves. Together they plan to establish a new society based on rediscovered individualism.
Rand originally conceived of the story as a play, then decided to write for magazine publication. At her agent's suggestion, she submitted it to book publishers. The novella was first published by Cassell in England. It was published in the United States only after Rand's next novel, The Fountainhead, became a best seller. Rand revised the text for the US edition published in 1946.
Plot
Equality 7-2521, a 21-year-old man writing by candlelight in a tunnel under the earth, tells the story of his life up to that point. He exclusively uses plural pronouns ("we", "our", "they") to refer to himself and others. He was raised like all children in his society, away from his parents in collective homes: the Home of Infants from birth until five years old, then the Home of Students from five to fifteen. He believes he has a "curse" that makes him learn quickly and ask many questions. He excels at the Science of Things and dreams of becoming a Scholar, but when the Council of Vocations assigns his Life Mandate at fifteen, he is assigned to be a Street Sweeper.
Equality 7-2521 accepts his street sweeping assignment as penance for his Transgression of Preference in secretly desiring to be a Scholar. He works with the handicapped Union 5-3992 and International 4-8818, the latter of whom is Equality's only friend (which is another Transgression of Preference, because all are supposedly equal in their society). Despite International's protests that any exploration unauthorized by a Council is forbidden, Equality explores an underground tunnel near the City Theatre tent, and finds metal tracks. Equality believes the tunnel is from the Unmentionable Times of the distant past. He begins sneaking away from his community at night to use the tunnel as a laboratory for scientific experiments, using garbage he has taken from the Home of the Scholars. He is using stolen paper from the Home of the Clerks to write his journal, by candlelight, using candles stolen from the larder at the Home of the Street Sweepers.
While cleaning a road at the edge of the City, Equality meets Liberty 5-3000, a 17-year-old Peasant girl who works in the fields. He commits another transgression by thinking constantly of her, instead of waiting to be assigned a woman at the annual Time of Mating, in which men aged twenty and over, and females of eighteen and over, are assigned to each other solely for breeding. She has dark eyes and golden hair, and he names her "The Golden One". When he speaks to her, he discovers that she also thinks of him. He reveals his secret name for her, and Liberty tells Equality she has named him "The Unconquered".
Continuing his scientific work, Equality rediscovers electricity. In the ruins of the tunnel, he finds a glass box with wires that gives off light when he passes electricity through it. He decides to take his discovery to the World Council of Scholars; he thinks such a great gift to mankind will outweigh his many transgressions and lead to him being made a Scholar. However, one night, his absence from the Home of the Street Sweepers is noticed. He is whipped and held in the Palace of Corrective Detention. The night before the World Council of Scholars is set to meet, he easily escapes; there are no guards because no one has ever attempted escape before. The next day, he presents his work to the World Council of Scholars. Horrified that he has done unauthorized research, they assail him as a "wretch" and a "gutter cleaner" and say he must be punished. They want to destroy his discovery so it will not disrupt the plans of the World Council and the Department of Candles. Equality seizes the box, cursing the council before fleeing into the Uncharted Forest that lies outside the City.
In the forest, Equality sees himself as damned for having left his fellow men, but he enjoys his freedom. No one will pursue him into this forbidden place. He only misses Liberty. On his second day of living in the forest, Liberty appears; she followed him into the forest and vows to stay with him forever. They live together in the forest and try to express their love for one another, but they lack the words to speak of love as individuals.
They find a house from the Unmentionable Times in the mountains and decide to live in it. While reading books from the house's library, Equality discovers the word "I" and tells Liberty about it. Her first words to him are, “I love you.” Having rediscovered individuality, they give themselves new names from the books: Equality becomes "Prometheus" and Liberty becomes "Gaea". Months later, Gaea is pregnant with Prometheus' child. Prometheus wonders how men in the past could have given up their individuality; he plans a future in which they will regain it.
History
Development
Ayn Rand initially conceived Anthem as a play when she was a teenager living in Soviet Russia. After migrating to the United States, Rand didn't think of writing Anthem, but reconsidered after reading a short story in The Saturday Evening Post set in the future. Seeing that mainstream magazines would publish speculative fiction, she decided to try submitting Anthem to them. She wrote the story in the summer of 1937, while taking a break from research she was doing for her next novel, The Fountainhead.
Rand's working title was Ego. Leonard Peikoff explains the meaning behind this title: "[Rand] is (implicitly) upholding the central principles of her philosophy and of her heroes: reason, values, volition, individualism." Thinking that the original title was too blunt, unemotional, and would give away too much of the theme, Rand changed the title to Anthem. "The present novel, in Miss Rand's mind, was from the outset an ode to man's ego. It was not difficult, therefore, to change the working title: to move from 'ego' to 'ode' or 'anthem', leaving the object celebrated by the ode to be discovered by the reader."
There are similarities between Anthem and the 1921 novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin, another author who had lived in communist Russia. These include:
A novel taking the form of a secret diary or journal.
People are identified by codes instead of names.
Children separated from their parents and brought up by the State.
Individualism disposed of in favor of collective will.
A male protagonist who discovers individuality through his relationship with a female character.
A forest as a 'free' place outside the "dystopian" city.
The protagonist discovers a link to the past, when people were free, in a tunnel under the Earth.
There are also a number of differences between the two stories. For example, the society of We is in no scientific or technological decay, featuring X-rays, airplanes, microphones, and so on. In contrast, the people of Anthem believe that the world is flat and the sun revolves around it, and that bleeding people is a decent form of medicine. The similarities have led to speculation about whether Rand's story was directly influenced by Zamyatin's. However, there is little evidence that Rand was influenced by or even read Zamyatin's work, and she never mentioned it in discussions of her life in Russia.
Publication history
Initially, Rand planned on publishing Anthem as a magazine story or serial, but her agent encouraged her to publish it as a book. She submitted it simultaneously to Macmillan Publishers in America and Cassell in England. Both had handled her previous novel, We the Living. Cassell agreed to publish Anthem, but Macmillan declined it. According to Peikoff, "[Macmillan's] comment was: the author does not understand socialism." Another American publisher also turned it down, and Rand's agent was unable to sell it as a magazine serial. Cassell published it in England in 1938.
After the success of The Fountainhead, a revised edition of Anthem was published in the US in 1946 by Pamphleteers, Inc., a small libertarian-oriented publishing house owned by Rand's friends Leonard Read and William C. Mullendore. A 50th Anniversary Edition was published in 1995, including an appendix which reproduces the Cassell edition with Rand's handwritten editorial changes.
Since its publication in 1946, the revised version of Anthem has sold more than 3.5 million copies.
Reception
Critical response
The original UK edition received mostly positive reviews; several praised Rand's imagination and her support of individualism. In The Sunday Times, reviewer Dilys Powell complimented its "simplicity and sincerity". Anti-communist journalist Malcolm Muggeridge gave a mixed review in The Daily Telegraph, saying it had appeal, but its dystopia was not believable. A short review by Maurice Richardson in The Observer said it was "highly unconvincing, in spite of some extremely eloquent writing".
Reviewing the 1953 American first hardcover edition for a genre audience, Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas were unsympathetic. Saying that "Rand implies that a sinister conspiracy of purveyors of brotherhood has prevented its American publication until now", they ironically concluded, "One can only regret that the conspiracy finally broke down." (Caxton Press offered this first U.S. edition in boards in 1953, while the pulp magazine Famous Fantastic Mysteries included reprints of both Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" and Anthem in the magazine's final, June 1953 issue.)
Awards and nominations
The Libertarian Futurist Society awarded Anthem its Hall of Fame Award in 1987. In 2014, Anthem was nominated for a Retrospective Hugo Award for "Best Novella".
Legacy
Adaptations
Following the release of Anthem in the United States, Rand explored opportunities for having it adapted to other media. She had discussions about potential film, opera, and ballet adaptations, but these projects were never realized. In 1946, Rand wrote to Walt Disney that if a screen adaptation were possible, "I would like to see it done in stylized drawings, rather than with living actors."
In 1950, a radio adaptation was done for The Freedom Story, a weekly radio program produced by Spiritual Mobilization, a Christian libertarian group.
In 2011, it was released as an unabridged audiobook by ABN, the narration by Jason McCoy described as 'stirring and evocative'.
In 1991, Michael Paxton wrote, directed, and co-produced a stage adaptation of Anthem, which appeared at the Lex Theater in Hollywood. The book was adapted into a stage play in 2013 by Jeff Britting, the department manager of the Ayn Rand Archives at the Ayn Rand Institute. First performed in Denver, it opened Off-Broadway in September 2013 at the Jerome Robbins Theater. The New York Times review stated, "For a play that celebrates the individual, Anthem sure doesn’t trust its audience. Instead of illustrating ideas, this sporadically interesting show too often delivers exposition, desperate to overexplain rather than risk a moment of misunderstanding." The novella also inspired a spoof rock musical, premiering Off-Broadway at the Lynn Redgrave Theatre in May 2014. The cast included Randy Jones of The Village People, Jason Gotay, Jenna Leigh Green, Remy Zaken, and Ashley Kate Adams. The review in The New York Times criticized the acting of the leads, but called the show "exuberant" and better than a straight adaptation.
In 2011, Anthem was adapted into a graphic novel by Charles Santino, with artwork by Joe Staton. In 2018, a second graphic novel adaptation was produced, unrelated to the 2011 adaptation, adapted by Jennifer Grossman and Dan Parsons.
Influence
The work has inspired many musical pieces, including full-length albums. According to Enzo Stuarti, Pat Boone composed the music and his friend Frank Lovejoy wrote the lyrics of "The Exodus Song", featured in the album Stuarti Arrives at Carnegie Hall. The song begins with a line right out of Anthem. In another point of the song it reads: "...I guard my treasures: my thought, my will, my land, and my freedom. And the greatest of these is freedom." In Anthem, it reads: "...I guard my treasures: my thought, my will, my land, my freedom. And the greatest of these is freedom." A memo to Rand dated May 4, 1964, mentions the unauthorized adaptation, but there is no indication that she took any legal action.
Robert Silverberg's 1971 novel A Time of Changes also depicts a society where I is a forbidden word and where the protagonist rebels against this prohibition. In a 2009 preface to a reprint edition of his novel, Silverberg said he had read Anthem in 1953, but had long forgotten it when he wrote A Time of Changes. He was surprised to see the similarities when he rediscovered Rand's story, but said overall the two books are very different.
Anthem is also credited by Neil Peart for influencing Rush's "2112" with strong parallels to the plot, structure, and theme of Anthem. Peart has said that although he read Anthem, he was not consciously thinking of the story when he wrote the song; however when he recognized there were similarities, he gave credit to "the genius of Ayn Rand" in the liner notes. The band also released a song called "Anthem" on their Fly by Night album, and their Canadian record label (co-founded by Rush manager Ray Danniels) is Anthem Records.
See also
Linguistic relativity
We (1982 film)
We (novel)
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
Page images of 1953 edition from HathiTrust
Anthem study guide from CliffsNotes
1938 American novels
1938 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
American novellas
Cassell (publisher) books
Dystopian novels
English-language books
American novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into radio programs
Novels by Ayn Rand
Philosophical novels
Russian-American novels
Russian novellas
Novels set in the future
Totalitarianism in fiction | [
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234537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium%20%28film%29 | Equilibrium (film) | Equilibrium is a 2002 American science fiction action film written and directed by Kurt Wimmer, and starring Christian Bale, Emily Watson, and Taye Diggs.
The film follows John Preston (Bale), an enforcement officer in a future in which feelings and artistic expression are outlawed and citizens take daily injections of powerful psychoactive drugs to suppress their emotions. After accidentally missing a dose, Preston begins to experience emotions, which makes him question his morality and moderate his actions while attempting to remain undetected by the suspicious society in which he lives. Ultimately, he aids a resistance movement using advanced martial arts, which he was taught by the regime he is helping to overthrow.
Plot
Libria, a totalitarian city-state established by survivors of World War III, blames human emotion as the cause for the war. Any activity or object that stimulates emotion is strictly forbidden. Those in violation are labelled "Sense Offenders" and sentenced to death. The population is forced to take a daily injection of "Prozium II" to suppress emotion. Libria is governed by the Tetragrammaton Council, led by "Father", who communicates propaganda through giant video screens throughout the city. At the pinnacle of law enforcement are the Grammaton Clerics, trained in the martial art of gun kata. Clerics frequently raid homes to search for and destroy illegal materials – art, literature and music – executing violators on the spot. A resistance movement, known as the "Underground", emerges to topple Father and the Tetragrammaton Council.
In 2072, John Preston is a high-ranking Cleric whose wife, Viviana, was executed as a Sense Offender, leaving him as a single parent of two. Following a raid, Preston notices his partner, Errol Partridge, saves a book of poems by W. B. Yeats instead of turning it in for incineration. He follows Partridge to the Nether – a term for regions outside the city – and finds him reading the book. After seeing Preston, Partridge claims he gladly pays the heavy price of feeling emotion; Preston executes him as Partridge slowly reaches for his gun.
Preston accidentally breaks a daily vial of Prozium and is unable to replace it before going on the next raid. Brief episodes of emotion set in evoking memories, stirring feelings, and making him more aware of his surroundings. He intentionally skips additional doses of Prozium, hiding them behind the mirror in his bathroom. Partridge is replaced with an ambitious, career-conscious Brandt, who expresses admiration for Preston's "uncompromising" work as a Cleric. On a raid, they arrest Sense Offender Mary O'Brien. To Brandt's surprise, Preston prevents him from executing O'Brien, saying she should be kept alive for interrogation. Brandt grows suspicious of Preston's hesitation.
Preston begins to feel remorse for killing Partridge, develops an emotional relationship with O'Brien, and seeks atonement. He uncovers clues that lead to meeting Jurgen, leader of the Underground. Jurgen is planning to disrupt Prozium production to spark a populace uprising and convinces Preston that Father must be assassinated. Vice-Counsel DuPont meets with Preston to reveal that there is a traitor in the upper ranks of the Clerics. Although DuPont initially suspects it is Preston, he assigns him the task of unmasking the traitor. Relieved, Preston accepts and promises to locate the Underground's leadership.
Meanwhile, O'Brien is set to be executed, and Jurgen advises against interfering believing it could sabotage plans for the revolution. Unable to bear her death, Preston attempts to stop the execution and fails. He has an emotional breakdown and is arrested by Brandt, who brings him before DuPont. Preston tricks DuPont into believing that Brandt is the traitor. Following Brandt's arrest, Preston is told that his home will be searched as a formality. He rushes home to destroy the hidden vials only to discover his son, who stopped taking Prozium after his mother died, already has.
Jurgen tells Preston to capture the leaders of the resistance to regain government trust, hoping it will get Preston close enough to assassinate Father. Preston is granted an exclusive audience with Father only to discover that Brandt was not arrested; it was part of a ruse to expose Preston and the Underground. DuPont reveals he is Father, having secretly replaced the original Father who died, and that he doesn't take Prozium to suppress emotion. He taunts Preston, asking how it felt to betray the Underground. Enraged, Preston fights his way through an army of bodyguards to DuPont's office, confronting and killing Brandt in a katana battle. DuPont and Preston engage in a gun kata showdown. Preston wins as DuPont pleads for his life asking, "Is it really worth the price?" Paying homage to Partridge's last words, he responds, "I pay it gladly" and kills DuPont. He destroys the command center that broadcasts Father propaganda. Preston watches with satisfaction from above as the Underground destroys Prozium manufacturing plants, signaling the beginning of the revolution.
Cast
Gun kata
Angus Macfadyen's character, Vice-Counsel DuPont, describes the fictional fighting style gun kata in the film:
Through analysis of thousands of recorded gunfights, the Cleric has determined that the geometric distribution of antagonists in any gun battle is a statistically-predictable element. The gun kata treats the gun as a total weapon, each fluid position representing a maximum kill zone, inflicting maximum damage on the maximum number of opponents, while keeping the defender clear of the statistically-traditional trajectories of return fire. By the rote mastery of this art, your firing efficiency will rise by no less than 120 percent. The difference of a 63 percent increased lethal proficiency makes the master of the gun katas an adversary not to be taken lightly.
Kata (型, かた) is a Japanese word for standard forms of movements and postures in karate, jujutsu, aikido, and many other traditional martial arts. The gun kata shown in Equilibrium is a hybrid of Wimmer's own style of gun kata (invented in his backyard) and the martial arts style of the fight choreographer Jim Vickers, with elements of the Chinese Wing Chun martial art style.
Production
Initially announced in 1999 under the title of Librium, the film was produced by Jan de Bont's production company, Blue Tulip Productions, with most of the budget secured in a Dutch tax incentve deal thanks to de Bont's Dutch citizenship. Emily Watson was cast in May 2000, with Christian Bale cast the following month in June of that year.
Filming began on October 19, 2000 and ended on December 10, 2000. Most of the filming used locations in Berlin, due to its unique mixture of fascist and modern architecture. According to the visual effects supervisor Tim McGovern, who worked alongside Wimmer, the fascist architecture was chosen "to make the individual feel small and insignificant so the government seems more powerful". The modern architecture of Berlin emphasizes the futuristic and stolid appearance of the city-state of Libria. Thick walls are represented by an abandoned East German military base, while the exterior of the city, where many of the surviving rebels reside, was filmed in decrepit neighborhoods of East Germany. In addition to the geographic location, a few European art directors also made substantial contributions to the production.
Equilibrium locations include:
Olympic Stadium (Berlin), built for the 1936 Summer Olympics.
Deutschlandhalle, also built for the 1936 Summer Olympics.
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.
Berlin Tempelhof Airport, construction of which was begun before the Nazi era, but which was completed during World War II and displays characteristics of the Nazis' architectural style.
Bundestag (Berlin U-Bahn) station, a modern subway station near the new Reichstag building along with long tunnels of the Berlin U-Bahn underground railway. At the time the film was made, the Bundestag station was unopened, but in 2009, it went into service.
Decrepit East German neighborhoods, as well as an abandoned massive former GDR military base.
The EUR district in Rome, Italy, built during the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini.
Although making a science fiction movie, Wimmer intentionally avoided using futuristic technology that could become obsolete, and he also decided to set his story in an indeterminate future. "I wanted to create more of an alternate reality than get caught up in the gadgetry of science fiction," he explained. "In fact, there’s no technology in Equilibrium that doesn’t already exist. It’s more like a parallel universe, the perfect setting for a parable."
Reception
Critical response
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 41% of critics gave the film positive reviews and an average rating of 4.8/10, based on 91 reviews, with the site's consensus stating "Equilibrium is a reheated mishmash of other sci-fi movies." Metacritic gave the film a score of 33 out of 100, based on reviews from 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".
Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times dismissed Equilibrium for having heavily borrowed from Fahrenheit 451, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Brave New World, and other science fiction classics.
Roger Ebert awarded the film 3 stars out of 4, noting that "Equilibrium would be a mindless action picture, except that it has a mind. It doesn't do a lot of deep thinking, but unlike many futuristic combos of sf and f/x, it does make a statement."
Wimmer said in a Dreamwatch magazine interview that "the paying customers seemed to get it," and said the critics "didn't seem to see that the film had a different message than" Fahrenheit 451 or 1984. Responding to the critics' views, Wimmer later said, "Why would I make a movie for someone I wouldn't want to hang out with? Have you ever met a critic who you wanted to party with? I haven't."
Box office
The film had an estimated production budget of $20 million. International pre-release sales had already made a profit, so the studio reduced the film's promotion and advertising budget to avoid the risk of the film losing money; as a consequence, theatrical release was limited.
The film was shown in only 301 theaters at its widest release in the United States, earning $541,512 in its opening week, and only $1.2 million when it closed on December 26, 2002; the film earned $4.1 million internationally, for a total of $5.3 million worldwide.
See also
List of dystopian films
List of films featuring surveillance
List of films set in the future
References
External links
2002 films
2002 science fiction action films
American films
American science fiction action films
American films about revenge
Dimension Films films
American dystopian films
2000s dystopian films
English-language films
Fiction about mind control
Films about atonement
Films about capital punishment
Films about censorship
Films about drugs
Films about emotions
Films about rebellions
Films about security and surveillance
Films about totalitarianism
Films about widowhood
Films directed by Kurt Wimmer
Films produced by Lucas Foster
Films scored by Klaus Badelt
Films set in 2072
Films set in the 2070s
Films shot in Berlin
Films shot in Italy
Films with screenplays by Kurt Wimmer
Gun fu films
Martial arts science fiction films
American post-apocalyptic films
Transhumanism in film
Films about World War III | [
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234538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20grammar | German grammar | German grammar is the set of structural rules of the German language, which in many respects is quite similar to that of the other Germanic languages.
Although some features of German grammar, such as the formation of some of the verb forms, resemble those of English, German grammar differs from that of English in that it has, among other things, cases and gender in nouns and a strict verb-second word order in main clauses.
German has retained many of the grammatical distinctions that some Germanic languages have lost in whole or in part. There are three genders and four cases, and verbs are conjugated for person and number. Accordingly, German has more inflections than English, and uses more suffixes. For example, in comparison to the -s added to third-person singular present-tense verbs in English, most German verbs employ four different suffixes for the conjugation of present-tense verbs, namely - for the first-person singular, - for the informal second-person singular, - for the third-person singular and for the informal second-person plural, and - for the first- and third-person plural, as well as for the formal second-person singular/plural.
Owing to the gender and case distinctions, the articles have more possible forms. In addition, some prepositions combine with some of the articles.
Numerals are similar to other Germanic languages. Unlike modern English, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese, units are placed before tens as in Early Modern English, Danish, Dutch, Yiddish and Frisian.
Nouns
A German noun – excluding pluralia tantum – has one of three specific grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter). Nouns are declined for case (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive) and grammatical number (singular, plural). In German, all nouns are capitalized, not just proper nouns.
Gender
German has all three genders of late Proto-Indo-European—the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. Most German nouns are of one of these genders. Nouns denoting a person, such as ("woman") or ("man"), often agree with the natural gender of what is described. However there exist several notable counterexamples such as ("girl") and ("miss"), since the diminutive forms ending in or are grammatically neuter. Thus these are not illogical. However, gender and sex don't have to agree as in: (old, regional or anthropological: "woman"; a cognate of the English "wife"), ("human", male or female), ("guest", male or female; the feminine is obsolete). Furthermore, in German, the gender of nouns without natural gender is not comprehensively predictable. For example, the three common pieces of cutlery all have different genders: ("knife") is neuter, ("fork") is feminine, and ("spoon") is masculine.
Students of German are often advised to learn German nouns with their accompanying definite article, as the definite article of a German noun corresponds to the gender of the noun. However, the meaning or form, especially the ending, of a noun can be used to recognize 80% of noun genders. For instance, nouns ending in the suffixes , , , or are always feminine. Nouns ending in , or , or are nearly always masculine. As noted above, nouns ending in or are neuter. Many nouns bearing both the prefix and the suffix , as well as many nouns ending in , , or , also are neuter. A noun ending in is likely to be feminine; it is masculine when it denotes people or a few animals: ("cat"), ("flower") and ("love") are feminine, while ("messenger"), ("boy") and ("knave") are masculine. A few nouns ending in are neuter, like ("end"). Similarly, a noun ending in is likely to be masculine (, , ); however, ("knife") and ("water") are neuter, whereas ("mother") and ("butter") are feminine.
Plural
The German language has several different ways of forming the plural. Many feminine nouns are regular but many masculine and neuter nouns are not. For example, some plurals are formed with an or , some with an umlaut and an , other plurals are the same as the singular, and some add or an umlaut and . Many loanwords as well as some dialectal or colloquial nouns, take a plural in (e.g. → ). Some foreign endings, such as Latin , are deleted before the plural ending (e.g. → ). Sometimes the stress in the plural form is changed, for example der → .
Special colloquial or dialectal plural forms also exist. For example, is often used as the plural of "stick" in northern Germany, whereas the standard plural is .
Case
General
Unlike English, which has lost almost all forms of declension of nouns and adjectives, German inflects nouns, adjectives, articles and pronouns into four grammatical cases. The cases are the nominative (, , ), genitive (, , ), dative (, , ), and accusative (, , ). The case of a particular noun depends on the grammatical function of the noun in the sentence.
Nominative (): The subject of a sentence, that which carries out the action
He loves her.
Genitive (): The possessor of something, or the object of certain prepositions or verbs; in English "Whose?"
This is Susanna's book.
Dative (): The indirect object, as in when an object is given to someone, or the object of certain prepositions and verbs
I gave the book to her.
Accusative (): The direct object, that which is acted upon, or the object of certain prepositions
He loves her.
Note: In earlier usage (17-19th century) German words derived from Latin also had a vocative and an ablative case, and some words still have a vocative (e.g. , vocative or , and , vocative or ).
Example: the table ()
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ||Singular:||Plural:
|-
|:||||
|-
|:||||
|-
|:||||
|-
|:||||
|}
In a jocular sentence (using only one noun for understanding purposes):
[nominative] [dative] [accusative] [genitive]
The table [] gave (to) the table [] the table [] of the table [].
The table gave the table's table to the table.
This sentence is an example of how cases are used in German. This differs from English, where the word order in a sentence has more meaning. Because the function of each noun is not marked by its position within the sentence but by the declined articles—and in case of genitive and dative also by a suffix at the end of the noun itself—the German sentence could also be:
etc.
Although some of these may sound exotic in modern-day German, they are grammatically correct (and even rather unusual constructions are more regularly used in poetry).
In contrast to strongly inflected languages like Latin, German expresses cases chiefly by inflecting the determiner that accompanies the noun rather than the noun itself. However, grammatical number (singular vs. plural) is nearly always expressed by inflecting the noun (, ). Other exceptions of a suffix expressing the case of a noun along with the article are the forms of genitive and dative singular and dative plural.
Genitive
Today, the use of the genitive case is relatively rare in spoken language - speakers sometimes substitute the dative case for the genitive in conversation. But the genitive case remains almost obligatory in written communication, public speeches and anything that is not explicitly colloquial, and it is still an important part of the (language of education). Television programs and movies often contain a mix of both, dative substitution and regular genitive, depending on how formal or "artistic" the program is intended to be. The use of the dative substitution is more common in southern German dialects, whereas Germans from northern regions (where Luther's Bible-German had to be learned like a foreign language at that time) use the genitive more frequently. Though it has become quite common not to use the genitive case when it would formally be required, many Germans know how to use it and generally do so. Especially among the higher educated, it is considered a minor embarrassment to be caught using the dative case incorrectly. So it is not typically recommended to avoid the genitive when learning German: although the genitive has been gradually falling out of use for about 600 years, it is still far from extinct. The historical development of the has to some extent re-established the genitive into the language, and not necessarily just in written form. For example, the genitive is rarely used in colloquial German to express a possessive relation (e.g. "my father's car" may sound odd to some Germans in colloquial speech), but the partitive genitive is quite common today (e.g. "one of the best"). Furthermore, some verbs take the genitive case in their object, but this is often ignored by some native speakers; instead, they replace these genitive objects with (substitutional) prepositional constructions: e.g. ("I'm ashamed of you.") turns into (or ). ("I'm ashamed because of you.").
A German book series called Der Dativ ist dem Genitiv sein Tod ("The dative is to the genitive its death") alludes to this phenomenon (being called "genitive's death struggle" by the author) in its title. In correct standard German, the title would be ("The dative is the genitive's death"), or alternatively ("The dative is the death of the genitive"). As is apparent, the book uses dialect, i.e. by employing the dative case together with a possessive pronoun instead of the genitive, to poke fun at what the author perceives as a decline in the German language, since in written German a dative construction replacing the genitive is still considered a major error. This is, by the way, not how most Standard German speakers would colloquially replace the genitive case; rather, this usage is prevalent in some German regional dialects, such as Bavarian. Standard German speakers would construct , which is (being literally the English "of the Genitive") — incorrect in the Standard as well, but far less incriminating.
Linguistically, the thesis of the genitive case dying out can easily be refuted. Indeed, the genitive case has been widely out of use in most dialects of the German language for centuries. Only the replacement of dialects by a colloquial Standard German is new, and the use of the genitive case in the written language is unaffected. Also, many Germans wrongly use the genitive after prepositions such as , and , although the dative is required.
There are, however, legitimate dative constructions to indicate possession, as in . The construction ', virtually appears only in Latin beginners' translations, as the sentence should indicate (). Some dialects have which is literally a dativus possessivus. If a genitive is unmarked and without article (practically, in the plural), usage of ', followed by the dative, is not only legitimate but required, as in: (minorities' affairs are to be protected). In that case, would contain a definite article, which does not reflect the intended indefiniteness of ; itself is an unmarked plural, i.e. it could be any grammatical case. Additionally, the dative case is commonly used to indicate possession of bodily parts that are the direct objects of an action. Constructions such as ("He broke his arm.", literally "He broke himself the arm.") and ("You'll put your eyes out, kid!", literally "You [will] put yourself the eyes out, kid!" ) are typical and correct in any context. In English, this construction only occurs in the construction to look someone in the eye and its variants.
Dative
The dative case is used for the indirect object of a verb. The sentence ("I give my son a dog") contains a subject , a verb , an indirect object ; and a direct object . is the to whom or the destination of the object of the subject's action, and therefore takes the masculine dative .
Dative also focuses on location. (See accusative or dative prepositions below.) German places strong emphasis on the difference between location and motion; the accusative case is used for motion and the dative for location. There are four important verbs that show this dichotomy: /, /, /, / (motion/location). The sentence [] , "I hang the picture on(to) the wall." demonstrates motion. On the other hand, the sentence [] shows location; now, the picture is located on the wall, so is dative.
Cases after prepositions
The case of a noun after a preposition is decided by that preposition. No prepositions require the nominative case, but any other case may follow one; for example, the preposition (for) is followed by the accusative case, the word (with) is followed by the dative, and the word (outside of) is followed by the genitive case. Certain prepositions, called "two way prepositions", have objects either in dative or accusative, depending on whether the use implies position (e.g. = "in the kitchen", dative case) or direction (e.g. = "into the kitchen", accusative case).
Nominal phrases
(The content of this section is not yet applicable for proper names.)
A German nominal phrase, in general, consists of the following components in the following order:
article, number (cardinal or ordinal), adjective(s), noun, genitive attribute, position(s), relative clause, reflexive pronoun
(the third stunning performance of the drama by Schiller this week in Hamburg)
Of course, most noun phrases are not this complicated; adjectives, numbers, genitive attributes, positions, relative clauses and emphasizers are always optional.
A nominal phrase contains at least a cardinal number, an adjective, a pronoun or a noun. It always has an article, except if it is an indefinite plural noun or refers to an uncountable mass.
(the three of them)
(the tall man)
(the man)
If the noun is uncountable, an article is not used; otherwise, the meaning of the sentence changes.
(I buy cheap beer)
(I buy a bottle/can/glass/sort ... of cheap beer)
(I have money)
(I have the money) or (I have enough money to...)
A nominal phrase can be regarded a single unit. It has a case, a number, and a gender. Case and number depend on the context, whereas the main noun determines the gender.
Genitive attribute
A nominal phrase may have a genitive attribute, for example to express possession. This attribute may be seen as merely another nominal phrase in the genitive case which may hang off another nominal phrase.
(The profession of the old man.)
(The hut of the chief of the tribe)
(genitive phrase has its own genitive phrase). This is uncommon in modern German. (The hut of the tribe's chief/tribeschief) is preferred.
A direct translation of would be "the profession of the old man." "The old man's profession" could be translated directly and correctly as , though this form is almost never used in modern German, even if educated circles regarded it a very elegant use of language. It is found in poetry, especially if helpful for metrical and rhyming purposes.
Position
A nominal phrase may contain a "position phrase"; this may be seen as merely another nominal phrase with a preposition (or postposition) or a pronominal adverb (see Adverbial phrases).
(a cloud in the sky)
(the Chancellor during the civil war in the Congo)
(position phrase has its own position phrase)
(the rain in the jungle in the summer)
(Several position phrases)
(that mountain over there)
Extended attribute phrase
German permits lengthy nominal modifiers, for instance:
(literally: the during-the-civil-war-office-holding prime minister), the Prime Minister holding office/officiating during the civil war.
(literally: The still-at-the-beginning-of-the-course-relatively-small-but-nevertheless-noticeable communication difficulties), the communication difficulties still relatively small at the beginning of the course, but nevertheless noticeable.
These are a feature of written (particularly educated) German. One also might hear them in the context of formal oral communications as well (such as news broadcasts, speeches, etc.).
Relative clause
A nominal phrase will often have a relative clause.
Aside from their highly inflected forms, German relative pronouns are less complicated than English. There are two varieties. The more common one is based on the definite article , , , but with distinctive forms in the genitive (, ) and in the dative plural (). Etymologically this is related to English that. The second, which is more literary and used for emphasis, is the relative use of , , , comparable with English which. As in most Germanic languages, including Old English, both of these inflect according to gender, case and number. They get their gender and number from the noun they modify, but the case from their function in their own clause.
The house in which I live is very old.
The relative pronoun is neuter singular to agree with , but dative because it follows a preposition in its own clause. On the same basis, it would be possible to substitute the pronoun .
However, German uses the uninflecting ' ("what") as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is , or ("everything", "something", "nothing"), or when the antecedent is an entire clause.
Everything that Jack does is a success.
Jack forgot his book, which surprised nobody.
But when would follow a preposition (still modifying an entire clause), it needs to be replaced with + preposition or + preposition when the preposition begins with a vowel. The same applies to indirect questions.
(not )
He didn't know what to apologise for.
They liked what she wrote, which she was proud of.
She gave him a kiss, which he was happy about.
In German, all relative clauses are marked with a comma.
Articles
The inflected forms depend on the number, the case and the gender of the corresponding noun. Articles have the same plural forms for all three genders.
Cardinal numbers
In relation to nouns, cardinal numbers are placed before adjectives, if any. If the number is relatively low, it is usually not combined with an indefinite plural article (e.g. or ). Personal pronouns of the first and second person are placed before numbers. Personal pronouns of the third person cannot be used with numbers.
("three dogs")
("the four horsemen of the Apocalypse")
NOT: * BUT: or ("some apples", "five apples")
("a couple of thousand euros")
("we four")
NOT: BUT: ("ten horses")
EXCEPTION: (colloquial) and (semi-formal) are both acceptable, for certain nouns such as beverages.
EXCEPTION: NOT BUT ("13% of those asked") — because (as in English) "percent" is a borrowing of a Latin phrase, not a noun.
The cardinal number (one) is partly identical in form and inflection to the indefinite article. The number is distinguished from the article in speech by intonation and in writing sometimes by emphasis (e.g. italics, increased letter-spacing or small caps: , or ). In colloquial German, the indefinite article is often shorted to or (like English and Dutch ), whereas becomes . In dialects, the shortening may arrive at (Schwa, like English ) or in Upper German regions. The cardinal number (= one), however, always retains its full pronunciation (again like Dutch ).
may mean
"a red book" - ; or
"one red book" -
The numbers (two) and (three) (and sometimes other numbers as well) have case endings in some instances. Where an adjective would have weak endings, numbers do not have endings. If an adjective had strong endings, these numbers may also have strong endings in the genitive case.
("the house of two young women")
If there is no other word carrying the strong ending of the genitive plural, the numbers must carry it.
("the voyage of three sisters")
If these numbers are center of a nominal phrase in the dative plural and no other word carries case markers, they may carry dative endings.
("I have given bananas to two (of them)")
Adjectives
German adjectives normally precede the noun they are modifying. German adjectives have endings which depend on the case, number and (in the singular) gender of the nominal phrase. There are three sets of endings: strong endings, mixed endings and weak endings. Which set is used depends on what kind of word the adjective comes after, and sometimes also on the gender and case.
Like articles, adjectives use the same plural endings for all three genders.
(a loud noise)
(the loud noise)
(the big, beautiful moon)
Participles may be used as adjectives and are treated in the same way.
In contrast to Romance languages, adjectives are only declined in the attributive position (that is, when used in nominal phrases to describe a noun directly). Predicative adjectives, separated from the noun by "to be", for example, are not declined and are indistinguishable from adverbs.
NOT: BUT ((the) music is loud) or, rarely, ((the) music is a loud one)
There are three degrees of comparison: positive form, comparative form and superlative form.
Declension of adjectives
The declension of an adjective depends not only on the gender, number and case of the noun it modifies, but also on whether the indefinite article, definite article or no article is used with it. The following table shows two examples which exemplify all three cases:
Note that the word is declined similarly to the indefinite article.
Declension of adjectives is mandatory even in proper names. The name of Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, for instance, changes into when preceded by a definite article. Adjectival bynames given to historical or legendary persons must also be declined according to their grammatical role in a phrase or sentence. Hence, one says ("Charlemagne became emperor in the year 800"), but ("The sword of Charlemagne").
Pronouns
The pronouns of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases. These have the same gender, number and case as the original nominal phrase. This goes for other pronouns, too.
pronoun [position(s)] [relative clause]
Personal pronouns
Notes:
(, , ) can also be written (, , ), especially in letters.
(, , ) is written as (, , ) in case of a pluralis majestatis.
The reflexive personal pronoun (in English, "myself" etc.) takes distinct forms only in the 3rd person (and 2nd person formal address) dative and accusative, to wit, . (Uncapitalized also in the 2nd person formal).
Adverbial phrases
Verbs
German verbs may be classified as either weak, if they form their past tense with a dental consonant inflection, or strong, if they exhibit a vowel gradation (ablaut). Most verbs of both types are regular, though various subgroups and anomalies do arise. However, textbooks often class all strong verbs as irregular. There are more than 200 strong and irregular verbs, and there is a gradual tendency for strong verbs to become weak.
Verbs in sentence structure
In German declarative main clauses the finite verb is always placed as the second element. When there are more verbs in a sentence, the non-finite ones are placed at the end of the clause. With a subordinating conjunction, all verbs appear at the end of the clause. A verb placed as the second element does not necessarily mean it is the second word, rather, it is the second constituent of the clause. For instance the first position may be occupied by an article and a noun, a possessive pronoun, or even an entire subordinate clause.
Examples: (Underlined word indicates verb as second element.)
(I play football on Saturday.)
(My cat is black and white.)
Examples: (Underlined words indicate verbs as both second and last elements.)
(I will fly to Germany tomorrow.)
(She would-like to buy a better computer.)
The following examples illustrate the use of subordinate clauses as the first element in a verb second structure: (Bold words indicate a subordinate clause. Underlined words indicate verbs as both second and last elements in the sentence.)
(Because you like pasta so much, I wanted to invite you to an Italian restaurant this evening.)
(As soon as I have arrived, I will call you)
Inside a subordinate clause, introduced by a conjunction or a relative pronoun, the finite verb form comes last. Examples: (Bold words indicate the subordinate clause, bold italicized words indicate subordinating conjunction, bold underlined words indicate verbs at end of the sentence)
(Your sweater is from red material, because it is a Liverpool sweater.)
(I think that he should eat.)
Separable verbs
German has many verbs that have a separable prefix that can be unattached to its root. Examples are , to appear or look, and , to imagine, or to introduce.
Peter looks handsome in his suit.
Lori, do you know my wife? No? Then let's ( for once I [will]) introduce you to one another.
Prepositions
Prepositions are designed to give some direction, location, intensity, etc. to a sentence. The way such is indicated in German may be different from way it would be in English. German speaker would.
Furthermore, there are instances where German uses a preposition in a way that is unlike English, e.g. as a separable prefix attributed to a verb. For example, in (Turn the lights off!), (out) is used instead of . There is also the verb , literally "to sleep out", which in English idiom would be expressed by "sleep in".
The objects of some prepositions have a fixed case. For example, if , a dative preposition, is used in a sentence, its object will be dative, as in the sentence (I'm visiting with my family). Notice the dative feminine inflection on .
The following chart shows the cases associated with several prepositions in common usage.
* With the dative in colloquial style and most often with pronouns.
** May take the ("hypercorrect") genitive.
*** As a preposition takes the genitive or a colloquial dative: () "along the way", but as a postposition it takes the accusative with the same meaning: .
"Unusual" prepositions, which exist in vast amounts in bureaucratic style, as a rule take the genitive. The nascent preposition ( "direction", as in , I'm driving in the direction of Munich) takes the accusative.
Two-way prepositions with either the dative or accusative mean location with the dative, as in "where?" (), and direction with the accusative, as in "where to?" ().
There are also articled prepositions, that are formed by a simple preposition and an article:
""
+ becomes
+ becomes
"
Modal particles
Modal particles () are a part of speech used frequently in spoken German. These words affect the tone of a sentence instead of conveying a specific literal meaning. Typical examples of this kind of word in German are , , , , , , , , or . Many of these words also have a more basic, specific meaning (e.g. "well", "yes", "already", "also"), but in their modal use, this meaning is not directly expressed — that is, there is no real English equivalent to those words, so in an English translation, the German modal particles are usually omitted.
Sentences
German sentence structure is similar to other Germanic languages in its use of V2 word order.
See also
Standard German phonology
Notes
References
Bibliography
Wietusch, Gudrun (2006). Grundkurs Grammatik. Cornelsen.
Pahlow, Heike (2010). Deutsche Grammatik - einfach, kompakt und übersichtlich''. Engelsdorfer Verlag, Leipzig.
External links
German Grammar – Toms Deutschseite - German grammar explained by a native speaker (in English)
German Grammar Lessons – German grammar lessons along with exercises
Lingolia German Grammar – German Grammar explanations with exercises
German grammar overview German grammar (in English) (+ multiple choice test) explained by a native speaker. | [
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234540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20anthem | National anthem | A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. Latin American, Central Asian, and European nations tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a more simplistic fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states.
History
In the early modern period, some European monarchies adopted royal anthems. Some of these anthems have survived into current use. "God Save the King/Queen", first performed in 1619, remains the royal anthem of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth realms. , adopted as the royal anthem of the Spanish monarchy in 1770, was adopted as the national anthem of Spain in 1939. Denmark retains its royal anthem, (1780) alongside its national anthem (, adopted 1835). In 1802, Gia Long commissioned a royal anthem in the European fashion for the Kingdom of Vietnam.
Following the reinstating of La Marseillaise in 1830, in the wake of the July Revolution, as the national anthem of France, it became common for newly formed nations to define national anthems, notably as a result of the Latin American wars of independence, for Argentina (1813), Peru (1821), Brazil (1831) but also Belgium (1830). Consequently adoption of national anthems prior to the 1930s was mostly by newly formed or newly independent states, such as the First Portuguese Republic (, 1911), the Kingdom of Greece ("Hymn to Liberty", 1865), the First Philippine Republic (, 1898), Lithuania (, 1919), Weimar Germany (, 1922), Republic of Ireland (, 1926) and Greater Lebanon ("Lebanese National Anthem", 1927). Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before their designation as national anthem.
If an anthem is defined as consisting of both a melody and lyrics, then the oldest national anthem in use today is the national anthem of the Netherlands, the Wilhelmus. Written between 1568 and 1572 during the Dutch Revolt, it was already a popular orangist hymn during the 17th century, though it would take until 1932 for it to be officially recognized as the Dutch national anthem. The lyrics of the Japanese national anthem, , predate those of the Dutch anthem by several centuries, being taken from a Heian period (794–1185) poem, but were not set to music until 1880. If a national anthem is defined by being officially designated as the national song of a particular state, then , which was officially adopted by the French National Convention in 1796, would qualify as the first official national anthem.
The Olympic Charter of 1920 introduced the ritual of playing the national anthems of the gold medal winners. From this time, the playing of national anthems became increasingly popular at international sporting events, creating an incentive for such nations that did not yet have an officially defined national anthem to introduce one.
The United States introduced the patriotic song The Star-Spangled Banner as a national anthem in 1931. Following this, several nations moved to adopt as official national anthem patriotic songs that had already been in de facto use at official functions, such as Mexico (, composed 1854, adopted 1943) and Switzerland ("Swiss Psalm", composed 1841, de facto use from 1961, adopted 1981).
By the period of decolonisation in the 1960s, it had become common practice for newly independent nations to adopt an official national anthem. Some of these anthems were specifically commissioned, such as the anthem of Kenya, , produced by a dedicated "Kenyan Anthem Commission" in 1963.
A number of nations remain without an official national anthem. In these cases, there are established de facto anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions. These include the United Kingdom ("God Save the Queen") and Sweden (). Countries that have moved to officially adopt their long-standing de facto anthems since the 1990s include: Luxembourg (, adopted 1993), South Africa ("National anthem of South Africa", adopted 1997), Israel (, composed 1888, de facto use from 1948, adopted 2004), Italy (, adopted 2017).
Usage
National anthems are used in a wide array of contexts. Certain etiquette may be involved in the playing of a country's anthem. These usually involve military honours, standing up, removing headwear etc. In diplomatic situations the rules may be very formal. There may also be royal anthems, presidential anthems, state anthems etc. for special occasions.
They are played on national holidays and festivals, and have also come to be closely connected with sporting events. Wales was the first country to adopt this, during a rugby game against New Zealand in 1905. Since then during sporting competitions, such as the Olympic Games, the national anthem of the gold medal winner is played at each medal ceremony; also played before games in many sports leagues, since being adopted in baseball during World War II. When teams from two nations play each other, the anthems of both nations are played, the host nation's anthem being played last.
In some countries, the national anthem is played to students each day at the start of school as an exercise in patriotism, such as in Tanzania. In other countries the state anthem may be played in a theatre before a play or in a cinema before a movie. Many radio and television stations have adopted this and play the national anthem when they sign on in the morning and again when they sign off at night. For instance, the national anthem of China is played before the broadcast of evening news on Hong Kong's local television stations including TVB Jade. In Colombia, it is a law to play the National Anthem at 6:00 and 18:00 on every public radio and television station, while in Thailand, "Phleng Chat Thai" is played at 08:00 and 18:00 nationwide (the Royal Anthem is used for sign-ons and closedowns instead).
The use of a national anthem outside of its country, however, is dependent on the international recognition of that country. For instance, Taiwan has not been recognized by the International Olympic Committee as a separate nation since 1979 and must compete as Chinese Taipei; its "National Banner Song" is used instead of its national anthem. In Taiwan, the country's national anthem is sung before instead of during flag-rising and flag-lowering, followed by the National Banner Song during the actual flag-rising and flag-lowering. Even within a state, the state's citizenry may interpret the national anthem differently (such as in the United States some view the U.S. national anthem as representing respect for dead soldiers and policemen whereas others view it as honoring the country generally).
Various solutions may be used when countries with different national anthems compete in a unified team. When North Korea and South Korea participated together in the 2018 Winter Olympics, the folk song "Arirang", beloved on both sides of the border and seen as a symbol of Korea as a whole, was used as an anthem instead of the national anthem of either state.
Creators
Most of the best-known national anthems were written by little-known or unknown composers such as Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, composer of "La Marseillaise" and John Stafford Smith who wrote the tune for "The Anacreontic Song", which became the tune for the U.S. national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". The author of "God Save the Queen", one of the oldest and best-known anthems in the world, is unknown and disputed.
Very few countries have a national anthem written by a world-renowned composer. Exceptions include Germany, whose anthem "Das Lied der Deutschen" uses a melody written by Joseph Haydn, and Austria, whose national anthem "Land der Berge, Land am Strome" is sometimes credited to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The "Anthem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic" was composed by Aram Khachaturian. The music of the "Pontifical Anthem", anthem of the Vatican City, was composed in 1869 by Charles Gounod, for the golden jubilee of Pope Pius IX's priestly ordination.
The committee charged with choosing a national anthem for the Federation of Malaya (later Malaysia) at independence decided to invite selected composers of international repute to submit compositions for consideration, including Benjamin Britten, William Walton, Gian Carlo Menotti and Zubir Said, who later composed "Majulah Singapura", the national anthem of Singapore. None were deemed suitable. The tune eventually selected was (and still is) the anthem of the constituent state of Perak, which was in turn adopted from a popular French melody titled "La Rosalie" composed by the lyricist Pierre-Jean de Béranger.
A few anthems have words by Nobel laureates in literature. The first Asian laureate, Rabindranath Tagore, wrote the words and music of "Jana Gana Mana" and "Amar Shonar Bangla", later adopted as the national anthems of India and Bangladesh respectively. Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote the lyrics for the Norwegian national anthem "Ja, vi elsker dette landet".
Other countries had their anthems composed by locally important people. This is the case for Colombia, whose anthem's lyrics were written by former president and poet Rafael Nuñez, who also wrote the country's first constitution, and in Malta, written by Dun Karm Psaila, already a National Poet. A similar case is Liberia, the national anthem of which was written by its third president, Daniel Bashiel Warner.
Languages
A national anthem, when it has lyrics (as is usually the case), is most often in the national or most common language of the country, whether de facto or official, there are notable exceptions. Most commonly, states with more than one national language may offer several versions of their anthem, for instance:
The "Swiss Psalm", the national anthem of Switzerland, has different lyrics for each of the country's four official languages (French, German, Italian and Romansh).
The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada", has official lyrics in both English and French which are not translations of each other, and is frequently sung with a mixture of stanzas, representing the country's bilingual nature. The song itself was originally written in French.
"The Soldier's Song", the national anthem of Ireland, was originally written and adopted in English, but an Irish translation, although never formally adopted, is nowadays almost always sung instead, even though only 10.5% of Ireland speaks Irish natively.
The current South African national anthem is unique in that five of the country's eleven official languages are used in the same anthem (the first stanza is divided between two languages, with each of the remaining three stanzas in a different language). It was created by combining two songs together and then modifying the lyrics and adding new ones.
The former country of Czechoslovakia combined the two national anthems of the two lands; the first stanza consisting of the first stanza of the Czech anthem "Kde domov můj", and the second stanza consisting of the first stanza of the Slovak anthem "Nad Tatrou sa blýska".
One of the two official national anthems of New Zealand, "God Defend New Zealand", is now commonly sung with the first verse in Māori ("Aotearoa") and the second in English ("God Defend New Zealand"). The tune is the same but the words are not a direct translation of each other.
"God Bless Fiji" has lyrics in English and Fijian which are not translations of each other. Although official, the Fijian version is rarely sung, and it is usually the English version that is performed at international sporting events.
Although Singapore has four official languages, with English being the current lingua franca, the national anthem, "Majulah Singapura" is in Malay and, by law, can only be sung with its original Malay lyrics, despite the fact that Malay is a minority language in Singapore. This is because Part XIII of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore declares, "the national language shall be the Malay language and shall be in the Roman script […]"
There are several countries that do not have official lyrics to their national anthems. One of these is the "Marcha Real", the national anthem of Spain. Although it originally had lyrics, those lyrics were discontinued after governmental changes in the early 1980s after Francisco Franco's dictatorship ended. In 2007, a national competition to write words was held, but no lyrics were chosen. Other national anthems with no words include "Inno Nazionale della Repubblica", the national anthem of San Marino, that of Bosnia and Herzegovina, that of Russia from 1990 to 2000, and that of Kosovo, entitled "Europe".
The national anthem of India, "Jana Gana Mana": the official lyrics are in Bengali; they were adapted from a poem written by Rabindranath Tagore.
Despite the most common language in Wales being English, the Welsh national anthem "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" is sung in the Welsh language.
The unofficial national anthem of Finland, "Maamme", was first written in Swedish and only later translated to Finnish. It is nowadays sung in both languages as there is a Swedish speaking minority of about 5% in the country. The national anthem of Estonia, "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" has a similar melody with "Maamme", but only with different lyrics and without repeating the second halfs of strophes. Finlandia has been repeatedly suggested to be the official national anthem of Finland.
The national anthem of Pakistan, the "Qaumi Taranah", is unique in that it is entirely in Farsi (Persian) with the exception of one word which is in Urdu, the national language.
See also
Royal anthem, for a monarch or representative of a monarch, often in addition to a national anthem
Honors music, often performing segments of national or royal anthems
Earth anthem (unofficial), any song or music with the planet Earth in an exalted role
List of national anthems
List of historical national anthems
List of anthems of non-sovereign countries, regions and territories
Notes
References
External links
NationalAnthems.me, national anthems of every country in the world (and historical national anthems) with streaming audio, lyrics, information and links
National Anthems (mp3 files)
National Anthems of India in Hindi
Nationalanthems.info, lyrics and history of national anthems
Recordings of countries' anthems (mp3 files)
Recordings of countries' anthems around the world by the United States Navy Band
Articles containing video clips
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] |
234541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phat | Phat | Phat may refer to:
People
Richard Greville, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1776–1839), nicknamed Phat Duke
Huỳnh Tấn Phát (1913–1989), South Vietnamese politician and revolutionary
Phat Wilson (1895–1970), Canadian amateur ice hockey player
Other uses
Phat (card game), a variant of the game All-Fours
Phat (comics), a fictional character, a mutant in the Marvel Universe
Phat Farm, a designer clothing company
See also
Fat (disambiguation) | [
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234542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Trevithick | Richard Trevithick | Richard Trevithick (13 April 1771 – 22 April 1833) was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall. The son of a mining captain, and born in the mining heartland of Cornwall, Trevithick was immersed in mining and engineering from an early age. He was an early pioneer of steam-powered road and rail transport, and his most significant contributions were the development of the first high-pressure steam engine and the first working railway steam locomotive. The world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey took place on 21 February 1804, when Trevithick's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren Ironworks, in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales.
Turning his interests abroad Trevithick also worked as a mining consultant in Peru and later explored parts of Costa Rica. Throughout his professional career he went through many ups and downs and at one point faced financial ruin, also suffering from the strong rivalry of many mining and steam engineers of the day. During the prime of his career he was a well-known and highly respected figure in mining and engineering, but near the end of his life he fell out of the public eye.
Childhood and early life
Richard Trevithick was born at Tregajorran (in the parish of Illogan), between Camborne and Redruth, in the heart of one of the rich mineral-mining areas of Cornwall. He was the youngest-but-one child and the only boy in a family of six children. He was very tall for the era at , as well as athletic and concentrated more on sport than schoolwork. Sent to the village school at Camborne, he did not take much advantage of the education provided; one of his school masters described him as "a disobedient, slow, obstinate, spoiled boy, frequently absent and very inattentive". An exception was arithmetic, for which he had an aptitude, though arriving at the correct answers by unconventional means.
Trevithick was the son of mine "captain" Richard Trevithick (1735–1797) and of miner's daughter Ann Teague (died 1810). As a child he would watch steam engines pump water from the deep tin and copper mines in Cornwall. For a time he was a neighbour of William Murdoch, the steam carriage pioneer, and would have been influenced by his experiments with steam-powered road locomotion.
Trevithick first went to work at the age of 19 at the East Stray Park Mine. He was enthusiastic and quickly gained the status of a consultant, unusual for such a young person. He was popular with the miners because of the respect they had for his father.
Marriage and family
In 1797 Trevithick married Jane Harvey of Hayle. They raised six children:
Richard Trevithick (1798–1872)
Anne Ellis (1800–1877)
Elizabeth Banfield (1803–1870)
John Harvey Trevithick (1807–1877)
Francis Trevithick (1812–1877)
Frederick Henry Trevithick (1816–1883)
Career
Jane's father, John Harvey, formerly a blacksmith from Carnhell Green, formed the local foundry, Harveys of Hayle. His company became famous worldwide for building huge stationary "beam" engines for pumping water, usually from mines. Up to this time such steam engines were of the condensing or atmospheric type, originally invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, which also became known as low-pressure engines. James Watt, on behalf of his partnership with Matthew Boulton, held a number of patents for improving the efficiency of Newcomen's engine—including the "separate condenser patent", which proved the most contentious.
Trevithick became engineer at the Ding Dong Mine in 1797, and there (in conjunction with Edward Bull) he pioneered the use of high-pressure steam. He worked on building and modifying steam engines to avoid the royalties due to Watt on the separate condenser patent. Boulton & Watt served an injunction on him at Ding Dong, and posted it "on the minestuffs" and "most likely on the door" of the Count (Account) House which, although now a ruin, is the only surviving building from Trevithick's time there.
He also experimented with the plunger-pole pump, a type of pump—with a beam engine—used widely in Cornwall's tin mines, in which he reversed the plunger to change it into a water-power engine.
High-pressure engine
As his experience grew, he realised that improvements in boiler technology now permitted the safe production of high-pressure steam, which could move a piston in a steam engine on its own account, instead of using pressure near to atmospheric, in a condensing engine.
He was not the first to think of so-called "strong steam" or steam of about . William Murdoch had developed and demonstrated a model steam carriage, initially in 1784, and demonstrated it to Trevithick at his request in 1794. In fact, Trevithick lived next door to Murdoch in Redruth in 1797 and 1798. Oliver Evans in the U.S. had also concerned himself with the concept, but there is no indication that his ideas had ever come to Trevithick's attention.
Independently of this, Arthur Woolf was experimenting with higher pressures whilst working as the Chief Engineer of the Griffin Brewery (proprietors Meux and Reid). This was an Engine designed by Hornblower and Maberly, and the proprietors were keen to have the best steam engine in London. Around 1796, Woolf believed he could save substantial amounts of coal consumption.
According to his son Francis, Trevithick was the first to make high-pressure steam work in England in 1799, although other sources say he had invented his first high-pressure engine by 1797. Not only would a high-pressure steam engine eliminate the condenser, but it would allow the use of a smaller cylinder, saving space and weight. He reasoned that his engine could now be more compact, lighter, and small enough to carry its own weight even with a carriage attached. (Note this did not use the expansion of the steam, so-called "expansive working" came later)
Early experiments
Trevithick began building his first models of high-pressure (meaning a few atmospheres) steam engines – first a stationary one and subsequently one attached to a road carriage. A double-acting cylinder was used, with steam distribution by means of a four-way valve. Exhaust steam was vented via a vertical pipe or chimney straight into the atmosphere, thus avoiding a condenser and any possible infringements of Watt's patent. The linear motion was directly converted into circular motion via a crank instead of using a more cumbersome beam.
Puffing Devil
Trevithick built a full-size steam road locomotive in 1801, on a site near present-day Fore Street in Camborne. (A steam wagon built in 1770 by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot may have an earlier claim.) Trevithick named his carriage Puffing Devil and on Christmas Eve that year, he demonstrated it by successfully carrying six passengers up Fore Street and then continuing on up Camborne Hill, from Camborne Cross, to the nearby village of Beacon. His cousin and associate, Andrew Vivian, steered the machine. It inspired the popular Cornish folk song "Camborne Hill".
During further tests, Trevithick's locomotive broke down three days later after passing over a gully in the road. The vehicle was left under some shelter with the fire still burning whilst the operators retired to a nearby public house for a meal of roast goose and drinks. Meanwhile, the water boiled off, the engine overheated and the machine burned, destroying it. Trevithick did not consider this a serious setback, but rather operator error.
In 1802 Trevithick took out a patent for his high-pressure steam engine. To prove his ideas, he built a stationary engine at the Coalbrookdale Company's works in Shropshire in 1802, forcing water to a measured height to measure the work done. The engine ran at forty piston strokes a minute, with an unprecedented boiler pressure of .
Coalbrookdale Locomotive
In 1802 the Coalbrookdale Company in Shropshire built a rail locomotive for him, but little is known about it, including whether or not it actually ran. The death of a company workman in an accident involving the engine is said to have caused the company to not proceed to running it on their existing railway. To date, the only known information about it comes from a drawing preserved at the Science Museum, London, together with a letter written by Trevithick to his friend Davies Giddy. The design incorporated a single horizontal cylinder enclosed in a return-flue boiler. A flywheel drove the wheels on one side through spur gears, and the axles were mounted directly on the boiler, with no frame. On the drawing, the piston-rod, guide-bars and cross-head are located directly above the firebox door, thus making the engine extremely dangerous to fire while moving. Furthermore, the first drawing by Daniel Shute indicates that the locomotive ran on a plateway with a track gauge of .
This is the drawing used as the basis of all images and replicas of the later "Pen-y-darren" locomotive, as no plans for that locomotive have survived.
London Steam Carriage
The Puffing Devil was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and would have been of little practical use. He built another steam-powered road vehicle in 1803, called the London Steam Carriage, which attracted much attention from the public and press when he drove it that year in London from Holborn to Paddington and back. It was uncomfortable for passengers and proved more expensive to run than a horse-drawn carriage, and was abandoned.
In 1831, Trevithick gave evidence to a Parliamentary select committee on steam carriages.
Tragedy at Greenwich
Also in 1803, one of Trevithick's stationary pumping engines in use at Greenwich exploded, killing four men. Although Trevithick considered the explosion to be caused by a case of careless operation rather than design error, the incident was exploited relentlessly by James Watt and Matthew Boulton (competitors and promoters of the low-pressure engine) who highlighted the perceived risks of using high-pressure steam.
Trevithick's response was to incorporate two safety valves into future designs, only one of which could be adjusted by the operator. The adjustable valve comprised a disc covering a small hole at the top of the boiler above the water level in the steam chest. The force exerted by the steam pressure was equalised by an opposite force created by a weight attached to a pivoted lever. The position of the weight on the lever was adjustable thus allowing the operator to set the maximum steam pressure. Trevithick also added a fusible plug of lead, positioned in the boiler just below the minimum safe water level. Under normal operation the water temperature could not exceed that of boiling water and kept the lead below its melting point. If the water ran low, it exposed the lead plug, and the cooling effect of the water was lost. The temperature would then rise sufficiently to melt the lead, releasing steam into the fire, reducing the boiler pressure and providing an audible alarm in sufficient time for the operator to damp the fire, and let the boiler cool before damage could occur. He also introduced the hydraulic testing of boilers, and the use of a mercury manometer to indicate the pressure.
"Pen-y-Darren" locomotive
In 1802 Trevithick built one of his high-pressure steam engines to drive a hammer at the Pen-y-Darren Ironworks in Merthyr Tydfil, Mid Glamorgan. With the assistance of Rees Jones, an employee of the iron works and under the supervision of Samuel Homfray, the proprietor, he mounted the engine on wheels and turned it into a locomotive. In 1803, Trevithick sold the patents for his locomotives to Samuel Homfray.
Homfray was so impressed with Trevithick's locomotive that he made a bet with another ironmaster, Richard Crawshay, for 500 guineas that Trevithick's steam locomotive could haul ten tons of iron along the Merthyr Tydfil Tramroad from Penydarren () to Abercynon (), a distance of . Amid great interest from the public, on 21 February 1804 it successfully carried 10 tons of iron, 5 wagons and 70 men the full distance in 4 hours and 5 minutes, an average speed of approximately . As well as Homfray, Crawshay and the passengers, other witnesses included Mr. Giddy, a respected patron of Trevithick and an 'engineer from the Government'. The engineer from the government was probably a safety inspector and particularly interested in the boiler's ability to withstand high steam pressures.
The configuration of the Pen-y-Darren engine differed from the Coalbrookdale engine. The cylinder was moved to the other end of the boiler so that the fire door was out of the way of the moving parts. This obviously also involved putting the crankshaft at the chimney end. The locomotive comprised a boiler with a single return flue mounted on a four-wheel frame. At one end, a single cylinder with very long stroke was mounted partly in the boiler, and a piston rod crosshead ran out along a slidebar, an arrangement that looked like a giant trombone. As there was only one cylinder, this was coupled to a large flywheel mounted on one side. The rotational inertia of the flywheel would even out the movement that was transmitted to a central cog-wheel that was, in turn connected to the driving wheels. It used a high-pressure cylinder without a condenser; the exhaust steam was sent up the chimney assisting the draught through the fire, increasing efficiency even more.
The bet was won. Despite many people's doubts, it had been shown that, provided that the gradient was sufficiently gentle, it was possible to successfully haul heavy carriages along a smooth iron road using the adhesive weight alone of a suitably heavy and powerful steam locomotive. Trevithick's was probably the first to do so; however some of the short cast iron plates of the tramroad broke under the locomotive as they were intended only to support the lighter axle load of horse-drawn wagons and so the tramroad returned to horse power after the initial test run.
Homfray was pleased he won his bet. The engine was placed on blocks and reverted to its original stationary job of driving hammers.
In modern-day Merthyr Tydfil, behind the monument to Trevithick's locomotive lies a stone wall, the sole remainder of the former boundary wall of Homfray's Penydarren House.
A full-scale working reconstruction of the Pen-y-darren locomotive was commissioned in 1981 and delivered to the Welsh Industrial and Maritime Museum in Cardiff; when that closed, it was moved to the National Waterfront Museum in Swansea. Several times a year it is run on a length of rail outside the museum.
"Newcastle" locomotive
Christopher Blackett, proprietor of the Wylam colliery near Newcastle, heard of the success in Wales and wrote to Trevithick asking for locomotive designs. These were sent to John Whitfield at Gateshead, Trevithick's agent, who in 1804 built what was probably the first locomotive to have flanged wheels. Blackett was using wooden rails for his tramway and, once again, Trevithick's machine was to prove too heavy for its track.
Catch Me Who Can
In 1808 Trevithick publicised his steam railway locomotive expertise by building a new locomotive called Catch Me Who Can, built for him by John Hazledine and John Urpeth Rastrick at Bridgnorth in Shropshire, and named by Davies Giddy's daughter. The configuration differed from the previous locomotives in that the cylinder was mounted vertically and drove a pair of wheels directly without a flywheel or gearing. This was probably Trevithick's fourth locomotive, after those used at Coalbrookdale, Pen-y-darren ironworks, and the Wylam colliery. He ran it on a circular track just south of the present-day Euston Square tube station in London. The site in Bloomsbury has recently been identified archaeologically as that occupied by the Chadwick Building, part of University College London.
Admission to the "steam circus" was one shilling including a ride and it was intended to show that rail travel was faster than by horse. This venture also suffered from weak tracks and public interest was limited.
Trevithick was disappointed by the response and designed no more railway locomotives. It was not until 1812 that twin-cylinder steam locomotives, built by Matthew Murray in Holbeck, successfully started replacing horses for hauling coal wagons on the edge railed, rack and pinion Middleton Railway from Middleton colliery to Leeds, West Yorkshire.
Engineering projects
Thames tunnel
Robert Vazie, another Cornish engineer, was selected by the Thames Archway Company in 1805 to drive a tunnel under the River Thames at Rotherhithe. Vazie encountered serious problems with water influx, and had got no further than sinking the end shafts when the directors called in Trevithick for consultation. The directors agreed to pay Trevithick £1000 (the equivalent of £ in ) if he could successfully complete the tunnel, a length of . In August 1807, he began driving a small pilot tunnel or driftway high tapering from at the top to at the bottom. By 23 December, after it had progressed , progress was delayed after a sudden inrush of water; and only one month later on 26 January 1808, at , a more serious inrush occurred. The tunnel was flooded; Trevithick, being the last to leave, was nearly drowned. Clay was dumped on the river bed to seal the hole, and the tunnel was drained, but mining was now more difficult. Progress stalled, and a few of the directors attempted to discredit Trevithick, but the quality of his work was eventually upheld by two colliery engineers from the North of England. Despite suggesting various building techniques to complete the project, including a submerged cast iron tube, Trevithick's links with the company ceased and the project was never actually completed.
Completion
The first successful tunnel under the Thames was started by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel in 1823, upstream, assisted by his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel (who also nearly died in a tunnel collapse). Marc Brunel finally completed it in 1843, the delays being due to problems with funding.
Trevithick's suggestion of a submerged tube approach was successfully implemented for the first time across the Detroit River between Michigan in the United States and Ontario in Canada with the construction of the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, under the engineering supervision of The New York Central Railway's engineering vice president, William J Wilgus. Construction began in 1903 and was completed in 1910. The Detroit–Windsor Tunnel which was completed in 1930 for automotive traffic, and the tunnel under the Hong Kong Harbour were also submerged-tube designs.
Return to London
Trevithick went on to research other projects to exploit his high-pressure steam engines: boring brass for cannon manufacture, stone crushing, rolling mills, forge hammers, blast furnace blowers as well as the traditional mining applications. He also built a barge powered by paddle wheels and several dredgers.
Trevithick saw opportunities in London and persuaded his wife and four children reluctantly to join him in 1808 for two and a half years lodging first in Rotherhithe and then in Limehouse.
Nautical projects
In 1808 Trevithick entered a partnership with Robert Dickinson (businessman), a West India merchant. Dickinson supported several of Trevithick's patents. The first of these was the Nautical Labourer; a steam tug with a floating crane propelled by paddle wheels. However, it did not meet the fire regulations for the docks, and the Society of Coal Whippers, worried about losing their livelihood, even threatened the life of Trevithick.
Another patent was for the installation of iron tanks in ships for storage of cargo and water instead of in wooden casks. A small works was set up at Limehouse to manufacture them, employing three men. The tanks were also used to raise sunken wrecks by placing them under the wreck and creating buoyancy by pumping them full of air. In 1810 a wreck near Margate was raised in this way but there was a dispute over payment and Trevithick was driven to cut the lashings loose and let it sink again.
In 1809, Trevithick worked on various ideas on improvements for ships: iron floating docks, iron ships, telescopic iron masts, improved ship structures, iron buoys and using heat from the ships boilers for cooking.
Illness, financial difficulties and return to Cornwall
In May 1810 Trevithick caught typhoid and nearly died. By September, he had recovered sufficiently to travel back to Cornwall by ship, and in February 1811 he and Dickinson were declared bankrupt. They were not discharged until 1814, Trevithick having paid off most of the partnership debts from his own funds.
Cornish boiler and engine
In about 1812 Trevithick designed the ‘Cornish boiler’. These were horizontal, cylindrical boilers with a single internal fire tube or flue passing horizontally through the middle. Hot exhaust gases from the fire passed through the flue thus increasing the surface area heating the water and improving efficiency. These types were installed in the Boulton and Watt pumping engines at Dolcoath and more than doubled their efficiency.
Again in 1812, he installed a new 'high-pressure' experimental condensing steam engine at Wheal Prosper. This became known as the Cornish engine, and was the most efficient in the world at that time. Other Cornish engineers contributed to its development but Trevithick's work was predominant. In the same year he installed another high-pressure engine, though non-condensing, in a threshing machine on a farm at Probus, Cornwall. It was very successful and proved to be cheaper to run than the horses it replaced. It was in use for 70 years, and was then retired to an exhibit at the Science Museum.
Recoil engine
In one of Trevithick's more unusual projects, he attempted to build a 'recoil engine' similar to the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in about AD 50. Trevithick's engine comprised a boiler feeding a hollow axle to route the steam to a catherine wheel with two fine-bore steam jets on its circumference. The first wheel was in diameter and a later attempt was in diameter. To get any usable torque, steam had to issue from the nozzles at a very high velocity and in such large volume that it proved not to operate with adequate efficiency. Today this would be recognised as a reaction turbine.
South America
Draining the Peruvian silver mines
In 1811 draining water from the rich silver mines of Cerro de Pasco in Peru at an altitude of posed serious problems for the man in charge, Francisco Uville. The low-pressure condensing engines by Boulton and Watt developed so little power as to be useless at this altitude, and they could not be dismantled into sufficiently small pieces to be transported there along mule tracks. Uville was sent to England to investigate using Trevithick's high-pressure steam engine. He bought one for 20 guineas, transported it back and found it to work quite satisfactorily. In 1813 Uville set sail again for England and, having fallen ill on the way, broke his journey via Jamaica. When he had recovered he boarded the Falmouth packet ship 'Fox' coincidentally with one of Trevithick's cousins on board the same vessel. Trevithick's home was just a few miles from Falmouth so Uville was able to meet him and tell him about the project.
Trevithick leaves for South America
On 20 October 1816 Trevithick left Penzance on the whaler ship Asp accompanied by a lawyer named Page and a boilermaker bound for Peru. He was received by Uville with honour initially but relations soon broke down and Trevithick left in disgust at the accusations directed at him. He travelled widely in Peru acting as a consultant on mining methods. The government granted him certain mining rights and he found mining areas, but did not have the funds to develop them, with the exception of a copper and silver mine at Caxatambo. After a time serving in the army of Simon Bolivar he returned to Caxatambo but due to the unsettled state of the country and presence of the Spanish army he was forced to leave the area and abandon £5,000 worth of ore ready to ship. Uville died in 1818 and Trevithick soon returned to Cerro de Pasco to continue mining. However, the war of liberation denied him several objectives. Meanwhile, back in England, he was accused of neglecting his wife Jane and family in Cornwall.
Exploring the isthmus of Costa Rica on foot
After leaving Cerro de Pasco, Trevithick passed through Ecuador on his way to Bogotá in Colombia. He arrived in Costa Rica in 1822 hoping to develop mining machinery. He spent time looking for a practical route to transport ore and equipment, settling on using the San Juan River, the Sarapiqui River, and then a railway to cover the remaining distance. In a biography his son wrote that Trevithick had in mind a steam-driven railway and not mule-driven.
The initial party comprised Trevithick, Scottish mining projector James Gerard, two schoolboys: José Maria Montealegre (a future president of Costa Rica) and his brother Mariano, whom Gerard intended to enrol at a small boarding school at Lauderdale House in Highgate (where Trevithick later made his temporary London home), and seven natives, three of whom returned home after guiding them through the first part of their journey. The journey was treacherous – one of the party was drowned in a raging torrent and Trevithick was nearly killed on at least two occasions. In the first he was saved from drowning by Gerard, and in the second he was nearly devoured by an alligator following a dispute with a local man whom he had in some way offended. Still in the company of Gerard, he made his way to Cartagena where he chanced to meet Robert Stephenson who was himself on his way home from Colombia, following a failed three-year mining venture. It had been many years since they last met (when Stephenson was just a baby), and the two men were judged by witnesses to their meeting to have little in common. Despite this Stephenson gave Trevithick £50 to help his passage home. Whilst Stephenson and Gerard booked passage via New York, Trevithick took ship direct to Falmouth, arriving there in October 1827 with few possessions other than the clothes he was wearing. He never returned to Costa Rica.
Later projects
Taking encouragement from earlier inventors who had achieved some successes with similar endeavours, Trevithick petitioned Parliament for a grant, but he was unsuccessful in acquiring one.
In 1829 he built a closed cycle steam engine followed by a vertical tubular boiler.
In 1830 he invented an early form of storage room heater. It comprised a small fire tube boiler with a detachable flue which could be heated either outside or indoors with the flue connected to a chimney. Once hot the hot water container could be wheeled to where heat was required and the issuing heat could be altered using adjustable doors.
To commemorate the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 he designed a massive column to be high, being in diameter at the base tapering to at the top where a statue of a horse would have been mounted. It was to be made of 1500 10-foot-square (3 m) pieces of cast iron and would have weighed . There was substantial public interest in the proposal, but it was never built.
Final project
About the same time he was invited to do some development work on an engine of a new vessel at Dartford by John Hall, the founder of J & E Hall Limited. The work involved a reaction turbine for which Trevithick earned £1200. He lodged at The Bull hotel in the High Street, Dartford, Kent.
Death
After he had been working in Dartford for about a year, Trevithick was taken ill with pneumonia and had to retire to bed at the Bull Hotel, where he was lodging at the time. Following a week's confinement in bed he died on the morning of 22 April 1833. He was penniless, and no relatives or friends had attended his bedside during his illness. His colleagues at Hall's works made a collection for his funeral expenses and acted as bearers. They also paid a night watchman to guard his grave at night to deter grave robbers, as body snatching was common at that time.
Trevithick was buried in an unmarked grave in St Edmund's Burial Ground, East Hill, Dartford. The burial ground closed in 1857, with the gravestones being removed in 1956–57. A plaque marks the approximate spot believed to be the site of the grave. The plaque lies on the side of the park, near the East Hill gate, and an unlinked path.
Memorials
In Camborne, outside the public library, a statue by Leonard Stanford Merrifield depicting Trevithick holding one of his small-scale models was unveiled in 1932 by Prince George, Duke of Kent, in front of a crowd of thousands of local people.
On 17 March 2007, Dartford Borough Council invited the Chairman of the Trevithick Society, Phil Hosken, to unveil a Blue plaque at the Royal Victoria and Bull hotel (formerly The Bull) marking Trevithick's last years in Dartford and the place of his death in 1833. The Blue Plaque is prominently displayed on the hotel's front facade. There is also a plaque at Holy Trinity Church.
The Cardiff University Engineering, Computer Science and Physics departments are based around the Trevithick Building which also holds the Trevithick Library, named after Richard Trevithick.
In Gower Street in London, on the wall of the University College building, an elaborate wall plaque carries the legend: "Close to this place Richard Trevithick (Born 1771 – Died 1833) Pioneer of High Pressure Steam ran in the year 1808 the first steam locomotive to draw passengers." It was erected by "The Trevithick Centenary Memorial Committee".
One of the oldest depictions of Saint Piran's Flag can be seen in a stained glass window at Westminster Abbey, 1888, commemorating Richard Trevithick. The window depicts St Michael at the top and nine Cornish saints, Piran, Petroc, Pinnock, Germanus, Julian, Cyriacus, Constantine, Nonna and Geraint in tiers below. The head of St Piran appears to be a portrait of Trevithick himself and the figure carries the banner of Cornwall.
There is a plaque and memorial situated in Abercynon, outside the fire station. It says "In commemoration of the achievements of Richard Trevithick who having constructed the first steam locomotive did on February 21st 1804 successfully hail 10 tons of iron and numerous passengers along a tramroad from Merthyr to this precinct where was situated the loading point of the Glamorgan Canal". There is also a building in Abercynon called Ty Trevithick (Trevithick House), named in his honour.
On Penydarren Road, Merthyr Tydfil there is a memorial on the site of the Penydarren Tramway. The inscription reads "RICHARD TREVITHICK 1771-1833 PIONEER OF HIGH PRESSURE STEAM BUILT THE FIRST STEAM LOCOMOTIVE TO RUN ON RAILS. ON FEBRUARY 21ST 1804 IT TRAVERSED THE SPOT ON WHICH THIS MONUMENT STANDS ON ITS WAY TO ABERCYNON". A short walk north of that is the (slightly misspelled) Trevethick Street, named after Trevithick.
A replica of Trevithick's first full-size steam road locomotive was first displayed at Camborne Trevithick Day 2001, the day chosen for the celebration of Trevithick's public demonstration of the use of high-pressure steam. The team consisting of John Woodward, Mark Rivron and Sean Oliver, have continued to maintain and display the engine at various steam fairs across the country. The Puffing Devil has proudly led the parade of steam engines at every subsequent Trevithick day up to and including 2014.
Trevithick Drive in Temple Hill, Dartford, was named after Richard Trevithick.
Legacy
The Trevithick Society, a forerunner of Industrial Archaeology organizations that was initially formed to rescue the Levant winding engine from being scrapped, was named for Richard Trevithick. They publish a newsletter, a journal and many books on Cornish engines, the mining industry, engineers, and other industrial archaeological topics. There is also a street named after him in Merthyr Tydfil.
Richard Trevithick is celebrated in Camborne, Cornwall on Trevithick Day which is held annually on the last Saturday in April. The day is a community festival with steam engines from all over the UK attending. Towards the end of the day they parade through the streets of Camborne and steam past a statue of Richard Trevithick outside the Passmore Edwards building.
Harry Turtledove's alternate history short story "The Iron Elephant" has Richard Trevithick inventing his steam engine in 1782 and subsequently racing a mammoth-drawn train that it would in time come to supplant. This character was born sometime before 1771, and is American rather than British, indicating he (alongside station master George Stephenson) is an analog (a common Turtledove plot device) rather than the historical figure.
See also
List of topics related to Cornwall
References
Notes
Sources
Hodge, James (2003), Richard Trevithick (Lifelines; 6.) Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire HP27 9AA: Shire Publications
Lowe, James W. (1975), British Steam Locomotive Builders. Cambridge: Goose (reissued in 1989 by Guild Publishing)
Rogers, Col. H. C. (1961), Turnpike to Iron Road London: Seeley, Service & Co.; pp. 40–44
External links
The Camborne ‘Trevithick Day’ Website
Cornwall Record Office Online Catalogue for Richard Trevithick
Contributions to the Biography of Richard Trevithick Richard Edmonds, 1859
Richard Trevithick steam engine 1805–06 in the Energy Hall, Science Museum, London
Trevithick Society
1771 births
1833 deaths
18th-century British engineers
19th-century British engineers
18th-century British businesspeople
19th-century British businesspeople
People from Illogan
People of the Industrial Revolution
Explorers from Cornwall
Locomotive builders and designers
British mining engineers | [
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234548 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhotse | Lhotse | Lhotse ( ; , lho rtse) is the fourth highest mountain in the world at , after Mount Everest, K2, and Kangchenjunga. The main summit is on the border between Tibet and the Khumbu region of Nepal.
With Everest to the north and Nuptse to the west, Lhotse forms the apex of the massive horseshoe-shaped arc of the Everest massif. Despite the tremendous vertical relief of its South and Northeast Faces, it is the least prominent of the eight-thousanders due to the great height of the South Col between it and Everest. Lhotse’s Western Face, recessed behind the head of the Khumbu Glacier in the Western Cwm, plays an integral part in the standard routes of ascent for both peaks; the name Lhotse, which means "South Peak" in Tibetan, further emphasizes the close relationship between the two.
The main ridge of the mountain features four distinct summits: Lhotse Main at above sea level, Lhotse Middle (also known as Lhotse Central I or Lhotse East) at , Lhotse Central II at and Lhotse Shar at . Though Lhotse Main is considered to be an intermediately difficult eight-thousander when ascended from the standard Reiss Couloir route, its secondary summits and extremely steep South Face are regarded as some of the most difficult and dangerous climbs in the world. Its icy Northeastern Face remains unclimbed.
Climbing
An early attempt on Lhotse was by the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, headed by Norman Dyhrenfurth. It also included two Austrians (cartographer Erwin Schneider and Ernst Senn) and two Swiss (Bruno Spirig and Arthur Spöhel), and was the first expedition in the Everest area to include Americans (Fred Beckey, George Bell, and Richard McGowan). The Nepalese liaison officer was Gaya Nanda Vaidya. They were accompanied by 200 local porters and several climbing Sherpas. After a brief look at the dangerous southern approaches of Lhotse Shar, they turned their attention, during September and October, to the Western Cwm and the northwest face of Lhotse, on which they achieved an altitude of about . They were beaten back by unexpectedly strong wind and low temperatures. Under Schneider's direction, they completed the first map of the Everest area (1:50,000 photogrammetric). The expedition also made several short films covering local cultural topics and made a number of first ascents of smaller peaks in the Khumbu region.
The main summit of Lhotse was first climbed on 18 May 1956, by the Swiss team of Ernst Reiss and Fritz Luchsinger, members of the Swiss Mount Everest/Lhotse Expedition.
On 12 May 1970, Sepp Mayerl and Rolf Walter of Austria made the first ascent of Lhotse Shar.
Lhotse Middle remained, for a long time, the highest unclimbed named point on Earth; its first ascent was made on 23 May 2001 by Eugeny Vinogradsky, Sergei Timofeev, Alexei Bolotov and Petr Kuznetsov of a Russian expedition.
The Lhotse standard climbing route follows the same path as Everest's South Col route up to the Yellow Band beyond Camp 3. After the Yellow Band, the routes diverge with climbers bound for Everest taking a left over the Geneva Spur up to the South Col, while Lhotse climbers take a right further up the Lhotse face. The last part to the summit leads through the narrow "Reiss couloir" until the Lhotse main peak is reached.
By December 2008, 371 climbers had summited Lhotse while 20 had died during their attempt. Lhotse was not summited in 2014, 2015, or 2016 due to a series of incidents. It was next summited in May 2017.
Timeline
1955 Attempt by the International Himalayan Expedition.
1956 May 18 First ascent of the main summit: Fritz Luchsinger and Ernst Reiss.
1965 First attempt on Lhotse Shar by a Japanese expedition – reached .
1970 May 12 First ascent of Lhotse Shar by an Austrian expedition, Sepp Mayerl, Rolf Walter.
1973 First attempt on the South Face by a Japanese expedition led by Ryohei Uchida.
1974 December 25 First attempt of an 8,000-meter peak in winter. Polish climbers Andrzej Zawada and Andrzej Heinrich reached a height of 8,250 meters (27,067 ft.).
1975 Attempt on the South Face by Reinhold Messner.
1977 Second ascent of the main summit by a German expedition led by Dr. G. Schmatz.
1979 Ascent of the main summit by Andrzej Czok and Jerzy Kukuczka without the use of supplemental oxygen (Kukuczka's first conquered eight-thousander, and eventually the last one to climb 10 years later). Ascent was in company of Zygmunt Andrzej Heinrich and Janusz Skorek. 4 days later second group climbed to the peak - Janusz Baranek, Adam Bilczewski, Stanisław Cholewa, Robert Niklas. Leszek Czarnecki, climbed with the group without the use of supplemental oxygen, but carrying the oxygen to elevation of 8350 m, where he was forced to turn back due to inclement weather.
1980 April 27 Attempt on Lhotse Shar by the French climber Nicolas Jaeger, last seen at .
1981 Attempt on the South Face by a Yugoslavian expedition led by Aleš Kunaver. Vanja Matijevec and Franček Knez reach the top of the Face but not the summit.
1981 April 30 First solo ascent without the use of supplement oxygen of the main summit by Hristo Prodanov, as part of the first Bulgarian Himalayan expedition.
1981 October 16 Second ascent of Lhotse Shar, Colin Molines
1984 May 20/21 Members of the Czechoslovak expedition led by Ivan Galfy climb the South Face of Lhotse Shar for the first time (third overall ascent of Lhotse Shar).
1986 October 16 Ascent by Reinhold Messner, thus becoming the first person to climb all of the fourteen eight-thousanders.
1987 May 21 the Brazilian Otto William Gerstenberger Junior and the Swiss Haans Singera reach the summit.
1988 December 31 Krzysztof Wielicki, a Polish climber, completed the first winter ascent of Lhotse.
1989 October 24 Jerzy Kukuczka perishes while climbing the South Face when his secondhand rope breaks. An international expedition led by Reinhold Messner to climb the South Face was unsuccessful.
1990 April 24 Tomo Česen from Slovenia, makes a first solo ascent of the South Face of Lhotse. Controversy of his climb is later raised by the Soviet Himalayan expedition, claiming that his ascent would be impossible. Reinhold Messner would also raise his doubts.
1990 October 16 First ascent of South Face by the Soviet Himalayan expedition members Sergey Bershov and Gennadiy Karataev.
1994 May 13 Carlos Carsolio got mountaintop solo, introducing a world speed record at 23 h 50 min rise from Base Camp to the summit.
1996 May 10 Chantal Mauduit becomes the first woman to reach the summit of Lhotse.
1996 May 17 Anatoli Boukreev solo ascent, world speed record at 21 hours 16 min from Base Camp to summit without supplemental oxygen; he had summited Everest the week before.
1997 Attempt to climb Lhotse Middle via the ridge between the main summit and Lhotse Shar by a Russian expedition, led by Vladimir Bashkirov, who died in the attempt, just below the main summit.
1999 Attempt to climb Lhotse Middle and traverse the three summits by a Russian team, failed due to bad weather.
2001 May 23 First ascent of Lhotse Middle by a Russian expedition.
2007 Pemba Doma Sherpa, Nepali mountaineer and two-time summiter of Mount Everest, falls to her death from Lhotse at 8000 m
2011 May 14–15, Michael Horst, American guide, summits Mount Everest and Lhotse without descending below Camp IV (South Col) with less than 21 hours elapsing between the two summits.
2011 on 20 May, Indian mountaineer Arjun Vajpai became the youngest climber ever to summit Lhotse, aged 17 years, 11 months and 16 days.
2017 on 19 May, Belgian Stef 'Wolf' Wolfsput became the first person with a disability to climb to the summit of Lhotse and only the second Belgian. He suffers a paralysed leg.
2018 on 22 May, Mexican climber José Luis Sánchez Fernández became the first Latin American to summit both Mount Everest and Lhotse in less than 24 hours.
2018 on 30 September, Hilaree Nelson and Jim Morrison complete the first ski descent from the summit of Lhotse.
Lhotse Face
The western flank of Lhotse is known as the Lhotse Face. Any climber bound for the South Col on Everest must climb this wall of glacial blue ice. This face rises at 40 and 50-degree pitches with the occasional 80-degree bulges. High-altitude climbing Sherpas and the lead climbers will set fixed ropes up this wall of ice. Climbers and porters need to establish a good rhythm of foot placement and pulling themselves up the ropes using their jumars. Two rocky sections called the Yellow Band and the Geneva Spur interrupt the icy ascent on the upper part of the face.
On 19 May 2016, a high-altitude mountain worker, Ang Furba Sherpa, died when he slipped and fell down the Lhotse face.
From Gokyo Ri
See also
Lhotse Shar Glacier
Notes
References
Further reading
A. Arnette : Lhotse gaining attention (2014)
E. Morgan: Lhotse South Face – The Wall of Legends (2016)
External links
Lhotse page on Himalaya-Info.org (German)
Lhotse page on Summitpost
Ascents and fatalities statistics
Mountains of Tibet
Eight-thousanders of the Himalayas
China–Nepal border
International mountains of Asia
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234549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann%20Cup | Mann Cup | The Mann Cup is the trophy awarded to the senior men's box lacrosse champions of Canada. The championship is a best-of-seven, East vs West series played between the league champions of Major Series Lacrosse, the East, and Western Lacrosse Association, the West.
The original trophy is now permanently located in the Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame. It is one of the most valuable in all of sports; made of solid, albeit low-karat, gold, the trophy was valued at CA$60,000 () when appraised by Birks in May 1980.
History
It was donated in 1910 by Sir Donald Mann; prior to then, the Minto Cup was the senior amateur championship trophy. The Mann Cup was originally a challenge trophy, but in 1925 the champion New Westminster Salmonbellies turned the trophy over to the Canadian Lacrosse Association who instituted a national playoff system. The challenges and championships for the Mann Cup were played by the rules of traditional field lacrosse until 1932, when box lacrosse was adopted by the Canadian Lacrosse Association. The first indoor Mann Cup was played at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto in October 1932.
There have actually been three Mann Cup trophies in existence - the original and two replicas. The original 1910 trophy was in use from 1910 until 1985, when it was retired permanently to the Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame. A replica trophy, which has a larger and taller base than the original 1910 trophy, was in use and awarded to teams from 1986 until 2004 when it was destroyed in a bonfire mishap in Peterborough. The second replica replaced the first replica in 2005, and its appearance mirrors the previous 1986 replica trophy and not the original 1910 trophy.
Champions
1914 Calgary Chinooks dispute
In 1914, the Vancouver Athletic Club defeated the Calgary Chinooks and Brampton Excelsiors in Mann Cup challenge matches but the Mann Cup Trustees disputed the status of one of the Vancouver players in the series versus Brampton.
Despite the views of British Columbia lacrosse, national lacrosse and amateur athletic organisations that supported Vancouver's position, the trustees instead awarded the cup to the Calgary Chinooks on September 29, 1914. Vancouver however held on to the gold trophy and refused to turn it over to either the trustees or the Chinooks. On December 7, 1914, the Canadian Amateur Lacrosse Association overruled Mann Cup trustee Joseph Lally and awarded the cup to the Vancouver Athletic Club.
1922 Vancouver Lacrosse Club
In 1922, there were two rival leagues located in British Columbia battling for the Mann Cup: Vancouver Lacrosse Club and Victoria Capitals played in the British Columbia Amateur Lacrosse Association's senior league while the New Westminster Salmonbellies and Vancouver Elks played in the Pacific Coast Amateur Lacrosse Association. Control of the Mann Cup was retained by the BCALA after New Westminster left that league to join the PCALA. Vancouver Lacrosse Club won their schedule and were awarded the Mann Cup, while New Westminster won their series in the PCALA.
Just over a month later, Vancouver Lacrosse Club and New Westminster met in a three-game, total goals series to determine who would take home the Mann and Kilmarnock Cups. After Vancouver (who were at the time considered the holders of the Mann Cup) were up 7–6 in goals after two games, they then defaulted their third game after a brawl broke out and the team refused to return to the field. The score was 1-1, so New Westminster lined up and they then went through the formal motions of scoring two unopposed goals into the empty net to take the series and the silverware back by 9 goals to 8.
1963 Cornwall, Ontario series
In 1963, Cornwall, Ontario was named as host city for the Mann Cup despite not even having a senior lacrosse team nor ever participating in the Mann Cup previously.
The Western teams at that time were dominating play in Canada over their Eastern bretheran, and had turned down their rights for hosting that year as they wanted the finals held in the East for successive bacj-to-back years to help stimulate and rejuvinate interest in the sport and the tournament. Howvever none of the then-current teams in the Ontario Lacrosse Association league had, or could raise, the $10,000 required by the host for the performance bond posted with the Canadian Lacrosse Association.
Officials in Cornwall stepped up and in August 1963 the city was awarded the hosting rights for the 1963 Mann Cup.
Cup mishaps
In 1989, the Mann Cup was stolen from the Canadian Lacrosse Hall of Fame in New Westminster, British Columbia. Despite fears of the cup being melted down for its gold content, it turned up a few weeks later, with a small chunk cut out of the rim, but otherwise intact.
Following the 1999 Mann Cup final, the cup broke during the post-game "victory lap" taken by the Victoria Shamrocks around Memorial Arena.
In 2004, the Peterborough Lakers won the Mann Cup. During a celebratory gathering the replica of the trophy was dropped in a bonfire and was destroyed.
See also
Mike Kelley Memorial Trophy – Mann Cup MVP award.
References
Notes
Lacrosse competitions in Canada
Lacrosse trophies and awards
Canadian sports trophies and awards
Awards established in 1910
1910 establishments in Canada | [
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234554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikaru%20no%20Go | Hikaru no Go | is a Japanese manga series based on the board game Go, written by Yumi Hotta and illustrated by Takeshi Obata. The production of the series' Go games was supervised by Go professional Yukari Umezawa. It was serialized in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1999 to 2003, with its chapters collected into 23 tankōbon volumes.
It was adapted into an anime television series by Studio Pierrot, which ran for 75 episodes from 2001 to 2003 on TV Tokyo, with a New Year's Special aired in January 2004. Viz Media released both the manga and anime in North America; they serialized the manga in Shonen Jump, released its collected volumes in entirety, and the anime aired simultaneously on ImaginAsian.
Hikaru no Go was well-received, had over 25 million copies in circulation and won the Shogakukan Manga Award in 2000 and Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 2003. It is largely responsible for popularizing Go among the youth of Japan since its debut, and considered by Go players everywhere to have sparked worldwide interest in the game, noticeably increasing the Go-playing population around the globe.
Plot
While exploring his grandfather's shed, Hikaru Shindo stumbles across a Go board haunted by the spirit of Fujiwara-no-Sai, a Go player from the Heian era. Sai wishes to play Go again, having not been able to since the late Edo period, when his ghost appeared to Honinbo Shusaku, a top Go player of that period. Sai's greatest desire is to attain the – a perfect move. Because Hikaru is apparently the only person who can perceive him, Sai inhabits a part of Hikaru's mind as a separate personality, coexisting, although not always comfortably, with the young boy.
Urged by Sai, Hikaru begins playing Go despite an initial lack of interest in the game. He begins by simply executing the moves Sai dictates to him, but Sai tells him to try to understand each move. In a Go salon, Hikaru twice defeats Akira Toya, a boy his age who plays Go at professional level, by following Sai's instruction. Akira subsequently begins a quest to discover the source of Hikaru's strength, an obsession which will come to dominate his life.
Hikaru becomes intrigued by the great dedication of Akira and Sai to the game and decides to start playing solely on his own. He is a complete novice at first, but has some unique abilities to his advantage; for instance, once he has a basic understanding of Go, he can reconstruct a game play by play from memory. Through training at Go clubs, study groups, and practice games with Sai, he manages to become an Insei and later a pro, meeting various dedicated Go players of different ages and styles along the way. He also demonstrates a natural talent for the game and remains determined to prove his own abilities to Akira, Sai, and himself.
Hikaru enters the Hokuto Cup, an international tournament for under-18 Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Go professionals. As the highest-ranking under-18 pro, Akira qualifies for the tournament, but Hikaru has to compete in a series of games to become one of the three Japanese competitors. His friends Waya and Ochi also enter the qualifying matches. He meets Kiyoharu Yashiro, a player from the Kansai Ki-in, whose style is as strange and offbeat as his own. Hikaru, along with Akira and Kiyoharu Yashiro, are selected to represent Japan, while Suyong Hong (a Korean Go player who was beaten by Hikaru earlier in the series) and two others represent Korea and three of Shinichiro Isumi's Chinese friends represent their country.
The captain of the Korean Go team, Ko Yong Ha, is interviewed and his remarks are translated for Japanese viewers. The translator makes an error which causes it to appear that he is disparaging the skill of Honinbo Shusaku, who, like Hikaru, was possessed by Sai. Although Ko Yong Ha later finds out, he refuses to correct the error and instead emphasizes it when he realizes that it enrages Hikaru, who takes it as a direct affront to Sai. Considering their achievements and skills, Hikaru is still slightly under Akira. Therefore, their team coach, Atsushi Kurata, chooses Akira to be the captain. However, Hikaru wants to play against Ko Yong Ha, who is the captain in Korea, in order to show him that Sai is the most skillful Go player in the history of the game. Atsushi Kurata grants Hikaru's request when they play against Korea in the tournament because he sees the burning spirit in him. At the end, Hikaru loses by only half a point. Japan eventually comes in last, behind Korea and China. But the Japanese team impressed both professionals from China and Korea because they did much better than what was expected. At the end of the game, Ko Yong Ha asks Hikaru for his reason for playing Go. With tears in his eyes, he answers with the line "To link the far past, with the far future". The hidden meaning of this line indicates the links and emotional relationships between Sai, Shusaku, and Hikaru. However, no one understands the context of this line besides Hikaru.
A bonus story, set shortly after the Hokuto Cup event, shows two Inseis, who are ranked 14th and 16th in the group, discussing whether Akira Toya or Hikaru Shindo were stronger. In the Young Lions tournament, they are each paired with Hikaru and Akira, making them change their minds about who is stronger. In the second round, Hikaru and Akira are paired against each other and begin a match, but the conclusion is unknown.
Media
Manga
Written by Yumi Hotta and illustrated by Takeshi Obata, Hikaru no Go was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine from January 8, 1999, to July 14, 2003. Go professional Yukari Umezawa (5-dan) provided "supervision" for the series. The 189 chapters were collected into 23 tankōbon volumes by Shueisha; the first published on April 30, 1999 and the last on September 4, 2003.
Viz Media acquired the North American English-language rights to Hikaru no Go in June 2003. The series debuted in the January 2004 issue of Viz's Shonen Jump magazine, released in December 2003. However, after the April 2008 issue it was replaced by Slam Dunk. They released all 23 collected volumes from May 19, 2004 to May 3, 2011.
Anime
Hikaru no Go was adapted into an anime television series by Studio Pierrot. It was broadcast on TV Tokyo from October 10, 2001 to March 26, 2003 for 75 episodes. A New Year's Special titled aired on January 3, 2004.
Viz Media acquired the North American English-language rights to the Hikaru no Go anime at the same time as the manga, in June 2003. The Ocean Group produced an English voice dub for the series. A "Sneak Preview" DVD of the first episode was included in the January 2006 issue of Shonen Jump (Volume 4, Issue 1) to subscribers. Viz began releasing the series on DVD on December 27, 2005. However, only eleven volumes were released (covering 45 episodes) before they were officially discontinued in April 2008. Hikaru no Go debuted on ImaginAsian TV in the United States on May 2, 2006. Each episode aired in subtitled Japanese every Tuesday, before the English dub of the same episode was shown on Saturday. It premiered on the online streaming service Toonami Jetstream on July 14, 2006, and ran until the service shut down in January 2009 with only three episodes remaining. The entire series was added to Netflix in 2011.
Video games
A series of three Go video games based on the series were created by Konami for the Game Boy Advance. The third was also released on the GameCube. Hikaru and Sai also appear as support characters in the Weekly Shōnen Jump crossover game Jump Super Stars.
Live-action drama
A 36-episode Chinese live-action adaptation titled Qi Hun, directed by Liu Chang, was streamed on the iQIYI online platform from October 27 to November 26, 2020.
Reception
Hikaru no Go has been well-received, with more than 25 million collected volumes in circulation. It also won the Shogakukan Manga Award in 2000 and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 2003. In November 2014, readers of Media Factory's Da Vinci magazine voted Hikaru no Go #14 on a list of Weekly Shōnen Jumps greatest manga series of all time. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150.000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Hikaru no Go ranked #82.
Hikaru no Go dramatically increased the popularity of Go in Japan and elsewhere, particularly among young children. As a result, many Go clubs were started by people influenced by the manga.
Go professional Yukari Umezawa served as the technical advisor for the anime and promoted the game on behalf of the Nihon Ki-in. She had a short one-minute special at the end of every episode instructing kids how to play Go.
In 2004, Hikaru no Go came in 18th on Animage readers poll of their Favorite Anime Series. In TV Asahi's 2008 Top 100 Anime poll, the series came in 83rd in the nationwide survey of multiple age groups and 93rd in the online poll. The following year, it came in 81st in the online poll.
See also
Go Player, a Chinese animated series about young Go players
References
External links
Official website
TV Tokyo's Hikaru no Go page
Hikaru no Go trading card website
2001 anime television series debuts
Coming-of-age anime and manga
Pierrot (company)
School life in anime and manga
Shōnen manga
Shows on Toonami Jetstream
Shueisha franchises
Shueisha manga
Sports anime and manga
Supernatural anime and manga
Takeshi Obata
TV Tokyo original programming
TVB
Viz Media anime
Viz Media manga
Winner of Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize (Creative Award)
Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen manga
Works about Go
Zainichi Korean culture | [
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234555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We%20%28novel%29 | We (novel) | We () is a dystopian novel by Russian writer Yevgeny Zamyatin, written 1920–1921. It was first published as an English translation by Gregory Zilboorg in 1924 by E. P. Dutton in New York, with the original Russian text first published in 1952. The novel describes a world of harmony and conformity within a united totalitarian state. It influenced the emergence of dystopia as a literary genre. George Orwell claimed that Aldous Huxley's 1931 Brave New World must be partly derived from We, but Huxley denied this.
Setting
We is set in the future. D-503, a spacecraft engineer, lives in the One State, an urban nation constructed almost entirely of glass, which assists mass surveillance. The structure of the state is Panopticon-like, and life is scientifically managed F. W. Taylor-like. People march in step with each other and are uniformed. There is no way of referring to people except by their given numbers. The society is run strictly by logic or reason as the primary justification for the laws or the construct of the society. The individual's behaviour is based on logic by way of formulae and equations outlined by the One State.
Plot
A few hundred years after the One State's conquest of the entire world, the spaceship Integral is being built in order to invade and conquer extraterrestrial planets. Meanwhile, the project's chief engineer, D-503, begins a journal that he intends to be carried upon the completed spaceship.
Like all other citizens of One State, D-503 lives in a glass apartment building and is carefully watched by the secret police, or Bureau of Guardians. D-503's lover, O-90, has been assigned by One State to visit him on certain nights. She is considered too short to bear children and is deeply grieved by her state in life. O-90's other lover and D-503's best friend is R-13, a State poet who reads his verse at public executions.
While on an assigned walk with O-90, D-503 meets a woman named I-330. I-330 smokes cigarettes, drinks alcohol, and shamelessly flirts with D-503 instead of applying for an impersonal sex visit; all of these are highly illegal according to the laws of One State.
Both repelled and fascinated, D-503 struggles to overcome his attraction to I-330. She invites him to visit the Ancient House, notable for being the only opaque building in One State, except for windows. Objects of aesthetic and historical importance dug up from around the city are stored there. There, I-330 offers him the services of a corrupt doctor to explain his absence from work. Leaving in horror, D-503 vows to denounce her to the Bureau of Guardians, but finds that he cannot.
He begins to have dreams, which disturbs him, as dreams are thought to be a symptom of mental illness. Slowly, I-330 reveals to D-503 that she is involved with the Mephi, an organization plotting to bring down the One State. She takes him through secret tunnels inside the Ancient House to the world outside the Green Wall, which surrounds the city-state. There, D-503 meets the inhabitants of the outside world: humans whose bodies are covered with animal fur. The aims of the Mephi are to destroy the Green Wall and reunite the citizens of One State with the outside world.
Despite the recent rift between them, O-90 pleads with D-503 to impregnate her illegally. After O-90 insists that she will obey the law by turning over their child to be raised by the One State, D-503 obliges. However, as her pregnancy progresses, O-90 realizes that she cannot bear to be parted from her baby under any circumstances. At D-503's request, I-330 arranges for O-90 to be smuggled outside the Green Wall.
In his last journal entry, D-503 indifferently relates that he has been forcibly tied to a table and subjected to the "Great Operation", which has recently been mandated for all citizens of One State in order to prevent possible riots; having been psycho-surgically refashioned into a state of mechanical "reliability", they would now function as "tractors in human form". This operation removes the imagination and emotions by targeting parts of the brain with X-rays. After this operation, D-503 willingly informed the Benefactor about the inner workings of the Mephi. However, D-503 expresses surprise that even torture could not induce I-330 to denounce her comrades. Despite her refusal, I-330 and those arrested with her have been sentenced to death, "under the Benefactor's Machine".
Meanwhile, the Mephi uprising gathers strength; parts of the Green Wall have been destroyed, birds are repopulating the city, and people start committing acts of social rebellion. Although D-503 expresses hope that the Benefactor shall restore "reason", the novel ends with One State's survival in doubt. I-330's mantra is that, just as there is no highest number, there can be no final revolution.
Major themes
Dystopian society
The dystopian society depicted in We is presided over by the Benefactor and is surrounded by a giant Green Wall to separate the citizens from primitive untamed nature. All citizens are known as "numbers". Every hour in one's life is directed by "The Table".
The action of We is set at some time after the Two Hundred Years' War, which has wiped out all but "0.2 percent of the earth's population". The war was over a rare substance only mentioned in the book through a biblical metaphor; the substance was called "bread" as the "Christians gladiated over it"—as in countries fighting conventional wars. The war only ended after the use of weapons of mass destruction, so that the One State is surrounded with a post-apocalyptic landscape.
Allusions and references
Many of the names and numbers in We are allusions to personal experiences of Zamyatin or to culture and literature.
For example, "Auditorium 112" refers to cell number 112, where Zamyatin was twice imprisoned, and the name of S-4711 is a reference to the Eau de Cologne number 4711.
Zamyatin, who worked as a naval architect, refers to the specifications of the icebreaker St. Alexander Nevsky.
The numbers [. . .] of the chief characters in WE are taken directly from the specifications of Zamyatin's favourite icebreaker, the Saint Alexander Nevsky, yard no. A/W 905, round tonnage 3300, where O–90 and I-330 appropriately divide the hapless D-503 [. . .] Yu-10 could easily derive from the Swan Hunter yard numbers of no fewer than three of Zamyatin's major icebreakers – 1012, 1020, 1021 [. . .]. R-13 can be found here too, as well as in the yard number of Sviatogor A/W 904."All these icebreakers were constructed in England, in Newcastle and yards nearby; there are traces of my work in every one of them, especially the Alexander Nevsky—now the Lenin;I did the preliminary design, and after that none of the vessel's drawings arrived in the workshop without having been checked and signed:
'Chief surveyor of Russian Icebreakers' Building E.Zamiatin." [The signature is written in English.] (Zamyatin ([1962]))
Many comparisons to The Bible exist in We. There are similarities between Genesis Chapters 1–4 and We, where the One State is considered Paradise, D-503 is Adam, and I-330 is Eve. The snake in this piece is S-4711, who is described as having a bent and twisted form, with a "double-curved body" (he is a double agent). References to Mephistopheles (in the Mephi) are seen as allusions to Satan and his rebellion against Heaven in the Bible (Ezekiel 28:11–19; Isaiah 14:12–15). The novel itself could be considered a criticism of organised religion given this interpretation. However, Zamyatin, influenced by Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Notes from Underground and The Brothers Karamazov, made the novel a criticism of the excesses of a militantly atheistic society. The novel displayed an indebtedness to H. G. Wells's dystopia When the Sleeper Wakes (1899).
The novel uses mathematical concepts symbolically. The spaceship that D-503 is supervising the construction of is called the Integral, which he hopes will "integrate the grandiose cosmic equation". D-503 also mentions that he is profoundly disturbed by the concept of the square root of −1—which is the basis for imaginary numbers (imagination being deprecated by the One State). Zamyatin's point, probably in light of the increasingly dogmatic Soviet government of the time, would seem to be that it is impossible to remove all the rebels against a system. Zamyatin even says this through I-330: "There is no final revolution. Revolutions are infinite."
Literary significance and influences
Along with Jack London's The Iron Heel, We is generally considered to be the grandfather of the satirical futuristic dystopia genre. It takes the modern industrial society to an extreme conclusion, depicting a state that believes that free will is the cause of unhappiness, and that citizens' lives should be controlled with mathematical precision based on the system of industrial efficiency created by Frederick Winslow Taylor. The Soviet attempt at implementing Taylorism, led by Aleksei Gastev, may have immediately influenced Zamyatin's portrayal of the One State.
Christopher Collins in Evgenij Zamjatin: An Interpretive Study finds the many intriguing literary aspects of We more interesting and relevant today than the political aspects:
An examination of myth and symbol reveals that the work may be better understood as an internal drama of a conflicted modern man rather than as a representation of external reality in a failed utopia. The city is laid out as a mandala, populated with archetypes and subject to an archetypal conflict. One wonders if Zamyatin were familiar with the theories of his contemporary C. G. Jung or whether it is a case here of the common European zeitgeist.
Much of the cityscape and expressed ideas in the world of We are taken almost directly from the works of H. G. Wells, a popular apostle of scientific socialist utopia whose works Zamyatin had edited in Russian.
In the use of color and other imagery Zamyatin shows he was influenced by Kandinsky and other European Expressionist painters.
The little-known Russian dystopian novel Love in the Fog of the Future, published in 1924 by Andrei Marsov, has also been compared to We.
George Orwell claimed that Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932) must be partly derived from We. However, in a letter to Christopher Collins in 1962, Huxley says that he wrote Brave New World as a reaction to H. G. Wells's utopias long before he had heard of We.
Kurt Vonnegut said that in writing Player Piano (1952), he "cheerfully ripped off the plot of Brave New World, whose plot had been cheerfully ripped off from Yevgeny Zamyatin's We". Ayn Rand's Anthem (1938) has many significant similarities to We (detailed here), although it is stylistically and thematically different. Vladimir Nabokov's novel Invitation to a Beheading may suggest a dystopian society with some similarities to Zamyatin's; Nabokov read We while writing Invitation to a Beheading.
Orwell began Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) some eight months after he read We in a French translation and wrote a review of it. Orwell is reported as "saying that he was taking it as the model for his next novel". Brown writes that for Orwell and certain others, We "appears to have been the crucial literary experience". Shane states that "Zamyatin's influence on Orwell is beyond dispute". Robert Russell, in an overview of the criticism of We, concludes that "1984 shares so many features with We that there can be no doubt about its general debt to it", however, there is a minority of critics who view the similarities between We and 1984 as "entirely superficial". Further, Russell finds that "Orwell's novel is both bleaker and more topical than Zamyatin's, lacking entirely that ironic humour that pervades the Russian work".
In The Right Stuff (1979), Tom Wolfe describes We as a "marvelously morose novel of the future" featuring an "omnipotent spaceship" called the Integral whose "designer is known only as 'D-503, Builder of the Integral'". Wolfe goes on to use the Integral as a metaphor for the Soviet launch vehicle, the Soviet space programme, or the Soviet Union.
Jerome K. Jerome has been cited as an influence on Zamyatin's novel. Jerome's short story The New Utopia (1891) describes a regimented future city, indeed world, of nightmarish egalitarianism, where men and women are barely distinguishable in their grey uniforms (Zamyatin's "unifs") and all have short black hair, natural or dyed. No one has a name: women wear even numbers on their tunics, and men wear odd, just as in We. Equality is taken to such lengths that people with well-developed physiques are liable to have lopped limbs. In Zamyatin, similarly, the equalisation of noses is earnestly proposed. Jerome has anyone with an overactive imagination subjected to a levelling-down operation—something of central importance in We. There is a shared depiction by both Jerome and Zamyatin that individual and, by extension, familial love is a disruptive and humanizing force. Jerome's works were translated in Russia three times before 1917. Jerome's Three Men in a Boat is a set book in Russian schools.
In 1998, the first English translation of Cursed Days, a diary kept in secret by anti-communist Russian author Ivan Bunin during the Russian Civil War in Moscow and Odessa was published in Chicago. In a foreword, the diary's English translator, Thomas Gaiton Marullo, described Cursed Days as a rare example of dystopian nonfiction and pointed out multiple parallels between the secret diary kept by Bunin and the diary kept by D-503.
Publication history
Zamyatin's literary position deteriorated throughout the 1920s, and he was eventually allowed to emigrate to Paris in 1931, probably after the intercession of Maxim Gorky.
The novel was first published in English in 1924 by E. P. Dutton in New York in a translation by Gregory Zilboorg, but its first publication in the Soviet Union had to wait until 1988, when glasnost resulted in it appearing alongside George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. A year later, We and Brave New World were published together in a combined edition.
In 1994, the novel received a Prometheus Award in the "Hall of Fame" category.
Russian language editions
(bibrec) (bibrec )
The first complete Russian language edition of We was published in New York in 1952. (Brown, p. xiv, xxx)
(bibrec) (bibrec )
We was first published in the USSR in this collection of Zamyatin's works. (Brown, p. xiv, xxx)
(also cited as Zamyatin: We, Duckworth, 2006)
Edited with Introduction and Notes by Andrew Barratt. Plain Russian text, with English introduction, bibliography and notes.
Translations to English
(preview)
(author photo on cover)
Translations to other languages
Zamiatin, Yevgueni (1970). Nosotros. Juan Benusiglio Berndt (trans.). Barcelona: Plaza & Janés.
Zamiatine, Evgueni (2017). Nous (in French). Hélène Henry (trans.). Arles (France): Actes Sud. .
Adaptations
Films
The German TV network ZDF adapted the novel for a TV movie in 1982, under the German title Wir (English: We).
The novel has also been adapted, by Alain Bourret, a French director, into a short film called The Glass Fortress (2016). The Glass Fortress is an experimental film that employs a technique known as freeze frame, and is shot in black-and-white, which help support the grim atmosphere of the story's dystopian society. The film is technically similar to La Jetée (1962), directed by Chris Marker, and refers somewhat to THX 1138 (1971), by George Lucas, in the "religious appearance of the Well Doer". According to film critic Isabelle Arnaud, The Glass Fortress has a special atmosphere underlining a story of thwarted love that will be long remembered.
A Russian film adaptation, directed by Hamlet Dulyan and starring Egor Koreshkov, is in post-production as of May 2021, with a projected release sometime in the fall.
Theatre
Montreal company Théâtre Deuxième Réalité produced an adaptation of the novel in 1996, adapted and directed by Alexandre Marine, under the title Nous Autres.
Music
Released in 2015, The Glass Fortress is a musical and narrative adaptation of the novel by Rémi Orts Project and Alan B.
Legacy
We, the 1921 Russian novel, directly inspired:
Aldous Huxley Brave New World (1932) (Disputed by Huxley, see above.)
Vladimir Nabokov's Invitation to a Beheading (1935–1936)
Ayn Rand Anthem (1938)
George Orwell Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)
Kurt Vonnegut Player Piano (1952)
William F. Nolan & George Clayton Johnson Logan's Run (1967)
Ursula K. Le Guin The Dispossessed (1974)
Ira Levin This Perfect Day (1992)
See also
Cursed Days by Ivan Bunin
This Perfect Day
Notes
References
Reviews
Sally Feller, Your Daily Dystopian History Lesson From Yevgeny Zamyatin: A Review of We
Books
Journal articles
(updates articles by Myers published in The Slavonic and East European Review)
English: My wives, icebreakers and Russia. Russian: О моих женах, о ледоколах и о России.
The original date and location of publication are unknown, although he mentions the 1928 rescue of the Nobile expedition by the Krasin, the renamed Svyatogor.
The article is reprinted in E. I. Zamiatin, 'O moikh zhenakh, o ledokolakh i o Rossii', Sochineniia (Munich, 1970–1988, four vols.) II, pp. 234–40.
External links
(1924 Zilboorg translation, in English)
We - full text
We - full text
Film -
1924 Russian novels
1924 science fiction novels
Censorship in the Soviet Union
Dystopian novels
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Fictional astronauts
Novels about totalitarianism
Russian novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Yevgeny Zamyatin
Russian philosophical novels
Russian magic realism novels
Russian novels adapted into films
Russian science fiction novels
Soviet science fiction novels
Cosmism
Science fiction novels adapted into films
Soviet novels | [
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234556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body%20Glove | Body Glove | Body Glove is an American brand of watersports apparel and accessories that was founded in 1953 by twin brothers Bill and Bob Meistrell. The brothers are often credited with inventing the first practical wetsuit in the early 1950s at the back of their Redondo Beach, California surf shop, Dive N' Surf. From those wetsuits, Body Glove branched out into other product categories. They now make wetsuits, swimsuits, clothing, shoes, life vests, sunglasses, wakeboards, paddle boards, towables, backpacks, phone cases and snorkeling equipment.
History
Body Glove was started by identical twins Bill and Bob Meistrell in Redondo Beach, CA. They were raised in Boonville, Missouri and moved to Manhattan Beach, CA in 1944. They were always interested in the water and even crafted a rudimentary scuba helmet out of an oil can, tar, glass and a bicycle pump so that they could explore a pond on their family farm. When they moved to Manhattan Beach, they fell even more in love with the water. They both were on their high school swim team and became interested in surfing and diving. They became certified Los Angeles County Lifeguards.
Bill and Bob borrowed $1800 from their mother and each bought one third of the local sports shop called Dive N' Surf, owned then by surfboard shaper Hap Jacobs and dive entrepreneur Bev Morgan. Because the water was cold in the winter, they needed to find a way to stay in the water longer. In 1953, Bill Meistrell went to Bedford, Virginia, where he found the insulation used in the back of refrigerators, neoprene, and the first practical wetsuit was born. The Meistrells designed and tailored their own brand of wetsuits. In the beginning, the wetsuits were named the Dive N Surf Thermocline. The Meistrells did not think this was a great name, so they hired a marketing consultant, Duke Boyd. He asked about the characteristics of the suits, and Bill said "They fit like a glove," so Boyd came up with the name Body Glove.
The business has stayed in the Meistrell family for three generations. There are five 2nd-generation Meistrells: Billy, Julie, Robbie, Ronnie and Randy. There are 13 3rd-generation Meistrells, two of whom still work for the company: Nick Meistrell and Jenna Meistrell. The company continues to make products for the active outdoor enthusiast.
Sponsorship
The company's pro surfers include:
Tatiana Weston-Webb
Mo Freitas
Alex Gray
Cheyne Magnusson
Past athletes include: Jamie O'Brien, Anthony Walsh, Nate Yeomans, Gabe Kling, Mike Losness, Holly Beck, Bruce Irons.
The company's pro wakeboarders include:
Harley Clifford
Bob Soven
Rusty Malinoski
Noah Flegel
Keenan Flegel
Taylor Dorey
References
External links
Body Glove Facebook page
Body Glove Performance site
Companies based in Los Angeles County, California
Clothing companies established in 1953
1980s fashion
Surfwear brands
Redondo Beach, California
1953 establishments in California | [
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234557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptocephalus | Leptocephalus | Leptocephalus (meaning "slim head") is the flat and transparent larva of the eel, marine eels, and other members of the superorder Elopomorpha. This is one of the most diverse groups of teleosts, containing 801 species in 4 orders, 24 families, and 156 genera. This group is thought to have arisen in the Cretaceous period over 140 million years ago.
Fishes with a leptocephalus larval stage include the most familiar eels such as the conger, moray eel, and garden eel as well as members of the family Anguillidae, plus more than 10 other families of lesser-known types of marine eels. These are all true eels of the order Anguilliformes. Leptocephali of eight species of eels from the South Atlantic Ocean were described by Meyer-Rochow
The fishes of the other four traditional orders of elopomorph fishes that have this type of larvae are more diverse in their body forms and include the tarpon, bonefish, spiny eel, pelican eel and deep sea species like Cyema atrum and notacanthidae species, the latter with giant Leptocephalus-like larvae.
Description
Leptocephali (singular leptocephalus) all have laterally compressed bodies that contain transparent jelly-like substances on the inside of the body and a thin layer of muscle with visible myomeres on the outside. Their body organs are small and they have only a simple tube for a gut. This combination of features results in them being very transparent when they are alive. Leptocephali have dorsal and anal fins confluent with caudal fins, but lack pelvic fins.
They also lack red blood cells until they begin to metamorphose into the juvenile glass eel stage when they start to look like eels. Leptocephali are also characterized by their fang-like teeth that are present until metamorphosis, when they are lost.
Leptocephali differ from most fish larvae because they grow to much larger sizes and have long larval periods of about three months to more than a year. Another distinguishing feature of these organisms is their mucinous pouch. They move with typical anguilliform swimming motions and can swim forwards and backwards. Their food source was difficult to determine because zooplankton, which are the typical food of fish larvae, were never seen in their guts.
Leptocephali appear to feed on tiny particles floating free in the ocean, which are often referred to as marine snow. Leptocephali larvae live primarily in the upper of the ocean at night, and often a little deeper during the day. Leptocephali are present worldwide in the oceans from southern temperate to tropical latitudes, where adult eels and their close relatives live. American eels, European eels, conger eels, and some oceanic species spawn and are found in the Sargasso Sea.
Leptocephalus brevirostris was declared as a biological species in 1856, but was later found to be the larva of Anguilla anguilla, which was declared by Linnaeus in 1758 and thus has priority.
Development
The eggs of eels in the order Anguilliformes are quite large compared to those of many other fishes. They are about in diameter. Once the larvae are newly hatched, the yolk extends posteriorly. Some larvae hatch with features of the head more developed than others. The preleptocephalus stage is the period immediately after the larvae hatch. During this stage, the larvae do not yet feed externally. These larvae typically have poorly developed eyes and few or no teeth.
The leptocephalus stage of the larvae begins after the nutrients from the yolk have been absorbed and the eyes and teeth are formed. At this point, the larvae usually have long forward-facing pointy teeth. As the larvae grow larger, the teeth will be replaced by shorter teeth and will increase in number. The maximum size larvae reach varies from about but can be as large as or more depending on the species. After the leptocephali have reached their maximum size, they enter their glass eel stage. Their laterally compressed bodies tend to become more rounded in this stage. The head also thickens, the olfactory organ enlarges, and their teeth are lost.
Leptocephali differ from other fish larvae in their development. In other teleosts (those without leptocephali), the egg hatches and then the larvae get nutrients from a yolk sac. Following this, external feeding begins once the yolk sac has depleted. The larvae begin to increase in size and develop into a juvenile fish once external feeding begins. In those fish with a leptocephalus stage; however, after hatching and obtaining nutrients from the yolk, the larvae do not begin external feeding. This is peculiar because the larvae still continue to grow in size. From this information, it is concluded that one of the biggest and most basic differences in the developmental cycles of teleosts without leptocephali and teleosts with leptocephali is the food source that the larvae use.
Leptocephali are poorly understood, partly because they are very fragile and eat particulate material instead of zooplankton, and their good swimming ability lets them avoid most standard-sized plankton nets used by marine biologists. A video recording of a naturally swimming leptocephalus filmed at night off the island of Hawaii shows an example of their swimming behavior.
Visual system
Two facts are known regarding the visual system of the leptocephali. The first is that they have a rod-dominated visual system. The second is that the Synaphobranchidae (a specific family of leptocephali) have telescopic eyes, meaning a tubular eye with a sphere-shaped lens on the top occurs.
Aquaculture
Some progress has been made to grow the leptocephali of the Japanese eel in the laboratory. The goal of that effort is to produce glass eels through artificial spawning and larval rearing, to be used for aquaculture to produce unagi for food. Unagi is a popular food in Japan and East Asia. Due to the strange nature of the leptocephali this hasn't been easy. Trying to artificially recreate marine snow has proven difficult for scientists.
Leptocephali are rarely used as food, except in some parts of Japan. The leptocephali of the common Japanese conger, Conger myriaster, are called noresore·のれそれ in Kōchi Prefecture, Japan, and are often served uncooked to the table, and are eaten after dipping in tosazu mixed vinegar. It is a spring seasonal specialty.
See also
Eel
Elopomorpha
References
External links
Informationen Conger oceanicus
Ecology of Anguilliform Leptocephali: Remarkable Transparent Fish Larvae of the Ocean Surface Layer
Elopomorpha
Ichthyology
Marine biology
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234559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nait%C5%8D%20Torajir%C5%8D | Naitō Torajirō | , commonly known as , was a Japanese historian and Sinologist. He was the founder of the Kyoto School of historiography, and along with Shiratori Kurakichi (the founder of the Tokyo School), was one of the leading Japanese historians of East Asia in the early twentieth century. His most well-known book is called Nara.
Biography
He was born in what is today Akita Prefecture. He distinguished himself as a journalist. In 1907 he discovered Manwen Laodang in Mukden. As an authority of Chinese history, he was invited to Kyoto Imperial University by Kano Kokichi in 1907 and got involved in the foundation of the Department of Oriental History.
Naitō's most influential contribution to historiography was the recognition and analysis of the "Tang-Song transition" as an important watershed. He argued that the social, political, demographic and economic changes that occurred between the mid-Tang Dynasty and early Song Dynasty represented the transition between the medieval (chūsei) and early modern (kinsei) periods of Chinese history.
In Japanese history, Naitō argued that Yamataikoku was located in Kyūshū rather than in Kinki.
Further reading
Fogel, Joshua A. Politics and Sinology: The Case of Naitō Konan (1866-1934). Harvard, 1984.
Miyakawa, Hisayuki. "An Outline of the Naito Hypothesis and Its Effect on Japanese Studies of China." Far Eastern Quarterly 14.4 (1955):533-552.
References
1866 births
1934 deaths
People from Akita Prefecture
Japanese writers
Japanese Japanologists
Japanese sinologists
Kyoto University faculty
Japanese journalists
Japanese historians
Akita University alumni
Historians of Japan
Historians of China | [
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234564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet%20time | Bullet time | Bullet time (also known as frozen moment, dead time, flow motion or time slice) is a visual effect or visual impression of detaching the time and space of a camera (or viewer) from those of its visible subject. It is a depth enhanced simulation of variable-speed action and performance found in films, broadcast advertisements, and realtime graphics within video games and other special media. It is characterized by its extreme transformation of both time (slow enough to show normally imperceptible and unfilmable events, such as flying bullets), and of space (by way of the ability of the camera angle—the audience's point-of-view—to move around the scene at a normal speed while events are slowed). This is almost impossible with conventional slow motion, as the physical camera would have to move implausibly fast; the concept implies that only a "virtual camera", often illustrated within the confines of a computer-generated environment such as a virtual world or virtual reality, would be capable of "filming" bullet-time types of moments. Technical and historical variations of this effect have been referred to as time slicing, view morphing, temps mort (French: "dead time") and virtual cinematography.
The term "bullet time" was first used with reference to the 1999 film The Matrix, and later in reference to the slow motion effects in the 2001 video game Max Payne. In the years since the introduction of the term via the Matrix films it has become a commonly applied expression in popular culture.
History
The technique of using a group of still cameras to freeze motion occurred before the invention of cinema itself with preliminary work by Etienne Jules Marey on chronophotography, later experimented by Eadweard Muybridge. In Sallie Gardner at a Gallop (1878), Muybridge analyzed the motion of a galloping horse by using a line of cameras to photograph the animal as it ran past. Eadweard Muybridge used still cameras placed along a racetrack, and each camera was actuated by a taut string stretched across the track; as the horse galloped past, the camera shutters snapped, taking one frame at a time. The original intent was to settle a debate Leland Stanford had engaged in, as to whether all four of the animal's legs would leave the ground when galloping. Muybridge later assembled the pictures into a rudimentary animation, by placing them on a glass disk which he spun in front of a light source. His zoopraxiscope may have been an inspiration for Thomas Edison to explore the idea of motion pictures.
Muybridge also took photos of actions from many angles at the same instant in time, to study how the human body went up stairs, for example. In effect, however, Muybridge had achieved the aesthetic opposite to modern bullet-time sequences, since his studies lacked the dimensionality of the later developments. A debt may also be owed to MIT professor Harold Edgerton, who, in the 1940s, captured now-iconic photos of bullets using xenon strobe lights to "freeze" motion.
Bullet-time as a concept was frequently developed in cel animation. One of the earliest examples is the shot at the end of the title sequence for the 1966 Japanese anime series Speed Racer: as Speed leaps from the Mach Five, he freezes in mid-jump, and then the "camera" does an arc shot from front to sideways.
In 1980, Tim Macmillan started producing pioneering film and later, video, in this field while studying for a BA at the (then named) Bath Academy of Art using 16mm film arranged in a progressing circular arrangement of pinhole cameras. They were the first iteration of the Time-Slice' Motion-Picture Array Cameras" which he developed in the early 1990s when still cameras for the array capable of high image quality for broadcast and movie applications became available. In 1997 he founded Time-Slice Films Ltd. (UK). He applied the technique to his artistic practice in a video projection, titled Dead Horse in an ironic reference to Muybridge, that was exhibited at the London Electronic Arts Gallery in 1998 and in 2000 was nominated for the Citibank Prize for photography.
The first music video to use aspects of bullet-time was "Midnight Mover", a 1985 Accept video. In the 1990s, a morphing-based variation on time-slicing was employed by director Michel Gondry and the visual effects company BUF Compagnie in the music video for The Rolling Stones' "Like A Rolling Stone", and in a 1996 Smirnoff commercial the effect was used to depict slow-motion bullets being dodged. Similar time-slice effects were also featured in commercials for The Gap (which was directed by M. Rolston and again produced by BUF), and in feature films such as Lost in Space (1998) and Buffalo '66 (1998) and the television program The Human Body.
It is well-established for feature films' action scenes to be depicted using slow-motion footage, for example the gunfights in The Wild Bunch (directed by Sam Peckinpah) and the heroic bloodshed films of John Woo. Subsequently, the 1998 film Blade featured a scene that used computer generated bullets and slow-motion footage to illustrate characters' superhuman bullet-dodging reflexes. The 1999 film The Matrix combined these elements (gunfight action scenes, superhuman bullet-dodging, and time-slice effects), popularizing both the effect and the term "bullet-time". The Matrix version of the effect was created by John Gaeta and Manex Visual Effects. Rigs of still cameras were set up in patterns determined by simulations, and then shot either simultaneously (producing an effect similar to previous time-slice scenes) or sequentially (which added a temporal element to the effect). Interpolation effects, digital compositing, and computer generated "virtual" scenery were used to improve the fluidity of the apparent camera motion. Gaeta said of The Matrix use of the effect:
For artistic inspiration for bullet time, I would credit Otomo Katsuhiro, who co-wrote and directed Akira, which definitely blew me away, along with director Michel Gondry. His music videos experimented with a different type of technique called view-morphing and it was just part of the beginning of uncovering the creative approaches toward using still cameras for special effects. Our technique was significantly different because we built it to move around objects that were themselves in motion, and we were also able to create slow-motion events that 'virtual cameras' could move around – rather than the static action in Gondry's music videos with limited camera moves.
Following The Matrix, bullet time and other slow-motion effects were featured as key gameplay mechanics in various video games. While some games like Cyclone Studios' Requiem: Avenging Angel, released in March 1999, featured slow-motion effects, Remedy Entertainment's 2001 video game Max Payne is considered to be the first true implementation of a bullet-time effect that enables the player to have added limited control (such as aiming and shooting) during the slow-motion mechanic; this mechanic was explicitly called "Bullet Time" in the game. The mechanic is also used extensively in the F.E.A.R. series, combining it with squad-based enemy design encouraging the player to use bullet time to avoid being overwhelmed.
Bullet time was used for the first time in a live music environment in October 2009 for Creed's live DVD Creed Live.
The popular science television program, Time Warp, used high speed camera techniques to examine everyday occurrences and singular talents, including breaking glass, bullet trajectories and their impact effects.
Technology
The bullet time effect was originally achieved photographically by a set of still cameras surrounding the subject. The cameras are fired sequentially, or all at the same time, depending on the desired effect. Single frames from each camera are then arranged and displayed consecutively to produce an orbiting viewpoint of an action frozen in time or as hyper-slow-motion. This technique suggests the limitless perspectives and variable frame rates possible with a virtual camera. However, if the still array process is done with real cameras, it is often limited to assigned paths.
In The Matrix, the camera path was pre-designed using computer-generated visualizations as a guide. Cameras were arranged, behind a green or blue screen, on a track and aligned through a laser targeting system, forming a complex curve through space. The cameras were then triggered at extremely close intervals, so the action continued to unfold, in extreme slow-motion, while the viewpoint moved. Additionally, the individual frames were scanned for computer processing. Using sophisticated interpolation software, extra frames could be inserted to slow down the action further and improve the fluidity of the movement (especially the frame rate of the images); frames could also be dropped to speed up the action. This approach provides greater flexibility than a purely photographic one. The same effect can also be simulated using pure CGI, motion capture and other approaches.
Bullet time evolved further through The Matrix series with the introduction of high-definition computer-generated approaches like virtual cinematography and universal capture. Universal capture, a machine vision guided system, was the first ever motion picture deployment of an array of high definition cameras focused on a common human subject (actor, Neo) in order to create volumetric photography. Like the concept of bullet time, the subject could be viewed from any angle yet, at the same time, the depth based media could be recomposed as well as spatially integrated within computer generated constructs. It moved past a visual concept of a virtual camera to becoming an actual virtual camera. Virtual elements within the Matrix Trilogy utilized state-of-the-art image-based computer rendering techniques pioneered in Paul Debevec's 1997 film The Campanile and custom evolved for The Matrix by George Borshukov, an early collaborator of Debevec. Inspiration aside, virtual camera methodologies pioneered within the Matrix trilogy have been often credited as fundamentally contributing to capture approaches required for emergent virtual reality and other immersive experience platforms.
For many years, it has been possible to use computer vision techniques to capture scenes and render images of novel viewpoints sufficient for bullet time type effects. More recently, these have been formalized into what is becoming known as free viewpoint television (FTV). At the time of The Matrix, FTV was not a fully mature technology. FTV is effectively the live action version of bullet time, without the slow motion.
See also
Time-lapse photography
References
Special effects
Theatrical combat
Visual effects
Slow motion
The Matrix (franchise)
1990s neologisms
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234565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarpo%20Laggo%20Glacier | Sarpo Laggo Glacier | The 'Sarpo Laggo Glacier (Sarpo Laggo: young husband) is a glacier in the autonomous region Xinjiang of China, in the Karakoram mountain range of the Himalayas. It lies north of the Baltoro Muztagh range. It could be reached from the Baltoro glacier on the Pakistani side of the Karakorams via the Old Muztagh Pass northeast of the Trango Towers. It is however easier to approach the glacier from the Chinese side, starting a long hike at Kashgar on the Karakoram Highway and finally passing K2's northern base camp.
The Glacier is named after Francis Younghusband, who was the first person to pass the Old Mustagh Pass and thus enter the Sarpo Laggo region. There is another glacier not far away, also named after him: Younghusband glacier (also known as Biango glacier) flows from Muztagh Tower towards the Baltoro Glacier.
See also
Baltoro Glacier
Concordia (Pakistan)
List of highest mountains
List of glaciers
External links
Photos from Concordia region by Kelly Cheng
Glaciers of China
Landforms of Xinjiang | [
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234566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaigan%20Line | Kaigan Line | The , also known as the "Yumekamome" (夢かもめ), is one of two lines of the Kobe Municipal Subway. Trains of the line are propelled by linear motors. This is the third linear motor rapid transit line to be built in Japan.
Stations
Rolling stock
5000 series (since 2001)
All trains are based at Misaki-Kōen Depot.
History
The line opened on 7 July 2001.
References
Kobe Municipal Subway
Transport in Kobe
Linear motor metros
Railway lines opened in 2001 | [
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234567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chizu%20Express | Chizu Express | The is a Japanese third-sector railway that connects Hyōgo, Okayama and Tottori prefectures. The Chizu Line is not electrified, but is a high-grade railroad, and extends a total of 56.1 kilometres. The limited expresses Super Hakuto and Super Inaba operate on this line.
Chizu Express Chizu Line
Some local trains operate through from the JR West Imbi Line (Tottori - Chizu).
History
Construction of the line was approved under the Railway Construction Act in 1922, and commenced by Japanese National Railways (JNR) in June 1966. Work was well advanced when a freeze on expenditure in 1980 resulted in construction being halted with 95% of the route acquired and 93% of the earthworks completed.
The Tottori Prefectural Government facilitated the establishment of the Chizu Express Company in May 1986, which resumed construction.
The line opened on December 3, 1994, and includes the 5,592 m Shitozaka tunnel.
From November 29, 1997, the JR limited express Super Inaba service commenced between Okayama and Tottori.
See also
List of railway lines in Japan
References
External links
Wiki collection of bibliographic works on Chizu Express
1986 establishments in Japan
Companies based in Tottori Prefecture
Japanese third-sector railway lines
Railway companies of Japan | [
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234569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dbe%20Station | Kōbe Station | is a railway station in Chūō-ku, Kobe, Japan, operated by West Japan Railway Company (JR West). Although Kobe Station is the namesake of the city of Kobe, Kobe City Hall and the commercial center of Kobe is closer to Kobe-Sannomiya Station.
Lines
The station technically forms the end point of the Tokaido Main Line and the starting of the Sanyo Main Line. This fact is barely discernible in current practice because only a few trains originate or terminate at Kobe; as a result, the station is more commonly perceived as being in the midsection of the JR Kobe Line, an alternative name for the section of the Tokaido and Sanyo lines between Osaka and Himeji.
Layout
The station has one side platform and two island platforms serving five elevated tracks.
Platforms
Adjacent stations
History
Kobe Station opened on 11 May 1874. With the privatization of JNR on 1 April 1987, the station came under the control of JR West.
Surrounding area
The area to the south of the station was previously a freight yard, but was redeveloped and became a waterfront commercial center called Harborland.
Escalators and underground pathways link pedestrian traffic from the above-ground Kobe Station with the relatively close underground stations of Kosoku Kobe on the Kobe Rapid Railway and Harborland on the Kaigan Line of the Kobe Municipal Subway.
See also
List of railway stations in Japan
References
External links
JR West - Kobe Station
Tōkaidō Main Line
Sanyō Main Line
Railway stations in Kobe
Stations of West Japan Railway Company
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1874 | [
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234571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20eel | European eel | The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is a species of eel, a snake-like, catadromous fish. They are normally around and rarely reach more than , but can reach a length of up to in exceptional cases.
Eels have been important sources of food both as adults (including jellied eels of East London) and as glass eels. Glass-eel fishing using basket traps has been of significant economic value in many river estuaries on the western seaboard of Europe.
While the species' lifespan in the wild has not been determined, captive specimens have lived over 80 years. A specimen known as "the Brantevik Eel" lived for 155 years in the well of a family home in Brantevik, a fishing village in southern Sweden.
Conservation status
The European eel is a critically endangered species. Since the 1970s, the numbers of eels reaching Europe is thought to have declined by around 90% (possibly even 98%). Contributing factors include overfishing, parasites such as Anguillicola crassus, barriers to migration such as hydroelectric dams, and natural changes in the North Atlantic oscillation, Gulf Stream, and North Atlantic drift. Recent work suggests polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) pollution may be a factor in the decline. TRAFFIC is introducing traceability and legality systems throughout trade change to control the decline and encourage a U-turn on the species. The species is listed in Appendix II of the CITES Convention.
Sustainable consumption
In 2010, Greenpeace International added the European eel to its "seafood red list", and the Sustainable Eel Group launched the Sustainable Eel Standard.
Breeding projects
As the European eel population has been falling for some time, several projects have been started. In 1997, Innovatie Netwerk in the Netherlands initiated a project where they attempted to get European eels to breed in captivity by simulating the journey from Europe to the Sargasso Sea with a swimming machine for the fish.
The first to achieve some success was DTU Aqua, a part of the Technical University of Denmark. Through a combination of fresh and salt water, as well as hormones, they were able to breed it in captivity in 2006 and make the larvae survive for 4.5 days after hatching. By 2007, DTU Aqua scientists were able to set a new record where the larvae survived for 12 days by feeding the mother eel with a special arginine-enriched diet. At this age the content of the larval yolk sac has been used, the mouth and digestive channel have developed, and it requires feeding. Attempts with various substances failed. Deep water sampling of the presumed habitat of larval European eel in the Sargasso Sea was performed by the Galathea 3 expedition in 2006–07, in the hope of revealing the likely feeding preference at the early stage. Their results indicated that they feed on various planktonic organisms, but especially microscopic jellyfish. A follow-up expedition was performed by DTU's own research ship to the Sargasso Sea region in 2014.
To further the research, the PRO-EEL project, led by DTU Aqua and involving several research institutes elsewhere in Denmark (University of Copenhagen and others), Norway (Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Food Research and others), the Netherlands (Leiden University and others), Belgium (Ghent University), France (French National Center for Scientific Research and others), Spain (ICTA at Polytechnic University of Valencia) and Tunisia (National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies), was started in 2010. By 2014, the eel larvae at their facilities typically survive 20–22 days, but the full life cycle has still not been completed in captivity.
Life history
Much of the European eel's life history was a mystery for centuries, as fishermen never caught anything they could identify as a young eel. Unlike many other migrating fish, eels begin their life cycle in the ocean and spend most of their lives in fresh inland water, or brackish coastal water, returning to the ocean to spawn and then die. In the early 1900s, Danish researcher Johannes Schmidt identified the Sargasso Sea as the most likely spawning grounds for European eels. The larvae (leptocephali) drift towards Europe in a 300-day migration.
When approaching the European coast, the larvae metamorphose into a transparent larval stage called "glass eel", enter estuaries, and many start migrating upstream. After entering their continental habitat, the glass eels metamorphose into elvers, miniature versions of the adult eels. As the eel grows, it becomes known as a "yellow eel" due to the brownish-yellow color of their sides and belly. After 5–20 years in fresh or brackish water, the eels become sexually mature, their eyes grow larger, their flanks become silver, and their bellies white in color. In this stage, the eels are known as "silver eels", and they begin their migration back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn. Silvering is important in an eel's development because it allows for increased levels of the steroid hormone cortisol, which is needed for their migration from fresh water back to the sea. Cortisol plays a role in the long migration because it allows for the mobilization of energy during migration. Also playing a key role in silvering is the production of the steroid 11-Ketotestosterone (11-KT), which prepares the eel for structural changes to the skin to endure the migration from fresh water to saltwater.
Magnetoreception has also been reported in the European eel by at least one study, and may be used for navigation.
Ecology
Parasites
Parasite species infecting the European eel include Bothriocephalus claviceps and a range of other intestinal metazoans.
European eels generally have a low parasite diversity within individuals and ecosystems (component community). The parasite that is most commonly dominant is the acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus lucii.
Commercial fisheries
References
External links
Amphibious fish
European eel
Critically endangered animals
European eel
Fish of Europe
Fish of the Baltic Sea
Fish of the Black Sea
Fish of the Mediterranean Sea
Fish of the North Sea
Freshwater fish of Europe
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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234575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2090 | New Jersey Route 90 | Route 90 is a state highway in New Jersey in the United States (U.S.). The western terminus is at the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River in Pennsauken Township, Camden County, where the road continues into Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as an unnumbered road that provides access to Interstate 95. The eastern terminus is an interchange with Route 73 in Cinnaminson Township, Burlington County. It is a four-to six-lane freeway its entire length, interchanging with U.S. Route 130 and Camden County Route 644.
Route 90 was first proposed in 1964 a year after plans were made to build the Betsy Ross Bridge and was legislated in 1965 to run from the bridge to Route 73. The portion of the route between the Betsy Ross Bridge and U.S. Route 130 was opened in 1976 while the portion from U.S. Route 130 to Route 73 opened in 1988. When first proposed, Route 90 was planned to extend farther south to Route 73 in Mount Laurel, intersecting Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike. There were other proposals that would have taken the freeway farther south to a planned Route 38 freeway, a planned U.S. Route 30 freeway in Berlin, and possibly the Atlantic City Expressway. However, financial and environmental obstacles prevented any southern extension of Route 90. Across the Delaware River in Philadelphia, a freeway which was to be called the Pulaski Expressway and be designated Pennsylvania Route 90 was to have run from Interstate 95 northwest to U.S. Route 1. This freeway was not built either due to opposition from residents and financial limitations.
Route description
Route 90 begins at the Pennsylvania-New Jersey border on the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River, where the road continues into Philadelphia as an unnumbered freeway that heads to an interchange with Interstate 95. Signs for the interchange along Interstate 95 refer to New Jersey Route 90. From the Betsy Ross Bridge, Route 90 heads to the southeast into Pennsauken Township, Camden County as a six-lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority, passing over residential areas as well as NJ Transit's River Line and County Route 543 (River Road). The road reaches a toll plaza in the westbound direction. Route 90 passes over County Route 615 (Union Avenue) before coming to an interchange with U.S. Route 130, where maintenance is transferred to the New Jersey Department of Transportation. Shortly past the U.S. Route 130 interchange, the freeway narrows to four lanes before coming to a partial interchange with County Route 644 (Haddonfield Road), where there is a westbound on-ramp and an eastbound off-ramp. The route crosses into Cinnaminson Township, Burlington County and passes over the Pennsauken Creek. A short distance later, the Route 90 freeway merges into Route 73.
History
Plans for the Route 90 freeway were first made in 1964, a year after the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River was proposed. In 1965, Route 90 was legislated to run from the proposed bridge in Pennsauken east to Route 73. In 1969, construction began on the Betsy Ross Bridge and its approach roads. A 1970 proposal to include the planned Route 90 freeway as a part of the Interstate Highway System was denied. The Betsy Ross Bridge itself was finished in 1974, but did not open to traffic until April 30, 1976 due to controversies concerning the approach roads. At this time, Route 90 was completed between the Betsy Ross Bridge and U.S. Route 130. In March 1986, construction began on Route 90 between U.S. Route 130 and Route 73 in Cinnaminson. This section of the route, which cost $23 million ($ million today), was opened on October 25, 1988.
Originally, the Route 90 was intended to be a much longer freeway than it is today. When first proposed, it was to extend to Interstate 295, the New Jersey Turnpike and Route 73 in Mount Laurel. There were two proposed routes of this freeway. The first proposal would have run south of Route 73 through built-up areas of Cherry Hill, Maple Shade, and Mount Laurel, along the South Branch of the Pennsauken Creek. Due to the route of this proposal, it was dropped in favor of a more northerly route that ran to the north of Route 73 through less developed areas. This freeway would have cost $42 million ($ million today) and was to be completed in 1975. There were plans to extend the freeway further south than Route 73 in Mount Laurel. In 1966, a proposal was made for Route 90 to run south to a proposed Route 38 freeway that was to run from Camden to Monmouth County. Another proposal in 1969 called for a $14 million ($ million today) extension of Route 90 south to a proposed U.S. Route 30 freeway in Berlin and possibly the Atlantic City Expressway. Due to financial limitations and feared environmental impacts, the southern extension of Route 90 to Mount Laurel was canceled by 1980.
Across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania, there were plans of extending the freeway northwest from the Interstate 95 interchange. This limited access highway, which was to be called the Pulaski Expressway and be designated Pennsylvania Route 90, was to parallel the Frankford Creek and Tacony Creek and connect with U.S. Route 1, which also was to be a limited access freeway. This proposed freeway, which was to cost from $125 to $150 million ($ to $ million today) and be completed in 1981, was canceled by 1980 due to community opposition and financial troubles. Vestiges of this extension can be seen from Interstate 95 in the form of stub ramps and the mainline coming to an abrupt end as a barricaded bridge.
Exit list
See also
References
External links
An enlarged view of road jurisdiction at the confluence of US 130 and NJ 90 in Pennsauken Township
New Jersey Roads: Route 90
New Jersey Highway Ends: Route 90
Limited-access roads in New Jersey
090
Transportation in Burlington County, New Jersey
Transportation in Camden County, New Jersey
Delaware River Port Authority | [
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234576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20eel | American eel | The American eel (Anguilla rostrata) is a facultative catadromous fish found on the eastern coast of North America. Freshwater eels are fish belonging to the elopomorph superorder, a group of phylogenetically ancient teleosts. The American eel has a slender, snake-like body that is covered with a mucus layer, which makes the eel appear to be naked and slimy despite the presence of minute scales. A long dorsal fin runs from the middle of the back and is continuous with a similar ventral fin. Pelvic fins are absent, and relatively small pectoral fins can be found near the midline, followed by the head and gill covers. Variations exist in coloration, from olive green, brown shading to greenish-yellow and light gray or white on the belly. Eels from clear water are often lighter than those from dark, tannic acid streams.
The eel lives in fresh water and estuaries and only leaves these habitats to enter the Atlantic Ocean to make its spawning migration to the Sargasso Sea. Spawning takes place far offshore, where the eggs hatch. The female can lay up to 4 million buoyant eggs and dies after egg-laying. After the eggs hatch and the early-stage larvae develop into leptocephali, the young eels move toward North America, where they metamorphose into glass eels and enter freshwater systems where they grow as yellow eels until they begin to mature.
The American eel is found along the Atlantic coast including Chesapeake Bay and the Hudson River and as far north as the Saint Lawrence River region. It is also present in the river systems of the eastern Gulf of Mexico and in some areas further south. Like all anguillid eels, American eels hunt predominantly at night, and during the day they hide in mud, sand, or gravel very close to shore, at depths of roughly 5 to 6 feet. They feed on crustaceans, aquatic insects, small insects, and probably any aquatic organisms that they can find and eat.
American eels are economically important in various areas along the East Coast as bait for fishing for sport fishes such as the striped bass, or as a food fish in some areas. Their recruitment stages, the glass eels, are also caught and sold for use in aquaculture, although this is now restricted in most areas.
Eels were once an abundant species in rivers, and were an important fishery for aboriginal people. The construction of hydroelectric dams has blocked their migrations and locally extirpated eels in many watersheds. For example, in Canada, the vast numbers of eels in the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers have dwindled.
Etymology
The American eel Anguilla rostrata was first described in 1817 by Lesueur. Anguilla is Latin for eel, and rostrata is a Latin word that can mean either "beaked or curved" or "long nose". , .
Description
American eels can grow to in length and to in weight. Females are generally larger than males, lighter in color, with smaller eyes and higher fins. The body is elongate and snake-like. Its dorsal and anal fins are confluent with the rudimentary caudal fin. It lacks ventral fins but pectoral fins are present. The lateral line is well-developed and complete. The head is long and conical, with rather small, well-developed eyes. The mouth is terminal with jaws that are not particularly elongated. The teeth are small, pectinate or setiform in several series on the jaws and the vomer. Minute teeth also present on the pharyngeal bones, forming a patch on the upper pharyngeals. Tongue present with thick lips that are attached by a frenum in front. Nostrils are superior and well separated. Gill openings are partly below pectoral fins, relatively well-developed and well separated from one another. Inner gill slits are wide.
The scales are small, rudimentary, cycloid, relatively well embedded below the epidermis and therefore often difficult to see without magnification. The scales are not arranged in overlapping rows as they often are in other fish species but are rather irregular, in some places distributed like "parquet flooring". In general, one row of scales lies at right angle to the next, although the rows immediately above and below the lateral line lie at an angle of approximately 45°. Unlike other bony fishes, the first scales do not develop immediately after the larval stage but appear much later on.
Several morphological features distinguish the American eel from other eel species. Tesch (1977) described three morphological characteristics which persist through all stages from larvae to maturing eels: the total number of vertebrae (mean 107.2), the number of myomeres (mean 108.2), and the distance between the origin of the dorsal fin to the anus (mean 9.1% of total length).
Distribution and natural habitat
Geographic range
The distribution of the American eel encompasses all accessible freshwater (streams and lakes), estuaries and coastal marine waters across a latitudinal range of 5 to 62 N. Their natural range includes the eastern North Atlantic Ocean coastline from Venezuela to Greenland and including Iceland. Inland, this species extends into the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.
Nonindigenous occurrences of this species in the United States were recorded from Lake Mead on the Colorado River and on the Arizona border. It was stocked on a few occasions in Sacramento and San Francisco bay, California, in the late 1800s. No apparent evidence of survival on these occasions was noted. It was also stocked and unintentionally introduced in various states, including Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, Ohio and Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Stocking of this species also occurred in Utah in the late 1800s, but soon disappeared.
Natural habitat
Eels are bottom dwellers. They hide in burrows, tubes, snags, masses of plants, other types of shelters. They are found in a variety of habitats including streams, rivers, and muddy or silt-bottomed lakes during their freshwater stage, as well as oceanic waters, coastal bays and estuaries. Individuals during the continental stage occasionally migrate between fresh, salt and brackish water habitats and have varying degrees of residence time in each. During winter, eels burrow under the mud and enter a state of torpor (or complete inactivity) at temperatures below 5 °C. although they may occasionally be active during this period. Temperature requirements are suggested to be flexible. It has been found that American eels during elver stage can survive temperature as low as −0.8 °C. Barila and Stauffer (1980) reported a final mean temperature preference at 16.7 °C. Karlsson et al. (1984) disagreed with this interpretation and found the final temperature preference of 17.4 ± 2.0 °C with a 95% confidence interval.
Seasonal patterns described by Fletcher and Anderson (1972) generalize annual movements from freshwater to estuaries and coastal bays to feed during spring, then either a return during the fall to overwinter (juvenile and immature adults), or a southward migration to the spawning grounds (silver eels Continental phase eels appear highly plastic in habitat use. Eels are extremely mobile and may access habitats that appear unavailable to them, using small watercourses or moving through wet grasses. Small eels (<100 mm total length) are able to climb and may succeed in passing over vertical barriers. Habitat availability may be reduced by factors such as habitat deterioration, barriers to upstream migration (larger eels), and barriers (i.e. turbines) to downstream migration that can result in mortality.
Life cycle
The American eel's complex life history begins far offshore in the Sargasso Sea in a semelparous and panmictic reproduction. In 1926 Marie Poland Fish described the collection of eggs that she observed hatch into eels, which she expanded in her taxonomic description of the larval egg development. From there, young eels drift with ocean currents and then migrate inland into streams, rivers and lakes. This journey may take many years to complete with some eels travelling as far as 6,000 kilometers. After reaching these freshwater bodies they feed and mature for approximately 10 to 25 years before migrating back to the Sargasso Sea in order to complete their life cycle.
Life stages are detailed below.
1. Eggs:
The eggs hatch within a week of deposition in the Sargasso Sea. McCleave et al. (1987) suggested that hatching peaks in February and may continue until April. Wang and Tzeng (2000) proposed, on the basis of otolith back-calculations, that hatching occurs from March to October and peaks in August. However, Cieri and McCleave (2000) argued that these back-calculated spawning dates do not match collection evidence and may be explained by resorption. Fecundity for many eels is between about 0.5 to 4.0 million eggs, with larger individuals releasing as many as 8.5 million eggs. The diameter of egg is about 1.1 mm. Fertilization is external, and adult eels are presumed to die after spawning. None has been reported to migrate up rivers.
2. Leptocephali:
The leptocephalus is the larval form, a stage strikingly different from the adult form the eels will grow into. Leptocephali are transparent with a small pointed head and large teeth and are frequently described "leaf-like". The laterally compressed larvae are passively transported west and north to the coastal waters on the eastern coast of North America, by the surface currents of the Gulf Stream system, a journey that will last between 7 and 12 months. Vertical distribution is usually restricted to the upper 350 m of the ocean. Growth has been evaluated at about 0.21 to 0.38 mm per day.
3. Glass eel:
As they enter the continental shelf, leptocephali metamorphose into glass eels (juveniles), which are transparent and possess the typical elongate and serpentine eel shape. The term glass eel refers to all developmental stages between the end of metamorphosis and full pigmentation. Metamorphosis occurs when leptocephali are about 55 to 65 mm long. Mean age at this metamorphosis has been evaluated at 200 days and estuarine arrival at 255 days; giving 55 days between glass eel metamorphosis and estuarine arrival. Young eels use selective tidal stream transport to move up estuaries. As they enter coastal waters, the animals essentially transform from a pelagic oceanic organism to a benthic continental organism.
4. Elvers:
Glass eels become progressively pigmented as they approach the shore; these eels are termed elvers. The melanic pigmentation process occurs when the young eels are in coastal waters. At this phase of the life cycle, the eel is still sexually undifferentiated. The elver stage lasts about three to twelve months. Elvers that enter fresh water may spend much of this period migrating upstream. Elver influx is linked to increased temperature and reduced flow early in the migration season, and to tidal cycle influence later on.
5. Yellow eels:
This is the sexually immature adult stage of American eel. They begin to develop a yellow color and a creamy or yellowish belly. In this phase, the eels are still mainly nocturnal. Those remained in estuarine environment continue to go through their life cycle more quickly than those traveled into freshwater. Those in freshwater, however, tend to live longer and attain much larger sizes. Sexual differentiation occurs during the yellow stage and appears to be strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Krueger and Oliveira (1999) suggested that density was the primary environmental factor influencing the sex ratio of eels in a river, with high densities promoting the production of males. From life history traits of four rivers of Maine, Oliveira and McCleave (2000) evaluated that sexual differentiation was completed by 270 mm total length.
6. Silver eels:
As the maturation process proceeds, the yellow eel metamorphoses into a silver eel. The silvering metamorphosis results in morphological and physiological modifications that prepare the animal to migrate back to the Sargasso Sea. The eel acquires a greyish colour with a whitish or cream coloration ventrally. The digestive tract degenerates, the pectoral fins enlarge to improve swimming capacity, eye diameter expands and visual pigments in the retina adapt to the oceanic environment, the integument thickens, percentage of somatic lipids increases to supply energy for migrating and spawning, gonadosomatic index and oocyte diameter increase, gonadotropin hormone (GTH-II) production increases, and osmoregulatory physiology changes.
Feeding
Eels are nocturnal and most of their feeding therefore occurs at night. Having a keen sense of smell, eels most likely depend on scent to find food. The American eel is a generalist species which colonizes a wide range of habitats. Their diet is therefore extremely diverse and includes most of the aquatic animals sharing the same environment.
Leptocephalus
Little is known about the food habits of leptocephali. Recent studies on other eel species (Otake et al. 1993; Mochioka and Iwamizu 1996) suggest that leptocephali do not feed on zooplankton but rather consume detrital particles such as marine snow and fecal pellets or particles such as discarded houses of larvacean tunicates.
Glass eel and elver
Based on laboratory experiments on European glass eels, Lecomte-Finiger (1983) reported that they were morphologically and physiologically unable to feed. However, Tesch (1977) found that elvers at a later stage of pigmentation, stage VIA4, were feeding. Stomach examination of elvers caught during their upstream migration in the Petite Trinité River on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence revealed that elvers fed primarily on insect larvae.
Yellow eel
The yellow eel is essentially a nocturnal benthic omnivore. Prey includes fishes, molluscs, bivalves, crustaceans, insect larvae, surface-dwelling insects, worms, frogs and plants. The eel prefers small prey animals which can easily be attacked. Food type varies with body size. Stomachs of eels less than 40 cm and captured in streams contained mainly aquatic insect larvae, whereas larger eels fed predominantly on fishes and crayfishes. Insect abundance decreased in larger eels. The eel diet adapts to seasonal changes and the immediate environment. Feeding activity decreases or stops during the winter, and food intake ceases as eels physiologically prepare for the spawning migration.
Predation
Little information about predation on eels has been published. It was reported that elvers and small yellow eels are prey of largemouth bass and striped bass, although they were not a major parts of these predators' diet. Leptocephali, glass eels, elvers, and small yellow eels are likely to be eaten by various predatory fishes. Older eels are also known to eat incoming glass eels. They also fall prey to other species of eels, bald eagles, gulls, as well as other fish-eating birds.
Commercial fisheries
The major outlet for US landings of yellow and silver eels is the EU market.
In the 1970s, the annual North Atlantic harvest averaged 125,418 kg, with an average value of $84,000. In 1977, the eel landings from Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts were about 79,700, 2,700, and 143,300 kg, valued at $263,000, $5,000, and $170,000, respectively (US Department of Commerce 1984)
During the 1980s and early 1990s, the American eel was one of the top three species in commercial value to Ontario's fishing industry. At its peak, the eel harvest was valued at $600,000 and, in some years, eel accounted for almost half of the value of the entire commercial fish harvest from Lake Ontario. The commercial catch of American eel has declined from approximately 223,000 kilograms (kg) in the early 1980s to 11,000 kg in 2002.
Conservation
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the American eel is at very high risk of extinction in the wild.
Substantial decline in numbers and fishery landings of American eels over their range in eastern Canada and the US was noted, raising concerns over the status of this species. The number of juvenile eels in the Lake Ontario area decreased from 935,000 in 1985 to about 8,000 in 1993 and was approaching zero levels in 2001. Rapid declines were also recorded in Virginia, as well as in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island in Canada.
Because of its complex life cycle, the species face a broad range of threats, some of which are specific to certain growth stage. Being catadromous, the eels' reproductivity success depends heavily on free downstream passage for spawning migration. It also depends on the availability of diverse habitats for growth and maturation.
Sex ratio in the population can also be affected because males and females tend to utilize different habitats. Impacts on certain regions may greatly impact the number of either sex.
Despite being able to live in a wide range of temperatures and different levels of salinity, American eels are very sensitive to low dissolved oxygen level, which is typically found below dams. Contaminations of heavy metals, dioxins, chlordane, and polychlorinated biphenyls as well as pollutants from nonpoint source can bioaccumulate within the fat tissues of the eels, causing dangerous toxicity and reduced productivity. This problem is exacerbated due to the high fat content of eels.
Construction of dams and other irrigation facilities seriously decreases habitat availability and diversity for the eels. Dredging can affect migration, population distribution and prey availability. Overfishing or excessive harvesting of juveniles can also negatively impact local populations.
Other natural threats come from interspecific competition with exotic species like the flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) and blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus), pathogens and parasites, and changes in oceanographic conditions that can alter currents—this potentially changes larval transport and migration of juveniles back to freshwater streams.
Conservation measures
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviewed the status of the American eel both in 2007 and in 2015, finding both times that Endangered Species Act protection for the American eel is not warranted.
The Canadian province of Ontario has cancelled the commercial fishing quota since 2004. Eel sport fishery has been closed. Efforts have been made to improve the passage in which eels migrate across the hydroelectric dams on St. Lawrence River.
Sustainable consumption
In 2010, Greenpeace International has added the American eel to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."
References
External links
ESA protection
American eel
Amphibious fish
Fish of the Western Atlantic
Fish of the Great Lakes
Fish of the Eastern United States
Freshwater fish of the Southeastern United States
Taxa named by Charles Alexandre Lesueur
American eel
Fish of Cuba
Fish of the Dominican Republic | [
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234577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20field%20theory | String field theory | String field theory (SFT) is a formalism in string theory in which the dynamics of relativistic strings is reformulated in the language of quantum field theory. This is accomplished at the level of perturbation theory by finding a collection of vertices for joining and splitting strings, as well as string propagators, that give a Feynman diagram-like expansion for string scattering amplitudes. In most string field theories, this expansion is encoded by a classical action found by second-quantizing the free string and adding interaction terms. As is usually the case in second quantization, a classical field configuration of the second-quantized theory is given by a wave function in the original theory. In the case of string field theory, this implies that a classical configuration, usually called the string field, is given by an element of the free string Fock space.
The principal advantages of the formalism are that it allows the computation of off-shell amplitudes and, when a classical action is available, gives non-perturbative information that cannot be seen directly from the standard genus expansion of string scattering. In particular, following the work of Ashoke Sen, it has been useful in the study of tachyon condensation on unstable D-branes. It has also had applications to topological string theory, non-commutative geometry, and strings in low dimensions.
String field theories come in a number of varieties depending on which type of string is second quantized: Open string field theories describe the scattering of open strings, closed string field theories describe closed strings, while open-closed string field theories include both open and closed strings.
In addition, depending on the method used to fix the worldsheet diffeomorphisms and conformal transformations in the original free string theory, the resulting string field theories can be very different. Using light cone gauge, yields light-cone string field theories whereas using BRST quantization, one finds covariant string field theories. There are also hybrid string field theories, known as covariantized light-cone string field theories which use elements of both light-cone and BRST gauge-fixed string field theories.
A final form of string field theory, known as background independent open string field theory, takes a very different form; instead of second quantizing the worldsheet string theory, it second quantizes the space of two-dimensional quantum field theories.
Light-cone string field theory
Light-cone string field theories were introduced by Stanley Mandelstam and developed by Mandelstam, Michael Green, John Schwarz and Lars Brink. An explicit description of the second-quantization of the light-cone string was given by Michio Kaku and Keiji Kikkawa.
Light-cone string field theories were the first string field theories to be constructed and are based on the simplicity of string scattering in light-cone gauge. For example, in the bosonic closed string case, the worldsheet scattering diagrams naturally take a Feynman diagram-like form, being built from two ingredients, a propagator,
and two vertices for splitting and joining strings, which can be used to glue three propagators together,
These vertices and propagators produce a single cover of the moduli space of -point closed string scattering amplitudes so no higher order vertices are required. Similar vertices exist for the open string.
When one considers light-cone quantized superstrings, the discussion is more subtle as divergences can arise when the light-cone vertices collide. To produce a consistent theory, it is necessary to introduce higher order vertices, called contact terms, to cancel the divergences.
Light-cone string field theories have the disadvantage that they break manifest Lorentz invariance. However, in backgrounds with light-like killing vectors, they can considerably simplify the quantization of the string action. Moreover, until the advent of the Berkovits string it was the only known method for quantizing strings in the presence of Ramond–Ramond fields. In recent research, light-cone string field theory played an important role in understanding strings in pp-wave backgrounds.
Free covariant string field theory
An important step in the construction of covariant string field theories (preserving manifest Lorentz invariance) was the construction of a covariant kinetic term. This kinetic term can be considered a string field theory in its own right: the string field theory of free strings. Since the work of Warren Siegel, it has been standard to first BRST-quantize the free string theory and then second quantize so that the classical fields of the string field theory include ghosts as well as matter fields. For example, in the case of the bosonic open string theory in 26-dimensional flat spacetime, a general element of the Fock-space of the BRST quantized string takes the form (in radial quantization in the upper half plane),
where is the free string vacuum and the dots represent more massive fields. In the language of worldsheet string theory, , , and represent the amplitudes for the string to be found in the various basis states. After second quantization, they are interpreted instead as classical fields representing the tachyon , gauge field and a ghost field .
In the worldsheet string theory, the unphysical elements of the Fock space are removed by imposing the condition as well as the equivalence relation . After second quantization, the equivalence relation is interpreted as a gauge invariance, whereas the condition that is physical is interpreted as an equation of motion. Because the physical fields live at ghostnumber one, it is also assumed that the string field is a ghostnumber one element of the Fock space.
In the case of the open bosonic string a gauge-unfixed action with the appropriate symmetries and equations of motion was originally obtained by André Neveu, Hermann Nicolai and Peter C. West. It is given by
where is the BPZ-dual of .
For the bosonic closed string, construction of a BRST-invariant kinetic term requires additionally that one impose and . The kinetic term is then
Additional considerations are required for the superstrings to deal with the superghost zero-modes.
Witten's cubic open string field theory
The best studied and simplest of covariant interacting string field theories was constructed by Edward Witten. It describes the dynamics of bosonic open strings and is given by adding to the free open string action a cubic vertex:
,
where, as in the free case, is a ghostnumber one element of the BRST-quantized free bosonic open-string Fock-space.
The cubic vertex,
is a trilinear map which takes three string fields of total ghostnumber three and yields a number.
Following Witten, who was motivated by ideas from noncommutative geometry, it is conventional to introduce the -product defined implicitly through
The -product and cubic vertex satisfy a number of important properties (allowing the to be general ghost number fields):
In these equations, denotes the ghost number of .
Gauge invariance
These properties of the cubic vertex are sufficient to show that is invariant under
the Yang–Mills-like gauge transformation,
where is an infinitesimal gauge parameter. Finite gauge transformations take the form
where the exponential is defined by,
Equations of motion
The equations of motion are given by the following equation:
Because the string field is an infinite collection of ordinary classical fields, these equations represent an infinite collection of non-linear coupled differential equations. There have been two approaches to finding solutions: First, numerically, one can truncate the string field to include only fields with mass less than a fixed bound, a procedure known as "level truncation". This reduces the equations of motion to a finite number of coupled differential equations and has led to the discovery of many solutions. Second, following the work of Martin Schnabl one can seek analytic solutions by carefully picking an ansatz which has simple behavior under star multiplication and action by the BRST operator. This has led to solutions representing marginal deformations, the tachyon vacuum solution and time-independent D-brane systems.
Quantization
To consistently quantize one has to fix a gauge. The traditional choice has been Feynman–Siegel gauge,
Because the gauge transformations are themselves redundant (there are gauge transformations of the gauge transformations), the gauge fixing procedure requires introducing an infinite number of ghosts via the BV formalism. The complete gauge fixed action is given by
where the field is now allowed to be of arbitrary ghostnumber. In this gauge, the Feynman diagrams are constructed from a single propagator and vertex. The propagator takes the form of a strip of worldsheet of width and length
There is also an insertion of an integral of the -ghost along the red line. The modulus, is integrated from 0 to .
The three vertex can be described as a way of gluing three propagators together, as shown in the following picture:
In order to represent the vertex embedded in three dimensions, the propagators have been folded in half along their midpoints. The resulting geometry is completely flat except for a single curvature singularity where the midpoints of the three propagators meet.
These Feynman diagrams generate a complete cover of the moduli space of open string scattering diagrams. It follows that, for on-shell amplitudes, the n-point open string amplitudes computed using Witten's open string field theory are identical to those computed using standard worldsheet methods.
Supersymmetric covariant open string field theories
There are two main constructions of supersymmetric extensions of Witten's cubic open string field theory. The first is very similar in form to its bosonic cousin and is known as modified cubic superstring field theory. The second, due to Nathan Berkovits is very different and is based on a WZW-type action.
Modified cubic superstring field theory
The first consistent extension of Witten's bosonic open string field theory to the RNS string was constructed by Christian Preitschopf, Charles Thorn and Scott Yost and independently by Irina Aref'eva, P. B. Medvedev and A. P. Zubarev. The NS string field is taken to be a ghostnumber one picture zero string field in the small Hilbert space (i.e. ). The action takes a very similar form to bosonic action,
where,
is the inverse picture changing operator. The suggested picture number extension of this theory to the Ramond sector might be problematic.
This action has been shown to reproduce tree-level amplitudes and has a tachyon vacuum solution with the correct energy. The one subtlety in the action is the insertion of picture changing operators at the midpoint, which imply that the linearized equations of motion take the form
Because has a non-trivial kernel, there are potentially extra solutions that are not in the cohomology of . However, such solutions would have operator insertions near the midpoint and would be potentially singular, and importance of this problem remains unclear.
Berkovits superstring field theory
A very different supersymmetric action for the open string was constructed by Nathan Berkovits. It takes the form
where all of the products are performed using the -product including the anticommutator , and is any string field such that and . The string field is taken to be in the NS sector of the large Hilbert space, i.e. including the zero mode of . It is not known how to incorporate the R sector, although some preliminary ideas exist.
The equations of motion take the form
The action is invariant under the gauge transformation
The principal advantage of this action is that it free from any insertions of picture-changing operators. It has been shown to reproduce correctly tree level amplitudes and has been found, numerically, to have a tachyon vacuum with appropriate energy. The known analytic solutions to the classical equations of motion include the tachyon vacuum and marginal deformations.
Other formulations of covariant open superstring field theory
A formulation of superstring field theory using the non-minimal pure-spinor variables was introduced by Berkovits. The action is cubic and includes a midpoint insertion whose kernel is trivial. As always within the pure-spinor formulation, the Ramond sector can be easily treated. However, it is not known how to incorporate the GSO- sectors into the formalism.
In an attempt to resolve the allegedly problematic midpoint insertion of the modified cubic theory, Berkovits and Siegel proposed a superstring field theory based on a non-minimal extension of the RNS string, which uses a midpoint insertion with no kernel. It is not clear if such insertions are in any way better than midpoint insertions with non-trivial kernels.
Covariant closed string field theory
Covariant closed string field theories are considerably more complicated than their open string cousins. Even if one wants to construct a string field theory which only reproduces tree-level interactions between closed strings, the classical action must contain an infinite number of vertices consisting of string polyhedra.
If one demands that on-shell scattering diagrams be reproduced to all orders in the string coupling, one must also include additional vertices arising from higher genus (and hence higher order in ) as well. In general, a manifestly BV invariant, quantizable action takes the form
where denotes an th order vertex arising from a genus surface and is the closed string coupling. The structure of the vertices is in principle determined by a minimal area prescription, although, even for the polyhedral vertices, explicit computations have only been performed to quintic order.
Covariant heterotic string field theory
A formulation of the NS sector of the heterotic string was given by Berkovits, Okawa and Zwiebach.
The formulation amalgamates bosonic closed string field theory with Berkovits' superstring field theory.
See also
Conformal field theory
F-theory
Fuzzballs
List of string theory topics
Little string theory
Loop quantum gravity
Relationship between string theory and quantum field theory
String cosmology
Supergravity
The Elegant Universe
Zeta function regularization
References
String theory | [
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234578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2091 | New Jersey Route 91 | Route 91 is a spur state highway in Middlesex County, New Jersey. The route runs as a spur of U.S. Route 1 (US 1) along Jersey Avenue in North Brunswick Township to Van Dyke Avenue in the city of New Brunswick. At Van Dyke Avenue, Route 91 ends as a state route, and Jersey Avenue continues as County Route 693 (CR 693) to Route 27 in the center of New Brunswick. The mainline of Route 91 officially ends at the ramps to and from US 1 southbound (bound for Trenton) and Orchard Street; the connector constructed from US 1 northbound is designated as Route 91 Connector.
The route originates as the northernmost portion of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike from Trenton to New Brunswick. The turnpike originated as a chartered highway in 1804, with the new roadway finished by 1806. The turnpike lived out its 99-year charter term, with the alignment of the turnpike turned over to local authorities in 1903. In 1927, the New Jersey State Highway Department designated State Highway Route 26 on the alignment of the turnpike, except for the portion on Jersey Avenue. This alignment was designated as Route 26A, a spur of State Highway Route 26 in 1941, and renumbered in the 1953 state highway renumbering as Route 91. The route has remained virtually untouched since.
Route description
Route 91 begins at an interchange with US 1 in the North Brunswick Township, New Jersey community of Adams. The route heads northward as Jersey Avenue, passing several fields and ponds, running parallel to US 1. A short distance later, Route 91 enters the industrial district of North Brunswick, where it reaches an intersection with Route 91 Connector, a spur from US 1 northbound to the Route 91 mainline. Paralleling the Northeast Corridor tracks to the west, Jersey Avenue passes through a small corporate park in North Brunswick. A short distance later, Route 91 intersects with CR 680 (How Lane), which connects Route 91 with nearby Route 27 and Route 26. Upon crossing How Lane, Route 91 crosses the township line and enters the city of New Brunswick.
Route 91 continues northward along Jersey Avenue, passing through the industrial districts in the southeastern portion of the city. With the Northeast Corridor tracks nearby, Route 91 intersects with Triangle Road, where it meets a park & ride and the service road to the Jersey Avenue station serving NJ Transit's Northeast Corridor Line. There, the highway also crosses a railroad spur from the train line. The highway continues, passing some commercial buildings, before the Route 91 designation terminates at an intersection with Van Dyke Avenue. Jersey Avenue continues into New Brunswick's center as Middlesex County Route 693.
History
Route 91 is the northernmost portion of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike, a turnpike originally envisioned in 1795 to connect to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with New York City. However the $300,000 project only received minimal support and died later. Nine years after the original proposal was brought up, the New Jersey State Legislature developed a charter for a new turnpike from Trenton to New Brunswick. The charter passed on November 14, 1804, for a term of 99 years. The roadway itself was to be wide, running from Warren and Green Streets in Trenton to an unspecified location in New Brunswick. Construction progressed, and by 1806, the turnpike company started tolling the new roadway. A portion of Route 91 and Route 91 Connector was also the site of one of at least three tollgates on the turnpike. After construction of the Pennsylvania Railroad during the 1800s, the railroad was asked by locals to buy the turnpike. Plans fell apart soon after, and in 1903, when the charter term ended, the old turnpike was turned over to the locals.
The New Jersey State Highway Department used the alignment of the Lincoln Highway to designate State Highway Route 26 during the 1927 state highway renumbering from Trenton to New Brunswick. The route continued into New Brunswick, where it would end at Mill Run.
As Route 26 left the path of the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike to cross the railroad, State Highway Route 26A was designated in 1941 legislature to continue on the former turnpike to a former railroad crossing in North Brunswick Township. There, State Highway Route 26A continued, splitting onto a new alignment to stay northwest of the railroad, ending at Van Dyke Avenue. The existing Jersey Avenue beyond Van Dyke Avenue was taken over by Middlesex County as County Route 3R20, later renumbered County Route 693.
During the second state highway renumbering in January 1953, the designation of Route 26 was truncated from Trenton to U.S. Route 1 in North Brunswick Township. With Route 26A no longer terminating at its parent highway, the suffixed spur was renumbered to Route 91, heading from U.S. Route 1 in Adams to Van Dyke Road. The route has changed little since designation.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
New Jersey Roads: Route 91
Alps' Roads: Route 91
091
Transportation in Middlesex County, New Jersey | [
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234579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean%20Americans | Korean Americans | Korean Americans () are Americans of Korean ancestry mostly from South Korea. In 2015, the Korean American community constitutes about 0.56% of the United States population, or about 1.82 million people, and is the fifth-largest Asian American subgroup, after the Chinese American, Filipino American, Indian American, and Vietnamese American communities. The U.S. is home to the largest Korean diaspora community in the world.
Demographics
According to the 2010 Census, there were approximately 1.7 million people of Korean descent residing in the United States, making it the country with the second-largest Korean population living outside Korea (after the People's Republic of China). The ten states with the largest estimated Korean American populations were California (452,000; 1.2%), New York (141,000, 0.7%), New Jersey (94,000, 1.1%), Virginia (71,000, 0.9%), Texas (68,000, 0.3%), Washington (62,400, 0.9%), Illinois (61,500, 0.5%), Georgia (52,500, 0.5%), Maryland (49,000, 0.8%), Pennsylvania (41,000, 0.3%) and Colorado (31,000, 0.4%). Hawaii was the state with the highest concentration of Korean Americans, at 1.8%, or 23,200 people.
The two metropolitan areas with the highest Korean American populations as per the 2010 Census were the Greater Los Angeles area Combined Statistical Area (334,329) and the Greater New York Combined Statistical Area (218,764). The Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area ranks third, with approximately 93,000 Korean Americans clustered in Howard and Montgomery Counties in Maryland and Fairfax County in Virginia. Southern California and the New York City metropolitan area have the largest populations of Koreans outside of the Korean Peninsula. Among Korean Americans born in Korea, the Los Angeles metropolitan area had 226,000 as of 2012; New York (including Northern New Jersey) had 153,000 Korean-born Korean Americans; and Washington had 60,000.
The percentage of Korean Americans in Bergen County, New Jersey, in the New York City Metropolitan Area, 6.3% by the 2010 United States Census (increased to 6.9% by the 2011 American Community Survey), is the highest of any county in the United States. All of the nation's top ten municipalities by percentage of Korean population as per the 2010 Census are located within Bergen County, while the concentration of Korean Americans in Palisades Park, New Jersey, in Bergen County, is the highest of any municipality in the United States, at 52% of the population. Between 1990 and 2000, Georgia was home to the fastest-growing Korean community in the U.S., growing at a rate of 88.2% over that decade. There is a significant Korean American population in the Atlanta metropolitan area, mainly in Gwinnett County (2.7% Korean) and Fulton County (1.0% Korean).
According to the statistics of the Overseas Korean Foundation and the Republic of Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 107,145 South Korean children were adopted into the United States between 1953 and 2007.
In a 2005 United States Census Bureau survey, an estimated 432,907 ethnic Koreans in the U.S. were native-born Americans, and 973,780 were foreign-born. Korean Americans that were naturalized citizens numbered at 530,100, while 443,680 Koreans in the U.S. were not American citizens.
While people living in North Korea cannot—except under rare circumstances—leave their country, there are many people of North Korean origin living in the U.S., a substantial portion who fled to the south during the Korean War and later emigrated to the United States. Since the North Korean Human Rights Act of 2004 allowed North Korean defectors to be admitted as refugees, about 130 have settled in the U.S. under that status.
History
One of the first Korean Americans was Seo Jae-pil, or Philip Jaisohn, who came to America shortly after participating in an abortive coup with other progressives to institute political reform in 1884. He became a citizen in 1890 and earned a medical degree in 1892 from what is now George Washington University. Throughout his life, he strove to educate Koreans in the ideals of freedom and democracy, and pressed the U.S. government for Korean independence. He died during the Korean War. His home is now a museum, cared for by a social services organization founded in his name in 1975.
A prominent figure among the Korean immigrant community is Ahn Chang Ho, pen name Dosan, a Protestant social activist. He came to the United States in 1902 for education. He founded the Friendship Society in 1903 and the Mutual Assistance Society. He was also a political activist during the Japanese occupation of Korea. There is a memorial built in his honor in downtown Riverside, California and his family home on 36th Place in Los Angeles has been restored by University of Southern California. The City of Los Angeles has also declared the nearby intersection of Jefferson Boulevard and Van Buren Place to be "Dosan Ahn Chang Ho Square" in his honor. The Taekwondo pattern Do-san was named after him.
Another prominent figure among the Korean immigrant community was Syngman Rhee (이승만), a Methodist. He came to the United States in 1904 and earned a bachelor's degree at George Washington University in 1907, a master's degree at Harvard University, and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1910. In 1910, he returned to Korea and became a political activist. He later became the first president of the Republic of Korea.
In 1903, the first group of Korean laborers came to Hawaii on January 13, now known annually as Korean-American Day, to fill in gaps created by problems with Chinese and Japanese laborers. Between 1904 and 1907, about 1,000 Koreans entered the mainland from Hawaii through San Francisco. Many Koreans dispersed along the Pacific Coast as farm workers or as wage laborers in mining companies and as section hands on the railroads. Picture brides became a common practice for marriage to Korean men.
Between 1905 and 1910, political activities in Korean American communities surged in opposition towards Japanese aggression towards Korea. Organizations formed throughout the US, much of which was concentrated in Hawaii and California. In 1909, two of the largest Korean-American organizations would merge to form the Korean National Association, the largest Korean immigrant organization in North America. Leaders included An Changho, Syngman Rhee and Park Yong-man. This organization along with others would play key roles in the Korean independence movement between 1910 and 1945.
After the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910, Korean migration to the United States was virtually halted. The Immigration Act of 1924 or sometimes referred to as the Oriental Exclusion Act was part of a measured system excluding Korean immigrants into the US. In 1952 with the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, opportunities were more open to Asian Americans, enabling Korean Americans to move out of enclaves into middle-class neighborhoods. When the Korean War ended in 1953, small numbers of students and professionals entered the United States. A larger group of immigrants included women married with U.S. servicemen. In 1953, South Korea had allowed international adoption. This had stemmed from the result of the Korean war as it left many children displaced. As a result of allowing external adoption in South Korea, a majority of the children have been adopted from families across the United States. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Koreans became one of the fastest growing Asian groups in the United States, surpassed only by Filipinos.
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the quota system that had restricted the numbers of Asians allowed to enter the United States. Large numbers of Koreans, including some from North Korea who had come via South Korea, have been immigrating ever since, putting Korea in the top six countries of origin of immigrants to the United States since 1975. The reasons for immigration are many including the desire for increased freedom and the hope for better economic opportunities.
In the 1980s and 1990s Koreans became noted not only for starting small businesses such as dry cleaners or convenience stores, but also for diligently planting churches. They would venture into abandoned cities and start up businesses which happened to be predominantly African American in demographics. This would sometimes lead to publicized tensions with customers as dramatized in movies such as Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing and the Los Angeles riots of April 1992.
Their children, along with those of other Asian Americans, would also be noted in headlines and magazine covers in the 1980s for their numbers in prestigious universities and highly skilled white collar professions. Favorable socioeconomic status and education have led to the painting of Asian Americans, including Korean Americans, as a "model minority". However, this label is a controversial one: many individuals claim that the "model minority" label derides other communities of color and dismisses the challenges that the Korean Americans, and other Asian American ethnic groups, face. For instance, 12.8% of all Korean Americans live at or below the poverty line.
A large number of Korean Americans do not have health insurance due to language access barriers. Furthermore, older Korean Americans, who are at significant risk of developing mental health conditions, are less likely to access mental health services even when exhibiting symptoms. This is due to stigma and cultural misconceptions regarding mental health conditions.
Los Angeles has emerged as a major center of the Korean American community. It experienced rapid transition in the 1990s, with heavy investment by Korean banks and corporations, and the arrival of tens of thousands of Koreans, as well as even larger numbers of Hispanics. Many entrepreneurs opened small businesses, and were hard hit by the 1992 Los Angeles riots. More recently, L.A.'s Koreatown has been perceived to have experienced declining political power secondary to re-districting and an increased crime rate, prompting an exodus of Koreans from the area. Furthermore, the aftermath of the 1992 riots witnessed a large number of Koreans from Southern California moving to the San Francisco Bay Area and opening businesses and buying property near downtown Oakland, furthering the growth of that city's Koreatown until the early 2000s, although this Oakland neighborhood has also subsequently witnessed a decline in its Korean population, created by an exodus to other parts of the Bay Area.
According to Park (1998) the violence against Korean Americans in 1992 stimulated a new wave of political activism among Korean Americans, but it also split them into two main camps. The "liberals" sought to unite with other minorities in Los Angeles to fight against racial oppression and scapegoating. The "conservatives," emphasized law and order and generally favored the economic and social policies of the Republican Party. The conservatives tended to emphasize the political differences between Koreans and other minorities, specifically blacks and Hispanics. Abelmann and Lie, (1997) report that the most profound result was the politicization of Korean Americans, all across the U.S. The younger generation especially realized they had been too uninvolved in American politics, and the riot shifted their political attention from South Korea to conditions in the United States.
A substantial number of affluent Korean American professionals have settled in Bergen County, New Jersey since the early 2000s (decade) and have founded various academically and communally supportive organizations, including the Korean Parent Partnership Organization at the Bergen County Academies magnet high school and The Korean-American Association of New Jersey. Holy Name Medical Center in Teaneck, New Jersey, within Bergen County, has undertaken an ambitious effort to provide comprehensive health care services to underinsured and uninsured Korean patients from a wide area with its growing Korean Medical Program, drawing over 1,500 Korean American patients to its annual health festival. Bergen County's Broad Avenue Koreatown in Palisades Park has emerged as a dominant nexus of Korean American culture, and its Senior Citizens Center provides a popular gathering place where even Korean grandmothers were noted to follow the dance trend of the worldwide viral hit Gangnam Style by South Korean "K-pop" rapper Psy in September 2012; while the nearby Fort Lee Koreatown is also emerging as such. The Chusok Korean Thanksgiving harvest festival has become an annual tradition in Bergen County, attended by several tens of thousands.
Bergen County's growing Korean community was cited by county executive Kathleen Donovan in the context of Hackensack, New Jersey attorney Jae Y. Kim's appointment to Central Municipal Court judgeship in January 2011. Subsequently, in January 2012, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie nominated attorney Phillip Kwon of Bergen County for New Jersey Supreme Court justice, although this nomination was rejected by the state's Senate Judiciary Committee, and in July 2012, Kwon was appointed instead as deputy general counsel of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. According to The Record of Bergen County, the U.S. Census Bureau has determined the county's Korean American population—2010 census figures put it at 56,773 (increasing to 63,247 by the 2011 American Community Survey)—has grown enough to warrant language assistance during elections, and Bergen County's Koreans have earned significant political respect. As of May 2014, Korean Americans had garnered at least four borough council seats in Bergen County.
Flatbush boycott
In 1990, Korean-American owned shops were boycotted in the Flatbush section of the borough of Brooklyn in New York City. The boycott started by Black Nationalist, Sonny Carson, lasted for six months and became known as the Flatbush boycott.
Comfort women controversy
In May 2012, officials in Bergen County's borough of Palisades Park, New Jersey rejected requests by two diplomatic delegations from Japan to remove a small monument from a public park, a brass plaque on a block of stone, dedicated in 2010 to the memory of comfort women, thousands of women, many Koreans, who were forced into sexual slavery by Japanese soldiers during World War II. Days later, a South Korean delegation endorsed the borough's decision. However, in neighboring Fort Lee, various Korean American groups could not reach consensus on the design and wording for such a monument as of early April 2013. In October 2012, a similar memorial was announced in nearby Hackensack, to be raised behind the Bergen County Courthouse, alongside memorials to the Holocaust, the Great Irish Famine, the Armenian genocide, and Slavery in the United States and was unveiled in March 2013. An apology and monetary compensation of roughly $8,000,000 by Japan to South Korea in December 2015 for these crimes largely fell flat in Bergen County, where the first U.S. monument to pay respects to comfort women was erected.
East Sea controversy
According to The Record, the Korean-American Association of New Jersey petitioned Bergen County school officials in 2013 to use textbooks that refer to the Sea of Japan as the East Sea as well. In February 2014, Bergen County lawmakers announced legislative efforts to include the name East Sea in future New Jersey school textbooks. In April 2014, a bill to recognize references to the Sea of Japan also as the East Sea in Virginia textbooks was signed into law.
Sewol ferry tragedy memorial in the United States
In May 2014, the Palisades Park Public Library in New Jersey created a memorial dedicated to the victims of the tragic sinking of the Sewol ferry off the South Korean coast on April 16, 2014.
Nail salon abuse
According to an investigation by The New York Times in 2015, abuse by Korean nail salon owners in New York City and Long Island was rampant, with 70 to 80% of nail salon owners in New York being Korean, per the Korean American Nail Salon Association; with the growth and concentration in the number of salons in New York City far outstripping the remainder of the United States since 2000, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Abuses routinely included underpayment and non-payment to employees for services rendered, exacting poor working conditions, and stratifying pay scales and working conditions for Korean employees above non-Koreans.
Recent statistics
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea estimates the number of Koreans to be 224,600 as of 2013. However, it's hard to determine the accuracy of this reporting due to the figures being sourced from the Korean Consulate in Korea, and the channels of various Korean-affiliated organizations. For example, tens of thousands of immigrant women who have been married to USFK since the 1950s and who have been adopted since the liberation of the United States have not been identified in the Korean consulate statistics.
Languages
Korean Americans can speak a combination of English and Korean depending on where they were born and when they immigrated to the United States. New immigrants often use a mixture of Korean and English (Konglish), a practice also known as code-switching.
Memorials and celebrities
A number of U.S. states have declared January 13 as Korean American Day in order to recognize Korean Americans' impact and contributions. In 1903, the first group of Korean laborers came to Hawaii on January 13, to fill in gaps created by problems with Chinese and Japanese laborers.
Celebrities are named at List of Korean Americans.
Politics
In a poll from the Asia Times before the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, Korean Americans narrowly favored Republican candidate George W. Bush by a 41% to 38% margin over Democrat John Kerry, with the remaining 19% undecided or voting for other candidates. However, according to a poll done by the AALDEF the majority of Korean Americans that voted in the 2004 Presidential Election favored Democrat John Kerry by a 66% to 33% margin over Republican candidate George W. Bush.
And another poll done by the AALDEF suggest the majority of Korean Americans that voted in the 2008 Presidential Election favored Democrat Barack Obama by a 64% to 35% margin over Republican John McCain In the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, Korean Americans favored Democrat Barack Obama over Republican John McCain, around 59% to 41%. However, there are still more registered Republican Korean Americans than registered Democrats. Korean-Americans, due to their Republican and Christian leanings, overwhelmingly supported California's constitutional gay marriage ban, Proposition 8.
According to a multilingual exit poll from the 2012 election, 77% of Korean Americans voted for Democrat Barack Obama, while only 20% voted for Republican Mitt Romney. The poll also showed that 60% of Korean Americans identify themselves as being Democrats, while only 14% of Korean Americans identify themselves as being Republican.
In the 2016 presidential election, a majority of Korean Americans (75%) voted for Hillary Clinton.
Korean Americans in Congress
Elected in 1992, Jay Kim was the first Korean American person elected to Congress. He represented portions of Orange County, California. He was defeated for re-election in the Republican primary in 1998.
In 2018, Andy Kim was elected to Congress from central New Jersey, becoming the first Democratic and second overall Korean American to serve in Congress.
The 2020 elections saw the first three Korean American women elected to Congress, Republicans Young Kim and Michelle Steel of California and Democrat Marilyn Strickland of Washington.
Out of the five Korean Americans elected to the U.S. Congress, only Andy Kim was born in the United States: Jay Kim, Young Kim, Michelle Steel, and Marylin Strickland were all born in Korea and immigrated, with Strickland having a father in the American military.
Religion
Korean Americans have historically had a very strong Christian—particularly Protestant—heritage. Between 60% and 65% identify as Christian; 40% of those consist of immigrants who were not Christians at the time of their arrival in the United States. There are about 4,000 Korean Christian churches in the United States. According to a recent survey in 2016, Presbyterian churches accounted for 42%, followed by Baptists (17%) and Methodists (12%). However, according to a recent study by UC Riverside, 64% of Korean American Christians identify as Presbyterians, followed by Methodists (11%) and Baptists (7%).
There are only 89 Korean Buddhist temples in the United States; the largest such temple, Los Angeles' Sa Chal Temple, was established in 1974. A small minority, about 2 to 10% of Korean Americans are Buddhist. Reasons given for the conversion of immigrant Korean families to Christianity include the responsiveness of Christian churches to immigrant needs as well as their communal nature, whereas Buddhist temples foster individual spirituality and practice and provide fewer social networking and business opportunities, as well as social pressure from other Koreans to convert. Most Korean American Christians do not practice traditional Confucian ancestral rites practiced in Korea (in Korea, most Catholics, Buddhists, and nonbelievers practice these rites).
Cuisine
"Korean American cuisine" can be described as a fusion of traditional Korean cuisine with American culture and tastes. Dishes such as "Korean tacos" have emerged from the contacts between Korean bodega owners and their Mexican workers in the Los Angeles area, spreading from one food truck (Kogi Korean BBQ) in November 2008 to the national stage eighteen months later.
According to Chef Roy Choi (of Kogi Korean BBQ fame), sundubu-jjigae was a dish developed by Korean immigrants in Los Angeles.
Often, chefs borrow from Korean flavors and preparation techniques that they will integrate into the style they are most comfortable with (whether it be Tex-Mex, Chinese or purely American). Even a classic staple of the American diet, the hamburger, is available with a Korean twist—bulgogi (Korean BBQ) burgers.
With the popularity of cooking and culinary sampling, chefs, housewives, food junkies and culinary aficionados have been bolder in their choices, favoring more inventive, specialty and ethnic dishes. Already popular in its subset populations peppered throughout the United States, Korean food debuted in the many Koreatowns found in metropolitan areas including in Los Angeles; Queens and Manhattan in New York City; Palisades Park and Fort Lee in Bergen County, New Jersey; Annandale, Virginia; Philadelphia; Atlanta; Dallas; and Chicago. Korean cuisine has unique and bold flavors, colors and styles; these include kimchi, an often spicy dish made of salted and fermented vegetables (baechu-kimchi, kkaktugi), long-fermented pastes (gochujang, doenjang), rice cake or noodle dishes and stews (tteok-bokki, naengmyun), marinated and grilled meats (bulgogi, galbi), and many seafood dishes using fish cakes, octopus, squid, shellfish and fish.
The Korean dining scene was noted to have grown sharply in New Jersey during 2018. Broad Avenue in Bergen County's Palisades Park Koreatown in New Jersey has evolved into a Korean dessert destination as well; while a five-mile long "Kimchi Belt" has emerged in the Long Island Koreatown in New York.
Korean coffeehouse chain Caffe Bene, also serving misugaru, has attracted Korean American entrepreneurs as franchisees to launch its initial expansion into the United States, starting with Bergen County, New Jersey and the New York City Metropolitan Area.
Undocumented immigration
In 2012, the Department of Homeland Security estimated that there were 230,000 "unauthorized immigrants" born in South Korea; they are the seventh-largest nationality of undocumented immigrants behind those from Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, the Philippines and India.
Notable people
See also
Asian Americans
Demographics of the United States
Greater Dallas Korean American Chamber of Commerce
International adoption of South Korean children
Joseon–United States Treaty of 1882
KoreAm
Korean diaspora
Korean National Association
Koreans in New York City
Koreans in Washington, D.C.
Koreans
Koreatown
Koreatown, Fort Lee
Koreatown, Long Island
Koreatown, Los Angeles
Koreatown, Manhattan
Koreatown, Palisades Park
Koreatown, Philadelphia
List of American writers of Korean descent
List of Korean Americans
National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC) – progressive immigrant rights organization
yKAN
History of Korean Americans in Greater Los Angeles
References
Further reading
Abelmann, Nancy and Lie, John. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. (1995). 272 pp.
Kibria, Nazli. Becoming Asian American: Second-Generation Chinese and Korean American Identities (2003)
Kim, Ilpyong J. Korean-Americans: Past, Present, and Future (Hollym International, 2004).
Kim, Katherine Yungmee. Los Angeles's Koreatown (2010)
Korean American Historical Society, comp. Han in the Upper Left: A Brief History of Korean Americans in the Pacific Northwest. (Seattle: Chin Music, 2015. 103 pp.)
Kwak, Tae-Hwan, and Seong Hyong Lee, eds. The Korean American Community: Present and Future (Seoul: Kyungnam University Press, 1991).
Lehrer, Brian. The Korean Americans (Chelsea House, 1988).
Min, Pyong Gap. Caught in the Middle: Korean Communities in New York and Los Angeles. (1996). 260 pp.
Nash, Amy. "Korean Americans." in Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2014), pp. 23–39. online
Oh, Arissa H., "From War Waif to Ideal Immigrant: The Cold War Transformation of the Korean Orphan," Journal of American Ethnic History (2012), 31#1 pp 34–55.
Park, Kyeyoung. The Korean American Dream: Immigrants and Small Business in New York City (1997)
Park, Kyu Young. Korean Americans in Chicago (2003)
Patterson, Wayne. The Korean Frontier in America: Immigration to Hawaii, 1896–1910 (University of Hawaii Press, 1988).
Patterson, Wayne, and Hyung-Chan Kim. Koreans in America (Lerner Publications, 1992)
Takaki, Ronald. From the Land of Morning Calm: The Koreans in America (Chelsea House, 1994).
Won Moo Hurh. The Korean Americans (Greenwood Press, 1998).
External links
Korean Cultural Center
KoreanAmericanStory.org: A Non-profit Organization Dedicated to Preserving Stories of Korean-Americans
Arirang – Interactive History of Korean Americans
AsianWeek: Korean American Timeline
KoreAm Journal
Korean-American Community and Directory
Korean American Foundation
Korean American Heritage Foundation
Korean American Historical Society
Korean American literature
The Korean American Museum
Early Korean Immigrants to America: Their Role in the Establishment of the Republic of Korea
American people of Korean descent
American
Asian-American society | [
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234580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2093 | New Jersey Route 93 | Route 93 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is a north–south highway that runs from an intersection with U.S. Route 1/9 in Ridgefield on Grand Avenue in Ridgefield, Palisades Park, Leonia, and Englewood before ending at an intersection with Van Nostrand Avenue just north of Route 4. The route originated as Route S5 in 1927, running along the Bergen Turnpike until 1929, when it was moved onto the southern portion of Grand Avenue. It remained the same until 1954, after the alignment of Route 93 had been designated that the route was extended along Grand Avenue.
Route description
Route 93 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 in Ridgefield. The route heads northward through an industrial district of Ridgefield, and at an intersection with Ray Avenue, it passes a local football field. A short distance after an intersection with Linden Avenue, Route 93 intersects with the offramp from U.S. Route 46 eastbound in the community of The Ridgefields. The route heads northward through the residential districts as Grand Avenue, crossing under U.S. Route 46. To the northbound lanes, local homes side the highway, while the southbound lanes are sided by industrial factories and businesses. The route intersects with several local roads, entering the community of Palisades Park. After the intersection with Brinkerhoff Terrace, Route 93 becomes surrounded in both directions with local homes, intersecting with West Central Avenue, where Route 93 intersects with County Route 501.
At this point, Route 93 continues northward through the residential areas of Palisades Park, intersecting with several local roads. Until the intersection with West Edsall Boulevard, the route was paralleling local railroad tracks one block away, now following more residential homes. The route passes a couple of athletic fields and turns to the northeast at an intersection with Station Parkway. The route enters Leonia and passes to the east of the Overpeck County Park. Route 93 begins to fall in elevation, entering a residential district before crossing under the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95). After the turnpike, Route 93 continues northward into Englewood. The route continues a short distance further, interchanging with Route 4. A short distance after the interchange, Route 93 officially ends at an intersection with Van Nostrand Avenue. County Route 501 continues on along Grand Avenue.
History
Route 93 originated in 1927 as an alignment of State Highway Route S5, which ran along the Bergen Turnpike from State Highway Route 5 northward to an intersection with State Highway Route 1 entirely in Ridgefield. Route S5 was realigned in 1929 from the Bergen Turnpike to Grand Avenue, and remained on this alignment until the 1953 renumbering on January 1, 1953, when Route S5 was renumbered to Route 93. In 1954, the state took over the remainder of Grand Avenue from U.S. Route 46 to Route 4 from Bergen County, and Route 93 was extended. The route has remained intact since the 1953 renumbering.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
093
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234582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real%20tennis | Real tennis | Real tennis – one of several games sometimes called "the sport of kings" – is the original racquet sport from which the modern game of tennis (originally called "lawn tennis") is derived. It is also known as court tennis in the United States, formerly royal tennis in England and Australia, and courte-paume in France (to distinguish it from longue-paume, and in reference to the older, racquetless game of jeu de paume, the ancestor of modern handball and racquet games). Many French real tennis courts are at jeu de paume clubs.
The term real was first used by journalists in the early 20th century as a retronym to distinguish the ancient game from modern lawn tennis (even though, at present, the latter sport is seldom contested on lawns outside the few social-club-managed estates such as Wimbledon).
There are more than 50 active real tennis courts in the world, located in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States and France. Other countries have currently disused courts, such as the two in the Republic of Ireland. The sport is supported and governed by various organizations around the world.
Game description
The rules and scoring are similar to those of lawn tennis, which derives from real tennis, but are more complex. In both sports game scoring is by fifteens ("40" being short for the original forty-five). However, in real tennis, six games wins a set, without the need for a two-game margin as in lawn tennis although some tournaments require more games (as many as 10) to win, usually playing one, single set. A match is typically best of three sets, except matches between men in the major open tournaments, which are best of five sets.
Equipment
Unlike latex-based technology underlying the modern lawn tennis ball, the game uses a cork-cored ball which is very close in design to the original balls used in the game. The diameter balls are handmade and consist of a core made of cork with fabric tape tightly wound around it, compacted by outer windings of string, and covered with a hand-sewn layer of heavy, woven, woollen cloth, traditionally Melton cloth (not felt, which is unwoven and not strong enough to last as a ball covering). The balls were traditionally white, but around the end of the 20th century "optic yellow" was introduced for improved visibility, as had been done years earlier in lawn tennis. The balls are much less bouncy than lawn tennis balls, and weigh about (lawn tennis balls typically weigh ).
The short, asymmetrical racquets are made of wood and use very tight nylon strings to cope with the heavy balls. The racquet oval is shaped to make it easier to strike balls close to the floor or in corners, and to facilitate a fast shot with a low trajectory that is difficult for an opponent to return. There are two companies in the world hand-crafting these racquets: Grays of Cambridge (UK) and Gold Leaf Athletics (US).
Courts
There are two basic designs in existence today: jeu quarré, which is an older design, and jeu à dedans. The court at Falkland Palace is a jeu quarré design which unlike jeu à dedans court lacks a tambour and dedans. Mary, Queen of Scots became especially fond of the game, and it is said that she scandalised the people of Scotland by wearing men's breeches to play. The more common real tennis court (jeu à dedans) is a very substantial building (encompassing an area wider and longer than a lawn tennis court, with high walls and a ceiling lofty enough to contain all but the highest lob shots). It is enclosed by walls on all four sides, three of which have sloping roofs, known as "penthouses", beneath which are various openings ("galleries", from which spectators may view the game and which also play a role in scoring points), and a buttress that intrudes into the playing area (tambour) off which shots may be played. There are no "standard dimensions" for courts. Most are about above the penthouses, and about on the playing floor, varying by a foot or two per court. They are doubly asymmetric: each end of the court differs in shape from the other, and the left and right sides of the court are also different.
Manner of play
The service is always made from the same end of the court (the "service" end); a good service must touch the side penthouse (above and to the left of the server) on or over the white service line on the receiver's ("hazard") side before touching the floor in a marked area on that side. There are numerous and widely varying styles of service. These are given descriptive names to distinguish them examples are "railroad", "bobble", "poop", "piqué", "boomerang", and "giraffe".
The game has many other complexities. For instance, when the ball bounces twice on the floor at the service end, the serving player does not generally lose the point. Instead a "chase" is called where the ball made its second bounce and the server gets the chance, later in the game, to "play off" the chase from the receiving end; but to win the point being played off, their shot's second bounce must be further from the net (closer to the back wall) than the shot they originally failed to reach. A chase can also be called at the receiving ("hazard") end, but only on the half of that end nearest the net; this is called a "hazard" chase.
Those areas of the court in which chases can be called are marked with lines running across the floor, parallel to the net, generally about apart – it is these lines by which the chases are measured. Additionally, a player can gain the advantage of serving only through skillful play (viz. "laying" a "chase", which ensures a change of end). This is in stark contrast to lawn tennis, where players alternately serve and receive entire games. In real tennis the service can only change during a game, and it is not uncommon to see a player serve for several consecutive games till a chase be made. Indeed, in theory, an entire match could be played with no change of service, the same player serving every point.
The heavy, solid balls take a great deal of spin, which often causes them to rebound from the walls at unexpected angles. For the sake of a good chase (close to the back wall), it is desirable to use a cutting stroke, which imparts backspin to the ball, causing it to come sharply down after hitting the back wall.
Another twist to the game comes from the various window-like openings ('galleries') below the penthouse roofs that, in some cases, offer the player a chance to win the point instantly when the ball is hit into the opening (in other cases, these windows create a "chase"). Effectively, these are "goals" to be aimed for. The largest such opening, located behind the server, is called the "dedans" and must often be defended on the volley from hard hit shots, called "forces", coming from the receiving ("hazard") side of the court. The resulting back-court volleys and the possibility of hitting shots off the side walls and the sloping penthouses give many interesting shot choices not available in lawn tennis. Moreover, because of the weight of the balls, the small racquets, and the need to defend the rear of the court, many lawn tennis strategies, such as playing with topspin, and serve-and-volley tactics, are ineffective.
History
The term "tennis" is thought to derive from the French word tenez, which means "take heed" – a warning from the server to the receiver. Real tennis evolved, over three centuries, from an earlier ball game played around the 12th century in France. This had some similarities to palla, fives, Spanish pelota or handball, in that it involved hitting a ball with a bare hand and later with a glove. This game may have been played by monks in monastery cloisters, but the construction and appearance of courts more resemble medieval courtyards and streets than religious buildings. By the 16th century, the glove had become a racquet, the game had moved to an enclosed playing area, and the rules had stabilized. Real tennis spread across Europe, with the Papal Legate reporting in 1596 that there were 250 courts in Paris alone, near the peak of its popularity in France.
Royal interest in England began with Henry V (reigned 1413–22) but it was Henry VIII (reigned 1509–47) who made the biggest impact as a young monarch, playing the game with gusto at Hampton Court on a court he had built in 1530 and on several other courts in his palaces. His second wife Anne Boleyn was watching a game of real tennis when she was arrested and it is believed that Henry was playing tennis when news was brought to him of her execution. Queen Elizabeth I was a keen spectator of the game. During the reign of James I (1603–25), there were 14 courts in London.
In France, François I (1515–47) was an enthusiastic player and promoter of real tennis, building courts and encouraging play among both courtiers and commoners. His successor, Henry II (1547–59), was also an excellent player and continued the royal French tradition. The first known book about tennis, Trattato del Giuoco della Palla was written during his reign, in 1555, by an Italian priest, Antonio Scaino da Salo. Two French kings died from tennis-related episodes – Louis X of a severe chill after playing and Charles VIII after striking his head on the lintel of a door leading to the court in the royal Château at Amboise. King Charles IX granted a constitution to the Corporation of Tennis Professionals in 1571, creating a career for the 'maître paumiers' and, establishing three levels of professionals – apprentice, associate, and master. The first codification of the rules of real tennis was written by a professional named Forbet and published in 1599.
The game thrived among the 17th-century nobility in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and the Habsburg Empire, but suffered under English Puritanism, as it was heavily associated with gambling. By the Age of Napoleon, the royal families of Europe were besieged and real tennis, a court game, was largely abandoned. Real tennis played a role in the history of the French Revolution, through the Tennis Court Oath, a pledge signed by French deputies in a real tennis court, which formed a decisive early step in starting the revolution.
An epitaph in St Michael's Church, Coventry, written circa 1705 read, in part:
During the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racquets sports emerged in England: rackets and squash racquets.
There is documented history of courts existing in the German states from the 17th century, the sport evidently died out there during or after World War II.
In Victorian England, real tennis had a revival, but broad public interest later shifted to the new, much less difficult outdoor game of lawn tennis, which soon became the more popular sport, and was played by both genders (real tennis players were almost exclusively male). Real tennis courts were built in Hobart, Tasmania (1875) and in the United States, starting in 1876 in Boston, and in New York in 1890, and later at athletic clubs in several other cities. Real tennis greatly influenced the game of stické, which was invented in the 19th century and combined aspects of real tennis, lawn tennis and rackets.
Real tennis has the longest line of consecutive world champions of any sport in the world, dating from 1760.
Victorian court master-builder
A forgotten master of designing, building and restoring real tennis courts was the British Fulham-based builder, Joseph Bickley (1835–1923). He became a specialist around 1889 and patented a plaster mix to withstand condensation and dampness. Examples of his surviving work include: The Queen's Club, Lord's, Hampton Court Palace, Jesmond Dene, Newmarket, Moreton Hall, Warwickshire and Petworth House. There are also examples of his projects in Scotland and in the United States.
Locations
There are more than 50 real tennis courts in the world, and over half of these are in Britain.
United Kingdom
Bristol and Bath Tennis Club, Bristol: 1 court in use
Cambridge University Real Tennis Club, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire: 2 courts in use
Canford, Dorset: Sir Ivor Guest opened the court at Canford in 1879, although there had been an earlier court built in the grounds of the manor house dating back to 1541. It is still in use in a building that belongs to Canford School and also now houses four squash courts: 1 court in use
The Fairlawne Estate, Plaxtol, Kent: 1 court (private)
Falkland Palace, Fife, Scotland: The oldest court in the world for real tennis, opened in 1539, currently home of the Falkland Palace Royal Tennis Club : 1 quarré court in use
Hardwick House, Whitchurch-on-Thames, Oxfordshire: 1 court in use
Hatfield House Tennis Club, Hatfield, Hertfordshire: 1 court in use
Hyde Tennis Club, Bridport, Dorset: 1 court in use
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle: The court is situated on Matthew Bank near Jesmond Dene park, was built in 1894 for Sir Andrew Noble, the then-owner of Jesmond Dene House as a private court. It is now a listed building.: 1 court in use
Leamington Spa Tennis Court Club, built in 1846, it is the oldest purpose built real tennis club in the world: 1 court in use
The Manchester Club: Originated in 1874, the current club on Blackfriars Road was built in 1880: 1 court in use
Marylebone Cricket Club, St John's Wood, London: 1 court in use
Merton Street tennis court, Oxford, built 1798, on the site of courts dating back to c.1595: 1 court in use
Middlesex University Real Tennis Club, Hendon, London: 1 court in use
Moreton Morrell Tennis Court Club, Moreton Morrell, Warwickshire: 1 court in use
Newmarket and Suffolk Real Tennis Club, Newmarket, Suffolk: 1 court in use
The Oratory School, Woodcote. Opened in 1954, a club situated in one of the leading catholic private schools in England. Its many sports facilities include court tennis: 1 court in use
Petworth House, West Sussex: The first court was built in 1588, and the current one was built in 1872: 1 court in use
Prested Hall Racket Club, Feering, Essex: 2 courts in use
The Queen's Club, London: Opened in 1886, is the National headquarters of the governing body of real tennis, the Tennis and Rackets Association (T&RA), and hosts the British Open every year: 2 courts in use
St. Peter's College, Radley. Opened in 2008, a court situated in one of the four remaining boys-only, boarding-only public schools (independent secondary schools) in the United Kingdom: 1 court in use
Royal County of Berkshire Real Tennis Club, Holyport, Berkshire: 1 court in use
Royal Tennis Court, Hampton Court Palace: The oldest surviving real tennis court in England, built on the site of an even older (1528) court in the 1620s, where the game can be watched by the general public during British Summer Time: 1 court in use
Seacourt Tennis Club, Hayling Island, Hampshire: 1 court in use
Wellington College, Crowthorne: Opened in 2016, the court is situated on the Wellington College estate: 1 court in use
United States of America:
The Racquet Club of Philadelphia: Founded in 1889, current location constructed in 1907 by noted architect Horace Trumbauer.
The Tennis and Racquet Club, Boston, MA: One of the oldest courts in the US, opened in 1902.
The Racquet and Tennis Club, NY: New York City's famously exclusive tennis club, contains two real tennis courts, as well as a Racquets court, built in 1918.
Prince's Court, McLean, VA: The newest court in the United States, opened in 1997 and has a glass viewing wall.
National Tennis Club in Newport, RI: Located in the 'Newport Casino" now known as the International Tennis Hall of Fame.
The Tuxedo Club in Tuxedo Park, NY: Private member-owned country club. Its many sports facilities include court tennis. The court building was constructed between 1890 and 1900.
The Aiken Tennis Club: in Aiken, South Carolina, founded in 1898 by William C. Whitney political leader, financier and a key figure in the prominent Whitney family. The court building was constructed in 1902.
The Racquet Club of Chicago: real tennis court was restored and re-opened in 2012 to complement the Racquets court and squash.
Georgian Court University in Lakewood Township, New Jersey: built by George Jay Gould in 1899.
Greentree: on the former Whitney estate on the north shore of Long Island (the town of Manhasset); now a dormant court.
France:
Palace of Fontainebleau, France: the largest real tennis court in the world, and one of the few publicly owned.
Paris, France: 74 rue Lauriston, Jeu de Paume. Known as 'Société Sportive du Jeu de Paume & de Racquets', this club was privately built in 1908 after the Jeu de Paume in the Tuileries gardens was transformed into an art gallery/ exhibition hall.
Bordeaux, France: a new court was built in 2019/2020 and is located in Mérignac. This modern facility replaces the 1st Merignac court which closed in 2013 whose predecessor was the original Bordeaux court which closed in 1978.
Ireland:
Lambay Island, Ireland: On the privately owned Lambay Island (approx 5 km off the coast near Dublin, Ireland).
Australia:
Hobart Real Tennis Club, Tasmania: Founded in 1875 and the oldest real tennis club in Australia.
Royal Melbourne Tennis Club, Australia: Founded in 1882, it is one of only five clubs in the world with more than one court.
Ballarat tennis club , in Victoria
Sydney Real Tennis Club, in New South Wales (court closed in 2005). New court planned.
Real Tennis Perth, in Western Australia
Glenfern Retreat Real Tennis, Romsey, Victoria
Restored:
Racquet Club of Chicago, a court built in 1922 was re-opened in In August 2012
New court projects in the USA:
Washington, D.C : International Tennis Club of Washington (Prince's Court), as part of the Westwood Country Club in McLean, VA:
Charleston, South Carolina: as part of the Daniel Island Club aiming to be completed in late 2022:
In literature
Tennis is mentioned in literature from the 16th century onwards. It is frequently shown in emblem books, such as those of Guillaume de La Perrière from 1539. Erasmus lets two students practice Latin during a game of tennis with a racquet in 1522, although the playing ground is not mentioned. A 1581 translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses by Giovanni Andrea dell'Anguillara, printed in Venice in quarto form transforms the fatal discus game between Apollo and Hyacinth into a fatal game of real tennis, or "racchetta."
William Shakespeare mentions the game in Act I Scene II of Henry V; the Dauphin, a French Prince, sends King Henry a gift of tennis-balls, out of jest, in response to Henry's claim to the French throne. King Henry replies to the French Ambassadors:
"His present and your pains we thank you for: When we have matched our rackets to these balls, we will, in France, by God's grace, play a set [that] shall strike his father's crown into the hazard ... And tell the pleasant Prince this mock of his hath turn'd his balls to gun stones". Michael Drayton makes a similar reference to the event in his The bataille of Agincourt, published in 1627.
The Penguin book of Sick Verse includes a poem by William Lathum comparing life to a tennis-court:
If in my weak conceit, (for selfe disport),
The world I sample to a Tennis-court,
Where fate and fortune daily meet to play,
I doe conceive, I doe not much misse-say.
All manner chance are Rackets, wherewithall
They bandie men, from wall to wall;
Some over Lyne, to honour and great place,
Some under Lyne, to infame and disgrace;
Some with a cutting stroke they nimbly sent
Into the hazard placed at the end; ...
The Scottish gothic novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner by James Hogg (1824) describes a tennis match that degenerates into violence.
The detective story Dead Nick takes place in a tennis milieu. The title alludes to a shot that hits "the nick" (where the wall meets the floor), called "dead" because it then bounces very little and is frequently unreturnable.
Hazard Chase (1964), by Jeremy Potter, is a thriller-detective story featuring real tennis on the court at Hampton Court Palace. During the story the game is explained, and the book contains a diagram of a real tennis court. Jeremy Potter wrote historical works (including Tennis and Oxford (1994)), and was himself an accomplished player of the game, winning the World Amateur Over-60s Championship in 1986.
The First Beautiful Game: Stories of Obsession in Real Tennis (2006) by top amateur player Roman Krznaric contains a mixture of real tennis history, memoir and fiction, which focuses on what can be learned from real tennis about the art of living.
The Corpse on the Court (2013) is a mystery by Simon Brett. It features the recurring lead character of Jude learning many details about the sport from aficionados.
In The Chase by Ivor P. Cooper, in Ring of Fire II in the 1632 series, up-timers Heather Mason and Judy Wendell learn the sport from Thomas Hobbes. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden is depicted as an aficionado of the game.
Sudden Death (2016), a novel by Alvaro Enrigue, is interstitched throughout with descriptions of a real tennis match between the Italian artist Caravaggio and the Spanish poet Quevedo. The details of play are interspersed among historical reflections on the game, descriptions of techniques for making the balls, quotations from contemporary sources, gambling that accompanied the game, the backgrounds of the participants and the strategy discussions between the players and their seconds. It is intentionally unclear which details are real and which are imagined by the author.
In film
Real tennis is featured in the film The Seven-Per-Cent Solution, a fictional meeting between Sherlock Holmes and Sigmund Freud. One of the film's plot points turns on Freud playing a grudge match with a Prussian nobleman (in lieu of a duel).
The film The French Lieutenant's Woman includes a sequence featuring a few points being played. Also The Three Musketeers (1973) and Ever After briefly feature the game. Although presented with varying degrees of accuracy, these films provide a chance to see the game played, which otherwise may be difficult to observe personally.
The Showtime series The Tudors (2007) portrays Henry VIII playing the game. The film The Man Who Knew Infinity features a short sequence of G. H. Hardy (Jeremy Irons) and John Edensor Littlewood (Toby Jones) playing real tennis.
The series Billions, Opportunity Zone episode, very briefly features Damian Lewis and Harry Lennix playing real tennis.
In the movie Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead they play a game of questions in a disused real tennis court.
Televised matches
Real tennis has occasionally been televised, but the court (which does not well lend itself to the placement of cameras), the speed at which the ball travels, and the complexity of the rules all militate against the effectiveness and popularity of televised programming.
Web-streaming is proving a helpful innovation, and realtennis.tv broadcast its first tournament, the European Open, from 8–9 March 2011. There were three 'main events' shown; the two men's semi finals and the men's final. The final was between Bryn Sayers and Robert Fahey, with Fahey taking the title in four sets.
Many top national and international tournaments can be seen live or on replay via YouTube channels:
in the USA: United States Court Tennis Association
in the UK: T&RA Media
in France: Real Tennis France
Notable players
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex who notably played on 50 courts around the world in 2018 to support the Duke of Edinburgh’s Award.
Joshua Crane: American champion from 1901 to 1905, Crane's career coincided with that of Jay Gould.
Pierre Etchebaster: World Champion, 1928–1953, d. 24 March 1980.
Claire Vigrass Fahey: Current Women's World Champion
Robert Fahey: World Champion, 1994–2016, 2018. Fahey successfully defended his world championship title more times (11) than any previous champion. In April 2018 he regained the title defeating Camden Riviere 7 sets to 5.
Jay Gould II: American champion from 1906 to 1926, one of the longest streaks in the history of sport. From 1907 to 1925, he lost only one singles match, to English champion E. M. Baerlein. During that period, he never lost even a set to an amateur.
G. H. Hardy
John Moyer Heathcote
King Henry VIII of England
Jeremy Howard, President and Chief Scientist of Kaggle, Co-Founder of Optimal Decision Group and Fastmail.fm
King John III of Sweden
Northrup R. Knox, multiple-time American champion. He retired undefeated.
George Lambert
King Louis X of France
Penny Fellows Lumley, multiple singles and doubles champion in British, US, French and Australian Opens. Grand Slam 1996–97. Now Ladies Masters Champion.
Hon. Alfred Lyttelton
Julian Marshall
Eustace Miles: The first foreign winner of the American championship in 1900. Unusually for the period, Miles was a vegetarian, and produced a book on dietetics entitled Muscle, Brain and Diet.
Tom Pettitt
Camden Riviere: 2016 World Champion
Chris Ronaldson: World Champion, 1981–1987
John Rowan World Interbank Challenge Champion
Richard D. Sears: First American amateur champion of court tennis in 1892, and apparent inventor of the overhead "railroad service," currently the most popular serve in the game.
Fred Tompkins: Head professional of the Philadelphia court. When the New York Racquet and Tennis club opened, Fred Tompkins was invited to be head professional. However, when Fred went to his brother Alfred to borrow money for his passage, Alfred decided to go over in Fred's place; Fred Tompkins later took over the Philadelphia court instead.
Sarah Vigrass: Two-time World Doubles Champion (with her sister; Claire)
Pierre Cipriano: US National Team member, 3x consecutive Tuxedo Gold Racquet winner and inventor of the ‘Viper’ serve, an automatic way of winning a point when the server stands at Second Gallery and hits the ball as hard as he can directly at (and hopefully striking) his opponent who is set to receive.
See also
List of real tennis world champions
Grand Slam (real tennis)
History of tennis
References
External links
Article "Tennis" in the 1797 edition of Encyclopedia Britannica
The Real Tennis Society
Real tennis in Jesmond, article at BBC Tyne
Photos of real tennis court in Jesmond, from BBC Tyne
A History of Tennis
An interactive map of all 50+ remaining courts worldwide
"It Takes a $100,000 Court like This to Play Court Tennis," Life, March 1, 1937, pp. 28–31. (Text and pictures of the court at Manhattan's Racquet and Tennis Club)
Historic Real Tennis Court in the Casino Building on the campus of Georgian Court University, Lakewood, NJ
Official site of the French Courte Paume Comité (Real tennis in french)
Forms of tennis
Sport in Hammersmith and Fulham
Ball games
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234583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2094 | New Jersey Route 94 | Route 94 is a state highway in the northwestern part of New Jersey, United States. It runs from the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Knowlton Township, Warren County, where it connects to Pennsylvania Route 611 (PA 611), northeast to the New York state line in Vernon Township, Sussex County. At the New York border, New York State Route 94 (NY 94) continues to Newburgh, New York. Route 94 is mostly a two-lane undivided road that runs through mountain and valley areas of Warren and Sussex counties, serving Columbia, Blairstown, Newton, and Hamburg. The route intersects several roads, including U.S. Route 46 (US 46) and Interstate 80 (I-80) in Knowlton Township, US 206 in Newton, Route 15 in Lafayette Township, and Route 23 in Hamburg.
What is now Route 94 was legislated as part of two separate routes in 1927. The portion of road between Route 6/US 46 near the Delaware Bridge to Newton became Route 8, while the route north of Newton to the New York border became a part of Route 31. Prior to 1953, the only portion of Route 31 north of Newton that was a state highway was between North Church and Hamburg. In 1953, Route 94 was designated to replace all of Route 8 as well as Route 31 north of Newton; the number was chosen to match NY 94. After the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge were both completed in December 1953, the southern terminus of Route 94 was cut back to an intersection with US 611 in Columbia, which had been rerouted into New Jersey across both bridges, following a freeway between Columbia and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge that would later become a part of I-80. The former alignment of Route 94 between the Delaware Bridge and the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge became a part of US 46. In 1965, US 611 was routed out of New Jersey (though US 611 shields would remain on that freeway along with I-80 shields until 1972), and Route 94 still ended at that three way intersection. Once new ramps were completed in that area in 1972 along with US 611 being decommissioned (being replaced with PA 611), Route 94 was extended to the state line on the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge. Through the 1960s and 1970s, a freeway was proposed for the Route 94 corridor. This freeway, proposed to be a part of the Interstate Highway System, was never built.
Route description
Warren County
Route 94 begins at the two-lane undivided Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Knowlton Township, where it connects to PA 611 on the Pennsylvania side of the river. This bridge is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission; the rest of Route 94 is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT). Immediately after the bridge, the route comes to a complex interchange with the western terminus of US 46 as well as with I-80 a short distance later, near the community of Columbia. In the area of the US 46/I-80 interchange, the directions of Route 94 split, carrying two lanes in each direction. Signage for Route 94 begins at the I-80 interchange.
From here, the route becomes a two-lane undivided road that continues northeast through a mix of woods and farms with some development, passing under the abandoned Lackawanna Cut-Off. After passing through the community of Hainesburg, the road turns more to the east and enters Blairstown Township. Route 94 turns northeast before reaching the community of Blairstown, where the road continues east past some development before intersecting CR 521. It forms a short wrong-way concurrency with that route, along which it crosses the Paulins Kill. A short distance later, Route 94 enters Frelinghuysen Township, passing through more rural surroundings. The road turns northeast through the community of Marksboro before heading east again. After the intersection with CR 661, Route 94 makes a sharp turn to the north-northeast.
Sussex County
The route continues into Sussex County at Fredon Township, heading through rural areas. The road turns more to the northeast as a two-lane road before heading east again and entering Newton. Here, Route 94 becomes High Street and passes several homes, intersecting CR 519. CR 519 forms a concurrency with Route 94 and the two routes continue to downtown Newton. In the downtown area, the road comes to the Park Place square, where it meets US 206. At this point, all three routes run concurrent north on four-lane undivided Water Street for a short distance. CR 519 splits from the road by turning north on Mill Street, while US 206 and Route 94 continue north as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, where a shopping district lines the road as it leaves Newton for Hampton Township. The road narrows back to two lanes as it heads into areas of farmland. Route 94 splits from US 206 by making a right turn to continue east.
The road passes a mobile home park before making a turn northeast and heading into Lafayette Township. In Lafayette Township, the route resumes to the east through a mix of rural and industrial areas. The road continues to a junction with Route 15, where Route 94 makes a right turn to head southeast along Route 15 in a wrong way concurrency. Upon splitting, Route 15 stays straight and heads southeast as Route 94 turns at a right hand reverse jughandle to head northeast. Route 94 continues through more rural areas with occasional development and enters Sparta Township, where it is known as North Church Road. Here, the road passes near some residential developments before continuing into Hardyston Township. In Hardyston Township, the route runs through the community of North Church. After making a sharp turn to the east, Route 94 enters Hamburg and becomes Vernon Avenue. The route passes a few homes before intersecting Route 23 in the center of town. From this intersection, the route makes a turn to the northeast before leaving the town and heading back into Hardyston Township. The road passes rural developed areas before entering Vernon Township.
At this point, the surroundings become more wooded and mountainous as the road passes near residential areas and reaches the community of McAfee. In McAfee, CR 517 intersects with Route 94 and the two routes head east for a short wrong way concurrency, crossing the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway's New Jersey Subdivision line before CR 517 turns to the south. Route 94 continues northeast as McAfee Vernon Road, briefly becoming a divided highway as it passes the Mountain Creek ski resort and the Mountain Creek Waterpark. Continuing northeast, the route comes to an intersection with CR 515, which it runs concurrent with on Vernon Warwick Road. The two routes continue north, with CR 515 splitting from Route 94 a short distance after crossing the Appalachian Trail. From here, Route 94 continues through more countryside before reaching the New York state line, where the road continues into that state as NY 94.
History
Through Vernon, what is now Route 94 was designated as the Vernon Turnpike, which was legislated to run from the Paterson-Hamburg Turnpike to the New York state line. It was abandoned by 1828.
In the 1927 renumbering of state highways, Route 8 was defined to run along present-day Route 94 from Route 6 (current US 46) at the Delaware Bridge north to Columbia before turning northeast to Route 31 (now U.S. Route 206) in Newton. Past Newton, Route 31 continued northeast to the New York state line (current US 206 north of here was Route S31). In the original version of the renumbering bill, Route 31 was to reach the border via Sussex, incorporating pre-1927 Route 8 (now Route 284) from Sussex to the state line. However, in the final version, Route 31 ran via Hamburg, using the same alignment as a planned spur of pre-1927 Route 8 from Lafayette to North Church. Route 8 was eventually taken over by the state. On the other hand, by 1949, only one section of Route 31 north of the Route S31 split had been taken between North Church to Hamburg.
In the 1953 renumbering, Route 8 was renumbered to Route 94, which was extended northeast past Newton along former Route 31 to the New York state line, matching NY 94 across the border. It was initially only marked south of Hamburg, as none of the route north of Hamburg was state-maintained. Originally, Route 94 began at the now razed Delaware Bridge, where US 46 would cross into Pennsylvania. Route 94 would wind right and north-east a few to Columbia, where it joined its current route. In December 1953, both the Portland–Columbia Toll Bridge and Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge opened. That year a section of Old Mine Road was rebuilt and aligned as a four lane freeway between Columbia and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge.
Following this, US 46 was rerouted over the first several miles of Route 94 between the Delaware Bridge and Columbia, and Route 94 was cut back to Columbia, near the Portland-Columbia Toll Bridge. Here, US 46 would end and US 611, would cross the Portland-Columbia Toll Bridge from Pennsylvania and follow the freeway north to the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge. The freeway portion that US 611 followed became a part of I-80 in 1959. When US 611 was removed from New Jersey in 1965, Route 94 was extended to the state line on the Portland-Columbia Toll Bridge. By 1969, the unsigned portions of Route 94 north of Newton were signed. In 1973, this whole area was realigned into a complex interchange as the New Jersey portion of Interstate 80 was completed.
In 1964, a Route 94 freeway was proposed to run from I-80 in Netcong north to the planned Route 23 freeway in Hamburg, following US 206 north to Newton and current Route 94 to Hamburg. In the late 1960s, the NJDOT planned for the Route 94 freeway to run from I-80/US 46 in Columbia northeast to the New York border near Wawayanda State Park. The NJDOT hoped to get funding for the freeway in 1970 for it to become an Interstate highway as it was planned to serve a proposed national recreation area along the Delaware River that would have been built in conjunction with the controversial Tocks Island Dam project. This proposed Interstate, which was to run from I-80 in Hope Township to I-84 in Port Jervis and continue northeast along US 209, was denied funding. After reviewing the proposal again in 1972, the NJDOT determined that the freeway would cost $96 million. It was eventually canceled due to environmental concerns and financial constraints.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
Expanded view of road jurisdiction in the area near the southern terminus of NJ 94 in Knowlton Township
Expanded view of road jurisdiction in the area of the confluence of NJ 94 and US 206 in Newton
New Jersey Highway Ends – 94
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 94
094
Transportation in Sussex County, New Jersey
Transportation in Warren County, New Jersey | [
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] |
234585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grove%27s%20dictionary | Grove's dictionary | Grove's dictionary may refer to:
The Grove Dictionary of Art, former name of Oxford Art Online
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
The New Grove Dictionary of Opera | [
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234591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20109 | New Jersey Route 109 | Route 109 is a state highway located in Cape May County, New Jersey, United States. The route runs from Jackson Street in Cape May north to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9) in Lower Township. It crosses one of two road bridges over the Cape May Canal (the other is Route 162) and provides access to the southern end of the Garden State Parkway and County Route 621 (Ocean Drive) as well as to Cape May. Only the section of road in Lower Township is state maintained; the rest is maintained by Cape May County and signed as County Route 633, which extends past the southern terminus along Jackson Street and Perry Street to County Route 626 in West Cape May.
Present-day Route 109 was designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 14 in 1917 before becoming the southernmost portion of Route 4 in 1927. By the 1940s, US 9 extended south to Cape May from Absecon along this part of Route 4. In 1953, the Route 4 designation was dropped from this segment of road to avoid the concurrency with US 9. In 1972, US 9 was rerouted to head to the Cape May–Lewes Ferry terminal, with the former alignment into Cape May becoming Route 109.
Route description
Route 109 begins at an intersection with County Route 633 in Cape May, heading to the northeast on Lafayette Street, a two-lane undivided road that is county-maintained and signed as a part of County Route 633, which itself extends past the southern terminus of Route 109 along Jackson Street and Perry Street to County Route 626 in West Cape May. The route passes through residential and commercial areas of Cape May, passing southeast of the terminus of the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad at the Cape May Welcome Center/Cape May Bus Terminal located at the former Cape May City Rail Terminal and intersecting the northern terminus of County Route 653. At the intersection with Sidney Avenue, Route 109 splits into a one-way pair that has two lanes in each direction, with the northbound direction following Sidney Avenue east before turning north on Washington Street and the southbound direction remaining on Lafayette Street. Along this pairing, northbound Route 109 intersects the northern terminus of County Route 622. A short distance later, Washington Street turns west to join Lafayette Street, ending the one-way pair, and the route heads north as a two-lane undivided road.
It crosses a body of water onto an island in Lower Township. Here, the route becomes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and signed as Route 109, continuing north past several marinas and other resort businesses. The road briefly widens into a four-lane divided highway before the median ends and it crosses over the Cape May Canal on the Cape May County Veterans Memorial Bridge. Upon crossing the canal, Route 109 becomes a divided highway again and intersects County Route 621 (Ocean Drive). From here, the road passes a mix of homes and businesses before intersecting the southern terminus of the Garden State Parkway at an at-grade intersection. At this point, the route turns to the west and becomes a two-lane undivided road and heads through woods and marshland with some residences. Route 109 heads into residential neighborhoods before it ends at an intersection with US 9, which continues north on the road past this intersection as well as west along Sandman Boulevard toward the Cape May–Lewes Ferry terminal. At this intersection, a jughandle provides access from northbound Route 109 to southbound US 9.
History
The road that is now Route 109 was built as part of the Cape May Turnpike, running from Cape May north to Cape May Courthouse. The road was legislated as a part of pre-1927 Route 14 in 1917, a route that was to run from Cape May to Egg Harbor City along what is now Route 109, US 9 and Route 50. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this portion of pre-1927 Route 14 became the southernmost part of Route 4, a route that was to run from Cape May north to the George Washington Bridge. By the 1940s, US 9 was extended south from Absecon to Cape May, running concurrent with Route 4. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. and state routes, the Route 4 designation was dropped along this portion of road, leaving US 9 as the sole designation. The current high-level bridge over the Cape May Canal was built in 1960, replacing a wooden swing bridge built by the U.S. Government when the Cape May Canal was constructed during World War II. In 1972, US 9 was relocated from its southern terminus in Cape May to head west to the Cape May–Lewes Ferry terminal in North Cape May, with the former route into Cape May becoming Route 109. On November 7, 2009, the bridge carrying Route 109 over the Cape May Canal was named the Cape May County Veterans Memorial Bridge, honoring all veterans.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
New Jersey Highway Ends – 109
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 109
109
U.S. Route 9
Transportation in Cape May County, New Jersey | [
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234593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fives | Fives | Fives is an English sport believed to derive from the same origins as many racquet sports. In fives, a ball is propelled against the walls of a 3- or 4-sided special court, using a gloved or bare hand as though it were a racquet, similar to hand-pelota.
Background
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1925) describes fives as a ball game played with hands or bat in court with two, three or four walls. The name may be derived from the slang expression "a bunch of fives" (meaning a fist). The game has also been known as hand-tennis and historically was often played between the buttresses of church buildings in England. There are links between Fives and the Irish, Welsh and North American handball games. In recent years, British clubs began to establish ties with clubs in those countries.
Fives is not the same as Long Fives, which is played in a real tennis court.
Types
There are two main types of fives, Rugby Fives and Eton Fives. A precursor to Rugby Fives is Warminster (or Wessex) Fives; another variant of Wessex fives is Winchester Fives, although there are only about nine places in the UK where this is still played.
Most schools where fives is played have only one type of court but three schools have historically had both Eton and Rugby courts – Cheltenham, Dover and Marlborough. Cheltenham has only Rugby courts and Dover has two unrestored Eton courts; Marlborough has four Rugby and two Eton courts, all in good condition. Malvern College also has three Winchester fives courts all in good condition.
Eton Fives
Eton Fives, invented by Eton boys in 1877, is played competitively as a doubles game. In Eton Fives the ball is slightly softer and lighter than other versions of the game and the gloves are fairly thin.
The Eton Fives court is modelled on part of Eton College's Chapel and is enclosed on three sides and open at the back. It has a more complex variation and some specific court features or "hazards". A small step splits the court into upper and lower sections, and sloping ledges run horizontally across the walls, one of which forms the "line". There is a large obstruction, known as a 'buttress', or a 'pepper' to fives players, on the left-hand side of the court in line with the step. At the bottom of the buttress is the 'box' or 'pepper pot'. The step extends approximately 80 cm into the court and is around 15 cm high. The first courts at Eton were built in 1840, and subsequently at a multitude of other locations, and the Laws for Eton Fives were first published in 1931.
The first Oxford-Cambridge Varsity Match was played in 1928, with a Ladies' Varsity Match following in 2007.
The Eton Fives Championships changes location annually between the fives courts at Shrewsbury School and the courts at Eton.
Rugby Fives
Rugby Fives is said to owe its creation to the Headmaster Thomas Arnold who had first played Fives when a pupil at Lord Weymouth School, now Warminster School.
Rugby Fives, developed at Rugby School, is played in a four wall court (quite similar to a squash court). The four walls and floor are uniform and contain no hazards such as in Eton Fives. The front wall has a height of fifteen feet, sloping down about halfway along to four feet ten inches at the back. Rugby Fives is played as both a singles and a doubles game. The balls used in Rugby and Winchester Fives are fairly hard and hence the gloves worn are thicker than those used in Eton Fives.
Rugby Fives has had an official varsity match between Oxford and Cambridge annually since 1925.
Rugby Fives Court, Retford
A Grade II listed Rugby Fives Court in Retford, Nottinghamshire was built in memory of Captain William Eyre of the Lancashire Fusiliers who died at Gallipoli, and was a former pupil and teacher at the school. Only about 20 courts (including this one) are listed. The court was recently refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site. It is classified as a War Memorial.
Warminster Fives
The game of Warminster Fives, based on Wessex Fives, is thought to have been played from as early as 1787 at Lord Weymouth School, now Warminster School. An 1860 Warminster Fives Court still exists at Warminster School and was in regular use until the late 1950s. The game is not as well known as other versions, is rarely played in the area and the fine details of the game are probably lost. The Warminster Fives Rules are recorded in many locations including the Eton Fives Website.
Winchester Fives
Winchester Fives is a variation of Wessex fives, differing in the addition of a buttress (a thin layer of concrete reaching to the top of the court on the left-hand wall) much smaller than the one used in Eton Fives. The courts at Winchester and Radley ("proper" Winchester courts) have a back wall which further differentiates the courts from the Rugby variety. In several of these courts the buttresses have been filled in to create a Rugby court, since the Rugby form has become more universally recognised.
Clifton Fives
At Clifton College the court has a half-height back wall and if the ball bounces out of the back of the court, a 'let' is played.
St John's Fives
This version of the game is played at St John's School in Leatherhead. The St John's version is very similar to the Eton version but does not include the step between the front and the back sections of the court. In 2011 the courts at St John's underwent an upgrade.
Gissop's Fives
Played at the St Gissop School, West Sussex, this version is similar to Eton Fives except that a beveled stone 'balustrade' features three feet and three inches above the floor of the tangential wall of the court. The game was supposedly invented by alumnus George Henry Steering, who excelled at the game.
Rossall Fives
Played at Rossall school, it can most easily be described as a mix between Eton and Rugby Fives. With a small buttress, no back walls and a low ledge it can be a game that both Rugby Fives players and Eton Fives players can play on together on an almost level setting.
Players
Fives is a small sport played by groups and enthusiasts numbering perhaps 4,000 active adult players in the United Kingdom and there are a number of Old Boys' and university clubs which tend to be concentrated around the South East. There are other clubs around the country including Midlands clubs such as Bedford, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Rugby, Repton and Shrewsbury.
A similar number play in schools. About forty schools are affiliated to the Eton Fives Association (the governing body of the Eton Fives variation) and compete in many tournaments and championship events throughout the year.
Traditionally, this was a pub game in the English county of Somerset.
There are some well-established clubs overseas, such as the Zuoz Fives Club in Zurich, Switzerland, and the game is also vigorously pursued in Nigeria where it is played by a cross-section of the population, especially in the north of the country. The game was introduced to Nigeria by an Old Etonian teacher, J. S. Hogden, who was working in the northern towns of Katsina and Birnin Kebbi in 1928. It is generally played using a tennis ball in the country after Hogden realised that the traditional harder ball "took chunks out of the mud walls of the courts". A tour of northern Nigeria was carried out by players from the Eton Fives Association in 1965.
The Rugby Fives Association (the governing body of Rugby Fives, founded in 1927) has affiliations from over forty schools and thirty-two clubs, from Edinburgh to Tavistock, and there are also a number of clubs overseas, for example in South Africa and the United States.
Australia and New Zealand
Although almost unknown today, Fives was played in schools and universities in Australia in the nineteenth century. A court was opened at The Hutchins School in Hobart in November 1877, The court was described as "the only one, we believe, in the colony", and its dimensions as: "Length of floor, 21 ft.; height and width of court 14 ft. each. The court will be an open one, with a flagged floor, the walls will be built of brick, and cemented on the inside."
The erection of a Fives court on the Recreation Ground of the University of Melbourne is noted in the Council minutes of Trinity College in 1873, and there were newspaper reports of an "annual tournament in connexion with the University Fives Club" in 1881, when Professor Herbert Strong acted as judge. A double-handed tournament and a single-handed handicap tournament were played there in August 1883.
Fives is played in some secondary schools in New Zealand, for example Nelson College, New Zealand's oldest state school. Courts in New Zealand commonly have three walls, with no back wall.
Early match
The first match on record between schools was when an Eton pair played at Harrow in 1885 (F. Thomas and C. Barclay of Eton beat E.M. Butler and B. R. Warren of Harrow).
Today
Although the image of Fives has been dominated by well-known public schools, courts do exist at state schools, and in recent years many of these have been brought into full use. The advantages of economy of space and low playing costs (ball and gloves) make it an attractive sport for schools. Fives continues to develop in England and has started to attract interest from the wider community. In the United States the only known Fives courts are at Groton School and the Union Boat Club in Massachusetts since the courts at St. Mark's School were recently removed; a Fives Court was also built into the A.D. Final Club at Harvard in 1899.
There are also numerous championships, notably the (doubles) Eton Fives Kinnaird Cup and the Rugby Fives Open Singles championship (The Jesters' Cup) and Open Doubles championship (The Cyriax Cup). There are many other Rugby Fives Tournaments. A very special Eton Fives event is the Engadin Challenge Cup played in the Alps at an altitude of 5400 ft.
References
External links
Eton Fives Association
Zuoz Fives Club Zürich
Rugby Fives Association (UK)
Cambridge University Rugby Fives Club
Executioners Rugby Fives Club : in London
White Rose Rugby Fives Club (a club based in West Yorkshire)
Old Merchant Taylors Rugby Fives Club
Youth sport in England
School sport in the United Kingdom
Sports originating in England
Team sports
Wall and ball games | [
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] |
234594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ship%20companies | List of ship companies | The following articles list companies that operate ships:
List of freight ship companies for companies that own and operate the freight ships (Bulk Carriers, Container Ships, Roll-on/Roll-off (for Freights), Tankers and Gas Carriers).
List of container shipping companies by ship fleets and containers for the largest.
List of passenger ship companies for companies that own and operate the passenger ships (Cruise Ships, Cargo-Passenger Ships, and Ferries (for Passengers and Automobiles))
For shipping agencies, or the companies that own and operate tugboats, fishing ships or so, see other pages.
External links | [
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234597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20Fives | Rugby Fives | Rugby Fives is a handball game, similar to squash, played in an enclosed court. It has similarities with Winchester Fives (a form of Wessex Fives) and Eton Fives. It is played mainly in the United Kingdom.
It is most commonly believed to be derived from Wessex Fives, a game played by Thomas Arnold, famous Headmaster of Rugby School, who had played Wessex Fives when a boy at Lord Weymouth's Grammar, now Warminster School. The open court of Wessex Fives, built in 1787, is still in existence and use at Warminster School.
An early mention of the game can be found in the novel Tom Brown's School Days (1857) by Thomas Hughes. The author attended Rugby School during the period when Dr Arnold was Headmaster.
The game is played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles), the aim being to hit the ball above a 'bar' across the front wall in such a way that the opposition cannot return it before a second bounce. The ball is slightly larger than a golf ball, leather-coated and hard. Players wear leather padded gloves on both hands, with which they hit the ball.
How to play
Either singles or doubles can be played.
Court
A standard rugby fives court is four-walled, with the floor being rectangular in shape. It is 28 feet long by 18 feet wide and the upper limit of the in-court area is 15 feet for the front wall, sloping down the side walls to 4 feet 10 inches at the back wall. Previously, the height of the back wall was higher at 6 feet but was reduced for architectural reasons as it removes the need for a balcony in new facilities thus reducing building costs and improving communication between coaches and players. In addition, a wooden bar running across the front wall with an upper height of 2 feet 6 inches marks the lower limit of the in-court area on the front wall - there is no lower limit for the other three walls.
The floor is concrete so that the ball will bounce well. The walls may be stone, brick or concrete but covered in a layer of hard-wearing plaster.
Rugby fives courts tend to be somewhat idiosyncratic and the dimensions stated above are not always adhered to exactly, particularly those built before 1934 when standard dimensions were established.
Service
Usually a 50-50 chance scenario is adopted at the start of a match in order to determine who should serve first (e.g. one player puts the ball behind their back and their opponent guesses which hand it's in). In order to initiate a point, the server must first throw the ball so that it hits the front wall above the bar, then clips the side wall. Once the ball has done this, the server can choose to retake his serve or continue by hitting it so that it hits the side wall followed by the front wall. If, on the hit part of the serve, the ball hits the front wall first then the serve is referred to as a 'blackguard' (pronounced 'blaggard'). The receiver has the option to take a blackguard, as long as they say 'yes' before striking the ball. If three consecutive blackguards are served without being taken then the server is deemed to have lost a rally.
In doubles, only the receiver initially designated to return serve may do so, unless the serve is a blackguard. In this instance, either receiver may choose to say 'yes' and return the ball.
As the ball may be hit with either hand, right-handed players will typically use their right hand and the front, right-hand corner of the court to serve. Left-handed players will serve with their left hand, using the front, left-hand corner of the court.
Play
Following the serve, the receiver and server take alternate turns to strike the ball against the front wall. The ball must be struck prior to it bouncing twice and while it may hit any combination of back and side walls on its way to the front wall, it must not hit the floor or an out-of-court area. Failing to validly hit the ball against the front wall loses the rally, which results in the following:
In singles, the loser of a rally must serve the next point
In doubles, if the servers lose the rally then the designated server within that team changes. If the receivers lose the rally then
if they have lost a previous point since they last served then they must serve the next point
if they have not lost a previous point since they last served then the designated receiver within that team changes
Scoring
Points are scored from receiving the serve in Rugby fives, as well as in Winchester fives. Thus, a point is only scored if the receiver wins the rally.
Games are played either to 11 or 15, normally agreed before the game commences. If the score is tied at 1 less than the originally agreed winning total (i.e. 10-10 or 14-14) then the winning total is increased by 1 (12 and 16, respectively) but no further (unlike in tennis where you have to win by 2 points in a tie-break).
The receiver's score is said first, so if the receiver has 10 points, and the server has 5, the score is 10-5. Zero is said as 'love'.
At the start of a game of doubles, the servers only need to win one rally in order to switch so that they are receiving (for the rest of the game the usual two before switching applies).
Tournaments
Open
Ladies
Other
The asterisk indicates that these tournaments have qualification rounds to play in the main knockout. The top 4 players in the singles rankings automatically qualify for singles tournaments, and the similarly the top 4 doubles pairs qualify automatically.
The Rugby Fives Association (RFA)
The RFA is the governing body for the sport of Rugby Fives. The association aims to promote the playing and coaching of Fives at schools, universities and senior level, and throughout the community in general. It does this by organising matches and tournaments throughout the season and advising on – and wherever possible supporting financially – the regeneration of facilities and provision of suitable coaching and equipment to further the game's development across the country.
The RFA is the source for all of the information within this Wikipedia entry - verification and additional information can be found on the RFA Website: See www.therfa.uk
National singles and doubles champions
The current national singles champion is Dan Tristao (December 2021) and national doubles champions are Ed Kay and Dan Tristao (April 2019).
History
Rugby Fives Court, Retford
A Grade II listed Rugby Fives Court in Retford, Nottinghamshire was built in memory of Captain William Eyre of the Lancashire Fusiliers who died at Gallipoli, and was a former pupil and teacher at the school. Only about 20 courts (including this one) are listed. The court was recently refurbished as part of the redevelopment of the site. It is classified as a War Memorial.
References
External links
Fives Association official website
Rugby Fives 2018 National Doubles Final - Highlights
Sports originating in England
Rugby School
Wall and ball games | [
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234598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaiti%20dinar | Kuwaiti dinar | The Kuwaiti dinar (, code: KWD) is the currency of Kuwait. It is sub-divided into 1,000 fils.
As of 2021, the Kuwaiti dinar is the strongest circulating currency, with one Kuwaiti dinar equalling 3.32 United States dollars, which is just in front of the Bahraini dinar with one Bahraini dinar equalling 2.65 United States dollars.
History
The dinar was introduced in 1960 to replace the Gulf rupee, equal to the Indian rupee. It was initially equivalent to one pound sterling. As the rupee was fixed at 1 shilling 6 pence, that resulted in a conversion rate of rupees to the dinar.
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, the Iraqi dinar replaced the Kuwaiti dinar as the currency and large quantities of banknotes were stolen by the invading forces. After liberation, the Kuwaiti dinar was restored as the country's currency and a new banknote series was introduced, allowing the previous notes, including those stolen, to be demonetized.
Coins
The coins in the following table were introduced in 1961. The design of all coins is similar and has not changed since they were first minted. On the obverse is a boom ship, with year of minting in both Islamic and Common Era in Arabic. The reverse contains the value in Arabic within a central circle with إمَارَة الكُوَيت (Arabic for The State of Kuwait) above and KUWAIT in English below.
Unlike many other Middle Eastern currencies, Kuwait has a coin worth 0.02 of its main currency unit rather than 0.025 or 0.25.
The 1 fils coin was last minted in 1988.
Banknotes
Six series of the Kuwaiti dinar banknote have been printed.
First series
The first series was issued following the pronouncement of the Kuwaiti Currency Law in 1960, which established the Kuwaiti Currency Board. This series was in circulation from 1 April 1961 to 1 February 1982 and consisted of denominations of , , 1, 5 and 10 dinars.
Second series
After the creation of the Central Bank of Kuwait in 1969 as a replacement to the Kuwaiti Currency Board, new , and 10 dinar notes were issued from 17 November 1970, followed by the new 1 and 5 dinar notes of the second series on 20 April 1971. This second series was withdrawn on 1 February 1982.
Third series
The third series was issued on 20 February 1980, after the accession to the throne of late Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, in denominations of , , 1, 5 and 10 dinars. A 20 dinars banknote was introduced later on 9 February 1986. As a result of the state of emergency after the Invasion of Kuwait, this series was ruled invalid with effect from 30 September 1991. Significant quantities of these notes were stolen by Iraqi forces and some had appeared on the international numismatic market. The "Standard Catalog of World Paper Money" (A. Pick, Krause Publications) lists notes with the following serial number prefix denominators as being among those stolen:
Fourth series
After the liberation, a fourth series was issued on 24 March 1991 with the aims of replacing the previous withdrawn series as quickly as possible and guaranteeing the country's swift economic recovery. This fourth series was legal tender until 16 February 1995. Denominations were , , 1, 5, 10 and 20 dinars.
Fifth series
The fifth series of Kuwaiti banknotes was in use from 3 April 1994 and included high-tech security measures which have now become standard for banknotes. It was withdrawn on 1 October 2015. Denominations were as in the fourth series.
Sixth series
Central Bank of Kuwait brought the sixth series of Kuwaiti banknotes into circulation on 29 June 2014. Some of the bills are coarse so that the blind can identify them by touch.
Commemorative issues
In both 1993 and 2001, the Central Bank of Kuwait issued commemorative 1-dinar polymer banknotes to celebrate its Liberation from Iraq. The first commemorative note, dated 26 February 1993, was issued to celebrate the second anniversary of its Liberation. The front features the map of the State of Kuwait, the emblem of Kuwait and on the left and right side of the note is the list of nations that assisted in its Liberation, in both English and Arabic. The second commemorative note, dated 26 February 2001, was issued to celebrate the tenth anniversary of its Liberation. One feature from the note is an optically variable device (OVD) patch that shows a fingerprint, a reference to the victims of the invasion and occupation of Kuwait. Even though they were denominated as 1 dinar, both of the commemorative notes state that they were not legal tender.
From 18 March 1975 to 4 January 2003, the dinar was pegged to a weighted currency basket. From 5 January 2003 until 20 May 2007, the pegging was switched to 1 US dollar = 0.29963 dinar with margins of ±3.5%. The central rate translates to approximately 1 KWD = US$3.53
From 16 June 2007, the Kuwaiti dinar was re-pegged to a basket of currencies, and was worth about $3.28 as of December 2016. It is the world's highest-valued currency unit.
See also
Economy of Kuwait
References
This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia, retrieved 2 March 2005.
External links
Images and description of banknotes ( New Central Bank of Kuwait website )
The banknotes of Kuwait
Economy of Kuwait
Fixed exchange rate
Currencies introduced in 1961
Currencies of Kuwait | [
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234604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-skinned%20vehicle | Soft-skinned vehicle | In military terminology, a soft-skinned vehicle is any vehicle that is not armored, such as a truck, motorcycle, Jeep or car. The term soft-skinned vehicle may apply also to half-tracks and scouting vehicles having little or no armor. These can be used as general-purpose workhorses, like a 53-seater coach or pick-up, a military police vehicle, or a car used for undercover work on the home front.
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234610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO | CO | CO or variants may refer to:
People
People with the given name
Nguyễn Hữu Có (1925–2012), Vietnamese general
People with the surname
Conrado Co (born 1940), Filipino badminton player
Alfredo Co (born 1949), Filipino Sinologist
Atoy Co (born 1951), Filipino actor and basketball coach
Leonard Co (1953–2010), Filipino botanist
Nando Có (born 1973), Bissau-Guinean footballer
Kenedy Có (born 1998), Bissau-Guinean footballer
Samuel S. Co, Filipino politician
Places
CO postcode area, or Colchester postcode area, England
Colombia, ISO 3166-1 country code CO
Colorado, United States postal abbreviation CO
Counties of Ireland, abbreviated Co.
Ranks and titles
C.O., post-nominal initials of members of the congregation of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri
Commanding officer (CO), the officer in command of a military unit
Contracting Officer (CO or KO), in the U.S. government
Correctional officer (CO), an officer whose duty it is to safeguard and promote the welfare of inmates
Circle officer (CO), in the Indian government
Conscientious objector
Science and technology
.co (second-level domain), the Internet second-level domain meaning "commercial"
.co, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Colombia
Carbon monoxide (CO), a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas
Carbonyl group, composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O
Cardiac output (CO), the volume of blood being pumped by the heart per time unit
Cobalt, a chemical element, symbol Co
Commitment ordering (CO), a concurrency control technique for databases
Telephone exchange, or central office (CO)
Mathematics
Cofunction, or Co, in trigonometry
Cuboctahedron, a uniform polyhedron
Transportation
Chemins de fer Orientaux (CO), a former Ottoman railway company
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O or CO), a former American railroad
Cobalt Air (IATA airline designator CO), a Cypriot airline from 2016
Continental Airlines (IATA airline designator CO), an American airline before 2012
Other uses
co-, an English prefix meaning coming together
Castres Olympique, a French rugby club
Certificate of occupancy (CO), a legal document
Certificate of origin (often abbreviated to C/O or CoO), in international trade
Company, abbreviated co.
Corsican language, ISO 639-1 language code co
℅, a Unicode character in the Letterlike Symbols block
c/o, former name of Gerhardsen Gerner, an art gallery in Berlin,
C/O, cadet officer ranks of the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps
See also
C0 (disambiguation), the letternumber combination
Care of (disambiguation)
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234623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilperic%20II | Chilperic II | Chilperic II (c. 672 – 13 February 721), known as Daniel prior to his coronation, was the youngest son of Childeric II and his half-cousin, king of Neustria from 715 and sole king of the Franks from 718 until his death.
As an infant, he was spirited to a monastery to protect his life from the internecine feuding of his family. There, he was raised as Daniel until the death of Dagobert III in 715, when he was taken from the monastery — at the age of forty-three — and raised on the shield of the Neustrian warriors as king, as was the custom. He took the royal name of Chilperic, though due to his monastic upbringing, he was a very different man from Chilperic I.
First, it appears he was supposed to be but a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace of Neustria, acclaimed in 714 in opposition to Theudoald, Pepin of Heristal's designated heir. Chilperic, however, was his own man: both a fighter and a leader, always at the forefront in battle at the head of his troops. In 716, he and Ragenfrid together led an army into Austrasia, then being warred over by Plectrude, on behalf of her grandson Theudoald, and Charles Martel, the son of Pepin of Heristal. The Neustrians allied with another invading force under Radbod, King of the Frisians and met Charles in battle near Cologne, then held by Plectrude. Chilperic was victorious and Charles fled to the mountains of the Eifel. The king and his mayor then turned to besiege their other rival in the city. Plectrude acknowledged Chilperic as king, gave over the Austrasian treasury, and abandoned her grandson's claim to the mayoralty.
At this juncture, events took a turn against Chilperic. As he and Ragenfrid were leading their triumphant soldiers back to Neustria, Charles fell on them near Malmedy and in the Battle of Amblève, Charles routed them and they fled. Thereafter, Charles Martel remained virtually undefeated and Chilperic's strong will was subdued in a series of campaigns waged in Neustrian territory.
In 717, Charles returned to Neustria with an army and confirmed his supremacy with a victory at Vincy, near Cambrai. He chased the fleeing king and mayor to Paris before turning back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne. On succeeding there, he proclaimed Chlothar IV king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic. In 718, Chilperic, in response, allied with Odo the Great, the duke of Aquitaine who had made himself independent during the contests in 715, but he was again defeated by Charles, at Soissons. The king fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Ragenfrid fled to Angers. Soon Chlothar IV died. Odo then gave up on Chilperic and, in exchange for Charles recognising Chilperic's kingship over all the Franks, the king surrendered his political power to Charles, whom he recognized as Mayor over all the kingdoms (718).
In 719, he was officially raised on the shield as king of all the Franks, but he survived but a year and his successors were mere rois fainéants. He died in Attigny and was buried in Noyon. Chilperic II may have been the father of Childeric III, but this remains uncertain.
References
Sources
Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages, 476–918. London: Rivingtons, 1914.
External links
From Merovingians to Carolingians: Dynastic Change in Frankia.
Merovingian kings
Frankish warriors
672 births
721 deaths
Burials at Saint-Germain-des-Prés (abbey)
8th-century Frankish kings | [
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] |
234625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenamidone | Fenamidone | Fenamidone is a foliar fungicide used on grapes, ornamentals, potatoes, tobacco, and vegetables such as tomatoes. It exerts its fungicidal effects by acting as a Qo inhibitor.
References
Fungicides | [
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234626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ele%20Perrot | Île Perrot | Île Perrot () is an island west of the island of Montreal in the Canadian province of Quebec. Part of the Hochelaga Archipelago, the island lies between Lake Saint-Louis and Lac des Deux-Montagnes. The island was granted by the Intendant Talon of New France to its founder François-Marie Perrot then Governor of Montreal on 28 October 1672.
Nearly 38,000 people live in one of Île Perrot's four municipalities:
Notre-Dame-de-l'Île-Perrot
Pincourt
Terrasse Vaudreuil
L'Île-Perrot
Île Perrot holds the only working windmill in Quebec, dating from the time Île-Perrot was a seigneury in the French colony of New France. The windmill and associated miller's house were designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1969, and a Historic Monument under provincial heritage legislation in 1977. In the windmill's honour, what now constitutes the commercial artery of the island was named boulevard Don-Quichotte.
Geology and soils
The island is underlain by Cambrian-age quartzite. Angular blocks of this hard rock are visible on the surface over much of the island. The soil is a stony sandy loam podzol which has developed on acidic, nutrient-poor quartzite till. Over parts of the island, this till is covered with clay which is nutrient-rich and much less stony, but poorly drained and classified as gleysol.
Vegetation
Part of the island remains in forest, although housing developments have made significant inroads over recent years. Deciduous trees such as American beech, sugar maple, red maple, northern red oak, white ash, bitternut hickory and American basswood are dominant. The vegetation is more luxuriant than one would expect from the nature of the soils, and includes a great diversity of wildflowers.
See also
List of islands of Quebec
References
Perrot
Landforms of Montérégie
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234627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famoxadone | Famoxadone | Famoxadone is a fungicide to protect agricultural products against various fungal diseases on fruiting vegetables, tomatoes, potatoes, curcurbits, lettuce and grapes. It is used in combination with cymoxanil. Famoxadone is a QI, albeit with a chemistry different from most QIs. (It is an oxazolidine-dione while most are strobilurins.) It is commonly used against Plasmopara viticola, Alternaria solani, Phytophthora infestans, and Septoria nodorum.
Molecular interaction
Famoxadone is of lesser interaction strength at the Q pocket than some other QIs, for example, azoxystrobin. This is because azoxystrobin and such interact more centrally in the Q pocket than does famoxadone.
Resistance management
Although it has a different chemistry, famoxadone shows full cross-resistance with the rest of the main FRAC group 11 that it belongs to, which is almost entirely strobs. It has not shown cross-resistance with the 11A subgroup however. As with all QIs there is a high risk of resistance development and so pesticide stewardship is important.
Populations of P. infestans and A. solani in northern and western Europe are not known to be resistant to famoxadone.
External links
References
Fungicides
Oxazolidinediones
Phenol ethers
Quinone outside inhibitors | [
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234629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM%20%28file%20format%29 | XM (file format) | XM, standing for "extended module", is an audio file type introduced by Triton's FastTracker 2. XM introduced multisampling-capable instruments with volume and panning envelopes, sample looping and basic pattern compression. It also expanded the available effect commands and channels, added 16-bit sample support, and offered an alternative frequency table for portamentos.
XM is a common format for many module files.
The file format has been initially documented by its creator in the file XM.TXT, which accompanied the 2.08 release of FastTracker 2, as well as its latest known beta version: 2.09b. The file, written in 1994 and attributed to Mr.H of Triton (Fredrik Huss), bears the header "The XM module format description for XM files version $0104." The contents of the file have been posted on this article's Talk subpage for reference.
This documentation is however said to be incomplete and insufficient to properly recreate the behaviour of the original program. The MilkyTracker project has expanded the documentation of the XM file format, in an attempt to replicate not only the behaviour of the original software but also its quirks. Their documentation of the XM file format is available on the project's GitHub repository.
OXM (oggmod) is a subformat, which compresses the XM samples using Vorbis.
Supporting Media Players
Windows Media Player – supports .XM files as long as the player version is x86 (32-bit)
Cowon jetAudio – A freeware audio player for Windows which supports .XM files
Xmplay – A freeware audio player for Windows which supports .XM files
Foobar2000 – A freeware audio player for Windows that supports .XM files through a plugin.
VLC Media Player – An open-source media player for Windows, Linux, & macOS which supports .XM files
References
See also
Module file
MOD (file format)
S3M (file format)
IT (file format)
Module file formats
Digital audio | [
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234630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Mendes | Sam Mendes | Sir Samuel Alexander Mendes (born 1 August 1965) is a British film and stage director, producer, and screenwriter. In theatre, he is known for his dark re-inventions of the stage musicals Cabaret (1993), Oliver! (1994), Company (1995), and Gypsy (2003). He directed an original West End stage musical for the first time with Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2013). For directing the play The Ferryman, Mendes was awarded the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play in 2019.
In film, he made his directorial debut with the drama American Beauty (1999), which earned him the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Director. He has since directed the crime film Road to Perdition (2002), Jarhead (2005), the drama Revolutionary Road (2008), and the James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre (2015). For the war film 1917 (2019), he received the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and a second Golden Globe Award for Best Director, as well as his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director; additionally, he was nominated for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay.
In 2000, Mendes was appointed a CBE for his services to drama, and he was knighted in the 2020 New Years Honours List. That same year, he was awarded the Shakespeare Prize by the Alfred Toepfer Foundation in Hamburg, Germany. In 2005, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Directors Guild of Great Britain. In 2008, The Daily Telegraph ranked him number 15 in their list of the "100 most powerful people in British culture".
Early life
Mendes was born on 1 August 1965 in Reading, Berkshire. He is the son of Valerie Mendes (born Barnett), a publisher and author, and Jameson Peter Mendes, a university professor. His father, who is from Trinidad and Tobago, is a Roman Catholic of Portuguese descent, and his mother is an English Jew. His grandfather was the Trinidadian writer Alfred Hubert Mendes.
Mendes's parents divorced when he was three years old, after which Mendes and his mother settled in Primrose Hill in North London. He attended Primrose Hill Primary School and was in the same class as future Foreign Secretary David Miliband and author Zoë Heller. In 1976, the family relocated to Woodstock near Oxford, where Mendes's mother found work as a senior editor at Oxford University Press. Mendes was educated at Magdalen College School where he met future theatre designer Tom Piper, who would go on to work with Mendes on a National Theatre revival of Harold Pinter's The Birthday Party.
Mendes had an early interest in cinema and applied to the University of Warwick (then the only university in the UK that offered an undergraduate film course), but was turned down. He was then accepted by Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he graduated with first-class honours in English. Having only developed a passion for theatre in his late teens, Mendes became a member of the Marlowe Society at Cambridge and directed several plays. His first play was David Halliwell's Little Malcolm and His Struggle Against the Eunuchs, and one of his later productions was Cyrano de Bergerac with Tom Hollander and Jonathan Cake among the cast members. During his time at Cambridge, Mendes also became enthusiastic towards cinema in earnest. He cited Paris, Texas, Repo Man and True Stories as three "seminal film moments" that influenced his stage and film career.
Mendes was noted as a "brilliant schoolboy cricketer" by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, scoring 1,153 runs at 46 and taking 83 wickets at under 16 for Magdalen College School in 1983 and 1984. He also played cricket for Cambridge University, and in 1997 played for Shipton-under-Wychwood in the final of the Village Cricket Cup, thus being the only winner of the Academy Award for Best Director to have played at Lord's.
Stage career
Early work
After graduating from Cambridge in 1987, Mendes was hired as assistant director at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In September 1987, Mendes made his professional directing debut with a double bill of two Anton Chekhov plays, The Bear and The Proposal. In 1989, he was appointed the inaugural director of the Minerva Theatre.
In 1989, following the abrupt departure of director Robin Phillips, Mendes took over a production of Dion Boucicault's London Assurance at Chichester. Later that year, Mendes made his West End debut at the Aldwych with a production of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard, starring Judi Dench. London Assurance then transferred to the West End following a six-month run at Chichester, opening at the Theatre Royal Haymarket. The successes of the plays established Mendes as a theatre director of national renown.
Donmar Warehouse (1990–2002)
In 1990, Mendes was appointed artistic director of the Donmar Warehouse, a Covent Garden studio space previously used by the Royal Shakespeare Company. He spent two years overseeing the redesign of the theatre, which formally opened in 1992 with the British premiere of Stephen Sondheim's Assassins. Mendes's tenure at the Donmar saw its transformation into one of the most successful and fashionable playhouses in London.
In 1993, Mendes staged an acclaimed revival of John Kander and Fred Ebb's Cabaret starring Jane Horrocks as Sally Bowles and Alan Cumming as Emcee. The production was approached with a fresh concept, differing greatly from both the original 1966 production directed by Harold Prince and the famed film version, directed by Bob Fosse. This production opened at the Donmar and received four Olivier Award nominations including Best Musical Revival, before transferring promptly to Broadway where it played for several years at the Kit Kat Club (i.e. the Stephen Sondheim Theater). The Broadway cast included Cumming once again as Emcee, with Natasha Richardson as Sally, Mary Louise Wilson as Frau Schneider and John Benjamin Hickey as Cliff. Cumming and Richardson won Tony Awards for their performances.
1994 saw Mendes stage a new production of Lionel Bart's Oliver!, produced by Cameron Mackintosh. Mendes, a longtime fan of the work, worked in close collaboration with Bart and other production team members, William David Brohn, Martin Koch and Anthony Ward, to create a fresh staging of the well-known classic. Bart added new musical material and Mendes updated the book slightly, while the orchestrations were radically rewritten to suit the show's cinematic feel. The cast included Jonathan Pryce (after much persuasion) as Fagin, Sally Dexter as Nancy, and Miles Anderson as Bill Sikes. Mendes, Pryce and Dexter received Olivier Award nominations for their work on Oliver!.
Mendes also directed productions of David Hare's The Blue Room in 1998, starring Nicole Kidman; Richard Greenberg's Three Days of Rain in 1999, with Colin Firth, David Morrissey and Elizabeth McGovern; as well as his farewell duo in 2002, Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and Twelfth Night, both headed by Simon Russell Beale, Helen McCrory, Emily Watson and Mark Strong. He stepped down as artistic director of the Donmar in December 2002 and was succeeded by Michael Grandage.
After the Donmar (2002–present)
In 2003, Mendes directed a revival of the musical Gypsy. Originally, he planned to stage this production in London's West End with an eventual Broadway transfer, but when negotiations fell through, he brought it to New York. The cast included Bernadette Peters as Rose, Tammy Blanchard as Louise and John Dossett as Herbie.
Mendes also directed the 2013 Olivier Award-nominated stage adaptation of Roald Dahl's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory which ran in London's West End until January 2017. It starred Douglas Hodge as Willy Wonka, followed by Alex Jennings and Jonathan Slinger who later took over the role.
In 2014, Mendes directed Simon Russell Beale in King Lear by William Shakespeare at the National Theatre, London. Mendes directed Jez Butterworth's The Ferryman for the Royal Court Theatre in London in 2017, before transferring to the West End later that year and Broadway in 2018, for which he won an Olivier Award and Tony Award for Best Director.
In 2018, Mendes directed The Lehman Trilogy by Stefano Massini in an English adaptation by Ben Power for the National Theatre, London starring Simon Russell Beale, Adam Godley and Ben Miles. In 2019 the play played a season at the Park Avenue Armory in New York before returning for another London season in the West End.
Film career
American Beauty to Skyfall: 1999–2012
In 1999, Mendes made his film directorial debut with American Beauty, starring Kevin Spacey. He had been approached by Steven Spielberg, who was impressed by his productions of Oliver! and Cabaret. The film grossed $356.3 million worldwide. The film won the Golden Globe Award, the BAFTA Award and the Academy Award for Best Picture. Mendes won the Golden Globe Award, Directors Guild of America Award, and the Academy Award for Best Director, becoming the sixth director to earn the Academy Award for his feature film debut.
Mendes's second film, in 2002, was Road to Perdition, which grossed US$181 million. The aggregate review score on Rotten Tomatoes is currently 81%; critics praised Paul Newman for his performance. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actor for Newman; it won for Best Cinematography.
In 2003, Mendes established Neal Street Productions, a film, television and theatre production company he would use to finance much of his later work. In 2005, Mendes directed the war film Jarhead, in association with his production company Neal Street Productions. The film received mixed reviews, with a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 61%, and a gross revenue of US$96.9 million worldwide. The film focused on the boredom and other psychological challenges of wartime.
In 2008, Mendes directed Revolutionary Road, starring his then-wife, Kate Winslet, along with Leonardo DiCaprio and Kathy Bates. In a January 2009 interview, Mendes commented, about directing his wife for the first time, "I would open my eyes in the morning and there Kate would be, going, 'Great! You're awake! Now let's talk about the second scene.'" Mendes's comedy-drama Away We Go opened the 2009 Edinburgh International Film Festival. The film follows a couple (John Krasinski, Maya Rudolph) searching North America for the perfect community in which to settle down and start a family. The film was well received by critics but performed poorly at the box office.
In 2010, Mendes co-produced a critically acclaimed documentary film Out of the Ashes that deals with cricket in Afghanistan. On 5 January 2010, news broke that Mendes was employed to direct the 23rd Eon Productions instalment of the James Bond franchise. The film, Skyfall, was subsequently released on 26 October 2012, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the Bond films. Mendes had been employed as a consultant on the film when it was in pre-production, and had remained attached to the project during the financial troubles of MGM. The film was a major critical and commercial success, becoming the 14th film to gross over $1 billion worldwide. In 2012, Mendes's Neal Street Productions produced the first series of the BBC One drama series, Call the Midwife, following it with a second season which began transmission in early 2013.
Spectre to 1917: 2013–present
After the success of Skyfall, Mendes was asked if he was returning to direct the next Bond film. He responded, "I felt I put everything I possibly could into this film and it was the Bond film I wanted to make. And if I felt I could do the same again, then absolutely I would consider doing another one. But it is a big task and I wouldn't do it unless I knew I could." It was reported that one reason Mendes was reluctant to commit was that one proposal involved making two films back-to-back, based on an idea by Skyfall writer John Logan, which would have resulted in Mendes and other creative personnel being tied up with filming for around four years. It was reported in February 2013 that this idea had since been shelved and that the next two films would be stand-alone. Mendes said in an interview with film magazine Empire in March 2013 that "it has been a very difficult decision not to accept Michael and Barbara's very generous offer to direct the next Bond movie." He cited, amongst other reasons, his commitments to the stage version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and King Lear.
However, on 29 May 2013, it was reported that Mendes was back in negotiations with producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli to direct the next Bond film, going back on his previous comments. Wilson and Broccoli were willing to postpone production of the film to ensure Mendes's participation. On 11 July 2013, it was announced that Mendes would direct the 24th James Bond film, Spectre; it was released in October 2015. This made him the first filmmaker since John Glen to direct two Bond films in a row. In April 2016, Mendes was named as the President of the Jury for the 73rd Venice International Film Festival.
Mendes's next film, war epic 1917, was released by Universal Pictures on 25 December 2019 in the US and on 10 January 2020 in the UK. Based in part on an account told to Mendes by his paternal grandfather, Alfred Mendes, it chronicles the story of two young British soldiers in the spring of 1917 at a critical point during World War I. Mendes went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for his achievement in directing and in his acceptance speech saluted his grandfather, as well as acknowledging the contribution to cinema of fellow nominee Martin Scorsese. On 25 January 2020, he won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film, following which he was installed by the press as the favourite to win the Academy Award for Best Director at the then approaching 92nd Academy Awards. However that plaudit went instead to Bong Joon-ho for the South Korean film Parasite. The two directors had shared the honours for directing at the 25th Critics' Choice Awards several weeks prior.
In 2021, it was announced that Mendes's next feature would be Empire of Light starring Olivia Colman.
Personal life
Mendes and actress Kate Winslet met in 2001, when Mendes approached her about appearing in a play at the Donmar Warehouse, where he was then artistic director. They married in May 2003, on what they characterised as a whim, while on holiday in Anguilla when Winslet was two months pregnant with their child. Their son Joe Alfie Winslet Mendes was born on 22 December 2003 in New York City. Mendes also had a stepdaughter, Mia, from Winslet's first marriage to filmmaker Jim Threapleton.
Amid intense media speculation of an affair between Mendes and actress Rebecca Hall, he and Winslet announced their separation in 2010 and divorced in 2011. Mendes and Hall were in a relationship from 2011 to 2013. Mendes married trumpeter Alison Balsom in January 2017. Their daughter Phoebe was born in September 2017.
Mendes was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2020 New Years Honours List for services to drama.
In 2009, Mendes signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.
Mendes is an opponent of Brexit. In 2017, he stated: "I'm afraid that the winds that were blowing before the First World War are blowing again. There was this generation of men fighting then for a free and unified Europe, which we would do well to remember."
Filmography
Film
as producer
Things We Lost in the Fire
as executive producer
Starter for 10 (2006)
The Kite Runner (2007)
Out of the Ashes (2010) (Documentary)
Blood (2012)
Television
as producer
Accolades
References
Bibliography
External links
Charlie Rose interview 5 June 2009
Brandon Kosters interview 2 June 2009
The Observer Interview 14 December 2008
1965 births
Living people
People from Reading, Berkshire
English expatriates in the United States
People educated at Magdalen College School, Oxford
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
English people of Jewish descent
English people of Italian descent
English people of Portuguese descent
English people of Trinidad and Tobago descent
English theatre directors
English film directors
Drama Desk Award winners
Filmmakers who won the Best Film BAFTA Award
Helpmann Award winners
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Tony Award winners
Best Directing Academy Award winners
Best Director BAFTA Award winners
Best Director Golden Globe winners
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners
Directors Guild of America Award winners
English-language film directors
Action film directors
Knights Bachelor
Jewish theatre directors | [
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234637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofreading | Proofreading | Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and correct reproduction errors of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle before publication.
Professional
Traditional method
A 'galley proof' (familiarly, 'a proof') is a typeset version of copy or a manuscript document. They may contain typographical errors ("printer's errors"), as a result of human error during typesetting. Traditionally, a proofreader looks at an increment of text on the copy and then compares it to the corresponding typeset increment, and then marks any errors (sometimes called 'line edits') using standard proofreaders' marks. Unlike copy editing, the defining procedure of a proofreading service is to work directly with two sets of information at the same time. Proofs are then returned to the typesetter for correction. Correction-cycle proofs will typically have one descriptive term, such as 'bounce', 'bump', or 'revise' unique to the department or organization and used for clarity to the strict exclusion of any other. It is a common practice for 'all' such corrections, no matter how slight, to be sent again to a proofreader to be checked and initialled, thus establishing the principle of higher responsibility for proofreaders as compared to their typesetters or artists.
Alternative methods
'Copy holding' or 'copy reading' employs two readers per proof. The first reads the text aloud literally as it appears, usually at a comparatively fast but uniform rate. The second reader follows along and marks any pertinent differences between what is read and what was typeset. This method is appropriate for large quantities of boilerplate text where it is assumed that there will be comparatively few mistakes.
Experienced copy holders employ various codes and verbal short-cuts that accompany their reading. The spoken word 'digits', for example, means that the numbers about to be read are not words spelled out; and 'in a hole' can mean that the upcoming segment of text is within parentheses. 'Bang' means an exclamation point. A 'thump' or 'screamer' made with a finger on the table represents the initial cap, comma, period, or similar obvious attribute being read simultaneously. Thus the line of text (He said the address was 1234 Central Blvd., and to hurry!) would be read aloud as "in a hole [thump] he said the address was digits 1 2 3 4 [thump] central [thump] buluhvuhd [thump] comma and to hurry bang". Mutual understanding is the only guiding principle, so codes evolve as opportunity permits. In the above example, two thumps after 'buluhvuhd' might be acceptable to proofreaders familiar with the text.
'Double reading' is when a single proofreader checks a proof in the traditional manner and then another reader repeats the process. Both initial the proof. Note that with both copy holding and double reading, responsibility for a given proof is necessarily shared by the two proofreaders.
'Scanning' is used to check a proof without reading it word for word, has become common with computerization of typesetting and the popularization of word processing. Many publishers have their own proprietary typesetting systems, while their customers use commercial programs such as Word. Before the data in a Word file can be published, it must be converted into a format used by the publisher. The end product is usually called a conversion. If a customer has already proofread the contents of a file before submitting it to a publisher, there will be no reason for another proofreader to re-read it from the copy (although this additional service may be requested and paid for). Instead, the publisher is held responsible only for formatting errors, such as typeface, page width, and alignment of columns in tables; and production errors such as text inadvertently deleted. To simplify matters further, a given conversion will usually be assigned a specific template. Given typesetters of sufficient skill, experienced proofreaders familiar with their typesetters' work can accurately scan their pages without reading the text for errors that neither they nor their typesetters are responsible for.
Style guides and checklists
Proofreaders are expected to be consistently accurate by default because they occupy the last stage of typographic production before publication.
Before it is typeset, copy is often marked up by an editor or customer with various instructions as to typefaces, art, and layout. Often these individuals will consult a style guide of varying degrees of complexity and completeness. Such guides are usually produced in-house by the staff or supplied by the customer, and should be distinguished from professional references such as The Chicago Manual of Style, the AP Stylebook, The Elements of Style, and Gregg Reference Manual. When appropriate, proofreaders may mark errors in accordance with their house guide instead of the copy when the two conflict. Where this is the case, the proofreader may justifiably be considered a copy editor.
Checklists are common in proof-rooms where there is sufficient uniformity of product to distil some or all of its components to a list. They may also act as a training tool for new hires. Checklists are never comprehensive, however: proofreaders still have to find all mistakes that are not mentioned or described, thus limiting their usefulness.
Proofreading and copy-editing
The term 'proofreading' is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to copy editing, and vice versa. Although there is necessarily some overlap, proofreaders typically lack any real editorial or managerial authority. What they can do is mark queries for typesetters, editors, or authors. To clarify matters at the outset, some advertised vacancies come with a notice that the job advertised is not a writing or editing position and will not become one. Creativity and critical thinking by their very nature conflict with the strict copy-following discipline that commercial and governmental proofreading requires. Thus, proofreading and editing are fundamentally separate responsibilities. In contrast, 'copy editors' focus on a sentence-by-sentence analysis of the text to "clean it up" by improving grammar, spelling, punctuation, syntax, and structure. The copy editor is usually the last editor that an author will work with. Copy editing focuses intensely on style, content, punctuation, grammar, and consistency of usage.
Copy editing and proofreading are parts of the same process, their necessity depends on the stage of the writing process. Copy editing is required during the drafting stage. A copy editor polishes the text for precision and conciseness. The copy editors attempt to understand the purpose of the writing and the intended audience; therefore, they will ask questions such as where the document will be published and who will read it, and edit accordingly. Proofreading is the last step of the editing process. The scope of proofreading is limited as the proofreader only focuses on reading the text to ensure the document is error-free and ready for publication.
Self
Primary examples include job seekers' own and student term papers. Proofreading such material presents a special challenge, first because the proofreader/editor is usually the author; second because such authors are usually unaware of the inevitability of mistakes and the effort required to find them; and third, as final mistakes are often found when stress levels are highest and time shortest, readers fail to identify them as mistakes. Under these conditions, proofreaders tend to see only what they want to see.
In fiction
Examples of proofreaders in fiction include The History of the Siege of Lisbon (Historia do Cerco de Lisboa), a 1989 novel by Nobel laureate Jose Saramago, the short story "Proofs" in George Steiner's Proofs and Three Parables (1992), and the short story "Evermore" in Cross Channel (1996) by Julian Barnes, in which the protagonist Miss Moss is a proofreader for a dictionary. Under the headline "Orthographical" in James Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses, the protagonist Leopold Bloom, watching the typesetter foreman Mr. Nannetti read over a "limp galleypage", thinks "Proof fever". Isaac Asimov’s short story “Galley Slave” features a robot proofreader.
Demand for proof-editing
For documents that do not require a formal typesetting process, such as reports, journal articles and e-publications, the costs involved with making changes at the proofreading stage are no longer as relevant. This, along with the time and cost pressures felt by businesses, self-publishers and academics, has led to a demand for one-stage proofreading and copy-editing services where a professional proofreader/copy-editor often a freelancer, sometimes now called an author editor will be contracted to provide an agreed level of service to an agreed deadline and cost.
Proof-editing tends to exist outside of the traditional publishing realm, and it usually involves a single stage of editing. It is considered preferable to have separate copy-editing and proofreading stages, so proof-editing is thus a compromise but one that modern professional on-screen proofreaders and copy-editors are increasingly offering in order to meet the demand for flexible proofreading and editing services.
See also
References
External links
The Importance of the Proof-reader by John Wilson
Project Gutenberg Distributed Proofreaders
Importance of Proofreading | [
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] |
234639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuilly | Neuilly | Neuilly (, ) is a common place name in France, deriving from the male given name Nobilis or Novellius. It may refer to:
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234640 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minto%20Cup | Minto Cup | The Minto Cup is awarded annually to the champion junior men's box lacrosse team of Canada.
It was donated in 1901 by the Governor-General, Lord Minto. Originally restricted to amateurs, within three years the first under-the-table professional teams were already competing for it. After 1904, with efforts to keep the professionals out of competition proving to be futile, it was made open to all challengers.
The last successful amateur challenge came in 1908 when New Westminster Salmonbellies won it; the last amateur challenge was made in 1913 by Vancouver Athletic Club. This would be the only time in Canadian lacrosse history when the Mann Cup champions (Vancouver) faced the Minto Cup champions (New Westminster) head-to-head – with the silverware (Minto) going to the winner.
With the professionals essentially in control of the cup by 1910, the newly inaugurated Mann Cup became the replacement for the senior men's national amateur championship.
The Minto Cup professional competition was dominated by the New Westminster Salmonbellies, who held the trophy for 21 of the 29 years in which it was contested (the competition was suspended during World War I). 1924 was the last year professionals played for the Minto Cup—after the Coast professional league folded in June 1924, it was then placed into storage and for a time lost and forgotten when the last trustee died. The trophy was located just prior to the 1938 junior competition, underneath a desk in his office. During the trophy's period of inactivity, there were suggestions to make the Minto Cup an international championship trophy.
In 1934 the last trustee appointed to supervise the Cup died, and the Lord Minto of the day eventually transferred it to the Canadian Lacrosse Association, which decided to award it as the trophy for the national junior men's champion, starting in 1937. Originally, the competition was between all-star provincial teams formed by adding players to the provincial champion. In 1960 this practice was abandoned and the trophy has since been competed for by the Junior A provincial champions of British Columbia of the British Columbia Junior A Lacrosse League, Ontario of the Ontario Junior A Lacrosse League and recently Alberta, of the RMLL the only provinces where organized lacrosse thrives.
Champions
Senior Amateur Champions (1901–1903)
1901 Ottawa Capitals - defeated Cornwall
1901 Montreal Shamrocks - defeated Ottawa Capitals and Vancouver YMCA
1902 Montreal Shamrocks - defeated New Westminster Salmonbellies
1903 Montreal Shamrocks - defeated Brantford
Professional/Senior Champions (1904–1908)
1904 Montreal Shamrocks - defeated Ottawa Capitals
1905 Montreal Shamrocks - defeated St. Catharines Athletics and Souris (Manitoba)
1906 Ottawa Capitals - defeated Montreal Shamrocks
1907 Montreal Shamrocks - won by default, no challenges
1908 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Montreal Shamrocks and Ottawa Capitals
Professional Champions (1909–1924)
1909 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Regina Capitals and Toronto Tecumsehs
1910 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Montreal Lacrosse Club and Montreal Nationals)
1911 Vancouver Lacrosse Club - defeated New Westminster and Toronto Tecumsehs
1912 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Cornwall
1913 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Vancouver Athletic Club
1914 New Westminster Salmonbellies - won by default
1915 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Vancouver Lacrosse Club
1916 no competition
1917 no competition
1918 Vancouver "Greenshirts" - claim disputed by New Westminster
1919 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Vancouver Terminals
1920 Vancouver Terminals - defeated New Westminster
1921 New Westminster Salmonbellies defeated Vancouver Terminals
1922 New Westminster Salmonbellies defeated Vancouver Terminals
1924 New Westminster Salmonbellies - won by default
1925–1936 no competition for trophy; placed in storage by Trustee (New Westminster Salmonbellies claims the titles for these years of non-competition)
Junior Champions (1937–Present)
1937 Orillia Terriers - defeated Vancouver Burrard Bluebirds
1938 Mimico Mountaineers - defeated Richmond-Point Grey Juniors
1939 no decision
1940 Ontario All-Stars - defeated British Columbia All-Stars
1941–1946, no competition
1947 St. Catharines Athletics - defeated Vancouver Burrard BC All-Stars
1948 Vancouver Burrards - defeated St. Catharines Athletics
1949 Vancouver Norburn Eagletime - defeated Ontario All-Stars
1950 St. Catharines Athletics - defeated Vancouver Burrard BC All-Stars
1951 Mimico Mountaineers - defeated Manitoba All-Stars
1952 Brampton Excelsiors - defeated Vancouver Kerrisdale BC All-Stars
1953 New Westminster Salmonacs - defeated Long Branch Monarchs
1954 Vancouver PNE Junior Indians - defeated Manitoba All-Stars
1955 Long Branch Monarchs - defeated Manitoba All-Stars
1956 Mount Pleasant (Vancouver) No.177 Legionnaires - defeated Brampton Excelsiors
1957 Brampton ABC's - defeated Victoria Shamrocks
1958 Brampton ABC's - defeated Victoria Shamrocks
1959 Brampton ABC's - defeated New Westminster Salmonbellies
1960 New Westminster Salmonbellies - defeated Whitby Red Wings
1961 Hastings Legionnaires - defeated Burnaby Norburns
1962 Victoria Shamrocks - defeated Brampton Armstrongs
See also
List of awards presented by the Governor General of Canada
List of awards named after Governors General of Canada
References
External links
Minto Cup
Lacrosse competitions in Canada | [
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234641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cf | Cf | CF, Cf, cf and similar may refer to:
cf., an abbreviation for the Latin word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
Chaplain to the Forces, post-nominal initials for army chaplains
Conversion Factor, in exposure at default in Basel II, in economics
Cadillac Fairview, a Canadian commercial real estate owner and management company
Canadian Forces, Canada's military
Clinton Foundation, a nonprofit corporation established by former President of the United States Bill Clinton
Arts and entertainment
CF, an abbreviation for "commercial film", the term for a television advertisement in South Korea
Captain Flamingo, a Canadian animated television series
Christopher Forgues, an artist and musician based in Providence, Rhode Island, United States; known as C.F.
Computing
.cf, the Top-Level Domain for Central African Republic
.NET Compact Framework, a version of the .NET Framework for mobile and embedded devices
Adobe ColdFusion, a web application development platform
Collaborative filtering, a method of making predictions by collecting information from many users
CompactFlash, a type of memory card
Compact Floppy, a variation of floppy disk
Consolidation function, in computer science
Core Foundation, a C application programming interface in Mac OS X
Coupling Facility, an IBM mainframe feature
Science and technology
Haplogroup CF (Y-DNA)
Carbon monofluoride, a solid material
Carbon fibers, a fiber made of carbon, typically used in carbon fibers composites
Californium, a radioactive chemical element
Climate and Forecast Metadata Conventions, for Earth science data
Conductivity factor, the level of dissolved salts in a solution
Conflat, an abbreviation of a special type of vacuum flange
Cystic fibrosis, a hereditary multisystem autosomal recessive disease
Places
CF postcode area, for Cardiff and Mid Glamorgan (United Kingdom) post codes
Central African Republic, 2-letter ISO country code
Chinatown Fair, a video arcade in Brooklyn, New York, United States
Sports
Canopy formation, a discipline in parachuting
Center fielder, a defensive position in baseball
Centre forward, an attacking position in Association football
Football club (Club de Fútbol) in Spain | [
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234645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Hills | Port Hills | The Port Hills are a range of hills in Canterbury, New Zealand, so named because they lie between the city of Christchurch and its port at Lyttelton. They are an eroded remnant of the Lyttelton volcano, which erupted millions of years ago.
The hills start at Godley Head, run approximately east–west along the northern side of Lyttelton Harbour, and continue running to the south, dividing the city from the harbour. The range terminates near Gebbies Pass above the head of the harbour. The range includes a number of summits between 300 and 500 metres above sea level. The range is of significant geological, environmental and scenic importance.
History
The volcano is one of two from which Banks Peninsula was originally formed 12 million years ago. The area was first populated by Māori during the 14th century. During early European settlement some 500 years later the Port Hills presented a challenging barrier between the harbour and the planned settlement of Christchurch, their steepness and ruggedness making access extremely difficult. For many years the majority of settlers used the precipitous Bridle Path to transport themselves and their belongings to the plains on the other side. Today the Lyttelton road tunnel and a separate rail tunnel connect the port and the city suburbs, and three road routes crossing the range – via Evans, Dyers and Gebbies passes – are connected by the Summit Road.
In February 2017, bush fires in the Port Hills burned for days, destroying over 2000 Ha of bush and several homes.
Geography and conservation
The Port Hills are a prominent feature of the central Canterbury landscape, being visible for many kilometres from the north and west.
The crest of the Port Hills varies somewhat in height, being lowest at the eastern end. Two road passes traverse the Port Hills from Christchurch. Dyers Pass (elevation c. 330 m), almost due south of central Christchurch is the more prominent of the two passes. Evans Pass (elevation c. 200 m), which is near the eastern end of the Port Hills, normally connects Sumner and Lyttelton but was closed since the 2011 Christchurch earthquake caused significant damage to Sumner Road on the Lyttelton side of the pass until reopening in 2019.
Between Evans Pass and Dyers Pass are several significant summits, including Sugarloaf (494 m), recognisable by the television transmission tower on its summit; Mount Cavendish (448 m); and Tauhinukorokio / Mount Pleasant (499 m), the highest peak in the northern arc of the Port Hills. West of Dyers Pass, the Port Hills curve away southward and become even higher, rising to 573 m at Coopers Knob. From Coopers Knob the crater rim descends to Gebbies Pass (elevation c. 160 m). The hills south and east of Gebbies Pass are regarded as part of Banks Peninsula proper rather than the Port Hills.
Several suburbs of Christchurch extend onto the northern slopes of the Port Hills, including Cashmere, Mt Pleasant, Heathcote Valley and Sumner. Other parts of the hills are used for farming and forestry, as well as a significant number of scenic reserves created for recreational and conservation purposes, following an initiative by Christchurch councillor Harry Ell at the turn of the 20th century. In 1948 the Summit Road Scenic Society was formed to continue development and maintenance of the reserves.
The hills are an important recreation area for Christchurch residents, with several public parks and reserves, including tracks for mountain biking and walking. A gondola lift to the top of Mount Cavendish was opened in 1992, providing convenient access to the summit and a major tourist attraction for the Canterbury area. The Christchurch Adventure Park was opened in 2016 which provides mountain biking opportunities on the slopes of Worsleys Hill. Road cycling is also very popular on the Port Hills with "short bays" and "long bays" being two of the most popular longer routes.
Demographics
The statistical area of Port Hills covers . It had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2.
Port Hills had a population of 72 at the 2018 New Zealand census, a decrease of 18 people (-20.0%) since the 2013 census, and a decrease of 12 people (-14.3%) since the 2006 census. There were 30 households. There were 39 males and 33 females, giving a sex ratio of 1.18 males per female. The median age was 47.5 years (compared with 37.4 years nationally), with 15 people (20.8%) aged under 15 years, 9 (12.5%) aged 15 to 29, 45 (62.5%) aged 30 to 64, and 6 (8.3%) aged 65 or older.
Ethnicities were 95.8% European/Pākehā, 8.3% Asian, and 4.2% other ethnicities (totals add to more than 100% since people could identify with multiple ethnicities).
The proportion of people born overseas was 20.8%, compared with 27.1% nationally.
Although some people objected to giving their religion, 58.3% had no religion, 20.8% were Christian, 4.2% were Hindu, 4.2% were Buddhist and 8.3% had other religions.
Of those at least 15 years old, 24 (42.1%) people had a bachelor or higher degree, and 3 (5.3%) people had no formal qualifications. The median income was $50,300, compared with $31,800 nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 30 (52.6%) people were employed full-time, 9 (15.8%) were part-time, and 3 (5.3%) were unemployed.
Flora and fauna
Despite the heavy deforestation and clearance of native bush that took place during early settlement, a diverse range of wildlife and plant life populates the Port Hills. Native birds such as the bellbird (korimako or koparara) fantail, silvereye, grey warbler and shining cuckoo are commonly found in the remaining bush. While the wood pigeon often seen in the area is a native to New Zealand others, such as the common blackbird, common chaffinch and song thrush are introduced and very populous species. As well as a great many insect species, gecko and skink are commonly found.
Indigenous plant species such as Banks Peninsula hebe inhabit rock crevices along with rare ferns. The more exposed hillsides are covered with silver tussock and other native grasses, unusually so for an area so close to urban development.
The remaining podocarp forest contains 500- to 600-year-old matai, totara and kahikatea trees as well as fruit and flowering species such as kōwhai, ribbonwood, mahoe, cabbage trees, kanuka and fuchsia.
References
Further reading
External links
Port Hills at the Christchurch City Council
Christchurch Gondola
Photo album showing earthquake damage in Port Hills suburbs
Mountain biking in New Zealand
Mountain ranges of Canterbury, New Zealand
Geography of Christchurch | [
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234646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mighty%20Sparrow | Mighty Sparrow | Slinger Francisco ORTT CM OBE (born July 9, 1935), better known as Mighty Sparrow, is a Trinidadian calypso vocalist, songwriter, and guitarist. Known as the "Calypso King of the World", he is one of the best-known and most successful calypsonians. He has won Trinidad's Carnival Road March competition eight times, Calypso King/Monarch eight times, and has twice won the Calypso King of Kings title.
Career
Slinger Francisco was born in the fishing village of Grand Roy, Grenada, West Indies on July 9, 1935. He moved to Trinidad as a one-year-old with his mother, his father having relocated there in 1937. He grew up in Port of Spain. He began singing as a small child, but his love of calypso was discouraged while at Newtown Boys Catholic School, where he sang in the choir. At the age of 14 he joined a steel band comprising neighbourhood boys, and performed with the band at Carnival.
He received his performing name "Little Sparrow" during his early career, as a result of his energetic stage performances:
After a couple of years he changed his stage name to "Mighty Sparrow". On leaving school he began working for the government Control Board, but continued to perform calypso, which became the better paid of the two, and his residency at the Lotus Club made him a star locally.
Calypso King
His first performance as a carnival singer came in 1954 with "The Parrot and the Monkey". In 1955, Sparrow made his first recordings "Missing Baby (Ruby)", "High Cost of Living" and "Race Track" for Vitadisc, which were included on the Royalties of Calypso Kingdom compilation a few years later. In 1955 and 1956, he also recorded "Give The Youngsters A Chance", "Family Size Coke", "Goaty", "Clara Honey Bunch" and "Yankee's Back Again" for GEMS, "Jean And Dinah" and "The Queen's Canary" for Kay, and "Sailor Man" for Veejay Special Ace.
In 1956, Sparrow won Trinidad's Carnival Road March and Calypso King competitions with his most famous song, "Jean and Dinah" (also known as "Yankees Gone", a song celebrating the departure of US troops from Trinidad). A live performance of "Yankees Gone" was included in the album Jump Up Carnival in Trinidad. His prize for winning the Calypso King title was $40. In protest of the small sum (the winner of the Carnival Queen beauty contest won $7,500), he wrote the song "Carnival Boycott" and attempted to organize other singers to boycott the competition. About half of the singers followed, including Lord Melody. Sparrow claims credit for succeeding improvements in the conditions of calypso and steelband musicians in Trinidad, as well as the formation of the Carnival Development Committee, a musicians' assistance organization. Sparrow refused to officially participate in the competition for the next three years, but he continued to perform unofficially, even winning another Road March title in 1958 with "P.A.Y.E." He did perform at the 1957 carnival in the Young Brigade Calypso Tent, where the four songs he performed were recorded and later released on the album Calypso Kings and Pink Gin.
Sparrow went on to have local hits in 1956 and 1957 with singles such as "Jack Palance", "No Doctor No", and "Sailor Man", before beginning a musical slanging match with Lord Melody, each releasing singles attacking the other. The rivalry went on for several years. In 1957, Sparrow recorded his first album, Calypso Carnival 58, released the following year on the Balisier label.
He again boycotted the carnival in 1959, choosing instead to tour extensively, and early that year released the album Sparrow in Hi Fi before signing a deal with RCA, for whom he recorded eleven albums between 1960 and 1964.
Taking calypso abroad
Calypso music enjoyed a brief period of popularity in other parts in the world during the 1950s. Trinidadian expatriate Lord Kitchener had helped popularize calypso in the United Kingdom, and Sparrow also found some success there. In the United States, interest in calypso was sparked largely by Harry Belafonte's 1956 album Calypso, the first LP to sell over one million copies. In January 1958, Sparrow, along with longtime rival Lord Melody, travelled to New York City seeking access to the American music audience. Sparrow had already been recording with Balisier and Cook Records, and with Belafonte's help he also began to record for RCA Victor. He did not achieve the success he had hoped for; he said in a 2001 interview, "When nothing happened for me, I went back to England and continued on with my career."
In 1960, Sparrow returned to the Calypso Monarch competition, winning his second Kingship and third Road March title with "Ten to One Is Murder" (an autobiographical song about an incident in which Sparrow allegedly shot a man) and "Mae Mae". He also began recording for his own label, National Recording. He won the Road March title in 1961 with "Royal Jail" and won his third Calypso King title in 1962 with "Model Nation" and "Sparrow Come Back Home". He won further titles in the 1960s and 1970s and continued to enjoy great popularity in Trinidad. He recorded prolifically, with forty albums released in the 1960s and 1970s. In the latter half of the 1960s his recordings began to be released in the United Kingdom.
In 1968 he recorded the album Sparrow Meets the Dragon with Byron Lee in Jamaica. Their version of "Only a Fool Breaks His Own Heart" (written by Norman Bergen and Shelly Coburn) gave them an international hit in 1969, earning a gold disc upon its re-release in late 1977 igniting a #2 hit record in 1978 in the Netherlands.
He had his greatest success internationally in the 1970s, starting with the album The Best Of, featuring live recordings in Brooklyn, New York of Sparrow favorites. In 1974, with Van Dyke Parks as producer, he recorded the album Hot and Sweet for Warner Bros. in Miami, and the following year reunited with Byron Lee for the Sparrow Dragon Again album. He had a big hit in 1977 with "Crawford", a tribute to sprinter Hasley Crawford, and that year embarked on a tour of West Africa, during which he was given the honorary Yoruba title Chief Omo Wale of Ikoyi. In 1978 he recorded the album Only a Fool in London for Trojan Records.
Soca
As soca began to supplant calypso in popularity in Trinidad and Tobago during the late 1970s and early 1980s, Sparrow embraced the hybrid of calypso and soul fused with the local chutney music. In 1984 he won his eighth Road March title with the soca-influenced "Doh Back Back". Also around this time, he began to spend at least half the year in New York City, finding an apartment in the West Indian neighborhoods in Jamaica, Queens. In 1985, he performed at the carnival's King of Kings show alongside The Mighty Swallow, Blue Boy, Scrunter, Blakie, Mighty Duke, and Black Stalin, taking the "King of Kings" title and the US$10,000 first prize. He would later win the title for a second time. His last major title came in 1992, with "Both of Them" and "Survival" winning him the Calypso Monarch title. He made an appearance at the Reggae Sunsplash festival in 1993. Although less active since the mid-1990s, Sparrow continued to perform, and tour into the 21st century; in a 2001 interview he mentioned that he had been singing and performing a "Gospel-lypso" hybrid. In 2008, he released a song supporting Barack Obama's presidential campaign, "Barack the Magnificent". He also did a remake of his "Congo Man" song with fellow Trinidadian Machel Montano on the 2008 Flame On album.
In 2010, Sparrow left the stage in a wheelchair after a performance in Trinidad, and later that year was hospitalised after suffering an inguinal hernia while performing in Maryland. He made a full recovery and continued to tour internationally. He has been hospitalised several times with complications of diabetes. In September 2013 he was due to receive a lifetime achievement award from the Trinidad & Tobago consulate in New York, but was admitted to a New York hospital where he fell into a coma for two weeks before regaining consciousness.
He returned to public performance in January 2014 with a forty-minute set at a bar in Brooklyn, New York. At the end of the year he was voted "Express Individual of the Year 2014" by the Trinidad Express.
In 2020 he released Live at 85!, a recording of a show at Joe's Pub in New York City in December 2019.
Lyrics
Sparrow's lyrics are famous for being witty, ironic, and ribald. He sings flirtatiously of the attractions of Hispanic women in "Margarita", and of East Indian women in "Marajhin". He tells some outrageously frank tales of sexuality in "Mae Mae", "The Lizard" and "Big Bamboo". And there is humorous commentary on West Indian culture to be found in "Obeah Wedding" and "Witch Doctor". Robert Christgau called his controversial song "Congo Man" "a wildly perverse piss-take on African roots, interracial revenge, interracial sex, male-female relations, and cannibalism". The 1965 song was criticized for its attitudes toward women and Africans, and banned from radio airplay until 1989.
Sparrow also frequently comments on social and political issues in his songs. During his early career he was a supporter of Eric Williams and his People's National Movement (PNM), which formed in 1955 and led Trinidad and Tobago to independence in 1962; songs such as "Leave The Damn Doctor Alone" and "William the Conqueror" mentioned Williams directly, while others such as "Federation" (blaming Jamaica for the breakup of the short-lived West Indies Federation), "Our Model Nation" (celebrating Trinidadian independence), and "PAYE" (supporting the PNM's pay-as-you-earn tax system) echoed PNM positions. Sparrow did express discontent in 1957's "No, Doctor, No", but it was comparatively mild, and aimed at holding PNM politicians to their promises rather than replacing them. Sparrow cleverly combined political criticism with sexual innuendo in his mid-1960s song "BG Plantain", which decried the ban levied by PM Williams on imported plantain from British Guiana (BG); plantain, a large banana-shaped vegetable, is a staple of West Indian cuisine, and Sparrow praised the BG plantain as larger, sweeter, and superior to the home-grown Trinidadian variety.
One of his most famous hits, "Dead or Alive" (1979), which achieved international acclaim, addressed the tyranny of rulers like Idi Amin, the Shah of Iran and other leaders of the era.
His tongue-in-cheek humor is best expressed by his 1970 hit "Sparrow Dead", which addressed the premature rumors of his death, which persist to this day. Amongst the lyrics of the song:
"I hear he have cancer
I hear he have yellow fever
Something in the bladder
And a double dose of leukemia!"
Two gossip mongers gossipin'
I stand in a corner listenin'
Before I could ask who dey talkin' about
A newspaper boy started to shout
'Hey! Extra! Read all about it!
"Who killed the Sparrow - nobody know . . . "
Well big mouth Lillian
Say de funeral was on television
She picky head cousin say that the coffin cost twenty thousand
This is why he sell de company
To pay de doctor and de burial fee!"
In more recent times Sparrow continues to incorporate social issues into his music. "Crown Heights Justice" is a plea for peace and understanding in the wake of the 1991 Crown Heights Riot in Sparrow's adopted home of New York City. The themes of peace, tolerance, and concern for the poor show up repeatedly in songs such as "Human Rights" (1981), "Capitalism Gone Mad" (1983), and "This Is Madness" (1995).
Discography
Calypso Carnival 58 (1958), Balisier
This Is Sparrow (1958), Balisier
Sparrow in Hi Fi (1959), Balisier
Sparrow (1960), RCA
The Mighty Sparrow (1960), RCA
Sparrow's Greatest Hits (1960), RCA
More Sparrow's Greatest Hits (1960), RCA
Sparrow Calypso King (1960), RCA
Sparrow the Conqueror (1961), RCA
The Calypso King of Trinidad (1961), RCA
Sparrow Come Back (1962), RCA
Calypso Sparrow (1963), RCA
The Slave (1963), RCA
Sparrow Sings Songs for Lovers (1964), RCA
The Outcast (1964), National
Christmas with Sparrow (1964), National
Congo Man (1965), National
"Dan Is The Man" (1965), Wirl Records, Jamaica 7"
"Harry And Mama" (1965), Wirl Records, Jamaica 7"
Sparrow's Calypso (1965), National
Tattooed Lady (1966), National
The Calypso Genius (1966), National
Spicy Sparrow (1967), Recording Artists
Sparrow Calypso Carnival (1968), Recording Artists
Sparrow Meets the Dragon (1968), Spalee – aka Only a Fool – Mighty Sparrow & Byron Lee
"Jughead" (1969) Tiger, Jamaica 7" (DYNA 868)
More Sparrow More (1969), Recording Artists
Bang Bang Lulu in New York (1969), Recording Artists
Calypso Time (1970), Recording Artists
Calypso a la King (1971), Hilary
Sparrow Power (1971), Recording Artists
Moods of Sparrow (1972), Bestway
Hotter Than Ever (1972), Recording Artists
Sparrow Spectacular (1973), WIRL
Knock Dem Down (1973), Recording Artists
Hot and Sweet (1974), Warner Bros. – Produced by Van Dyke Parks and Andy Wickham
Calypso Maestro (1974), Recording Artists
Sparrow Dragon Again (1975), Spalee – Mighty Sparrow & Byron Lee
"How You Jamming So" (1976), Tysott, Jamaica 7" (SP 1002 DSR 4048-A-DT)
Sparrow vs the Rest (1976), Tysott
"Witch Doctor" (1976) Tysott, Jamaica 7" (SP 1002 DSR 4048-B-DT)
Boogie Beat 77 (1977), Semp
Sparrow NYC Blackout (1977), Charlie's
Only a Fool (1978), Trojan
Pussycat Party (1978), SH
London Bridge (1979), JAF
Latin Black (1980), Sparrow
Sparrow Sanford (1981), Charlies
Sweeter Than Ever (1982), Charlies
The Greatest (1983), Charlies
Vanessa (1984), B's
King of the World (1984), B's
A Touch of Class (1986), B's
One Love One Heart (1987)
Dr Bird (1988)
Hot Like Fire (1992), Ice
Dancing Shoes (1994), Ice
The Supreme Serenader (1998), AR
Barack De Magnificent (2008), BLS/VP
Fyaah and Fury (2018), BLS/VP
Live albums
Sparrow at the Sheraton Kingston (1963), National
Sparrow at the Hilton (1967), Recording Artists
Live Volume Two (1971), Hilary
The Best of (1971), Strakers – recorded live in Brooklyn
Live at 85! (2020)
Major compilations
Mighty Sparrow Volume 1 (1992), Ice
Mighty Sparrow Volume 2 (1993), Ice
Mighty Sparrow Volume 3 (1993), Ice
Mighty Sparrow Volume 4 (1994), Ice
The Millennium Series (2000–2001), Mika Enterprises – a series of 40 albums compiling Sparrow's recordings
Compilation appearances
Calypso Kings and Pink Gin (Cook Records, 1957)
Calypso Exposed (Cook, 1961)
16 Carnival Hits (with Lord Kitchener) – 1992
Calypso Awakening from the Emory Cook Collection (Smithsonian Folkways, 2000)
First Flight: Early Calypsos from the Emory Cook Collection (Smithsonian Folkways, 2005)
Calypsoes: (Trinidad, August 1959.)
Major awards and honours
1993 – Chaconia Medal Gold
1987- Honorary Doctor of Letters (D. Litt.) from the University of the West Indies
2013 – Lifetime Achievement Award, Trinidad & Tobago Government
2015 Birthday Honours – Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE)
Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
Carnival Road March titles
Thompson, p. 6.
Calypso King/Monarch titles
Thompson, p. 5.
Notes
References
Broughton, Simon et al. (2000) World Music, The Rough Guide: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, Rough Guides,
Delblond, Michael (February 28, 2003). "Sparrow, 'the lovable rascal'". Trinidad & Tobago NewsdayGuilbault, Jocelyne (2007) Governing Sound: The Cultural Politics of Trinidad's Carnival Musics, University of Chicago Press,
Harris, Craig "Mighty Sparrow Biography", AllMusic. Retrieved September 15, 2013
Richardson, Clem (2010) "Calypso king The Mighty Sparrow still flying high", New York Daily News, August 20, 2010. Retrieved September 15, 2013
Thompson, Dave (2002) Reggae & Caribbean Music, Backbeat Books,
Further reading
De Four, Linda Claudia (1997), Gimme Room to Sing: Calypsoes of the Mighty Sparrow, 1958–1993 : a Discography, University of the West Indies Press,
Johnstone, Graham (1988), The Mighty Sparrow: Calypso Catalogue, Grenada Music
Kwamdela, Odimumba (2006), Mighty Sparrow, Calypso King of the World'', Kibo Books,
External links
Sparrow Discography at Smithsonian Folkways
Sparrow 40 years – complete vinyl listing by Graham Johnstone
See also
List of calypsos with sociopolitical influences
1935 births
Living people
Calypsonians
Soca musicians
Grenadian musicians
Grenadian emigrants to Trinidad and Tobago
Recipients of the Chaconia Medal
RCA Records artists
20th-century Trinidad and Tobago male singers
People from Saint John Parish, Grenada
People from Port of Spain | [
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234647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuilly-sur-Seine | Neuilly-sur-Seine | Neuilly-sur-Seine (; literally 'Neuilly on Seine'), also known as just Neuilly, is a commune in the department of Hauts-de-Seine in France, just west of Paris. Immediately adjacent to the city, the area is composed of mostly select residential neighbourhoods, as well as many corporate headquarters and a handful of foreign embassies. It is the wealthiest and most expensive suburb of Paris.
Together with the 16th and 7th arrondissement of Paris, the town of Neuilly-sur-Seine forms the most affluent and prestigious residential area in the whole of France.
History
Originally Pont de Neuilly was a small hamlet under the jurisdiction of Villiers, a larger settlement mentioned in medieval sources as early as 832 and now absorbed by the commune of Levallois-Perret. It was not until 1222 that the little settlement of Neuilly, established on the banks of the Seine, was mentioned for the first time in a charter of the Abbey of Saint-Denis: the name was recorded in Medieval Latin as Portus de Lulliaco, meaning "Port of Lulliacum." In 1224 another charter of Saint-Denis recorded the name as Lugniacum. In a sales contract dated 1266, the name was also recorded as Luingni.
In 1316, however, in a ruling of the parlement of Paris, the name was recorded as Nully, a different name from those recorded before. In a document dated 1376 the name was again recorded as Nulliacum (the Medieval Latin version of Nully). Then in the following centuries the name recorded alternated between Luny and Nully, and it is only after 1648 that the name was definitely set as Nully. The name spelt Neuilly after the French Academy standard of pronunciation of the ill as a y (see IPA at the top).
Various explanations and etymologies have been proposed to explain these discrepancies in the names of Neuilly recorded over the centuries. The original name of Neuilly may have been Lulliacum or Lugniacum, and that it was only later corrupted into Nulliacum / Nully. Some interpret Lulliacum or Lugniacum as meaning "estate of Lullius (or Lunius)", probably a Gallo-Roman landowner. This interpretation is based on the many placenames of France made up of the names of Gallo-Roman landowners and suffixed with the traditional placename suffix "-acum." Other researchers, however, object that it is unlikely that Neuilly owes its name to a Gallo-Roman patronym, because during the Roman occupation of Gaul the area of Neuilly was inside the large Forest of Rouvray, of which the Bois de Boulogne is all that remains today, and was probably not a settlement.
These researchers contend that it is only after the fall of the Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions that the area of Neuilly was deforested and settled. Thus, they think that the name Lulliacum or Lugniacum comes from the ancient Germanic word lund meaning "forest", akin to Old Norse lundr meaning "grove", to which the placename suffix "-acum" was added. The Old Norse word lundr has indeed left many placenames across Europe, such as the city of Lund in Sweden, the Forest of the Londe in Normandy, or the many English placenames containing "lound", "lownde", or "lund" in their name, or ending in "-land." This interesting theory, however, fails to explain why the "d" of lund is missing in Lulliacum or Lugniacum.
Concerning the discrepancy in names over the centuries, the most probable explanation is that the original name Lulliacum or Lugniacum was later corrupted into Nulliacum / Nully by inversion of the consonants, perhaps under the influence of an old Celtic word meaning "swampy land, boggy land" (as was the land around Neuilly-sur-Seine in ancient times) which is found in the name of many French places anciently covered with water, such as Noue, Noë, Nouan, Nohant, etc. Or perhaps the consonants were simply inverted under the influence of the many settlements of France called Neuilly (a frequent place name whose etymology is completely different from the special case of Neuilly-sur-Seine).
Until the French Revolution, the settlement was often referred to as Port-Neuilly, but at the creation of French communes in 1790 the "Port" was dropped and the newly born commune was named simply Neuilly.
On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, a part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was annexed by the city of Paris, and forms now the neighbourhood of Ternes, in the 17th arrondissement of Paris.
On 11 January 1867, part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Clichy to create the commune of Levallois-Perret.
On 4 June 1878, a Synagogue was founded on Rue Ancelle, which is the oldest synagogue of Paris' suburbs.
On 2 May 1897, the commune name officially became Neuilly-sur-Seine (meaning "Neuilly upon Seine"), in order to distinguish it from the many communes of France also called Neuilly. Most people, however, continue to refer to Neuilly-sur-Seine as simply "Neuilly." During the 1900 Summer Olympics, it hosted the basque pelota events.
The American Hospital of Paris was founded in 1906.
In 1919, the Treaty of Neuilly was signed with Bulgaria in Neuilly-sur-Seine to conclude its role in World War I.
In 1929, the Bois de Boulogne, which was hitherto divided between the communes of Neuilly-sur-Seine and Boulogne-Billancourt, was annexed in its entirety by the city of Paris.
Politics
Neuilly is one of most right-wing towns in France; regularly voting for the candidate of the traditional right in landslide margins. Former president Nicolas Sarkozy was once mayor of Neuilly. Amidst a poor national showing of 20%, Neuilly gave right-wing candidate François Fillon 65% of its vote in the first round of the 2017 presidential election.
Population
The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Neuilly-sur-Seine proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Neuilly-sur-Seine ceded part of its territory to the new commune of Levallois-Perret in 1866.
Main sites
It was the site of the Château de Neuilly, an important royal residence during the July Monarchy.
Transport
Neuilly-sur-Seine is served by three stations on Paris Métro Line 1: Porte Maillot (with a direct access to RER line C), Les Sablons and Pont de Neuilly.
RATP Bus service includes the lines 43, 73, 82, 93, 157, 158, 163, 164, 174
Night Bus lines include N11 and N24.
Economy
Located near France's main business district La Défense, Neuilly-sur-Seine also hosts several corporate headquarters:
Bureau Veritas, Chanel, Marathon Media, JCDecaux, Thales Group, M6 Group, Sephora, PricewaterhouseCoopers France, Parfums Christian Dior (in 2019), Orangina France, Grant Thornton International France.
Education
Public schools in Neuilly:
Eight écoles maternelles (preschools): Achille Peretti, Charcot, Dulud, Gorce-Franklin, Michelis, Poissoniers, Roule, Saussaye
Ten elementary schools: Charcot A, Charcot B, Gorce-Franklin, Huissiers, Poissoniers, Peretti, Michelis A, Michelis B, Saussaye A, and Saussaye B
Two lower secondary schools: Collège André Maurois and Collège Théophile Gautier.
Collège et Lycée Pasteur
Lycée Saint-James
Lycée professionnel Vassily kandinsky
Domestic private schools:
École primaire Sainte-Croix
École primaire Sainte-Marie
École primaire Saint-Dominique
École Saint-Pierre / Saint Jean
Collège Saint-Pierre / Saint-Jean
Collège et Lycée Sainte-Croix
Collège et Lycée Sainte-Marie
Collège et Lycée Saint-Dominique
Lycée professionnel Georges Guérin
International private schools:
Liceo Español Luis Buñuel, Spanish international secondary and baccalaureate school
Marymount School, Paris, a Catholic, co-educational, day school for 2-14 year olds
Post-secondary:
Université de Paris IV-Sorbonne CELSA
Institut Européen des Affaires
École supérieure de Santé
Notable residents
Adrien Étienne Gaudez, French sculptor
Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last king of Iran's Qajar dynasty
Alex Goude, actor and television host
Albert Uderzo, writer and illustrator (1927–2020)
Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer
Anaïs Nin, author and diarist, born in Neuilly-sur-Seine
Anatole Litvak (1902–1974), filmmaker
André Beaufre, French general
Annie Fargé, actress, theatrical producer and manager. Died here.
Aristotle Onassis died on 15 March 1975 at the American Hospital
Arthur Zagre, footballer
Bernard Blossac, fashion illustrator.
Bette Davis, non-resident, died at the American Hospital
Carole Bouquet, actress
Christoph H. Müller musician, composer, co-founder of Neotango band Gotan Project
Corentin Moutet, tennis player
David Servan-Schreiber (1961–2011)
Dominique Strauss-Kahn (born 25 April 1949)
Édith Piaf, French singer
Edward VIII, King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India.
France Gall, French singer
François Truffaut, French film director, actor
Françoise Bettencourt Meyers, Liliane Bettencourt's daughter
Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo, half of music duo Daft Punk
Ilona Mitrecey, Eurodance artist
Jacqueline François (1922–2009), chanson singer
Jacques Benoit, scientist
Jacques Prévert, poet and screenwriter
Jacques Zwobada, French sculptor
Jean d'Ormesson, French novelist member of the Académie française
Jean de La Fontaine, French poet and fabulist
Jean-Paul Belmondo, French actor
Jean Raspail, French writer
Jean Riboud (1919–1985) French corporate executive and former chairman of Schlumberger
Joachim Murat, Prince of Pontecorvo, aristocrat
Jonathan Bru, footballer
José Maria de Eça de Queirós, Portuguese writer
Joseph Haim Sitruk (1944-2016), former Chief Rabbi of France.
Karl Lagerfeld, German fashion designer
Liliane Bettencourt, L'Oréal heiress
Ludovic Valbon, rugby player
Marcel Duchamp, artist
María Félix, Mexican actress
Marie Angliviel de la Beaumelle, French glass maker and Italian countess
Marine Le Pen, French politician : president of the Front National
Martin Solveig, French electro-house DJ.
Mary Wollstonecraft, English writer
Max Le Verrier (1819–1973), sculptor, born here.
Prince Michel of Bourbon-Parma, died here
Michel Berger, singer and songwriter.
Mireille Mathieu, chanson singer, has been a resident since 1965
Natalie Barney, American heiress
King Nicholas I of Montenegro and his family
Nicolas Sarkozy, former President of France; mayor of Neuilly-sur-Seine from 1983 to 2002
Olivier Missoup, rugby player
Paul Grimault, animator
Pierre Ramond, string theorist
Quincy Jones, musician, composer, producer
René Semelaigne (1855–1934), biographer
Roger Martin du Gard, winner of 1937 Nobel Prize for Literature
Sandra Boëlle, politician
Screamin' Jay Hawkins, Shock rock musician
Sophie Marceau, French actress
Véronique Azan, French dancer
Vittorio De Sica, Italian actor and film director
Wallis Simpson, American socialite and wife of King Edward VIII.
Wassily Kandinsky, Russian Abstract-Expressionist artist
Zizi Lambrino, first wife of the later King Carol II of Romania.
Twin towns – sister cities
Neuilly-sur-Seine is twinned with:
Hanau, Germany (1964–2002)
Uccle, Belgium (from 1981)
Windsor, England, United Kingdom (from 1955)
See also
Communes of the Hauts-de-Seine department
Neuilly-Auteuil-Passy
Neuilly sa mère!, 2009 film set in Neuilly-sur-Seine
References
External links
Neuilly-sur-Seine city council website
Venues of the 1900 Summer Olympics
Communes of Hauts-de-Seine | [
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234648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuilly-la-For%C3%AAt | Neuilly-la-Forêt | Neuilly-la-Forêt () is a former commune in the department of Calvados in the Normandy region in northwestern France. On 1 January 2017, it was merged into the commune Isigny-sur-Mer.
Population
See also
Communes of the Calvados department
References
Former communes of Calvados (department)
Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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234649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacognes-Neuilly | Vacognes-Neuilly | Vacognes-Neuilly () is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.
Population
See also
Communes of the Calvados department
References
Communes of Calvados (department)
Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia | [
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234653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren%20photography | Schlieren photography | Schlieren photography is a visual process being used for photographing the flow of fluids of varying density. Invented by the German physicist August Toepler in 1864 to study supersonic motion, it is widely used in aeronautical engineering to photograph the flow of air around objects.
Classical optical system
The classical implementation of an optical schlieren system uses light from a single collimated source shining on, or from behind, a target object. Variations in refractive index caused by density gradients in the fluid distort the collimated light beam. This distortion creates a spatial variation in the intensity of the light, which can be visualised directly with a shadowgraph system.
In classical schlieren photography, the collimated light is focused with a converging optical element (usually a lens or curved mirror), and a knife edge is placed at the focal point, positioned to block about half the light. In flow of uniform density this will simply make the photograph half as bright. However, in flow with density variations, the distorted beam focuses imperfectly, and parts that have been focused in an area covered by the knife edge are blocked. The result is a set of lighter and darker patches corresponding to positive and negative fluid density gradients in the direction normal to the knife edge. When a knife edge is used, the system is generally referred to as a schlieren system, which measures the first derivative of density in the direction of the knife edge. If a knife edge is not used, the system is generally referred to as a shadowgraph system, which measures the second derivative of density.
If the fluid flow is uniform, the image will be steady, but any turbulence will cause scintillation, the shimmering effect that can be seen over heated surfaces on a hot day. To visualise instantaneous density profiles, a short-duration flash (rather than continuous illumination) may be used.
Focusing schlieren optical system
In the mid 20th century, R. A. Burton developed an alternative form of schlieren photography, which is now usually called focusing schlieren or lens-and-grid schlieren, based on a suggestion by Hubert Schardin. Focusing schlieren systems generally retain the characteristic knife edge to produce contrast, but instead of using collimated light and a single knife edge, they use an illumination pattern of repeated edges with a focusing imaging system.
The basic idea is that the illumination pattern is imaged onto a geometrically congruent cutoff pattern (essentially a multiplicity of knife edges) with focusing optics, while density gradients lying between the illumination pattern and the cutoff pattern are imaged, typically by a camera system. Like in classical schlieren, the distortions produce regions of brightening or darkening corresponding to the position and direction of the distortion, because they redirect rays either away from or onto the opaque part of the cutoff pattern. While in classical schlieren, distortions over the whole beam path are visualized equally, in focusing schlieren, only distortions in the object field of the camera are clearly imaged. Distortions away from the object field become blurred, so this technique allows some degree of depth selection. It also has the advantage that a wide variety of illuminated backgrounds can be used, since collimation is not required. This allows construction of projection-based focusing schlieren systems, which are much easier to build and align than classical schlieren systems. The requirement of collimated light in classical schlieren is often a substantial practical barrier for constructing large systems due to the need for the collimating optic to be the same size as the field of view. Focusing schlieren systems can use compact optics with a large background illumination pattern, which is particularly easy to produce with a projection system. For systems with large demagnification, the illumination pattern needs to be around twice larger than the field of view to allow defocusing of the background pattern.
Background-oriented techniques
Background-oriented schlieren technique relies on measuring or visualizing shifts in focused images. In these techniques, the background and the schlieren object (the distortion to be visualized) are both in focus and the distortion is detected because it moves part of the background image relative to its original position. Because of this focus requirement, they tend to be used for large-scale applications where both the schlieren object and the background are distant (typically beyond the hyperfocal distance of the optical system). Since these systems require no additional optics aside from a camera, they are often the simplest to construct but they are usually not as sensitive as other types of schlieren systems, with the sensitivity being limited by the camera resolution. The technique also requires a suitable background image. In some cases, the background may be provided by the experimenter, such as a random speckle pattern or sharp line, but naturally occurring features such as landscapes or bright light sources such as the sun and moon can also be used. Background-oriented schlieren is most often performed using software techniques such as digital image correlation and optical flow analysis to perform synthetic schlieren, but it is possible to achieve the same effect in streak imaging with an analog optical system.
Variations and applications
Variations on the optical schlieren method include the replacement of the knife-edge by a coloured target, resulting in rainbow schlieren which can assist in visualising the flow. Different edge configurations such as concentric rings can also give sensitivity to variable gradient directions, and programmable digital edge generation has been demonstrated as well using digital displays and modulators. The adaptive optics pyramid wavefront sensor is a modified form of schlieren (having two perpendicular knife edges formed by the vertices of a refracting square pyramid).
Complete schlieren optical systems can be built from components, or bought as commercially available instruments. Details of theory and operation are given in Settles' 2001 book. The USSR once produced a number of sophisticated schlieren systems based on the Maksutov telescope principle, many of which still survive in the former Soviet Union and China.
Schlieren photography is used to visualise the flows of the media, which are themselves transparent (hence, their movement cannot be seen directly), but form refractive index gradients, which become visible in schlieren images either as shades of grey or even in colour. Refractive index gradients can be caused either by changes of temperature/pressure of the same fluid or by the variations of the concentration of components in mixtures and solutions. A typical application in gas dynamics is the study of shock waves in ballistics and supersonic or hypersonic vehicles. Flows caused by heating, physical absorption or chemical reactions can be visualised. Thus schlieren photography can be used in many engineering problems such as heat transfer, leak detection, study of boundary layer detachment, and characterization of optics.
See also
Laser schlieren deflectometry
Mach–Zehnder interferometer
Moire deflectometry
Schlieren
Schlieren imaging
Shadowgraph
References
External links
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Articles containing video clips
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234654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collimated%20beam | Collimated beam | A collimated beam of light or other electromagnetic radiation has parallel rays, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated light beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance. However, diffraction prevents the creation of any such beam.
Light can be approximately collimated by a number of processes, for instance by means of a collimator. Perfectly collimated light is sometimes said to be focused at infinity. Thus, as the distance from a point source increases, the spherical wavefronts become flatter and closer to plane waves, which are perfectly collimated.
Other forms of electromagnetic radiation can also be collimated. In radiology, X-rays are collimated to reduce the volume of the patient's tissue that is irradiated, and to remove stray photons that reduce the quality of the x-ray image ("film fog"). In scintigraphy, a gamma ray collimator is used in front of a detector to allow only photons perpendicular to the surface to be detected.
The term collimated may also be applied to particle beams - a collimated beam - where typically shielding blocks of high density materials (such as lead, bismuth alloys, etc) may be used to absorb or block peripheral particles from a desired forward direction, especially a sequence of such absorbing collimators. This method of particle collimation is routinely deployed and is ubiquitous in every particle accelerator complex in the world. An additional method enabling this same forward collimation effect, less well studied, may deploy strategic nuclear polarization (magnetic polarization of nuclei) if the requisite reactions are designed into any given experimental applications.
Etymology
The word "collimate" comes from the Latin verb collimare, which originated in a misreading of collineare, "to direct in a straight line".
Sources
Lasers
Laser light from gas or crystal lasers is highly collimated because it is formed in an optical cavity between two parallel mirrors which constrain the light to a path perpendicular to the surfaces of the mirrors. In practice, gas lasers can use concave mirrors, flat mirrors, or a combination of both. The divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian (3.4 arcmin), and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less-collimated light due to their short cavity, and therefore higher collimation requires a collimating lens.
Synchrotron light
Synchrotron light is very well collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons (i.e. those moving at relativistic speeds) around a circular track. When the electrons are at relativistic speeds, the resulting radiation is highly collimated, a result which does not occur at lower speeds.
Distant sources
The light from stars (other than the Sun) arrives at Earth precisely collimated, because stars are so far away they present no detectable angular size. However, due to refraction and turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere, starlight arrives slightly uncollimated at the ground with an apparent angular diameter of about 0.4 arcseconds. Direct rays of light from the Sun arrive at the Earth uncollimated by one-half degree, this being the angular diameter of the Sun as seen from Earth. During a solar eclipse, the Sun's light becomes increasingly collimated as the visible surface shrinks to a thin crescent and ultimately a small point, producing the phenomena of distinct shadows and shadow bands.
Lenses and mirrors
A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point. Conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light creating a collimator. Since the source needs to be small, such an optical system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are often used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources.
Display system in flight simulators that uses collimated light
This principle is used in full flight simulators (FFS), that have specially designed systems for displaying imagery of the Out-The-Window (OTW) scene to the pilots in the replica aircraft cockpit.
In aircraft where two pilots are seated side by side, if the OTW imagery were projected in front of the pilots on a screen, one pilot would see the correct view but the other would see a view where some objects in the scene would be at incorrect angles.
To avoid this, collimated optics are used in the simulator visual display system so that the OTW scene is seen by both pilots at a distant focus rather than at the focal distance of a projection screen. This is achieved through an optical system that allows the imagery to be seen by the pilots in a mirror that has a vertical curvature, the curvature enabling the image to be seen at a distant focus by both pilots, who then see essentially the same OTW scene without any distortions. Since the light arriving at the eye point of both pilots is from different angles to the field of view of the pilots due to different projection systems arranged in a semi-circle above the pilots, the entire display system cannot be considered a collimated display, but a display system that uses collimated light.
Collimation and decollimation
"Collimation" refers to all the optical elements in an instrument being on their designed optical axis. It also refers to the process
of adjusting an optical instrument so that all its elements are on that designed axis (in line and parallel). With regards to a telescope, the term refers to the fact that the optical axis of each optical component should be centered and parallel, so that collimated light emerges from the eyepiece. Most amateur reflector telescopes need to be re-collimated every few years to maintain optimum performance. This can be done by simple visual methods such as looking down the optical assembly with no eyepiece to make sure the components are lined up, by using a Cheshire eyepiece, or with the assistance of a simple laser collimator or autocollimator. Collimation can also be tested using a shearing interferometer, which is often used to test laser collimation.
"Decollimation" is any mechanism or process which causes a beam with the minimum possible ray divergence to diverge or converge from parallelism. Decollimation may be deliberate for systems reasons, or may be caused by many factors, such as refractive index inhomogeneities, occlusions, scattering, deflection, diffraction, reflection, and refraction. Decollimation must be accounted for to fully treat many systems such as radio, radar, sonar, and optical communications.
See also
Autocollimation
Schlieren photography
References
Bibliography
Pfister, J. & Kneedler, J.A. (s.d.). A guide to lasers in the OR.
Optics
Observational astronomy | [
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234655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower%20war | Flower war | A flower war or flowery war (, ) was a ritual war fought intermittently between the Aztec Triple Alliance and its enemies from the "mid-1450s to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519." Enemies included the city-states of Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and Cholula in the Tlaxcala-Pueblan Valley in central Mexico. In these wars, participants would fight according to a set of conventions.
During the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Tlaxcala allied with the Spaniards against the Aztecs, being eager to see their longtime flower war enemies overthrown.
Origins
Texcocan nobleman Ixtlilxochitl gives the "fullest early statement concerning the origin as well as the initial rationale" of the flower war. From 1450 to 1454, the Aztecs had suffered from crop failure and severe drought; this led to famine and many deaths in the central Mexican highlands. Ixtlilxochitl reports that the flower war began "as a response" to the famine: "the priests . . . of Mexico [Tenochtitlan] said that the gods were angry at the empire, and that to placate them it was necessary to sacrifice many men, and that this had to be done regularly." Thus, Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital), Texcoco, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Huejotzingo agreed to engage in flower war for the purpose of obtaining human sacrifices for the gods. However, scholars such as Frederic Hicks disagree with using Ixlilxochitl's writings as the origin story of the flower war, due to Ixtlilxochitl not specifically mentioning "flower war" and being the only known source to record these events.
Practice
Flower wars differed from typical wars in a number of important aspects. While engaging in a flower war, competing armies would meet on a "preset date at a preselected place.” These places became sacred sites and were called cuauhtlalli or yaotlalli. Combatants signaled the start of war by burning a large "pyre of paper and incense" between the armies. Actual battle tactics also differed from typical warfare. In typical warfare, the Aztecs used atlatl darts, stones, and other ranged weapons to weaken enemy forces from afar. However, in flower wars, the Aztecs neglected to use ranged weapons and instead used weapons such as the macuahuitl that required skill and close proximity to the enemy. The use of these kinds of weapons allowed the Aztecs to display their individual combat ability, which was an important part of the flower war.
Flower wars involved fewer soldiers than typical Aztec wars did. A larger proportion of the soldiers would be drawn from nobility than during a typical war. These characteristics allowed the Aztecs to engage in flower wars during any time of the year. In contrast, the Aztecs could fight larger wars of conquest only from late autumn to early spring, because Aztec citizens were needed for farming purposes during the rest of the year. Additionally, flower wars differed from typical wars in that there were equal numbers of soldiers on each side of the battle; this was also related to the Aztecs wanting to show off their military prowess.
Flower wars were generally less lethal than typical wars, but a long-running flower war could become increasingly deadly over time. For example, in a long-running flower war between the Aztecs and the Chalcas, there were few battle deaths at the start. After time had passed, captured commoners started to be killed, but captured nobles were frequently released; sacrifice was not always the fate of captives. However, after further time had passed, captive nobles were killed along with the commoners. This increased the cost of the flower war for both the Aztecs and the Chalcas. The Aztecs considered flower war death to be more noble than dying in a typical war; this can be seen in the word for a flower war death, xochimiquiztli, which translates to "flowery death, blissful death, fortunate death." Further, the Aztecs thought that those who died in a flower war would be transported to the heaven where Huitzilopochtli (the supreme god of sun, fire, and war) lived.
Purpose
There appear to be a variety of reasons that the Aztecs engaged in flower wars. Historians have thought that flower wars were fought for purposes including combat training and capturing humans for religious sacrifice. Historians note evidence of the sacrifice motive: one of Cortez's captains, Andres de Tapia, once asked Moctezuma II why the stronger Aztec Empire had not yet conquered the nearby state of Tlaxcala outright. The emperor responded by saying that although they could have if they had wanted to, the Aztecs had not done so because war with Tlaxcala was a convenient way of gathering sacrifices and training their own soldiers. However, scholars such as Frederic Hicks question that the main purpose of the flower war was to gain sacrifices. Tlaxcalan historian Muñoz Camargo noted that the Aztecs would often besiege Tlaxcalan towns and cut off trade, which was uncharacteristic of a typical flower war. For this reason, proponents of Hicks' idea believe that the Aztecs did want to conquer the Tlaxcalans, but that they simply could not for some reason.
Despite many scholars' doubts about the sacrifice motive of the flower war, Hicks asserts that Moctezuma II's explanations of the flower war (gaining sacrifices and combat training) were logical, given that the Aztecs did place a heavy importance on both sacrifice and martial ability. Fighting in actual warfare was a mandatory part of training for warriors of the noble class, and it was heavily encouraged for warriors of lower classes as well. Given these factors, Hicks suggests that Moctezuma II's stated reasons may have been genuine and not just an excuse for military failure.
However, some scholars have suggested that the flower war served purposes beyond gaining sacrifices and combat training. For example, Hassig states that for the Aztecs, "flower wars were an efficient means of continuing a conflict that was too costly to conclude immediately." As such, a purpose of these wars was to occupy and wear down the enemy's fighting force. By requiring an equal number of soldiers on each side, the Aztecs made the battle seem balanced at first; however, the side with fewer overall troops suffered more because the losses comprised a greater percentage of their total forces. Through this, the Aztecs used the flower wars to weaken their opponents. Furthermore, since fewer soldiers took part in flower war as compared to a traditional war, the practice of flower war allowed the Aztecs to hold a potential threat at bay while focusing the bulk of their forces elsewhere.
Another purpose of the flower war, according to Hassig, was to show the superiority of Aztec troops. This was another reason that equal numbers of troops were used. If the Aztecs tried to use numerical superiority, their enemy would resort to the kind of defensive tactics that the Aztecs had trouble fighting against. With equal numbers, the enemy would fight the Aztecs on the open field, where individual soldiers had a greater chance of showing off their martial ability. Finally, according to Hassig, “propaganda was perhaps the most significant purpose of flower wars." By engaging their opponents in the flower war, the Aztecs were able to continuously showcase their force, which warned other city-states about their power. If the Aztecs made enough of a show of force, it could encourage the allies of the Aztecs' enemies to change their allegiance.
See also
Star war
Notes
References
History of the Aztecs
Aztec warfare
Human sacrifice
History of Puebla | [
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234656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangster | Gangster | A gangster is a criminal who is a member of a gang. Most gangs are considered to be part of organized crime. Gangsters are also called mobsters, a term derived from mob and the suffix -ster. Gangs provide a level of organization and resources that support much larger and more complex criminal transactions than an individual criminal could achieve. Gangsters have been active for many years in countries around the world. Gangsters are the subject of many novels, films, and video games.
Usage
In modern usage, the term "gang" is generally used for a criminal organization and the term "gangster" invariably describes a criminal. Much has been written on the subject of gangs, although there is no clear consensus about what constitutes a gang or what situations lead to gang formation and evolution. There is agreement that the members of a gang have a sense of common identity and belonging and this is typically reinforced through shared activities and through visual identifications such as special clothing, tattoos or rings. Some preconceptions may be false. For example, the common view that illegal drug distribution in the United States is largely controlled by gangs has been questioned.
A gang may be a relatively small group of people who cooperate in criminal acts, as with the Jesse James gang, which ended with the leader's death in 1882. However, a gang may also be a larger group with a formal organization that survives the death of its leader. For example, each of the Five Families founded in the early 20th century, outlasted its founders and have survived into the 21st century. Large and well structured gangs such as the Mafia, drug cartels, Triads or even outlaw motorcycle gangs can undertake complex transactions that would be far beyond the capability of one individual, and can provide services such as dispute arbitration and contract enforcement that parallel those of a legitimate government.
The term "organized crime" is associated with gangs and gangsters, but is not synonymous. A small street gang that engages in sporadic low-level crime would not be seen as "organized". An organization that coordinates gangs in different countries involved in the international trade in drugs or prostitutes may not be considered a "gang".
Regional variants
Europe
There are several organized crime groups in Italy. Notably, the Sicilian Mafia, or Cosa Nostra is a criminal syndicate that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century in Sicily, Italy. It is a loose association of criminal groups that share common organizational structure and code of conduct. The origins lie in the upheaval of Sicily's transition out of feudalism in 1812 and its later annexation by mainland Italy in 1860. Under feudalism, the nobility owned most of the land and enforced law and order through their private armies. After 1812, the feudal barons steadily sold off or rented their lands to private citizens. Primogeniture was abolished, land could no longer be seized to settle debts, and one fifth of the land was to become private property of the peasants. Other similarly large and powerful Italian criminal organizations, often composed of smaller gangs or “clans” generally operating under a shared criminal subculture or code, include the Camorra in Naples and Campania and the Ndrangheta in Calabria.
Organized crime has existed in Russia since the days of Imperial Russia in the form of banditry and thievery. In the Soviet period Vory v Zakone emerged, a class of criminals that had to abide by certain rules in the prison system. One such rule was that cooperation with the authorities of any kind was forbidden. During World War II some prisoners made a deal with the government to join the armed forces in return for a reduced sentence, but upon their return to prison they were attacked and killed by inmates who remained loyal to the rules of the thieves. In 1988 the Soviet Union legalized private enterprise but did not provide regulations to ensure the security of market economy. Crude markets emerged, the most notorious being the Rizhsky market where prostitution rings were run next to the Rizhsky Railway Station in Moscow.
As the Soviet Union headed for collapse many former government workers turned to crime, while others moved overseas. Former KGB agents and veterans of the Afghan and First and Second Chechen Wars, now unemployed but with experience that could prove useful in crime, joined the increasing crime wave. At first, the Vory v Zakone played a key role in arbitrating the gang wars that erupted in the 1990s. By the mid-1990s it was believed that "Don" Semion Mogilevich had become the "boss of all bosses" of most Russian Mafia syndicates in the world, described by the British government as "one of the most dangerous men in the world". More recently, criminals with stronger ties to big business and the government have displaced the Vory from some of their traditional niches, although the Vory are still strong in gambling and the retail trade.
The Albanian Mafia is active in Albania, the United States, and the European Union (EU) countries, participating in a diverse range of criminal enterprises including drug and arms trafficking. The people of the mountainous country of Albania have always had strong traditions of family and clan loyalty, in some ways similar to that of southern Italy. Ethnic Albanian gangs have grown rapidly since 1992 during the prolonged period of instability in the Balkans after the collapse of Yugoslavia. This coincided with large scale migration throughout Europe and to the United States and Canada. Although based in Albania, the gangs often handle international transactions such as trafficking in economic migrants, drugs and other contraband, and weapons. Other criminal organizations that emerged in the Balkans around this time are popularly called the Serbian Mafia, Bosnian Mafia, Bulgarian Mafia and so on.
Asia
In China, Triads trace their roots to resistance or rebel groups opposed to Manchu rule during the Qing dynasty, which were given the triangle as their emblem. The first record of a triad society, Heaven and Earth Gathering, dates to the Lin Shuangwen uprising on Taiwan from 1786 to 1787. The triads evolved into criminal societies. When the Chinese Communist Party came to power in 1949 in mainland China, law enforcement became stricter and tough governmental crackdown on criminal organizations forced the triads to migrate to Hong Kong, then a British colony, and other cities around the world. Triads today are highly organized, with departments responsible for functions such as accounting, recruiting, communications, training and welfare in addition to the operational arms. They engage in a variety of crimes including extortion, money laundering, smuggling, trafficking and prostitution.
Yakuza are members of traditional organized crime syndicates in Japan. They are notorious for their strict codes of conduct and very organized nature. As of 2009 they had an estimated 80,900 members. Most modern yakuza derive from two classifications which emerged in the mid-Edo period: tekiya, those who primarily peddled illicit, stolen or shoddy goods; and bakuto, those who were involved in or participated in gambling.
United States and Canada
In the late 1860s, many Chinese emigrated to the United States, escaping from insecurity and economic hardship at home, at first working on the west coast and later moving east. The new immigrants formed Chinese Benevolent Associations. In some cases these evolved into Tongs, or criminal organizations primarily involved in gambling. Members of Triads who migrated to the United States often joined these tongs. With a new wave of migration in the 1960s, street gangs began to flourish in major cities. The Tongs recruited these gangs to protect their extortion, gambling and narcotics operations.
As American society and culture developed, new immigrants were relocating to the United States. The first major gangs in 19th century New York City were the Irish gangs such as the Whyos and the Dead Rabbits. These were followed by the Italian Five Points Gang and later a Jewish gang known as the Eastman Gang. There were also "Nativist" anti-immigration gangs such as the Bowery Boys. The Italian-American Mafia arose from offshoots of the Mafia that emerged in the United States during the late 19th century, following waves of emigration from Sicily. There were similar offshoots in Canada among Italian Canadians, such as the Rizzuto crime family.
The terms "gangster" and "mobster" are mostly used in the United States to refer to members of criminal organizations associated with Prohibition. In 1920, the Eighteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution banned the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol for consumption. Many gangs sold alcohol illegally for profit, and used acute violence to stake turf and protect their interest. Often, police officers and politicians were paid off or extorted to ensure continued operation. Al Capone was one of these notorious gangsters during the Depression era for the Chicago Outfit. Capone would rise to control a major portion of illicit activity such as gambling, prostitution, and bootlegging in Chicago during the early 20th century.
In New York City, by the end of the 1920s, two factions of organized crime had emerged to fight for control of the criminal underworld, one led by Joe Masseria and the other by Salvatore Maranzano. This caused the Castellammarese War, which led to Masseria's murder in 1931. Maranzano then divided New York City into five families. Maranzano, the first leader of the American Mafia, established the code of conduct for the organization, set up the "family" divisions and structure, and established procedures for resolving disputes. In an unprecedented move, Maranzano set himself up as boss of all bosses and required all families to pay tribute to him. This new role was received negatively, and Maranzano was murdered within six months on the orders of Charles "Lucky" Luciano. Luciano was a former Masseria underling who had switched sides to Maranzano and orchestrated the killing of Masseria. As an alternative to the previous despotic Mafia practice of naming a single Mafia boss as capo di tutti capi, or "boss of all bosses," Luciano created The Commission in 1931, where the bosses of the most powerful families would have equal say and vote on important matters and solve disputes between families. This group ruled over the National Crime Syndicate and brought in an era of peace and prosperity for the American Mafia.
Latin America
Most cocaine is grown and processed in South America, particularly in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the world's largest consumer of cocaine.
Colombia is the world's leading producer of cocaine, and also produces heroin that is mostly destined for the US market.
The Medellín Cartel was an organized network of drug suppliers and smugglers originating in the city of Medellín, Colombia. The gang operated in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Central America, the United States, as well as Canada and Europe throughout the 1970s and 1980s. It was founded and run by Ochoa Vázquez brothers with Pablo Escobar. By 1993, the Colombian government, helped by the US, had successfully dismantled the cartel by imprisoning or hunting and gunning down its members.
Although Mexican drug cartels, or drug trafficking organizations, have existed for several decades, they have become more powerful since the demise of Colombia's Cali and Medellín cartels in the 1990s. Mexican drug cartels now dominate the wholesale illicit drug market in the United States. Sixty five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida. Cocaine shipments from South America transported through Mexico or Central America are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the U.S.–Mexico border. Arrests of key gang leaders, particularly in the Tijuana and Gulf cartels, have led to increasing drug violence as gangs fight for control of the trafficking routes into the United States.
Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently Mexico, have also established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700 kg in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000 kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. Another route of cocaine traffic goes through Chile, this route is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lie in northern Chile. The arid Bolivia-Chile border is easily crossed by 4x4 vehicles that then head to the seaports of Iquique and Antofagasta.
In popular culture
Gangs have long been the subject of movies. In fact, the first feature-length movie ever produced was The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), an Australian production that traced the life of the outlaw Ned Kelly (1855–1880). The United States has profoundly influenced the genre, but other cultures have contributed distinctive and often excellent gangster movies.
United States
The stereotypical image and myth of the American gangster is closely associated with organized crime during the Prohibition era of the 1920s and 1930s.
The classic gangster movie ranks with the Western as one of the most successful creations of the American movie industry. The "classic" form of gangster movie, rarely produced in recent years, tells of a gangster working his way up through his enterprise and daring, until his organization collapses while he is at the peak of his powers. Although the ending is presented as a moral outcome, it is usually seen as no more than an accidental failure. The gangster is typically articulate, although at times lonely and depressed, and his worldly wisdom and defiance of social norms has a strong appeal, particularly to adolescents.
The years 1931 and 1932 saw the genre produce three classics: Warner Bros.' Little Caesar and The Public Enemy, which made screen icons out of Edward G. Robinson and James Cagney, and Howard Hughes' Scarface starring Paul Muni, which offered a dark psychological analysis of a fictionalized Al Capone. These films chronicle the quick rise, and equally quick downfall, of three young, violent criminals, and represent the genre in its purest form before moral pressure would force it to change and evolve. Though the gangster in each film would face a violent downfall which was designed to remind the viewers of the consequences of crime, audiences were often able to identify with the charismatic anti-hero. Those suffering from the Depression were able to relate to the gangster character who worked hard to earn his place and success in the world, only to have it all taken away from him.
Latin America
Latin American gangster movies are known for their gritty realism. Soy un delincuente (English: I Am a Criminal) is a 1976 Venezuelan film by director Clemente de la Cerda. The film tells the story of Ramón Antonio Brizuela, a real-life individual, who since childhood has to deal with rampant violence and the drugs, sex and petty thievery of a Caracas slum. Starting with delinquency, Ramón moves on to serious gang activity and robberies. He grows into a tough, self-confident young man who is hardened to violence. His views change when his fiancée's brother is killed in a robbery. The film was a blockbuster hit in Venezuela.
City of God () is a 2002 Brazilian crime drama film directed by Fernando Meirelles and co-directed by Kátia Lund, released in its home country in 2002 and worldwide in 2003. All the characters existed in reality, and the story is based on real events. It depicts the growth of organized crime in the Cidade de Deus suburb of Rio de Janeiro, between the end of the '60s and the beginning of the '80s, with the closure of the film depicting the war between the drug dealer Li'l Zé and criminal Knockout Ned. The film received four Academy Award nominations in 2004.
East Asia
The first yakuza (gangster) film made in Japan was Bakuto (Gambler, 1964). The genre soon became popular, and by the 1970s the Japanese film industry was turning out a hundred mostly low-budget yakuza films each year. The films are descendants of the samurai epics, and are closer to Westerns than to Hollywood gangster movies. The hero is typically torn between compassion for the oppressed and his sense of duty to the gang. The plots are generally highly stylized, starting with the protagonist being released from prison and ending in a gory sword fight in which he dies an honorable death.
Although some Hong Kong gangster movies are simply vehicles for violent action, the mainstream movies in the genre deal with Triad societies portrayed as quasi-benign organizations. The movie gangster applies the Taoist principles of balance and honor to his conduct. The plots are often similar to those of Hollywood gangster movies, often ending with the fall of the subject of the movie at the hands of another gangster, but such a fall is far less important than a fall from honor. The first movie made by the acclaimed director Wong Kar-wai was a gangster movie, As Tears Go By. In it the protagonist finds himself torn between his desire for a woman and his loyalty to a fellow gangster. Infernal Affairs (2002) is a thriller about a police officer who infiltrates a triad and a triad member who infiltrates the police department. The film was remade by Martin Scorsese as The Departed.
Gangster films make up one of the most profitable segments of the South Korean film industry. Films made in the 1960s were often influenced by Japanese yakuza films, dealing with internal conflict between members of a gang or external conflict with other gangs. The gangsters' code of conduct and loyalty are important elements. Starting in the 1970s, strict censorship caused decline in the number and quality of gangster movies, and none were made in the 1980s. In the late 1980s and early 1990s there was a surge of imports of action movies from Hong Kong. The first of the new wave of important home grown gangster movies was Im Kwon-taek's General's Son (1990). Although this movie followed the earlier tradition, it was followed by a series of sophisticated gangster noirs set in contemporary urban locations, such as A Bittersweet Life (2005).
See also
Gang
Dacoity
Organized crime
Banditry
Illegal drug trade
:Category:Illegal occupations
List of crime bosses
List of American mobsters of Irish descent
List of Chinese criminal organizations
List of Italian American mobsters
List of Jewish American mobsters
List of mobsters by city
Citations
References
External links
Organized crime members by role
Gang members | [
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234657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Bell | Mary Bell | Mary Flora Bell (born 26 May 1957) is an English woman who murdered two preschool-age boys in Scotswood, an inner suburb of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1968. The first killing happened when she was 10 years old. In both instances, Bell informed her victim he had a sore throat, which she would massage before proceeding to strangle him.
Bell was convicted of both murders in December 1968 in a trial held at Newcastle Assizes when she was 11 years old and in which her actions were judged to have been committed under diminished responsibility. Her accomplice in at least one of the murders, 13-year-old Norma Joyce Bell (no relation), was acquitted of all charges.
Bell was released from custody in 1980, aged 23. A lifelong court order granted her anonymity, which has since been extended to protect the identity of her daughter and granddaughter. She has since lived under a series of pseudonyms.
Early life
Bell's mother, Elizabeth "Betty" Bell (née McCrickett), was a well-known local prostitute who was often absent from the family home, frequently travelling to Glasgow to work and simply leaving her children in the care of their father—if he was present. Mary was her second child, born when Betty herself was 17 years old. The identity of Mary's biological father is unknown. For most of her life, Mary believed her father to be William "Billy" Bell; a violent alcoholic and habitual criminal with an arrest record for crimes including armed robbery. However, she was a baby when William Bell married her mother, and it is unknown if he is her actual biological father.
Mary was an unwanted and neglected child. According to her aunt, Isa McCrickett, within minutes of Mary's birth, her mother had resented hospital staff attempting to place her daughter in her arms, shouting: "Take the thing away from me!"
As a baby, toddler, and young child, Mary frequently suffered injuries in household accidents while alone with her mother, which led her family to believe that either her mother was deliberately negligent, or intentionally attempting to harm or kill her daughter. On one occasion in about 1960, Betty dropped her daughter from a first-floor window; on another occasion, she plied her daughter with sleeping pills. She is also known to have once sold Mary to a mentally unstable woman who was unable to have children of her own, resulting in her older sister, Catherine, having to travel alone across Newcastle to reclaim Mary from this individual and return the child to her mother's home on Whitehouse Road.
Despite her negligence and abuse of her child, Betty refused repeated offers from her family to take custody of Mary, whom she—as a dominatrix—is alleged to have begun allowing and/or encouraging several of her clients to sexually abuse in sadomasochistic sessions by the mid-1960s.
Temperament
Both at home and at school, Mary exhibited numerous signs of disturbed and unpredictable behaviour, including sudden mood swings and chronic bed wetting. She is known to have frequently fought with other children—both boys and girls—and to have attempted to strangle or suffocate her classmates or playmates on several occasions. On one occasion, she is known to have attempted to block the trachea of a young girl with sand. This violent behaviour made many children reluctant to socialise with Mary, who would frequently spend her free time with Norma Joyce Bell (1955–1989), the 13-year-old daughter of a next door neighbour. Although the girls shared the same surname, they were not related.
According to one classmate at Delaval Road Junior School, by 1968, she and her peers had become accustomed to the sudden and marked changes in Mary's behaviour, and when she began exhibiting distressful mannerisms—including shaking her head and forming a steely gaze—her peers instinctively knew she was to become violent, with the focus of her stare being the individual she would attack.
Initial assaults
On Saturday 11 May 1968, a three-year-old boy was discovered wandering dazed and bleeding in the vicinity of St. Margaret's Road, Scotswood. The child later informed police he had been playing with Mary Bell and Norma Bell atop a disused air-raid shelter when one of the girls (the child was unsure which) had pushed him seven feet from the roof to the ground, inflicting a severe laceration to his head. The same evening, the parents of three small girls contacted police to complain that both Mary and Norma had attempted to strangle their children as they played in a sandpit.
That evening, both girls were interviewed about these incidents. Both girls denied any culpability for the air-raid shelter incident; claiming they had simply discovered the boy, bleeding heavily from a head wound, after he had fallen. Further questioned about the attempted strangulation of the three young girls, Mary denied any knowledge of the incident. However, Norma admitted Mary had tried to "throttle" each of the girls, stating: "Mary went to one of the girls and said, 'What happens if you choke someone; do they die?' Then Mary put both hands 'round the girl's throat and squeezed. The girl started to go purple. I told Mary to stop, but she wouldn't. Then she put her hands around Pauline's throat and she started going purple as well ... another girl, Susan Cornish, came up and Mary did the same thing to her."
Police notified the local authority of the incidents and of Mary's violent nature, but due to their age both girls were simply given a warning. No further action was taken.
Murders
Background
In the 1960s, Newcastle upon Tyne experienced a significant urban renewal project. Many inner boroughs of the city saw Victorian era terraced slums demolished in order that modern houses and flats could be constructed, although several families resided in buildings earmarked for demolition as they awaited rehousing by the council.
Local children frequently played in or close to the derelict houses and upon the rubble-strewn expanses of land razed and partially cleared by contractors. One of these locations was a large expanse of waste ground located close to a railway line known to local children as "Tin Lizzie". The street which ran parallel to this expanse of waste ground was St. Margaret's Road.
Martin Brown
On 25 May 1968, the day before her 11th birthday, Mary Bell strangled four-year-old Martin Brown in an upstairs bedroom of a derelict house located at 85 St. Margaret's Road. She is believed to have committed this crime alone. Brown's body was discovered by three children at approximately 3:30 p.m. He was lying on his back with his arms stretched above his head. Aside from specks of blood and foam around his mouth, no signs of violence were visible upon his body. A local workman named John Hall soon arrived on the scene; he attempted to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), to no avail.
As Hall attempted CPR, two local girls, 10-year-old Mary Bell (known locally as "May"), and her 13-year-old friend and neighbour, Norma Bell appeared at the doorway to the bedroom. Both were quickly shooed out of the house; the two knocked on the door of Martin's aunt, a Mrs. Rita Finlay, and informed her: "One of your sister's bairns has just had an accident. We think it's Martin, but we can't tell because there's blood all over him."
The following day, Dr Bernard Knight conducted a post-mortem upon the body of Martin Brown. Knight was unable to find any signs of violence on the child's body, and thus was unable to determine the child's cause of death, although he was able to discount the investigators' theory the child had died of poisoning through ingesting tablets. An inquest on 7 June returned an open verdict.
Intervening incidents
On Mary's 11th birthday, 26 May, she and Norma broke into and vandalised a nursery in nearby Woodland Crescent. The two entered the premises by peeling tiles off the slate roof; they tore books, upturned desks and smeared ink and poster paints about the property before escaping.
The following day, staff discovered the break-in and vandalism and immediately notified the police, who also discovered four separate notes which claimed responsibility for Martin Brown's murder. One of these notes stated: "I murder SO That I may come back"; another read: "WE did murder martain brown fuckof you bastard"; a third note simply read: "Fuch off we murder. Watch out Fanny and Faggot." The final note was the most complex, reading: "You are mice Y Becurse we murdered Martain Go Brown you Bete Look out THERE are Murders about By Fanny and auld Faggot you Screws." The police dismissed this incident as a tasteless and childish prank.
Two days later, on 29 May, shortly before the funeral of Martin Brown, in a game of chicken, both girls called upon the house of his mother, June, asking to see her son. When June Brown replied that they couldn't see her son because he was deceased, Mary replied: "Oh, I know he's dead; I want to see him in his coffin."
Brian Howe
On the afternoon of 31 July 1968, a three-year-old named Brian Howe was last seen by his parents in the street outside his house playing with one of his siblings, the family dog, and Mary Bell and Norma Bell. When he did not return home later that afternoon, concerned relatives and neighbours searched the streets without success. At 11:10 p.m., a search party discovered Brian's body between two large concrete blocks upon the "Tin Lizzie".
The first policeman to arrive at the scene observed that a "deliberate but feeble" attempt had been made to conceal the body, which was covered in clumps of grass and weeds. Cyanosis was evident upon the child's lips, and several bruises and scratches were evident upon his neck. A pair of broken scissors lay close to his feet.
The coroner would conclude that Brian had died of strangulation, and that he had been deceased for up to seven-and-a-half hours before the discovery of his body. The killer had evidently squeezed Brian's nostrils closed with one hand as he or she had gripped his throat with the other. Numerous puncture wounds had been inflicted to the child's legs before death, sections of his hair had been cut from his head, his genitals had been partially mutilated, and a crude attempt had been made to carve the initial "M" into his stomach. The relatively small amount of force used to murder the child led the coroner to conclude the murderer was another child.
Numerous grey and maroon fibres were discovered upon Brian's clothing and shoes. These fibres did not source from any clothing within the Howe household, and had been transferred to the child by his murderer(s).
Investigation
The discovery of Brian Howe's body sparked a large-scale manhunt. Over one hundred detectives from across Northumberland were assigned to the investigation, and more than 1,200 children had been questioned with regard to their whereabouts by 2 August. Two children questioned by detectives on 1 August were Mary Bell and Norma Bell, whom witnesses had already informed investigators had been seen playing with Brian shortly before he was believed to have died. In her initial interview, Norma seemed excitable, whereas Mary was markedly more observant and taciturn. Although both girls were evasive and contradictory in their initial statements, they freely admitted to having played with Brian on the date of his death, but denied having seen him after lunchtime.
Questioned further the following day, Mary stated she remembered seeing an eight-year-old local boy playing with Brian on the afternoon of 31 July, and that she had also seen him hitting the child. Furthermore, she stated she also remembered that the boy had been covered in grass and weeds as if he had been rolling in a field, and that he had in his possession a small pair of scissors. Mary then expounded: "I saw him trying to cut a cat's tail off with the scissors, but there was something wrong with them—one leg was broken or bent." This self-incriminating statement convinced Detective Chief Inspector (DCI) James Dobson that Mary was the actual killer, as only the police knew about the broken scissors found at the crime scene. In addition, the local boy she named was quickly questioned, and was discovered to have been at Newcastle International Airport on the afternoon of 31 July, with numerous witnesses able to corroborate his parents' claims.
First confession
On the afternoon of 4 August the parents of Norma Bell contacted police, stating their daughter wished to confess what she knew of the death of Brian Howe. DCI Dobson arrived at their home, formally cautioned Norma, then asked what she knew. Norma then informed Dobson Mary had taken her to a "spot on the 'Tin Lizzie'", at which point she had been shown Brian's body. Mary had then demonstrated to her how she had strangled the child. According to Norma, Mary had confessed to her she had enjoyed strangling the child, before describing how she had inflicted the scour marks to his stomach with a razor blade—which had been hidden at the crime scene—and "the broken scissors". Norma then led police to the crime scene and revealed the location where the razor blade was hidden. A drawing Norma made of the wounds inflicted to the boy's abdomen precisely matched those described by the coroner.
Mary Bell was visited at her home in the early hours of 5 August. On this occasion, she was notably defensive when confronted with the discrepancies in her previous statement, she informed detectives: "You're trying to brainwash me. I will get a solicitor to get me out of this."
Later the same day, Norma was questioned again. On this occasion, she made a full statement in which she admitted being present when Mary had actually strangled Brian. According to Norma, when the trio were alone on the "Tin Lizzie", Mary "seemed to go all funny"; pushing the child into the grass and attempting to strangle him before stating to her, "My hands are getting thick. Take over." She had then run from the scene, leaving Mary alone with Brian.
A forensic examination of clothing owned by both girls revealed the grey fibres discovered upon Brian's body were a precise match to a woollen dress owned by Mary; the maroon fibres upon the child's shoes were a precise match to a skirt owned by Norma. Furthermore, the same grey fibres had also been found upon the body of Martin Brown.
Formal charges
Brian Howe was buried in a local cemetery on 7 August 1968 in a ceremony attended by over 200 people. According to DCI Dobson (who had planned to arrest both girls later that day), Mary Bell stood outside the Howe household as the child's coffin was brought from the home at the beginning of the funeral procession. Dobson later stated: "She stood there, laughing. Laughing and rubbing her hands. I thought, 'My God, I've got to bring her in. She'll do another one.'"
Both girls were formally charged with the murder of Brian Howe at 8 p.m. that evening. In response to this charge, Mary replied: "That's all right by me." Norma burst into tears, simply proclaiming: "I never. I'll pay you back for this."
In the presence of an independent witness, Mary prepared a written statement in which she admitted to being present when Brian Howe was murdered, but insisting the murder had been committed by Norma. She also admitted she and Norma had broken into the Woodland Crescent nursery the day after the murder of Martin Brown, defacing the property before the two had written the four handwritten notes.
Psychological evaluations
Shortly after their arrest, both girls underwent psychological evaluations. The results of these tests revealed Norma was intellectually delayed and a submissive character who easily displayed emotion, whereas Mary was a bright yet cunning character, prone to sudden mood swings. Occasionally, Mary was willing to talk, although she rapidly became sullen, introspective and defensive in nature.
The four psychiatrists who examined Mary concluded that, although not suffering from a mental disorder, she suffered from a psychopathic personality disorder. In his official report compiled for the Director of Public Prosecutions, Dr. David Westbury concluded: "[Mary's] social techniques are primitive and take the form of automatic denial, ingratiation, manipulation, complaining, bullying, flight or violence."
Trial
The trial of Mary Bell and Norma Bell for the murders of Martin Brown and Brian Howe began at Newcastle Assizes on 5 December 1968. Both girls were tried before Mr Justice Ralph Cusack, and both pleaded not guilty to the charges. Mary was defended by Mr. Harvey Robson QC; Norma by R. P. Smith QC.
Against protests from both defence counsel, on the first day of the trial, Cusack waived the defendants' right to anonymity on account of their age. As such, the media were allowed to publicise the names, ages and photographs of both girls, who each sat alongside plain clothed female police officers in the centre of the court, behind their legal representatives, and within arm's reach of their families throughout the duration of the trial.
Rudolph Lyons QC opened the case on behalf of the prosecution at 11:30 a.m. In an opening statement lasting six hours, Lyons informed the jury they faced an "unhappy and distressing" task due to the nature of the murders and the ages of the defendants. He then outlined the prosecution's intention to illustrate the similarities between both murders, which indicated both boys had been murdered by the same perpetrator or perpetrators. Lyons outlined the circumstances surrounding both deaths and the evidence indicating the defendants' guilt.
Although Lyons conceded in his opening statement that, despite the defendants' age difference, Mary was the more dominant of the two, he contended both girls had acted in unison and were equally culpable; killing both children "solely for the pleasure and excitement of murder", adding: "Both girls well knew that what they did was wrong and what the results would be."
Defendants' testimony
On the fifth day of the trial, Norma testified in her own defence. She denied any culpability in the actual murder of either child, but admitted under cross-examination to having known Mary's penchant for violence and her history of attacking children, and that the two had discussed attacking and killing small children of both genders. Questioned by Rudolph Lyons as to whether Mary had demonstrated to her how children could be killed, Norma nodded. She then conceded that, as Mary had begun to attack and strangle Brian Howe, she had failed to alert a group of boys playing in the vicinity, stating she had failed to do so as "I did not know what was going to happen in the first place. She had stopped hurting him for a bit when the boys were near the [concrete blocks]". Questioned as to her own role in the murder, Norma stated she had "never touched" the child.
Following the conclusion of Norma's testimony on 12 December, Mary testified in her own defence. Her testimony lasted for almost four hours, concluding on 13 December, and was briefly adjourned on one occasion when she began crying in a policewoman's arms. She denied her co-defendant's accusations, insisting that although she had observed the body of Martin Brown at St. Margaret's Road, she herself had never harmed the child, and that she and Norma had later asked the boy's mother to view his body as the two were "daring each other and one of us did not want to be a chicken". Mary also conceded she had divulged to others her knowledge of Martin's death could "get Norma put straight away".
Questioned with regards to the death of Brian Howe, Mary claimed that Norma had been the individual who had strangled the child as she herself "was just standing and looking. I couldn't move. It was as if some glue was pulling us down." Mary then alleged Norma had encouraged Brian to lie down if he wanted some sweets, telling him: "You've got to lie down for the lady to come with the sweets" before proceeding to strangle him with her bare hands as she herself unsuccessfully attempted to prevent the attack. Mary further stated she could determine the level of force Norma had exhibited because "her fingertips and nails were going white", and again conceded she had failed to inform authorities of her knowledge of Norma's actions out of both fear and a misguided sense of loyalty.
Norma's mother, Catherine, then testified that, several months prior to the murder of Brian Howe, she and her husband had discovered Mary attempting to strangle Norma's younger sister, Susan, and that she had only released her grip on their daughter's throat after her husband had punched Mary in the shoulder. A child psychiatrist named Ian Frazer then testified that Norma's mental age was eight years and ten months and that, although her capacity of knowing right from wrong was limited, she was capable of appreciating the criminality of the acts she was accused of committing.
Closing arguments
On 13 December, Norma's defence counsel, R. P. Smith, delivered his closing argument to the jury. Smith emphasized that although both girls were on trial together, no real evidence existed against his client, and the only evidence against Norma was Mary's accusations against her. Smith implored the jurors to "suppress" feelings of outrage and malice, and dispel any idea that "both little girls" pay for the actions of one of them.
Harvey Robson then delivered his closing argument on behalf of Mary. Robson illustrated her broken background and dysfunctional family, and the blur between fantasy and reality in her mind. Robson also referenced the testimony of Dr. David Westbury, who had testified on behalf of the defence he had interviewed Mary on several occasions prior to the trial and had formed a "definite view" the child suffered from a serious personality disorder which he classified as a "retarded development of (her) mind", and that this had been caused by both genetic and environmental factors. This abnormality, Westbury had contended, had impaired Mary's actual responsibility for her acts.
Referencing the notes both girls had left in a nursery after the murder of Martin Brown, Robson stated the notes proved the crimes were a "childish fantasy" and, in Mary's case, were written to attract attention to herself.
In his closing argument, Rudolph Lyons described the case as a "macabre and grotesque" one, in which Mary—clearly the more domineering of the two despite being the younger girl—wielded a "very compelling influence, reminiscent of the fictional Svengali" over Norma, whom he conceded was "of subnormal intelligence", stating: "I forecast to you that the younger girl—although two years and two months younger than the other—was nevertheless the cleverer and more dominating personality." Outlining the numerous lies Mary had told the police and court alike, Lyons further remarked of Mary's lack of remorse, and her high degree of cunning.
Conviction
The trial lasted nine days. On 17 December, the jury retired to consider their verdict, and would deliberate for three hours and twenty-five minutes before reaching their verdicts. Mary Bell was cleared of murder, but convicted of the manslaughter of both boys on the grounds of diminished responsibility; Norma Bell was acquitted of all charges. Upon hearing the jury's verdicts, Norma clapped her hands in excitement, whereas Mary burst into tears as mother and grandmother also wept.
Passing sentence, judge Cusack described Bell as a "dangerous" individual, adding she posed a "very grave risk to other children" and that "steps must be taken to protect [the public]" from her. She was sentenced to be detained at Her Majesty's pleasure; effectively an indefinite sentence of imprisonment.
Imprisonment
Bell was initially detained in a Durham remand home before being transferred to a second remand home in South Norwood. She was then transferred to Red Bank secure unit, a young offenders institution in Newton-le-Willows, Merseyside, in early 1969, where she was the only female among approximately 24 inmates. Bell would later claim that she was sexually abused by a member of staff and several inmates while incarcerated at this facility, claiming the sexual abuse began when she was aged 13. In November 1973, at age 16, she was transferred to a secure wing of HM Prison Styal in Cheshire. Reportedly, Bell resented her transferal to this facility, and while incarcerated at HM Prison Styal, Bell unsuccessfully applied for parole.
In June 1976, Bell was transferred to Moor Court open prison, where she undertook a secretarial course. Fifteen months later, in September 1977, Bell again made national headlines when she and another inmate, Annette Priest, briefly escaped from this open prison. Both escapees spent several days in the company of two young men in Blackpool, visiting the amusements and sleeping in various local hotels, where Bell used the alias Mary Robinson before the two escapees parted company.
Bell was arrested at the Derbyshire home of one of the men, Clive Shirtcliffe, on 13 September, having by this stage dyed her hair blonde in an effort to disguise her identity. She was returned to custody that evening; Priest was arrested in Leeds days later. Bell's penalty for absconding was a loss of prison privileges for 28 days.
Release
In June 1979, the Home Office announced their decision to transfer Mary Bell to HM Prison Askham Grange; an open category prison in the village of Askham Richard in efforts to prepare her for her eventual release into society, which was planned for the following year. Beginning in November 1979, Bell worked first as a secretary, then as a waitress at a café in York Minster under supervision guidelines in efforts to prepare her for eventual release.
Bell was released from HM Prison Askham Grange in May 1980 at the age of 23, having served almost eleven-and-a-half years in custody. She was granted anonymity (including a new name), allowing her to start a new life elsewhere in the country under an assumed identity. Upon her release, a spokesman is quoted as saying: "[Bell] wishes to be given a chance to live a normal life and to be left alone."
Four years after her release from custody, on 25 May 1984, Bell gave birth to a daughter. This would prove to be her only child. Her daughter knew nothing of her mother's past until 1998, when reporters discovered Bell's then-current location in a resort town on the Sussex Coast, where both had been living for approximately 18 months. This media revelation forced Bell and her 14-year-old daughter to leave their home and be driven to a safe house by undercover officers. Both mother and daughter later relocated to another part of the United Kingdom.
Bell has allegedly returned to Tyneside on several occasions in the years following her release. She is also alleged to have lived in this location for a time.
Lifelong anonymity
The right to anonymity granted to Bell's daughter following her birth was originally only extended until she had reached the age of 18. However, on 21 May 2003, Bell won a High Court battle to have her own anonymity, and that of her daughter, extended for life. This order was approved by Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, and was later updated to include Bell's granddaughter (b. January 2009), who was referred to as "Z". The order also prohibits the divulging of any aspects of their lives which may identify them.
In 1998, Bell collaborated with author Gitta Sereny to provide an account of her life before and after her crimes for Sereny's 1998 book Cries Unheard: The Story of Mary Bell. Within this book, Bell details the abuse she suffered as a child at the hands of her prostitute mother (whom Bell describes as a dominatrix) and, she alleges, several of her mother's clients. Others interviewed are relatives, friends and professionals who knew her before, during and after her imprisonment.
Bell's current whereabouts are unknown, and remain protected by the 2003 High Court order. According to Sereny, Bell does not claim she was wrongly convicted and freely admits the abuse she suffered as a child does not excuse her crimes.
Media
Literature
Television
The BBC have broadcast an episode focusing upon the crimes and conviction of Mary Bell as part of their 1998 series Children of Crime. Narrated by Jim Carter, this 48-minute episode features interviews with several of Bell's childhood peers in addition to police officers assigned to the case. This episode was first aired in April 1998.
The Investigation Discovery channel commissioned a documentary focusing upon the murders committed by Mary Bell as part of their true-life crime documentary series Deadly Women. This 45-minute documentary, titled "Young Blood", was first broadcast on 20 August 2009.
See also
Age of criminal responsibility
Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
Child neglect
Child sexual abuse
List of serial killers by number of victims
Thrill killing
Notes
References
Cited works and further reading
External links
Contemporary Bryan Times news article detailing the murders committed by Mary Bell
Contemporary Guardian news article pertaining to the conviction of Mary Bell
20 December 1968 news article detailing Mary Bell's appeal against her conviction
1998 BBC News article detailing the case of Mary Bell
Excerpt of Cries Unheard. Why Children Kill: The Story of Mary Bell
The case of Mary Bell at crimelibrary.com
Crime & Investigation entry pertaining to Mary Bell
The Mary Bell Case at documentaryheaven.com
1957 births
Living people
1968 murders in the United Kingdom
1968 in England
20th-century English criminals
British female murderers
Crime in Newcastle upon Tyne
Criminals from Northumberland
English female criminals
English people convicted of manslaughter
Escapees from England and Wales detention
Juvenile delinquency
Minors convicted of murder
Penology
People from Newcastle upon Tyne
Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales | [
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234658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann%20steering%20geometry | Ackermann steering geometry | Ackermann steering geometry is a geometric arrangement of linkages in the steering of a car or other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on the inside and outside of a turn needing to trace out circles of different radii.
It was invented by the German carriage builder Georg Lankensperger in Munich in 1817, then patented by his agent in England, Rudolph Ackermann (1764–1834) in 1818 for horse-drawn carriages.
Advantages
The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tires to slip sideways when following the path around a curve. The geometrical solution to this is for all wheels to have their axles arranged as radii of circles with a common centre point. As the rear wheels are fixed, this centre point must be on a line extended from the rear axle. Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well requires that the inside front wheel be turned, when steering, through a greater angle than the outside wheel.
Rather than the preceding "turntable" steering, where both front wheels turned around a common pivot, each wheel gained its own pivot, close to its own hub. While more complex, this arrangement enhances controllability by avoiding large inputs from road surface variations being applied to the end of a long lever arm, as well as greatly reducing the fore-and-aft travel of the steered wheels. A linkage between these hubs pivots the two wheels together, and by careful arrangement of the linkage dimensions the Ackermann geometry could be approximated. This was achieved by making the linkage not a simple parallelogram, but by making the length of the track rod (the moving link between the hubs) shorter than that of the axle, so that the steering arms of the hubs appeared to "toe out". As the steering moved, the wheels turned according to Ackermann, with the inner wheel turning further. If the track rod is placed ahead of the axle, it should instead be longer in comparison, thus preserving this same "toe out".
Design and choice of geometry
A simple approximation to perfect Ackermann steering geometry may be generated by moving the steering pivot points inward so as to lie on a line drawn between the steering kingpins and the centre of the rear axle. The steering pivot points are joined by a rigid bar called the tie rod, which can also be part of the steering mechanism, in the form of a rack and pinion for instance. With perfect Ackermann, at any angle of steering, the centre point of all of the circles traced by all wheels will lie at a common point. Note that this may be difficult to arrange in practice with simple linkages, and designers are advised to draw or analyse their steering systems over the full range of steering angles.
Modern cars do not use pure Ackermann steering, partly because it ignores important dynamic and compliant effects, but the principle is sound for low-speed maneuvers. Some racing cars use reverse Ackermann geometry to compensate for the large difference in slip angle between the inner and outer front tires while cornering at high speed. The use of such geometry helps reduce tire temperatures during high-speed cornering but compromises performance in low-speed maneuvers.
Extended Ackermann condition
The Ackermann condition of vehicle train is fulfilled when both the vehicle wheel and the trailer wheel axes are pointing to the theoretical turning center (momentan centrum).
In German:
Unlike single vehicles, having the steering wheels turned, the vehicle combinations have to travel a certain distance to have this condition formed.
See also
Front axle assembly
References
External links
2002 technical paper on Ackermann steering linkage design
Ackerman? Or not? Does it matter?
True Ackermann & Dynamic generated Ackermann
Common fitting error on old Ford vehicles when tie rod is fitted in front of the axle
Problems experienced that may be due to excessive Ackermann or insufficient Ackermann
Ackermann Steering and Racing Circle (oval) Tracks, includes the toe out effect when Ackermann steering geometry is included and its use in racing
Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield UK. Museum. Darwin Page
Ackerman concept used on Yamaha motor-tricycle, Niken
Wheel Alignment Explained
Automotive steering technologies | [
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] |
234660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitmo%20%28disambiguation%29 | Gitmo (disambiguation) | Gitmo is the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, a US naval base.
Gitmo may also refer to:
Guantánamo Bay, a bay at the southeastern end of Cuba
Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in the Guantánamo Bay Naval Base
Gitmo: The New Rules of War, a documentary film about the detention camp
See also
Good Morning Gitmo, a one-act dark comedy about the detention camp
Guantanamo (disambiguation) | [
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234661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Carteret | George Carteret | Vice Admiral Sir George Carteret, 1st Baronet ( – 14 January 1680 N.S.) was a royalist statesman in Jersey and England, who served in the Clarendon Ministry as Treasurer of the Navy. He was also one of the original lords proprietor of the former British colony of Carolina and New Jersey. Carteret, New Jersey, as well as Carteret County, North Carolina, both in the United States, are named after him. He acquired the manor of Haynes, Bedfordshire, (alias Hawnes) in about 1667.
Early life
Carteret was the son of Elias de Carteret and Elizabeth Dumaresq of Jersey, who both died in 1640. Elias was the son of Philippe de Carteret I, 2nd Seigneur of Sark. (George dropped the "de" from his surname when he entered the English navy, concerned that it sounded too French). George was "bred for the sea" and served as an officer in various naval ships in the 1630s and commanded the Mary Rose before becoming Comptroller of the Navy in 1641.
As a result of his early life at sea, he received little or no formal education, and his embarrassing ignorance was a source of much ridicule in later life. Andrew Marvell mocked his poor command of English, and Samuel Pepys remarked that his ignorance of even the most basic Latin phrases would cause a schoolboy to be whipped. "Such ignorance is not to be borne in a Privy Councillor', wrote Pepys severely.
Civil War and Commonwealth
On the commencement of the Civil War he retired from the navy, and withdrew with his family to Jersey, but subsequently returned to aid the projects of the royalists. He afterwards, on the ruin of the royal cause, afforded an asylum to the Prince of Wales (Charles Stuart) and other refugees of distinction within his government of Jersey, where he served as Bailiff (1643–1651), and defended Jersey against the Parliamentarians: the island in October and then Elizabeth Castle, finally surrendering in December 1651.
George Carteret also had Charles II proclaimed King in Saint Helier on 17 February 1649, after the execution of his father, Charles I. Charles II never forgot this gesture. However, he had to surrender Jersey to the Commonwealth of England. He then went into exile in France, where he was imprisoned in 1657 and then exiled from there, after which he went to Venice. The warmth and kindness with which he received the refugees earned him a permanent place in the King's affections, and also the friendship of Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, the King's chief adviser during his exile and for the first few years after the Restoration.
Restoration
Carteret was sworn into the Privy Council, appointed Vice-Chamberlain of the Household, and constituted Treasurer of the Navy. His career for the next decade is documented in the diary of Samuel Pepys, who joined him as Clerk of the Acts to the Navy Board in 1660. In 1667, he exchanged his office as Vice-Chamberlain with Lord Anglesey for that of Vice-Treasurer of Ireland, an office which he sold in 1669 for £11,000. His influence seems to have been at its height in 1665, when he boasted to Pepys that the King did nothing without his knowledge; however, as the naval war dragged on, the Treasurer of the Navy was an obvious target of the opposition, and Pepys noted that by the spring of 1666 Carteret was being attacked on all sides. By the autumn of 1667, he confessed to Pepys that he was longing for the quiet of retirement. As Treasurer he was hard working and free from any suspicion of corruption, although his colleagues at the Navy Board complained that they found his accounts difficult to follow.
From 1661 to 1679 he represented Portsmouth, sponsored by the Admiralty, in the Cavalier Parliament. Although he sat on a number of committees he was a fairly inactive member of the house.
American colonies
The fidelity with which Carteret, like John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton, had clung to the royal cause, gave him also great influence at court: he was close to Clarendon, and to the Earl of Sandwich, whose daughter married Carteret's eldest son. He had, at an early date, taken a warm interest in the colonization of America. In recognition of all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, Charles II gave Carteret a large grant of land previously named New Netherland, which was promptly renamed New Jersey under his charge. With Berkeley, he became one of the proprietors of the Province of Carolina prior to their becoming jointly interested in East Jersey. Carteret County, North Carolina and town of Carteret, New Jersey are named after him, and the city of Elizabeth, New Jersey, is named after his wife, as is Elizabethtown, North Carolina.
In 1665, Carteret was one of the drafters of the Concession and Agreement, a document that provided freedom of religion in the colony of New Jersey. It was issued as a proclamation for the structure of the government for the colony written by the two proprietors, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.
Carteret was a signatory to The Several Declarations of The Company of Royal Adventurers of England Trading into Africa, a document published in 1667 which led to the expansion of the Royal Africa Company.
Later life
In 1669, he faced expulsion from the House of Commons for misconduct as Vice Chamberlain, being accused of embezzlement. After a statement from the king expressing his satisfaction with Carteret and an acquittal by the House of Lords, the inquiry against him lapsed. He was, in fact, generally regarded as an honest man.
In 1673, he was appointed one of the Lords of the Admiralty, and continued in the public service until his death on 14 January 1680.
Shortly before Carteret's death, the king proposed to give him the title Baron Carteret, but Carteret died too soon, so the honour was granted to his grandson George.
Family
In the Chapel of Mont Orgueil Castle, May 1640, George Carteret married his cousin Elizabeth de Carteret, daughter of Philippe de Carteret II, 3rd Seigneur de Sark, and his wife Anne Dowse. They had three sons:
Philip (1641–1672), their eldest son, married Lady Jemima Monague, daughter of the Earl of Sandwich, and had four children: his eldest son George was raised to the peerage. Philip was killed in action at the Battle of Sole Bay, along with his father-in-law; Jemima had died in childbirth in November of the previous year.
James (died after 1679), served as a captain in the Royal Navy, and married and had children
George (died 1656), who died unmarried.
- and five daughters:
Elizabeth (who never married)
Rachel
Louisa-Margaret, who married Sir Robert Atkyns of Sapperton, only son of Sir Robert Atkyns, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer; her family nickname was "Louisonne", according to Samuel Pepys
Anne (died 1668), "a pious and sweet-tempered lady", who married Sir Nicholas Slanning, 1st Baronet, no issue
Caroline, who married Sir Thomas Scott of Scot's Hall, son of Edward Scott and Lady Catherine Goring, daughter of George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich.
Samuel Pepys liked and admired Lady Carteret "the most kind lady in the world."
Memorials
In 2014, a constable of Saint Peter sought and received over £36,000 in public funds to erect a statue of Carteret in Jersey, to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the founding of New Jersey. In June 2020, following the murder of George Floyd and the widespread removal and destruction of monuments of those involved in slave trading around the world, the statue in Saint Peter was defaced with white paint due to Carteret's involvement with the Royal Africa Company. One historian called the company "the single most prolific trader of slaves". After calls from some residents of Jersey to move the statue to a museum were ignored, it was defaced again in August 2020 with red paint and chains.
See also
History of Jersey
Notes
References
Further reading
New Jersey Archives, First Series. Newark, NJ, 1880–1893, Volume 1, page 25.
Whitehead, William Adee, East Jersey under the proprietary governments. New York, New-Jersey historical society, 1846, page 104.
O'Callaghan, ed., Documents relating to the Colonial history of the State of New York, 1849–1851. Volume 2, page 410.
Marvell, Andrew, The poems and letters of Andrew Marvell; edited by H. M. Margoliouth. 3d ed. rev. by Pierre Legouis with the collaboration of E. E. Duncan-Jones. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.
1610s births
1680 deaths
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
Baronets in the Baronetage of England
Bailiffs of Jersey
British colonial heads of the Bahamas
George
Cavaliers
Governors of Jersey
Lords of the Admiralty
Lords Proprietors of Carolina
Members of the Privy Council of England
People of colonial New Jersey
Royal Navy officers
English MPs 1661–1679
Prisoners of the Bastille | [
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234663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrosse%20Canada | Lacrosse Canada | Lacrosse Canada (), formerly the Canadian Lacrosse Association, founded in 1867, is the governing body of lacrosse in Canada. It conducts national junior and senior championship tournaments for men and women in both field and box lacrosse. There are five national teams that compete in World Lacrosse championships on a four-year cycle.
Championships
Box
Mann Cup Senior "A"
Presidents Cup Senior "B"
Minto Cup Junior "A"
Founders Cup Junior "B"
16U Girls Box Nationals
16U Boys Box Nationals
14U Girls Box Nationals
14U Boys Box Nationals
12U Boys Box Nationals
21U Junior Women's Nationals
Field
Ross Cup Senior Division I
Victory Trophy Senior Division II
First Nations Trophy U18 Boys
Alumni Cup U15 Boys
U19 Women's Field Nationals
Bodies
Alberta Lacrosse Association
British Columbia Lacrosse Association
Fédération de crosse du Québec
First Nations Lacrosse Association
Lacrosse New Brunswick
Lacrosse Nova Scotia
Lacrosse PEI
Manitoba Lacrosse Association
Newfoundland Lacrosse Association
Ontario Lacrosse Association
Saskatchewan Lacrosse Association
Leagues
Senior A
Major Series Lacrosse
Western Lacrosse Association
Senior B
Can-Am Lacrosse League
Nova Scotia Senior Lacrosse League
OLA Senior B Lacrosse League
Quebec Senior Lacrosse League
Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League
Three Nations Senior Lacrosse League
West Coast Senior Lacrosse Association
Prairie Gold Lacrosse League
Junior A
British Columbia Junior A Lacrosse League
Ontario Junior A Lacrosse League
Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League
References
External links
Lacrosse Canada official website
1867 establishments in Ontario | [
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234664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Berkeley%2C%201st%20Baron%20Berkeley%20of%20Stratton | John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton | John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton (1602 – 26 August 1678) was an English royalist soldier, politician and diplomat, of the Bruton branch of the Berkeley family. From 1648 he was closely associated with James, Duke of York, and rose to prominence, fortune, and fame. He and Sir George Carteret were the founders of the Province of New Jersey, a British colony in North America that would eventually become the U.S. state of New Jersey.
Early life
Berkeley was the second son of Sir Maurice Berkeley and his wife Elizabeth Killigrew, daughter of Sir Henry Killigrew of Hanworth. His elder brother was Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge; his younger brother, Sir William Berkeley, served as royal governor of the colony of Virginia from 1642 to 1652 and again from 1660 to 1677. John Berkeley was accredited ambassador from Charles I of England to Christina of Sweden, in January 1637, to propose a joint effort by the two sovereigns for the reinstatement of the elector palatine in his dominions; probably the employment of Berkeley in this by his cousin, Sir Thomas Roe, who had conducted negotiations between Gustavus Adolphus and the king of Poland. Berkeley returned from Sweden in July 1637. He had a commission in the army against the Scots in 1638 and was knighted at Berwick in that year. In 1640 he was returned to parliament for both Heytesbury and Reading, electing to retain his seat for the former place. Next year he was accused in parliament of complicity in the Army Plots, expelled from the house, and committed to the Tower of London; he was subsequently bailed by Edward Sackville, 4th Earl of Dorset and Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford in the sum of £10,000, but the outbreak of hostilities prevented any further steps being taken.
First English Civil War
Berkeley took a conspicuous part in the First English Civil War, supporting the royal cause. He became governor of Exeter, and general of the royalist forces in Devon.
In 1642 he joined the Marquess of Hertford at Sherborne, and was sent into Cornwall with the rank of commissary-general to act under Sir Ralph Hopton as lieutenant-general. The royalist forces defeated, in May 1643, the Earl of Stamford at the battle of Stratton, with great loss of baggage and artillery, and pursued him as far as Wells. In this affair, Sir John distinguished himself and was now made commander-in-chief of all the royalist forces in Devon. He sat down before Exeter, into which the Earl of Stamford had withdrawn, and which was further defended by the fleet under Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. Berkeley succeeded in maintaining a blockade, beating off the Earl of Warwick with a loss of three ships, and on 4 September 1643 the Earl of Stamford was compelled to surrender. In 1644 Berkeley was present at the baptism of Henrietta Maria, the king's daughter, who was born at Exeter. The same year Hopton and Berkeley joined their forces to oppose Sir William Waller's westward advance, but were badly beaten at the Battle of Cheriton near Alresford in Hampshire on 29 March. In April 1645 he superseded Sir Richard Grenville, being made colonel-general of the counties of Devon and Cornwall, took Wellington House, near Taunton, by assault, and then proceeded to invest Taunton. The advance of Thomas Fairfax westward in the autumn of the year changed the aspect of affairs. In January 1646 Fairfax was able to concentrate on Exeter, which Berkeley was forced (13 April) to surrender, on honorable terms.
Involvement in the Hampton Court escape
After the surrender of the royalist forces, Berkeley joined his kinsman, Lord Jermyn, in attendance upon Queen Henrietta Maria. Having persuaded the queen that he possessed influence with some of the principal officers in the army, he obtained from her a letter of recommendation to the king. Having gained access to the king, he set about using his influence with Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton, and others, with a view to mediating between them and the captive king; he was supported by John Ashburnham. The result was that a set of propositions emanating from the chiefs of the army were submitted to the king as a basis of reconciliation in July 1647. These the king scornfully rejected.
Berkeley received the king's commands to attend him in his flight from Hampton Court on the night of 10 November 1647. The party pushed on towards Hampshire, and ultimately reached Lymington. Berkeley crossed the Solent and opened the matter to Robert Hammond, parliamentary governor of the Isle of Wight which was the king's goal; Hammond was non-committal. The envoys then conducted Hammond to the king at Lymington, an act later much criticized. Charles felt he had no choice but saw nothing for it but to accompany Hammond to Carisbrooke Castle.
After this exploit Berkeley returned to London, still bent upon using his influence with the army. Being badly received by the officers, and arraigned by the parliament as a delinquent, he returned to Paris.
In exile
In Paris, during the absence of John Byron, 1st Baron Byron in England, he obtained, through the influence, as it would seem, of Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans, the post of temporary governor to the Duke of York (1648), and on the death of Byron (1652) took over the position. He acquired the control of the Duke's finances and endeavored to bring about a match between the Duke and Marie de Longueville, but the French court refused approval. Berkeley himself paid court to Anne Villiers, Countess of Morton, widowed in 1651; she turned him down, perhaps on advice from Sir Edward Hyde. Berkeley and Hyde became enemies.
Between 1652 and 1655 Berkeley served under Turenne in the campaigns against Condé, and the Spaniards in Flanders, accompanying the Duke of York as a volunteer. When the Duke placed his sword at the disposal of Spain and crossed over into the Netherlands early in 1656, he was still accompanied by Berkeley. In the spring of the next year he made a tour with the Duke through some of the principal cities of the Netherlands, took part in the campaigns of that and the following year, and at the request of the duke was raised to the peerage as Baron Berkeley of Stratton, in Cornwall, by a patent dated at Brussels 19 May 1658.
After the Restoration
On the Restoration Berkeley was put on the staff of the Admiralty. In 1661 he was appointed Lord President of Connaught for life, a deputy being appointed to do the work of the office in Ireland. In 1663 (17 June) Berkeley was sworn a member of the Privy Council, and in the following year was made one of the Masters of Ordinance. In January 1665 Berkeley was placed on the Committee of Tangier.
In the same year, he began building Berkeley House, a palace in the Italian style, near Piccadilly. It cost nearly £30,000 and was completed about 1673, upon Berkeley's return from Ireland. Renamed Devonshire House after its purchase by William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, in 1697, the house burned down in 1733 and was replaced by a second Devonshire House.
In 1668 Berkeley bought Twickenham Park. In 1670 he went to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant, holding the office for two years, with a few months' leaves of absence. He was considered pro-Catholic, and to favour Archbishop Peter Talbot to the extent of allowing him to use a silver plate to add to the magnificence of a religious celebration, and expressing a desire to see a high mass at Christ Church. In December 1675 Berkeley was appointed, with Sir William Temple and Sir Leoline Jenkyns, ambassador extraordinary on the part of England at the Congress of Nijmegen then about to assemble, but bad health both delayed his departure for Nijmegen, which he finally reached in November 1676, and caused him to return the following May, before the conference finished.
New Jersey interests
Berkeley's personal relationships with Charles II and the Duke of York led to his receiving an interest in New Jersey, in addition to that in Carolina previously received. Berkeley was co-proprietor of New Jersey from 1664 to 1674. In 1665, Berkeley and Sir George Carteret drafted the Concession and Agreement, a proclamation for the structure of the government for the Province of New Jersey. The document also provided freedom of religion in the colony. Berkeley sold his share to a group of Quakers because of the political difficulties between New York Governor Richard Nicolls, Carteret, and himself. This effectively split New Jersey into two colonies: East Jersey, belonging to Carteret, and West Jersey. The division remained until 1702 when West Jersey went bankrupt; the Crown then took back and subsequently re-unified the colony.
Death and legacy
On 26 August 1678 John Berkeley died, aged seventy-two years. He was buried on 5 September in St Mary's Church, Twickenham. A memorial window commemorates him and his brother Sir William Berkeley.
Although John Berkeley held many distinguished offices, some authorities assert that, at one time, he was under a cloud, in consequence of his being detected in the selling of offices, and other corrupt practices. Samuel Pepys speaks of him as being esteemed "a fortunate, though a passionate, and but weak man as to policy", and "the hottest, fiery man in discourse, without any cause", he ever saw. Berkeley was notorious for spinning incredible tales of his exploits; Clarendon wrote that through constant re-telling he may have come to believe them himself.
Family
Berkeley married Christian or Christiana Riccard, daughter of Sir Andrew Riccard, a wealthy London merchant, in the East India Company; she had already been married first to Sir John Geare, and subsequently (14 February 1659) to Henry Rich, Lord Kensington, son of Robert Rich, 5th Earl of Warwick. He left three sons, each of whom succeeded in his turn to the title, and one daughter, Anne, who married Sir Dudley Cullum, Bart., of Hanstead, Suffolk. The title became extinct in 1773.
Footnotes
References
New Jersey Archives, First Series. Newark, NJ, 1880–1893., Volume 1, page 25.
Whitehead, William Adee, East Jersey under the proprietary governments. New York, New-Jersey historical society, 1846, page 103.
Mills Lane, ed., General Oglethorpe's Georgia: Colonial Letters, 1733 - 1743, (Savannah, 1975)
O'Callaghan, ed., Documents relating to the Colonial history of the State of New York, 1849 - 1851. Volume 2, page 599.
1602 births
1678 deaths
17th-century English diplomats
Berkeley of Stratton 01-001
John
Cavaliers
English MPs 1640 (April)
Lords Proprietors of Carolina
People from Bruton
People of colonial New Jersey
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
1
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234665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viverridae | Viverridae | Viverridae is a family of small to medium-sized, feliform mammals. The viverrids () comprise 33 species placed in 14 genera. This family was named and first described by John Edward Gray in 1821. Viverrids occur all over Africa, southern Europe, and South and Southeast Asia, across the Wallace Line. Their occurrence in Sulawesi and in some of the adjoining islands shows them to be ancient inhabitants of the Old World tropics.
Characteristics
Viverrids have four or five toes on each foot and half-retractile claws. They have six incisors in each jaw and molars with two tubercular grinders behind in the upper jaw, and one in the lower jaw. The tongue is rough with sharp prickles. A pouch or gland occurs beneath the anus, but there is no cecum.
Viverrids are the most primitive of all the families of feliform Carnivora and clearly less specialized than the Felidae. In external characteristics, they are distinguished from the Felidae by the longer muzzle and tuft of facial vibrissae between the lower jaw bones, and by the shorter limbs and the five-toed hind foot with the first digit present. The skull differs by the position of the postpalatine foramina on the maxilla, almost always well in advance of the maxillopalatine suture, and usually about the level of the second premolar; and by the distinct external division of the auditory bulla into its two elements either by a definite groove or, when rarely this is obliterated, by the depression of the tympanic bone in front of the swollen entotympanic. The typical dental formula is: , but the number may be reduced, although never to the same extent as in the Felidae.
Their flesh-shearing carnassial teeth are relatively undeveloped compared to those of other feliform carnivores. Most viverrid species have a penis bone (a baculum).
Classification
Living species
In 1821, Gray defined this family as consisting of the genera Viverra, Genetta, Herpestes, and Suricata. Reginald Innes Pocock later redefined the family as containing a great number of highly diversified genera, and being susceptible of division into several subfamilies, based mainly on the structure of the feet and of some highly specialized scent glands, derived from the skin, which are present in most of the species and are situated in the region of the external generative organs. He subordinated the subfamilies Hemigalinae, Paradoxurinae, Prionodontinae, and Viverrinae to the Viverridae.
In 1833, Edward Turner Bennett described the Malagasy fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) and subordinated the Cryptoprocta to the Viverridae. A molecular and morphological analysis based on DNA/DNA hybridization experiments suggests that Cryptoprocta does not belong within Viverridae, but is a member of the Eupleridae.
The African palm civet (Nandinia binotata) resembles the civets of the Viverridae, but is genetically distinct and belongs in its own monotypic family, the Nandiniidae. There is little dispute that the Poiana species are viverrids.
DNA analysis based on 29 Carnivora species, comprising 13 Viverrinae species and three species representing Paradoxurus, Paguma and Hemigalinae, confirmed Pocock's assumption that the African linsang Poiana represents the sister group of the genus Genetta. The placement of Prionodon as the sister group of the family Felidae is strongly supported, and it was proposed that the Asiatic linsangs be placed in the monogeneric family Prionodontidae.
Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of Viverridae are shown in the following cladogram:
Extinct species
See also
List of viverrids
References
External links
University of Michigan's Animal Diversity Web page
ITIS page
The Straight Dope on Civet Cats
Mammal families
Extant Ypresian first appearances
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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234666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20Guardian | Blind Guardian | Blind Guardian is a German power metal band formed in 1984 in Krefeld, West Germany. They are often credited as one of the seminal and most influential bands in the power metal and speed metal subgenres. Nine musicians have been a part of the band's line-up in its history, which has consisted of singer Hansi Kürsch, guitarists André Olbrich and Marcus Siepen, drummer Frederik Ehmke since 2005, and bassist Johan Van Stratum since 2021.
Blind Guardian is a part of the German heavy metal scene that emerged in the mid-1980s. The band was formed in 1984 as Lucifer's Heritage by Kürsch (then also bassist), Olbrich, other guitarist Markus Dörk and drummer Thomas Stauch. Dörk and Stauch both left the following year, and were replaced by Christof Theißen and Hans-Peter Frey respectively, who left as well before the end of the year. In 1987, Siepen joined and Stauch returned; under this line-up, which lasted 18 years (the longest in the band's history), the band changed their name to Blind Guardian and released their first album, Battalions of Fear, in 1988.
Over the releases, Blind Guardian established themselves as a notable successful band and as pioneers of the power metal movement. In 1996, Kürsch stopped acting as the band's bassist to focus on vocals. Various session members replaced him, mainly Oliver Holzwarth. However, in 2005, Stauch left the band, disapproving of Blind Guardian's transition into a more complex progressive sound with a heavy use of backing vocals, and was replaced by Ehmke.
Most of Blind Guardian's albums were well received by fans and critics alike: Somewhere Far Beyond (1992), Imaginations from the Other Side (1995), and Nightfall in Middle-Earth (1998), are especially seen as influential works. The music is mostly composed by Kürsch and Olbrich together, and the lyrics, written by Kürsch, are mostly inspired by the fiction of fantasy authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Michael Moorcock, Stephen King, and Robert Jordan, as well as traditional legends and epics. Over the years a theme has developed which personifies the band members as travelling storytellers, leading fans to refer to the band affectionately as "The Bards". Blind Guardian has been referred to as one of power metal "big four" bands, along with Helloween, Sabaton and DragonForce.
History
Formation as Lucifer's Heritage (1984–1987)
Blind Guardian was formed in 1984 in Krefeld, West Germany, by Hansi Kürsch (vocals, bass) and Andre Olbrich (guitar) under the name Lucifer's Heritage, with Markus Dörk (guitar) and Thomen Stauch (drums). The band briefly expanded into a quintet with the addition of a second lead vocalist, Thomas Kelleners. However, after three months Kelleners left the band in a mutual agreement. Lucifer's Heritage first released two demos in 1985 and 1986, despite undergoing chaotic lineup changes: Dörk and Stauch were replaced by Christof Theißen and Hans-Peter Frey, respectively. Finally, in 1987, Marcus Siepen joined and Thomen came back to form the lineup which would stay consistent for the next 18 years.
Name change and rise to success (1988–1996)
After Lucifer's Heritage signed a contract with No Remorse Records, the band changed their name to Blind Guardian to avoid any speculations about Satanism (in a bio it was stated that they also wanted to distance themselves from the black metal movement, as their demos were placed in with black metal albums at local record shops). The band's new name was inspired by the Fates Warning album Awaken the Guardian. They released their debut album Battalions of Fear in 1988, which was essentially a speed metal album heavily influenced by Helloween. These two German bands had close ties, and Helloween founder Kai Hansen made a guest appearance on Blind Guardian's second LP, Follow the Blind (1989), where the band revealed some thrash metal influence. Their third LP, Tales from the Twilight World (1990), had a much more melodic and "epic" feeling, with usage of choir and classical music influence.
Blind Guardian signed with Virgin Records in 1991, and released their fourth studio album Somewhere Far Beyond in 1992 and the live album Tokyo Tales in 1993. Flemming Rasmussen, former Metallica producer, began working with the band in 1994, producing their fifth studio album Imaginations from the Other Side, released in 1995, and The Forgotten Tales, an album that contained half covers and half original work, released in 1996.
Later years and departure of Thomen Stauch (1997–2009)
In 1998, Blind Guardian released their epic album Nightfall in Middle-Earth. "Complete with anthemic choruses, spoken word story lines, and plenty of bombastic power metal punctuating every dramatic turn", says Allmusic's Vincent Jeffries, "Nightfall in Middle-Earth is perhaps Blind Guardian's most triumphant". A concept album based on J. R. R. Tolkien's The Silmarillion, Blind Guardian's music demonstrated some folk rock influence, but also featured heavy use of Queen-style layered backing vocals. Since Nightfall, bass has been played by sessional member Oliver Holzwarth, and Hansi has been able to devote all his attention to singing. Nightfall was also the last Blind Guardian album produced by Rasmussen.
A Night at the Opera, named after the Queen album, was released four years later. On this album, the band's sound lacked almost all influence of their original speed metal. Power and progressive metal abound, with over the top orchestral backing and a consistent vocal and guitar layering throughout. Though not a true concept album, many of the lyrics dealt with the common themes of religion and relations between human and divine powers. It was followed by a live album in 2003 and a DVD, Imaginations Through the Looking Glass, in 2004, which was the last recorded Blind Guardian material to feature Thomen Stauch on drums. He left the band due to musical differences and was replaced by Frederik Ehmke. The first album with Ehmke was A Twist in the Myth, which came out in 2006.
Blind Guardian participated in the soundtrack for the In the Name of the King: a Dungeon Siege Tale fantasy movie (Uwe Boll), which came out in 2008. The band also recorded a theme song for Sacred 2 Fallen Angel role-playing video game, the sequel to Sacred.
At the Edge of Time and Beyond the Red Mirror (2010–2017)
"A Voice in the Dark" was the next single from Blind Guardian, released on 25 June 2010.
On 30 July 2010 the album followed, called At the Edge of Time. The band started "The Sacred Worlds and Songs Divine Tour 2010", the European dates featured the opening acts Enforcer and Steelwing. The US dates had Holy Grail and Seven Kingdoms and later they were announced that they would play at Wacken Open Air in 2011.
On 21 July 2011 Hansi Kürsch announced on Blind Guardian's official website that they were working on an orchestral album. On 1 September 2011 Oliver Holzwarth joined Rhapsody of Fire as a full-time member, after 13 years as Blind Guardian's session bass player. On 27 January 2012 the band released a compilation album, titled Memories of a Time to Come, containing re-recorded and remixed songs from the band's entire discography, and almost exactly one year later, on 28 January 2013, they released a box set called A Traveler's Guide to Space and Time, which contained all of the bands' studio, live and compilation albums released from 1988 to 2004, as well as some previously unreleased material. On 11 July 2012 Hansi posted on the bands' official website that the band would cease touring after their show at the Rockharz festival in Ballenstedt, which happened two days after the post. Hansi went on in the post to explain that they wanted to really get down to work and focus on a new record before returning to the road once again in 2014 at the latest. He also mentioned that he really wanted to perform songs that they had never played live before when they return to touring.
In October 2013 the band were announced to be headlining the Out & Loud Festival in Geiselwind on 31 May 2014. On 18 October 2013 Hansi announced via a news post on the official website that he expected the new record to be fully produced and finished by May 2014. He mentioned that the production of the album was coming along well, and mentioned nine new songs by name (Irish Hill [now titled Grand Parade], Encrypted Time, Prophecies, Holy Grail, Winter's Coming, The Throne, The Ocean, and Outcast) and two other songs with presumably uncertain titles, Song 9 and Midtempo Song. The tenth Blind Guardian album, titled Beyond the Red Mirror, was released on 30 January 2015, its first single "Twilight of the Gods" having been released on 5 December 2014. On 28 January 2015, two days before the release of Beyond the Red Mirror, Blind Guardian announced on their official Facebook page that Barend Courbois is their new session/live bassist.
They recorded live shows during the 2015 European leg of the Beyond the Red Mirror tour for a new live album, Live Beyond the Spheres, which was released on 7 July 2017.
Legacy of the Dark Lands and upcoming twelfth studio album (2017–present)
When asked in July 2017 about the next Blind Guardian studio album, Kürsch stated, "We haven't done too much songwriting for the next regular Blind Guardian album, but still, we've made some steps at least, and I can sense a strong change in comparison to what we did on the last album. There's one song called 'Architect of Doom', which is a real heavy song. Very powerful. Very thrashy at points. And there's another song called 'American Goth', which is kind of what you would expect from Blind Guardian, but yet the way we maintained the drums, for example, the way we maintained the orchestra, and that is a song with orchestra, again, it's so different. I'm pretty sure that there will be a significant change when you listen to these two albums and from that point of view, yes, Live Beyond the Spheres is the end of an era." He also stated that they are working on an orchestral album, which was originally scheduled to be finished and released in 2016, but now due for release in 2019, followed by a "heavy album" to be released in 2020.
The band's long-awaited orchestral album, Legacy of the Dark Lands, was released on 1 November 2019, after Olbrich and Kürsch conceiving and writing the project since 1996. It features only Kürsch as a performer, together with the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, and as such is credited to the "Blind Guardian Twilight Orchestra" instead of the band's regular name.
It was revealed in November 2021 that a new single, "Deliver Us From Evil", would be released on December 3rd, 2021, and that the band's forthcoming twelfth album would be released in September 2022. Kürsch told Nuclear Blast, "We know that the gap between now and the album release in late 2022 is painfully long. Neither we nor our label could defy the current worldwide, economic crisis. A long story short: There is no one to blame for this situation... Talking about anticipation, even though "Violent Shadows" and "Deliver Us From Evil" are indisputably fantastic tracks, rest assured: We won't let you wait another ten months with only two songs. I promise you, that you will always been blown away - cheers to the digital era and its endless possibilities. Oh, and the album title. There is one but I won't tell you yet. This would be giving away far too much right now."
Musical style
Blind Guardian's first two albums, Battalions of Fear and Follow the Blind, were more in the style of speed metal than their following works. Beginning with their third album Tales from the Twilight World, Blind Guardian gradually began to write more complicated compositions focusing less on speed. As of their sixth album, Nightfall in Middle Earth, Hansi stopped playing bass to focus on singing. At this point the band began to incorporate large amounts of orchestral arrangements, and utilized the technique of overdubbing, heavily influenced by the English rock band Queen.
Blind Guardian's music features the staccato guitars and double bass drumming characteristic of power metal, as well as the use of overdubs and numerous backing vocals to create a dense sound. This proved significant on all albums after the first two but most particularly on A Night at the Opera.
Another definitive feature of Blind Guardian music is frequent use of folk tunes and instruments, especially in power ballads such as "Lord of the Rings", "The Bard's Song", "A Past and Future Secret", "Skalds and Shadows" and "Curse My Name", among others.
Influences
The band was initially inspired by their fellow countrymen Helloween, and in its early releases also showed some influence from Iron Maiden and Metallica. According to guitarist Marcus Siepen, during the songwriting for Follow the Blind, they also used to listen to Bay Area thrash metal bands, such as Testament and Forbidden, resulting in a somewhat heavier sound.
Starting with their third album, Tales from the Twilight World, through Somewhere Far Beyond and Imaginations from the Other Side, Blind Guardian gradually incorporated more influences from progressive and classical music. Queen became a huge impact, in particular concerning the choir arrangements and harmonies, an effect most notable on A Night at the Opera.
Singer Hansi Kürsch expressed the band's attraction to 1970s progressive rock, for example early Genesis, Gentle Giant, and ELP. However, with regard to the genre, he sees the more direct influences in progressive metal bands, in particular Fates Warning, Queensrÿche, and Savatage. The folklorist influences on Nightfall in Middle-Earth came mainly from British rock band Jethro Tull.
Side projects
Along with Jon Schaffer, the leader and founder of Iced Earth, Kürsch was a member of Demons and Wizards, where he was the lead singer until its disbandment in early 2021.
Frederik Ehmke was a founding member of the band Sinbreed, in which Marcus Siepen was a session member. Later on, during 2012, Marcus became a full member of the band.
After the tsunami that struck Japan on 11 March 2011, Blind Guardian worked with their former record company, EMI Music, and auctioned off an exclusive studio session for two in the Twilight Hall Studio in Grefrath, Germany for charity. All of the proceeds were donated to the tsunami relief efforts. The auction ended on 22 April 2011 with a final bid of £1,171.00.
Band members
Current members
Hansi Kürsch – lead vocals (1984, 1984–present), bass (1984–1996)
André Olbrich – lead guitar, backing vocals (1984–present)
Marcus Siepen – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1987–present)
Frederik Ehmke – drums, percussion, flute, bagpipes (2005–present)
Johan van Stratum – bass (2021-present)
Former members
Thomas Kelleners – lead vocals (1984)
Markus Dörk – rhythm guitar (1984–1986)
Christoph Theissen – rhythm guitar (1986)
Hans-Peter Frey – drums, percussion (1986)
Thomas "Thomen" Stauch – drums, percussion (1984–1986, 1987–2005)
Session members
Thomas Hackmann – backing vocals (1990–present)
Billy King – backing vocals (1992–present)
Olaf Senkbeil – backing vocals (1997–present)
Michael "Mi" Schüren – keyboards (1997–present)
Matthias Ulmer – keyboards, piano (2007–present)
Former session members
Mathias Wiesner – keyboards (1989–2002), bass (1992-1993)
Rolf Köhler – backing vocals (1990–2007; died 2007)
Marc Zee – keyboards, backing vocals (1993)
Oliver Holzwarth – bass (1997–2011)
Alex Holzwarth – drums (2002–2003)
Pat Bender - keyboards, sound effects (2002–2006)
Barend Courbois – bass, backing vocals (2015–2020)
Timeline
Discography
Battalions of Fear (1988)
Follow the Blind (1989)
Tales from the Twilight World (1990)
Somewhere Far Beyond (1992)
Imaginations from the Other Side (1995)
Nightfall in Middle-Earth (1998)
A Night at the Opera (2002)
A Twist in the Myth (2006)
At the Edge of Time (2010)
Beyond the Red Mirror (2015)
Legacy of the Dark Lands (2019)
References
External links
Official website
German speed metal musical groups
German power metal musical groups
Middle-earth music
Musical groups established in 1984
Musical quartets
Virgin Records artists
Nuclear Blast artists
German progressive metal musical groups
1984 establishments in West Germany | [
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234668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box%20lacrosse | Box lacrosse | Box lacrosse, also known as boxla, box, or indoor lacrosse, is an indoor version of lacrosse played mostly in North America. The game originated in Canada in the 1930s, where it is more popular than field lacrosse. Lacrosse is Canada's official national summer sport. Box lacrosse is played between two teams of five players and one goalie each, and is traditionally played on an ice hockey rink once the ice has been removed or covered. The playing area is called a box, in contrast to the open playing field of field lacrosse. The object of the game is to use a lacrosse stick to catch, carry, and pass the ball in an effort to score by shooting a solid rubber lacrosse ball into the opponent's goal. The highest level of box lacrosse is the National Lacrosse League.
While there are 62 total members of World Lacrosse, only fifteen have competed in international box lacrosse competition. Only Canada, the Iroquois Nationals and the United States have finished in the top three places at the World Indoor Lacrosse Championships.
History
Lacrosse is a traditional indigenous people's game and was first encountered by Europeans when French Jesuit missionaries in the St. Lawrence Valley witnessed the game in the 1630s. Lacrosse for centuries was seen as a key element of cultural identity and spiritual healing to the people of Turtle Island. It originated as a field game and was adopted first by Canadian, American, and English athletes as a field game, eventually settling on a 10 v 10 format.
Box lacrosse is a modern version of the game that was invented in Canada during the 1920s and 1930s. The roots of indoor lacrosse are obscure, but its invention has been attributed to one Paddy Brennan, a field lacrosse player and referee from Montreal, who, being annoyed by the constant slowing of play from balls going out of bounds in the field game, experimented with indoor games at the Mount Royal Arena during the early 1920s.
Joseph Cattarinich and Leo Dandurand, owners of the National Hockey League's Montreal Canadiens in the 1920s, led the participating ice hockey arena owners to introduce the new sport. In the 1930s, 6 v 6 indoor lacrosse came to be played in the summer in unused hockey rinks. Canadians adopted the new version of the sport quickly. Eventually, it became the more popular version of the sport in Canada, supplanting field lacrosse. The form was also adopted as the primary version of the game played on Native American reservations in the US and Canada by Iroquois and other Native peoples. It is the only sport in which the American indigenous people are sanctioned to compete internationally, participating as the Iroquois Nationals. However, many field lacrosse enthusiasts viewed the new version of the sport with negativity.
The first professional box lacrosse games were held in 1931. That summer, the arena owners formed the International Lacrosse League, featuring four teams: the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Maroons, Toronto Maple Leafs, and Cornwall Colts. The league lasted only two seasons. In the wake of the original International Lacrosse League opened the American Box Lacrosse League featuring six teams: two in New York City, and one each in Brooklyn, Toronto, Boston, and Baltimore. The league played to small crowds on outdoor fields such as Yankee Stadium and Fenway Park, before closing midway through its inaugural season. Lacrosse was officially declared Canada's National Summer Sport with the passage of the National Sports Act (Bill C-212) on May 12, 1994.
The first box lacrosse match conducted in Australia came about as part of a fund raising appeal for the Queen Victoria Hospital in Melbourne. The Victorian Lacrosse Association was approached by the appeal committee to stage a lacrosse match as part of a multi sport carnival at the Plaza (Wattle Path Palais) ballroom at St Kilda on 1 July 1931. After a lightning six-a-side (outdoor) tournament format was successfully carried out a few weeks prior, it was decided to play six-a-side for this exhibition game between MCC and a composite team from other clubs, with players wearing rubber shoes and using a softer ball for the match. Newspaper articles at the time suggest that the sport may have even been created in Australia, with P. J. Lally of the famous Canadian lacrosse stick manufacturing company requesting a copy of the rules of the game from the VLA Secretary. By 1933, box lacrosse matches were being played in Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth. This new version of the game however did not overtake the traditional version of lacrosse in popularity in Australia as happened in Canada.
The Canadian Lacrosse Association began sponsoring box lacrosse. In 1932, the Mann Cup, the most prestigious lacrosse trophy in Canada, was contended for under box lacrosse rules for the first time. Previously, the national senior men's lacrosse championship, awarded since 1901, was competed for under field lacrosse rules. The Mann Cup is an annual tournament that presents the champion of the Western Lacrosse Association and Major Series Lacrosse in a best of seven national championship. A few years later, in 1937, the Minto Cup, began being awarded under box lacrosse rules to the junior men's champions. Currently the Canadian Lacrosse Association oversees the Mann Cup, the Minto Cup, the Presidents Cup (Senior B national championship) the Founders Cup (Junior B national championship) all under box lacrosse rules.
Briefly in 1939, a professional box lacrosse league started up in California, called the Pacific Coast Lacrosse Association. This four team league also folded shortly after opening. Professional box lacrosse did not return to the United States again until 1968 when the Portland Adanacs and Detroit Olympics franchises played in the National Lacrosse Association, a circuit that folded after one summer season.
A new professional indoor lacrosse league was created in the 1970s with the formation of the original National Lacrosse League. This league opened in 1974 with teams in Montreal, Toronto, Rochester, Syracuse, Philadelphia, and Maryland. For the 1975 season, Rochester moved to Boston, Syracuse moved to Quebec City, and Toronto moved to Long Island. Thus, by its second year, the original NLL was playing in all major league arenas: the Colisée de Québec, the Montreal Forum, the Boston Garden, Nassau Coliseum, the Spectrum, and the Capital Centre. When the two wealthier '75 NLL franchises, Philadelphia and Maryland, finished out of the playoffs, and with Montreal losing access to the fabled Montreal Forum in the upcoming season due to the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, the league folded after two seasons due to financial uncertainty.
The rebirth of professional box lacrosse in the United States came on March 13, 1986, with the formation of the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League, which was incorporated by Russ Cline and Chris Fritz. The league originated with four teams: the Philadelphia Wings, New Jersey Saints, Washington Wave, and Baltimore Thunder, and unlike box lacrosse generally, was played during the winter. The league rebranded itself as the Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL) immediately after its inaugural season, and in 1998 renamed itself again, this time to the NLL. In 1998, the NLL entered into the Canadian market for the first time with the Ontario Raiders. Although five of the league's nine teams are based in American cities, more than two-thirds of the players are Canadian.
Rules
Players, equipment and officials
During play, a team consists of six players: a goaltender and five "runners". A runner is any non-goalkeeper position player, including forwards, transition players, and defenders. Runners usually specialize in one of these roles and substitute off the field when the ball moves from one end to the other. When the sport originated teams played with six runners. However, in 1953 the sixth runner, a position called rover, was eliminated. The goalkeeper can be replaced by another runner, often when a delayed penalty has been called on the other team or at the end of games by teams that are behind to help score goals.
A player's lacrosse stick must be between and in length (youth levels may use shorter sticks). In most box lacrosse leagues, the use of a traditional wooden stick is allowed. However, almost no lacrosse players use wooden sticks anymore, preferring aluminum or another metal, and a plastic head. In the NLL, wooden lacrosse sticks are not allowed. Besides a lacrosse stick, each player must also wear a certain amount of protective equipment, including a lacrosse helmet with face mask, lacrosse gloves, arm and shoulder pads, and back/kidney pads. Rib pads are optional in some leagues.
In some box leagues, especially the NLL, the five "runners" wear helmets specifically designed for box lacrosse. These helmets consist of a hockey helmet with a box lacrosse face mask attached instead of a hockey cage.
During a typical game the number of officials can range from one to three, depending on the league and level of play. In most games there are at least two referees: a lead official and a trail official. In NLL games there are three officials per game.
Goaltender
The goaltender's responsibility is to prevent the opposition from scoring goals by directly defending the net. Box lacrosse goaltenders equipment includes upper body gear (measuring no more than up and out off the shoulder—much larger than similar gear for field lacrosse or ice hockey goaltenders), large shin guards that must measure no more than at the knee, at the top of the shin and at the ankle, and a field lacrosse helmet or ice hockey goalie mask.
The to radius area surrounding the net is called the "crease". Players except for the goaltender may not enter the crease while playing the ball. Punishments for crease infractions include a change of possession, resetting of the time-clock, or a possible two-minute penalty depending on the infraction. Opposing players may not make contact with the goaltender while he is in the crease. Once he leaves the crease, however, he loses all goaltender privileges.
Even as box lacrosse grows in the United States, the American goalkeeper is a rarity. The skills required to be a successful field lacrosse goaltender and a successful box lacrosse goaltender are very different and do not lend well to one another.
Defenders
A defender is a player position whose primary responsibility is to prevent the opposing team from scoring. Unlike in field lacrosse where some defensive players carry longer sticks, all box lacrosse defenders play with a maximum long stick. Defensive tactics include cross checking (where a player uses the shaft of his stick to push the opposition player off balance), body checking (where a player makes contact with the opposition player in order to slow him down), and stick checking (where a player makes contact with the opposition player's stick in order to knock the ball loose).
Transition
A transition player is a player whose responsibility is primarily to play during defensive situations with an offensive mindset. The goal of this player is to create fast breaks and scoring opportunities.
Attack
An attack is a player position on the field whose responsibility is primarily offensive. Typically, a Attack is dominant throwing with one hand or the other, and will primarily play on that side of the floor. Some players, known as creasemen, do not focus on one side or the other. These players instead focus their offensive attention near the crease area in front of the goaltender.
Playing area
The playing area of box lacrosse is typically an ice hockey rink during the summer months. The playing surface is usually the concrete floor underneath the melted ice. Generally the playing area is to in length and to in width. The NLL plays on artificial turf placed on top of the ice. Some leagues, and teams that have dedicated box lacrosse arenas (such as the Iroquois), have outfitted their playing surface with artificial turf similar to the NLL.
Box lacrosse goal dimensions are traditionally wide by tall. In the NLL, the dimensions are slightly larger at wide by tall. These nets are significantly smaller than field lacrosse nets which measure wide by tall.
Duration and tie-breaking methods
A traditional game played under the rules of the Canadian Lacrosse Association consists of three periods of 20 minutes each (similar to ice hockey), with the teams changing ends each period. The NLL plays four 15-minute quarters rather than three periods. If the game is tied at the end of regulation play, a 5-minute overtime (15 in NLL) can be played. Overtime may or may not be sudden victory, depending on the league.
Ball in and out of play
Each period, and after each goal scored, play is restarted with a face-off. If a ball travels over the boards and outside of the playing area, play is restarted by possession being awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball.
During play, teams may substitute players in and out freely. Sometimes this is referred to as "on the fly" substitution. Substitution must occur within the designated exchange area in front of the players bench in order to be legal. The sport utilizes a shot clock and the attacking team must take a shot on goal within 30 seconds of gaining possession of the ball. In addition, players must advance the ball from their own defensive end to the offensive half of the floor within 10 seconds (8 in NLL).
Penalties
For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one less player for a short amount of time. Most penalties last for two minutes unless a major penalty has been assessed. The team that has taken the penalty is said to be playing shorthanded while the other team is on the power play.
A two-minute minor penalty is often called for lesser infractions such as slashing, tripping, elbowing, roughing, too many players, illegal equipment, holding, or interference. Five-minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent, as well as for fighting. Players are released from the penalty box when either the penalty time expires, or the opposition scores a goal (or three goals for the instance of a major penalty).
At the officials' discretion a ten-minute misconduct penalty may be assessed. These are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the playing area unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a "two-and-ten" or "five-and-ten"). In that case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes. In addition, game misconducts are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent. A player who receives a game misconduct is ejected and may not return to play. Receiving two major penalties in a game risks a game misconduct.
A penalty shot, where a player from the non-offending team is given an attempt to score a goal without opposition from any defending players except the goaltender, may be awarded under certain circumstances. By rule, teams must have at least three runners in play. If a team commits a third penalty resulting in a "three man down" situation a penalty shot is awarded in favor of having the offending player serve in the penalty box. A penalty shot may also be awarded, at the referee's discretion, if a defensive player causes a foul to prevent a goal (by throwing his stick, holding, tripping, or by deliberately displacing the goal, or a defensive player intentionally falls and covers a ball in his own team's crease). In the NLL, a penalty shot is awarded against any team taking a too-many-men penalty in the final two minutes of the game or overtime.
Fighting
Similar to fighting in ice hockey, fighting is tolerated in professional box lacrosse. Professional players are not automatically subject to ejection, but incur a five-minute major penalty. In Canadian Lacrosse Association play, players are assessed a five-minute major penalty plus a game misconduct. Fighting in youth or club level box lacrosse is typically penalized with expulsion and suspensions. In 1990, when the Six Nations created the new Mohawk lacrosse league, fighting was specifically targeted as unacceptable. Violators were ejected from the game in which the altercation occurred and given a minimum three game suspension.
International competition
Box lacrosse is the most popular version of the sport in the Czech Republic. It is also played to a marginal degree in Australia, primarily by players who have played field lacrosse. Club level box lacrosse leagues in the United States have increased the number of players exposed to the sport, including the: Baltimore Indoor Lacrosse League, the Philadelphia Box Lacrosse Association, and the Metro Area Box Lacrosse League.
The first world championship of box lacrosse, "The Nations in 1980", was staged in several arenas in British Columbia, Canada in July 1980 involving teams representing the United States, Australia, Canada East, Canada West and the Iroquois Nationals. Canada West (Coquitlam Adanacs) defeated the Iroquois in the nationally televised world championship game from Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver. This was the first time in history that competitors from the Indigenous peoples of the Americas represented themselves in an athletic world championship competition.
The second international box lacrosse tournament was held in 2003, with the inaugural World Indoor Lacrosse Championships. The competitors were national teams from Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, the Iroquois Nationals, Scotland, and the United States.
The 2015 WILC was hosted by the Onondaga Nation which marks the first time an international sporting event has been held on indigenous land. Thirteen teams competed in the championship: Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, England, Finland, Germany, Iroquois Nationals, Ireland, Israel, Serbia, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States.
Canada, Iroquois Nationals and the United States have won gold, silver, and bronze respectively in each of the World Indoor Lacrosse Championships held. Canada has yet to lose an international game in box lacrosse.
Other international tournaments have been played. Annually, the European Lacrosse Federation holds the Aleš Hřebeský Memorial tournament in Prague. This is the largest European box lacrosse tournament. In 2002 and 2004, the Heritage Cup was played between the United States and Canada featuring mostly players that were members of NLL teams.
Women
Historically, box lacrosse has been exclusively a men's sport. Women who played the sport of lacrosse typically played the women's field lacrosse version. Recently, Ontario, Alberta, Nova Scotia and British Columbia have established girls' and women's box lacrosse leagues.
During the 2003 NLL season, goaltender Ginny Capicchioni appeared in two preseason and one regular season games to become the only woman to make an appearance in the NLL.
Women's Box Lacrosse (News and Articles)
See also
Lacrosse in Canada
Major Indoor Lacrosse League/National Lacrosse League (1997–present)
Major Series Lacrosse (1887–present)
Sports in Canada
Western Lacrosse Association (1932–present)
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Variations of lacrosse
Indoor sports
National symbols of Canada | [
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234671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Indoor%20Lacrosse%20Championship | World Indoor Lacrosse Championship | The World Box Lacrosse Championship (WBLC), formerly known as the World Indoor Lacrosse Championship (WILC), is an international box lacrosse tournament sponsored by World Lacrosse that is held every four years. Since the first tournament in 2003, Canada has won all five gold medals and is undefeated in all games. Canada hosted the first two tournaments in 2003 and 2007, the Czech Republic hosted in 2011, the Onondaga Nation, south of Syracuse, New York, hosted in 2015. The 2019 WILC was held in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.
The winner of the WBLC wins the Cockerton Cup, named for All-American lacrosse player Stan Cockerton.
Champions
Source:
Medal table
Performance by team
Performance by tournament
2003 Indoor Championship
Final: Canada 21, Iroquois 4
3rd place: United States 15, Scotland 9
5th place: Australia 21, Czech Republic 10
2007 Indoor Championship
Final: Canada 15, Iroquois 14, OT
3rd place: United States 17, England 10
5th place: Scotland 14, Australia 8
7th place: Czech Republic 22, Ireland 5
2011 Indoor Championship
Final: Canada 13, Iroquois 6
3rd place: United States 16, Czech Republic 7
5th place: England 23, Australia 8
7th place: Ireland 17, Slovakia 15 (2 game aggregate)
Source:
2015 Indoor Championship
Final: Canada 12, Iroquois 8
3rd place: United States 15, Israel 4
5th place: England 14, Ireland 12
7th place: Czech Republic 20, Australia 11
9th place: Finland 24, Turkey 6
11th place: Germany 13, Serbia 12
Source:
See also
Federation of International Lacrosse
Women's Lacrosse World Cup
Under-19 World Lacrosse Championships (men and women)
World Junior Lacrosse Championship (men)
European Box Lacrosse Championships (men)
Box lacrosse
References
External links
Federation of International Lacrosse
Indoor
Recurring sporting events established in 2003
Quadrennial sporting events | [
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234683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatmania | Beatmania | (styled as beatmania) is a rhythm video game developed and distributed by Japanese game developer Konami and first released in December 1997. It contributed largely to the boom of music games in 1998, and the series expanded not only with arcade sequels, but also moved to home consoles and other portable devices, achieving a million unit sales. The Bemani line of music games from Konami is named after the series, was first adopted in the arcade release of Beatmania 3rdMix and kept ever since. The series came to an end with the last game being Beatmania The Final, released in 2002.
Beatmania gave birth to several spinoffs, such as the Beatmania IIDX series (a more advanced version featuring 7 keys and higher difficulty levels, and to this day still receiving new version updates) and the other being Beatmania III, a remake of the 5-key series which featured a more modern hardware platform, a pedal for optional effects and a 3.5" floppy disk drive to save play records.
While the series was never ported to home computers, there have been unlicensed hard-drive copies which made it playable on a computer's keyboard, or even with a modded PlayStation controller. Its popularity led to non-official simulators, with one of the most popular being BM98.
Beatmania and its variants have a following in Japan and all around the world. The password-based Internet Ranking service allowed competition wherever a machine is available. Today in the United States, many of the original Beatmania cabinets are in the hands of arcade collectors and Bemani enthusiasts, and consequently, are a rare sight at many arcades.
Basic rules
The player is a club DJ who must manipulate the controls according to the instructions on the screen to win the praise of the audience. Each game consists of a set number of songs of various difficulties, and each song must attain a certain degree of satisfaction from the audience in order to progress to the next.
The game controls consist of five plastic vertical rectangular keys that are arranged in a zigzag pattern like the letter "M" or in vibraphone type arranged. They resemble the layout of the keys of a piano (e.g. C, C#, D, D#, and E) and are color-coded in the same fashion, with the lower row white and the top row black. A turntable is to the right of the five keys, and is turned, or "scratched".
Each key has a corresponding vertical bar onscreen, as does the turntable. The bars indicate the path which rectangular icons cascade down towards a horizontal line near the bottom of the screen. The player must hit the corresponding key or rotate the turntable when the icon matches the line, which will trigger a preset sound sample and recomposes the song properly. Players are judged for each key press for the accuracy of the timing on a scale of p-great (from "perfect great"; also called "flashing great"), great, good, bad and poor. Hitting keys/scratching when corresponding notes are absent will deplete a bar indicating the audience satisfaction. The passing range is shown on the bar as a red region on the right, and green for the failing range on the left. The game may end prematurely if the bar is completely depleted, but this depends on individual machine settings.
The unit of score in the game is "money". A final grade (A – H) is given at the end of the game to indicate the player's performance. This grade is not directly based on the "money score", but is instead based on the player's overall accuracy.
Additional rules
Various game modes are available, with different rule alterations that provide suitable challenges for players of various degrees of skill.
Practice
Featured in Beatmania 2ndMix and Beatmania, inexperienced players can go through a training stage with DJ Konami, a voice-over that walks the player through the basics of the game. After the training stage players can select songs normally and regardless of their performance won't end a game prematurely. The voice over was not featured in any other Beatmania series game, although a similarly formatted Tutorial mode was recently added to the Beatmania IIDX games. Prior to practice mode players could choose to play a practice stage during normal games.
Normal
The regular mode. Players select songs and play normally. A pool of songs is available for every stage, with the next stage pool being more difficult than the last. Clearing is required to get to the next stage.
Free
Introduced in 6thMIX, Free mode is another practice mode that follows all the rules of the Normal mode, with passing and failing scores, but allows the player to play all the predefined number of songs regardless of each song's difficulty.
Expert
A mode for skilled players with courses that predefines the songs to be played. The rules for this mode have been modified throughout different versions of the game.
Beatmania
Players must play through all the songs in a set order, with the audience bar dropping in greater degrees and increasing less. All the other rules follow the normal mode. Continues are allowed.
2ndMIX
Different themed course are given, each running five songs long. The scoring rules follow that of the previous beatmania.
3rdMIX
In addition to the courses format of 2ndMIX, the audience bar is now full from the beginning, and any decrease will carry onto the next stage, where good performance does not recover the bar. The audience bar is characteristically colored in red, and no continues are allowed upon game over.
completeMIX and after
With the introduction of the Internet Ranking service, scores are now counted as 2 points for "Just Great" and 1 point for "Great", which makes the overall EX Score. Upon completion of the course, a password is given to the player to submit to the official website for worldwide ranking. All of the Internet Ranking services have ended and are no longer available.
featuring "Dreams Come True"
The Dreams Come True edition uses the same rules as CompleteMIX, but also features a minigame in between songs where a player can rapidly scratch to restore life.
Expert+
First offered in 6thMIX, this mode is designed for the most skilled of players. A single course is provided, featuring ten of the most difficult songs in a particular version. The audience bar functions similarly to that of Expert mode, but falling to zero doesn't result in an immediate game over. Rather, "Danger" is displayed on the screen, and it will take several subsequent misses to end the game. The bar is restored after each song, though the bar will be increased to just barely over "Danger", should it have been in effect at the end of the song.
Easy
Available since 3rdMIX, the Easy mode offers simplified playing sequences for songs. The selection of Easy and Hard modes were discarded altogether from 6thMIX and after, with difficulty selection becoming options within the integrated Normal mode.
Cabinet design
Two major styles of the Beatmania cabinet were originally created, the standard cabinet, and the mini-style cabinet. The standard cabinet was taller and wider than the mini-style and included a 29" screen, versus the 20" screen on the mini cabinet. The 1P/2P/Effect buttons were placed on the vertical face of the cabinet on the mini, while placed between the keys, ahead of the coin drop on standard cabinets. The mini-cabinet contained 6 speakers, 4 normal mid/high range, and 2 larger subs. The standard cabinet contained 10 speakers, including the 2 subs. Functionally the game boards, HDD, and ROM chips were the same between cabinets. Finally, the mini cabinet had a smaller spacing between the turntable and the keys, and the turntable was approximately half the diameter of the standard version. Today the mini-cabinet is much more difficult to find, especially in the United States.
Main artists
Beatmania offers many musical genres from different disciplines of electronic music. Below are some of the artists who made frequent appearances in the series.
dj nagureo/reo nagumo/tiger YAMATO and other aliases
Mikio Endo
Hiroshi Watanabe
Hiroyuki Togo and other aliases
Naoki Maeda and other aliases
DJ TAKAWO
RAM
TAQ
BEMANI Sound Team "L.E.D, dj TAKA and TOMOSUKE"
Releases
The Beatmania series has been released on multiple platforms in addition to its arcade releases. The majority of the games have been featured on the Sony PlayStation and have also been featured on the Nintendo Game Boy Color, and the WonderSwan. The North American Beatmania on the PlayStation 2 also features Beatmania play.
Several key mixes were never ported to home or portable consoles, including Beatmania 7thMix and Beatmania The Final. Also there are many console-exclusive songs that were never introduced in the Arcade releases, in mixes such as Gottamix and The Sound Of Tokyo. Many songs were also released on one mix at the arcades but released in another style for the consumer versions. The best example of this was Gottamix 2, which contained consumer-exclusive songs in addition to the "Complete Mix 2 Anothers" that were released months earlier as an arcade exclusive.
Arcade releases
The main platform for the series, most other releases were based on certain titles from the arcade series, or featured a selection of songs across several of them.
The following are arranged in the order of their release.
Beatmania (December 31, 1997)
Beatmania 2ndMix (March 18, 1998)
Beatmania 3rdMix (September 28, 1998)
Beatmania completeMix (January 19, 1999)
Beatmania 4thMix -the beat goes on- (April 26, 1999)
Beatmania 5thMix -Time to get down- (September 22, 1999)
Beatmania completeMix 2 (January 27, 2000)
Beatmania Club Mix (March 28, 2000)
Beatmania featuring Dreams Come True (May 31, 2000)
Beatmania Core Remix (November 28, 2000)
Beatmania 6thMix – The UK Underground Musics- (July 11, 2001)
Beatmania 7thMix – Keepin' Evolution- (January 31, 2002)
Beatmania The Final (July 26, 2002)
Korean arcade releases
Korean local releases (licensed by Unico Electronics Co. Ltd. (now Uniana) removed Japanese vocal songs because of the Korean law at that time.
Beatstage (1998): Logo is a variation of Beatmania, but is actually 2ndMix. "tokai" is not available in this version.
Beatstage 3rdMix (1999): "Believe again (Hyper Mega Mix)" and "Luv to me Third-Mix" are the English versions from Complete Mix. Believe Again (80's J-Pop) and Find Out (Soul) are not available in this version.
Beatstage completeMix (1999): tokai/ Find Out/ Believe Again "Hyper Mega Mix" (Japanese Version)/ Luv to me (Japanese Version) are not available in this version.
Beatstage 4thMix -the beat goes on- (1999): No removed songs in this version.
Beatstage 5thMix -Time to get down- (2000): The Gauge method is different from Beatmania 5thMix. It is similar to the HARD gauge in the beatmania IIDX series. Added Hi-speed 2/3 (from completeMix2), and TOTAL RECALL/KAKATTEKONKAI are not available in this version.
North American arcade releases
Konami released three Beatmania games in North America under the name HipHopMania.
HipHopMania (1997): Includes all songs from the Japanese version.
HipHopMania complete Mix (1999): Includes all songs from the Japanese version.
HipHopMania complete Mix 2 (2000): Includes almost all songs from the Japanese version (Removed 10 songs).
Console releases
PlayStation:
The PlayStation releases were only available in Japan apart from one which was created especially for the European market. The first game acted as a key disc, which is required to play the subsequent releases through disc changing, and were called append discs. Special hidden songs could be accessed for certain append discs if the discs were changed through a specific order.
Beatmania (October 1, 1998): The console release of the arcade 2ndMix. Acts as a key disc.
Beatmania Append Yebisu Mix: Append disc included with the release of beatmania containing all-new songs. Features the debut of the popular Bemani artist Sanae Shintani.
Beatmania Append 3rdMix (December 23, 1998): The first stand-alone append disc to be sold. Features various, but not all, new songs from the arcade 3rdMix in addition to original console tracks. The Expert Mode from the arcade version was notably excluded.
Beatmania Append 3rdMix Mini: Append disc included with the 3rdMix soundtrack. Features 5 new songs from the arcade 3rdMix.
Beatmania Append GottaMix (May 29, 1999): The second stand-alone append disc release. Features 19 songs made by KCEJ unique to the PlayStation console and three songs from 4thMix that served as a preview.
Beatmania Append 4thMix (September 9, 1999): Append disc and complete port of the arcade 4thMix. All-new songs from the arcade 4thMix were included in addition to new console tracks. The Bonus Edit mode can be accessed if the discs are swapped in the order of 3rdMix, then GottaMix, then 4thMix. The Bonus Edit mode adds songs from 3rdMix that were excluded from the previous console port.
Beatmania Append 5thMIX (March 2, 2000): Append disc port of the arcade 5thMix. All-new songs from the arcade were included, with several console-exclusive songs available in Bonus Edit mode.
Beatmania featuring Dreams Come True (July 21, 2000): Key disc release of the arcade version of the same name. Features music of the J-Pop duo Dreams Come True. The difficulty is notably lower than most other previous games.
Beatmania Best Hits (July 27, 2000): First console release to drop the append disc format. It could act as a key disc and access the append releases. Includes songs from the first Beatmania up to 5thMix and GottaMix, chosen through fan votes on the internet.
Beatmania Append GOTTAMIX 2 ~Going Global~ (September 7, 2000): The official follow up release to GottaMix, again, featuring all-new songs exclusive to the console. The tracks were themed around music from around the world. The "Another" charts from completeMIX 2 marked as remixes were available in Bonus Edit mode.
Beatmania Append ClubMix (December 21, 2000): Append disc and complete port of the arcade ClubMIX. Only one new secret console-exclusive track was added. The Bonus Edit mode included tracks from the arcade completeMIX2 with rearranged button sequences.
Beatmania The Sound of Tokyo! (March 29, 2001): PlayStation-exclusive key disc release. Produced by famous Japanese musician Konishi Yasuharu. The difficulty of songs was indicated by the number of passengers on a plane. The songs cover a wide spectrum of skill levels that suit from beginners to experts.
Beatmania 6thMix + Core Remix (January 31, 2002): Key disc release and the only coupled release. As the name implies, new songs from the arcade 6thMix and Core Remix are included. Both the Left Hand Scratch Mode and the Original Expert Course Mode were carried over from the console beatmania IIDX series.
Beatmania (Europe) (June 2000): The European version of beatmania included licensed songs from Moloko, Skank, Les Rhythmes Digitales, and more. Also included are classic beatmania tracks from various mixes. The European licenses are also featured in GottaMix 2.
Game Boy Color
Three games were released for the Game Boy color exclusively in Japan. The first two were backwards compatible with the classic Game Boy.
Beatmania GB (March 11, 1999): Features 10 songs selected from 2ndMix, 3rdMix and Yebisu Mix. Another 10 original songs complete the music list. The game was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe.
Beatmania GB 2 GatchaMix (November 25, 1999): Features 5 songs selected from GottaMix. Songs from famous artists such as the Yellow Magic Orchestra, Morning Musume, SMAP, Hikaru Utada in addition to animations songs like Mobile Suit Gundam Starship Girl Yamamoto Yohko make up 20 tracks. Hideo Kojima is listed as one of the producers and the title was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan.
Beatmania GB GatchaMix2 (September 28, 2000): A Game Boy Color-exclusive game, it follows the format of the previous GatchaMix with console tracks from the PlayStation and other popular licensed songs from real-life artists. This release also had 25 tracks in total. GatchaMix2 was previously going named to be Beatmania GB Net Jam, with the tracks available for download through the Mobile System GB in Japan.
Wonderswan
Beatmania for Wonderswan (April 28, 1999): The only Beatmania title for the Wonderswan, and also the only title released on the system from Konami. It featured 11 songs from the arcade 3rdMix. Because of the better sound processing capabilities for the system, the tracks closely resembled their arcade counterparts. It made use of the vertical orientation on the system to better mimic the arcade screen format. A snap-on mini turntable was bundled with the game. Also worth noting is that on some advertisement material, the game was referred to as vol.1 of a series, hinting that Konami had positive expectations in its sales and planned subsequent releases. It was sold around the same period as Beatmania GB.
Bemani Pocket
The Bemani Pocket line were portable gaming devices with a monochrome LCD screen, each featuring a :number of songs in a specific theme. As with most other Bemani releases, they were sold only in Japan.
Beatmania Pocket: The only version to feature a body that mimicked the arcade cabinet.
Beatmania Pocket2: The first release to feature a smoother design that was used with all subsequent releases.
Beatmania Pocket -SummerMix-
Beatmania Pocket -AnimeSong Mix1-: A selection of songs from titles by Go Nagai. The body had the color scheme of Mazinger Z.
Beatmania Pocket -Tokimeki Memorial Edition-: Songs from the dating sim Tokimeki Memorial.
Beatmania Pocket Skeleton: A special release of SummerMIX with a clear body given away as a prize. 5000 units were given away.
Beatmania Pocket -AnimeSong Mix2- Features songs from titles by Shotaro Ishinomori.
Beatmania Pocket 2000: The internal hardware was updated to improve sound quality, and was kept for all subsequent releases.
Beatmania Pocket -Enjoy Georgia Signature-: A special edition for the Georgia Signature novelty goods stores of Japan. It was included inside a gift package for their Millennium Campaign.
Beatmania Pocket -Hello Kitty Edition-: Hello Kitty's face is molded on the scratch disc part.
Beatmania Pocket -AnimeSong Mix3-: A selection of songs from titles by Leiji Matsumoto.
Beatmania Pocket -Tigers version: A special edition for the Hanshin Tigers baseball team of Japan featuring cheer songs for the team.
Beatmania Pocket -Kawaii! version-: A collaborated release with the teenage girls' magazine Kawaii!.
Beatmania Pocket -Tokimeki Memorial 2 edition: Songs from the dating sim Tokimeki Memorial 2.
Beatmania Pocket -Love Stories-: A selection of love songs from various artists.
Beatmania Pocket -KonaMix-: Various songs from classic Konami games.
Beatmania Pocket -Best Hits 2000–: Popular songs from various artists from the year 2000.
Beatmania Pocket -Tigers Version2: A special edition for the Hanshin Tigers baseball team of Japan featuring cheer songs for the team. New songs were not added, but a new play mode was.
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Beatmania on their March 1, 1998 issue as being the most-successful dedicated arcade game of the month. By May 1999, Beatmania had sold 6,700 arcade units, for which it received the Guinness World Record for Most Popular DJ-Simulation Arcade Game. By 2000, the game had sold 25,000 arcade machines.
The PlayStation version of Beatmania sold units in Japan by 2004, and eventually a total of units in Japan.
References
External links
Beatmania official website
1997 video games
Arcade video games
Bemani games
Beatmania games
PlayStation (console) games
Turntable video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games produced by Hideo Kojima
Video games scored by Tappi Iwase | [
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234684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KO%20Magazine | KO Magazine | KO Magazine was a popular United States boxing magazine. It was first published in 1980, to compete with The Ring.
It was founded by Stanley Weston, long-time publisher of numerous boxing and pro wrestling titles.
KO Magazine, nicknamed "The Knockout Boxing Magazine", ran some popular features, such as a round-by-round section where the most important fights were described punch by punch, posters with the boxer's complete records on the back, and a question and answer interview section.
Weston wanted KO to stand out above all other boxing magazines on the market, including the ones he published. It was meant to be a rival to The Ring and outsold that magazine for years. Peter King was editor from KO's founding until his departure from the company in 1987.
Other key staff members included Steven Farhood, Richard Countis, Stu Saks, Jeff Ryan, Bill Apter and Ken Morgan.
Contributing writers included long-time boxing reporters Al Bernstein and Richard Hoffer.
Each issue contained rankings in 12 weight classes compiled by the editors.
Each issue also included letters from fans ("Between Rounds"), a color centerfold and an "International Report" which featured match results from around the world.
In September 2007, KO Magazine was acquired by Golden Boy Enterprises, along with The Ring. KO Magazine ceased publication following the acquisition.
References
Sports magazines published in the United States
Boxing magazines
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1980
Magazines disestablished in 2007 | [
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234685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camber%20angle | Camber angle | Camber angle is one of the angles made by the wheels of a vehicle; specifically, it is the angle between the vertical axis of a wheel and the vertical axis of the vehicle when viewed from the front or rear. It is used in the design of steering and suspension. If the top of the wheel is farther out than the bottom (that is, away from the axle), it is called positive camber; if the bottom of the wheel is farther out than the top, it is called negative camber.
Effect on handling
Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design; in particular, negative camber improves grip when cornering especially with a short long arm suspension. This is because it places the tire at a better angle to the road, transmitting the centrifugal forces through the vertical plane of the tire rather than through a shear force across it. The centrifugal (outwards) force is compensated for by applying negative camber, which turns the contact surface of the tire outwards to match, maximizing the contact patch area. Note that this is only true for the outside tire during the turn; the inside tire would benefit most from positive camber again only with short long arm system. Caster angle will compensate this to a degree, as the top of the outside tire will tilt slightly inward and the inner tire will respectively tilt outward.
On the other hand, for maximum straight-line acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained when the camber angle is zero and the tread is flat on the road. Proper management of camber angle is a major factor in suspension design, and must incorporate not only idealized geometric models, but also real-life behavior of the components; flex, distortion, elasticity, etc. What was once an art has now become much more scientific with the use of computers, which can optimize all of the variables mathematically instead of relying on the designer's intuitive feel and experience. As a result, the handling of even low-priced automobiles has improved dramatically. Heavy-duty vehicles, such as tractors, trucks, etc., tend to have more positive camber angle, so that when they are loaded and the whole vehicle lowers, the wheels are almost vertical.
Adjustability
In cars with double wishbone suspensions, camber angle may be fixed or adjustable, but in MacPherson strut suspensions, it is normally fixed. The elimination of an available camber adjustment may reduce maintenance requirements, but if the car is lowered by use of shortened springs, the camber angle will change. Excessive camber angle can lead to increased tire wear and impaired handling. Significant suspension modifications may correspondingly require that the upper control arm or strut mounting points be altered to allow for some inward or outward movement, relative to longitudinal centerline of the vehicle, for camber adjustment. Aftermarket plates with slots for strut mounts instead of merely holes are available for most of the commonly modified models of cars. There are certain other aftermarket solutions that allow the modification of camber angle of the wheels. Camber bolts with eccentrics allow adjustable camber on some vehicles. These bolts feature large washers that are either eccentric or offset. If the original-equipment bolts are replaced with eccentric ones, then the adjustment will engender a change of up to two degrees. Control arms (or A-arms) with adjustable ball joints represent another other avenue for allowing side-by-side adjustability. With these control arms installed, tire camber can effectively be changed by simply moving the tires. After that, one tightens the bolts in order to lock the ball joint in the desired position. Yet another aftermarket solution for changing the camber angle is via control rods that are of adjustable length. However, this solution is only amenable to vehicles that employ control rods, not A-arms. Because control rods (in vehicles so equipped) are responsible for locating the suspension points and keeping them in place, therefore changing the overall length of the rods influences the camber angle.
Camber in uneven terrain
Off-road vehicles such as agricultural tractors generally use positive camber. In such vehicles, the positive camber angle helps achieve a lower steering effort. Also, some single-engined general aviation aircraft that are primarily meant to operate from unimproved surfaces, such as bush planes and cropdusters, have their taildragger gear's main wheels equipped with positive-cambered main wheels to better handle the deflection of the landing gear, as the aircraft settles on rough, unpaved airstrips.
See also
Camber thrust
Caster angle
Kingpin (automotive part)
Toe (automotive)
Vehicle dynamics
References
External links
Camber and Race Car Suspension Tuning
Camber, Caster, Toe - What does it all mean?
Suspension 101 - Camber, Caster, and Toe
Automotive steering technologies
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234687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Mycale | Battle of Mycale | The Battle of Mycale (; Machē tēs Mykalēs) was one of the two major battles (the other being the Battle of Plataea) that ended the second Persian invasion of Greece during the Greco-Persian Wars. It took place on or about August 27, 479 BC on the slopes of Mount Mycale, on the coast of Ionia, opposite the island of Samos. The battle was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states, including Sparta, Athens and Corinth, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.
The previous year, the Persian invasion force, led by Xerxes himself, had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium, and conquered Thessaly, Boeotia and Attica; however, at the ensuing Battle of Salamis, the allied Greek navies had won an unlikely victory, and therefore prevented the conquest of the Peloponnese. Xerxes then retreated, leaving his general Mardonius with a substantial army to finish off the Greeks the following year.
In the summer of 479 BC, the Greeks assembled a huge army (by contemporary standards), and marched to confront Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea. At the same time, the allied fleet sailed to Samos, where the demoralised remnants of the Persian navy were based. The Persians, seeking to avoid a battle, beached their fleet below the slopes of Mycale, and, with the support of a Persian army group, built a palisaded camp. The Greek commander Leotychides decided to attack the Persians anyway, landing the fleet's complement of marines to do so.
Although the Persian forces put up stout resistance, the heavily armoured Greek hoplites again proved themselves superior in combat, and eventually routed the Persian troops, who fled to their camp. The Ionian Greek contingents in the Persian army defected, and the camp was assailed and a large number of Persians slaughtered. The Persian ships were then captured and burned. The complete destruction of the Persian navy, along with the destruction of Mardonius's army at Plataea (allegedly on the same day as the Battle of Mycale), decisively ended the invasion of Greece. After Plataea and Mycale, the allied Greeks would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Mycale was in every sense a decisive victory, it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance (even at the time) as, for example the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or even the Greek defeat at Thermopylae.
Background
The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499-494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Moreover, Darius had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire). Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece. A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia. An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, successfully sacking Naxos and Eretria, before moving to attack Athens. However, at the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece. However, he died before the invasion could begin. The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I, who quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece, including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission, but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta (both of whom were at open war with Persia). Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed (hereafter referred to as 'the Allies'). This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.
The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking the land and sea approaches to southern Greece. Thus, in August 480 BC, after hearing of Xerxes's approach, a small Allied army led by the Spartan king Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae, whilst an Athenian-dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium. Famously, the vastly outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae against the Persians army for six days in total, before being outflanked by a mountain path. Although much of the Greek army retreated, the rearguard, formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents, was surrounded and annihilated. The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium, consisting of a series of naval encounters, was up to that point a stalemate; however, when news of Thermopylae reached them, they also retreated, since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point.
Following Thermopylae, the Persian army had proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities which had not surrendered, Plataea and Thespiae, before taking possession of the now-evacuated city of Athens. The allied army, meanwhile, prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth. Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season; conversely the allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese. The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies, marking a turning point in the conflict.
Following the defeat of his navy at the Salamis, Xerxes retreated to Asia with, according to Herodotus at least, the majority of the army. Herodotus suggests that this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges, thereby trapping his army in Europe. He thus left Mardonius, with handpicked troops, to complete the conquest of Greece the following year. Mardonius evacuated Attica, and wintered in Thessaly; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city. Over the winter, there seems to have been some tension among the Allies. In particular, the Athenians, who were not protected by the Isthmus, but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnese, felt hard done by, and demanded an allied army march north the following year. When the Allies failed to commit to this, the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in spring. The navy, now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, thus skulked off Delos, whilst the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos, both sides unwilling to risk battle. Similarly, Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless, whilst the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese.
Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon, offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer, and rejected it: The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention. We are already well aware of it. But even so, such is our love of liberty, that we will never surrender. Upon this refusal, the Persians marched south again. Athens was again evacuated and left to the Persians. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, along with Megara and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance, and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not. According to Herodotus, the Spartans, who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus, delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest, Chileos of Tegea, who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered. When the Athenian emissaries delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans the next day, they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already en route; the Spartan army was marching to meet the Persians.
In response, the Athenian navy under Xanthippus joined with the Allied fleet off Delos. They were then approached by a delegation from Samos, who suggested that the Ionian cities would revolt if the Allied fleet successfully engaged the Persian fleet. They furthermore pointed out the poor morale and reduced seaworthiness of the Persian fleet. Leotychides decided to attempt this, and sailed for Samos.
Prelude
When the Persians heard that the Allied fleet was approaching, they set sail from Samos towards the Ionian mainland. According to Herodotus, this was because they had decided in council that they could not beat the Allies in a naval battle. They sent the Phoenician ships away (Herodotus does not explain why), and then sailed to the shore near Mount Mycale. Xerxes had left an army there, under the command of Tigranes, to guard Ionia. The Persians beached their ships, built a palisade around them, and prepared to guard the makeshift fort.
Finding the Persian fleet gone from Samos, the Allies were thrown into uncertainty. Eventually they resolved that they would sail to the mainland, and equipped themselves for a naval battle. However, when the Allies approached Mycale, the Persians did not attempt to engage them, and remained guarding their camp. Leotychides therefore sailed as close to the camp as possible, and had a herald make an appeal to the Ionians: "Men of Ionia, you who hear us, understand what I say, for by no means will the Persians understand anything I charge you with when we join battle; first of all it is right for each man to remember his freedom and next the battle-cry Hebe: and let him who hears me tell him who has not heard it." Herodotus suggests that the purpose of this message was twofold; firstly to encourage the Ionians, unbeknownst to the Persians, to fight for the Allies (or at least not to fight against them); or, if the message became known to the Persians, to make the Persians mistrust the Ionians.
Following this appeal, the Allies also beached their ships, and began to prepare to assault the camp. The Persians, guessing that their Samian contingent would support the allies, took away their armour. Furthermore, they sent the Milesians to guard the passes over Mycale, suspecting that the Milesians might also defect. Thus rid of two potential internal threats, the Persians left their camp, and prepared for battle. It is probable that the relatively small number of marines that the Allies had disembarked for the battle made them overconfident, encouraging the Persians to leave the safety of their camp.
Herodotus reports that as the Allies approached the Persian camp, rumour spread amongst them of an Allied victory at Plataea; Diodorus also claims that Leotychides informed the Allies of victory at Plataea before the battle began. Their morale boosted by this omen, they set forth to win their own victory. Various explanations have been attempted to explain this occurrence, and also the alleged fact that Plataea and Mycale took place on the same day. Green suggests that following the victory at Plataea, the Allied commander Pausanias took control of the Persian beacon system that Xerxes had used to communicate with Asia, and used it to send tidings of Plataea to the Allied fleet. This would explain the rumour of victory and near simultaneous attack, but is only one possible theory.
Opposing Forces
The Persians
The number of Persian ships and men involved with the battle is, as so often in the Greco-Persian Wars, somewhat problematic. It is clear that the Persian fleet did not dare conduct operations against the Greeks, and thus must have been approximately equal to, or smaller than the Greek fleet. Herodotus gives the size of the Persian fleet at 300 ships; the Greeks had 378 at Salamis, but must have suffered significant losses, and so they probably also had around 300 in total (though not necessarily all these ships formed part of the allied fleet for 479 BC). The Phoenician ships were dismissed from the Persian fleet before the battle, which reduced its strength further.
Diodorus tells us that to guard the camp and the ships the Persians gathered 100,000 men in total,
while Herodotus suggests that there were 60,000 men in the army under the command of Tigranes. Squaring these two accounts, might suggest that there were c. 40,000 men with the fleet. Given that the Persian fleet appears to have been undermanned in the aftermath of Salamis, 200-300 ships would indeed give this number of naval personnel (using Herodotus's standard complement of 200 men per ship). However, this total of 100,000 is probably too high; to accommodate 100,000 men and 200+ ships, the Persian camp would have to have been enormous. Estimates made of Mardonius's huge camp at Plataea, which was planned and built with plenty of time, suggest it might have accommodated 70,000-120,000 men; it is improbable that such a large camp could have been built at Mycale in the time-frame that Herodotus suggests. It is therefore possible that the 60,000 quoted by Herodotus is actually the total number of Persians present at Mycale; the Persians certainly outnumbered the Allies, emerging from the palisade in confidence after seeing the smaller number of the Allied troops.
The Persian force of 60,000 most likely consisted of spearmen and archers from the various contingents of Persians, Medes, and Red Sea Islanders, though a small force of Persian cavalry was also recruited into the army. In addition to the Persians, Medes, and Red Sea Islanders, there were also some contingents of Greek mercenaries in the Persian army at Mycale, but Herodotus wrote that these later defected over to the Greeks during the main battle outside the Persian camp of Mount Mycale.
The Greeks
Numbers of ships and men for the Allies are also somewhat problematic. Herodotus claims that Leotychides had 110 triremes under his command. However, the previous year, the allies had fielded 271 triremes at the Battle of Artemisium, and then 378 at the Battle of Salamis. We are also told that the Allies had "command of the sea" after Salamis, which implies that they could at least equal the Persian fleet. Diodorus, on the other hand, tells us the allies had 250 ships, which is more consistent with their force levels of the previous year. These two numbers can be reconciled by assuming that Leotychides had 110 triremes under his command before being joined by Xanthippus and the Athenian ships, after the Allied army had marched out from the Peloponnesus. This is the approach taken by Holland, and gives a naval force which might well match the remnants of the Persian fleet.
Although the Athenians had sent 8,000 hoplites to Plataea, they would still have had ample manpower to man a large fleet of triremes, especially since rowers tended to be of the lower classes (the thetes) who could not afford the equipment to fight as hoplites. The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men, including 14 marines. In the second Persian invasion of Greece, each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines, and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes. Furthermore, the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each. This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40–45 soldiers—triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight. Combining these numbers yields a range of 22,000–58,000 men for the Allies, with 3,300–11,250 more heavily armoured marines. Estimates of around 40,000 men are given in some sources, which is approximately the median of the possible range, and seems as likely a number as any. However, since only the marines were expected to fight hand to hand, the rowers in the Allied fleet were probably not equipped to fight in a land battle; it is likely therefore that it was only the marines who contested the battle.
Strategic & tactical considerations
From a strategic point of view, battle was not necessary for either side; the main strategic theatre was mainland Greece itself. Although destroying the enemy navy would result in a clear strategic advantage for both sides, attempting this risked the loss of their own navy. The actions of the two sides thus reflect more upon their morale and confidence than on any strategic considerations. The Persians, seeing little to gain in battle, demoralised and riven with dissent, thus sought to avoid a naval battle. Conversely, the Allies, who had initially been as nervous of a battle as the Persians, sought to press home their morale advantage once they were informed of the state of the Persian fleet.
Tactically, the Persian fleet should have held the advantage at sea, since the Athenian part of the Greek fleet was, despite their efforts at Artemisium and Salamis, still raw in seamanship. However, whether because of their low morale, or because they were in fact outnumbered, the Persians sought instead the tactical advantage of joining up with the army under Tigranes, and fortifying a position. However, when the Greeks chose to fight on land, the Persians then threw away the advantage of their fortifications by emerging to fight the Greeks in the open field. Furthermore, as Marathon and Thermopylae had shown, large numbers conferred little advantage against the more heavily armoured hoplites; thus, as the battle began, it was the Greeks who had the tactical upper hand.
The battle
The Allies seem to have formed into two wings; on the right were the Athenians, Corinthians, Sicyonians and Troezenians, and on the left were the Spartans with other contingents. The right wing marched across level ground straight towards the Persian camp, whilst the left wing attempted to outflank the Persians by passing through more broken ground. The right wing thus began fighting with the Persians while the left wing was still approaching. Herodotus reports that the Persians fought well at first, but that the Athenians and the contingents with them wished to win the victory before the Spartans arrived, and thus attacked ever more zealously.
Although the Persians stood their ground for a while, they eventually broke and fled to the palisade. The soldiers of the right wing followed them into the camp, at which point many of the Persian army fled from the camp, except the ethnic Persian troops, who grouped together and fought the Allied soldiers who entered the camp. Finally, the left wing arrived, outflanking the camp and falling on the rear of the remaining Persian forces, thereby completing the rout.
Herodotus tells us that, on seeing the outcome of the battle hung in the balance, the disarmed Samians had joined in on the side of the allies, doing what they could. This inspired the other Ionian contingents to turn on the Persians as well. At which stage in the battle this happened is not clear; the Samians were presumably not in the main battle line (being disarmed), so it may have been after the Persians retreated to the camp. Meanwhile, the Milesians who were guarding the passes of Mycale also turned on the Persians. At first they misdirected the fleeing Persian contingents so that they ended up back amongst the Allied troops; then, perhaps seeing the outcome of the battle was certain, they began killing the fleeing Persians.
Herodotus does not mention specific figures for casualties, merely saying that losses were heavy on both sides. The Sicyonians in particular suffered, also losing their general Perilaus. On the Persian side, the admiral Mardontes and the general Tigranes were both killed, though Artayntes escaped. Herodotus says that a few Persian troops escaped the battle and made their way to Sardis. Diodorus claims that there were 40,000 Persian casualties, and also suggests that the survivors made their way to Sardis.
Aftermath
When the Spartans arrived, the Persian camp was looted and their beached ships destroyed. Returning to Samos they then discussed their next moves. Leotychides proposed that they evacuate the cities of the Ionian Greeks and bring the population to the Greek mainland, since it would be difficult to defend Ionia against further Persian attacks. Xanthippus however vehemently objected to this, since the Ionian cities were originally Greek colonies. The Ionian Greeks later joined the Athenians in the "Delian League" against Persia.
With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale, the second Persian invasion of Greece was over. Moreover, the threat of a future invasion was abated; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again, over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished.
After the victory at Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this was already done. The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians. The Persians in the region, and their allies, made for Sestos, the strongest town in the region, and the Athenians laid siege to them there. After a protracted siege, Sestos fell to the Athenians, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek counterattack. Herodotus ended his Histories after the siege of Sestos. Over the next 30 years, the Greeks, primarily the Athenian-dominated Delian League, would expel (or help expel) the Persians from Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean islands and Ionia. Peace with Persia finally came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias, finally ending the half-century of warfare.
Significance
Mycale and Plataea have great significance in ancient history as the battles which decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece, thereby swinging the balance of the Greco-Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks. The Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest, but it was Mycale and Plataea which effectively ended that threat. However, neither of these battles is as well known as Thermopylae, Salamis or Marathon. The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear; it might however be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought. The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers; Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds, and in dire strategic situations. Conversely, the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength, and against lesser odds; perhaps the Greeks were even expecting to win and had certainly seen the opportunity to deal the final blow.
Militarily, the major lesson of both Mycale and Plataea (since both were fought on land) was the repeated confirmation of the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry, as had first been demonstrated at Marathon. Taking on this lesson, after the Greco-Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries.
Sources
The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. He gives an account of the battle of Mycale in Book Nine of his Histories.
The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Battle of Mykale, derived directly from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.
See also
Battle of Plataea
Battle of Salamis
Delian League
Greco-Persian Wars
Leotychides
Second Persian invasion of Greece
Xanthippus
References
Bibliography
Ancient sources
Herodotus, The Histories Perseus online version
Ctesias, Persica (excerpt in Photius's epitome)
Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica
Plutarch, Aristides
Xenophon, Anabasis
Modern sources
Holland, Tom. Persian Fire. Abacus, 2005 ()
Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ); 1998 (paperback, )
Lazenby, JF. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ()
Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989
Connolly, P. Greece and Rome at War, 1981
External links
Livius Picture Archive: Mycale (Dilek Dagi)
Mycale
Mycale
479 BC
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234688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Pennsylvania%20%281837%29 | USS Pennsylvania (1837) | USS Pennsylvania was a three-decked ship of the line of the United States Navy, rated at 130 guns, and named for the state of Pennsylvania. She was the largest United States sailing warship ever built, the equivalent of a first-rate of the British Royal Navy. Authorized in 1816 and launched in 1837, her only cruise was a single trip from Delaware Bay through Chesapeake Bay to the Norfolk Navy Yard. The ship became a receiving ship, and during the Civil War was destroyed.
History
Pennsylvania was one of the "nine ships to rate not less than 74 guns each" authorized by the US Congress on 29 April 1816. She was designed and built by Samuel Humphreys in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Her keel was laid in September 1821, but tight budgets slowed her construction, preventing her being launched until 18 July 1837. The largest sailing warship ever built for the United States, she had three complete gun decks and a flush spar-deck and her hull was pierced for 136 guns.
Exploding shell guns were replacing solid shot by the time Pennsylvania was fitting out. A Bureau of Ordnance Gun Register for 1846 records her armament as follows:
Spar deck: two 9-pounder (4 kg) cannons and one small brass swivel.
Main deck: four 8 inch (203 mm) chambered cannons received from Norfolk in 1842, and thirty-two 32 pounder (15 kg) cannons.
Middle deck: four 8 inch chambered cannons received from Norfolk in 1842, and thirty 32 pounder cannons.
Lower deck: four 8 inch chambered cannons and 28 × 32 pounder cannons.
Pennsylvania shifted from her launching site to off Chester, Pennsylvania, on 29 November 1837 and was partially manned there the following day. Only 34 of her guns were noted as having been mounted on 3 December 1837. She stood downriver for New Castle, Delaware, 9 December, to receive gun carriages and other equippage before proceeding to the Norfolk Navy Yard for coppering her hull. She departed New Castle on 20 December 1837 and discharged the Delaware pilot on the 25th. That afternoon she sailed for the Virginia Capes. She came off the Norfolk dry dock on 2 January 1838. That day her crew transferred to Columbia.
A few days before 18 September 1838, Pennsylvania was driven ashore at Norfolk. She remained in ordinary until 1842 when she became a receiving ship for the Norfolk Navy Yard. She remained in the yard until 20 April 1861 when she was burned to the waterline to prevent her falling into Confederate hands. Her wreck was salvaged and broken up.
References
Bibliography
Claude Berube. "Budget Battles, Interest Groups and Relevancy in a New Era: The Ship-of-the-Line USS Pennsylvania", (U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, January 2008)
Howard Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: The Ships and their Development (New York: Norton, 1949)
Robert Gardiner, The Line of Battle: The Sailing Warship 1650–1850 (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1992)
Ships of the line of the United States Navy
Ships of the Union Navy
Ships built in Philadelphia
United States Navy Pennsylvania-related ships
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
Shipwrecks of the Virginia coast
Ship fires
1837 ships
Maritime incidents in September 1838
Maritime incidents in April 1861 | [
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234689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate%20Reality%20%28series%29 | Alternate Reality (series) | Alternate Reality (AR) is an unfinished role-playing video game series. It was created by Philip Price, who formed a development company called Paradise Programming. Published by Datasoft, AR: The City was released in 1985 and AR: The Dungeon was released in 1987. Price was unable to complete the second game in the series, and The Dungeon was finished by Ken Jordan and Dan Pinal. Gary Gilbertson created the music for both games.
Concept
Aliens have captured the player from Earth, and suddenly the player finds themself in front of a gate with a slot-machine-like row of rotating numbers of statistics. Stepping through the gate freezes the numbers and turns the player into a new person, putting them into an "alternate reality", hence the name.
In 1988 Datasoft denied that the series would end after The Dungeon. The end of the series was supposed to conclude with the player discovering everyone's true bodies on the ship cocooned and effectively frozen, and that the ship is really a "pleasure world" of some kind for the aliens, leading to the player's ultimate decision of what to do to the ship, to the aliens, or even whether to return to Earth. However, the series was never completed.
During the late 90s, Price intended to produce an MMORPG version of the game called Alternate Reality Online or ARO, and teamed with Monolith. The deal ended due to lack of funds to start serious development on the project. Monolith originally had funds, but needed the funds for existing games in the pipeline. Monolith tried to find an external publisher to fund the game, but the number of technical innovations, coupled with an unknown market for MMORPGs, made it difficult to find publishers willing to risk funding. The publication deal ended and the rights to the game were returned due to no funds. Monolith went on years later to create The Matrix Online.
The "Lost" Games
The original outline for the game series included plans for 6 games:
The City
The Arena
The Palace
The Wilderness
Revelations
Destiny
The first break from this outline was when Datasoft forced the release of The City early, and The Dungeon which would have been included, became its own release. Nonetheless, the design planned to allow the player to move between these games, so that, for example, when one attempted to leave the confines of The City, one was prompted to "Insert disk #1 of Alternate Reality: The Wilderness". The planned seamless migration never worked out, in large part because the Datasoft developers did not implement the idea, so only the Atari 8 Bit city had the ability to boot sequels. Since the final coding of the sequels was done by Datasoft, the matching code was not put into any of the sequels, including the Atari 8 bit dungeon.
Although The Dungeon was completed and released, work on the remaining 5 installments never moved beyond theoretical outlines. A brief summary of these outlines follows:
The City (and its sewers, which became The Dungeon)
The player is thrust into a new environment (the city of Xebec's Demise) and must learn to survive. While The City is mostly an open area planned to serve as the hub for the game series, The Dungeon was made up of four concentric levels, each one smaller than the one above.
The Arena
Slavers would be added to the City/Dungeon in order to capture new gladiators and force them into combat. This was similar to how the player was captured from Earth in the first place, causing the player to once again be thrust into a new environment. The plan also included provisions for players to enter the arena in other ways, e.g., as a spectator or a free man. A limited "character vs. character" mode would allow characters from other saved games to be loaded in and pitted against the current character. Lastly, there would be one or more ways to retire a character into a life of luxury, thus "winning", but players would need to start a new character if they wanted to continue on in the series. Retired characters would then return as opponents faced by any new characters.
The Palace
Planned to feature courtly intrigue and the ability to purchase land in the city, with the capability to alter the map and building layouts if one built new sections or tore down walls. Players could climb the ladder of power and responsibility, and eventually choose to rule the city as its new king. This was intended as another way to retire a character and thus "win". New characters created would be able to meet the previously crowned king, or even attempt to overthrow him.
The Wilderness
The Wilderness was to be a pilgrimage to find the truth concerning Alternate Reality. There would be traps, tricks to waylay the adventurer, and diversions to turn him or her away from the true quest. This expansion would feature a vast expanse of outdoor terrain and new areas to explore.
Revelation
With the illusion broken, the player would find his or her way onto the alien ship and out of the holo-world upon which he or she was previously trapped. There was to be a way into the ship through the bottom of The Dungeon (on the 4th level), as well as in the distant wilderness.
Destiny
Now armed with high tech equipment and making allies of certain alien factions sympathetic to the player's cause, the player could take the fight to his or her captors. Searching further within this immense ship, the player would discover a chamber filled with metal cocoons. Using wits and the knowledge gained through other locations, the controls for the cocoons could be manipulated to discover what was contained within. It would be revealed that these cocoons hold bodies, the bodies of all of those captured. The machines keep the bodies physically alive and fit, but imprisoned. The minds of those entrapped are tapped and fed with images (à la The Matrix, only years earlier).
The ship's computer can even permit the images to interact with solid/material components of the ship. The player would learn that his or her own body was itself just an image, with the actual body lying in a cocoon. The question of the nature of reality would be raised, leading to questions such as what is a soul? What is experience? The player has experienced the entire ordeal through the illusionary image ever since the kidnapping.
In the end, the player would be left with many choices. One could continue to live on as the image body, a nearly immortal life, but knowing that these aliens have done this and can watch, feel, and experience whatever is done. In essence, the player is their entertainment. They have become jaded by luxury, power and knowledge and use lesser beings to regain some of the passions of life. Hence, one could instead cut off this channel, though the alien beings may destroy the ship, or even Earth itself. One could escape in a smaller ship (as compared to the massive Alternate Reality entertainment world) and go back to Earth. One could even destroy the planet, or bring it back to Earth to let scientists learn from it. There would be many choices (including selling out humanity), but these would be the decisions the player would have to make at the end of the journey.
Technology
AR worked from a 3D first-person perspective, with a small window taking up about 1/9 of the screen at the center. The player controlled one character who had an absolute minimum of visual representationthe closest to a character image to be found was when one encountered a "doppelganger" monster. The 3D used was not like other contemporary 3D graphics either. Most other 3D first-person games used static graphics to represent the walls, meaning the player could only move one tile at a time. However, in this game the rate of travel depended on the character's speed, and moved incrementally along the tile. Distant walls would slowly come in to focus rather than suddenly appear.
Alternate Reality has a raycasting engine similar to Wolfenstein 3D, which came seven years later, but was recognized for popularizing the system. The design implemented right-angle movement only. While the sun is setting, the entire palette of colors changes convincingly. Distant waterfalls move, and the rain is rendered.
The first game, The City, uses a novel anti-copying technique. The program disks could be copied through the standard methods and the copy would appear to work. However, not long after the player began the game, their character would become weaker and weaker and then die from an apparent disease. The Dungeon, if loaded with an unauthorized copy, featured two "FBI agents" as encounters during the beginning of the game, who attacked with "the long arm of the law". The two agents were overly powerful and unbeatable, so as to kill the character before being able to play the game. Due to a bug, the other way to run into these characters was to try to transfer over a character from the city. In effect, it was impossible to actually transfer a character over from the city to the dungeon without mailing in the disks to be exchanged for a fixed version.
Gameplay
At the top of the screen were character statistics, such as game-world time, Strength, Health, etc. This brings up some of the unique aspects of the game: the character is not omniscient with respect to himself, but has some attributes that stay hidden except in special casesfor example, the player never knew the character's alignment (good/evil/neutral), and poison, drunkenness and disease tricked the perceived stats, temporarily or permanently changed them. The player comes to learn their alignment through how other characters treated them in the game. Among these hidden stats were things to keep track of how hungry, tired, thirsty, hot or cold, or encumbered the character was. Alternate Reality requires the player to balance all of these things. While food and water could be carried, supplies were limited and the player would have to find or purchase new packets. The character could only sleep in an inn, so if the player was off adventuring and the character started to get hungry and tired, they'd have to return to a safe area before the player could fulfill these needs.
Another feature was the non-linear game play, and extremely large game world that could be explored at will, rather than according to how the game expected.
Due to budget constraints, the first game was released, essentially, without a plot. Only in the second installment were any elements of a traditional RPG plot added in, but the player could (and probably did) spend days playing before realizing the importance of any of their actions.
The bottom of the screen alternated depending on user choice and situation between consumables like food, water, money, and torches, equipment, combat options, spells, and other things. The sides held the compass at left (when the player had one) and directional arrows at right.
The gameplay of both games is reminiscent of other RPGs but more sophisticated than its peerswhile the player wandered around gaining levels and equipment, there were things like a finite number of items in the world, and items stolen could be regained. Near overflows of memory from possessing too many items resulted in an encounter with The Devourer, a fearsome creature that sucked items from the player, and thus removed them from memory. Death was permissible and mostly uncheatable since the game cleverly marked the character as dead as soon as the user started and only let the character to become "alive" once they saved. It was possible to "revive" a lost character, but it caused a loss in one of the character's stats.
Ports
The games in the Alternate Reality series were developed on the Atari 8-bit family of home computers, but were ported to other platforms as well.
The City
Atari 8-bit family
Commodore 64
Apple II
Apple Macintosh
Atari ST
Amiga
DOS on the PC
Tandy Color Computer 3
The Dungeon
Atari 8-bit family
Commodore 64 / Commodore 128
Apple II
Reception
In 1993 Scorpia called The City "a fascinating premise that turned out rather poorly ... a game for those with great persistence and patience", and The Dungeon "better than the first, but not by much".
Alternate Reality: The City and Alternate Reality: The Dungeon were both the subject of the feature review Dragon #135. The reviewers gave Alternate Reality: The City 3 stars, and Alternate Reality: The Dungeon stars.
Alternate Reality: The City was reviewed in Computer Gamer #12 and got a value for money rating of 5/5. It was also reviewed in Casus Belli #33 (June 1986).
References
External links
The Alternate Reality FAQ
Alternate Reality: The City and The Dungeon and canceled project info + Multimedia
Images of The City package, manual and screenshots
Amiga games
Apple II games
Classic Mac OS games
Atari 8-bit family games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
Role-playing video games
Video games developed in the United States | [
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234695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jai%20alai | Jai alai | Jai alai (: ) is a sport involving bouncing a ball off a walled-in space by accelerating it to high speeds with a hand-held wicker cesta. It is a variation of Basque pelota. The term jai alai, coined by Serafin Baroja in 1875, is also often loosely applied to the fronton (the open-walled playing area) where matches take place. The game, whose name means "merry festival" in Basque, is called zesta-punta ("basket tip") in the Basque Country. The sport is played worldwide, but especially in Spain and France, and in Latin American countries.
Rules and customs
The court for jai alai consists of walls on the front, back and left, and the floor between them. If the ball (called a pelota in Spanish, pilota in Standard Basque) touches the floor outside these walls, it is considered out of bounds. Similarly, there is also a border on the lower of the front wall that is also out of bounds. The ceiling on the court is usually very high, so the ball has a more predictable path. The court is divided by 14 parallel lines going horizontally across the court, with line 1 closest to the front wall and line 14 the back wall. In doubles, each team consists of a frontcourt player and a backcourt player. The game begins when the frontcourt player of the first team serves the ball to the second team. The winner of each point stays on the court to meet the next team in rotation. Losers go to the end of the line to await another turn on the court. The first team to score 7 points (or 9 in Superfecta games) wins. The next highest scores are awarded "place" (second) and "show" (third) positions, respectively. Playoffs decide tied scores.
A jai alai game is played in round robin format, usually between eight teams of two players each or eight single players. The first team to score 7 or 9 points wins the game. Two of the eight teams are in the court for each point. The server on one team must bounce the ball behind the serving line, then with the cesta "basket" hurl it towards the front wall so it bounces from there to between lines 4 and 7 on the floor. The ball is then in play. The ball used in jai alai is hand crafted and consists of metal strands tightly wound together and then wrapped in goat skin. Teams alternate catching the ball in their (also hand crafted) cesta and throwing it "in one fluid motion" without holding or juggling it. The ball must be caught either on the fly or after bouncing once on the floor. A team scores a point if an opposing player:
fails to serve the ball directly to the front wall so that upon rebound it will bounce between lines No. 4 and 7. If it does not, it is an under or over serve and the other team will receive the point.
fails to catch the ball on the fly or after one bounce
holds or juggles the ball
hurls the ball out of bounds
interferes with a player attempting to catch and hurl the ball
The team scoring a point remains in the court and the opposing team rotates off the court to the end of the list of opponents. Points usually double after the first round of play, once each team has played at least one point. When a game is played with points doubling after the first round, this is called "Spectacular Seven" scoring.
The players frequently attempt a "chula" shot, where the ball is played off the front wall very high, then reaches the bottom of the back wall by the end of its arc. The bounce off the bottom of the back wall can be very low, and the ball is very difficult to return in this situation.
Since there is no wall on the right side, all jai alai players must play right-handed (wear the cesta on their right hand), as the spin of a left-handed hurl would send the ball toward the open right side.
The Basque government promotes jai alai as "the fastest sport in the world" because of the speed of the ball. The sport once held the world record for ball speed with a 125–140 g ball covered with goatskin that traveled at , performed by José Ramón Areitio at the Newport, Rhode Island Jai Alai, until it was broken by Canadian 5-time long drive champion Jason Zuback on a 2007 episode of Sport Science with a golf ball speed of .
The sport can be dangerous, as the ball travels at high velocities. It has led to injuries that caused players to retire and fatalities have been recorded in some cases.
Industry
Jai alai is a popular sport within the Latin American countries and the Philippines from its Hispanic influence. It was one of the two gambling sports from Europe, the other being horse racing, in the semi-colonial Chinese cities of Shanghai and Tianjin, and was shut down after the communist victory there. The jai alai arena in Tianjin's former Italian Concession was then confiscated and turned into a recreation center for the city's working class.
The Philippines
Jai alai was played in Manila at the Manila Jai Alai Building, one of the most significant Art Deco buildings in Asia, which was torn down in 2000 by the Manila city government. In 1986, jai alai was banned in the Philippines because of problems with game fixing. However, jai alai returned to the Philippines in March 2010. In 2011, jai-alai was briefly shut down in the province of Pangasinan because of its connection to illegal jueteng gambling but was reopened after a court order.
United States
In the United States, jai alai enjoyed some popularity as a gambling alternative to horse racing, greyhound racing, and harness racing, and remains popular in Florida, where the game is used as a basis for Parimutuel betting at six frontons throughout the state: Dania Beach, Fort Pierce, Jasper, Casselberry, Miami, and Reddick.
The first jai alai fronton in the United States was located in St. Louis, Missouri, operating around the time of the 1904 World's Fair. The first fronton in Florida opened at the site of Hialeah Race Course near Miami (1924). The fronton was relocated to its present site in Miami near Miami International Airport. Year-round jai alai operations include Miami Jai-Alai Fronton (the biggest in the world with a record audience of 15,502 people on 27 December 1975) and Dania Jai Alai which closed in November 2021. Seasonal facilities are Fort Pierce Jai Alai, Ocala Jai Alai and Hamilton Jai Alai. The Tampa Jai Alai fronton opened in 1952 and operated until 1998. Inactive jai alai permits are located in Tampa, Daytona Beach, West Palm Beach, and Quincy. One Florida fronton, in Melbourne, was converted from jai alai to greyhound racing.
By contrast, jai alai's popularity in the northeastern and western United States waned as other gambling options became available. In Connecticut, frontons in Hartford and Milford permanently closed, while the fronton in Bridgeport was converted to a greyhound race track. In 2003, the fronton at Newport Jai Alai in Newport, Rhode Island, was converted into Newport Grand, a slot machine and video lottery terminal parlor, which closed permanently in August 2018. Jai alai enjoyed a brief and popular stint in Las Vegas with the opening of a fronton at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino; however, by the early 1980s the fronton was losing money and was closed by MGM Grand owner Kirk Kerkorian. The MGM Grand in Reno also showcased jai alai for a very short period (1978–1980).
After the 1968 season, players returned home and threatened not to come back unless the owners improved their work conditions. The owners, however, offered the same terms and started hiring inexperienced players instead of the world-class stars. The public did not notice the change. Later strikes were placated with salary rises.
In 1988–1991, the International Jai-Alai Players Association held the longest strike in American professional sport. The owners substituted with Americans raised locally, while the strikers picketed the courts for years. The players, 90% of them Basque, felt insecure submitted to the will of their employers. Spain was no longer a poor conservative country and the new generation of players were influenced by leftist Basque nationalism. The strike ended with an agreement. Meanwhile, Native American casinos and state lotteries had appeared as an alternative to jai-alai betting.
In an effort to prevent the closure of frontons in Florida, the Florida State Legislature passed HB 1059, a bill that changed the rules regarding the operation and wagering of poker in a Pari-Mutuel facility such as a jai alai fronton and a greyhound and horseracing track. The bill became law on August 6, 2003.
In the mid-to-late 20th century, games could draw 5,000 spectators, a figure that fell to as few as 50 by 2017.
Although the sport has been in decline in America for several years, the first public amateur jai alai facility was built in the United States in 2008, in St. Petersburg, Florida, with the assistance of the city of St. Petersburg and private funding from Jeff Conway (Laca). Jai alai is virtually unknown in the western United States but still maintains some popularity in parts of the Northeast.
Amateur jai-alai
In addition to the amateur court in St. Petersburg, The American Jai-Alai Foundation offers lessons. Its president, Victor Valcarce, was a pelotari at Dania Jai-Alai (MAGO) and was considered the best "pelota de goma" (rubber ball) player in the world. Sponsored in North Miami Beach, Florida which was once owned by World Jai-Alai as a school that, in 1972, produced the greatest American pelotari, Joey Cornblit.
During the late 1960s, in addition to North Miami Amateur, at least one other amateur court from International Amateur Jai-Alai in South Miami professional players emerged at World Jai-Alai, regarded as the first American pelotari who turned pro in 1968 and enjoyed a lengthy career. In the 1970s and early 1980s, Orbea's Jai-Alai in Hialeah featured four indoor courts. Two of the courts played with hard rubber balls ("pelota de goma") were shorter than a standard court (, respectively) and used for training players and amateur leagues. In addition, two courts were played with the regulation pelota (hardball / "pelota dura"), one short in length () and one regulation length (). Orbea's also sold equipment such as cestas and helmets.
Retired players visited and played as well as highly skilled amateurs, pros from Miami Jai-Alai and various other professional frontons operating at the time. The contributions of the South Miami, North Miami, Orbea, and, later, the Milford amateur courts to what is generally considered to be the golden age of the amateur jai-alai player and the sport in the United States are impressive. In the late 1980s, at least one other amateur court was constructed in Connecticut.
Dania Jai Alai has a "Hall of Fame" that documents the best front and back court players.
List of active United States jai-alai frontons
There are currently three active professional jai alai frontons in the United States as of January 2021, all of which are located in the state of Florida. The Jai Alai fronton at Fort Pierce last held sessions in June 2019 and does not appear to have hosted any matches in 2020. Current expansion efforts are being investigated in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States as there appears to be strong enthusiasm for the sport. A public announcement of a professional league is expected in Fall of 2021 and will include approximately 12 teams across the United States.
Popular culture
It is said by one the character Benny Chico (played by Xavier Cugat) in Chicago Syndicate (1955) that boxing " . . . will never take the place of Jai Alai".
Bud Spencer’s character, Charlie Firpo, plays jai alai in a scene of the Hill/Spencer classic Odds and Evens (1978).
The seminal sci-fi classic film Tron (1982) includes a game with elements from jai alai.
There is a brief glimpse of jai alai in the opening sequence of the 1980s US crime drama Miami Vice, as well as a multiple appearance in the episode "Killshot".
The Jai Alai Fronton was shown in a scene in the 1985 feature Stick, in which Burt Reynolds' characters lures the one played by stuntman Dar Robinson into there to beat him up.
In the Golden Girls first season episode entitled Blanche and the Younger Man, Estelle Getty's character, Sophia Petrillo, says she is too short to play jai alai.
The murder of World Jai Alai owner Roger Wheeler (businessman) was featured in the first ever episode of Unsolved Mysteries, hosted by Raymond Burr.
Jai alai is briefly shown in the movie the Substitute with Tom Berenger (1996).
Jai alai was shown in the second season of the MTV series Jackass, where Johnny Knoxville and Steve-O were pelted by oranges instead of the usual pelota. Filming was shot at the former Miami Jai-Alai Fronton (now Casino Miami) in Miami, Florida.
Jai alai is mentioned and briefly played in a Season 3 episode of the historical drama Mad Men ("The Arrangements", S03E04), which is set in the 1960s.
Jai alai plays a role in the Season 1 episode of Archer (2009) entitled "Honeypot".
The Most Interesting Man in the World (fictional spokesman for Dos Equis beer) is shown in a commercial to be an accomplished professional jai alai player.
A jai alai game is seen in a season five episode of the spy TV series Burn Notice.
A jai alai fronton was the scene of a murder in a season four episode of The Glades, an American crime drama set in Florida.
In the Whitey Bulger biopic Black Mass (2015) The real life murder of American businessman and former owner of World Jai Alai Roger Wheeler is featured. James "Whitey" Bulger and other criminal associates allegedly used the World Jai Alai association as an embezzlement scheme and murdered new owner Mr. Wheeler soon after he uncovered their illegal activities.
"Helter Shelter", an episode of The Simpsons, features a scene were the titular family asks their friend Lenny if they can live with him for a while due to their own home being fumigated. They quickly change their mind, however, upon finding out that one of the walls in Lenny's apartment also serves as fronton for a Jai Alai court (the sound of which Lenny claims to find soothing).
See also
Basque Pelota World Championships
References
External links
History of Jai-Alai
"The History of basque Pelota in the Americas" by Carmelo Urza
30 for 30: What the Hell Happened to Jai Alai? ESPN short on YouTube
Jai Alai Blues at Euskal Telebista's video-on-demand service
Slow death of a fast game, The Observer, July 2009
Frontons.net is a collaborative project aimed at identifying and geotagging open-air single walled fronton around the world.
Forgotten – documentary about the decline of Jai alai in Miami
Basque pelota
Sports in Florida
Sports in Connecticut
Sports in the Philippines | [
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234696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Frawley | David Frawley | David Frawley (born 1950) is an American author, astrologer, teacher (acharya) and a proponent of Hindutva.
He has written numerous books on topics spanning the Vedas, Hinduism, Yoga, Ayurveda and Vedic astrology. His works have been popular among the common masses. In 2015 he was honored by the Government of India with the Padma Bhushan, the third-highest civilian award in India.
A prominent ideologue of the Hindutva movement, he has also been accused of practicing historical revisionism.
Early life and education
David Frawley was born to a Catholic family in Wisconsin and had nine siblings. Frawley is largely an autodidact. He studied Ayur Veda under Dr. B. L. Vashta of Mumbai for a span of about a decade, and obtained a "Doctor of Oriental Medicine" degree via a correspondence course from the International Institute of Chinese Medicine, Santa Fe, New Mexico, a school for acupuncture which closed in 2003 due to "administrative and governance irregularities" and financial problems."
Frawley is the founder and the sole instructor at the American Institute of Vedic Studies at Santa Fe, New Mexico and is a former president of the American Council of Vedic Astrology. He also previously taught Chinese herbal medicine and western herbology.
Views and reception
Views
Frawley rejects the Indo-Aryan migration theory in favor of the Indigenous Aryans theory, accusing his opponents of having a “European missionary bias”. In the book In Search of the Cradle of Civilization (1995), Frawley along with Georg Feuerstein and Subhash Kak has rejected the widely supported Indo-Aryan migration, rhetorically calling it the Aryan Invasion Theory, an outdated and inaccurate term, and supported the fringe Indigenous Aryans theory. Frawley also criticizes the 19th-century racial interpretations of Indian prehistory, and went on to reject the theory of a conflict between invading caucasoid Aryans and Dravidians.
In the sphere of market-economics, Frawley opposes socialism, stating that such policies have reduced citizens to beggars. He is a practitioner of Ayurveda, and recommends the practice of ascetic rituals along with moral purification as indispensable parts of the Advaita tradition.
Reception
Popular reception
While being rejected by academia, he has successful in the popular market; according to Bryant, his works are clearly directed and articulated at such audiences. He's been a prominent voice in the introduction of Ayurvedic medicine and Vedic astrology among a western, nonmedical trained audience. According to Edwin Bryant, he is "well-received" by "the Indian community," noting that a Westerner rejecting the Aryan Migration Theory has an obvious appeal in India and Frawley (along with Koenraad Elst) fits in it, perfectly. Frawley commands a significant following on Twitter, as well.
Academia
Hindutva
He has been described as a prominent figure of the Hindutva movement and numerous scholars have also described him as a Hindutva ideologue and apologist. He has been widely accused of practicing historical revisionism. Martha Nussbaum and others consider him to be the most determined opponent to the theory of Indo-Aryan migrations.
Meera Nanda asserts Frawley to be a member of the Hindu far right, who decries Islam and Christianity as religions for the lower intellects and whose works feature a Hindu Supremacist spin. Sudeshna Guha of Cambridge University notes him to be a sectarian non-scholar and as a proponent of a broader scheme for establishing a nationalist history. Irfan Habib rejected considering Frawley as a scholar, and instead, noted him to be a Hindutva pamphleteer, who "telescoped the past to serve the present" and was not minimally suitable of being defined as a scholar, of any kind. Bryant notes him to be an unambiguously pro-Hindu scholar. Peter Heehs deems of him to be part of a group of reactionary orientalists, who professed an avid dislike for the Oriental-Marxist school of historiography and hence, chose to rewrite the history of India but without any training in relevant disciplines; he also accused Frawley of misappropriating Aurobindo's nuanced stance on the Indigenous Aryans hypothesis.
Bruce Lincoln attributes Frawley's ideas to "parochial nationalism", terming them "exercises in scholarship (= myth + footnotes)", where archaeological data spanning several millennia is selectively invoked, with no textual sources to control the inquiry, in support of the theorists' desired narrative. His proposed equivalence of Ayurveda with vedic healing traditions has been rejected by Indologists and David Hardiman considers Frawley's assertion to be part of a wider Hindu-nationalist quest. Joseph Alter notes that his writings 'play into the politics of nationalism' and remarks of them to be controversial from an academic locus.
Book reviews
In a review of Hymns from the Golden Age: Selected Hymns from the Rig Veda with Yogic Interpretation for the Journal of the American Oriental Society, Richard G. Salomon heavily criticized Frawley's fanciful approach, that was in complete contrast to the available linguistic and scholarly evidence, and perpetuated Vedic myths in what seemed to be a bid to attract readers for the recreation of the ancient spiritual kingdom of the Aryans.
A review by M. K. Dhavalikar in Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute called In Search of the Cradle of Civilization a "beautifully printed" contribution that made a strong case for their indigenous theory against the supposed migratory hypotheses but chose to remain silent on certain crucial aspects which need to be convincingly explained. Prema Kurien noted that the book sought to distinguish expatriate Hindu Americans from other minority groups by demonstrating their superior racial and cultural ties with the Europeans. Guy Beck glowingly praised the work in a review for the Yoga Journal.
Dhavalikar also reviewed The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India and found it to be unsupported by archaeological evidence. Irfan Habib criticized the premises of his invoking the Sarasvati River in the book, as an assault against common sense and deemed that all claims built upon its greatness ought be treated as castles in the air.
Honors and influences
In 2015, the South Indian Education Society (SIES) in Mumbai, India, an affiliate of Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, conferred upon him their special "National Eminence Award" as an “international expert in the fields of Ayurveda, Yoga, and Vedic Astrology.” On 26 January 2015, the Indian Government honored Frawley with the Padma Bhushan award.
Referring to his book Yoga and Ayurveda, Frawley is mentioned as one of the main yoga teachers of Deepak Chopra and David Simon in their book, the Seven Spiritual Laws of Yoga (2005). In 2015, Chopra said of Frawley's book, Shiva, the Lord of Yoga, "Vamadeva Shastri has been a spiritual guide and mentor of mine for several decades. For anyone who is serious about the journey to higher divine consciousness, this book is yet another jewel from him."
Selected publications
Hinduism and Indology
Hymns from the Golden Age: Selected Hymns from the Rig Veda With Yogic Interpretation. Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 1986. .
Wisdom of the Ancient Seers: Mantras of the Rig Veda. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (Pvt. Ltd), 1999. .
Arise Arjuna: Hinduism Resurgent in a New Century. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018. .
Awaken Bharata: A Call for India’s Rebirth. Bloomsbury India, 2018. .
What Is Hinduism?. Bloomsbury India, 2018. .
Yoga, Vedanta and Ayurveda
Ayurvedic Healing. Passage Press, 1989. .
Ayurveda and the Mind: The Healing of Consciousness. Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2005. .
Co-authored
The Yoga of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2004. .
See also
Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
Dayananda Saraswati (Ärsha Vidya)
Voice of India
Motilal Banarsidass
Georg Feuerstein
Notes
References
External links
David Frawley's homepage
Online books by David Frawley
Online version of Hinduism and the Clash of Civilizations
1950 births
Living people
American Hindus
Converts to Hinduism from Christianity
Former Roman Catholics
20th-century astrologers
21st-century astrologers
Hindu astrologers
Ayurvedacharyas
American astrologers
Hindu writers
American spiritual writers
American astrological writers
American male non-fiction writers
Indigenous Aryanists
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in other fields
American Indologists
American yoga teachers
Pseudohistorians
Voice of India writers
Hindutva | [
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234699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra | Vishvamitra | Brahmarshi Vishvamitra (, ) is one of the most venerated rishis or sages of ancient India. A near-divine being, he is also credited as the author of most of Mandala 3 of the Rigveda, including Gayatri Mantra. The Puranas mention that only 24 rishis since antiquity have understood the whole meaning of—and thus wielded the whole power of—Gayatri Mantra. Vishvamitra is supposed to be the first, and Yajnavalkya the last.
Before renouncing his kingdom and royal status, Brahmarishi Vishvamitra was a king, thus he retained the title of Rajarshi or 'royal sage'.
Textual background
Historically, Viśvāmitra Gāthina was a Rigvedic rishi who was the chief author of Mandala 3 of the Rigveda. Viśvāmitra was taught by Jamadagni Bhārgava. He was the purohita of the Bharata tribal king Sudās, until he was replaced by Vasiṣṭha. He aided the Bharatas in crossing the Vipāś and Śutudrī rivers (modern Beas and Sutlej). In later Hindu texts, Viśvāmitra and Vasiṣṭha have a long-standing feud, and scholars have stated they historically had a feud regarding the position of the Bharata purohita. However, this view has been criticized due to lack of internal evidence and the projection of later views onto the Rigveda. In post-Rigvedic literature Viśvāmitra becomes a mythical sage.
Most of the stories related to Vishvamitra's life is narrated in the Valmiki Ramayana. Vishvamitra was a king in ancient India, also called Kaushik (descendant of Kusha) and belonged to Amavasu Dynasty. Vishwamitra was originally the King of Kanyakubja (modern day Kannauj). He was a valiant warrior and the great-grandson of a great king named Kusha. Valmiki Ramayana, prose 51 of Bala Kanda, starts with the story of Vishvamitra:
His story also appears in various Puranas; however, with variations from Ramayana. Vishnu Purana and Harivamsha chapter 27 (dynasty of Amaavasu) of Mahabharata narrates the birth of Vishvamitra. According to Vishnu Purana, Kushanabha married a damsel of Purukutsa dynasty (later called as Shatamarshana lineage - descendants of the Ikshvaku king Trasadasyu) and had a son by name Gaadhi, who had a daughter named Satyavati (not to be confused with the Satyavati of Mahabharata).
Life and legends
Birth
Satyavati was married to an old man known as Richika who was foremost among the race of Bhrigu. Ruchika desired a son having the qualities of a Brahmin and so he gave Satyavati a sacrificial offering (charu) which he had prepared to achieve this objective. He also gave Satyavati's mother another charu to make her conceive a son with the character of a Kshatriya at her request. But Satyavati's mother privately asked Satyavati to exchange her charu with her. This resulted in Satyavati's mother giving birth to Vishvamitra, and Satyavati gave birth to Jamadagni, father of Parashurama, a person with qualities of a warrior.
Conflicts with Vashista
Maharshi Vasistha possessed a divine-cow kamadhenu that was able to give everything that one wished for. Once king Kaushika (Vishwamitra) saw the cow and wished to possess her. He asked Vasistha to hand her over but Vasistha refused to do so saying she actually belongs to Devas and not him. King Kaushika became angry due to his arrogance and attacked Vasistha with all his forces. However, he was defeated by the power of Vasistha's penance and suraabhi/kamadhenu's created soldiers and was somehow rescued by Vamdeva. He asked Vamdeva how Vasistha could defeat him all alone. Vamdeva told him this happened due to Vasistha's position as"Brahmarishi" due his tapasya. Kaushika then wanted to gain "Brahmarishi" like Vasistha. Doing penance guided by Vamdeva, King Kaushika became Vishwamitra.
In one encounter, Vishwamitra cursed the king Harishchandra to become a pauper. Vashista accompanied him by becoming a bird himself to help him. There were several such instances of violent encounter between the sages and at times, Brahma, god of creation, had to intervene.
Alternative version
Vashista destroys Vishvamitra's entire army by the simple use of his great mystic and spiritual powers, breathing the Om syllable. Vishvamitra then undertakes a tapasya for several years to please Shiva, who bestows upon him the knowledge of celestial weaponry. He proudly goes to Vaśiștha's ashram again and uses all kinds of powerful weapons to destroy Vashista and his hermitage. He succeeded in the killings of Vashista's thousand sons but not Vashista himself.
An enraged Vashista brings out his brahmadanda, a wooden stick imbued with the power of Brahma. It consumes Vishvamitra's most powerful weapon, the brahmastra. Vashista then attempts to attack Vishvamitra, but his anger is allayed by Devas. Vishvamitra is left humiliated while Vashista restores his hermitage.
Seduction by Menaka
Menaka was born during the churning of the ocean by the Devas and Asuras and was one of the most beautiful apsaras (celestial nymph) in the world with quick intelligence and innate talent. However, Menaka desired a family. Due to his penance and the power he achieved through it, Vishwamitra frightened the gods and even tried to create another heaven. Indra, frightened by Vishwamitra's powers, sent Menaka from heaven to earth to lure him and break his meditation. Menaka successfully incited Vishwamitra's lust and passion. She succeeded in breaking the meditation of Vishwamitra. However, she fell in genuine love with him and a baby girl was born to them who later grew in Sage Kanva's ashram and came to be called Shakuntala. Later Shakuntala falls in love with King Dushyanta and gives birth to a child called Bharata.
However, later Vishwamitra merely cursed Menaka to be separated from him forever, for he loved her as well and knew that she had lost all devious intentions towards him long ago.
After succumbing to Menakā’s flirtations, and after having a daughter with her, Viśvāmitra then travels south to the Godāvarī to resume his austerities, settling down at a spot next where Śiva stood as Kālañjara.
Vishwamitra was also tested by the Apsara Rambha. She, however was cursed by Vishwamitra.
Rise to Brahmarishi
After cursing Rambha, Vishwamitra goes to the highest mountain of Himalayas to perform an even more severe tapasya for over 1000 years. He ceases to eat and reduces his breathing to a bare minimum.
He is tested again by Indra, who comes as a poor Brahmin begging for food just as Kaushika is ready to break a fast of many years by eating some rice. Kaushika instantly gives his food away to Indra and resumes his meditation. Kaushika also finally masters his passions, refusing to be provoked by any of Indra's testing and seductive interferences.
At the penultimate culmination of a multi-thousand-year journey, Kaushika's yogic power is at a peak. At this point, Brahma, as the head of Devas led by Indra, names Kaushika a Brahmarishi and names him Vishvamitra or Friend of All for his unlimited compassion. He then goes to meet Vashishta. It was customary that, if a sage was greeted by an equal or superior person, the sage would also greet the person. If the sage was greeted by an inferior person, the sage would simply bless them. Initially, when Vishwamitra greeted Vashishta with the pride of being a new Brahmarishi in heart, Vashishta simply blessed him. Suddenly all pride and desire left Vishwamitra's heart and he became a clean and clear Brahmarishi. When Vishwamitra turned back to leave, Vashishta realised a change of heart and proceeded to greet Vishwamitra. Vishwamitra is also embraced by Vashista and their enmity is instantly ended.
Trisanku
Another story Vishvamitra is known for is his creation of his own version of Swarga or heaven, called Trisanku Swarga.
When a proud King Trisanku asked his Guru Vashista to send him to heaven in his own body, guru responded that the body cannot ascend to heaven. King Trisanku then asked Vashista's hundred sons to send him to heaven. The sons, believing that Trisanku should not come to them after their father had refused, took outrage and cursed Trisanku to be a Chandala. Trisanku was transformed into a person with body smeared of ash, clothed in black and wearing iron jewelry. Unrecognizable to his subjects, he was driven out of the kingdom.
In his exile, Trisanku came across the sage Vishvamitra, who agreed to help him. Vishvamitra organized a great sacrifice and ritual propitiating the Devas, pleading that they accept Trisanku into heaven. Not one Deva responded. Angered, Vishvamitra used his yogic powers and ordered Trisanku to rise to heaven. Miraculously, Trisanku rose into the sky until he reached heaven, where he was pushed back down by Indra.
Enraged even more by this, Vishvamitra commenced the creation of another universe (including another Brahma) for Trisanku. He had only completed the Universe when Brihaspati ordered him to stop. Trisanku, however, did not fully transcend through Trisanku Svarga created for him. He remained fixed and upside-down in the sky and was transformed into a constellation, which is now known as Crux.
In the process of forming a new universe, Vishvamitra used up all the tapas he had gained from his austerities. Therefore, after the Trisanku episode, Vishvamitra had to start his prayers again to attain the status of a Brahmarshi and become an equal of Vashista.
Harishchandra/Ambarisha's sacrifice
While undertaking a penance, Kaushika helps a boy named Shunashepa who has been sold by his parents to be sacrificed at Harishchandra/Ambarisha's yagna to please Varuna. The king's son Rohit does not want to be the one sacrificed, as was originally promised to Varuna, so young Sunashepa is taken. A devastated and terrified Sunashepa falls at the feet of Kaushika, who is deep in meditation and begs for his help.
Kaushika teaches secret mantras to Sunashepa. The boy sings these mantras at the ceremony, is blessed by Indra and Varuna and Ambarisha's ceremony is completed.
In another version of the story, Sunahshepa is lost son of Vishvamitra. When Vishvamitra was Prince of Bharats (Kaushik) - and his name was Vishwarath then, he was abducted by the enemy king Shambar. There, Shambar's daughter, Ugra, falls in love with Vishvarath. Ugra convinces Prince Vishvarath to marry her. Looking at the good character of Vishvarath, Shambar also agrees for the marriage. Soon after the marriage, the Bharatas win the battle against Shambar. When they found their Prince Vishvarath alive, they feel happy but they could not accept Ugra as their future queen as she is an Asura. To convert Ugra into an Sura, Vishvarath creates Gayatri Mantra, but people still refuse to accept her. Soon she gives birth to a son, but to save the son from the angry people, the greatest female sage Lopamudra sends the child to a hidden place. To Lopamudra and Vishvarath's sadness, people kill Ugra. But the son is saved, without the knowledge of Vishvarath. This child grows young and he comes to sacrifice himself in the ceremony of Ambarisha (or King Harishchandra).
Teacher of Rama
In the Hindu epic Ramayana, Vishvamitra is the preceptor of Rama and his brother Lakshmana. Rama is prince of Ayodhya, and believed to be the seventh Avatar of god Vishnu .
Vishvamitra gives them the knowledge of the Devastras or celestial weaponry [bala and ati bala], trains them in advanced religion and guides them to kill powerful demons like Tadaka, Maricha and Subahu. He also leads them to the Swayamvara ceremony for princess Sita, who becomes wife of Rama.
Works
Vishvamitra is said to have found Gayatri Mantra. It is a verse from a sukta of Rigveda (Mandala 3.62.10). Gāyatrī is the name of the Vedic meter in which the verse is composed.
Gayatri mantra is repeated and cited very widely in Vedic literature and praised in several well-known classical Hindu texts such as Manusmriti ("there is nothing greater than the Savitri (Gayatri) Mantra.", Manu II, 83), Harivamsa and Bhagavad Gita. The mantra is an important part of the upanayana ceremony for young males in Hinduism and has long been recited by dvija men as part of their daily rituals. Modern Hindu reform movements spread the practice of the mantra to include women and all castes and its recitation is now widespread.
Descendants
Vishwamitra had many children from different women. Madhuchhanda was also a composer of many hymns in the Rigveda.
According to the Mahabharata, Sushruta, the father of plastic surgery, was one of his sons. Ashtaka, who was born from Madhavi, was successor to his kingdom. Shakuntala was born from the damsel Menaka. She was the mother of Bharata, who became a powerful emperor as well as an ancestor of Kuru kings.
Rajput belonging to Kaushika or Vishwamitra gotra claim that they descended from Sage Vishwamitra. The distinction can be found from the respective pravaras,
Visvamitra, Aghamarshana, Kaushika
Visvamitra, Devarata, Owtala
Visvamitra, Ashtaka
In film and television
Vishwamitra is shown in the Tamil movie Raja Rishi with Sivaji Ganesan playing the role of the Sage.
Vishvamitra is shown in Telugu movie Brahmarshi Vishwamitra.
The TV show Vishwamitra (1995) is made on the story of Brahmarishi Vishwamitra. The role of Vishwamitra is played by Mukesh Khanna.
Vishwamitra is shown in the show Siya Ke Ram airing on Star Plus, starring Manish Wadhwa.
The TV show Piya Albela is also based on the classic love story of Menaka and Vishwamitra, depicted as a modern-day love story revolving around Naren and Pooja.
Vishwamitra also appears in Shani (TV series)
See also
Hinduism
Hindu mythology
References
.
Brahmin gotras
Rishis
Sages in the Ramayana
Saptarishi | [
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234706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usury | Usury | Usury () is the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. The term may be used in a moral sense—condemning, taking advantage of others' misfortunes—or in a legal sense, where an interest rate is charged in excess of the maximum rate that is allowed by law. A loan may be considered usurious because of excessive or abusive interest rates or other factors defined by the laws of a state. Someone who practices usury can be called an usurer, but in modern colloquial English may be called a loan shark.
In many historical societies including ancient Christian, Jewish, and Islamic societies, usury meant the charging of interest of any kind was considered wrong, or was made illegal. During the Sutra period in India (7th to 2nd centuries BC) there were laws prohibiting the highest castes from practicing usury. Similar condemnations are found in religious texts from Buddhism, Judaism (ribbit in Hebrew), Christianity, and Islam (riba in Arabic). At times, many states from ancient Greece to ancient Rome have outlawed loans with any interest. Though the Roman Empire eventually allowed loans with carefully restricted interest rates, the Catholic Church in medieval Europe, as well as the Reformed Churches, regarded the charging of interest at any rate as sinful (as well as charging a fee for the use of money, such as at a bureau de change). Religious prohibitions on usury are predicated upon the belief that charging interest on a loan is a sin.
History
Usury (in the original sense of any interest) was denounced by religious leaders and philosophers in the ancient world, including Moses, Plato, Aristotle, Cato, Cicero, Seneca, Aquinas, Gautama Buddha and Muhammad.
Certain negative historical renditions of usury carry with them social connotations of perceived "unjust" or "discriminatory" lending practices. The historian Paul Johnson, comments:
Theological historian John Noonan argues that "the doctrine [of usury] was enunciated by popes, expressed by three ecumenical councils, proclaimed by bishops, and taught unanimously by theologians."
Roman Empire
Banking during the Roman Empire was different from modern banking. During the Principate period, most banking activities were conducted by private individuals who operated as large banking firms do today. Anybody that had any available liquid assets and wished to lend it out could easily do so.
The annual rates of interest on loans varied in the range of 4–12 percent, but when the interest rate was higher, it typically was not 15–16 percent but either 24 percent or 48 percent. They quoted them on a monthly basis, and the most common rates were multiples of twelve. Monthly rates tended to range from simple fractions to 3–4 percent, perhaps because lenders used Roman numerals.
Moneylending during this period was largely a matter of private loans advanced to persons persistently in debt or temporarily so until harvest time. Mostly, it was undertaken by exceedingly rich men prepared to take on a high risk if the profit looked good; interest rates were fixed privately and were almost entirely unrestricted by law. Investment was always regarded as a matter of seeking personal profit, often on a large scale. Banking was of the small, back-street variety, run by the urban lower-middle class of petty shopkeepers. By the 3rd century, acute currency problems in the Empire drove such banking into decline. The rich who were in a position to take advantage of the situation became the moneylenders when the increasing tax demands in the last declining days of the Empire crippled and eventually destroyed the peasant class by reducing tenant-farmers to serfs. It was evident that usury meant exploitation of the poor.
Cicero, in the second book of his treatise De Officiis, relates the following conversation between an unnamed questioner and Cato:
Judaism
Jews are forbidden from usury in dealing with fellow Jews, although not exclusively. Lending is to be considered tzedakah. However, there are permissions to charge interest on loans to non-Jews, restricted to cases when there is no other means of subsistence "If we nowadays allow interest to be taken from non-Jews, it is because there is no end to the yoke and the burden king and ministers impose on us, and everything we take is the minimum for our subsistence, and anyhow we are condemned to live in the midst of the nations and cannot earn our living in any other manner except by money dealings with them; therefore the taking of interest is not to be prohibited" (Tos. to BM 70b S.V. tashikh).
This is outlined in the Jewish scriptures, specifically in the Torah:
Johnson contends that the Torah treats lending as philanthropy in a poor community whose aim was collective survival, but which is not obliged to be charitable towards outsiders.
As Jewish people were ostracized from most professions by local rulers during the Middle Ages, the Western churches and the guilds, they were pushed into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending. Natural tensions between creditors and debtors were added to social, political, religious, and economic strains.
Several historical rulings in Jewish law have mitigated the allowances for usury toward non-Jews. For instance, the 15th-century commentator Rabbi Isaac Abarbanel specified that the rubric for allowing interest does not apply to Christians or Muslims, because their faith systems have a common ethical basis originating from Judaism. The medieval commentator Rabbi David Kimhi extended this principle to non-Jews who show consideration for Jews, saying they should be treated with the same consideration when they borrow.
England
In England, the departing Crusaders were joined by crowds of debtors in the massacres of Jews at London and York in 1189–1190. In 1275, Edward I of England passed the Statute of the Jewry which made usury illegal and linked it to blasphemy, in order to seize the assets of the violators. Scores of English Jews were arrested, 300 were hanged and their property went to the Crown. In 1290, all Jews were to be expelled from England, allowed to take only what they could carry; the rest of their property became the Crown's. Usury was cited as the official reason for the Edict of Expulsion; however, not all Jews were expelled: it was easy to avoid expulsion by converting to Christianity. Many other crowned heads of Europe expelled Jewish people, although again converts to Christianity were no longer considered Jewish. Many of these forced converts still secretly practiced their faith.
The growth of the Lombard bankers and pawnbrokers, who moved from city to city, was along the pilgrim routes.
In the 16th century, short-term interest rates dropped dramatically (from around 20–30% p.a. to around 9–10% p.a.). This was caused by refined commercial techniques, increased capital availability, the Reformation, and other reasons. The lower rates weakened religious scruples about lending at interest, although the debate did not cease altogether.
The 18th century papal prohibition on usury meant that it was a sin to charge interest on a money loan. As set forth by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, because money was invented to be an intermediary in exchange for goods, it is unjust to charge a fee to someone after giving them money. This is because transferring ownership of property implies the right to use that property for its purpose: "Accordingly if a man wanted to sell wine separately from the use of the wine, he would be selling the same thing twice, or he would be selling what does not exist, wherefore he would evidently commit a sin of injustice."
Charles Eisenstein has argued that pivotal change in the English-speaking world came with lawful rights to charge interest on lent money, particularly the 1545 Act, "An Act Against Usurie" (37 Hen. VIII, c. 9) of King Henry VIII of England.
Christianity
Bible
The Old Testament "condemns the practice of charging interest on a poor person because a loan should be an act of compassion and taking care of one’s neighbor"; it teaches that "making a profit off a loan from a poor person is exploiting that person (Exodus 22:25–27)." Similarly, charging of interest () or the taking of clothing as pledges is condemned in Ezekiel 18 (early 6th century BC), and Deuteronomy 23:19 prohibits the taking of interest in the form of money or food when lending to a "brother"; it is not clear if this refers to an actual brother, a fellow Israelite or any human being.
Church councils
The First Council of Nicaea, in 325, forbade clergy from engaging in usury
At the time, usury was interest of any kind, and the canon forbade the clergy to lend money at interest rates even as low as 1 percent per year. Later ecumenical councils applied this regulation to the laity.
Lateran III decreed that persons who accepted interest on loans could receive neither the sacraments nor Christian burial.
The Council of Vienne made the belief in the right to usury a heresy in 1311, and condemned all secular legislation that allowed it.
Up to the 16th century, usury was condemned by the Catholic Church, but not really defined. During the Fifth Lateran Council, in the 10th session (in the year 1515), the Council for the first time gave a definition of usury:
The Fifth Lateran Council, in the same declaration, gave explicit approval of charging a fee for services so long as no profit was made in the case of Mounts of Piety:
Pope Sixtus V condemned the practice of charging interest as "detestable to God and man, damned by the sacred canons, and contrary to Christian charity.
Medieval theology
The first of the scholastic Christian theologians, Saint Anselm of Canterbury, led the shift in thought that labelled charging interest the same as theft. Previously usury had been seen as a lack of charity.
St. Thomas Aquinas, the leading scholastic theologian of the Roman Catholic Church, argued charging of interest is wrong because it amounts to "double charging", charging for both the thing and the use of the thing. Aquinas said this would be morally wrong in the same way as if one sold a bottle of wine, charged for the bottle of wine, and then charged for the person using the wine to actually drink it. Similarly, one cannot charge for a piece of cake and for the eating of the piece of cake. Yet this, said Aquinas, is what usury does. Money is a medium of exchange, and is used up when it is spent. To charge for the money and for its use (by spending) is therefore to charge for the money twice. It is also to sell time since the usurer charges, in effect, for the time that the money is in the hands of the borrower. Time, however, is not a commodity for which anyone can charge. In condemning usury Aquinas was much influenced by the recently rediscovered philosophical writings of Aristotle and his desire to assimilate Greek philosophy with Christian theology. Aquinas argued that in the case of usury, as in other aspects of Christian revelation, Christian doctrine is reinforced by Aristotelian natural law rationalism. Aristotle's argument is that interest is unnatural, since money, as a sterile element, cannot naturally reproduce itself. Thus, usury conflicts with natural law just as it offends Christian revelation: see Thought of Thomas Aquinas. As such, Aquinas taught "that interest is inherently unjust and one who charges interest sins."
Outlawing usury did not prevent investment, but stipulated that in order for the investor to share in the profit he must share the risk. In short he must be a joint-venturer. Simply to invest the money and expect it to be returned regardless of the success of the venture was to make money simply by having money and not by taking any risk or by doing any work or by any effort or sacrifice at all, which is usury. St Thomas quotes Aristotle as saying that "to live by usury is exceedingly unnatural". Islam likewise condemns usury but allowed commerce (Al-Baqarah 2:275) – an alternative that suggests investment and sharing of profit and loss instead of sharing only profit through interests. Judaism condemns usury towards Jews, but allows it towards non-Jews (Deut 23:19–20). St Thomas allows, however, charges for actual services provided. Thus a banker or credit-lender could charge for such actual work or effort as he did carry out e.g. any fair administrative charges. The Catholic Church, in a decree of the Fifth Council of the Lateran, expressly allowed such charges in respect of credit-unions run for the benefit of the poor known as "montes pietatis".
In the 13th century Cardinal Hostiensis enumerated thirteen situations in which charging interest was not immoral. The most important of these was lucrum cessans (profits given up) which allowed for the lender to charge interest "to compensate him for profit foregone in investing the money himself." This idea is very similar to opportunity cost. Many scholastic thinkers who argued for a ban on interest charges also argued for the legitimacy of lucrum cessans profits (e.g. Pierre Jean Olivi and St. Bernardino of Siena). However, Hostiensis' exceptions, including for lucrum cessans, were never accepted as official by the Roman Catholic Church.
Pope Benedict XIV's encyclical Vix Pervenit, operating in the pre-industrial mindset , gives the reasons why usury is sinful:
The nature of the sin called usury has its proper place and origin in a loan contract… [which] demands, by its very nature, that one return to another only as much as he has received. The sin rests on the fact that sometimes the creditor desires more than he has given…, but any gain which exceeds the amount he gave is illicit and usurious.One cannot condone the sin of usury by arguing that the gain is not great or excessive, but rather moderate or small; neither can it be condoned by arguing that the borrower is rich; nor even by arguing that the money borrowed is not left idle, but is spent usefully…
15th through 19th century
The Westminster Confession of Faith, a confession of faith upheld by the Church of England, teaches that usury—charging interest at any rate—is a sin prohibited by the eighth commandment.
Concerns about usury included the 19th century Rothschild loans to the Holy See and 16th century concerns over abuse of the zinskauf clause. This was problematic because the charging of interest (although not all interest – see above for Fifth Lateran Council) can be argued to be a violation of doctrine at the time, such as that reflected in the 1745 encyclical Vix pervenit. To prevent any claims of doctrine violation, work-arounds would sometimes be employed. For example, in the 15th century, the Medici Bank lent money to the Vatican, which was lax about repayment. Rather than charging interest, "the Medici overcharged the pope on the silks and brocades, the jewels and other commodities they supplied." However, the 1917 Code of Canon Law switched position and allowed church monies to be used to accrue interest.
The Catholic Church has always condemned usury, but in modern times, with the rise of capitalism, the previous assumptions about the very nature of money have been challenged, and the Church had to update its understanding of what constitutes usury to also include the new reality. Thus, the Church refers, among other things, to the fact Mosaic Law doesn't ban all interest taking (proving interest-taking is not an inherently immoral act, same principle as with homicide), as well as the prevalence of bonds & loans paying interest. Because of this, as the old Catholic Encyclopedia put it, "Since the possession of an object is generally useful, I may require the price of that general utility, even when the object is of no use to me."
Jesuit philosopher Joseph Rickaby, writing at the beginning of the 20th century, put the development of economy in relation to usury this way:
He further gave the following view of the development of Catholic practice:
Modern era
The Congregation of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, a Catholic Christian religious order, teaches that the charging of interest is sinful:
Islam
Riba (usury) is forbidden in Islam. As such, specialized codes of banking have developed to cater to investors wishing to obey Qur'anic law. (See Islamic banking)
The following quotations are English translations from the Qur'an:
Those who swallow usury cannot rise up save as he ariseth whom the devil hath prostrated by (his) touch. That is because they say: Trade is just like usury; whereas Allah permitteth trading and forbiddeth usury. He unto whom an admonition from his Lord cometh, and (he) refraineth (in obedience thereto), he shall keep (the profits of) that which is past, and his affair (henceforth) is with Allah. As for him who returneth (to usury) - Such are rightful owners of the Fire. They will abide therein. (Al-Baqarah 2:275)
Allah hath blighted usury and made almsgiving fruitful. Allah loveth not the impious and guilty. Lo! those who believe and do good works and establish worship and pay the poor-due, their reward is with their Lord and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve. O ye who believe! Observe your duty to Allah, and give up what remaineth (due to you) from usury, if ye are (in truth) believers. And if ye do not, then be warned of war (against you) from Allah and His messenger. And if ye repent, then ye have your principal (without interest). Wrong not, and ye shall not be wronged. And if the debtor is in straitened circumstances, then (let there be) postponement to (the time of) ease; and that ye remit the debt as almsgiving would be better for you if ye did but know.(Al-Baqarah 2:276–280)
O ye who believe! Devour not usury, doubling and quadrupling (the sum lent). Observe your duty to Allah, that ye may be successful. (Al-'Imran 3:130)
And of their taking usury when they were forbidden it, and of their devouring people's wealth by false pretences, We have prepared for those of them who disbelieve a painful doom. (Al-Nisa 4:161)
That which ye give in usury in order that it may increase on (other) people's property hath no increase with Allah; but that which ye give in charity, seeking Allah's Countenance, hath increase manifold. (Ar-Rum 30:39)
The attitude of Muhammad to usury is articulated in his Last Sermon:Verily your blood, your property are as sacred and inviolable as the sacredness of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this town of yours. Behold! Everything pertaining to the Days of Ignorance is under my feet completely abolished. Abolished are also the blood-revenges of the Days of Ignorance. The first claim of ours on blood-revenge which I abolish is that of the son of Rabi'a b. al-Harith, who was nursed among the tribe of Sa'd and killed by Hudhail. And the usury of the pre-Islamic period is abolished, and the first of our usury I abolish is that of 'Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib, for it is all abolished.One of the forbidden usury models in Islam is to take advantage when lending money. Examples of forbidden loans, such as a person borrowing 1000 dollars and the borrower is required to return 1100 dollars. The above agreement is a form of transaction which is a burden for people who borrow, because in Islam, lending and borrowing are social transactions aimed at helping others, not like a sale and purchase agreement that is allowed to be profitable. Hence, a rule of thumb used by Islamic scholars is, "Every loan (qardh) which gives additional benefits is called usury."
In literature
In The Divine Comedy, Dante places the usurers in the inner ring of the seventh circle of hell.
Interest on loans, and the contrasting views on the morality of that practice held by Jews and Christians, is central to the plot of Shakespeare's play "The Merchant of Venice". Antonio is the merchant of the title, a Christian, who is forced by circumstance to borrow money from Shylock, a Jew. Shylock customarily charges interest on loans, seeing it as good business, while Antonio does not, viewing it as morally wrong. When Antonio defaults on his loan, Shylock famously demands the agreed upon penalty: a measured quantity of muscle from Antonio's chest. This is the source of the metaphorical phrase "a pound of flesh" often used to describe the dear price of a loan or business transaction. Shakespeare's play is a vivid portrait of the competing views of loans and use of interest, as well as the cultural strife between Jews and Christians that overlaps it.
By the 18th century, usury was more often treated as a metaphor than a crime in itself, so Jeremy Bentham's Defence of Usury was not as shocking as it would have appeared two centuries earlier.
In Honoré de Balzac's 1830 novel Gobseck, the title character, who is a usurer, is described as both "petty and great – a miser and a philosopher..." The character Daniel Quilp in The Old Curiosity Shop by Charles Dickens is a usurer.
In the early 20th century Ezra Pound's anti-usury poetry was not primarily based on the moral injustice of interest payments but on the fact that excess capital was no longer devoted to artistic patronage, as it could now be used for capitalist business investment.
Usury law
Usury and the law
"When money is lent on a contract to receive not only the principal sum again, but also an increase by way of compensation for the use, the increase is called interest by those who think it lawful, and usury by those who do not." (William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England).
Canada
Canada's Criminal Code limits the interest rate to 60% per year.
The law is broadly written and Canada's courts have often intervened to remove ambiguity.
Japan
Japan has various laws restricting interest rates. Under civil law, the maximum interest rate is between 15% and 20% per year depending upon the principal amount (larger amounts having a lower maximum rate). Interest in excess of 20% is subject to criminal penalties (the criminal law maximum was 29.2% until it was lowered by legislation in 2010). Default interest on late payments may be charged at up to 1.46 times the ordinary maximum (i.e., 21.9% to 29.2%), while pawn shops may charge interest of up to 9% per month (i.e., 108% per year, however, if the loan extends more than the normal short-term pawn shop loan, the 9% per month rate compounded can make the annual rate in excess of 180%, before then most of these transaction would result in any goods pawned being forfeited).
United States
Usury laws are state laws that specify the maximum legal interest rate at which loans can be made. In the United States, the primary legal power to regulate usury rests primarily with the states. Each U.S. state has its own statute that dictates how much interest can be charged before it is considered usurious or unlawful.
If a lender charges above the lawful interest rate, a court will not allow the lender to sue to recover the unlawfully high interest, and some states will apply all payments made on the debt to the principal balance. In some states, such as New York, usurious loans are voided ab initio.
The making of usurious loans is often called loan sharking. That term is sometimes also applied to the practice of making consumer loans without a license in jurisdictions that requires lenders to be licensed.
Federal regulation
On a federal level, Congress has never attempted to federally regulate interest rates on purely private transactions, but on the basis of past U.S. Supreme Court decisions, arguably the U.S. Congress might have the power to do so under the interstate commerce clause of Article I of the Constitution.
Congress imposed a federal criminal penalty for unlawful interest rates through the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO Statute), and its definition of "unlawful debt", which makes it a potential federal felony to lend money at an interest rate more than twice the local state usury rate and then try to collect that debt.
It is a federal offense to use violence or threats to collect usurious interest (or any other sort).
Separate federal rules apply to most banks. The U.S. Supreme Court held unanimously in the 1978 case, Marquette Nat. Bank of Minneapolis v. First of Omaha Service Corp., that the National Banking Act of 1863 allowed nationally chartered banks to charge the legal rate of interest in their state regardless of the borrower's state of residence.
In 1980, Congress passed the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act. Among the Act's provisions, it exempted federally chartered savings banks, installment plan sellers and chartered loan companies from state usury limits. Combined with the Marquette decision that applied to National Banks, this effectively overrode all state and local usury laws. The 1968 Truth in Lending Act does not regulate rates, except for some mortgages, but requires uniform or standardized disclosure of costs and charges.
In the 1996 Smiley v. Citibank case, the Supreme Court further limited states' power to regulate credit card fees and extended the reach of the Marquette decision. The court held that the word "interest" used in the 1863 banking law included fees and, therefore, states could not regulate fees.
Some members of Congress have tried to create a federal usury statute that would limit the maximum allowable interest rate, but the measures have not progressed. In July 2010, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, was signed into law by President Obama. The act provides for a Consumer Financial Protection Bureau to regulate some credit practices but has no interest rate limit.
Texas
State law in Texas also includes a provision for contracting for, charging, or receiving charges exceeding twice the amount authorized (A/K/A "double usury"). A person who violates this provision is liable to the obligor as an additional penalty for all principal or principal balance, as well as interest or time price differential. A person who is liable is also liable for reasonable attorney's fees incurred by the obligor.
Avoidance mechanisms and interest-free lending
Islamic banking
In a partnership or joint venture where money is lent, the creditor only provides the capital yet is guaranteed a fixed amount of profit. The debtor, however, puts in time and effort, but is made to bear the risk of loss. Muslim scholars argue that such practice is unjust. As an alternative to usury, Islam strongly encourages charity and direct investment in which the creditor shares whatever profit or loss the business may incur (in modern terms, this amounts to an equity stake in the business).
Interest-free micro-lending
Growth of the Internet internationally has enabled both business micro-lending through sites such as Kickstarter as well as through global micro-lending charities where lenders make small sums of money available on zero-interest terms. Persons lending money to on-line micro-lending charity Kiva for example do not get paid any interest, although the end users to whom the loans are made may be charged interest by Kiva's partners in the country where the loan is used.
Non-recourse mortgages
A non-recourse loan is secured by the value of property (usually real estate) owned by the debtor. However, unlike other loans, which oblige the debtor to repay the amount borrowed, a non-recourse loan is fully satisfied merely by the transfer of the property to the creditor, even if the property has declined in value and is worth less than the amount borrowed. When such a loan is created, the creditor bears the risk that the property will decline sharply in value (in which case the creditor is repaid with property worth less than the amount borrowed), and the debtor does not bear the risk of decrease in property value (because the debtor is guaranteed the right to use the property, regardless of value, to satisfy the debt.)
Zinskauf
Zinskauf was a financial instrument, similar to an annuity, that rose to prominence in the Middle Ages. The decline of the Byzantine Empire led to a growth of capital in Europe, so the Catholic Church tolerated zinskauf as a way to avoid prohibitions on usury. Since zinskauf was an exchange of a fixed amount of money for annual income it was considered a sale rather than a loan. Martin Luther made zinskauf a subject of his Treatise on Usury and his Sermon on Trade and Usury and criticized clerics of the Catholic Church for violating the spirit if not the letter of usury laws.
See also
Chrematistics
Christian finance
Contractum trinius
Debt trap
Debt trap diplomacy
Greed
History of banking
History of pawnbroking
Loansharking (traditional occupation of Mafiosi)
Money changing
Payday loans
Predatory lending
Credit card interest
Title loan
Usury Act 1660
References
Further reading
External links
What Love Is This? A Renunciation of the Economics of Calvinism. The House of Degenhart.
S.C. Mooney's Response to Dr. Gary North's critique of Usury: Destroyer of Nations
What is Riba: Islamic definition of Usury
Usury laws by state.
Origin of Modern Banking and Usury in Britain. Heretical.com
Buddha on Right Livelihood and Usury
Thomas Geoghegan on "Infinite Debt: How Unlimited Interest Rates Destroyed the Economy"
Medieval economics
Economic bubbles
Property crimes
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234709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20submarine%20U-190 | German submarine U-190 | German submarine U-190 was a Type IXC/40 U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine built for service during World War II.
Her keel was laid down on 7 October 1941 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen. She was launched on 8 June 1942 and commissioned on 24 September 1942 with Kapitänleutnant Max Wintermeyer in command.
She carried out a total of six war patrols during which she sank two ships. On 6 July 1944 Wintermeyer was relieved by Oberleutnant zur See Hans-Erwin Reith who commanded the boat for the rest of her career in the Kriegsmarine.
After VE Day, she was surrendered to the Royal Canadian Navy, in which she served for two more years as HMCS U-190.
Design
German Type IXC/40 submarines were slightly larger than the original Type IXCs. U-190 had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. The U-boat had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40/46 supercharged four-stroke, nine-cylinder diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Siemens-Schuckert 2 GU 345/34 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at . U-190 was fitted with six torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and two at the stern), 22 torpedoes, one SK C/32 naval gun, 180 rounds, and a SK C/30 as well as a C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of forty-eight.
Armament
FLAK weaponry
U-190 was mounted with two 2cm Flak C38 in a M 43U Zwilling mount with short folding shield on the upper Wintergarten. The M 43U mount was used on a number of U-boats (, , , , , , , , , and ).
Service history
U-190 conducted six war patrols, sinking two ships with a total of 7,015 GRT and 590 tons. The first was the 7,015 GRT British cargo ship Empire Lakeland, sunk off Rockall on 8 March 1943, one week into U-190s first operation. The next four patrols were unsuccessful.
Attack on William H. Webb
On 13 June 1943, U-190 attacked a convoy off the east coast of the United States, east of New York. The Liberty Ship William H. Webb was in the most dangerous convoy position (tail ship, outside starboard column), when U-190 fired a torpedo at the vessel, but the Liberty Ship was equipped with a special anti-torpedo mine, which detonated the torpedo 200 feet away from the ship, causing minor damage. The captain of U-190 would report to U-boat HQ in Germany that he had fired a torpedo, and that the ship had detonated the torpedo and proceeded apparently unhurt.
U-190s final war patrol began on 22 February 1945. She left Norway equipped with six contact and eight T-5 "GNAT" acoustic torpedoes. Her mission was to interdict Allied shipping off Sable Island and in the approaches to Halifax, Nova Scotia harbour. On 16 April she was keeping station off the Sambro light ship when her crew heard ASDIC (Sonar) pinging.
Sinking of HMCS Esquimalt
The minesweeper was conducting a routine patrol of the harbour. She was employing none of the mandatory anti-submarine precautions: she was not zig-zagging; she had not streamed her towed Foxer-type decoy, designed as a countermeasure against GNAT torpedoes; she had turned off her radar. Nonetheless, the U-boat crew was sure that they had been detected, and when Esquimalt turned toward them, U-190 turned to run and fired one GNAT from a stern tube.
The torpedo struck Esquimalts starboard side. She sank within four minutes, the last Canadian vessel to be lost due to enemy action in World War II. While eight of her crew went down with her, the remainder survived the immediate disaster. Esquimalt sank so rapidly, however, that no distress signals were sent, and no one knew of the sinking until some eight hours later when discovered the survivors. During the delay 44 crewmen had died of exposure, leaving only 26.
Surrender and the tour
U-190 escaped the area and remained on patrol off the North American east coast until she received Reichspräsident Karl Dönitz's 8 May order to surrender. The boat met the Canadian frigate off Cape Race, Newfoundland, on 11 May. Reith signed a document of unconditional surrender, and was taken prisoner with his crew aboard Victoriaville which escorted the submarine to Newfoundland. With the white ensign flying from her masthead, U-190 sailed under the command of Lieutenant F. S. Burbidge into Bay Bulls, Newfoundland, on 14 May. The prisoners were taken to Halifax.
U-190 was formally commissioned into the Royal Canadian Navy on 19 May. Her first assignment, in the summer of 1945, was a ceremonial tour of communities along the St. Lawrence River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, with stops in Montreal, Trois-Rivières, Quebec City, Gaspé, Pictou, and Sydney. On returning to Halifax she assumed duties as an anti-submarine training vessel, which she continued to fulfill for a year and a half.
Operation Scuttled
U-190 was paid off on 24 July 1947, but had one last mission to complete.
The official purpose of "Operation Scuttled" was to provide training for inexperienced post-war recruits in the art of combined operations. U-190, painted in lurid red and yellow stripes, was towed to the spot where she had sunk Esquimalt, and at precisely 11:00 hours on Trafalgar Day 1947, the fireworks began. The "exercise" called for a deliberately escalating firepower demonstration, beginning with airborne rockets and culminating in a destroyer bombardment with 4.7-inch guns and a hedgehog anti-submarine weapon providing the coup de grace.
While numerous reporters and photographers watched, and , , and stood by awaiting their turn, the Naval Air Arm began the attack with eight Seafires, eight Fairey Fireflies, two Avro Ansons, and two Fairey Swordfish.
The first rocket attack struck home, and almost before the destroyers had a chance to train their guns, the U-boat was on the bottom of the ocean less than twenty minutes after the commencement of "Operation Scuttled."
Periscope and search
Before U-190 was sunk, her periscope had been salvaged. In 1963 it was installed at the Crow's Nest Officers Club in St. John's, Newfoundland. Many years of exposure to the weather damaged it to the point of uselessness, but it was overhauled and repaired; in a ceremony on 22 October 1998 it was "recommissioned" and is once again looking out at Water Street from the club. Original shipment of the periscope had been effected by Commodore Edward N. "Cookie" Clarke from HMC Dockyard, Halifax, where it had been in storage, to the Crow's Nest where Cookie had been a member during the war.
U-190 suffered no casualties from her crews during her career.
An 18 January 2006 article in the Edmonton Journal reported that a team of divers planned to search for U-190 and another U-boat, .
Summary of raiding history
See also
List of ships of the Canadian Navy
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
German Type IX submarines
U-boats commissioned in 1942
World War II submarines of Germany
1942 ships
Ships built in Bremen (state)
Submarines of the Royal Canadian Navy
Ships sunk as targets
Maritime incidents in 1947
Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean | [
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234711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshitane | Ashikaga Yoshitane | , also known as , was the 10th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who headed the shogunate first from 1490 to 1493 and then again from 1508 to 1521 during the Muromachi period of Japan.
Yoshitane was the son of Ashikaga Yoshimi and grandson of the sixth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshinori. In his early life, he was named Yoshiki (sometimes translated as Yoshimura), and then Yoshitada — including the period of when he is first installed as shōgun; however, he changed his name to Yoshitane in 1501 in a period when he was temporarily exiled, and it is by this name that he is generally known today.
The 9th shōgun Ashikaga Yoshihisa died in 1489 on a battlefield of southern Ōmi Province. Yoshihisa left no heir; and Yoshitane became Sei-i Taishōgun a year later.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshimi
Mother: daughter of Uramatsu Shigemasa
Wife: Seiyun'in
Concubine: daughter of Yamana Toyoshige
Children:
Takewakamaru
a daughter
Adopted Son: Ashikaga Yoshitsuna
Events of Yoshitane's bakufu
Significant events which shaped the period during which Yoshitane was shōgun:
1490 – Yoshitane appointed shōgun.
1491 – Hōjō Sōun gains control of Izu.
1493 – Hatakeyama Yoshitoyo forces Yoshitane to abdicate.
1500 – Emperor Go-Kashiwabara accedes.
1508 – Ōuchi Yoshioki restores Yoshitane.
1520 – Dissension over Hosokawa succession; Takakuni becomes Kanrei [?] (Kanryō); Yoshitane opposes Takakuni and the Kanryō is driven out.
1521 – Emperor Go-Kashiwabara appoints Ashikaga Yoshiharu shogun.
In 1493, Yoshitane lost in a power struggle against Hosokawa Masamoto and was formally replaced by the eleventh shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshizumi.
In 1508, with the support of Ōuchi Yoshioki, Yoshitane regained the position of Sei-i Taishōgun from Yoshizumi.
Eventually, after a further power struggle with the Hosokawa clan and Hosokawa Takakuni, Yoshitane was forced to withdraw to Awaji Island. He died in Awa province, on the island of Shikoku.
Hosokawa Takakuni arranged for the replacement of Yoshitane with the twelfth shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshiharu.
Yoshitane's heirs and successors
Shōgun Yoshitane adopted the son of Yoshizumi who was his cousin, Ashikaga Yoshitsuna and he designated Yoshitsuna as his heir and as his anticipated successor as shogun. However, when Yoshitane died prematurely, he was not succeeded by who he had chosen; rather, his father's newly designated heir was accepted by the shogunate as shōgun Yoshizumi.
In other words, after the death of his son, shōgun Yoshimasa adopted the son of his brother, Yoshimi. After the death of his adopted son, Yoshimasa adopted the son of another brother, Masatomo. Shogun Yoshimasa was succeeded by shōgun Yoshihisa (Yoshimasa's natural son), then by shōgun Yoshitane (Yoshimasa's first adopted son), and then by shōgun Yoshizumi (Yoshimasa's second adopted son). Yoshizumi's progeny would become shōguns in due course.
Eventually, the great-grandson of Yoshitane would be installed as a puppet shōgun for a brief period, but external power struggles would unseat him, and the Ashikaga dynasty of shōguns would end.
Eras of Yoshitane's bakufu
The years in which Yoshitane was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Entoku (1489–1492)
Meiō (1492–1501)
Bunki (1501–1504)
Eishō (1504–1521)
Daiei (1521–1528)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.
Ashikaga shōguns
1466 births
1523 deaths
15th-century shōguns
16th-century shōguns
Yoshitane | [
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234713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kings%20of%20Macedonia | List of kings of Macedonia | Macedonia (also known as Macedon) was an ancient kingdom centered on the present-day region of Macedonia and in northern Greece, inhabited by the Ancient Macedonians. At various points in its history the kingdom proper encompassed parts of the present-day Republic of North Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria and Turkish Thrace. It emerged as the dominant power in Greece during the 4th century BC, when King Philip II successfully united the Greek city-states, such as Athens and Thebes, into the Corinthian League. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, would go on to conquer the Persian Empire a few years later. The Kingdom of Macedonia itself soon lost direct control of Alexander's vast Asian territories during the Wars of the Diadochi, but it broadly retained its rule over Greece itself until defeated by the Roman Republic in the Macedonian Wars (215–148 BC)
Argead Dynasty
Karanus Κάρανος 808–778 BC (possibly fictional)
Koinos Κοινός 778–750 BC (possibly fictional)
Tyrimmas Τυρίμμας (possibly fictional)
Perdiccas I Περδίκκας Αʹ 700–678 BC
Argaeus I Ἀργαῖος Αʹ 678–640 BC
Philip I Φίλιππος Αʹ 640–602 BC
Aeropus I Ἀέροπος Αʹ 602–576 BC
Alcetas I Ἀλκέτας Αʹ 576–547 BC
Amyntas I Ἀμύντας Αʹ 547–498 BC
Alexander I Ἀλέξανδρος Αʹ 498–454 BC
Alcetas II Ἀλκέτας Βʹ 454–448 BC
Perdiccas II Περδίκκας Βʹ 448–413 BC
Archelaus Ἀρχέλαος Αʹ 413–399 BC
Craterus Κρατερός 399 BC
Orestes Ὀρέστης and Aeropus II Ἀέροπος Βʹ 399–396 BC
Archelaus II Ἀρχέλαος Βʹ 396–393 BC
Amyntas II Ἀμύντας Βʹ 393 BC
Pausanias Παυσανίας 393 BC
Amyntas III Ἀμύντας Γʹ 393 BC
Argaeus II Ἀργαῖος Βʹ 393–392 BC
Amyntas III Ἀμύντας Γʹ 392–370 BC
Alexander II Ἀλέξανδρος Βʹ 370–368 BC
Perdiccas III Περδίκκας Γʹ 368–359 BC
Ptolemy of Aloros Πτολεμαῖος Αʹ, Regent of Macedon 368–365 BC
Amyntas IV Ἀμύντας Δʹ 359–356 BC
Philip II Φίλιππος Βʹ 359–336 BC
Alexander III, the Great Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας 336–323 BC
Antipater Ἀντίπατρος, Regent of Macedon 334–323 BC
Philip III Arrhidaeus Φίλιππος Γʹ 323–317 BC and Alexander IV Ἀλέξανδρος Δʹ 323–310 BC
Perdiccas Περδίκκας, Regent of the Macedon Empire 323–321 BC
Antipater Ἀντίπατρος, Regent of the Macedon Empire 321–319 BC
Polyperchon Πολυπέρχων, Regent of the Macedon Empire 319–317 BC
Cassander Κάσανδρος, Regent of Macedon 317–305 BC
Antipatrid Dynasty
Cassander Κάσανδρος 305–297 BC
Philip IV Φίλιππος Δʹ 297 BC
Alexander V Αλέξανδρος Ε' and Antipater II Αντίπατρος Β' 297–294 BC
Antigonid Dynasty
Demetrius I Poliorcetes Δημήτριος ο Πολιορκητής 306–286 BC
Non-Dynastic Kings
Lysimachus Λυσίμαχος 286–281 BC and Pyrrhus of Epirus Πύρρος της Ηπείρου 286–285 BC
Ptolemy Keraunos Πτολεμαίος Κεραυνός 281–279 BC
Meleager Μελέαγρος 279 BC
Antipatrid Dynasty
Antipater Etesias Ἀντίπατρος Ετησίας 279 BC
Sosthenes Σωσθένης 279–276 BC
Antigonid Dynasty
Antigonus II Gonatas Αντίγονος Β' Γονατάς 276–274 BC
Non-Dynastic Kings
Pyrrhus of Epirus Πύρρος της Ηπείρου 274–272 BC
Antigonid Dynasty
Antigonus II Gonatas Αντίγονος Β' Γονατάς 272–239 BC
Demetrius II Aetolicus Δημήτριος Β' Αιτωλικός 239–229 BC
Antigonus III Doson Αντίγονος Γ' 229–221 BC
Philip V Φίλιππος Ε' 221–179 BC
Perseus Περσέας 179–167 BC
Pseudo-Philip VI Andriscus 150-148 BC
After Perseus's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 167 BC, Macedon was divided into four republics under Roman domination. In 150 BC, a man named Andriscus claimed to be the son of Perseus, and claimed the throne of Macedon as Philip VI. This led to the Fourth Macedonian War, in which Andriscus was defeated by the Romans, and Macedon was annexed as a Roman province in 148 BC.
Notes
See also
List of ancient Macedonians
Duane A. March, "The Kings of Makedon: 399-369 BC," Historia (Franz Steiner Verlag) vol. 44, No. 3 (1995), 257-282.
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234714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20imaging | Medical imaging | Medical imaging is the technique and process of imaging the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology). Medical imaging seeks to reveal internal structures hidden by the skin and bones, as well as to diagnose and treat disease. Medical imaging also establishes a database of normal anatomy and physiology to make it possible to identify abnormalities. Although imaging of removed organs and tissues can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are usually considered part of pathology instead of medical imaging.
As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part of biological imaging and incorporates radiology, which uses the imaging technologies of X-ray radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, endoscopy, elastography, tactile imaging, thermography, medical photography, and nuclear medicine functional imaging techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).
Measurement and recording techniques that are not primarily designed to produce images, such as electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electrocardiography (ECG), and others, represent other technologies that produce data susceptible to representation as a parameter graph versus time or maps that contain data about the measurement locations. In a limited comparison, these technologies can be considered forms of medical imaging in another discipline.
As of 2010, 5 billion medical imaging studies had been conducted worldwide. Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States. Medical imaging equipment is manufactured using technology from the semiconductor industry, including CMOS integrated circuit chips, power semiconductor devices, sensors such as image sensors (particularly CMOS sensors) and biosensors, and processors such as microcontrollers, microprocessors, digital signal processors, media processors and system-on-chip devices. , annual shipments of medical imaging chips amount to 46million units and .
Medical imaging is often perceived to designate the set of techniques that noninvasively produce images of the internal aspect of the body. In this restricted sense, medical imaging can be seen as the solution of mathematical inverse problems. This means that cause (the properties of living tissue) is inferred from effect (the observed signal). In the case of medical ultrasound, the probe consists of ultrasonic pressure waves and echoes that go inside the tissue to show the internal structure. In the case of projectional radiography, the probe uses X-ray radiation, which is absorbed at different rates by different tissue types such as bone, muscle, and fat.
The term "noninvasive" is used to denote a procedure where no instrument is introduced into a patient's body, which is the case for most imaging techniques used.
Types
In the clinical context, "invisible light" medical imaging is generally equated to radiology or "clinical imaging" and the medical practitioner responsible for interpreting (and sometimes acquiring) the images is a radiologist. "Visible light" medical imaging involves digital video or still pictures that can be seen without special equipment. Dermatology and wound care are two modalities that use visible light imagery. Diagnostic radiography designates the technical aspects of medical imaging and in particular the acquisition of medical images. The radiographer or radiologic technologist is usually responsible for acquiring medical images of diagnostic quality, although some radiological interventions are performed by radiologists.
As a field of scientific investigation, medical imaging constitutes a sub-discipline of biomedical engineering, medical physics or medicine depending on the context: Research and development in the area of instrumentation, image acquisition (e.g., radiography), modeling and quantification are usually the preserve of biomedical engineering, medical physics, and computer science; Research into the application and interpretation of medical images is usually the preserve of radiology and the medical sub-discipline relevant to medical condition or area of medical science (neuroscience, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology, etc.) under investigation. Many of the techniques developed for medical imaging also have scientific and industrial applications.
Radiography
Two forms of radiographic images are in use in medical imaging. Projection radiography and fluoroscopy, with the latter being useful for catheter guidance. These 2D techniques are still in wide use despite the advance of 3D tomography due to the low cost, high resolution, and depending on the application, lower radiation dosages with 2D technique. This imaging modality utilizes a wide beam of x rays for image acquisition and is the first imaging technique available in modern medicine.
Fluoroscopy produces real-time images of internal structures of the body in a similar fashion to radiography, but employs a constant input of x-rays, at a lower dose rate. Contrast media, such as barium, iodine, and air are used to visualize internal organs as they work. Fluoroscopy is also used in image-guided procedures when constant feedback during a procedure is required. An image receptor is required to convert the radiation into an image after it has passed through the area of interest. Early on this was a fluorescing screen, which gave way to an Image Amplifier (IA) which was a large vacuum tube that had the receiving end coated with cesium iodide, and a mirror at the opposite end. Eventually the mirror was replaced with a TV camera.
Projectional radiographs, more commonly known as x-rays, are often used to determine the type and extent of a fracture as well as for detecting pathological changes in the lungs. With the use of radio-opaque contrast media, such as barium, they can also be used to visualize the structure of the stomach and intestines – this can help diagnose ulcers or certain types of colon cancer.
Magnetic resonance imaging
A magnetic resonance imaging instrument (MRI scanner), or "nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging" scanner as it was originally known, uses powerful magnets to polarize and excite hydrogen nuclei (i.e., single protons) of water molecules in human tissue, producing a detectable signal which is spatially encoded, resulting in images of the body. The MRI machine emits a radio frequency (RF) pulse at the resonant frequency of the hydrogen atoms on water molecules. Radio frequency antennas ("RF coils") send the pulse to the area of the body to be examined. The RF pulse is absorbed by protons, causing their direction with respect to the primary magnetic field to change. When the RF pulse is turned off, the protons "relax" back to alignment with the primary magnet and emit radio-waves in the process. This radio-frequency emission from the hydrogen-atoms on water is what is detected and reconstructed into an image. The resonant frequency of a spinning magnetic dipole (of which protons are one example) is called the Larmor frequency and is determined by the strength of the main magnetic field and the chemical environment of the nuclei of interest. MRI uses three electromagnetic fields: a very strong (typically 1.5 to 3 teslas) static magnetic field to polarize the hydrogen nuclei, called the primary field; gradient fields that can be modified to vary in space and time (on the order of 1 kHz) for spatial encoding, often simply called gradients; and a spatially homogeneous radio-frequency (RF) field for manipulation of the hydrogen nuclei to produce measurable signals, collected through an RF antenna.
Like CT, MRI traditionally creates a two-dimensional image of a thin "slice" of the body and is therefore considered a tomographic imaging technique. Modern MRI instruments are capable of producing images in the form of 3D blocks, which may be considered a generalization of the single-slice, tomographic, concept. Unlike CT, MRI does not involve the use of ionizing radiation and is therefore not associated with the same health hazards. For example, because MRI has only been in use since the early 1980s, there are no known long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields (this is the subject of some debate; see 'Safety' in MRI) and therefore there is no limit to the number of scans to which an individual can be subjected, in contrast with X-ray and CT. However, there are well-identified health risks associated with tissue heating from exposure to the RF field and the presence of implanted devices in the body, such as pacemakers. These risks are strictly controlled as part of the design of the instrument and the scanning protocols used.
Because CT and MRI are sensitive to different tissue properties, the appearances of the images obtained with the two techniques differ markedly. In CT, X-rays must be blocked by some form of dense tissue to create an image, so the image quality when looking at soft tissues will be poor. In MRI, while any nucleus with a net nuclear spin can be used, the proton of the hydrogen atom remains the most widely used, especially in the clinical setting, because it is so ubiquitous and returns a large signal. This nucleus, present in water molecules, allows the excellent soft-tissue contrast achievable with MRI.
A number of different pulse sequences can be used for specific MRI diagnostic imaging (multiparametric MRI or mpMRI). It is possible to differentiate tissue characteristics by combining two or more of the following imaging sequences, depending on the information being sought: T1-weighted (T1-MRI), T2-weighted (T2-MRI), diffusion weighted imaging (DWI-MRI), dynamic contrast enhancement (DCE-MRI), and spectroscopy (MRI-S). For example, imaging of prostate tumors is better accomplished using T2-MRI and DWI-MRI than T2-weighted imaging alone. The number of applications of mpMRI for detecting disease in various organs continues to expand, including liver studies, breast tumors, pancreatic tumors, and assessing the effects of vascular disruption agents on cancer tumors.
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear medicine encompasses both diagnostic imaging and treatment of disease, and may also be referred to as molecular medicine or molecular imaging and therapeutics. Nuclear medicine uses certain properties of isotopes and the energetic particles emitted from radioactive material to diagnose or treat various pathology. Different from the typical concept of anatomic radiology, nuclear medicine enables assessment of physiology. This function-based approach to medical evaluation has useful applications in most subspecialties, notably oncology, neurology, and cardiology. Gamma cameras and PET scanners are used in e.g. scintigraphy, SPECT and PET to detect regions of biologic activity that may be associated with a disease. Relatively short-lived isotope, such as 99mTc is administered to the patient. Isotopes are often preferentially absorbed by biologically active tissue in the body, and can be used to identify tumors or fracture points in bone. Images are acquired after collimated photons are detected by a crystal that gives off a light signal, which is in turn amplified and converted into count data.
Scintigraphy ("scint") is a form of diagnostic test wherein radioisotopes are taken internally, for example, intravenously or orally. Then, gamma cameras capture and form two-dimensional images from the radiation emitted by the radiopharmaceuticals.
SPECT is a 3D tomographic technique that uses gamma camera data from many projections and can be reconstructed in different planes. A dual detector head gamma camera combined with a CT scanner, which provides localization of functional SPECT data, is termed a SPECT-CT camera, and has shown utility in advancing the field of molecular imaging. In most other medical imaging modalities, energy is passed through the body and the reaction or result is read by detectors. In SPECT imaging, the patient is injected with a radioisotope, most commonly Thallium 201TI, Technetium 99mTC, Iodine 123I, and Gallium 67Ga. The radioactive gamma rays are emitted through the body as the natural decaying process of these isotopes takes place. The emissions of the gamma rays are captured by detectors that surround the body. This essentially means that the human is now the source of the radioactivity, rather than the medical imaging devices such as X-ray or CT.
Positron emission tomography (PET) uses coincidence detection to image functional processes. Short-lived positron emitting isotope, such as 18F, is incorporated with an organic substance such as glucose, creating F18-fluorodeoxyglucose, which can be used as a marker of metabolic utilization. Images of activity distribution throughout the body can show rapidly growing tissue, like tumor, metastasis, or infection. PET images can be viewed in comparison to computed tomography scans to determine an anatomic correlate. Modern scanners may integrate PET, allowing PET-CT, or PET-MRI to optimize the image reconstruction involved with positron imaging. This is performed on the same equipment without physically moving the patient off of the gantry. The resultant hybrid of functional and anatomic imaging information is a useful tool in non-invasive diagnosis and patient management.
Fiduciary markers are used in a wide range of medical imaging applications. Images of the same subject produced with two different imaging systems may be correlated (called image registration) by placing a fiduciary marker in the area imaged by both systems. In this case, a marker which is visible in the images produced by both imaging modalities must be used. By this method, functional information from SPECT or positron emission tomography can be related to anatomical information provided by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Similarly, fiducial points established during MRI can be correlated with brain images generated by magnetoencephalography to localize the source of brain activity.
Ultrasound
Medical ultrasound uses high frequency broadband sound waves in the megahertz range that are reflected by tissue to varying degrees to produce (up to 3D) images. This is commonly associated with imaging the fetus in pregnant women. Uses of ultrasound are much broader, however. Other important uses include imaging the abdominal organs, heart, breast, muscles, tendons, arteries and veins. While it may provide less anatomical detail than techniques such as CT or MRI, it has several advantages which make it ideal in numerous situations, in particular that it studies the function of moving structures in real-time, emits no ionizing radiation, and contains speckle that can be used in elastography. Ultrasound is also used as a popular research tool for capturing raw data, that can be made available through an ultrasound research interface, for the purpose of tissue characterization and implementation of new image processing techniques. The concepts of ultrasound differ from other medical imaging modalities in the fact that it is operated by the transmission and receipt of sound waves. The high frequency sound waves are sent into the tissue and depending on the composition of the different tissues; the signal will be attenuated and returned at separate intervals. A path of reflected sound waves in a multilayered structure can be defined by an input acoustic impedance (ultrasound sound wave) and the Reflection and transmission coefficients of the relative structures. It is very safe to use and does not appear to cause any adverse effects. It is also relatively inexpensive and quick to perform. Ultrasound scanners can be taken to critically ill patients in intensive care units, avoiding the danger caused while moving the patient to the radiology department. The real-time moving image obtained can be used to guide drainage and biopsy procedures. Doppler capabilities on modern scanners allow the blood flow in arteries and veins to be assessed.
Elastography
Elastography is a relatively new imaging modality that maps the elastic properties of soft tissue. This modality emerged in the last two decades. Elastography is useful in medical diagnoses, as elasticity can discern healthy from unhealthy tissue for specific organs/growths. For example, cancerous tumours will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased livers are stiffer than healthy ones. There are several elastographic techniques based on the use of ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and tactile imaging. The wide clinical use of ultrasound elastography is a result of the implementation of technology in clinical ultrasound machines. Main branches of ultrasound elastography include Quasistatic Elastography/Strain Imaging, Shear Wave Elasticity Imaging (SWEI), Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse imaging (ARFI), Supersonic Shear Imaging (SSI), and Transient Elastography. In the last decade a steady increase of activities in the field of elastography is observed demonstrating successful application of the technology in various areas of medical diagnostics and treatment monitoring.
Photoacoustic imaging
Photoacoustic imaging is a recently developed hybrid biomedical imaging modality based on the photoacoustic effect. It combines the advantages of optical absorption contrast with an ultrasonic spatial resolution for deep imaging in (optical) diffusive or quasi-diffusive regime. Recent studies have shown that photoacoustic imaging can be used in vivo for tumor angiogenesis monitoring, blood oxygenation mapping, functional brain imaging, and skin melanoma detection, etc.
Tomography
Tomography is the imaging by sections or sectioning. The main such methods in medical imaging are:
X-ray computed tomography (CT), or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scan, is a helical tomography technique (latest generation), which traditionally produces a 2D image of the structures in a thin section of the body. In CT, a beam of X-rays spins around an object being examined and is picked up by sensitive radiation detectors after having penetrated the object from multiple angles. A computer then analyses the information received from the scanner's detectors and constructs a detailed image of the object and its contents using the mathematical principles laid out in the Radon transform. It has a greater ionizing radiation dose burden than projection radiography; repeated scans must be limited to avoid health effects. CT is based on the same principles as X-Ray projections but in this case, the patient is enclosed in a surrounding ring of detectors assigned with 500–1000 scintillation detectors (fourth-generation X-Ray CT scanner geometry). Previously in older generation scanners, the X-Ray beam was paired by a translating source and detector. Computed tomography has almost completely replaced focal plane tomography in X-ray tomography imaging.
Positron emission tomography (PET) also used in conjunction with computed tomography, PET-CT, and magnetic resonance imaging PET-MRI.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) commonly produces tomographic images of cross-sections of the body. (See separate MRI section in this article.)
Echocardiography
When ultrasound is used to image the heart it is referred to as an echocardiogram. Echocardiography allows detailed structures of the heart, including chamber size, heart function, the valves of the heart, as well as the pericardium (the sac around the heart) to be seen. Echocardiography uses 2D, 3D, and Doppler imaging to create pictures of the heart and visualize the blood flowing through each of the four heart valves. Echocardiography is widely used in an array of patients ranging from those experiencing symptoms, such as shortness of breath or chest pain, to those undergoing cancer treatments. Transthoracic ultrasound has been proven to be safe for patients of all ages, from infants to the elderly, without risk of harmful side effects or radiation, differentiating it from other imaging modalities. Echocardiography is one of the most commonly used imaging modalities in the world due to its portability and use in a variety of applications. In emergency situations, echocardiography is quick, easily accessible, and able to be performed at the bedside, making it the modality of choice for many physicians.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
FNIR Is a relatively new non-invasive imaging technique. NIRS (near infrared spectroscopy) is used for the purpose of functional neuroimaging and has been widely accepted as a brain imaging technique.
Magnetic particle imaging
Using superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is a developing diagnostic imaging technique used for tracking superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. The primary advantage is the high sensitivity and specificity, along with the lack of signal decrease with tissue depth. MPI has been used in medical research to image cardiovascular performance, neuroperfusion, and cell tracking.
In pregnancy
Medical imaging may be indicated in pregnancy because of pregnancy complications, a pre-existing disease or an acquired disease in pregnancy, or routine prenatal care. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without MRI contrast agents as well as obstetric ultrasonography are not associated with any risk for the mother or the fetus, and are the imaging techniques of choice for pregnant women. Projectional radiography, CT scan and nuclear medicine imaging result some degree of ionizing radiation exposure, but have with a few exceptions much lower absorbed doses than what are associated with fetal harm. At higher dosages, effects can include miscarriage, birth defects and intellectual disability.
Maximizing imaging procedure use
The amount of data obtained in a single MR or CT scan is very extensive. Some of the data that radiologists discard could save patients time and money, while reducing their exposure to radiation and risk of complications from invasive procedures. Another approach for making the procedures more efficient is based on utilizing additional constraints, e.g., in some medical imaging modalities one can improve the efficiency of the data acquisition by taking into account the fact the reconstructed density is positive.
Creation of three-dimensional images
Volume rendering techniques have been developed to enable CT, MRI and ultrasound scanning software to produce 3D images for the physician. Traditionally CT and MRI scans produced 2D static output on film. To produce 3D images, many scans are made and then combined by computers to produce a 3D model, which can then be manipulated by the physician. 3D ultrasounds are produced using a somewhat similar technique.
In diagnosing disease of the viscera of the abdomen, ultrasound is particularly sensitive on imaging of biliary tract, urinary tract and female reproductive organs (ovary, fallopian tubes). As for example, diagnosis of gallstone by dilatation of common bile duct and stone in the common bile duct.
With the ability to visualize important structures in great detail, 3D visualization methods are a valuable resource for the diagnosis and surgical treatment of many pathologies. It was a key resource for the famous, but ultimately unsuccessful attempt by Singaporean surgeons to separate Iranian twins Ladan and Laleh Bijani in 2003. The 3D equipment was used previously for similar operations with great success.
Other proposed or developed techniques include:
Diffuse optical tomography
Elastography
Electrical impedance tomography
Optoacoustic imaging
Ophthalmology
A-scan
B-scan
Corneal topography
Optical coherence tomography
Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy
Some of these techniques are still at a research stage and not yet used in clinical routines.
Non-diagnostic imaging
Neuroimaging has also been used in experimental circumstances to allow people (especially disabled persons) to control outside devices, acting as a brain computer interface.
Many medical imaging software applications are used for non-diagnostic imaging, specifically because they don't have an FDA approval and not allowed to use in clinical research for patient diagnosis. Note that many clinical research studies are not designed for patient diagnosis anyway.
Archiving and recording
Used primarily in ultrasound imaging, capturing the image produced by a medical imaging device is required for archiving and telemedicine applications. In most scenarios, a frame grabber is used in order to capture the video signal from the medical device and relay it to a computer for further processing and operations.
DICOM
The Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine (DICOM) Standard is used globally to store, exchange, and transmit medical images. The DICOM Standard incorporates protocols for imaging techniques such as radiography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, and radiation therapy.
Compression of medical images
Medical imaging techniques produce very large amounts of data, especially from CT, MRI and PET modalities. As a result, storage and communications of electronic image data are prohibitive without the use of compression. JPEG 2000 image compression is used by the DICOM standard for storage and transmission of medical images. The cost and feasibility of accessing large image data sets over low or various bandwidths are further addressed by use of another DICOM standard, called JPIP, to enable efficient streaming of the JPEG 2000 compressed image data.
Medical imaging in the cloud
There has been growing trend to migrate from on-premise PACS to a cloud-based PACS. A recent article by Applied Radiology said, "As the digital-imaging realm is embraced across the healthcare enterprise, the swift transition from terabytes to petabytes of data has put radiology on the brink of information overload. Cloud computing offers the imaging department of the future the tools to manage data much more intelligently."
Use in pharmaceutical clinical trials
Medical imaging has become a major tool in clinical trials since it enables rapid diagnosis with visualization and quantitative assessment.
A typical clinical trial goes through multiple phases and can take up to eight years. Clinical endpoints or outcomes are used to determine whether the therapy is safe and effective. Once a patient reaches the endpoint, he or she is generally excluded from further experimental interaction. Trials that rely solely on clinical endpoints are very costly as they have long durations and tend to need large numbers of patients.
In contrast to clinical endpoints, surrogate endpoints have been shown to cut down the time required to confirm whether a drug has clinical benefits. Imaging biomarkers (a characteristic that is objectively measured by an imaging technique, which is used as an indicator of pharmacological response to a therapy) and surrogate endpoints have shown to facilitate the use of small group sizes, obtaining quick results with good statistical power.
Imaging is able to reveal subtle change that is indicative of the progression of therapy that may be missed out by more subjective, traditional approaches. Statistical bias is reduced as the findings are evaluated without any direct patient contact.
Imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are routinely used in oncology and neuroscience areas,. For example, measurement of tumour shrinkage is a commonly used surrogate endpoint in solid tumour response evaluation. This allows for faster and more objective assessment of the effects of anticancer drugs. In Alzheimer's disease, MRI scans of the entire brain can accurately assess the rate of hippocampal atrophy, while PET scans can measure the brain's metabolic activity by measuring regional glucose metabolism, and beta-amyloid plaques using tracers such as Pittsburgh compound B (PiB). Historically less use has been made of quantitative medical imaging in other areas of drug development although interest is growing.
An imaging-based trial will usually be made up of three components:
A realistic imaging protocol. The protocol is an outline that standardizes (as far as practically possible) the way in which the images are acquired using the various modalities (PET, SPECT, CT, MRI). It covers the specifics in which images are to be stored, processed and evaluated.
An imaging centre that is responsible for collecting the images, perform quality control and provide tools for data storage, distribution and analysis. It is important for images acquired at different time points are displayed in a standardised format to maintain the reliability of the evaluation. Certain specialised imaging contract research organizations provide end to end medical imaging services, from protocol design and site management through to data quality assurance and image analysis.
Clinical sites that recruit patients to generate the images to send back to the imaging centre.
Shielding
Lead is the main material used for radiographic shielding against scattered X-rays.
In magnetic resonance imaging, there is MRI RF shielding as well as magnetic shielding to prevent external disturbance of image quality.
Privacy protection
Medical imaging are generally covered by laws of medical privacy. For example, in the United States the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) sets restrictions for health care providers on utilizing protected health information, which is any individually identifiable information relating to the past, present, or future physical or mental health of any individual. While there has not been any definitive legal decision in the matter, at least one study has indicated that medical imaging may contain biometric information that can uniquely identify a person, and so may qualify as PHI.
The UK General Medical Council's ethical guidelines indicate that the Council does not require consent prior to secondary uses of X-ray images.
Industry
Organizations in the medical imaging industry include manufacturers of imaging equipment, freestanding radiology facilities, and hospitals.
The global market for manufactured devices was estimated at $5 billion in 2018. Notable manufacturers as of 2012 included Fujifilm, GE, Siemens Healthineers, Philips, Shimadzu, Toshiba, Carestream Health, Hitachi, Hologic, and Esaote. In 2016, the manufacturing industry was characterized as oligopolistic and mature; new entrants included in Samsung and Neusoft Medical.
In the United States, as estimate as of 2015 places the US market for imaging scans at about $100b, with 60% occurring in hospitals and 40% occurring in freestanding clinics, such as the RadNet chain.
Copyright
United States
As per chapter 300 of the Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, "the Office will not register works produced by a machine or mere mechanical process that operates randomly or automatically without any creative input or intervention from a human author" including "Medical imaging produced by x-rays, ultrasounds, magnetic resonance imaging, or other diagnostic equipment." This position differs from the broad copyright protections afforded to photographs. While the Copyright Compendium is an agency statutory interpretation and not legally binding, courts are likely to give deference to it if they find it reasonable. Yet, there is no U.S. federal case law directly addressing the issue of the copyrightability of x-ray images.
Derivatives
An extensive definition of the term derivative work is given by the United States Copyright Act in :
A "derivative work" is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, such as a translation... art reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a "derivative work".
provides:
The copyright in a compilation or derivative work extends only to the material contributed by the author of such work, as distinguished from the preexisting material employed in the work, and does not imply any exclusive right in the preexisting material. The copyright in such work is independent of, and does not affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence of, any copyright protection in the preexisting material.
Germany
In Germany, X-ray images as well as MRI, medical ultrasound, PET and scintigraphy images are protected by (copyright-like) related rights or neighbouring rights. This protection does not require creativity (as would be necessary for regular copyright protection) and lasts only for 50 years after image creation, if not published within 50 years, or for 50 years after the first legitimate publication. The letter of the law grants this right to the "Lichtbildner", i.e. the person who created the image. The literature seems to uniformly consider the medical doctor, dentist or veterinary physician as the rights holder, which may result from the circumstance that in Germany many x-rays are performed in ambulatory settings.
United Kingdom
Medical images created in the United Kingdom will normally be protected by copyright due to "the high level of skill, labour and judgement required to produce a good quality x-ray, particularly to show contrast between bones and various soft tissues". The Society of Radiographers believe this copyright is owned by employer (unless the radiographer is self-employed—though even then their contract might require them to transfer ownership to the hospital). This copyright owner can grant certain permissions to whoever they wish, without giving up their ownership of the copyright. So the hospital and its employees will be given permission to use such radiographic images for the various purposes that they require for medical care. Physicians employed at the hospital will, in their contracts, be given the right to publish patient information in journal papers or books they write (providing they are made anonymous). Patients may also be granted permission to "do what they like with" their own images.
Sweden
The Cyber Law in Sweden states: "Pictures can be protected as photographic works or as photographic pictures. The former requires a higher level of originality; the latter protects all types of photographs, also the ones taken by amateurs, or within medicine or science. The protection requires some sort of photographic technique being used, which includes digital cameras as well as holograms created by laser technique. The difference between the two types of work is the term of protection, which amounts to seventy years after the death of the author of a photographic work as opposed to fifty years, from the year in which the photographic picture was taken."
Medical imaging may possibly be included in the scope of "photography", similarly to a U.S. statement that "MRI images, CT scans, and the like are analogous to photography."
See also
Medical image sharing
Imaging instruments
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
External links
Image processing
Medical physics
Nuclear medicine | [
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234715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonidas%20%28disambiguation%29 | Leonidas (disambiguation) | Leonidas was the king of Sparta who ruled c. 489–480 BC. and leader at the battle of Thermopylae.
Leonidas may also refer to:
People
Antiquity
Leonidas I, Greek king of Sparta, ruled c. 489–480 BC
Leonidas II, Greek king of Sparta, ruled c. 254–235 BC
Leonidas of Rhodes, ancient Greek Olympic runner
Leonidas of Tarentum, Greek poet
Leonidas of Epirus, teacher of Alexander the Great
Saints
Saint Leonidas, any of several people
Modern times
Given name
Leonidas is a masculine given name mainly in Greece:
Leônidas da Silva, Brazilian football player
Leonidas Kestekides, founder of the Belgian chocolate company
Leonidas Alaoglu, American mathematician of Greek descent
Leonidas Bott (1889–1969), Australian cricketer
Leonidas Burwell, Canadian businessman and politician
Leonidas Ferreira de Paulo Junior, Brazilian football player
Leonidas M. Godley (1836–1904), American Civil War Union Army soldier; recipient of the Medal of Honor
Leonidas Hamline, 19th-century American Methodist clergyman and lawyer, and founding benefactor of Hamline University
Leonidas Kampantais, Greek footballer
Leonidas Kavakos, Greek violinist
Leonidas Kouris, Greek politician
Leonidas Kyrkos (1924–2011), Greek politician
Leonidas Langakis, Greek shooter
Leonidas Morakis, Greek shooter
Leonidas Panagopoulos, Greek footballer
Leonidas Pantelides, Cypriot diplomat
Leonidas Paraskevopoulos, Greek military officer and politician
Leonidas Polk, Confederate general in the American Civil War
Leonidas L. Polk, agrarian leader and North Carolina's first Commissioner of Agriculture
Leonidas Pyrgos, Greek fencer
Leonidas I. Robinson, Third Lieutenant, USRC Bear
Leonidas Sampanis, Greek weightlifter
Leonidas Shaver (died 1855), Utah Territorial Supreme Court justice
Leonidas Skoutaris, Greek basketball player
Leônidas Soares Damasceno, Brazilian football player
Leonidas Tsiklitiras, Greek gymnast
Leonidas Varouxis, Greek journalist and a politician
Leonidas Vargas, Colombian drug lord
Leonidas Veliaroutis, Greek writer
Leonidas Vokolos, Greek footballer
Surname
Georgina Leonidas, British actress
Stephanie Leonidas, British actress
Nickname
Nate Ebner (nicknamed Leonidas), American football player in the National Football League
Other
Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Dominican President
Leonidas Witherall, fictional character created by Phoebe Atwood Taylor
Places
In the United States:
Leonidas, New Orleans, Louisiana
Leonidas, Minnesota
Leonidas Township, Michigan
Vessels
Leonidas (ship), labour ship that brought the first indentured servants from India to Fiji in 1879
USS Leonidas, either of two ships in the US Navy
HMS Leonidas, either of two ships in the Royal Navy
Other uses
Leonidas (sculpture), a 5th-century BC sculpture
Leonidas at Thermopylae, a 19th-century oil painting by Jacques-Louis David
ELBO Leonidas-2, Greek-built armored personnel carrier
Leonidas Squadron (Leonidas Staffel), experimental Luftwaffe unit of suicide pilots that tested crewed versions of the V-1 flying bomb
Leonidas, the codename for Fedora 11
Leonidas (chocolate maker), a chocolate producer
RKSV Leonidas, a Dutch amateur football club from Rotterdam
See also
Leonid (disambiguation)
Leonides (disambiguation)
Greek masculine given names | [
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234718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20kings%20of%20Sparta | List of kings of Sparta | This List of Kings of Sparta details the important rulers of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta in the Peloponnese.
Sparta was unusual among the Greek city-states in that it maintained its kingship past the Archaic age. It was even more unusual in that it had two kings simultaneously, who were called the archagetai, coming from two separate lines. According to tradition, the two lines, the Agiads ( ) and Eurypontids ( ), were respectively descended from the twins Eurysthenes and Procles, the descendants of Heracles who supposedly conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War. The dynasties themselves, however, were named after the twins' grandsons, the kings Agis I and Eurypon, respectively. The Agiad line was regarded as being senior to the Eurypontid line.
Although there are lists of the earlier purported Kings of Sparta, there is little evidence for the existence of any kings before the middle of the sixth century BC or so.
Spartan kings received a recurring posthumous hero cult like that of the Doric kings of Cyrene. The kings' firstborn sons, as heirs apparent, were the only Spartan boys expressly exempt from the agoge; however, they were allowed to take part if they so wished, and this endowed them with increased prestige when they ascended the throne.
Legendary kings of Sparta
Ancient Greeks named males after their fathers, producing a patronymic with the infix -id-; for example, the sons of Atreus were the Atreids. For royal houses, the patronymic was formed from the name of the founder or of an early significant figure of a dynasty. A ruling family might thus have a number hi dynastic names; for example, Agis I named the Agiads, but he was a Heraclid and so were his descendants.
If the descent was not known or was scantily known, the Greeks made a few standard assumptions based on their cultural ideology. Agiad people were treated as a tribe, presumed to have descended from an ancestor bearing its name. He must have been a king, who founded a dynasty of his name. That mythologizing extended even to place names. They were presumed to have been named after kings and divinities. Kings often became divinities, in their religion.
Lelegids
The Lelegid were the descendants of Lelex (a back-formation), ancestor of the Leleges, an ancient tribe inhabiting the Eurotas valley before the Greeks, who, according to the mythological descent, amalgamated with the Greeks
Lacedaemonids
The Lacedaemonids contain Greeks from the age of legend, now treated as being the Bronze Age in Greece. In the language of mythologic descent, the kingship passed from the Leleges to the Greeks.
Years with no dates (only "c.") are unknown
Atreids
The Atreidai (Latin Atreidae) belong to the Late Bronze Age, or the Mycenaean Period. In mythology, they were the Perseides. As the name of Atreus is attested in Hittite documents, this dynasty may well be protohistoric.
Years with no dates (only "c.") are unknown
Heraclids
The Spartan kings as Heracleidae claimed descent from Heracles, who through his mother was descended from Perseus. Disallowed the Peloponnesus, Hercules embarked on a life of wandering. The Heracleidae became ascendant in the Eurotas valley with the Dorians who, at least in legend, entered it during an invasion called the Return of the Heracleidae; driving out the Atreids and at least some of the Mycenaean population.
Years with no dates (only "c.") are unknown
Agiad dynasty
The dynasty was named after its second king, Agis.
Eurypontid dynasty
The dynasty is named after its third king Eurypon. Not shown is Lycurgus, the lawgiver, a younger son of the Eurypontids, who served a brief regency either for the infant Charilaus (780–750 BC) or for Labotas (870–840 BC) the Agiad.
Currently known two lists of kings:
According to Herodotus, VIII: 131
According to Pausanias, III, 7: 5-6
Sole kings
The Achaean League annexed Sparta in 192 BC.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC, London, Routledge, 2002 (originally published in 1979). ISBN 0-415-26276-3
The Cyclopædia, Volume 20. By Abraham Rees. Page 157+ (List of kings of Sparta on pg. 164).
Sir William Smith, A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography: Partly Based Upon the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Harper & Brothers, 1851.
Sir William Smith. Abaeus-Dysponteus. J. Murray, 1890.
Sir William Smith. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Earinus-Nyx. J. Murray, 1876.
William Smith (Ed.) A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Oarses-Zygia. J. Murray, 1880.
External links
Livius
Eurypontids and Agiads by Jona Lendering
Rulers of Sparta
Sparta, Kings
Greece history-related lists | [
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